Commerce and Its Discontents in Eighteenth-Century French Political Thought Anoush Fraser Terjanian Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-00564-8 - Commerce and Its Discontents in Eighteenth-Century French Political Thought Anoush Fraser Terjanian Index More information

Index

abolition, 71, 72, 85, 94n2 America New World, 89 “adventurer” name given in, 104, 106, 129 Old World, 86 colonial presence in, 18, 48, 57 See also slavery Cornélius de Pauw on “Americans”, absolutism, 20n71, 70n9 75n27 Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, filibusterers of,132 28n8, 46 Virginians’ and Marylanders’ Admiralty Court, 71–72, 83, 86 dependency on Old World, 58 adventurers, 103–5, 106, 113, 129, 130, American and French Research on the 132 Treasury of the French Language Aeneid (Virgil), 52, 65n145 (ARTFL), 69n5 Affair of the Indies Company. See Indies Amerindians. See Indians Company anagrams, 137, 148 Affiches, 29n9 “ancients” vs. “moderns”, 59–61 Africa debate on, 63 European control of, 75n27 Anderson, Wilda, 21n77, 60n131, goods exchange with Europe, 89 106n37 piracies in, 133 Andreau, Jean, 32n19 slavery in, 24, 71–72, 74–77, 86–88, Antilles, 73 169, 185 Appadurai, Arjun, 13n44 See also Guinea/Guineans; Aristotle, 31, 103n25, 122n88, 141n11 slave trade armateur. See ship-owner agriculture, 4n13, 65 Arnould, Ambroise-Marie, 151n45 Physiocrats on, 32–33, 51, 59, 116 artificial needs,164 Voltaire on, 4n11 Augustine, 94n4 Alcibiades, 159 auri sacra fames, 52, 65n145 ambivalence See also gold in discourse of commerce, 16n56, avarice, 39, 132, 177 159–60, 161, 165 aventuriers, 104, 113n53 about luxury, 30, 59, 67 See also adventurers about monopoly, 140 as psychoanalytic category, 16, 186 Bachaumont, Louis Petit de, 150, 151n44 towards commerce, xii, 11 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 153

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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-00564-8 - Commerce and Its Discontents in Eighteenth-Century French Political Thought Anoush Fraser Terjanian Index More information

216 Index

barbares, 15n51 Christianity, 43, 71n14 See also civilisation; moeurs Montesquieu’s thesis on, 83, 84 Bates, David W., 106n37, 38 Churchill, Winston, 2n5 beaver trade, 177, 178–79, 180–81 Cicero, 31, 32n19, 94, 99, 122, 123n90–24 Beccaria, Cesare, 150 civilisation Bell, David A., 2n6, 63n138 Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Belley, Jean-Baptiste, 183, 184 Lettres and, 28n8 Benot, Yves, 1n3, 72–73, 81n40 Freud on, 186–87 Benveniste, Émile, 10n31, 31n14, 41n58 HDI on, 18, 41n58 Berg, Maxine, 29n9 luxury and, 41n58, 48 besoins factices, 164 origin of term, 41 Bhabha, Homi, 16 Rousseau on, 63n139, 69n4, 186 Black Beard, legend of, 131 “civilised peoples” or “man”, 66, 70, Black Legend, 75 106 blé, term usage, 4n11 classical republicanism, 8n26, 30n13, See also grain trade 70n8, 122 Boétie, Estienne, de la, 69 Cleopatra, 57, 58 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 93n2, 183n6 climate Booth, James, 31n17 of Africa, 74 booty. See Grotius, Hugo; prize of the Indies, 170 boucanier. See buccaneer of the Middle Ages, 86 Boucher d’Argis, Gaspard, 102, 107, 141, Code Noir, 42n60 142, 143, 145, 146n29 coffee, 26, 54, 171 Boulainvilliers, Henri comte de, 69 Coke, Edward, 99n14, 131 Boulle, Pierre, 5n17, 72n15, 148 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 124 buccaneer, 104–5, 106, 113–14, 115 policies of, 5 bulls, 62n137, 107, 113 See also mercantilism Bureau des colonies, 23, 90n78, 138 “colonial aphasia”, 22 Butel-Dumont, Georges-Marie, 46–51 Colonial Office, 23, 90n78, 138 colonies caisse d’escompte, 149 British, 18, 26 calicoes, 179 Dutch, 173 Calonne, Charles-Alexandre de, 152, 165n92 entry in Guyot’s Répertoire universel, Canada, 176 129 Cantillon, Richard, 7 European, 26 Cape of Good Hope, 147, 171, 173 fear of losing the, 165n93 Capital (Marx), 10 liberty of commerce in, 178 capres, 103 luxury goods from, 42, 48, 55n112, 58 Carra, Jean-Louis, 70 resource extraction from, 5 Cary, John, 47 slavery and, 42, 94n2, 171 Caspian Sea, 174 See also Bureau des colonies Champlain, Samuel de, 176 commerce Charlemagne, 166 “commerce amer”, 1n4 Charles, Loïc, 45n78 commerce odieux, 1n4, 88, 90, 165–66, Charlevoix, Pierre-François-Xavier de, 131 181 Châtelet, Émilie du, 44 etymology of, 10 Cheney, Paul, 3n8, 7n23, 20n71, 48n89, histories of, 23 138n3, 4 hymn to, 1, 23 Child, Josiah, 47 illicit, 90, 143, 145 Choiseul, duc de (Étienne-François), “in man”, 73, 88 47n87, 149 intendant de commerce (Vincent de policy of, 151 Gournay), 6, 148

