CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Turkey astheGreek Cypriots’ Other Department of International Relations and European Studies Narratives ofCollective Memory: Supervisor: Akçal Supervisor: Emel Professor Central European University European Central Word Count: Word Count: 15726 Budapest, Hungary Maria Gkresta Submitted to Submitted 2011 By Õ CEU eTD Collection constructed Turkish identity, which serves in turn as the ultimate marker of self perception. narratives of history and identity base their articulations on the implicit relationship with the Other, so that the identity of the self could be more evident. Greek Cypriot discourses and the defining for isanobsession there that sense inthe isrehashed here dynamic Self/Other articulation that would establish adefinite set of parameters for this identity. Thus, the ahegemonic for competition ongoing is an There discourse. historical Cypriot Greek the through collective memory. I argue that the Turkish identity functions as an empty signifier for Cyprus and it will suggest thatthese originate from and, at the same time, are being reinforced being articulated in thediscursive spaces of historiography and the press in the Republic of Abstract This study will investigate the ways in which stereotypical representations of Turkey are ii CEU eTD Collection nonsense. all those who didn’t let me forget that learning is meant to be a game, a combination of sense and on the topic. I am also grateful to Ágnes Tóth for her help and patience. Finally, I am thankful to I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Emel Akçal Acknowledgements iii Ö forher comments and suggestions CEU eTD Collection References...... 45 Conclusions and Future Research ...... 42 Directions Chapter 3: Press Narratives...... 33 Chapter 2: Historical Narratives...... 17 Chapter 1: On collective memory, identity ...... 6 and narration Introduction...... 1 3.2 Representations of Turkey in the Greek Cypriot Press...... 35 ...... 33 3.1 Introduction 2.5 The Annan ...... 28 Plan Referendum 2.4 The Day after the Partition...... 26 2.3 The Independent Republic of Cyprus and the 1974 conflict...... 23 2.2 The Colonial Past...... 19 ...... 17 2.1 Introduction 1.4 Collective memory and narrative...... 13 1.3 Collective ...... 9 memory and identity 1.2 On collective memory...... 6 ...... 6 1.1 Introduction Table of Contents of Table iv CEU eTD Collection Cyprus so much permeated by images of the past? In other words, why is the mainstream Turkey are a permanent reference point in narratives of the Greek Cypriots. of images negative notably past, ofthis manifestations Different Turkey. with share they past countries is tormented by memory. Most aspects of Greek Cypriot politics are influenced bythe of friendly and hostile nations witnessed multiple internal and external efforts at solution. Put simply, in the Greek Cypriot list has island the intervention military Turkish the since years 37 the During relations. international territory of Cyprus reflects one of the most persistent and thorny problems in contemporary yet somehow unsettling: a thick line divides the island in two parts. The way we conceptualize the as narratives. objectified operation of collective remembering, undoubtedly the memory of the past is externalized and the way a social group projects itself into the future. not only relate to the past and the present. It also plays an important role in setting the scene for http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/mfa2006.nsf/policy02_en/policy02_en?OpenDocument list of countries Cyprus maintains diplomatic relations with. 5 4 past through memory, in order to construct a common history. 3 2 Century national traumas operate. See: Arthur G. Neal, 1 past that is translated in collective memory. in collective is translated that past determining its policy choices. Perceptions about the Self and the Other are often rooted in the Introduction Notably, in the webpage of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Cyprus, Turkey Dijkink, Gertjan is not included in the Anthony D Smith, Anthony Rafael Z. Narvaez, “Embodiment, Collective Memory and Time”, A notable example of the way collective memory is often brought in contemporary politics can be found at the way (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1998). The overarching question that guides this thesis is: what makes everyday politics in politics everyday makes is:what thesis this guides that question overarching The If we now try to picture the map of Cyprus, the image that comes to mind is familiar and Admittedly, memory holds a key role in the shaping of a nation’s identity and in National Identity and Geopolitical Visions, Maps of Pride and Pain The Ethnic Origins of the Nations 4 , Turkey belongs to the latter National Trauma and Collective Memory: Major Events intheAmerican Collective Memory:Major Traumaand National (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1987), 177 1 Nation-states, notably, rediscover over time their time over rediscover notably, Nation-states, 1 3 Body & Society Althoughit isvery hardgrasp to the 5 . The relationship between the two 2 But collective remembering does (London: Routledge, 1996) , 12 , Vol. 12, No. 3 (2006): 66 (accessed May 30 , 2011) CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 64 – 93 Conflicts. PowerThe ofIntegration and Association 6 collective this of parameters the structural laysout narrative away,thehistorical In articulated. representative for the general manner in which collective memory and identity discourses are theyare but exhaustive, ofcourse not are ofdiscourses Thesetwosets identity. established set of narratives that constantly articulate and interpret the present events in the light of the mass media, in which history is juxtaposed with contemporary and ongoing events, to generate a ‘story’ of the past) that generates and reinforces the collective identity; and the discourse of the accredited and undisputed, official, (the discourse historical official the take: narratives such memory, and will explore an array of powerful images of the past by analyzing two forms that collective on this focus will thesis this mind, in this Having memory. collective Cypriots’ Greek through different discourses and narratives of the past. memory is the foundation on which the Greek Cypriot identity is being constructed in and collective time, same At the directions. certain in population Cypriot Greek the of perceptions Collective memory plays a crucial role, to the extent that it informs and conducts the subjective in the way the Cypriot collective memory is being articulated in various discursive spaces. plans” imperialist “impose to was seeking Union the that claimed discourse political the of voices holds the most prominent place. At the same time, in the wake of EU accession, predominant Cyprus’ history and present identity. For example, in the foreign policy agenda of Cyprus, Turkey negotiate actors international other wayinwhich the towards andattimeshostility to, paid attention intoanincreased translates often This nuance anxieties. identity-based and nationalism the past generates a distinct nuance of Cypriot politics, which is characterized by pronounced political and media discourse in Cyprus exaggeratedly concerned with history? This concern with Olga Demetriou, “Catalysis, Catachresis: the EU;s impact on the Cyprus Conflict”, in 6 and allow the island to be The main argument of this paper, in a nutshell, is that the answer to these questions lies My hypothesis is, therefore, that negative representations of Turkey originate from the de facto split. , edited by Thomas Diez, Stephan Stetter and Mathias Albert 2 The European Union and Border CEU eTD Collection 10 Penguin Books, 1966) negotiated within social groups, among the subjects. Therefore, this thesis is informed by the always but pre-determined, are never territories and ideas events, facts, ofobjects, meanings their analyses. Rather, knowledge and reality are in a perpetual process of construction. The researchers can never claim an objective and neutral standing point from which they conduct between subjects andobjects of research isartificial. Knowledge canneverbeabsolute, and interpretative methodology is based on the epistemological assumption that the separation “Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fructured Paradigm”, 9 then reassemble them to generate a coherent vision of what is ‘really’ out there. instruments of analysisarticulations. What is considered as (social) ‘reality’ thatcannot be accessed through objective claim to be ablesees knowledge as a product of ongoing processes of intersubjectiveto constructions and breakdiscursive the subjectsubject and object, this thesis prefers a constructivist epistemology,of in the largeststudy sense, which into between distinction apositivist from itself distancing fragments, Explicitly methodology. interpretative an and makes some aspects more salient than others. a waythat in them frame them, mediashape issues, the selected the communicating Before weight. greater willhave opinions and voices which defining in role media’s the by is achieved Woollacoat (eds.), 8 Vol. 36 (1972): 177 7 their ability to draw attention on certain issues over others, in setting theagenda. insetting over others, issues oncertain attention todraw ability their liesin power transformative This realities. contemporary to suitthe andadapted transformed say, while history remains static and rigid, within the media the elements of the discourse get innovation is possible, obviously within the given parameters of the historical narrative. That is to on; and at thememory, the general and determined landscape of samethe metaphors, crucial events, stories and so time, the media narrative constitutes the locus where to some extent Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw, “The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media”, of Mass Function “TheAgenda-Setting L.Shaw, Donald and McCombs E. Maxwell Stuart Hall, “Culture, the Media and the ‘Ideological Effect’”, in James Curran, Michael Gurevitch, and Janett This often happens by associating bits of information with culturally familiar symbols. Robert M. Entman, Robert M. symbols. familiar culturally with of information bits associating by happens often This Peter Berger, and Thomas Luckmann, The endeavors of this thesis to answer the previously outlined questions are informed by Mass Communication and Society The social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology ofknowledge sociology the in atreatise of reality: construction social The (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1979), 342 9 3 Journal ofCommunication Vol. 43 No. 4 (1993): 53. Public Opinion Quarterly, 7 The same goal 10 Instead, an Instead, (London: 8 CEU eTD Collection in the Federal Republic of Germany”, 12 Verso, 2001), 105 narratives, I will use the theoretical tools provided by the concepts of empty signifier and the 24-59 13 11 discursive (in the sense of meaningful use) constructions. country’s perception. make up the self-conceptionmethodology will seek to explore, identify, andof interpret the sometimes Greekhidden meanings that Cypriots vis-à-visperceptions of Turkey that determine future foreign policy attitudes. Thus, the Turkey,interpretive forming collective memoryat is able to providethe a more accurate and useful picturesame of the nature of the time the and itsinferred specificity (dependence on the moment) these public discourse loci, the collective memory’s path dependence on earlier commemorations elite narratives that interact with each other and are transformed into policy decisions. Within and the media, among others. Collective memory is a constitutive, pervasive part of popular and Turkey take place in the public sphere through the reproduction of the generally accepted history through which certain hegemonic discourses articulate this identity from certain standpoints. mechanisms the follow only can It levels. social different at subjectively constructed is identity way collective memoryshapes theGreek Cypriot collective identity. Itcan onlypresent howthis involved in those interpretations. This is why this thesis cannot claim to say the ‘Truth’ about the sometimes divergent, but every time mediated by the respective subjectivities of the social actors complementary, sometimes interpretations, several are instead There to. access unmediated that others give to it. There is no genuine reality out there that the researcher has objective interpretation subjective the through achieved be only can narrative that to access the moreover, general ethos that ‘what is real’ is always a narrative articulated from a certain standpoint; Jeffrey K. Olick, “Genre Memories and Memory Genres: A Dialogical Analysis of May 8, 1945. Commemorations Marianne Jorgensen and Louise J. Phillips, ErnestoChantalLaclauand Mouffe, In my analysis Iwill draw upon the idea that whatever being objects acquire stems from The discourses, ‘the structured totality resulting fromthearticulatory practice American Sociological Review Hegemony andSocialist Strategy: Towards aRadical Democratic Politics Discourse Analysis as Theory and and Method as Theory Analysis Discourse 4 , Vol. 64 (1999): 381-402. 