J^[M[_pcWdd?dij_jkj[0 TalkingBrands.co.il J^[M[_pcWdd ?dij_jkj[0 6EdlZg]djhZd[:cZg\nGZhZVgX] 6EdlZg]djhZ d[:cZg\nGZhZVgX] The Weizmann Institute: A Powerhouse of Energy Research Table of contents

A Powerhouse of Innovative Energy Research ...... 6

Why Weizmann?...... 10

Biofuels: New Power from Plants...... 22

Clean Fuel Synthesis...... 36

The Promise of Super-Hot Plasmas...... 42

A Safer, More Plentiful Nuclear Energy Source...... 44

Teaching Tomorrow’s Energy Scientists and the Public...... 46

What the Future Holds...... 48

Milestones in Weizmann Alternative Energy Research...... 52

Thanks to our Friends who Support Energy Research in Israel...... 55 5 6

The innovative program of energy research AERI serves as the framework for accelerating, at the Weizmann Institute is based on the coordinating, and sharing alternative energy conviction that only basic science can provide research at the Institute. the radical, paradigm-shifting changes needed to make a major difference in the world’s It should be noted that many of the groups A Powerhouse energy outlook in this century. Alternative conducting alternative energy research at energy research received a major boost in Weizmann have received grants from the 2006 with a pledge and a challenge from Mr. European Research Council, the European of Innovative Energy Yossie Hollander, an Israeli business leader and equivalent of the McArthur Foundation grants in alternative energy advocate. The result was the the U.S., which are dubbed the ‘genius grants.’ Research Alternative and sustainable Energy Research ERC grants are substantial and are given over Initiative (AERI), followed by the Mary and Tom the course of five years, enabling recipients Weizmann Institute scientists are responding particularly in solar technologies. Israel leads the Beck-Canadian Center for Alternative Energy to conduct innovative research at the highest to one of the world’s greatest challenges: the world in the per-capita use of solar power and Research, established in 2007, to create an levels. Weizmann scientists in the alternative need to create clean, affordable, sustainable has ambitious plans for a clean-tech economy endowment for AERI and thus for future energy energy area who have received ERC grants energy that will enable food production, provide founded on scientific and technical innovation. research at the Weizmann Institute. Other include Dr. Asaph Aharoni, Prof. Naama Barkai, clean water, foster economic growth, address The Weizmann Institute stands out among the donors with a shared vision for expanding Prof. Avraham Levy, Prof. Leeor Kronik, Dr. Ron global climate change, close the gaps between world’s centers of scientific discovery because research in clean and sustainable energy Milo, Prof. David Milstein, and Dr. Asaf Vardi. rich and poor, and reduce political instability. of its dedication to pure science, its robust have contributed generously to these funds. It is an increasingly urgent need, given the interdisciplinary culture, and its heritage as a burgeoning global population and the world’s national center for innovation and technological dependence on oil and gas. The physical spinoffs. Its founder and the first President of security of Israel and the energy security of the State of Israel, Dr. Chaim Weizmann, was the world depend on the development of new a biotech entrepreneur and organic chemist sources of economical and renewable energy. with more than 40 patents, including a process for making acetone from fermentation. The Weizmann Institute and Israel are poised to make a critical difference in sustainable energy This booklet highlights some of the research. Israel, with few natural resources but Weizmann Institute’s major milestones in an abundance of sunshine and brainpower, is an energy research, current groundbreaking innovative powerhouse in energy research, and investigations, and plans for the future. 7 8

Canadian Connections at the Weizmann Institute A group of generous Canadian donors have To that end, in 1982, Weizmann Canada held fostered energy research at the Weizmann fundraising dinners in Montreal and in Toronto. Institute of Science from well before the A dinner was also held in Vancouver in honor Canadian solar tower on campus. The fifth of Morris Wosk in 1984, which established president of the Institute, Prof. Israel Dostrovsky, one wing of the Center. Another wing was dreamed of creating an ultramodern solar established by the Toronto families of Wilfred energy research facility. His vision inspired both Posluns and James Kay. The two research the President of the Canadian Society for the buildings are named after Jacob Hendeles Weizmann Institute of Science, James Kay, and and Leo Perkell of Toronto. A plaza in front of its Executive Vice President, the late James the building was created for Helen and Sam Senor, to establish the Canadian Institute for Steinberg of Montreal. Jake Hendeles was the Energies and Applied Research (CIEAR), a involved with every stage of planning and facility for basic and applied energy research. co-chaired with Morris Kerzner, the Energy The solar tower Sub-committee of the Canadian Society, which research facility on Weizmann Institute oversaw the construction and financing. In campus 1986 Tom Beck took over as President of the Canadian Society and undertook to raise the funds to complete the project. The full list of supporters appears at the end of this booklet.

The solar tower and laboratories of the Canadian Institute for the Energies and Applied Research were completed in 1987, one of the most advanced facilities for research in concentrated solar energy ever built on an academic campus. 9 10

the building blocks for biofuels. Our scientists The Weizmann Institute’s long experience with are also investigating new ways to break down concentrated solar energy is focused on finding common crop wastes, such as cellulose, into basic ways to convert solar energy into chemical energy sugars that are useable for fuel. One approach by high temperature chemistry, so as to provide has been to combine the cellulose-degrading storable clean fuels. For instance, they have elements from bacteria, fungi, and algae into pioneered solar-driven chemistry to refine zinc bioengineered artificial “organelles”, microscopic from zinc oxide, which is usable for fuel cells. biological factories. In addition, a major research They have demonstrated solar thermal splitting effort is well underway at Weizmann focusing of methane and solar reforming of hydrocarbons on identifying new algae-based biofuels. for synthetic fuels. Another promising approach Why Weizmann? has been to use a solar-heated “melt” of The lessons learned in our scientists’ research on salts to convert carbon dioxide into carbon photosynthesis and solar cells will contribute to monoxide (easily turned into fuel) and oxygen. The Weizmann Institute of Science focuses on can be captured by solar (photovoltaic) cells. a major, long-term goal of our alternative energy the basic scientific challenges of energy research. There have been a number of “firsts” from research program, which is to advance the As plants do not use concentrated sunlight, The synergy of its interdisciplinary approach Weizmann research already, such as the first understanding of, and the likely road blocks and research is also underway to convert non- rallies the strengths of physics, chemistry, biology solar “batteries” that can both convert solar show stoppers for “artificial photosynthesis”— concentrated sunlight to electrical energy. and mathematics, including also environmental, into electrical energy and store it as such, i.e., finding ways to mimic photosynthesis by A Weizmann group has developed a novel plant, materials and computer sciences, and solar-pumped lasers that can be tuned to drive efficiently converting sunlight into usable fuel—in clean catalyst that uses sunlight to speed the other perspectives to the challenge of producing specific chemical reactions, and new types of a way that will not compete with food production. hydrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen. clean, dependable, and affordable energy for the nano solar cells. Solar cell researchers are now future. In a field that is often distracted by short- being joined by optical science experts to find term solutions and quick fixes, the Weizmann new ways to manipulate sunlight for more Institute’s focus is on long-term solutions, efficient solar to electrical energy conversion. which requires the patience of basic research. Direct conversion of sunlight into chemical The Institute’s strategy for producing electricity energy is the realm of photosynthesis. Weizmann from sunlight is to begin with analyzing how scientists are searching plant genomes for species light particles, photons, transfer their energy and traits with potential for biofuels—fuels whose to atoms and molecules; how electrons and source is derived from plants and algae. They ions, move within and between materials; and are looking at ways to modify the metabolism how to increase the part of the sunlight that of plants to increase the plant’s production of 11 12