Index 217

intendantde commerce (Vincent de of confidence, 2n6 Gournay), 47 luxury and, 30 liberalisation of, 85, 87–88 of Seven Years War, 2, 44 ode to, 1–2 Cromwell, Oliver, 175 “traffic”, 141, 145 cruise, 101, 112–13, 114, 125 vil term and, 1n4 meaning of, 107 with the Indies, 150, 152, 161, 167, 171, Curran, Andrew, 95n6 175 See also doux commerce d’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 101n18, commercial society 104n27, 106n37, 38 expansion in France, 27–28 d’Orléans, Philippe, 7, 27 four stages theory on the rise of, 82 Davis, David Brion, 91n83 Freud and, 15n53 De iure praedae (Grotius), 95, 96, 117, Histoire des deux Indes on, 76 118n71, 72, 119n74 luxury and, 33, 49, 55, 67 See also Grotius, Hugo as a new phenomenon, 30–32 De l’Esprit des lois (Montesquieu), 14n48, Rousseau on, 186 19n67, 37n44 views of, 16 De officiis (Cicero), 30n13, 31, 99n14 Compagnie des Indes. See Indies Company definition, politics of,xii , 23–25, 97, 185 Compagnie Royale des Indes Orientales of piracy, 124 (CIO). See Indies Company See also dictionaries; Encyclopédie Company of the East Indies. See Indies Defoe, Daniel, 10n30, 96n8 Company Denisart, Jean-Baptiste, 126–27, 144–45 competition, 134, 145n24, 156 depopulation, 37n44 compilation Derrida, Jacques, 29n9 of HDI, 131 despotism of items in Dictionnaire universel de French Enlightenment and, 3n7 commerce, 96, 109 labour and, 180 of pirate narratives, 131 language used to represent, 70n8 of texts from Diderot to the empress of monopoly and, 138 Russia, 60 orientalisation of, 70 Conagi Angria (pirate), 130–31 slavery and, 24, 69n4, 70–71, 77 Condorcet, marquis de Dialogues sur le commerce des blés (Jean-Antoine-Nicolas Caritat), (Galiani), 55n112, 139, 154n58, 157 163–64 Dickey, Laurence, 10n30 Conseil de Marine, 128 dictionaries Conseil des Prises, 128 bilingual, 102 Constant, Benjamin, 10n30, 30n12 of commerce, 13, 150 Constantinople, 56 Dictionary of, 23 Constituent Assembly. See National Assembly of French language, 10 consumption, luxury and, 27n3, 33, 38, of jurisprudence, 95, 96, 100, 126, 128, 48, 57 147 corps, 138, 163, 171, 173, 175–76 politics and, 23 monopolies of, 141, 185 See also Dictionnaire universel de corsaires and corsairs, 99–102, 103, commerce (Savary des Bruslons) 111–13, 115, 126–27 Dictionnaire universel de commerce corvée, 179 (Savary des Bruslons), 13, 95, 101, courir les bois, 178 104n28, 115, 117 course. See cruise piracy concepts, 108–9 Coxinga (pirate), 130, 134 Diderot, Denis crisis on book-banning, 20n69 Affair of the Indies Company, 149 as co-editor of Encyclopédie, 21