12 13 , canbe traced. The empirical study of In critically reading such elements of (London: Sage Publications, 2002), Publications, Sage (London: (London: 11 ,’ over CEU eTD Collection 14 research. recreating that narrative. Finally, Iwill draw conclusions and point out directions for future time, same atthe while narrative, historical official the isreinforcing media themass that which stereotypical images of Turkey manifest themselves in theGreek Cypriot press. I will argue historiography. The third chapter will be more empirically-oriented and it will of anexplore explicit attention paidthe to the forms of waysnarrative generated in within and by state-sponsored historical context as well as the parameters of the contemporary debates. This will take theform illustrating chapter themwill present the main arguments of the literature and will attempt to refine them by with the “case”concept of collective memory and its interplay with the notions of identity and narrative. This of the Greekconsiderations and concepts that inform the argument. These considerations are focused on the Cypriots. In the second the Greek Cypriot identitychapter is based. I lay oppositionsout with an overarching articulation. This logic is behindthe the Self/Other binary on which intractable establishing through usually subject positions, different between alliances discursive discursive strategy for achieving hegemonic meanings. Itoperates by establishing similarities and Examples it. for sense of a hegemonic toarticulate thattry discourses competing of a multitude is there these includeof thediscourse that has a contested meaning. The signifier becomes empty ofmeaning when ‘democracy’,discourse will be contested and replaced by another one. An empty signifier is thus that element ‘freedom’for hegemony, or ‘peace’.achieving a totality of the subjective position within a society. Different discourses may compete they may Theattheory argues that there can never be timesa fully hegemoniclogic discourse, because of the impossibility of achieve of equivalence it, but only is fora a limited time, after which every logic ofequivalence, as developed in Laclau and Mouffe’s critical theory of discourse. Laclau and Mouffe, The study is structured as follows: in the first chapter I will expose the main theoretical Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics 5 14 This CEU eTD Collection and operates within the society meaning of the shared past. In doing so, I follow Halbwachs’ argument that memory originates formation, preservation and transmission ofits content the aspects that inform this study. Iwill look at its formation and at the processes that govern the this part I will sketch, without being exhaustive, a framework of collective memory highlighting investigate theprocess of identity formation of the Greek Cypriot community vis a vis Turkey. In these problems, I consider collective memory as a privileged vantage point from where to 17 methodological framework and they are rather defined in terms of topics of inquiry 16 102 (5) (1997): 1387 15 Alon Colfino, “Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method”, later years of the 20 memory 1.2 Oncollective identity to concept that constitutes the main focal point of this study, the concept of narrative. argue three) might (some two of state a peculiar inCyprus, identity Cypriot a of Greek process formation the differentthat constitute the background of the study. I will then relate theethnic concept of collective memory to communities. Finally,1.1 Introduction I will relate the narration and identity memory, notions collective 1: On Chapter of memory and Paolo Jedlowski, “Memory and Sociology: Themes and Issues”, Maurice Halbwachs, I will be discussing collective memory as the social experience of constructing the Memory has acquired an increasing importance as a study object of social sciences in the memory to collective related viewpoints theoretical the outline I willfirst chapter, this In On Collective Memory Collective On th century. However, memory studies lack a coherent theoretical and theoretical acoherent lack studies memory However, century. 17 . He argues that people normally acquire, recall, recognize, and (Lewis A. Coser ed.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). 6 16 Time and Society . , Vol. 10, No. 1, (2001): 34 The American Historical Review The American 15 . Despite of , Vol. CEU eTD Collection each society transfers images and narrations ofthepast andnarrations images transfers society each their pasts, rather they reconstruct them according to the needs of contemporary culture. the contemporary context. In fact, as Michael Kammen claims, societies do not faithfully record ability toreconstruct. It is not just an archive: the social knowledge of the past is being related to what is foreign through memory. Another distinctive feature of Assmann’s cultural memory is its peculiarity” it “preserves the store of knowledge from which a group derives an awareness of its unity and remembering a collective activity. Jeffrey Olick agrees on the importance of language, dialogue and narrative in making considered collective memory is the cross-generational oral transmission of collective events. 27 Books, 1993), 1-2. under the term cultural memory past. memory originates from shared communication within such groups about the meaning of the 26 Michael C.Kammen, 25 24 23 Páez & B. Rimé (eds.) (Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlabaum, 1997), 169 remembering political events”, in 22 and Theory 21 Cultural History/Cultural Studies (1995): 127. 20 19 18 families, orthe neighbourhood, and extending to include the nation.” as such smallest, the from agroup, to relates memory individual’s every analysis, Halbwachs’ recollections localize their memories within the society Jedlowski, “Memory and Sociology: Themes and Issues” Ibid, 130 Assmann, “Collective Memory and Cultural Identity”, 129 Jeffrey K. Olick, “Collective Memory: The Two Cultures” Wulf Kansteiner, “Finding Meaning in Memory: A Methodological Critique of Collective Memory Studies”, Ibid, 43 Ibid, 38 Páez, D., Basabe, N. & González, J.L., “Social processes and collective memory: a cross-cultrual approach to Jan Assmann and John Czaplicka, “Collective Memory and Cultural Identity”, Cultural and Memory “Collective John Czaplicka, and Assmann Jan 21 According to Páez, Basabe and González,adequate an definition of what Halbwachs Jan Assmann departs from Halbwachs’ theory and relates memory, society and culture , Vol. 41 (2002): 188 25 . The group becomes conscious of its self-image, of what constitutes its identity and identity its constitutes what of itsself-image, of conscious becomes group . The 19 ” from their social context within which the past assumes its meaning. In meaning. its assumes the past which within social context their ” from The mystic chords of memory: the transformation of tradition in American culture Collective Memory of Political Events: Social Psychological Perspectives Psychological Events: Social ofPolitical Collective Memory 24 23 . One of the characteristics of a group’s cultural memory is that 18 . The individuals “determine and retrieve their retrieve and “determine The individuals . 7 Sociological Theory 27 , Vol. 17, No. 3 (1999):343 beingisinthissenseit and 20 New German Critique In thissense, collective , J.W. Pennebaker, D. , J.W.Pennebaker, (New York: Vintage (New York: No. 65, 26 Thus, History 22 CEU eTD Collection creating to the group the feeling that its cultural presuppositions and it very existence are being characteristics. Theevent has to beloadedwith negative affect andtobeperceivedas indelible, cultural trauma is awidely accepted by the group memory of an event that displays certain central position, even among generations that did not experience it. In Neil Smelser’s definition, a the representations that conform most to the dominant interests competing to dominate it, the more the past becomes the subject of strategies seeking to impose elites that represent them: the more complex a society and the greater the number of elites designed to give legitimacy toa society’s beliefs and to inspire their projects, thus legitimising the collective memory. As Jedlowski acutely observes, “the collective representations of the past are politics and its agents often influences a society’s perception of the past and the formation of that ashared sense of the past, partly or mostly imaginary, can shape politics based on the harnessing of memory and appeals to identity politics can beidentified. According to the first approach, “politics is largely afunction of history, political elites enjoy great visibility within the public sphere. In the literature, two approaches to however relevant for this analysis. Since the focus is on the public discourse in Cyprus, inevitably is it use, political toits reduced be andcannot dimensions many has memory collective Clearly, identity of “politics stresses, asColfino at times, are that memory of politics the on focus 32 31 The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 30 29 28 subjective experience of a social group that essentially sustains a relationship of power context, the needs of its time. institutionalized. However, atthesame time, every society adjusts collective memorytoits given Jedlowski, “Memory and Sociology: Themes and Issues”, 34 Ibid Martin O. Heisler, “Challenged Histories and Collective Self-Concepts: Politics in Ibid. History, Memory, and Time”, Confino, “Collective Memory and Cultural History: Problems of Method”, 1393 In the collective memory of the Greek Cypriots’, the problem of cultural trauma holds a holds trauma cultural of problem the Cypriots’, Greek the of memory collective the In But howare these needs defined? In this study, collective memory will be explored “as a 8 , Vol. 617 (2008): 201 (2008): 617 , Vol. 30 ”. An alternative approach suggests 32 ”. 31 . Either way, 28 ”. I will ”. I 29 ”. CEU eTD Collection traced back to the Ottoman Empire and to the struggles for independence. Within the highly the collective memory and it is embedded in the Greek Cypriot public discourse. in engraved riskisdeeply asecurity and as athreat Turkey of interpretation The Other. hostile great extent the self image of the Greek Cypriots is built upon their perception of Turkey as the construct. The object of this part is todiscuss how the Greek Cypriot identity is defined. To a identity, nonation identity, 36 35 around. John R. Gillis argues, the concept of identity depends on the idea of memory, and the other way andidentity memory 1.3 Collective because it determines the ways in which groups project themselves toward the future. 34 Vol 47, No. 2 (2004): 160 37 Nationalism 33 creation. and projection, investment, imaginative by but by recall, mediated is not case in this past The right. experiences are so deeply transmitted to them that they seem toconstitute memories in their own term postmemory to describe this phenomenon and she argues that nevertheless, these generations that have no direct experience or recollections of them. Marianne Hirsch coined the Cyprus have been embedded in the collective consciousness and persist inthe memory of threatened. Cited in Peter C. Seixas, Rafael Z. Narvaez, “Embodiment, Collective Memory and Time”, 66 Marianne Hirsch, “The Generation of Postmemory”, Anthony D. Smith, “Memory and Modernity: Reflections on Ernest Gellner’s Theory of Nationalism”, Theory of Gellner’s onErnest Reflections andModernity: “Memory D. Smith, Anthony As quoted in Ron Eyerman, “The Past in the Present : Culture and the Transmission of Memory”, 36 Historically, the identification of Turkey as the Other for the Hellenic world can be In the previous part Ilaid out a theoretical framework for studying collective memory. As Anthony Smith even states that “one might almost say: no memory, no identity; no , Vol. 2 (1996): 383 33 As it will become clear in the following chapter, the traumatic historical events in 34 The way collective memory affects new generations is of particular importance particular of is generations new affects memory way collective The 37 ” However, here I will opt for a broader discussion of identity as a social Theorizing Historical Consciousness Historical Theorizing Poetics Today 9 (Toronto: University of Toronto, 2004), 5 , Vol. 29, No. 1(2008): 103 and 107. 35 Acta Sociologica Acta Nations and Nations , CEU eTD Collection 1984), 252 41 (1990): 171-188 the need for identification with the motherlands. In Cyprus, as the following chapter will show, a and nation (those who share the same identity, that are identical to us), we can better understand also with the British and, most importantly, with their ubiquitously present ‘motherlands’. Greek and Turkish Cypriots share the territory - and the power- not only with each other, but Simon Dalby, “American security discourse: the persistence of geopolitics”, fundamental in any exercise of power 40 (Chichester/New York/ Brisbane/ Toronto/ Singapore: John Wiley and Sons, 1996), 13 ‘them.’ force ofdiscursive borders between the idealized Self andademonized Other, between ‘us’ and and imagining, acontest of power and resistance that involves […] the equally powerful […] elaborates on this idea: “the struggle over geography is also a conflict between competing images further Ó Tuathail us.Gearoid from different are they diasporas), caseof (likeinthe here here, they (the Others) are there. There is a clear-cut distinction in between, and even if they live of Cyprus under the British rule and it will be explored in the next chapter. case in the occurred conceptualization similar A Greek”. equals Orthodox Turk, equals “Muslim account the individuals’ personal identification that did not necessarily match the pattern into take to failed Treaty The beliefs. religious populations’ the on based largely were conditions moment in their relationship: it set the conditions for the population exchange and these bitterness between Greeks and Turks. The Treaty of Lausanne (1923) marks a significant control of the economic life. This is just an expression of the antagonistic relations and the fall of the Empire is partly attributed to the lax attitude towards religious minorities, who held 39 38 diverse Ottoman society, religion was the main identifier main was the religion society, Ottoman diverse Michel Foucault, “Space, Knowledge, and Power”, in Rabinow, P.