The road ahead enhance the available yearly funding for The biggest research challenge is finding ways alternative sustainable energy research to overcome the loss of energy during the at the Weizmann Institute, and builds on energy-conversion process. Today’s promising a strong framework of research projects Racing Toward New alternative energy options all rely on the that have garnered important insights. quantum conversion of sunlight. They are: Energy Options biofuels—the use of biological resources such One of the major advantages of the Helmlsey as wheat straw and algae to create clean- grant is that it will enable scientists to work burning fuels; photovoltaics—the conversion on all three areas—biofuels solar cells, and Thanks to a landmark gift from the of sunlight into electricity; and optics, to optics—in parallel, which is highly important Helmsley Charitable Trust, more effectively absorb and better utilize because the best solutions may involve sunlight. The hope and expectation is that combinations of all of them, explains Prof. the Weizmann Institute and the Technion insights from these areas will coalesce to pave David Cahen of the Department of Materials join hands in a major initiative to advance the way towards artificial photosynthesis, and Interfaces and director of AERI, who will mimicking the process of energy conversion direct the Weizmann projects. Prof. Cahen has alternative energy research method of plants to generate synthetic fuels. worked closely with his Technion counterpart, Prof. Gideon Grader, head of the Grand- The Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable focuses primarily on basic research with minor The single-largest conversion loss in solar Technion Energy Program, and he and other Trust announced a gift of $15 million over three technological components, while the Technion conversion to biofuel, to electricity, or Weizmann scientists have joint research and years to fund joint research in solar energy and emphasizes engineering technologies using to synthetic fuels is in fact that only part publications with several Technion scientists. biofuels between the Weizmann Institute of basic research-derived insights. Combining the of all the sunlight is absorbed during the Science and the Technion – Israel Institute of best talent in Israel working in these areas will energy conversion process and only part of By the third year of the Helmlsey-backed project Technology. The research projects combine the s i g n i fi c a n t l y a c c e l e r a t e s o l a r e n e r g y r e s e a r c h . that absorbed light is actually converted to there will be a fully operational, state-of-the-art institutions’ outstanding brainpower and research electrical or chemical energy. Thus, in this new core facility for biofuels research based at the capabilities in three key areas: biofuels research, The partnership builds on Israeli Center of partnership Weizmann and Technion scientists Weizmann Institute. This facility will include solar cells, and optics to improve solar light Research Excellence (ICORE) in alternative energy, will include basic research in optics to find automated cell handling, genetic manipulation, harvesting. All these areas show great promise for in which the Weizmann Institute participates suitable, smart, and innovative light manipulation and biochemical analysis equipment needed for dramatically advancing alternative energy options. with the Technion and Ben-Gurion University. The to overcome or bypass some of these losses. the scientists involved in biofuel research from ICORE program is designed to concentrate Israeli the departments of Plant Sciences, Biological The Weizmann and Technion solar government research funding in areas where The Helmsley advantage Chemistry, Molecular Genetics, and other e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n p r o g r a m s a r e s t r o n g l y it can be most effective, and also encourage The Helmsley energy program will significantly disciplines. The equipment will be available complementary: The Weizmann Institute top Israeli scientists to return from abroad.

. 13 14 for continuing work within the AERI and ICORE Current Research in Direct Sunlight directly to electricity (photovoltaic cells) Solar Cells biofuel programs and help make Weizmann Solar Energy Conversion 3. Sunlight to fuel, which includes the Beginning with the basics Institute scientists more competitive for all Sunlight is by far the most abundant carbon- conversion of solar energy using a chemical Charge separation induced by light is critical future biofuel-related grants. neutral energy resource. More solar energy process and efforts to store solar energy for solar energy conversion. Our research strikes the land surface of the earth in three In the previous sections the construction of the focuses on trying to understand the limits of hours (or, about 24 hrs, if we limit ourselves to solar tower and its commercial spinoffs served photovoltaic cells and using that understanding the inhabitable parts) than is obtained from all to highlight some of the major developments to improve their ability to absorb sunlight and of the fossil fuels consumed globally in a year. in the sunlight-to-concentrated-thermal its transfer into usable energy. Electron Transfer But, for solar to become a major provider of energy strategy, which in different ways, (ET) reactions are among the most fundamental Commercialization the world’s energy needs it must offer cost- advances the work of Profs. Jacob Karni of processes in chemistry and biology. In biology, ET effective solutions for power production, fuel the Department of Environmental Sciences and of Weizmann Solar is crucial for various energy conversion processes, alternatives, long-term storage, and convenient Igor Lubomirsky of the Department of Materials from respiration to photosynthesis. It is clear Technologies transportation options. Therefore, Weizmann and Interfaces. In the following section, we to Weizmann scientists that understanding Three commercial efforts using solar- scientists are pursuing three main strategies both of these basic processes are critical to powered gas turbines that are based on for converting sunlight to usable energy: will describe the other major approach to developing future generations of solar cells. concentrated solar power designs proven at 1. Sunlight-to-thermal energy for heat and direct conversion of sunlight, by way of the the Weizmann Institute are in various stages power production photovoltaic effect, which is basis of solar cells. of implementation, and a fourth is pending: 2 . • A 75 kW demonstration plant was completed in Nanjing, China, in 2005 in a project that involved cooperation between Chinese and Built by Aora Solar, a 30m-high Israeli industries and Hohai University of Nanjing tower stands in a field of mirrors on 0.5 acre (2,000 sq.m.) of • A new project to commercialize this land at Kibbutz Samar near technology has been launched in southern Eilat. It can generate 100kW Israel near Eilat, beginning with a 100kW of electric power in addition to 170kW of thermal power plant built at Kibbutz Samar (see photo) per hour. • A 170 kW thermal energy plant is being tested in Almeira, Spain, for water desalinization and power production • A program to commercialize an advanced version of this system is in an early stage of development in the U.S. 15 16

Prof. David Cahen formulated criteria, based them to experiment with new generations They recently discovered (and are currently The extremely thin on solar cell and module performance data, of self-assembled layers. Such layers provide developing) a new type of conducting polymer, that serve to evaluate and compare all types a general approach to new materials, based conducting polyselenophenes; and a new absorber (ETA) solar cell of today’s solar cells. With his colleagues, he on the pioneering work of Weizmann’s Prof. type of a shorter molecule, an oligomer, assessed the data to gauge how much significant Jacob Sagiv in the early 1980s, to create called alpha oligofuran, both of which Today’s crystalline silicon cells, the most progress can be expected for the various cell light-harvesting materials and solar cells. show promise for solar cell applications. The common type of solar cells, require large types and, most importantly, from both the oligofuran molecule is directly obtainable energy input for their manufacturing process, science and technology points of view, if there Dr. Rybtchinski and his team design nanodevices from biomass, and could be used for organic which results in an energy payback time of are upper boundaries that could limit progress to self-assemble in water. The unique chemistry semiconductors and other “green electronics”. several years. Basic studies at the Weizmann in each of these basic solar cell types. Defining of water (the basis of all life) provides the tools such limits places into a clearer framework the to direct the assembly process. In this wet enormous efforts of today’s research on solar environment, the team is developing adaptable cells, including those at the Weizmann, and systems that can change their function in helps focus efforts on ways to overcome them, in response to an external stimulus. Most biological order to pave the way for the creation of cheap, molecules are either repelled or attracted to Prof. David Cahen sustainable, and practical energy conversion. water molecules, and this property determines their position in living cells and tissues. Prof. Rybtchinski uses sophisticated molecular New materials and methods to exploit the hydrophobic—that is, “water-hating”—properties of certain organic new concepts molecules, manipulating them to self-assemble Weizmann scientists have copied a key concept into solar-energy-converting units. Like many from nature in creating new combinations of biological molecules, such systems could be materials that “self-assemble” in solution. These multi-functional, capable of rearranging their versatile structures can be used for complex structure through simple chemical reactions. functions such as light harvesting and control of surface properties (smart materials). Thus, Prof. Bendikov and his group design, synthesize, the research of organic chemists Profs. Michael and develop novel types of organic electronic Bendikov and Boris Rybtchinski complements materials. Their work significantly expands the that of Profs. Gary Hodes and David Cahen in the variety of materials available for application Department of Materials and Interfaces, enabling in organic solar cells, organic field effect transistors, and organic light-emitting diodes. 17 18