218 Index

Diderot, Denis (cont.) Duval d’Eprémesnil, Jean-Jacques, 150 commentary on Morellet, 159, 160–61 on commerce as soul of the world, 187 East India Company. See Dutch East contradictions, 21, 62 India Company; English East India as contributor to HDI, 16, 21n77, 78 Company; Indies Company critique of Necker, 157–60 éclat, 58 crowning himself “King Denis”, 63 economic thought defence of Galiani, 161–62 and commerce in humans, 2 on definition of “definition”,29n10 and doux commerce, 9, 11 on filibusterers, 132–33 Diderot and, 21 on gold, 61–63, 64, 65 history of, 5, 9, 48, 59 on Indies Company, 152–53, 157 influence of English writing on, 38 on luxury, 29–30, 44, 58–67 economics on monopoly, 140, 181 Anglophone origins of, 8 Raynal and, 171–72 classical and neoclassical, 7, 10 response to Lauraguais’s Mémoire, 156 connection to politics, 31 response to Morellet’s Mémoire, 153–56 histories of, xii Rousseau and, 34 science of, 7n25 on slavery, 81–82, 83–84, 86n60, 87, économistes. See Physiocrats 91–92 economy Discourses, The. See Rousseau, characterised by monopoly, 179 Jean-Jacques Diderot on, 162 Ditz, Toby, 32n19, 68n1 of France, 4n11 Dobie, Madeleine, 8n28, 9n29, 42n60, interdependence of, 162 55n110, 70n9, 100n17, 138n4 of New France, 180 dog, Alcibiades’s, 159 Quesnay on, 4 douceur, 12, 14, 100, 103, 187 sex and, 51 Douin de Caen, Firmin, 1 See also economics; political economy doux commerce écumeurs de mer. See sea-rovers gendered aspect of, 12n39 Edict Hirschman’s influence on,11 , 15n55, 17, of Compiègne, 142 85, 186 of Reunion, 147 in HDI, 87, 95, 185 education, 60, 61, 63 monopoly and, 136 Ehrard, Jean, 72 Montesquieu’s use of, 14–15 Encyclopédie origin and meaning, xii, 9–11, 12–13, 15 on adventurer term, 104, 113 slave trade and, 67, 89, 92 on buccaneer term, 114 vs. commerce amer, 1n4 connection to Dictionnaire universel, 96, vs. commerce odieux, 88–89 106, 108–9 Du contrat social (Rousseau), 68–69 on corsaire term, 113 See also Rousseau, Jean-Jacques on cruising, 107 Dubucq, Jean-Baptiste, 73n21, 149, 165n93 cultural forces of, 106 Duchet, Michèle, 21, 22n78, 69n4, 73n21, Diderot as co-editor of, 21 74n22, 81n42 Diderot’s “Encyclopédie” article Dulac, Georges, 60n131, 149n37, 38, for, 29 151n44, 152–53, 162n82 on etymology, 50n99 Dupleix, Joseph François, 147 on flibot, 112n50 Dupont de Nemours, Pierre-Samuel, 5n14, on filibusterers, 103–4 90n78, 151 Hume’s essay for, 59 Dutch East India Company, 118, 121, luxury and, 44, 61 123–24, 172 monopoly and, 141, 143–45, 163

Index 219

piracy and, 98–99, 100–103, 106, 111, filibusterers, 75, 96, 106, 129, 131–35 115–16, 127 origin of term, 103n26 Quesnay’s articles for, 4n13, 33n22 “flour war”, 90 slavery and, 72 Fontette, Fevret de, 137–38, 148 as a tool for knowledge, 106n37, 38 forban. See rogue See also dictionaries; Diderot, Denis Forbonnais, François Véron de, 5n14, England. See Great Britain 6n21 English East India Company, 134, 174, 176 four-stages theory, 36n39, 82n45 Enlightenment Fquam (pirate), 130 commerce in, xii, 9n29 Franklin, Benjamin, 47n84 critical practices, 3 free commerce/free trade, 9n29, 11, 33, definition of, 24 145n24, 152, 166, 172, 181 French, 3n7 See also commerce historiography, 86n59 French Company of the Indies. See Indies moral uncertainty in, 91n83 Company Scottish, 8n26 French East India Company. See Indies as a space of contest, 22n81 Company unifying discourse of, 3 French Revolution, 70, 93, 182 Éphémérides du citoyen, 6n20, 161 Freud, Sigmund, 15n53, 16n57, 186–87 equality frogs, 61, 62n137 and luxury, 53 natural, 82 gain See also inequality honourable and dishonourable, etymology 122–24 of commerce, 10 illegitimate, 156 of filibusterer term, 103n26 Galiani, abbé (Fernando), 55n112, 139–40, luxury and, 49, 50 153, 154n58, 157, 162–63 monopoly and, 140–41 Gazette du commerce, 115, 116n64 as political argument, 50 gender, 12n39, 40 Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques, and, Girodet-Troison, Anne-Louis, 183 50n99 globalisation, xii, 15n53, 19 Exclusif, 7n23, 138n3, 152, 165n93, 176 Goa, 130, 172 See also Indies Company Goethe, 93, 128 experience Goggi, Gianluigi, 78n39, 82n45, 90n78 colonial, 17, 54, 139 gold imperial, 8, 17, 48, 130 Adam Smith on, 5n15 theory vs., xii, 11, 159 criticism of, 55 Exquemelin (Oexmelin), Alexandre Olivier, Diderot on, 61–63, 64, 65 96n8, 103n26, 105n33, 114, 131 symbolism of gold watches, 66n146 external trade, 139, 140, 181 thirst for, 51, 131 See also free trade; international trade Virgil’s lament on, 52 Goodman, Dena, 3n7, 28n7, 29n9, faste, 27n5, 34, 57, 58 63n140, 142, 153n55, 154n58 Faust (Goethe), 93 Gordon, Daniel, 12n40, 15n52, 16n56, Fénelon, François de Salignac de la 20n71 Mothe, 60 Gournay, Jacques-Claude-Marie Vincent Ferguson, Adam, 146n25 de, 150n42, 155n60 fermiers généraux, 40, 163, 169n113 “laissez faire, laissez passer” phrase by, Ferrière, Claude-Joseph de, 126–27, 144, 6, 47, 148 145n22 followers of, 6 feudalism, 95, 185 school, 6n21