(ed.), Tuathail, GearoidÓ Rebecca Bryant, Paasi Anssi, Paasi 40 If we accept the fear for the demonized Other and the strong correlation between Self The question of identity is described in very simple spatial terms by Anssi Paasi Anssi by terms spatial simple in very described is identity of question The ” For Foulcault, “space is fundamental in any form of communal life; space is Territories, boundaries and consciousness. The Changing Geographies of the Finnish-Russian Border Finnish-Russian of the Geographies The Changing consciousness. and boundaries Territories, Imagining the modern: the cultures of nationalism in Cyprus Critical Geopolitics. The Politics of Writing Global Space 41 ”. In this respect the case of Cyprus is a curious one, since 10 38 (London – New York: I. B. Tauris, 2004), 16 in aquite loose structure. In fact, the (London:Routledge, 1996), 14-15. See also Political GeographyQuarterly The FoucaultReader The (London: Penguin, (London: , Vol. 9, No. 2 No. 9, , Vol. 39 : we are CEU eTD Collection 264 describes this condition as a constitutive feature of the Greek self: “the collision in all fields is all fields in collision “the self: Greek ofthe feature asaconstitutive condition this describes collective imaginary and hasbecome afundamental element oftheir self-perception. Heraclides necessarilyit is enoughstem thatfrom the anyTurks directare ‘there’ relationto feel threatened. with Notereality, here that this but threat it isdoes rather not deeply rooted in the of 'the Other': 'The Turk' in Greek Cypriot children's imaginations”, children's in Cypriot Greek 'TheTurk' 'the Other': of have no direct experience and thus no recollection.of living on the island before to thisits partition. study, since Spyros it providesSpyrou, “Imagesevidence on identity construction relevant particularly is His insight and notonly. and byschool learning collectivetheinformed of Turks construction memorystereotypical instilling in generations that 43 people often carrying the “stigma” oftheir relationship with Turkey, country of “the most barbaric are Cypriots Turkish the were inhabitants, island’s the to extends labelling this that claim valid 42 Hence territories areHence territories namedas ‘primitive’vs, ‘advanced’or ‘backward’ vs.’modern’” periods relative to the idealized historical period experience of one of the blocks: the West. “‘blocs’ of space […] have been understood in terms of the essential attributes of different time- so close, and yet so far:enlargement, it became accepted as part of the Westernit world. Turkey, on the otherbelongs hand, stands to Asia,European Union and yet its Europeannessto has not been contested duringthe the process of East. This is meaning of Cyprus’sin territory and the notion of otherness.line Cyprus stands on the borders of the with Agnew’s idea that Greece respectively. national identification and possibly contributed in them strengthening the ties with Turkey and lacking, theywere not part of the same folk. Their fear of the Other reinforced their longing for Despite of the fact that Turks and Greeks were sharing the same space, the feeling of kinship was manner. callapeaceful generally we can in what coexist and territory same the sharing been distinct Cypriot national identity failed to emerge. It is true that Greek and Turkish Cypriots have John A. Agnew, JohnA. According to Spyrou’s ethnographic fieldwork with Greek Cypriot elementary schoolchildren, this is a is this schoolchildren, elementary Cypriot with Greek fieldwork ethnographic to Spyrou’s According 43 These are essentially twosides of the same coin. For the Greeks and the Greek Cypriots, The issue ofthe motherlands brings up another interesting feature related to the political ”. Geopolitics: re-visioning world politics (London/New York: Routledge, 1998), 32 11 Race Ethnicity and Education , Vol. 5, No. 3 (2002): No. 3 5, , Vol. 42 . It seems a CEU eTD Collection Inc., Boulder, 1998), 30 50 49 48 Journal of International Relations, 47 of Northern Cyprus. This methodical use of language is significant, because of the mutually the of because significant, is language useof methodical This Cyprus. Northern of capitalized word ‘Katechomena’ (‘Occupied’, i.e. territories) is preferred over other designations assigned to Northern Cyprus. In the public discourse in both Greece and Cyprus the use of the subjective perception of the community. A paradigmatic expression ofcan be found in the name 46 Perspectives 45 in who they closed related to an individual’sare, understanding of the self, since “Individuals need to feel secure as identitieswithin the perceptual environment of the individual’ individuals’or basic need for ‘a sense of continuity and orderselves in events, including those not directly 44 intersubjective is“essentially ofsecuritization This process ofCyprus. policy foreign andin the domestic environment play acrucial role. this system,seeking within a society that essentially is a shared cognitive ordering of the environment potentialsigni identity threats coming from powerfulinterchangeably external used are island) inthe Cypriots oftheGreek (i.e., nationalism Greek and nationalism Cypriot their national identityactors is constructed in a hostile existence will worth nothing considered inevitable and necessary. Otherwise Greece and Greeks will notexist or their Buzan, B., Waever, O. Giddens and in Mitzen, ibid, dep. 348 Wilde, J., Ibid Anthony Giddens, Anthony Alexis Heraclides, Mavratsas cited in Neophytos G.Loizides, “Ethnic Nationalism and Adaptation inCyprus”, and Adaptation Nationalism “Ethnic G.Loizides, Neophytos in cited Mavratsas Jennifer Mitzen, “Ontological Security in World Politics: State Identity and the Security Dilemma”, À cant Others Sociologist Anthony Giddens developed the concept of ontological security as the Inevitably, the perceived Turkish security threat is a permanent reference point in the Vol. 8 (2007): 174 50 45 ”, since the political choice of presenting Turkey as a threat coincides with the ”. ƈƆƫƫƜƤơƪơƩƯ Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age 48 ’. According to Jennifer Mitzen, states also engage in ontological security in ontological engage also states Mitzen, toJennifer According ’. Vol. 12, No. 3 (2006): 342 44 ‘ ”. I believe that this is very much the case for Greek Cypriots too; Cypriots Greek the casefor much isvery that this ”. Ibelieve ƥƮƂƭơƴƯƫƾƭƋƟƭƤƵƭƯƲ Security: A New Framework for Analysis vis-à-vis Turkey. Not by chance, “concepts such as Greek 47 ”. They do so ‘by routinizing their relations with ’ 12 , (Athens: Polis, 2001), 41 46 . The notion of ontological security is (Colorado: Lynne Rinner Publishers, Rinner Lynne (Colorado: (Cambridge: Polity, 1991), 243 International Studies European 49 . In CEU eTD Collection and Turkish Immigrants”, Turkish and Turkish immigrants. See: Liana Danielidou and Peter Horvath, “Greek Cypriot Attitudes Toward Turkish Cypriots53 narratives, which serve asprototypes of the elaboration of personal identity. […] the story of one’s individual life transmitted andsocially morehistorically or off ofone plays usually storyofanindividuallife words,the In other constructed. be can narratives life individual which from stock the furnish andretold, told stories, These own. their of a life on take soon that artifacts create world--they social the to mind individual the connect that order--stories andnarrative memory 1.4 Collective and minds. hearts Cypriots’ most prominent place,agenda of Cyprus, where the defenseto against apotentialeducation. aggression on behalf of Turkey holds the policy foreign the As from raging oflife, all aspects in Thisismanifested a threat. as apermanent result, this perceptionCypriots and in the process of their self-identification. Thecountry is both framed and perceived is deeply rootedbelieve that Turkeyin remains a persistent pointthe of reference in the public discourse Greekof the Greek Cypriot society. On thecontrary, the attitudes of theGreekCypriots differ significantly. perception of Turkey. It is not my intention to suggest that this image represents the entire Greek Geoffrey Loan (eds), 52 ‘geographical/historical consciousnesses’ essential “part of the socialization ofindividuals into certain ‘national’ identities and Quarterly 51 constitutive nature of the shared meaning of language and its context, our social world Just to mention one dimension, they have a less negative attitude towards Turkish Cypriots than they have toward Karin Fierke, “Links Across the Abyss: Language and Logic in International Relations”, Gearoid Ó Tuathail, “Understanding Critical Geopolitics. Geopolitics and Risk Society” in Colin S. Gary and , Vol. 46, No. 3 (2002), Ludwig Wittgenstein, “As historians, social scientists, or (for that matter) prophets and bards weave narratives of second of the narratives weave andbards prophets or thatmatter) (for scientists, social “As historians, Cypriot Greek ofthe aspects the of some far emphasized so made analysis The Geopolitics: Geography and Strategy The Journal of Social Psychology 52 ”. (London and Portland: Frank Cass, 1999), 113-4 Philosophical investigations , Vol. 146, No. 4 (2006): 405–421. 13 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1953) International Studies 51 . It is an 53 But I CEU eTD Collection Vol. 6, No. 2 (1975): 237 55 Sciences 54 truth lies behind the notion of memory too: “For Plato […] the notion of anamnesis andidentity arearticulated. discourses memory in forwhich collective thegeneral manner but they are representative exhaustive, narrative. thepress and narrative historical following chapters of this study I will focus on two distinct types of written narrative, the the lost moment, both forms seek to recuperate knowledge and make sense ofthe past. In the written and oral prove narratives deficient in the remembrance of things past, in reconstructing written and the oral are indispensible forms of both collective memory and narrative. Although that the assume Wecanalso interrelated. closely are narrative and memory collective identity, contextualization ofwords and acts among the members of a group. This allows us to infer that identity and at the same time they are the glue that holds the community together. classes, all human groups,narrative: “therehave is not,their there hasstories nevergeneration through common memoriesbeen that are told and retold. anywhere, any people withoutindependently of narrative;those who create them. Third, narratives are communicated from generationall to exist stories- –artifacts, constructs narrative these Second, oral. and written and canbe sources, (presumably objective, such as history) and informal (subjective, such as people’s memories) character and the role stories.” in revivified memories common of of a stock narrative.around crystallizes inturn, That community, belongs. one which to community of the stories larger on the depends First of all, narratives can derive from both formal Roland Barthes and Lionel Duisit, “An Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative”, Lewis P. Hinchman and Sandra K. Hinchman eds., (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997), xxii-xxiv History aims at providing an accurate record of past events, the truth. But the quest for Therefore, the narrative, the discourse, is a device of social action conducive to a shared In this short passage, Lewis P. Hinchman and Sandra K. Hinchman tell us a lot about the 54 These two sets of discourses are of course not course of are sets discourses of two These Memory, Identity, Community: The Idea of Narrative in the Human 14 55 ”. Last, they form the basis to an individual’s Barthes confirms the ubiquity of New Literary History , CEU eTD Collection cultural knowledge and past experience. The same conditions that were discussed above in above discussed were that The sameconditions experience. and past knowledge cultural the press made memory a the pressmadememorypublic affair present us with atrue picture ofall the outer world in which weareinterested. aday[…] dayandtwice every should[…] thepress itis that assumed everywhere practically admitted that the press is the chief means of contact with the unseen environment. accepted modern societies. The existence of strong identity. and collective the reinforces itquality generates links between media,history is considered to be ideology and identity is widely not immune to history. The dominant narratives of a society inevitably penetrate it. it is itself a historical phenomenon (commemoration) time, same the at and, institutionalized earlier, was argued as it becomes, memory a society’s turn as every individual, herown memories. Itis often impossible to be proof against memory. In its Practices”, 114 is created “by someone for somebody socio-political forces and prevailing ideologies and mutually constitutive. Every historical account is conditioned by the narrator’s context, thus situation where things are not forgotten. It seems then that history and memory are intertwined 63 62 Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press 61 60 59 58 Scholars Publishing, 2007), 3 History (Re)Negotiating Memory, (Re)Constructing 56 57 (2002): 16 truths a human being could know spiritual and intellectual tothehighest path golden isthe memory that implied (recollection) Anotable example is Michael Billing’s Think about the role of education or of the media. Brockmeie, “Remembering and Forgetting: Narrative as Cultural Memory”, 19 Ibid, 5 Jens Brockmeie, “Remembering and Forgetting: Narrative as Cultural Memory”, Olick and Robbins, “ Walter Lippmann, Vartan P. Messier and Nandita Batra, “Narration, Mamory, History: An Introduction”, in Introduction”, An History: Mamory, “Narration, Batra, Nandita and Messier P. Vartan The press, on the other hand, holds an important role in the individuals’ everyday lives in 61 . In his influential work influential In his . Public Opinion Social Memory Studies: From ‘Collective Memory’ to the Historical Sociology of Mnemonic the official, undisputed, and accredited ‘story’ of the past and in this (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 298 56 Banal Nationalism ”. After all, the Greek word for truth, “ , Nandita Batra and Vartan P.Messier eds. (Newcastle: Cambridge Public opinion Public 58 ” and with some purpose. In addition, its narrator carries, 63 , since the narrative logic of the press relies on shared (London:Routledge, 1991) 57 15 . Since history is, as every narrative, an artifact, it anartifact, narrative, is,asevery history . Since (London: Sage Publications, 1995). See also: Roger Roger Fowler, See also: 1995). Publications, Sage (London: , Walter Lippmann states: “Universally it is it “Universally states: Lippmann , Walter 59 . Moreover, memory is porous and thus Culture & Psychology ơƫƞƨƥƩơ 62 ” The advent of ”, indicates the Narrating thePast: 60 , Vol. 8, No. 1 However, And CEU eTD Collection deems to be acceptable, the irreconcilable difference between the Self and the Other. silenced. arefrequently narratives such butis neverchallenged, alternative there that discourse this relationship of the two communities and are,more often than not, one-sided. This is not tosay emphasizes that a storyof animosity around isbuilt discourse dominant constructed around enduring modes of representation of the past, the Self and the Other. The suit contemporary the to gettransformedrealities. adapted and discourse the of elements the media, the within rigid, and static relatively remains history while that is possible, obviouslyinnovation somelocus whereto extent the narrative constitutes press samethe the and time, at within the given parametersmemory, general the and determined landscape of metaphors,the crucial andevents stories of the historical narrative. Thatmaking. is to say inthe it thepressishistory canbesaidthat thepresent, of initsnarrating quality and, credibility identity. events inlight present the of established the interpret and constantly aset that articulate ofnarratives togenerate and events, ongoing contemporary relation to history apply to the press as well. In the press With regard to the case of the Greek Cypriots, the main narrative in all its forms is In away,lays historical of narrative the collective structural parameters out the The search for identity does not allow much space for deviation from what the group 16 history is juxtaposed with juxtaposed is history The press isallabout press The the conflictual the CEU eTD Collection narrative, the ones on Cyprus too include and exclude different facts. The two sides considering sides two The facts. different exclude and include too on Cyprus ones the narrative, historical withevery it happens like And, sustained. and articulated been have Cypriot, Turkish world the in Other the and Self the of position the about explanations offer to organized carefully and common past and the Others, those who don’t with political action and formation of group identities. group of formation and action political collective memory. of component important an are understandings Historical forgetting. and Through remembering of history it becomesways in which Cyprus is not just a political problem, but also a problem of conflictingclear identities, “how memories are used and abused for in Southeast Europe", 67 66 collective memory. collective the of the creation for all, essential after is, “History it, puts wayPhillips The is necessary. past problem became fundamentally a problem of collective remembering and forgetting, a look in the these myths –or narratives- are often contradictory. In order to understand how the Cyprus that encourage certain forms of thinking and acting and discourage others. In the case of Cyprus, memories themselves, about stories states, have and nations notably units, collective Most tale”. 65 Aleida Assmann, “Transformations between History and Memory”, 64 2.1 Introduction Narratives Historical 2: Chapter Peter C. Seixas, Robert Phillips, Robert Brown, K. and D. Theodossopoulos, "Others' Others: Talking About Stereotypes and Constructions of Otherness a society’s identity, since it sets a boundary between members of a group who share the As a result of the ethnic conflict, in Cyprus opposing narratives, a Greek Cypriot and a A closer look to the events and ideologies of the past is useful, for it demonstrates the In Greek, the word “ 67 ”. Theorizing Historical Consciousness, Historical Theorizing History Teaching, Nationhood and the State: a Study in Educational Politics 64 History and Anthropology ”This chapter is about the history and the story of Cyprus. ƩƳƴƯƱƟơ ” is used interchangeable to mean both “history” and “story, , Vol. 15, No. 1 (2004): 10 6. 66 17 . 65 The narrative “is historical in selective nature ” The historical narrative is inextricably linked is inextricably narrative historical ” The Social Research , Vol. 75, No. 1 (2008): 56 (London: Cassell, 1998), 2 CEU eTD Collection However, the British colonial rule had a considerable role in fostering this dichotomy between Ethnic Politics as aconsequence of the rise of nationalism among Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots solution tothe Cyprus problem, the Annan Plan. In the literature, the conflict is often explained under the British until after the island’s independence and the most significant effort for a always the victims, and hardly ever the instigators. own violence is often forgotten, the violence of the Other is always remembered. “We” are Peace in Cyprus: Vol. 1: The Impasse of Ethnonationalism 1:TheImpasse Cyprus: Vol. Peace in 69 UP, 1997), 62 68 everything organic. […] it is altogether impossible to essential to action of any kind, just as not only light but darkness too is essential for the life of of future generations, this attitude aims at instilling pride. instilling at aims attitude this generations, future of would undermine the ideal image ofthe Greek Cypriot self. With regard to the collective memory historical narrative is built through aprocess of selective amnesia; the black pages of history own struggle and achievements. At the same time, acts of violence are often silenced. The not mean that there are no other approaches and interpretations of history. and large converge. The characteristics described below dominate the narratives, but this does and education, commemorative practices etc.) and the unofficial (people’s stories) narrative by assume here that the official (as expressed in documents, party policies, national historiographies delineate somestriking characteristics of the Greek Cypriot narrative. Forthesake of clarity, I Greek Cypriot one exceeds the purposes of this study. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy to briefly other’s intentions and goals. A comparison of these narratives or a thorough analysis of the ofeach misinterpretations of full are stories/histories Their meanings. different completely two with ischarged instance same the often and theconflict of instances different important See for instance, Nadav Moragan, “Cyprus and the Clash of Greek and Turkish Nationalism”, and Turkish Greek of the Clash and “Cyprus NadavMoragan, instance, See for Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, Daniel Breazeale, and R. J. Hollingdale, What follows is a brief account of the history of Cyprus, starting from the colonial period The narrative of the Greek Cypriots is in principle “egocentric”, in that it focuses on their , Vol. 10 (2004) and Harry Anastasiou, (New York: Syracuse University Press, 2004) The Broken Olive Branch: Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict and the Quest for 18 live at all without forgetting In Nietzsche’s words, InNietzsche’s Untimely Meditations (Cambridge: Cambridge (Cambridge: 68 ” “Forgetting is “Forgetting . But while the Nationalism and 69 . CEU eTD Collection 74 73 Case of Cyprus”, 581 See: segregation. their increased instance, C. HurstSee: Ioannis D. Stefanidis, & Co, 1999),72 Blackwell, 1989), 97-113 229.71 BritishPeter1997) Burkepolicies, “History such asas thesocial politicization memory” in of 5, No. 4, (1973) and Christopher Hitchens, and Christopher (1973) No.4, 5, 70 identity of designation as “asignificant perceived was not it origins, their only indicated “Cypriot” label the and had different religious beliefs and “These people they called Cypriots For the colonists, Cyprus was seen as a solid unit, with populations that spoke different languages Cyprus as part of the effort to reach a settlement with Britain in the aftermath of the World War over claim anysovereignty renounced Ataturk in 1923, signed ofLausanne, Treaty the Under 1914. itin annexed that Britain to island the leased 1878they In Venice. from Cyprus captured Turks Ottoman the 1571, In Lusignan. Houseof tothe sold been has and Empire Byzantine been dominated by Assyrians, Persians and Greeks, has been part of the Roman and of the Past Colonial 2.2 The interpretation. convenient piece of shorthand which sums up the rather complex process of selection and identity to take shape. Not by chance, collective memory often becomes one with history, “a backgroundidentity for the island’s inhabitants.and The purpose of the chapter is to contextualize the historical social framework within which memory is created and re-created, allowing Cyprus’ twocommunities Pollis, Adamantia, “Intergroup Conflict and British Colonial Policy: The Case of Cyprus”, Ibid Bryant, Imagining the modern: the cultures of nationalism in Cyprus, 21 According to Stefanidis, the process of Greek nationalism “accelerated during the period of British colonial rule”. The British contributed greatly to the rise of Greek and Turkish Cypriot nationalism Cypriot Turkish and Greek of rise the to greatly contributed British The Cyprus has a long and turbulent history. Throughout theages, the island of copper has 74 ”. In the Greek Cypriot side, the strength of the Hellenic identity is manifested in the 71 ” Isle of discord: nationalism, imperialism and the making of the Cyprus problem ( London: problem of theCyprus andthemaking imperialism nationalism, ofdiscord: Isle 70 and is largely responsible forthe failure tocreate adistinct, Cypriot Pollis, Adamantia, “Intergroup Conflict and British Colonial Policy: The Hostage To History: Cyprus From the Ottomans Kissinger to FromtheOttomans History: Cyprus To Hostage Memory: History, Culture and theMind Culture History, Memory: 19 separate religious communities, for communities, religious separate 73 , ed. Butler T. (New York: ”. But for these people Comparative Politics (London: Verso, (London: , Vol. 72 . CEU eTD Collection Politics 78 77 GreekStudies of Modern 76 Hostage To History: Cyprus From the Ottomans to Kissinger they controlled. and their role of mediator between the ethnic groups of the island competing for the resources On the contrary, they believed that a policy of divide et impera could guarantee their dominion 75 For the British, whohowever, was to be thethe independent communistninety-six percent of the participants voted in favour of Enosis. During the same year, Makarios,island’s AKEL firstwasagain ground in 1950, when in a plebiscite considered organizedPresident by the island's Greek Orthodox Archdiocese, a decade to couldbe later,a functionmore was serious elected for Britainthe disintegration of Archbishop.the colonialthreat, system increased the strategic importanceas of Cyprus, which a bridge to and unablethe to provide all the support the Greek Cypriots wereMiddle hoping for. On the other hand, East. The war,end of the thesewere onceagainGreek met. not Ononehand,after thewarGreece was left weak Cypriot demandsneutral. The alliance with Britain raisedgained hopes for Enosis among the Greek Cypriots, but after the remained Turkey while Britain, with allied Greece that fact the to related aresult improved, Enosis. desired needed a base in Cyprus, Greece itjust that woulddecide eventually would Britain ForVenizelos, Empire. British the be within island the willing to concede it and this would bring the much the 1931 actions as “criminal excesses” as“criminal 1931actions the It should here benoted that the Greekgovernment ledbyEleftherios Venizelos characterized introduced were communities inboth people the livesof the significantly limited that measures Harsh sentiments. anti-colonial of expression a clear House, Government ofthe burning requests for Enosis (union) with Greece. These demands led to the 1931 riots that resulted in the Pollis, Adamantia ‘The social construction of ethnicity and nationality: the case Ploutisof Cyprus’, Servas, E Diana Markides and G. S. Georghallides, “British Attitudes to Constitution-Making in Post-1931 Cyprus”, William Mallinson, , Vol. 2, No. 1 (1996): 76 With the advent of the World War II, the relations between British and Greek Cypriots 77 78 ƵƨƽƭƥƲ The British, on the other hand, seemed to have no such intentions at that time. , Volume 13, Number 1 (1995): 67 Cyprus: A Modern History , (Athens: Grammi, 1985), 97-98 (London - New York: I. B. Tauris, 2005), 11 and Christopher Hitchens, 76 and advocated instead the view of self-government for , 35-36 20 Nationalism and Ethnic Journal 75 . CEU eTD Collection involvement of the motherlands in reaching a compromise over Cyprus’ feature. However, no to participate. The invitation made clear the division between the two communities and the direct symbols. political Turkey’s meant enslavement island with Greece meant freedom, liberation from the colonial rule, for the Turkish Cypriots it 85 84 transforming them into an oppressed minority. feared that the Greek Cypriot attempts for Enosis would put an end to the British support 83 actions of EOKA, Britain pushed for Turkish support values. traditional society andits support totheEOKA andtheEnosis movementcertified theiradherence to Cypriot Greek forthe institution important wasavery church the rule, colonial British the Under since Grivas managed to convince the Archbishop Makarios to commit himself to armed action. George Grivas, an ardent supporter of the Enosis. EOKA enjoyed the support of the Church, Cyprus. The organization emerged from the Greek Cypriot right factions and was led by Colonel 82 American Ethnologist 81 80 (accessed May 30, 2011) http://triceratops.brynmawr.