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A Land Apart: the Southwest and the Nation in the Twentieth Century Flannery Burke

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A Land Apart: the Southwest and the Nation in the Twentieth Century Flannery Burke A LAND APART THE MODERN AMERICAN WEST David M. Wrobel and Andrew G. Kirk editors Carl Abbott, The Metropolitan Frontier: Cities in the Modern American West Richard W. Etulain, Re-imagining the Modern American West: A Century of Fiction, History, and Art Gerald D. Nash, The Federal Landscape: An Economic History of the Twentieth-Century West Ferenc Morton Szasz, Religion in the Modern American West Oscar J. Martínez, Mexican-Origin People in the United States: A Topical History Duane A. Smith, Rocky Mountain Heartland: Colorado, Montana, and Wyoming in the Twentieth Century William G. Robbins and Katrine Barber, Nature’s Northwest: The North Pacific Slope in the Twentieth Century R. Douglas Hurt, The Big Empty: The Great Plains in the Twentieth Century Robert L. Dorman, Hell of a Vision: Regionalism and the Modern American West Donald L. Fixico, Indian Resilience and Rebuilding: Indigenous Nations in the Modern American West Richard Aquila, The Sagebrush Trail: Western Movies and Twentieth-Century America Flannery Burke, A Land Apart: The Southwest and the Nation in the Twentieth Century FlaNNERY BURKE A LAND APART The Southwest and the Nation in the Twentieth Century TUCSON The University of Arizona Press www.uapress.arizona.edu © 2017 by The Arizona Board of Regents All rights reserved. Published 2017 Printed in the United States of America 22 21 20 19 18 17 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-13: 978-0-8165-3561-3 (cloth) ISBN-13: 978-0-8165-2841-7 (paper) Cover design by Leigh McDonald Cover photograph: Step in Bitter Springs by Jetsonorama. Image and installation by Jetsonorama; 100% of permission fees for the use of this art will be used to fund art for the Navajo Nation. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Burke, Flannery, author. Title: A land apart : the Southwest and the Nation in the twentieth century / Flannery Burke Other titles: Southwest and the Nation in the twentieth century | Modern American West. Description: Tucson : The University of Arizona Press, 2017. | Series: The modern American West | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016041553| ISBN 9780816535613 (cloth : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780816528417 (pbk. : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: New Mexico—History—20th century. | Arizona—History—20th century. | Indians of North America—New Mexico—History—20th century. | Indians of North America— Arizona—History—20th century. | Hispanic Americans—Arizona—History—20th century. | Hispanic Americans—New Mexico—History—20th century. Classification: LCC F801 .B94 2017 | DDC 978.9/053—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016041553 This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48–1992 (Permanence of Paper). For Martin x CONTENTS List of Illustrations ix Introduction: Out of Place, Out of Time 3 PART I. BORDERS 27 1. A Place by Itself, 1912–1929 31 2. The Story Attached to It, 1929–2000 57 PART II. INDIAN COUNTRY 91 3. Nations, Tribes, Communities, and Towns, 1876–1935 97 4. The Story Still Being Told, 1940–2000 119 PART III. REDUCING TO POSSESSION 155 5. The Searchers: Race and Tourism in the Southwest 159 6. Own It: Race, Place, and Belonging 194 PART IV. THE THEATER OF ALL POSSIBILITIES 221 7. Boom Towns: The Nuclear Southwest 225 8. Water Is the Earth’s Blood 264 Conclusion: Without Problems, We Wouldn’t Have Any Stories 294 VIII CONTENTS Acknowledgments 307 Appendix. Racial and Ethnic Categories: U.S. Census, 1900–2000 311 Notes 313 Selected Bibliography 373 Index 403 ILLUSTRATIONS 1. The modern Southwest 8 2. Ourselves and Taos Neighbors, ca. 1940 21 3. Step at Bitter Springs, 2011 24 4. Student reading in Ojo Sarco, New Mexico, ca. 1943 53 5. Yuma, Arizona, ca. 1880 76 6. Dawson, New Mexico, 1920 76 7. Phoenix mural on Sixteenth Street by Lalo Cota and Thomas “Breeze” Marcus, 2014 82 8. Southwest Indian Country, ca. 1930 93 9. Southwest Indian Country, ca. 2000 93 10. Navajo Mountain Community BIA School, ca. 1948 132 11. Harvey House map, ca. 1930s 169 12. “Get back in your box” silver bracelet, 2011 182 13. Tourists at Bright Angel Lodge, 1950–1960 185 14. Malpai Borderlands Group, 1994 212 15. Maria Martinez and Enrico Fermi, ca. 1945 237 16. Marion C. Martinez Virgin of Guadalupe, ca. 2016 262 17. Arcosanti Vaults, ca. 2016 282 18. Acequia del Medio de Chamisal, 2015 285 19. Storyteller Joe Hayes, 2001 305 A LAND APART INTRODUCTION Out of Place, Out of Time OUT OF PLACE “ HERE ARE WE?” My husband and I are coasting down a two- lane highway in northeastern New Mexico. Night has fallen, and Wfew headlights besides our own break the darkness. The road has become hilly in the last half hour, and we rise and fall, approaching the moun- tains over which I see lightning