220 Index

grain trade editions and translations, 17–18 Diderot on, 162 on European slavery, 86–87, 89–90 external, 140 on gold, 52 Galiani’s Dialogues on, 139 on Guinea and Guineans, 75–76 internal, 48, 140, 162 on luxury, 30, 46, 54–59 “liberalisation” of, 139, 142–43, on monopoly trading companies, 165 145, 163 Nègres or noirs term, 72n15 regulation of, 164 odious piracy term in, 141 Great Britain on piracy, 95, 96–97, 103, 129–35 Cary’s essay on, 47 principal authors, 17, 20–21 colonies, 18, 26 on slavery and slave trade, 25, 73–74, criticism of elite governance of, 39 76–77 exports, 85 transformation of (1780), 77–78, 164 fabrics from, 179 versions of, 17n61 government expenditures (1598–1608), hedgehog skins, monopoly of, 142 121n82 Helvétius, Claude Adrien, 60n130, 61 parliamentary reform in, 70 Henry VIII, 173 perceived strength of, 2 Hirschman, Albert O., 10n30, 11, pirate battles against, 130 14–15n54, 55, 17, 85, 186 greed. See avarice Histoire philosophique et politique du Grimm, Friedrich Melchior, 5n14, 47, 59 commerce et des établissements Grotius, Hugo des européens dans les deux Indes. Aristotle and Cicero and, 123–24 See HDI (Histoire des deux Indes) commission with the VOC, 118 historiography Dogmatica term, 119n74 “Enlightenment”, 86n59 Historica, 121 of France, 8n26, 9n29, 28n7 on honourable and dishonourable gain, of Haiti, 9n29 122–24 and philosophical history, 17 Mare Liberum, 118–19 hoarding, 144 on natural law, 122 Hobbes, Thomas, 36, 68 on practice of despoliation, 122n89 Hobsbawm, E. J., 129 on prize and booty, 119–21 Hont, Istvan, 8n26, 28n6, 32 treatise on “right of prize”, 95, 96, 117 hostis humani generis writings on seizure, 118–19, 122–23 Cicero’s claim on, 99 guerre des farines. See “flour war” piracy and, 116n66, 131, 135 Guinea/Guineans, 75–76, 77n32 Hôtel de Tubeuf, 148 Guyot, Joseph-Nicholas, 126, 127–29, Hulliung, Mark, 22n81 142n13, 144, 145, 146 Hume, David, 5n14, 158 on luxury, 45–46, 59, 62 Haiti, 9n29, 183 hymn to commerce. See commerce HDI (Histoire des deux Indes) anti-slavery tract, 92 Ignatieff, Michael, 8n26, 28n6 banning and censorship of, 19–20 Île Bourbon (La Réunion), 171 Black Legend in, 75 Île de France (Mauritius), 153n53, 171 civilisation concept in, 41n58 India on classical societies, 31 commerce from, 150, 156, 172 on “commerce of man”, 24, 73n19 Egyptian goods from, 56–57 creation and purpose of, 18–20, 21–23 Pondicherry, 161, 169 de Pauw’s account of Guineans, 75n27 trade with, 162, 168, 175 Diderot’s contributions to, 21n77, 59, Indians, 131, 179, 180 60, 78n38 indiennes. See calicoes and doux commerce, 87, 95 Indies Company