Institute during the latter half of the 1990s that the problems with copper actually made The big brother of CIGS cells in the so-called it. In addition Prof. Hodes developed an alternative removed a major psychological obstacle for CIGS cells more stable than any of the other 2nd generation of solar cells uses the material stable contact, which further solved the problem. the (now commercialized) thin film solar cells solar cell materials. Their experimental work cadmium tellurium. For decades it was plagued FS cells became commercial soon after NREL based on the materials copper indium selenide was borne out also by experiments in the by a real instability problem. Towards the end scientists confirmed the Weizmann results. and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS). harsh environment of space (by the European of the 1990s the U.S. Department of Energy’s The complexity of cells made up of three or Space Agency). They showed that the reason National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) turned The trick in a good solar cell is to get the four elements, and the fact that one of the is elementary: Most of the damage that can to two Weizmann scientists, Profs. Cahen and negatively charged electrons that have been elements (copper) is very mobile within the occur in the material is indeed related to the Hodes, to take a new look at the problem as part freed by light absorption from the atoms, material (an anathema in normal electronics), fact that the copper can move, but it can and of its effort to help First Solar (FS), an American to flow out of the cell (and through the was thought to make CIGS solar cells less does also move back! Thus, the chemistry of the company, commercialize these cells. Within a external circuit, to do the electrical work, stable than others. Prof. Cahen, working with material dictates it to be self-healing–that is, it few years, the Weizmann experts showed that before flowing back into the cell) before they Prof. Kronik and European colleagues, showed repairs itself. They showed how this property the cause of the instability was embarrassingly return to the now positively charged atoms. In makes CIGS solar cells remarkably stable ones. simple—essentially uncontrolled exposure to the very thin (less than tens of nanometers), oxygen and water—and found ways to overcome active light absorber in an ETA cell this direct recombination of photogenerated electrons and the positively charged “holes” left in the absorber should compete much less with charge removal than in the thicker absorber materials used in today’s cells. As a result, the researchers expect that poorer quality (and less expensive) materials can be used in an ETA cell, which would expand the choice of semiconductors over those currently in use.

Prof. Gary Hodes, a world expert in ETA cells, ultra- thin films, and in nano-solar cells in general, works with his colleagues to maximize the efficiency of solar cells while exploring new ways to make them less expensive. They currently explore how to optimize new types of ETA solar cells.

Prof. Michael Bendikov 19 20

Organic solar cells assemble custom-designed molecules, which they then integrate into a very thin film, (about 2 to Solar cells made with organic materials offer a 40 nanometers thick). Instead of adding precise potentially efficient and low-cost way to convert layers of molecules on a growing film surface, sunlight to electrical power. Scientists have the film itself acts as an active component, already demonstrated the proof-of-principle of serving as a reservoir for metal ions needed for its such devices. However, the difficult processing Prof. Gary Hodes formation and resulting in exponential growth. conditions required and the limited efficiency of current organic solar cells hampers their Helping solar cells and other scientists on projects that aim to commercialization. Prof. Milko van der Boom cells with three different types of absorbers, each minimize some of the losses inherent in the in the Department of Organic Chemistry works to use sunlight using a different part of the spectrum; or using basic science of the solar energy conversion on redesigning these experimental organic solar a mirror or prism to split the incoming light and more efficiently process. The most fundamental limits result cells using thermally and photochemically robust redirect it to absorbers for different wavelengths. Solar energy is so attractive that we often from the fact that the light-to-electrical or light- organic materials that are easily available and A third possibility is “stacking” three nano- overlook its problems. One of these is that, to-chemical energy conversion is a threshold processed. In fact, part of the cell would be scale layers of extremely thin absorbers on a except for conversion to heat, many promising process and the energy extracted from high- self-assembling because it would be based on single cell. There are costs and tradeoffs to be and sophisticated uses of sunlight require its energy photons is limited to the threshold of organic molecules that would attach and build weighed and new materials to be explored. direct conversion to electrical or chemical energy, the absorber. If the threshold is, say, in the themselves into a buffering layer between two and such conversion is woefully inefficient, red-light part of the solar spectrum, all infrared components of the experimental organic solar There are several other ways to concentrate even for the much more efficient conversion to solar radiation cannot be used, as its energy cells. Prof. van der Boom’s novel, bottom-up sunlight that involve even more elegant physics. electricity. The problem is that there are basic is below the threshold. At the same time, method enables his group to grow and self- Prof. Nir Davidson and Dr. Dan Oron, both scientific limitations. While scientists cannot only the red-energy part of light that is above change the laws of nature, there are ways to the threshold can be used (e.g., only about Prof. Milko van der Boom circumvent the limits dictated by these laws. half of the blue light energy would be used).

Dr. Dan Oron (Department of Physics of Concentrating Complex Systems) and Profs. Gary Hodes sunlight and David Cahen are working with theorist Weizmann scientists are exploring redesigning a Prof. Leeor Kronik (Materials and Interfaces), solar cell in new ways to maximize their use of the incoming light. Possibilities include designing

Prof. Leeor Kronik 21 22 from the Department of Physics of Complex energy photons (i.e., quanta of light) to a single How do QDs work? energetics of different sizes of QDs deposited Systems, are working with Prof. Yehiam Prior, photon with a higher energy, a process called on titanium oxide (TiO2) electrodes. Their Dean of the Faculty of Chemistry, to “manage” “up-conversion.” However, for up-conversion to Understanding how QD-sensitized solar cells experimental findings showed them how the photons reaching solar cells to make use of be efficient, it requires presently a tremendously operate requires, among other challenges, size of the QD affects its electrical properties available sunlight more efficiently. Together, they large optical flux, typically thousands to a accurate determination of the relative (size matters more than expected) and how the will explore methods for light concentration. million times higher than that of direct sunlight. energies of the highest energy electrons (the strength of the QD-electrode interaction allows a On the macro scale, they are experimenting “energetics”) in the various components of the highly efficient QD to electrode charge transfer. with the geometry of lenses and diffraction There has been progress worldwide in quantum- cell, the quantum dots and the electrodes. The screens and reflectors to concentrate the dot sensitized solar cells in the last few years, with researchers and Prof. Ron Naaman (Department incoming light. On the nanoscale, they are reported solar-to-electrical energy conversion of Chemical Physics) and their students used developing various nanostructures and ways efficiencies growing rapidly. Dr. Oron and several sophisticated optical and ultra-high of manipulating light to significantly enhance colleagues from Bar-Ilan University recently vacuum spectroscopy methods, to measure the the absorption rate of the target materials. described a new way to create quantum-dot (QD) solar cells that could achieve much higher Quantum-dot solar conversion rates. Their new strategy called cells Förster resonant energy transfer (FRET), involves transfer of energy from the QD to a molecule A quantum dot is a tiny particle of a semiconductor and transfer of electrons from the molecules. material, so small that the semiconductor behaves In this design, QDs serve as “antennas” that like a large molecule. Its name comes from the funnel the absorbed energy to nearby dye fact that it has clearly observable quantum molecules via FRET rather than being used Dr. Dan Oron mechanics effects at room temperature (instead Prof. Nir Davidson directly as a source of electrons. This opens of at the very low temperatures, normally up a great number of possibilities for possible required to see such effects in semiconductors). donor/acceptor pairings. This geometry can Dr. Oron is leading a project to use quantum potentially reduce in a dramatic manner the dots as the basis for a new generation of light required electrode thickness and opens the harvesting devices. He has shown that these possibility of use of a solid electrolyte, of the tiny nanocrystals of semiconducting materials type that Prof. Gary Hodes uses in his ETA cells, can serve as light absorbers. There have been and an expected increase in the cell’s voltage. many attempts to reduce the loss of low- energy sunlight (the infra-red parts) by using advanced optical methods to “fuse” two low 23 24