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10066/5506/Kitroeff_15_1-2.pdf?sequence=1 January 25, 1950, retrieved from 79 1955. The aim of EOKA of aim The 1955. determination. In the meantime, in Cyprus an underground organization was taking act onApril submission to the U.N. considering the party’s intention to collect signatures from Cypriots favouring "Enosis" for Moragan, “Cyprus and the clash of Greek and Turkish Nationalisms”, 606 Necati Ertekün, Andrew Borowiec, For Britain’s reaction, see Giannos Kranidiotis., see reaction, Britain’s For Foreign Service of the United States of America, “Political developments in Cyprus following the Plebiscite”, Kyriacos C. Markides, “Social Change and the Rise and Decline of Social Movements: The Case of Cyprus”, (ƨƭƩƪƞƐƱƣƜƭƹƳƧƋƵưƱƟƹƭƂƣƹƭƩƳƴƾƭ In August 1955 the British convened the London Conference, asking Greece and Turkey In response to the internationalization of the Cyprus issue byGreece and to the terrorist In 1954, Greece asked the United Nations to recognise the Greek Cypriot’s right to self- to right Cypriot’s Greek the torecognise Nations United the asked 1954, Greece In The Cyprus Dispute Vol. 1, No. 2 (1974) 81 Cyprus: ATroubled Island 84 . As a result, the Turkish Cypriots gradually identified themselves with themselves identified gradually Cypriots Turkish the a . As result, 79 80 85 was toconduct an armed fight against theBritish colonial power in (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 2 - The National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (CT, United States: Praeger Publishers, 2000), 38 ƔƯƋƵưƱƩơƪƼƑƱƼƢƫƧƬơ 21 83 While forthe Greek Cypriots the union of the 82 . Onthe other hand, the Turkish Cypriots (Athens: Themelio, 1984). Themelio, (Athens: CEU eTD Collection Praeger, 1966), 150-156. Turkey signed the London- and Greece Britain, leaders, Cypriot ZurichTurkish and 1960 Greek February on 1959 and February Accords of Treaty and On negotiate. to willing and forasettlement Guarantee.anxious were all sides but rejected, was initially On August 16, 1960, thefor considerable participation in the island’s government for the two communities constitution that would not alter Cyprus’ international status, but atthe same time would allow 91 Greece 90 intercommunal violence reached its peak in the summer of 1958 One of the movement’s founders was Rauf Denkta 89 88 Attalides, M., Cyprus, 1954-59 87 York: I.B. Tauris, 1999), 23 86 of the island between Greece and Turkey partition the suggested openly government Turkish by 1957the context, this 1956. In March on negotiations with Makarios, these soon collapsed and the Archbishop was exiled in the Seychelles fiercer in the light of these events. Although a peaceful settlement was sought through minority. Greek Istanbul’s against by riots followed certain considerations, exceptions could be made could exceptions considerations, certain willing to accept the principle of self-determination as universally applicable, but in thelight of wasnot Britain clearthat itwasmade theconference, Right after rule. British ofthe continuation anything less than self-determination and Enosis, while the Turkish government favoured the accept to willing wasnot Greece Turkey. and Greece both for unacceptable was that government self- gradual island’s forthe aproject was suggesting since Britain was reached, agreement For an analysis of the events related to the Macmillan Plan, see Robert Stephens, For an account of the 1958 clashes, see Nancy Crawshaw, For a detailed account of the riots of September 1955 in Istanbul, see Robert Holland, Brendan O’Malleyand Ian Craig, Türk Mukavemet Te , 288-294. Meanwhile the British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan put forward a plan for a new The London Conference worsened the relations between Greece and Turkey and it was (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 75-78. Cyprus: Nationalism and International Politics û kilat Ö - Turkish Resistance Organization The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Invasion and Turkish the America,Espionage Conspiracy: Cyprus The 88 and the paramilitary organization TMT 22 (Edinburgh: Q Press, 1979), 8 86 . The Cyprus Revolt: An Account of the Struggle for Union with û 87 and its aim was to counter EOKA. The Ironicallybecameeven enough, EOKA 90 . Cyprus: A Place of Arms Britain and the Revolt in 89 (London - New (London was formed. 91 . The plan (London: CEU eTD Collection 93 Cypriots attacked the Turkish Cypriots. This period became known as Bloody Christmas. Under was thatthesettlement hasbeen imposed by force majeure. During December 1963, theGreek virtually equal political status and the privileges the Turkish minority was granted. The feeling Cypriots, represented by Makarios, accepted the Constitution, but they were dissatisfied with the 96 95 94 Quarterly, Cyprus 92 creation a British was largely that reality series of compromises, with which none of the parties was satisfied. conflict 1974 the and of Cyprus Republic Independent 2.3 The crumble to order constitutional established the causing goal, Enosis their toachieve force and cunning portrayed the Greeks as violent people, long-standing opponents of the Turkish nation that used was being led to disaster by their self-interested leadership. The Turkish side on the other hand, their legitimate rights. In the second approach, the Turks were seen as an uncultivated folk that claim to in order arm rebellion, to resort to Greeks led the This conspiracy. anAnglo-Turkish to minority of greedy people that managed to obtain aprivileged position inthe Constitution thanks unconsciously, theirTurkish leadership in creating images of the Other. The Greek sideviews promoted, consciously or of the Turks. According toover two enclaves. the first approach,independent and sovereign Republic of Cyprus was proclaimed,they with Britain retaining sovereignty were seen as a Pollis, “The social construction of ethnicity and nationality: the case of Cyprus”, Ibid, 79 p. 594 Pollis, Adamantia, “Intergroup Conflict and British Colonial Policy: The Case of Cyprus”, 593 T.W. Adams., “The First Republic of Cyprus: A Review of an Unworkable Constitution”, Stavrinides, Zenon, Stavrinides, 95 Vol. 19, No. 3. (1966): 475 The London- Zurich Accords were perceived by the Greek and Turkish Cypriots as a Stavrinides in his account of the 1960s controversies stresses the role of the Greek and 92 and failed tocreate anysense ofshared identity and common purpose . The next part explores this period that led to the 1974’s dramatic events. The Cyprus Conflict: National Identity and Statehood 94 . It practically institutionalized the two communities of communities two the institutionalized It practically . 23 (Wakefield, 1975) (Wakefield, 93 The constitution reflected a The Western Political 96 . TheGreek CEU eTD Collection and Greek officers in Cyprus managed to overthrow Makarios and install a regime led by 15, 1974militants On July ofEnosis. bythesupporters opposition internal toface also had He affairs domestic inCyprus’ interference toGreece’s resistance insistent his to due deteriorating constantly were Makarios with relations regime’s the years, following the During Cyprus. settled in different areas of the island. their own state-like structures, since they were not represented in the government, and they had peacekeeping in an increasingly hostile environment a UN force as a final option allowing the British government to be relieved of the sole burden of (Colarado: Westview Press, 1998), 7 Cyprus and People,Its Nation, andIdentity Experience inanUnimaginable Community, 1955-1997, 102 http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unficyp/background.shtml 100 99 1976), 45-88. 1964 27March on established operationally became request byBritish and Cypriot leaders and the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus 1964”, 101 book, A. Patrick’s Richard 98 Law” (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989). 97 pencil agreen using Nicosia of communities two Commanding the British forces in Cyprus, Peter Young, who drew a separation line between the further, the British forces assumed a peacekeeping role. In fact, it was the General Officer an outbreak of violence that lasted for several months were rejected by the Turkish and the Turkish Cypriot governments. thirteen amendments to the Constitution suggested Makarios asnosurprise. came followed that crisis the political circumstances, these The events of the intercommunal violence Forperiod detailed information, see Zaim (fromM. Necatigil, “The Cyprus DecemberQuestion and the Turkish Position in International 21, 1963 to August 10, 1964, are described in Vangelis Calotychos, “Interdisciplinary Perspectives: Difference at the Heart of Cypriot Identity and Its Study”, in Ker-Lindsay James, “Britain's central role in the search for an international peacekeeping force for Cyprus, 1963- Drousiotis, M., FortheUnited Nations PeacekeepingForce in Cyprus website, last accessedMay 06, 2011 Byzantine and modern Greek studies modernGreek and Byzantine The military coup of April 1967 in Athens had profound political consequences for The Turkish Cypriots perceived the amendment proposal as a provocation and this led to ƈƥƩƳƢƯƫƞƴƧƲƗƯƽƭƴơƲƳƴƧƭƋƽưƱƯ Political Geography and the Cyprus Conflict: 1963-1971 , Vol. 23 (1999): 222-245. 97 (Athens: Stahi, 1998), 36. that were clearly favoring the Greek Cypriots and thus 24 99 100 101 . The United Nations intervened after the . Britain eventually accepted the creation of . Eventually, the Turkish Cypriots set up 98 . To keep the violence from spreading (Waterloo: University of Waterloo, of University (Waterloo: Vangelis Calotychos ed., Calotychos Vangelis 102 . CEU eTD Collection University Press of America, 1988), 18 107 Press, 1992) 106 1960-1985 Transition, 105 79-98. government knew about the imminent Greek Cypriot coup against Makarios in 1974 priority was to prevent aconflict among the members of NATO action, but there was no obligation Second, the danger of a waract during the 1974 withevents. First ofall, the Greeks had only themselvesTurkey to blame for the situation. that could during the invasion.be According to Woodhouse,avoided, three factors contributed to Britain’s reluctance to since the Treaties1974. However, it is noteworthy here to briefly examine the attitude of Britainallowed and the U.S. for after the name of the Turkish operation. The partition line that divides up until today the two communities is referred to as thebeen alreadyAttila restored. The line,Turkish army occupied 37 percent of Cyprus, creating the status quo. the grounds of restoring constitutional order. However, the constitutional order in Cyprus had refused. On August 14 the Turkish army proceeded with a second full-scale operation, again on for 36 to 48 hours for consultations over the Turkish proposals, but the Turkish Foreign Minister sideasked Greek The fruitful. werenot thenegotiations but Callahan, James Secretary, Foreign Cyprus. of President fall in Greece and causedand a cease fire followed. But the inability of thethe junta to stop the Turkish invasion broughtresignation its of Nicos Sampson that the regime had appointed as 104 movement EOKA B that was meant to counter Makarios’ anti- Enosis practices. 103 lasted for tendays, from the 20 Enotists Stearns, M., For an account of the war Grivasof who 1974,had been in Greece see returned Peterto Cyprus in 1971. Loizos, With the support of Athens’ Junta, he organized the BölükbaSüha Woodhouse, Christopher M., “Cyprus: The British Point of View”, in John T. A. Koumoulides (ed.) A. Koumoulides T. John of in Point View”, British The M.,“Cyprus: Christopher Woodhouse, The nationalism of both Greece and Turkey is largely responsible for the tragic events of In mid August the three guarantor powers were summoned in Geneva by the British 103 . The circumstances were ideal for Turkey. The first phase of the Turkish invasion Entangled Allies. U.S. Policy Toward Greece, Turkey, andCyprus ( Policy TowardGreece, Turkey, Allies. U.S. Entangled ûÖ , (London: Trigraph, 1986), 92 1986), Trigraph, (London: The Superpowers andthe ThirdWorld: Turkish-American relationsand Cyprus th to the 30 105 . The starting point of the U.S. involvement is in 1955. Their th of July 25 The Heart Grown Bitter 104 . The Greeks managed to contain the Turks New York: Council on Foreign Relations on Foreign Council New York: 106 (Cambridge University Press, 1981), . There is evidence that the US (Lanham - Maryland: Cyprus in 107 . CEU eTD Collection Turkish Journal of International Relations 109 Cypriots. could safeguard Turkish the Cypriot interestsin the eventofaconfederation withthe Greek role in the institution of the new state, since he believed that only the status of independent state aninstrumental played Denktash, Rauf leader, Cypriot The Turkish (TRNC). Cyprus Northern of Republic Turkish 1983, the in later, and 1975 in Cyprus of State Federate Turkish the of thePartition after Day 2.4 The prevailed. 