Index 221

affair of, 147–48, 165 Ciceronian, 122 anagram of, 137–38 of commerce, 10, 13, 31n14, 67, 115 archives of, 149n38 French, 10, 26n1, 30, 69 Diderot on, 181 of jealousy, 158n73 Dupont de Nemours on, 151 of luxury, 28n7, 30, 44, 46, 48, 53, 58 importance of year 1769 and, 138, 140 pirate terminology and “common”, monopoly, 137n2, 138, 148 111n45 suspension of privileges, 139n5 political, 13n46 inequality, 152, 168 used to represent despotism, 70n8 of fortunes or wealth, 36, 61, 64, 180 Larrère, Catherine, 8n26, 139n5, 143 internal trade, 51, 143 Las Casas, Bartolomé de, 131 international law Lauraguais, comte de (Louis-Léon-Félicité), Grotius as founding father of, 117 155n60–58 piracy in, 97, 117 law of nations, 120 of the sea, 119 Law, John, 7, 40, 151 Valin’s work on, 96 Indies Company merger, 147 international trade, 4, 25, 138, 140, 152, and Mississippi Company bubble, 7 165 Système, 7, 27, 40n53, 147, 168–69 invisible hand, 66–67 laziness, 65, 179 Iroquois, 178 Le Mercier de la Rivière, Paul-Pierre, 4n13 ius gentium, 124 Lemaire, Isaac, 172 See also international law; juris gentium “Le Mondain” (Voltaire), 76, 80–82, 87, 99 natural law libelles, 157 “liberalisation” of trade. See grain trade Jacobins, 182 liberals/liberalism, 6, 7, 17 Jaucourt, Louis, chevalier de, 98–100 liberty, primitive, 168 See also Encyclopédie Linguet, Simon-Nicolas-Henri, 82n45, Java, 11, 172–73 83n48 jealousy of trade, 158n73 Livesey, James, 8n26 See also Hont, Istvan; Hume, David Lorient, 148, 171 Jennings, Jeremy, 28n7, 30n13 Louis XIV, 5, 42, 62n137, 70, 153n55, Johnson, Charles, 96n8 167n104 Jones, Colin, 29n9 Louis XV, 3, 67, 129, 137n1, 171 jouissance, 57, 60n131 death of, 168 Journal de l’agriculture, du commerce, des Seven Years War and, 93 arts et des finances, 116, 146 slavery and, 71 juris gentium, 120 Louis XVI, 128, 168 See also ius gentium Lumières. See Enlightenment luxury Kaiser, Thomas, 70, 144 Adam Smith on, 66 Kaplan, Steven, 142n14, 139n5 ambivalence about, 30, 58, 67 Keynes, John Maynard, 186 “barbarian”, 53 Koselleck, Reinert, 3n7 classical views of, 32, 33, 67 Kwass, Michael, 38n48 critique of, 32–33, 58 Diderot on, 29–30, 44, 58–67 L’An 2440 (Mercier), 51n101, 91n82 as discourse of commerce, 24 L’Homme aux quarante écus (Voltaire), 54 etymology of, 49, 50 l’Ouverture, Toussaint, 182 Hume on, 45–46, 59, 62 La Croix, Charles de, 149 language of, 28n7, 30, 44, 46, 48, 53, 58 Lafontaine, Jean de, 61 Melon on, 40–42 “laissez faire, laissez passer”, 17, 88 Mercier on, 51–53 language quarrel over, 24, 32, 40