Plant biomass can serve as a feedstock to produce energy-rich feedstock. In addition, novel enzyme different types of biofuels: The two leading types complexes are being developed for digesting of biofuel are based on converting sugars to the plant biomass into sugars that can be used alcohol, mostly ethanol; and converting oils (fatty by improved yeast strains for fermentation acids) into biodiesel. Photosynthetic organisms and alcohol production. Twelve teams of can also serve as bioreactors to produce hydrogen, Weizmann Institute scientists are working a third possibility for clean fuel from plants. together on a number of basic science projects related to enhancing biofuels production in a Research at the Weizmann Institute is aimed consortium coordinated by Prof. Avraham Levy, Biofuels: New Power at understanding how plants and algae can Head of the Department of Plant Sciences. serve to provide biofuels and then to search for responsible ways to engineer them with from Plants improved metabolic pathways that would enable them to generate larger amounts of Not all our energy needs can be supplied Plants are the central players in the interaction Prof. Avraham Levy by electrical energy and we urgently need between humanity and the biosphere. Over 80 renewable chemical energy sources, especially percent of the land and water used by humanity liquid fuels for transportation, that can be is dedicated to growing plants for food, fuel, produced in a sustainable manner. In a world and building material. Therefore, one of the key economy sensitive to fossil fuel prices, biofuels questions being asked by scientists is whether offer a sustainable option that would require large amounts of biofuel can be produced minimal changes in existing transportation without compromising the global capacity for technology, infrastructure, and distribution food production. Weizmann scientists think it’s networks. However, at the genetic level, existing possible. One of their solutions is to use algae crops are not optimal for large-scale biofuel that can grow in the desert and other marginal production. Domestication and breeding lands, or in brackish or salty water not suitable has focused on developing plants mostly for conventional agricultural. Another option for food production. Weizmann scientists they propose is to use plant biomass from are pursuing a range of strategies to make agriculture and urban wastes. There is plenty different varieties of plants a better source of of such biomass to use, and this way arable energy without compromising food production. land is not lost in the effort to produce biofuel. 25 26

Built on the grounds of one of Israel’s first the salt-tolerant Dunaliella algae as a source making it into sugars, is the main pathway for and specificity of Rubisco, the key enzyme agricultural research stations, the Weizmann of nutrients such as beta carotene, that are storing energy and accumulating biomass in operating in the Calvin–Benson cycle however Institute of Science has a long history of major players in Israel’s agro-biotech sector. the living world. The rate of carbon fixation they have achieved only limited success. innovations in plant and algal sciences. For can significantly limit growth of photosynthetic instance, the first crop its scientists investigated organisms. Hence increasing the rate of carbon Based on a survey of 5,000 naturally occurring was castor beans, upon the request of the Speeding up fixation is of major importance in the quest enzymes and the mechanics of the six carbon Institute’s founder, Prof. Chaim Weizmann, for for agricultural and food security as well as for fixation pathways found in nature, Dr. Milo oil production for use in airplanes. Weizmann the carbon cycle biofuel production. Carbon dioxide emissions are reported that there were some promising scientists have developed a unique know-how Dr. Ron Milo (Department of Plant Sciences) suspected to be the main cause of global warming, carbon-fixing pathways that could be up to in making more efficient food sources and studies the fundamental processes that govern so sequestration of carbon dioxide via efficient two or three times faster than the conventional exploiting natural biodiversity to improve the carbon cycle on earth, including the major carbon fixation can alleviate the greenhouse Rubisco path. He developed algorithms that crops such as wheat. Weizmann Institute role of photosynthetic organisms. “Carbon effect and contribute to sustainable life on earth. compared all possible metabolic pathways based insights in plant biology have led to commercial fixation,” i.e., taking carbon dioxide up from on kinetics, energetics, and topology. His initial spinoffs such as the commercial production of the atmosphere, stripping it of its oxygens and Photosynthetic organisms use sunlight to findings point to a new family of synthetic carbon drive carbon fixation through a complex fixation pathways that utilize the most effective series of enzymatic steps that reduce carbon carbon-fixing enzyme, PEP carboxylase. It works Dr. Ron Milo dioxide into sugars and then convert them as part of the so-called “C4” carbon-fixing cycle into metabolic building blocks. The Calvin– used by plants such as corn and sugarcane

Benson cycle is the most prevalent carbon to assimilate atmospheric CO2 into biomass. fixation pathway in plants. However, nature He is now testing these alternative carbon employs several alternative carbon fixing fixation cycles in microorganisms that depend pathways. Dr. Milo is asking whether more on carbon fixation as their sole carbon input. efficient novel synthetic cycles could be devised.

In agriculture in which water, light, and nutrients are abundant, carbon fixation could become a significant growth-limiting factor. Hence, increasing the fixation rate is of major importance in the road toward sustainability in food and energy production. There have been recent attempts to improve the rate 27 28

Unlocking the from producing primary metabolites, plants also synthesize a vast range of secondary (or specialized) potential of… metabolites; more than 200,000 such structures Plant metabolomics are known to date. Therefore, a thorough, in- Biofuels research requires the separation, depth understanding of metabolic pathways is detection, identification, and quantification a pre-requisite to engineer and optimize plants of numerous small molecules produced by and microorganisms for biofuel production. In the plant: monomers, oligomers, polymers, the Department of Plant Sciences, Prof. Asaph complex carbohydrates, fatty acids, and Aharoni and Prof. Gad Galili are focusing on lipids. This “metabolomics analysis” requires direct analysis of plant metabolism using the plant sophisticated gas and liquid chromatography metabolomics methods they have pioneered. and specialized mass spectrometers. This work provides the data for the dissection of They have used metabolic engineering approaches Prof. Yuval Eshed complex biosynthesis pathways that make to increase specific nutrition-associated and the molecules used in the different types health-associated secondary metabolites. For the genes that regulate lysine synthesis and and soft, and a mature plant whose stalks of fuels, mostly lipids or carbohydrates. example, Prof. Galili found ways to induce learn how to manipulate lysine accumulation and leaves are “tough” and high in lignin, a plants to produce up to 1,000 times their usual to produce a product such as high-lysine feed complex chemical compound. Juvenile plants The metabolic network of plants is by far more amounts of the essential amino acid lysine. But corn. Prof. Galili has similar ideas for how to that are low in lignin are easier to digest and extensive than in most other organisms. Apart first, he and his research group had to discover optimize plants for alcohol production through turn into simple sugars, and generally make guiding the conversion of primary metabolism for better-quality biomass for fuel production. into secondary metabolites that can be further Prof. Gad Galili converted into biofuel-efficient alcohols. Prof. Eshed helped show that a microRNA called miR156 is a general regulator of the Plant growth juvenile-to-adult transition, and its effects are In groundbreaking work, Prof. Yuval Eshed universal in plants. He showed that plants in (Department of Plant Sciences) and colleagues which miR156 is over-expressed—i.e., have identified a group of genes controlling plant more miR156—produce larger amounts of a leaf growth. When this group of genes was biomass that is easier to digest. In this way, suppressed, it enabled leaves to grow to extremely both the quality and quantity of biomass can large sizes. Now he is concentrating on another be improved as a feedstock for biofuel. Prof. set of genes that control the transition between Eshed is using the tools of genomics to identify a juvenile plant, whose leaves are “tender” additional genes related to the transition from 29 30