occasionally break the sky. I smell rain, and my excitement grows. I am almost home, and maybe, maybe it will rain, an event I learned as a child in New Mexico to view with almost ecstatic anticipation. “Where are we?” my husband asks again. It’s a question we use to convey more than our location. He knows where we are. He has consulted the map throughout our trip from the Upper Midwest. He knows we should arrive in Santa Fe, my hometown, within two or three hours. But he has never been here before, and I realize that he’s nervous. I tear my eyes from the mountains and the beauty of the thunderstorm. He is not asking for our location but for a broader answer—what are we doing here on this dark road at night? How did we come to be in this place? And how did this place come to be like this? Will we be all right here? I have asked him the same question on busy interstates and while poring over subway maps and even at parties in skyscrapers. I realize that he feels out of place. He is not the first person to feel out of place in the Southwest. Visitors to the region have remarked for centuries on the area’s aridity, the difficulty of its 4 INTRODUCTION terrain. Indigenous peoples struggled to adapt to the dry climate and were not always successful. Medieval settlements in what is now southern Colorado were likely abandoned as water became less plentiful, food supplies decreased, and friction within the community grew fiery.1 Early Spanish settlers were startled and later raided by the nomadic peoples they encountered in the area. They were troubled too by the unfamiliar religious views of the sedentary Pueblo peoples.2 English and Anglo American visitors to the region found Spanish, and later Mexican, Catholicism distasteful and the economy stagnant.3 Following the conclusion of the Mexican-American War with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hi- dalgo in 1848, Anglo Americans either turned from the region as a wasteland or arrived to find an area that seemed alien. Newcomers to the area have had two general responses to the strangeness of the Southwest. They have tried to reverse the sensation of feeling out of place by implementing its opposite, by putting the seeming disarray and disorder of the area in place. Southwesterners have killed and enslaved to force one another into their vision of the area; they have rearranged the water and other natural resources to better serve their economies; and they have changed the laws and built environment to mimic regions or visions of places that they believed were more comfortable. They have sometimes chosen a different approach, one that might be termed an antonym of “out of place.” They have claimed to be “at home.” Indigenous people developed cosmologies that continue to unite them with the natural world and the landscape. Throughout the crises of conquest and war, Spanish, Mexican, and American representatives claimed the region as part of their na- tional territory. By the late nineteenth century, some Anglo Americans began actively seeking out the Southwest because of its differences from the eastern part of the country. Longing for an antidote to the problems that they per- ceived elsewhere, they saw in the Southwest a location where they could feel at home and at peace with what the future might bring. THE SOUTHWEST: A DEFINITION Most observers have applied some combination of the two. That night on the highway, I felt at home, but had someone, somehow, thrown me twenty miles off the highway and taken the restaurant dinner out of my belly, I would have felt out of place too. I prided myself on my comfort with the rural road and INTRODUCTION 5 distant thunderstorm, but I was awfully happy to be in a car, on a highway, well hydrated and well fed. I felt at home because I grew up in New Mexico and know its landscape and weather, but I also felt in place because of a good num- ber of creature comforts that actually came from elsewhere. As my reference to relatively recent technological developments—automo- biles, highways, commercial food—indicates, the question “Where are we?” has a lot to do with the question “When?” The very name “Southwest” could not exist until Anglo Americans began to cast their eyes toward it from the East- ern Seaboard. Medieval Pueblo settlers did not see themselves as living in the Southwest, nor did Spanish colonists who arrived in the sixteenth century.4 The Southwest had not been invented yet. After its invention by Anglo Americans in the early nineteenth century, Spanish and Mexican settlers continued to take a different view of the place than did their American neighbors. As the geogra- pher D. W. Meinig has observed, the name “Southwest” is “of course an ethno- centric one: what is south and west to the Anglo-American was long the north of the Hispano-American.”5 Although the boundaries of the region for outsid- ers and residents alike would change over the years, the ethnocentrism of that designation would not disappear.
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