222 Index

luxury (cont.) Michelet, Jules, 72 Rousseau on, 34–38 Middle Ages, 12n38, 86n60, 116 Saint-Lambert’s article on, 43–46 slavery and, 83, 86, 87 Voltaire’s poem on, 42–43 Millar, John, 82n45 vs. necessity, 29n9, 66 Milton, John, 135n129 women and, 51 Mississippi Company, 7 moeurs, 14–15, 62, 63, 170 Macao, 130, 134 monopoly Madagascar, 167n104 abolition of, 149 Malouet, baron de (Pierre-Victor), 90n78 Adam Smith on, 145n24 Mandeville, Bernard, 38–40, 48 colonialism and, 139, 152 manners. See moeurs concepts and history of, 139–40, 142 manufacturing Condorcet on, 163–64 occurring in monasteries, 166 critique of, 138, 174, 181 Physiocrats and, 33 Diderot on, 152, 162 restrictions on, 143 domestic, 139, 140, 147 Marat, Jean-Paul, 70n7 etymology of, 140–41 Marates, 130 failures, 176 Marseille, 148 HDI discussions of, 165, 172–82, 185 Jacobins of, 182 hoarding and, 144 Marx, Karl, 4n12, 186 illicit and odious, 141, 143, 145 on doux commerce, 10–11 international, 25, 138, 140 Maupeou, Chancellor, 71 legalities of, 93, 144, 145, 146 Maynon d’Invau, Étienne, 149–50, 151, morality of, 144, 173 155 piracy and, 67, 135n129, 136 Maza, Sarah, 28n7 privilege of, 179 Mazarin, cardinal de (Jules), 166, 167n104 Zenon’s law of, 144, 146 Mecca, 130, 131 See also commerce; grain trade; trade Medici, Catherine de, 166 Montaigne, Michel de, 12 Meilleraie, maréchal de la, 167 Montbars (pirate), 131 Melon, Jean-François, 41n58, 59n128 Montesquieu, baron de Essai politique sur le commerce, 7, (Charles-Louis-Secondat) 40–42, 48, 61 and depopulation, 37n44 letter to countess Verrue, 42 and doux commerce, 14–15, 85 role as secretary and advisor, 40n53 on liberty of commerce, 85 mercantilism, 5, 7 on slavery, 83, 86, 88n72 merchants thesis on Christianity, 83n48 as armateurs, 103 morals, 39, 40, 53 demands of, 76 Christian, 42 English, 134 Morellet, abbé André, 6n21, 139, 146n25 failed voyages to India, 167 Diderot’s response to, 153–62 groups and guilds, 148, 163 on luxury, 49n92 guide or reference tools for, 13, 109–12, memoir on Indies Company, 150–51 114–15 refutation of Galiani’s Dialogues, 157, privileges for “Nautes”, 165 163 slave, 77 Moscovia, 174 Mercier de la Rivière, Paul-Pierre. See Le Muthu, Sankar, 21n76 Mercier de la Rivière, Paul-Pierre Mercier, Louis-Sébastien, 46n81, 51–53, Nantes, 116, 124, 148 91n82 nation Mercury, 109 Diderot on, 61, 63–65, 66 metaphor of slavery. See slavery France, 70, 168

Index 223

free commerce and, 175 Penthièvre, duc de (Louis-Jean-Marie de French, 2 Bourbon), 128 Melon on colonies and, 42 Perrot, Jean-Claude, 26n2, 139n5, 146n26, Raynal on, 168, 170 150n42 and treatment of slaves, 90n79 Persia, 174 Voltaire on, 3 Petit, Émilien, 73n21 National Assembly, 182, 183 Philippe le Bel, 166 Natural History (Pliny), 142n12 philosophical history. See historiography natural law, 8n26, 122, 124 Phrygian bonnet, 78 necessity. See luxury Physiocracy, 3n10, 4–5, 7n25, 8n26 Necker, Jacques Physiocrats accusations against, 149 antagonism toward, 4–5 Diderot’s argument on, 154, 157–58, despotism and, 69n4 159–60, 162 historiography on, 8n26 Lüthy’s argument on, 149n39 Hollander’s argument on, 6n19 response to charges against the company, meaning of, 4 151 as pacifists and “liberals”, 6 retort to Morellet, 158–59 relationship with luxury, 33n21 rivals of, 163 and value of agriculture, 32–33, 59 role as financial counsellor,149 Pinto, Issac de, 26n1–27 Nègres, 72n15 piracy neoclassical economics, 7 and commerce odieux, 25, 93 New France, 176–78, 180 definitions of, 25, 94–96, 97–98, 124, nobility 126 Danish, 117 in dictionaries of jurisprudence, opposition to luxury, 33 126–29 and trade, 12n38, 143 entries in Encyclopédie, 98–106 noblesse commerçante, 143 in Gazette du commerce, 115–17 Grotius on, 123 ode to commerce. See commerce in HDI, 95, 96–97, 103, 129–35, 141 Oexmelin, Alexandre Olivier. international law on, 97, 117 See Exquemelin (Oexmelin), juridical framework for, 93–94, 117 Alexandre Olivier monopoly and, 67, 135n129, 136 oikos, 31 practice of seizure, 107–8 See also economy in Savary des Bruslons’s Dictionnaire, Ordonnance de la Marine du mois d’aoust 108–15 1681, 94, 95 See also prize, seizure Orient, 55n110, 167 pirate-emperor tale, 94 Ormuz, 55 Plato, 15, 31, 64n141 Pliny, 57, 142 Panchaud, Isaac, 150 Pocock, J. G. A., 8n26, 10n30, 12, 86n59 Pansey, Henrion de, 71 polis, 31 paper money, 7, 151 political economy Paris Adam Smith’s definition of,3n10 , 6n20 luxury and, 51–53 colonial, 8n28 slavery in, 93n2 cultural, 8n28 University of, 19n67, 104 Diderot on, 153, 157 Parlement of Paris, 19, 71, 165n92 history of, 11 parlements, 143, 146n29 narratives or literature on, 4n12, 7–8, See also Parlement of Paris 10, 11 Peabody, Sue, 71n14, 73n19 republican discourse of, 7n25 Pechméja, Jean-Joseph, 21, 74, 75 science of, 3n10, 34n31, 49–50