juvenile to adult plant, which will add to the Cellulose Their “first generation” re-engineered growing toolkit of ways to manipulate plants Prof. Ed Bayer (Department of Biological cellulosomes used cellulases (enzymes involved to make their output more useful for humans. Chemistry) pioneered the field of cellulose in breaking down cellulose) from Thermobifida degradation in bacteria and the digestion of Fusca, a common, heat-loving type of soil bacteria The discoveries from Prof. Eshed’s lab can cellulose with microorganisms and enzymes. often found in active compost. Three of the six be applied to a broad range of crops for the Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer T. fusca cellulases were converted by replacing improvement of both food and fuel production. on Earth. However, most of its potential energy their cellulose-binding modules (CBMs) with as food or a fuel is trapped in hard-to-digest a connecting structure called a dockerin, and Wheat cell walls. Prof. Bayer focuses on cellulosomes, the resultant recombinant “cellulosomized” Wheat straw is an abundant commodity, and its multi-enzyme complexes found in bacteria and enzymes were incorporated into scaffolding production is not at the expense of food. The fungi that can degrade and digest cellulose, proteins together with a CBM. The activities world production of wheat straw, the inedible a simple but incredibly resilient polymer. of the resultant “designer” cellulosomes were stalks that are a byproduct of wheat farming, is Prof. Ed Bayer compared with an equivalent mixture of wild-type about 700 billion tons, with similar amounts of Cellulose is composed solely of the common enzymes, and showed that some of their designs wastes for rice and corn—all cellulosic products sugar glucose that could be used to produce food had marked improvements in performance over with minimal food value. It is estimated that collections of wild wheat that grow in Israel. (sugars) and fuel (alcohols and ethanol). Since the same mix of cellulases acting independently. the conversion of just one billion tons of this They hope to identify the genes that control discovering the cellulosome with a colleague cellulosic biomass could provide 30 percent these traits and to transfer these traits to in 1983, Prof. Bayer has emerged as a world For their next-generation designer cellulosome, of the U.S. needs in liquid fuel. However, its modern wheat strains. In the first year of screening, expert on this potential solution to liberating they added another cellulase and tinkered main challenges as feedstock for biofuel are its the scientists tested the wild emmer wheat the building blocks for food and energy from with the structure, order, and combinations high lignin and silica content that hinder the that is the direct progenitor of domesticated cellulose. His in-depth studies of the structure and of the modules, looking for ways to improve deconstruction of cellulosic biomass into simple wheat, other primitive wheat types, and several functioning of the cellulosomes found in nature efficiency. Their engineered systems out- sugars that can easily be turned into biofuels. modern strains. The team is encouraged by inspired him to start tinkering with its Lego-like performed the mixtures of wild-type enzymes the results, and has so far identified several construction of the different functional modules by working up to 2.9 times faster and Prof. Avraham Levy’s group is working to candidate genes whose expression could possibly that are built on a simple biological scaffold— converting up to 28 percent of the wheat improve the composition of wheat straw for contribute to lower lignin levels in modern wheat. aptly called scaffoldin. He envisioned taking the straw, without any prior treatment of the straw. biofuel. Working with Prof. Aharoni’s plant most efficient components found in nature and metabolomics lab and genomics tools, the The new wheat lines to be developed reassembling them into “designer cellulosomes” The ability to design and produce artificial scientists are conducting a large-scale screen of in the laboratory of Prof. Levy will be that could speed up cellulose degradation cellulosomes of such precise composition wild wheat, looking for types with low -lignin, tested by Prof. Ed Bayer for the enzymatic immensely. He and colleagues have now created provides a superb way to break down a low-silica, and high-wax levels. They are using digestibility of their straw into simple sugars. several proof-of-concept designer cellulosomes. variety of products into simple sugars and the Prof. Naama Barkai 31 32

Yeast defined the growth and ethanol production biofuel production is still in its infancy and Prof. Naama Barkai in the Department of of all their strains when provided glucose, requires extensive research and development. Molecular Genetics is using the tools of galactose, xylose, or xylulose as a carbon computational biology and metabolomics (the source. They found an interesting range Prof. Avihai Danon (Department of Plant the study of the mechanics of metabolism) to of diversity in their test groups, and are Sciences) uses high-throughput genetic screens develop yeast strains that can produce ethanol working to isolate the genes and metabolic to identify algae mutants rich in oil production. or butanol from xylose. An abundant sugar pathways responsible for the differences. Triglycerides are the chief building blocks of that is one of the main components (~30%) fats and oils, and function to store chemical of plant cell walls, xylose is wasted in most Algae energy in plants and animals. Scientists have fermentation processes because current yeast There are many advantages to algae as a source observed that under certain stress conditions, strains do not feed on it. In collaboration with of energy. Single-celled microalgae grow quickly some micro-algae species accumulate large Prof. Avi Levy, Prof. Barkai is working to identify and in abundance; they can be cultivated in amounts of triglycerides, up to 50 percent genes that increase yeast growth and alcohol areas that are not suitable for agriculture; they of their dry weight, which can easily be precursors to other potential fuels. Dr. Bayer production when using xylose as a growth media. can grow in brackish water or seawater; and converted into high-quality biodiesel fuel. is working with Prof. Dan Tawfik (Department their growth and fuel cycle releases no net of Biological Chemistry), a leading expert in Prof. Barkai, a molecular geneticist and a leader greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide). That said, Prof. Danon is trying to identify the network of enzyme evolution and the development and in systems biology, is using yeast genetics, the use of microalgae for commercial scale genes that regulate the synthesis of triglycerides application of directed evolution technologies, genomics, and evolution experiments in yeasts to further develop this promising tool for to find the critical regulatory nodes that could efficient degradation of cellulose into glucose. be “tuned” in order to rewire the metabolic flow. She is concentrating on xylose metabolism As they continue to refine their artificial in the budding yeast to identify the regulatory cellulosomes, Prof. Bayer will be testing the changes that would improve the conversion straw from any promising low-lignin strains of into simple sugars for ethanol production. wheat developed by Profs. Levy and Aharoni, and providing the group of Prof. Barkai with samples Her group is developing new high-throughput of end products resulting from the action of both methods in budding yeast species (S. cerevisiae, designer cellulosomes and native cellulosomes, and in strains of S. paradoxus, its closest relative) since yeasts are the most cost-effective way to quickly measure the growth and ethanol to convert glucoses to alcohols for fuel. production of yeast. Using this system, they 33 Dr. Assaf Vardi 34

to enhance triglyceride discovered that many of these viruses can productivity. His team has completely modify the lipid production of their identified several potential algal host and exploit their host as a lipid factory. candidates for enhancing He is working to trace the viral mechanisms triglyceride biosynthesis in for manipulating host lipid production and to the widely grown micro- unravel their molecular mechanics by coupling algae Dunaliella salina. the power of metabolomics and global gene expression profiling during the infection process. Marine algae The metabolomics expertise of the combined Dr. Assaf Vardi, an expert teams at the Weizmann Institute may help Prof. Avihai Danon in marine biology, is testing him discover novel virus and algae genes saltwater algae species as that are involved in the regulation of lipid platforms for fatty acids production. He is biosynthesis in the host algae, and find possible in micro-algae. This involves a large variety of help optimize algal oil production, but it also fascinated with the immense and sudden ways to use them for biofuel production. function genes: (1) oil molecule producers; (2) oil will provide important basic information on blooms of algae, the so-called red tides, that molecule transporters and packaging specialists; the alga’s sensing and regulatory mechanisms. can quickly cover hundreds of square miles (3) regulators of oil production in response to of ocean; and the fast-acting viruses that can environmental signals; and (4) coordinators In a related project, Prof. Uri Pick is studying kill them off almost overnight. He recently of oil production with other processes, such the regulation of accumulation of triglycerides as photosynthesis. Prof. Danon and his team in green algae to generate strains that produce established an automated, high-throughput, massive amounts of triglycerides that are suitable genome-wide screen of algal genes. In the for commercial production of biodiesel. Prof. process, they have identified several stable Pick’s team has sought to isolate triglyceride- mutants of common algae that can produce overproducing strains of two robust micro- up to three times the lipid content of their algae, Dunaliella salina and a Chlorella species, parent strains. His group is analyzing the genetic which are suitable for commercial cultivation. differences that produced these new variations Prof. Pick also has been working to identify and is working to understand how the genes triglyceride regulatory proteins and genes as control lipid production. Not only will his work potential candidates for genetic manipulation Prof. Uri Pick 35 36