108 of freedom movement, of freedom onthe focus Cypriot’s Greek tothe wasrelated Cypriots central government that would guarantee the island’s unity. Another concern of the Turkish was a solution preferred Cypriots’ Greek the government, central aweak with confederation a sidewassuggesting Cypriot Turkish the law.While international under legitimate as claims Turkish Cypriot leaders were caught in a deadlock, with both sides advocating their national politics, notably their foreign policy, are influenced by the moment of the Turkish invasion. post-1974 period, this feeling was reversed: most aspects of the Greek Cypriot perceptions and the Turkish Cypriot community had the feeling of being is exile in their own homeland. In the 1974 invasion, the Before Cypriots. Greek forthe consequences also psychological but material, and until today it is recognized as a state only by Turkey. However, the division did not only have Kissinger’s Realpolitik became the dominant approach to the Cyprus issue Cyprus tothe approach thedominant became Realpolitik Kissinger’s Joshua W. Walker, “A Turkish-Cypriot Perspective: Rauf Denktash and Nancy Crawshaw on Cyprus”, Glen D. Glen The partition and the re-settlement of the populations was followed by the establishment After the partition, the U.N. kept pushing for a solution, but the Greek Cypriot and 109 Camp, “Greek-Turkish Conflict over Cyprus”, The creation of the TRNC is, according to the U.N. Security council, legally invalid legally council, Security U.N. tothe according is, TRNC the of creation The , Vol. 4, No. 3 (2005) 26 Political Science Quarterly , Vol. 95, No. 1(1980): 44 No. 1(1980): 95, Vol. , 108 partition and Alternatives: CEU eTD Collection 113 112 Cypriots”, 111 135-156 and Experience in an Unimaginable Community 1955-1997, 110 settlement and the right to own property status quo of a divided homeland. adivided of quo status more than a slogan, it is a campaign aimed to ensure that future generations will not accept the Greek Cypriot. The phraseslogan “Idonot forgetand I struggle” isdeeplyengraved intothe isconscious memory ofevery reproduced even in thethe past, since something very schooltangible, the actual place, becomes politically contested. The textbooks. In andKeller’s are framed in the official discourse as refugees.It is not only amatter of representation of words, it themselves perceive is 1974events the to due homes their leave to had that citizens Cypriot Greek Greek Cypriots could in away overpower them. victimhood and collective pain are remembered federation with a “transnational” Cypriot citizenship. underlines the commonalities between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and envisions a bicommunal and left in the originates Cypriotism identity. Cypriot adistinct of infavor contested often However, it is important to stress here that after the partition, the Greek Cypriot identity is been partition, their collective memory is being formed around the patterns of the Turkish injustice. coexistence of Greeks and Turks and they don’t necessarily have direct memories of the painful thought to be a political problem. But, as the analysis reveals, the reality is far more complex. compromise brought no results. In the international arena, a political solution is sought towhat is story. Itcontinues up until today. Ever since, eachcomes party of the conflict tells to the world its version of the thereforesuffering ends in 1974, but for the Greek Cypriots this is exactly the point when it begins, and it as no surprise that n the post-1974 era, all efforts to reach a Aside from the role of external powers, that has been discussed throughout the Calotychos, chapter. “Interdisciplinary Perspectives: Difference at the Heart of Cypriot Identity and Its Study” See Glen D. Camp, “Island Impasse: Peacemaking on Cyprus 1980-1994”, in Eva Keller, “Looking at thehouse from inside: the processes of constructing group identity amongst Greek- The issue of property and settlement is a very prominent one in terms of discourse. The Overall, it can be said that in the historical narrative of Cyprus two distinct stories of stories distinct two Cyprus of narrative historical in the that be said can it Overall, Cyprus Review Cyprus , Vol. 9, No. 2 (1997): 44 111 Althoughthesegenerations didexperiencenot the 110 . They feared that, by making use of such rights, the Vangelis Calotychos ed. (Colorado: Westview Press, 1998), 27 113 . Inthe Turkish Cypriots’ version, the period of 112 Cyprus and its People: Nation, Identity CEU eTD Collection http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/archives/pdf/dwn/opinions/cyprus/com93-313_en.pdf on the Application by the Republic of Cyprus for Membership. 114 2011. question that the island's integration implied a peaceful, balanced and lasting settlement of the Cyprus inEEC the on 4July 1990. In June1993, theEU Commission's official Opinion reported expressed by the Greek Cypriot side to explain to explain the rejection of the Plan, the role of the problem of numerical supremacy of the Greek Cypriots. Although different concerns were that allowed for equal participation of the two parts to the decision making and thus overcoming modelled on the status of Switzerland. The legislative and executive power was regulated in a way majority of the Greek Cypriots opposed it. surprising: while theTurkish Cypriots voted in favor ofthe settlement, the overwhelming were held by the Greek and Turkish Cypriotcommunities on April 24, 2004. Theresults were plan had start in 1999, but its final version was only released on March 31, 2004. Two referenda the to devise aimed UN auspices under Cypriots Turkish and theGreek between talks The Plan. multiple internal and external efforts at solution, Referendum Plan Annan but2.5 The none seemed as promising as the Annan settlement. arguably seemed the most promising diplomatic effort to reach acompromise: the UN Plan for European Union on May 1, 2004. Few weeks before the Greek Cypriots had rejected what Despite all obstacles, the entire island, even without the participation of the TRNC, joined the island was being represented in the accession negotiations by the Greek Cypriot government. Commission of the European Communities, COM (93) 313 Final, Brussels, 30 June 1993, Commission Opinion Commission June 1993, 30 Brussels, 313 Final, (93) COM Communities, the ofEuropean Commission Arguably, one of the most important developments was the official application of Cyprus The Plan sought to establish a federal state under the name United Cyprus Republic Cyprus United the name under state a federal establish sought to Plan The witnessed has island the intervention military Turkish the since 37years the During 114 . Therelations between Greek and Turkish Cypriots were strained, since the entire 28 , last accessed May 12, CEU eTD Collection http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/25/cyprus.greece 116 2004 28 May Cyprus, 115 case ofa referendum, public sentiment is not just an important input for foreign policy the self-conception of Greek Cypriots vis-à-vis Turkey and therefore Turkish Cypriots. In the to do so in the case of the Greek Cypriots. I argue that this failure is due to the broader issue of communities. ethnic two the between security individual of alsoproblems addressing aspects, tomilitarization gobeyond thePlan was aimed Thus, users. with international law, respecting the individual rights of both dispossessed owners and current interpreted in terms of security) bloodstain.” a “colonial called Christofias, should be addressedDimitris Cyprus, of therepublic of President the place in– the Dhekelia and Akrotiri of a Areas comprehensive manner in accordancewas prohibited. The Plan does not include provisions changing the status of the Sovereign Base country with Greece and TurkeyGreece, Turkeywere and Great Britain shall remain theto guarantor powers.be The special ties maintained,of the but secessionpeacekeeping operation would have the task to monitor the implementationor of the Agreement.any form of partitionUN A withdrawal. total to aiming procedure the monitor should Turkey and Greece would bereduced to 950 for the Greek contingent and 650 for the Turkish contingent. Cyprus, tried to address security concerns. of Turkish intentions.” appear to be prominent among Greek Cypriots - based, to asignificant extent, on historic distrust Secretary-General published after the referenda, “fears regarding security and implementation security concerns was of paramount importance. As it was pointed out in the Report of the UN "Cyprus elects its first communist president", The Guardian, 25 February 2008. Pg. 20, Paragraph 84, Report of the UN Secretary-General on his mission of good offices in In spite of all these provisions aimed at minimizing the fears of both sides, the plan failed soldiers of number the Eventually gradual. be would island the of demilitarization The 115 It is therefore worth referring more in detail to the way the Annan Plan 116 29 Issuespropertyof claimsalso be can(that (accessed May 30, 2011) CEU eTD Collection 120 119 2011 30, May UNSC document S/2003/398, http://www.hri.org/docs/annan/UNSC_SG_Reports2003Cyprus.pdf, accessed 118 See Paragraphs 53, 56, 139, 140, Report of the Secretary-General on his missionconstructing the meaning of ‘the national interest’ of good officesresult, given that “those individuals who inhabitin offices in the state play a Cyprus,special role in the place. Papadopoulos’ encouragement to reject the Plan definitely had an influence in the York: Pantheon, 1988); James N. Rosenau, Herman, andEdward Noam Chomsky 1989); Press, University Cornell N.Y.: Ithaca, process of liberal democracies. See, e.g., Richard Eichenberg, 117 analysis policy foreign for as ausefultool geopolitics Greek Cypriot decision to vote against the settlement. At this point becomes evident the role of an explanation is beyond the purposes of this study. Therefore, I shall limit myself here to the Papadopoulos asked the two communities to reject the plan. and both Denktash referenda, the before Nonetheless, respectively. Karamanlis Kostas leadership of Greece and Turkey, represented by Prime Ministers Recep Tayyip Erdogan and 2003Report his explicitly refers to the doubts of the President of the Greek Cypriots, Tassos Papadopoulos, in (in 2002 and 2003), the Greek Cypriot side was also expressing reservations. Kofi Annan Annan Plan the Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktash had refused twice to accept a compromise of the Greek Cypriot leadership. Although during the negotiations over the final version of the Cypriots. linked to the Turkish threat perception that dominates the collective imaginary of the Greek is directly Plan Annan the rejecting of decision political the that Iargue inCyprus. attitudes collective memory and the recollection of powerful images of Turkey influences preferences and decisions Weldes, Jutta (1996) “Constructing NationalInterests”, (1996) “Constructing Jutta Weldes, Ó Tuathail, Gearoid, “Understanding Critical Geopolitics. Geopolitics and Risk Society”, 109 There is a broad literature on the interaction between mass public opinion and elites in the foreign policy-making Although itwould be interesting to analyze the positive vote of the Turkish Cypriots such To assess the workings of this perceived threat, let me now take a closer look at the role 117 , but it actually produces decisions. The public sentiment is heavily conditioned by 118 . The Plan had the support of the international community and of the political Public Opinion and Foreign Policy 30 European Journal of International Relations, 119 Public Opinion and National Security in Western Europe 120 that reminds us the political meaning of ”. But hereidentities are of outmost (New York: Random House, 1961) Manufacturing Consent Vol. 2 (1996): 281 2(1996): Vol. (New CEU eTD Collection Relations http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb62/eb62_cy_exec.pdf 122 121 123 leadership tosecuritize the issue. As for the doubts regarding the proper implementation of the interpreted by the Greek Cypriots as indicative of an imminent threat and allows to their symbolic presence and the insistence on Turkey maintaining the guarantor power status can be the perceived threat they represent for the Greek Cypriot community assurances the troops “provide for Turkey and the Turkish Cypriots are proportionally less than doubts over implementation. On the question of the Turkish troops Tank argues that the security issue ofthe Turkish troops, the right of intervention under the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee and the side:the Cypriot bytheGreek mentioned aspects three and discusses selects (2005) Tank Pinar United Nations’ Secretary-General Kofi Annan outlining the Greek Cypriot security concerns. importance, since these “are the basis of interests prosperity (54% vs.20%) (54% prosperity 8%), while those in the northern part of the island associate the EU more with economic membership is security (73%). Moreover, they associate the EU much more with peace (59% vs. stability (77%), for the Greek Cypriots the most important thing the country gained from its EU appeared to expect that the main benefit from joining the European Union would beeconomic Eurobarometer and published in the autumn of 2004. While persons living in Northern Cyprus referendum. of Turkey as a threat.mentioned before, a core element of the Greek Cypriot identity is the security-related perception These it. Asit was against action political legitimates threat two security a as serious posing provisions considerations determined in my view the outcome of the National Report Cyprus- Executive Summary, Eurobarometer 62 (2004), 1 Wendt in Weldes, ibid, 282 Pinar Tank, “Cyprus: A Note on Security Guarantees and Threat Perceptions”, 2004, (2005): 172-3 Following the referendum’s negative result, Tassos Papadopoulos wrote aletter to the The importance of security for the Greek Cypriots is documented in asurvey made by 122 . 