224 Index

politics of definition. See definition, criticism of, 19, 182 politics of on English East India Companies, 176 Politics, The (Aristotle), 122n88, 141n11 exile from France, 19n68, 165n92 Pondicherry, 161, 169 fear of losing colonies, 165n93 population Rousseau’s letter to, 35 of France (1661–1789), 37n44 on Saint Louis, 166 increase, 58 story of French commerce with India, See also depopulation 166–67, 172 poverty vow given by, 165 Diderot on, 61–62 Reddy, William, 13n44, 46 luxury and, 37, 43n68, 53 Rediker, Marcus, 96n7, 97n9 “primitive lifestyles”, 82 Reinert, Sophus, 9n29, 15n52, 47 prise, 114, 117 rentes viagères, 160 definition and translation of, 95, 107, Republic of Letters 120n78 acrimony and discord in, 29n9, 154 Guyot on, 128 defence of values of, 63n140 See also prize, seizure members of, 20n71, 22 privilege rules of, 142 abuse of, 138 republicanism. See classical republicanism connection between commerce and, Rétat, Pierre, 69 162–63, 166 revolution, 72n18, 183n4 critique of, 181 See also French Revolution exclusive trading, 134, 156, 158, rhetoric of slavery. See slavery 167–69, 173, 174–76, 181 Richelieu, Cardinal (Armand du Plessis), for Indies Company, 138, 139n5, 140, 128, 166 148, 151–54, 177–81 right(s) for “Nautes” merchants, 165 between individuals and states, 119 prize exclusive, 64, 163 booty and, 119–21 to free commerce, 177 definition of, 95, 120n78 of prize, 95, 96, 122, 124, 125 Grotius’s treaty on “right of”, 95, 96, of seizure, 107, 117, 135 124 of war, 123, 125 seizure of, 122, 123n93 Robertson, John, 3, 8n26 Valin on right of, 125 Robertson, William, 82n45 public opinion, 56, 143, 171 Roche, Daniel, 13n46 Pufendorf, Samuel, 43n68, 68 rogue, 107 definition of, 102n23, 112–13 “quarrel of the ancients and moderns”, 63 Rothschild, Emma, 22n81, 66, 139n5 Quebec, 176 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques querelle du luxe. See luxury on civilisation, 63n139, 90n77 Quesnay, François, 6, 33 Diderot and, 34 followers of, 4, 5n15, 6n20 Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (First Discourse), 33–34, 35, 36–37, 38n46, race, 107 58–59 See also skin colour Discourse on the Origins of Inequality Ranum, Orest A., 47n86 (Second Discourse), 12n40, 36–37, Raveneau de Lussan, Jacques, 131 39n49, 58–59, 179, 186 Raynal, abbé Guillaume-Thomas Du contrat social, 68–69 authorship of HDI,16 , 20, 74–75, 169 letter to Raynal, 35 and Bessner’s memorandum, 90n78 on luxury, 34–38 on colonial “masters”, 88n72 on salonnières, 28n7 as critic of slave trade, 183 on slavery, 68–69, 71–72