Photosynthesis at extreme lessons from cyanobacteria to engineer algae temperatures and plants that can grow at higher temperatures. To ensure that growing crops for energy does not displace the growing of vital food Towards artificial photosynthesis crops, scientists like Prof. Avigdor Scherz are Finally, Weizmann scientists are looking at investigating how photosynthesis can operate the basic process of photosynthesis itself and efficiently at extreme temperatures, which searching for ways to make it more efficient and would make marginal lands and extreme harness it in new ways. Artificial photosynthesis climate areas available for production. is at an embryonic stage, but Weizmann scientists expect it to be a viable and thus extremely Cyanobacteria are among the oldest important long-term solar energy solution. Dr. Dror Noy photosynthetic organisms in nature. They are relatively simple to cultivate, requiring only Dr. Dror Noy and his lab team hope to devise sunlight, water, CO2, and a few nutrients. His processes that mimic natural photosynthesis— group has already isolated a number of traits whereby carbon dioxide and water combine Prof. Avigdor Scherz found in thermophilic (heat-loving) cyanobacteria with sunlight to create energy—but will be that enable photosynthetic microorganisms more efficient in producing energy than natural to grow in temperatures of up to 30°C (86°F) photosynthesis, in which most energy is used above their normal range. Prof. Scherz replaced for growth, upkeep, and reproduction. Unlike genes for two proteins in a photobacterium biomass energy, artificial photosynthesis would that grows well at moderate temperatures not require arable land. For instance, it can be Their cooperative action drives remarkably with their counterparts from a thermophilic done on roof tops or in the desert, eliminating the difficult chemical reactions that enable plants cyanobacterium. The genetically engineered concern about competing with the food supply. and algae to use light and water as their primary bacteria grew well at temperatures as hot as source of energy and electrons. In the process, 43°C, where the control strain would have died Plants and evolutionarily older photosynthetic light is captured very efficiently. Then, the ensuing out under the same conditions. One of his goals organisms such as cyanobacteria are a source biochemical reactions can be adapted for using is to create a cyanobacteria suitable for mass of inspiration for designing artificial devices for hydrogen atoms obtained through water splitting production in arid/semi-arid regions near power solar energy conversion and storage. Natural to produce hydrogen gas (H2) which can be plants (to capture CO2) with high sunlight and photosynthesis features an elaborate system of used directly as a fuel, or which can be used elevated temperatures. He also is applying the enzymes embedded in a specialized membrane. to produce other types of hydrocarbon fuels. 37 38

thermal- and light-driven steps, mediated by The next stage of the process is the “heat stage.” a unique ingredient—a special metal complex When the water solution is heated to 100˚C, that Prof. Milstein’s team designed in previous hydrogen gas—a potential source for clean studies. Their metal complex of the element fuel—is released from the complex and another ruthenium is a “smart” complex in which the OH group is added to the metal center. But metal center and the organic part attached the most unique part is the third “light stage.” to it cooperate in the cleavage of the water When the third complex was exposed to light molecule. The team found that upon mixing at room temperature, not only was oxygen gas this complex with water, the bonds between produced, but the metal complex also reverted the hydrogen and oxygen atoms break, with back to its original state, which could be recycled one hydrogen atom ending up binding to its for use in further reactions. This overcame Clean Fuel Synthesis organic part, while the remaining hydrogen one of major bottlenecks for splitting water. and oxygen atoms (OH group) bind to its metal center. Their results were published in the journal Additional experiments have indicated that during A good high school chemistry class might include difficult, the “power density” of hydrogen Science. Prof. Milstein was awarded the Israel the third stage, light provides the energy required a demonstration of the hydrolysis of water into as a fuel is considerably less than any of the Prize in Chemistry in 2012 for his pioneering to cause the two OH groups to get together to its components of hydrogen and oxygen. If the available fossil fuels. To rival propane, for work in catalysis and “green” chemistry. form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which quickly teacher has a flair for the dramatic, he or she instance, the hydrogen must be pressurized, might have held a match to the end of a test costing more energy and causing a problem tube where the hydrogen gas was collected with safe storage and handling, especially and impressed the students with the sharp in collision-prone automobiles and trucks. Prof. David Milstein “pop” of the mini explosion to demonstrate the flammability of this potential clean fuel. But, A step towards after decades of displaying this simple chemistry efficient water with two electrodes and a beaker of water, producing usable fuel on a commercial scale splitting from hydrolysis is still a dream for scientists. A unique approach developed by Prof. David Milstein and colleagues in the Department of There are two basic problems: the first is that it Organic Chemistry provides an important step takes energy—in the case of the lab experiment, for overcoming this challenge. In 2009, the an electric current to the electrodes—to produce team demonstrated a sequence of reactions to the burnable hydrogen. The second is more liberate hydrogen and oxygen in consecutive 39 40

breaks up into oxygen and water. “Because An example is zinc oxide, which reacts with Turning carbon dioxide into clean fuels can be burned directly in turbines or generators, hydrogen peroxide is considered a relatively carbon when heated to temperatures of 1,200- The significant increase in the amount of or converted on-site into liquid fuel. Although unstable molecule, scientists have always 1,300 degrees C. The gaseous zinc is released, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has spurred it’s toxic in high concentrations, CO has been disregarded this step, deeming it implausible; then condensed and stored; when reacted intensive efforts to use sunlight to turn CO2 into used for over a hundred years as an intermediate but we have shown otherwise,” says Prof. with water, it yields zinc oxide and hydrogen. higher-energy products in order to store solar chemical product; tens of millions of tons are Milstein. Moreover, the team has provided energy as chemical energy for renewable fuels. synthesized each year from coal or wood in one evidence showing that the bond between the Dr. Michael Epstein, director of the Solar Research of the most developed of industrial processes. two oxygen atoms is generated within a single Facility Unit at the Weizmann Institute, compared Prof. Igor Lubomirsky of the Department of molecule—not between oxygen atoms residing thermodynamic analysis and experimental Materials and Interfaces has demonstrated a The CO is generated from CO2 in a relatively on separate molecules, as commonly believed results obtained for different reactants such novel alternative for converting solar energy into straightforward chemical process using a setup —and it comes from a single metal center. as boron, zinc, tin and cadmium looking for fuel. His method is comparatively inexpensive, that’s something like a large, hot battery. the hallmarks of the most efficient processes. produces no environmentally hazardous waste, Inside a special cell, a chemical compound So far, Prof. Milstein’s team has demonstrated a and is very efficient. The new method produces is heated to around 900°C and an electric mechanism for the formation of hydrogen and carbon monoxide (CO)—a non-corrosive gas that current is passed through the compound. oxygen from water, without the need for sacrificial Prof. Jacob Karni chemical agents, through individual steps, using Prof. Igor Lubomirsky heat and light. They are now working to combine these stages to create an efficient catalytic system.