31 121 ”. The framing of the Annan Plan’s (accessed May 30, 2011) The Turkish Yearbook of International 123 ”. In her view, their view, In her ”. CEU eTD Collection would not have securitized the Annan Plan. In that case the result might have been different. leadership theisland’s aggressor, as a threatening notperceived were and Turkey different were imagination of Turkey. If the Greek Cypriot national identity and their geopolitical imaginary rejection of the proposed settlement. Greek Cypriotsare trapped in their owngeopolitical guarantees was also suggested by the Greek Cypriot leadership. The result was an overwhelming case ofthe referendum, the interpretation of the Annan Plan as not providing sufficient security the Turkish Other that is perceived as aconstant threat for the security of their territory. In the situation. The essence of the Greek Cypriots’ identity is intrinsically connected to the existence of considerations are questionable when confronted with the Greek Cypriot understanding of the Union to monitor and ensure the smooth adoption of the settlement’s content. Plan’s provisions, Tank contends that it is in the interest of the United Nations and the European Although in principle I agree with Tank’s analysis and rational arguments, such arguments, rational and analysis Tank’s Iagreewith inprinciple Although 32 CEU eTD Collection (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1997), 401-2 125 and hosts articles written by Turkish Cypriots as well. 124 an interpretative community; indispensable condition the withdrawal of Turkish forces seek the most favourable constitutional and territorial settlement possible and set as an affiliation. Also, when it comes to the solution of the Cyprus problem, all Greek Cypriot parties political with significantly differ do not memory collective Cypriot Greek tothe related narratives dailies, their political allegiance did notplay a role a more complete picture of the information such groups might be receiving. In selecting the Turkey is beyond the focus of this work, taking their media preferences into account can help get of particular interest for this study. Although adirect assessment of their perceptions over direct experience and thus recollection of the partition or oflife in Cyprus before the conflict, are groups in Cyprus might show a preference for the electronic format. These audiences, with no print and the online edition of the newspapers. The assumption is that especially younger age circulationwere preferred, since they reach more readers. The selected articles appeared in the withhigh Newspapers readership. a different address in English or in Turkish published dailies is that this focus of purpose The language. inGreek Cyprus of Republic the in circulating from newspapers taken a ofarticles number discuss Cyprus. Itwillspecifically Republic of in the the media through the analysis of newspaper articles that appeared recently in dailies circulating 3.1 Introduction Narratives Press 3: Chapter With regard to the chosen newspapers, Barbie Zelizer, “Journalists as interpretative communities”, in D. Berkowitz (ed.), Journalists hold an important role when it comes to collective remembering. They act as This chapter is dedicated to the study of the narrative regarding Turkey as it emerges in 125 hencethey canshapethepublic’s memory through their Phileleutheros Alithia enjoys the highest circulation in the RoT, 33 and 124 Politis . The underlying assumption is that the . can be characterized as liberal. Social Meanings ofNews Meanings Social Politis comes second , CEU eTD Collection 128 127 Press, 1992). of Chicago University (Chicago: Memory of Collective Shaping the and Media the Assassination, Kennedy The 126 underpinnings, influencing social relations and identities. and relations social influencing underpinnings, to be produced and eventually consumed. The press is replicating events infused with ideological the news stories are the result of a series of communicative events. A fact occurs, but is haspublic inthen an indirect way, percolated through the point of view of the mediators. In this sense, narratives, thepress becomes narrative itself. messages. Apart from the journalists’ pivotal role, the arena of the press is dominated by the political readers’ cultural background. and manufactures images. Inorder toconvey meaning, thepress often utilizes references to the skewed andjudgedview of world,the newspaper, or in the newspapers of different countries. In any case, the reader ends up with a a conservative or liberal amore by light different completely under presented be can event same the news we actually read. And the casejust of the press. Much like with the writinglike of history, there is a selection processwith regarding history, different stories emerge. For instance,characteristics assigned to Turkey through the historical narrative.the the image of the country that emerges in the everyday public sphere of the RoC matches the at work when the press covers general issues concerning Turkey. The object is to verify whether collective memory and to the process of conflict resolution. I will identify the discourses that are messages contained in the articles and relate it to the effects it could have on the Greekmeanings. It is notCypriots’ my intention to provide an authoritative picture, but an interpretation of the Norman Fairclough, Norman Roger Fowler, The way journalists can give shape to the public’s collective memory, see Barbie Zelizer, Covering the Body: the Covering Zelizer, see Barbie memory, collective public’s to the shape cangive way journalists The The information that is made available through the press reaches a wide and diverse The next question is who has access in the press’ narrative, whose voice is being heard. is being voice whose narrative, inthepress’ hasaccess iswho nextquestion The validin thisisparticularly and neutral never are previously, was discussed as it Narratives, 126 I will examine not only the actual content of the articles, but also their inferred Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press inthe and Ideology News:Discourse in the Language Media Discourse Media (Hodder Arnold Pubblications, 1995), 2 127 certaina representationfacts. ofthe By presenting 34 (London: Routledge, 1991), 11 128 It controls and produces knowledge CEU eTD Collection 130 Kaplan, and Harold Lasswell, Abrahan in explored also is media the and elites political between relationship The 234. 1993), Macmillan, York: 129 Cypriot elections, held on May 22nd, or it could be associated to the imminent Turkish elections. significant amount ofarticles related to Turkey. I believe that this might be because of the Greek four dailies published in Greek. Although the research covered a short period of time, there was a articles that appeared from the 20th to the 30th of May 2011 in the print and online edition of atseven Ilook memory. to collective relate narratives waysthese the and press Cypriot Greek Press Cypriot Greek in the of Turkey 3.2 Representations exists a dialectical relationship between collective recollections and press narratives. in the media, negative representations of Turkey persist. The analysis will confirm that there page. The main criterion of selection was to show that, despite the surplus of checks and balances representations are being negotiated. The chosen articles did not necessarily make it to the front when analysing a media text, the aim is to go beyond denotations and try to understand how manifesting negative representations, the press reinforces collective recollections. This is why collective memory and thus negative images of the country tend to emerge. At the same time, by contradict at first glance my hypothesis that representations of Turkey are heavily conditioned by used by the press has to be “politically correct”, most articles more often than not seemed to and professionalism, they have to abide by specific ethical rules and standards. Since the language formation of history and on holding the society together. onthe impact aconsiderable has memory collective study, in this argued been as ithas and, political narratives are sequentially determined by pre-existing social and historical conditions, elites Pierre Bourdieu, Stephen Ansolabehere, Roy Behr, and Shanto Iyengar, Shanto and RoyBehr, Ansolabehere, Stephen 129 . Therefore, the press narratives are greatly conditioned by the political narratives. The In this part I will examine howTurkey’s representations are being narrativized in the It is important here to remember that in order for the media tosecure their credibility Language andsymbolic power Power and Society: a Framework for Political Inquiry (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991), 120-121 35 The Media Game: American Politics in the Television Age Television in the Politics American Media Game: The (Yale University Press, 1950). (New 130 CEU eTD Collection 24.05.2011, 132 Turkey], Alitheia, 20.05.2011 Alitheia, Turkey], %CE%95%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1/23/68982 gr/%CE%95%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82- 131 133 No author,2011) “ agenda of the ruling party in Turkey133. The article also reports that the current leader of the of explicitly points out that only the Turkey’s point of view is expressed on the expense of Greece. in2008.” warships Turkish and Greek between tension the on version Turkish the tension created between Greekand Turkish vessels, underthe title “Wikileaks presentsthe troublesome aspects of this relation. For instance, on the occasion of WikiLeaks’ revelation on the affairs of Greece. On the other hand, the press seems to have aspecial interest in the This allows for two observations. On the one hand, this shows the interest of the RoC public in frequency of texts presenting news regarding the relations between Greece and Turkey was high. the oftime, period short avery during written articles on focused was analysis my Although threat. andconstant as an of aggressor Turkey are being inframed which events image memories press evoketraumatic theand the reinforce in memory to Turkey. analysis close relation will The that follows make clear that waysthe in ofmaking” forms “familiar sense these analyze as a negative image. way, subtle more orina a direct, in represented, is being Turkey them all of in feature: common theyshare one issues, but different articlesaddress Theselected Christofias. Dimitris RoC, reports are treating speeches given by the Archbishop Chrysostomos and the President of the The research cannot control the actual effect of this variable due to time constraints. Two of the http://www.philenews.com/el- Phileleftheros 2008], in warships and Turkish Greek tension between onthe version theTurkish presents [Wikileaks Wikileaks” author, No “ author, No Roland Barthes, Roland A similar report informs the reader that the Aegean problems are part of the pre-electoral The relations between the conflict’s parties hold a central position in several news stories. , 24.05.2011 http://www.politis-news.com/cgibin/hweb?-A=208307,printer.html&-V=webcontent ƔƯƵƱƪƩƪƞƥƪƤƯƷƞƣƩơƴƧƭƝƭƴơƳƧƬƥƴơƮƽƥƫƫƧƭƩƪƾƭƪơƩƴƯƵƱƪƩƪƾƭưƯƫƥƬƩƪƾƭƴƯ ´ƔƯƂƩƣơƟƯƬƝƱƯƲƴƯƵưƱƯƥƪƫƯƣƩƪƯƽƳƴƧƭƔƯƵƱƪƟơ ơƴƪƥƥƳƤƯ ƥơƽ ƆƫƫƜƤơƲƔƯƵƱƪƟơƲ ƬƥƴơƮƽ ƥưƥƩƳƼƤƩƯ ƎơƵƴƩƪƼ Mythologies The critical reading of the Greek Cypriot press narratives to is CypriotThe critical aimed of Greek reading the (New York: Hill and Wong, 1957), 95 36 131 ” [The Aegean part of the pre-electoral (i.e. campaign) in and shed light in the workings of collective of workings in the light shed and ” [Incident between Greece and Turkey], and Greece between [Incident ” (accessed May 30, 2011) 2008 132 (accessed May 30, headlineThe ư ơ Ʊ Ư Ƶ Ƴ Ʃ Ɯ Ʀ ƥ Ʃ ƴ Ư Politis , CEU eTD Collection http://www.philenews.com/el- occupied (i.e. territories), says Athens], that “Zaman” corrected the mistake, saying that the suggestion was hypothetical. is omitted in the Greek Cypriot article. In the Greek daily thelast section of the article mentioned the exact same way in the article of the Greek newspaper, but there is additional information that in storyappears The constructed. are narratives waypress aboutthe showsalot that content of ƪơƴƥƷƼƬƥƭơ report as it appeared in a Greek Cypriot negativeand quality is being extendedin and attributeda to Greekall Turks. The comparison between thisdaily news we tryto decode the message, the Turkish Minister appears to have lied and, as a consequence, a suggestion for common visit Droutsas- Davuto %CE%9A%CF%8D%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82/22/68678 gr/%CE%95%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82- 134 http://www.alitheiaportal.com/alitheia/politika/to-aigaio-meros-tou-proeklogikou-sten-tourkia.html Davuto Cypriots. for all sought be can asolution withdraw, forces occupying Turkish the unless is that position theofficial that and a suggestion such forwardput wasever there that denies” “categorically Ahmet Davuto the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Greece, Dimitrios Droutsas, on behalf of his counterpart, reinforce the image of Turkey as an aggressor and a constant threat. their own lands. It goes without saying that such episodes evoke memories of invasion and visit to inorder passports need Turkey of citizens the unfortunately, that stated they and Turkey to return to had Theofficials a passport. without enter to allowed not were they but islands, Moreover, according to the article, executives of the Democratic Party tried to visit the two islands, Agathonísi and Pharmakonisi, are Turkish andare under Greek occupation since 2004. 135 the Democratic Party, Nam http://www.ethnos.gr/article.asp?catid=22767&subid=2&pubid=63076996 No author, “ No author, “ Another relevant issue covered by the Greek Cypriot press was a supposed proposal to proposal a supposed was press Cypriot the Greek by issue covered relevant Another , ƫƝƥƩƧƂƨƞƭơ Ƌ ơ ƴ Ƨ ƣ Ư Ʊ Ƨ Ƭ ơ ƴ Ʃ ƪ ƞ Ƥ Ʃ Ɯ Ƹ ƥ Ƶ Ƴ Ƨ ƩƸƽƥơưƼơƧ ƩƪƩƞ ưƳƥƧ ƱƽƳƴƢƽƯƫƵ ƴƪơƴƥƷƼƬƥƭơ ƅƱƯƽƴƳơƎƴơƢƯƽƴƯƣƫƯƵ Ƴƴơ ƥưƟƳƪƥƸƧ ƪƯƩƭƞ ƣƩơ ưƱƼƴơƳƧ ƅƩơƸƥƽƤƥƴơƩ ø lu, for a joint visit in Cyprus’ occupied territories. ø lu had stated that he had suggested the visit in the Turkish daily “Zaman”. If “Zaman”. daily Turkish in the visit the suggested he had that stated lu had ” [Categorical denial: There is no suggestion for common visit Droutsas- Davuto Ö k Kemal Zeybek, claimed in a pre-electoral talk that two Greek Phileleftheros : ƅƥƭƵưƜƱƷƥƩưƱƼƴơƳƧƣƩơƪƯƩƭƞƥưƟƳƪƥƸƧƅƱƯƽƴƳơƎƴơƢƯƽƴƯƣƫƯƵƳƴơ ø lu at the occupied], , 21.05.2011 37 Ethnos (accessed May 30, 2011) , 21.05.2011 135 (accessed May 30, 2011) reveals an substantial difference substantial an reveals 134 Thearticle states that Athens ” [Denied” the ø lu at the CEU eTD Collection http://www.kathimerini.com.cy/index.php?pageaction=kat&modid=1&artid=46810&show=Y Kathimerini, 25.05.2011. http://www.alitheiaportal.com/alitheia/politika/nea-poreia-sto-kupriako-zeta-arkhiepiskopos.html demands the Archbishop], Alitheia, 30.05.2011 136 138 30, 2011) settlement reached with Turkish Cypriots to create today’s situation. Revisionist historiography blames Makarios for seeking to unwind the with the hope of finding a solution, and claims that the Archbishop’s decision was not designed Attila. Chrysostomos continues his speech with a reference to the concessions made by Makarios succumb tobrute force, give in toblackmail and acceptas irreversible the situationcreated by will never Hellenism Cypriot the that stated he Makarios, of a bust unveil to held a ceremony In II Chrysostomos archbishop, current the of comments recent the island, seeking active involvement in the shaping of policy over the Cyprus problem. The leading part in Cyprus’ political scene. Still today, the Church has a strong presence in the life of the worse case scenario is being presented as a tangible possibility. goal of EU integration and pursues the one of becoming a regional