Index 225

Spartan ideals and, 35 monopoly and, 169 on study of science, 35n32 origin of, 74–75 Russia, 174 and piracy, 25 Russo, Elena, 15n52 prices and expenses, 77 promoters of, 81 Saint Louis, 166 triangular, 73, 81 Saint-Domingue slavery buccaneers of, 106, 113 and Africa, 71–72, 74 revolution in, 72n18 Diderot on, 83–84, 85, 87 slavery in, 72, 93n2 European, 81, 82, 86–88, 89–90, 91 Saint-Lambert, Jean-François, 21, 59 in HDI, 25, 73–74, 76–77 article on luxury, 43–46 metaphor of, 69–70, 73, 77, 82, 92 Sala-Molins, Louis, 72–73n21 Montesquieu on, 83, 86n60, 88n72 Santa Catharina (ship), 118, 119n74, 121, “personal”, 84, 85 123 rhetoric of, 68–69, 71, 72, 73, 77, 83, Satire contre le luxe à la manière de Perse 86n60, 91 (Diderot), 59 Rousseau on, 68–69 “savage man” vs. “civilised man”, 179 See also abolition “savages”, 177–79 Smith, Adam Savary de Bruslons, Jacques. definition of political economy,3n10 See Dictionnaire universel de jab at the économistes, 5n14 commerce (Savary des Bruslons) on luxury, 66 Savary, Jacques, 13 on monopoly, 145 seizure, concept and definition of,94 –96, reception in France, 145 107–8, 114, 116, 117, 185 Wealth of Nations, 5n15, 18, 103n26, Grotius on, 117–23 145 Guyot on, 128–29 Smith, Jay, 3n7 See prise Société des Amis des Noirs, 92n86 serfs. See feudalism Socrates, 31 Seven Years War Spang, Rebecca, 29n9 Churchill and, 2 Spartan ideals, 35 crisis following the, 2–3, 44 Spector, Céline, 5n15, 34n31 impact on trade, 149, 165 “spirit of finance”, 166, 169 Louis XV declaration of, 93, 124 Spirit of the Laws, The (Montesquieu), 14, sex, 51 15n52, 83 ship-owner, 101–2, 103, 106, 111–12, 115, St. Petersburg, 47, 60 171 stadial histories, 36n39, 82n45 Shovlin, John, 8n26, 15n54, 28n7 Starobinski, Jean, 21n77, 63n139, 90n77 on luxury, 28n6, 33, 46 Stiglitz, Joseph, 15n53 Sièyes, abbé Emmanuel-Joseph, 63 Stoler, Ann, 9n29 Silhouette, Étienne de, 148 sumptuary laws, 36, 48, 55, 66 skin colour, 75 See also luxury slave trade Système. See Law, John Black Legend of, 75 système mercantile, 5n15 and commerce odieux reference, 1 critics of, 183 Tableau de Paris (Mercier), 46n81, 53 and despotism, 24, 69n4, 70–71, 77 Tahiti, 60n131 Diderot on, 81–82, 91–92 Target, Guy-Jean-Baptiste, 140 and doux commerce, 67, 89, 92 Tartars, 130 of Guineans, 75–76 Tchang Si-Lao (pirate), 131 in HDI, 25, 73–74, 76–77 Terray, Joseph-Marie, 152 merchants, 77 Thales the Milesian, 141

226 Index

Théré, Christine, 26n2 Histoire’s account of, 57 Thomson, Ann, 75n27 luxury and, 33n25 Thomson, Erik, 8n27, 124 Mandeville on “public”, 39 tobacco, 168, 169, 171 notion of classical, 31, 32, 66 tax, 147n30, 163–64 “political”, 12n40 toiles peintes, 143, 150 Rousseau on, 34–37, 186 See also calicoes slavery and, 88n72 Tomaselli, Sylvana, 22 Voltaire on, 43 trade VOC. See Dutch East India Company colonial, 7, 138, 139n5, 163 Volga, 174 external, 139, 140, 181 Voltaire free, 9n29, 11, 33, 145n24, 166 “French” universal history, 86n59 internal, 51, 143 L’Homme aux quarante écus, 54 international, 4, 25, 138, 140, 152, 165 “Le Mondain”, 40, 42–43, 46n80, 54 jealousy of, 158n73 quote on wheat shortages, 4 monopoly, 118, 136, 147, 165, 175, 177 as Saint-Lambert’s mentor, 44 spice, 164 taunt, 43 workshop, 138 voluptuousness, 57–58, 131, 133 and permission of nobility to, 12n38 See also beaver trade; commerce; grain war trade; slave trade against Mithridates, 99 traffic. See commerce of Austrian Succession, 2n5, 148 traite négrière. See slave trade between the Dutch and trapping, 178 Portuguese, 118 Treaty of Paris, 26 English Civil War, 175 triangular trade. See slave trade “just”, 123 Trouillot, Michel-Rolph, 9n29, 183n4 “machine”, 78 Tuck, Richard, 118n72, 121n82 prisoners of, 111, 169n115 Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques, 5n14, 6n21, private, 119–20, 121 143n15, 162–63 and etymology public, 119, 122 “second hundred years war” phrase, usury, 141n11 98n11 ship or vessel armed for, 107, 108, Valin, René-Josué, 96, 124–26 111–12, 127–28 Vandeul, Fonds, 74n23, 152 See also “flour war”; Seven Venturi, Franco, 3 Years War Véron de Forbonnais. See Forbonnais, Wealth of Nations (Smith), 5n15, 18, François Véron de 103n26 vice publication of, 145 Diderot on, 65 wheat. See grain trade Mandeville’s poem on, 38–39 Wilder, Gary, 9n29 wealth as a, 61, 62 women Vincent de Gournay. See Gournay, commerce and, 12, 55 Jacques-Claude-Marie Vincent de “domestic slavery” of, 86n60 Virgil, 52 luxury and, 51 virtue See also gender of commerce, 87 Diderot on, 61, 64–65 Xenophon, 31