Solar-driven hydrolysis Solar energy can combine with a metal catalyst to split water. These cycles usually consist of two steps: metal hydrolysis followed by solar reduction or thermal decomposition of the metal oxide. Weizmann scientists have experimented with a number of such catalysts, most notably zinc oxide (ZnO). Concentrated sunlight can be used to extract metals from their oxides, which can then react with water, releasing hydrogen. 41 42

When CO2 is continuously fed into the cell, when carbon dioxide is catalytically reacted burning as a fuel) and oxygen (photoreduction). the result is pure CO and oxygen. Ideally, the with methane (CH4). The product can be However, like most similar approaches, their

CO2 would come from the smokestack of a stored and transported to a user site where catalyst used amines (chemicals that are produced power plant or other carbon dioxide source, so the reaction is reversed, generating enough from ammonia) to help the reaction. Other the greenhouse gases would be removed and heat—about 600°C—to power an engine. The approaches required ultraviolet (UV) light. recycled before they reach the atmosphere. The methane and carbon dioxide regenerated in this Therefore, they set their sights on replacing metal used in the process is titanium, which is stage can be returned to the solar reforming the amines with a more renewable resource, many times cheaper and more available than plant; or, the syngas can be used for fuel and using visible light as the energy source. Prof. Ronny Neumann such precious metals as platinum that are often enrichment since the syngas has about 30 used in similar devices. Other advantages of the percent higher heating value than methane. First, they were able to demonstrate using method include a thermodynamic efficiency water instead of amines. They prepared a of over 85 percent (not counting the energy Prof. Jacob Karni in the Department of new hybrid compound that works with a needed to heat the system), which is almost Environmental Sciences and Energy Research photoactive polyoxometalate. However, this unheard of in the world of energy conversion, recently tested a new solar volumetric reactor new compound required UV light for the and the ease of transporting and burning CO. for reforming of CH4 and CO2 at the solar tower. reaction (called reduction in chemical lingo)

The reactor design was based on extensive of CO2 to CO. Finally, Prof. Neumann’s group In a recent study he was able to show, both previous experimental work with a volumetric was able to demonstrate using hydrogen theoretically and experimentally, a range of receiver for heating air, and used a newly and visible light to reduce CO2 to CO and temperatures and concentrations of Li2O developed ruthenium catalyst. His results H2O by using a new hybrid complex that he in the Li2CO3 melt that are in equilibrium indicate that this type of volumetric reactor synthesized. They feel that using renewable with atmospheric CO2 and are therefore can be used effectively for CO2 reforming of hydrogen represents a significant advance capable of absorbing CO2 from air. CH4, and further work aimed at improving the that may also prove useful in the myriad of total efficiency of the system is in progress. other photo-reduction reactions that presently Synthetic gas from use amines as sacrificial reducing agents. Photoreduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) CO2 and methane to carbon monoxide (CO) Recognizing the potential of solar reforming of In 2010, Prof. Ronny Neumann and his group in methane as a means for storing and transporting the Department of Organic Chemistry reported solar energy, scientists have studied it since the first example using light and an inorganic, the 1980s. Concentrated solar energy can photo-stable, easily synthesized catalyst to produce “syngas,” consisting of CO and H2, separate CO2 into carbon monoxide (suitable for 43 44

The traditional method for magnetic field This new magnetic-field diagnostic method diagnostics is based on changes in the radiation is expected to lead to a significant advance emitted from the plasma due to the presence in hot-plasma studies, and has drawn much of magnetic fields. But what’s tricky about interest in the plasma research community, this method is that it’s hard to tell, under leading to collaborations with Cornell the extreme high-energy-density conditions, University in New York, the United States Naval whether changes in the emitted radiation Research Laboratory, in Washington, DC, and The Promise of are the result of the magnetic field or other Sandia National Laboratories in New Mexico. phenomena. A novel approach, recently Super-Hot Plasmas developed by Prof. Maron’s group, allows for discriminating the effects of magnetic fields on the radiation from all other factors. Controlled nuclear fusion has the potential scientific community investigating hot and to provide the world with clean and plentiful dense plasmas in an effort to progress towards electricity. Fusion produces substantially less their efficient production. Prof. Maron received radioactive waste than nuclear fission and the 2009 American Physical Society Plasma has no harmful byproducts like the carbon Physics prize for his work. The group develops Prof. Yizhak Maron dioxide waste associated with fossil fuels. methods to measure the plasma properties and Moreover, the fuel required for fusion (hydrogen to investigate what processes take place in this isotopes) is abundant in seawater. There’s just super-hot, highly charged matter —which are one catch: under the conditions available difficult to measure and analyze—in hopes today, the energy required for creating the that the understanding can be used to reach super-hot plasma needed to generate nuclear the conditions for viable fusion-based energy fusion is greater than the energy produced. production. One of the most challenging While the production of fusion can only be diagnostics to capture is the magnetic field examined on very large scale facilities, the distribution in the plasma. Magnetic fields fundamental physics issues can be studied much have a central role in fusion research. They more efficiently in university-scale machines. are used for compressing and heating up the plasma, and serve as a vessel to contain Prof. Yizhak Maron of the Institute’s Department the hot plasma (no material can contain hot of Particle Physics and Astrophysics, and the plasma; the plasma would either damage the Plasma Laboratory Group is part of the global material or the material would cool the plasma). 45 46

the waste produced by light-water reactors. So it’s not hanging around the Earth for that long.

Sounds perfect, so what’s the catch? Very strong sources of fast neutrons are needed for thorium conversion on an industrial scale. Prof. Michael Hass of the Dept. of Particle Physics and Astrophysics is investigating the options and laying the groundwork for using a state-of-the-art accelerator at Israel’s SOREQ A Safer, More Plentiful Research Center as a source of neutrons. The machinery is the newly-constructed 40 Nuclear Energy Source MeV, superconducting SARAF (Soreq Applied Research Accelerator Facility) accelerator. Prof. Enormous advances in waste reprocessing 238U also fits into this category. If scientists Hass then aims to launch an experimental and reactor safety have made nuclear could find a practical way to use thorium program for measuring transmutation and energy a promising alternative to fossil fuels. as nuclear fuel, it could provide a plentiful thorium conversion yields at the shared facility. However, nuclear power is also one of the source to run reactors for hundreds of years. most controversial alternative energies due Prof. Michael Hass to safety issues and the toxic waste it creates. There are many other advantages to using thorium as a nuclear fuel source as opposed to Conventional nuclear reactors are based on 235U. For starters, it’s safer: Thorium, although fission—a process in which the nucleus of the radioactive, is about 1,000 times less radioactive atom is split into smaller particles—of 235U than uranium. It is easy to transport safely with (a type of uranium isotope which comprises minimal shielding required, and it is safer to mine. one percent of natural uranium) and 239Pu (plutonium) isotopes. But there’s another It also is dramatically cleaner. Compared to option that scientists are exploring: thorium, conventional light-water reactors which utilize which, among other benefits, is much more 235U, thorium reactors produce very little waste— abundant than uranium. But thorium (232Th) is 0.1 percent of the amount that uranium does. a much more difficult to use in a sustainable And the waste that is produced has a half-life chain reaction of nuclear fission. The isotope of only 30 years, compared to 10,000 years for 47 48