orglobal power. It seems that majority is not just a vague scenario, but a very probable turn of events, if Turkey abandons the the AKP’s leadership. It is also argued that the risk of Turkey turning into a “tyranny of the suggested that political instability in the country will increase due to the initiation of succession to theConstitution”, and Elections Turkish “The entitled an article In inTurkey. elections 137 2011) of the settlers keeps with the Turkishincreasing, occupation army and the settlers remaining in the island. Moreover, the number he adds.the The CyprusTurkish problemnationalsthis representation. areIn the same speech thatthe Archbishop Chrysostomosbeing also notes that talksstarted on conducted coming to inCyprus an extremely bad climate for the Greek Cypriots, Ioanis N. Grigoriages, “ Brendan O’Leary, ”Analysing partition: De Pan. Hatjidemetriou, “ The analysis of the historical narrative emphasized that the Orthodox Church had a had Church theOrthodox that emphasized narrative historical the of analysis The One of the prevalent issues in the Greek Cypriot press has to do with the imminent ƎƝơưƯƱƥƟơƳƴƯƋƵưƱƩơƪƼƦƧƴƜƯƂƱƷƩƥưƟƳƪƯưƯƲ ƐƩƴƯƵƱƪƩƪƝƲƥƪƫƯƣƝƲƪơƩƴƯƓƽƭƴơƣƬơ À nition, classi 138 and the narrative of the Church attempts to negotiate 38 À cation and explanation”, ” [The Turkish elections and the Constitution], 137 ” [New direction for the Cyprus problem , painted Turkey in dark colours. dark in Turkey , painted Political Geography (accessed May 30, (accessed May xx(2007): 18 136 it is it CEU eTD Collection ƴƋƵưƱƩơƪƼ ƳƴƯ http://www.philenews.com/el- 30.05.2011 141 York: Caratzas, 1991) %CE%9A%CF%8D%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82/22/69537 gr/%CE%95%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82- 140 the occupied part of Cyprus, adopted by the Assembly on 24 June 2003 139 whose country, as a backwards image Turkey’s perpetuates Thisdiscourse its mentality. change Turkey’s desire for EU accession and hestressed that the country should first be modernized and able to set aside their differences when it comes to their hostile stance toward Cyprus. associated to modernization.statement can be interpreted as an effort to recontextualize the AtKemalist identity, thetraditionally same time, thebe an extension of Anatolia, anmilitary attitude he characterized “anachronistic”. The President’s and the Kemalistsirredentist tendencies in Cyprus, while a part of the Kemalist establishmentare considers Cyprus to portrayed as compromise with the Turkish military. The President noted that part of the Turkish army shows elections in Turkey Phileleutheros in published article Inthe lines. these along moved Christofias, Dimitris RoCPresident, the of an event organized by the Cypriot Federation of Australia and New Zeland in Sydney, the speech protagonist, Turkey the antagonist and, in their agon, the struggle of the former is ennobling. At seem to have a common narrative structure describing the conflict, where Cyprus is the being outnumbered by the settlers are reinforced by statements like this one. analysis of the next article, the issue of the settlers has become very prominent lately. Fears of 142 meant to alter the island’s demographicThe Greek Cypriot leadersstructure. perceived the immigration of Turks as a campaign of colonization after the 1974 events are still considered to be a foreign element, even by the Turkish Cypriots. No author (source: Cyprus News Agency), “ Agency), News Cyprus (source: No author Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, Recommendation 1608: Colonisation by Turkish settlers of settlers by Turkish Colonisation 1608: Recommendation ofEurope, the Council of Assembly Parliamentary The elections will be held on June 12, 2011. According to the polls, AKP is leading. Christos P. P. Ioannides, Christos Christofias speech is particularly richin themes. His next comment was related to When it comes to the Cyprus problem, conservative and liberal factions of the society ” [Turkey’s intentions over the Cyprus problem will be revealed after the elections], 141 , the President referred to the challenges awaiting Cyprus after the imminent 142 . Christofias stated that the new leadership might have already reached a reached already have might leadership thatthenew stated . Christofias In Turkey's image: The transformation of occupied Cyprus into a Turkish province ƍƥƴƜƴƩƲƥƪƫƯƣƝƲƳƴƧƭƔƯƵƱƪƟơƨơƤƩơƶơƭƯƽƭơƩƢƯƵƫơƟƴƧƲŹƣƪƵƱơƲ 39 140 As it will bediscussed more in depth in the (accessed May 30, 2011) Phileleutheros, , (New 139 CEU eTD Collection Cyprus”, there is an obsession for defining the Other, so that the identity of the self could be more evident. parameters for this identity. Thus, the Self/Other dynamic here is rehashed in the sense that ongoing competition for a hegemonic articulation that would establish adefinite set of identity functions as an empty signifier their own meanings.for the Greek CypriotTurkish Cypriots identifyhistorical themselves, both Turkey and the RoC seem to imbue these words with discourse. lastdecade. the during especially transformations, significant There is an Turkish Cypriot identity is ambiguous. The Turkish Cypriot national identity has undergone Cyprus in the last decade, see: Emel Akçal 144 http://www.todayszaman.com/columnistDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=235711 between the devil and the deep blue sea, Today’s Zaman, 16.02.2011 143 the headline “Who do you think you are?” leadership to hold accountable those responsible. Several newspapers in Turkey came out with accused theTurkish Cypriots ofinsulting Turkey and he called upon theTurkish Cypriot settlers and on Turkey’s interference with their domestic affairs. Indeed, recently Erdo Cypriots and violates their right to express their complaints on the increasing number of Turkish Turkish the affect that measures economic harsh imposes leadership Turkish the that saying than the Turkish one. A left-wing politician, Chrystofias resonates here the Cypriotism ideology, Cyprus. Christofias underlines that “We” are in favour ofcompromise and flexibility. accession. The next comment puts the intransigent identity of Turkey in comparison to that of Cypriots tocodification see beyond used reproducesimpose a solution that serves its own interests and keeps Cyprus hostage, the Presidenttheir said. The a victimization ownmentality does not agree with the Western worldviews. Turkey is being presented as trying to traumas framing of Cyprus and that doesto notempathize allow the Greek with Turkey’s desire for EU For an analysis of the identity transformations that took place within the Turkish-Cypriot community in Northern The headline appeared after a Turkish Cypriot protest on January 28 2011. Amanda Paul, Turkish Cypriots: Referring back to Laclau and Mouffe’s conceptual framework, I argue that the Turkish the that argue I framework, conceptual Mouffe’s and Laclau to back Referring In the same speech Chrystofias assigns a distinct role and identity to the Turkish Cypriots Antipode , forthcoming (2011) ,forthcoming Ö , “Getting Real on Fluctuating National Identities: Insights from Northern 143 It becomes clear at this point that the notion of a 40 144 Nevertheless, beyond theway the (accessed May 30, 2011) ø an CEU eTD Collection marker of self perception. implicit relationship with the constructed Turkish identity, which serves in turn as the ultimate the on articulations their base and identity history of and narratives discourses Cypriot Greek 41 CEU eTD Collection this study to present a definitive account on the way collective memory shapes the Greek Cypriot the burdens of traumas that evidences which signifiers, empty of impossibility the disclosed press the and continuehistoriography to reside in Cyprus’ collective memory. with no directIt experience. was not the aim of of those who lived and have memories of a certain traumatic past, but also of new generations in which collective memory informs future preferences, since it affects the perceptions not only memory is highly political and omnipresent in the public discourse. The study exposed the ways through the narrative of the press. With regard to the present, it pointed out that collective the present dominates narratives, historical through established Turkey, of images negative of collective memory. However, the research confirmed the initial hypothesis that the recollection Other in relation to which this collective memory is being framed. Turkey that evoke andatthesame time reinforce collective memory.These narratives createan underpinning the entire study was to uncover the abstruse and yet powerful narratives regarding the past, and the media narratives, the present as it appears in the press. The main concern within two, central in everyday life, forms of narratives: the generally accepted historical narrative, themselves manifest as these Turkey, of images ofnegative a range on focused analysis The theoretical framework, and it explored its interplay with the concepts of identity and narrative. of Cyprus. In order to support this claim, the thesis used collective memory as its overarching Greek Cypriot identity. Powerful imagesnegative representations of Turkey.of At the same thetime, these representations past heavily condition the condition the present articulatedand mould the future in the discourse Directions Research Future and Conclusions is greatly responsible for the production and the persistence of The critical examination of the image of Turkey within the two discursive spaces of spaces discursive two the within Turkey of image the of examination critical The During the course of this study, several problems were posed by the abstract nature of This study suggested that the way the collective memory of the Greek Cypriots as 42 CEU eTD Collection 145 Other? what makes collectivechange memory so static andcollective memory in general. If keepswe accept that time is the most encompassing medium for it hostage to stereotypical depictionscase of the Greek Cypriots, they accept vague negative images as the factual reality. of the generations of individuals that did not experience the events that led to that. And yet, like in the characteristic of this victim/victimizer dichotomy is that it is being unproblematically accepted by and the resulting ready-made fear of a constant threat. What seems to be the most intriguing ideological context,could be address by futuremore research. One possible direction of research couldspecifically deal with the with the idea that “We”judged with relation to the future and to the havepossible attitudes of the Greek Cypriots. fallen victimsresearch provides critical standards by whichof the representations of thethe past in the present can be Other the Greek Cypriots’ memory constitutes an obstacle in theattempts for peaceful coexistence. The there is a correlation between collective memory and theresolution of the conflict: it seems that the current status of the relations between these two countries and beyond. It can be inferred that explain to used be can RoC the in life everyday permeate that country the of images of examples Greek Cypriot society. Thecoding of thecollective memoryover Turkey through empirical narratives, helping us understand how, ina more complete image. technical terms, itnarratives. It would be thereforeserves plausible toexpand the time span of the research in order to get ideologicalcompletion functions in the identity. Moreover, with reference to the ofempirical part, the limited time available for the the research did not allow for a more systematic examination of the press Renato Rosaldo, Renato 145 Another issue that is related to this study has to do with the processes of change of that aspects several unexplored hasleft research the a vast topic, such with In dealing Nonetheless, the study underlined the pervasiveness of collective memory through the and eventually it can even alter the course of something as established as history, then as history, as established ofsomething course the alter even can it eventually and Culture and Truth: the remaking of social analysis 43 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 103 CEU eTD Collection 147 explaining anthropolgy and social diversity 146 other.” feelings of injustice and understand that “human beings everywhere do terrible things to each our relationship with the Other. point out that meaning can be negotiated, in spite of the considerable difficulties, by negotiating SusanSontag, “ Everyone negotiates relationships in order to negotiate meaning.” Michael Carrithers, Why 147 Concluding this study on the collective memory of the Greek Cypriots, I would like to Regarding the Pain of Others (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) 146 But in order to do so, we first need to be able to overcome (New York: Picador/Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003), 103 44 humans have cultures: have humans CEU eTD Collection New York: Blackwell, 1989. 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TurkishNo author, Cypriots: Cyprus between elects theits devil first and communist the deep blue president", sea, Today’s The Zaman, Guardian,No author, “ 25 February 2008. http://www.philenews.com/el- May 30, 2011) May No author, “ No author, 2011) the (accessed May 30,2011) May (accessed ´ƔƯƂƩƣơƟƯƬƝƱƯƲƴƯƵưƱƯƥƪƫƯƣƩƪƯƽƳƴƧƭƔƯƵƱƪƟơ ƅƩơƸƥƽƤƥƴơƩưƱƼƴơƳƧƣƩơƪƯƩƭƞƥưƟƳƪƥƸƧƅƱƯƽƴƳơƎƴơƢƯƽƴƯƣƫƯƵƳƴơƪơƴƥƷƼƬƥƭơ ơƧƯƧơƩƞ ƤƩƜƸƥƵƳƧ ƋơƴƧƣƯƱƧƬơƴƩƪƞ elections], http://www.ethnos.gr/article.asp?catid=22767&subid=2&pubid=63076996 , ƝƩ Ƃƨƞƭơ Ƨ ƫƝƥƩ ø ” [Turkey’s intentions over the Cyprus problem will be revealed lu at the occupied (i.e. territories), says Athens], Phileleutheros, : ƥƵƜƷƩ ƱƴƳƣơ ƯƭƥƟƪƸƅƱƯƽƴƳơ ƥưƟƳƪƥƸƧ ƪƯƩƭƞ ƣƩơ ưƱƼƴơƳƧ ƵưƜƱƷƥƩ ƅƥƭ ” [Categorical denial: There is no suggestion for ƥƜ ƩƥƫƣƲ ƴƭ ƯƱƟƨƤơơƯƭ ơƩ ƤƩơƶơƭƯƽƭ ƨơ ƔƯƵƱƪƟơ ƳƴƧƭ ƥƪƫƯƣƝƲ ƴƩƲ ƍƥƴƜ 51 30.05.2011 ” [The Aegean part of the pre-electoral (accessed May 30, 2011) http://www.philenews.com/el- ø lu at the occupied], lu atthe http://www.philenews.com/el- (accessed May 30, 2011) (accessed May 30, May (accessed Phileleftheros (accessed Ethnos ” - , ,