featured keynote lectures by leading experts Green Campus from both academia and industry, with the main Today’s kids learn in school that caring for the emphasis on students presenting their own work. environment begins at home. Dr. Ron Milo of the Department of Plant Sciences would The education agenda reaches well outside agree–and so he started with his Weizmann the campus walls. For instance, Prof. David home. He and his colleagues initiated a “green Cahen, head of the Alternative Sustainable campus” project that encourages all scientists Teaching Tomorrow’s Energy Research Initiative, recently published a and staff to use resources efficiently by saving major university-level textbook on energy and on water and electricity, recycling, and biking sustainability with co-author Dr. David Ginley and walking when possible. The project’s website Energy Scientists of the (U.S.) National Renewable Energy Lab, www.weizmann.ac.il/green has a carpooling “Fundamentals of Materials for Energy and database and other resources. “Saving water and the Public Environmental Sustainability” (Cambridge and electricity and recycling are all things I do University Press, 2012). It covers the full range of in my daily life with my family,” says Dr. Milo. Education of the next generation of sponsors one such conference, every 1-2 years. subjects with which a new researcher entering “Now, I have the chance to try to influence the alternative energy scientists goes hand-in- For alternative energy in particular, the value of the field should be familiar, including recent habits of 3,000 people and convince them to hand with the Weizmann Institute research such conferences is tremendous, because they advances in clean and sustainable energy. be environmentally aware and responsible.” program. Energy education ranges from allow students the opportunity to “connect the graduate studies to textbook development dots” between what they are studying in the to improving high school science curricula lab and potential real-world applications. These focused on energy and the environment. conferences are national ones, i.e., students from all Israeli universities are invited and participate. At the Weizmann Institute, MSc and PhD students conduct research in labs alongside The first conference of this type, on solar energy Weizmann Institute scientists doing work on as an alternative energy source, was held in energy and the environment. Like all other 2010 in Zichron Ya’acov. In 2011 the Biology graduate students on campus, the bulk of for Renewable Energy Workshop (BREW) was their training occurs in the lab. In addition, held in Ramot overlooking the Sea of Galilee. student-led conferences give budding scientists Both provided an informal forum for students, the opportunity to present their work and hear scientists, and postdocs to share information about developments in the field both from and discuss the latest developments U.S. and seasoned scientists and experts in industry. AERI current challenges in the field. Their programs 50

storable, and transportable energy source. adjusting and coordinating the power needs of Long-term research on this potential solution each individual device or millions of devices from will combine Weizmann Institute strengths in a central location. Benefits include significant chemistry, physics, biology and other fields improvements in energy efficiency, enhanced that can be brought to bear on the challenge. cyber-security, and the integration of different sources of electricity (wind, solar). Because of the readily available expertise in mathematics Smart grids and computer sciences, networks and complex systems, the Weizmann Institute has the Improving sustainability also means maximizing potential to become a hub of activity in this area. the efficiency and reliability of the energy What the Future Holds conversion through a comprehensive management system of all available energy At the Weizmann Institute, sustainability, mechanism to convert solar energy, and, more resources on one network. Much in the way Solar paint eco-efficiency, and basic multidisciplinary importantly, store it? Artificial photosynthesis is that today’s “smart” phone means a phone Scientists have been dreaming about the possibility research are guiding the development of the currently at an embryonic stage, and Weizmann with a computer in it, a “smart” grid means of developing a soup of the components needed next generation of materials, processes, and Institute scientists are taking exploratory steps computerizing the electric utility grid. The for a solar cell that will be almost like paint and products. Weizmann scientists highlight five in advancing the science. For them it is clear grid includes wires, substations, transformers, can thus be applied as such on any suitable feasible research directions in which they that artificial photosynthesis has the potential to switches and much more. Field devices on it surface. If this vision can be reduced to reality, plan to invest efforts, all of which involve become a viable long-term source for chemical can be given sensors to gather data (power it presents the future possibility of turning a novel concepts and ideas for creating smarter, energy (fuel) that will not compete with, but meters, voltage sensors, fault detectors), and are wall into a low-cost solar cell, or of creating cleaner ways to generate and store energy: rather complement, food. They aim in the long integrated in a two-way digital communication ultra-thin, multi-layer solar cells cheaper and run to devise a process inspired by natural with the utility’s network operations center. The easier than is possible with today’s technology. photosynthesis and photovoltaics, in which use of automation technology would enable Artificial carbon dioxide and water combine with sunlight to create a sustainable and carbon-neutral photosynthesis fuel without the production of greenhouse For millions of years, plants and other gases. In contrast to other renewable energy photosynthetic organisms have been using light sources (apart from biofuels), which generate to create energy for all their metabolic needs. no fuel product, artificial photosynthesis’s end Can science really improve on this age-perfected product will be a highly concentrated, easily 51 52

The main idea behind solar paint is to While each component retains its identity, the Self-cleaning and couple different types of nanoparticles–one composite material, which typically includes tough semiconductor and the other metal, using natural or synthetic fibers in a softer supporting adaptive materials appropriately designed organic linking molecules. matrix, displays macroscopic properties absent Dust and dirt are the major enemies of high- These molecules will provide the self-assembly from its parent constituents, particularly in performance solar cells collectors. Weizmann capabilities, creating inter-penetrating, self- terms of mechanical properties and economic scientists envision that the solar panels of the connecting networks. The coupling must be value. Composite materials with new electrical future may be self-cleaning. And the windows done in such a way that each type will bind to and magnetic properties are known as well. of future energy-efficient buildings may be only one of the two electrical contacts, and to self-cleaning as well as self-tinting, to control one or two of the particle assemblies. Much of Advanced composite materials are playing a vital light and heat gain. Many materials—fibers, the groundwork for this idea has been done role in improved design and reduced operating polymers, synthetics and textiles—can have here already. Weizmann Institute scientists have costs for renewable energy technologies. For improved performance with the ability to repel shown ways to create one-molecule-thick films example, the combination of very strong fibers contaminants. The addition of nano-sized or of mono-materials. They have pioneered creating surrounded by a lightweight plastic matrix micro-sized particles can create a surface that new nano materials such as inorganic fullerenes enables a greater strength-to-weight ratio than inhibits the adherence of contaminants such as and quantum dots, and have extensive projects is possible with conventional metallic materials, dust. Another option is to use light to create underway building molecular-scale electronics. providing tidal and wind turbines with fatigue- a chemical reaction on a treated surface that resistant building blocks. Composites could also will repel dirt. Weizmann scientists are already be designed to minimize energy losses in storage experimenting with self-cleaning, self-healing devices. However, predicting the properties of materials in a number of contexts. Applying these Composite materials composite materials is a major challenge today ideas to solar panels and building materials may Composite materials are a class of materials that for which chemistry- and physics-based tools boost their efficiency and lower maintenance costs. combine two or more separate components to must be developed. The Weizmann Institute’s form a new product whose properties are well interdisciplinary approach has already created beyond the sum of its parts. Today the most new generations of materials from polymers to common use of composites is for structural nanoparticles, and is poised to produce even more. applications (e.g., the Boeing 787 Dreamliner). 53 54

1990 Scientists experiment with solar- Self-healing of 2nd generation powered lasers solar cell demonstrated 1992 Weizmann scientist develops Solar chemistry refines zinc from Weizmann Milestones nano-lubricant zinc oxide for fuel cells

Unique mechanism of nanoparticle 2000 Consolar develops beam-down in Energy solar cells elucidated optics at solar tower 1993 Color codes: Demonstrate catalyst for cracking Principles of operation of dye carbon-carbon bonds for industrial solar cells unraveled Solar and PV Plants& biomass Synthetic fuels chemistry Solar thermal splitting of 1994 1980 Discovered mechanisms for methane and solar reforming 1975 Weizmann scientists develop Experiments with salt-tolerant chemical bath deposition of of hydrocarbons for fuel tested improved “optically selective Dunaliella algae as a source semiconductors and quantum surfaces” for solar collectors. of metabolites such as beta dots used in dye sensitized solar Direct solar thermal splitting of carotene cells water demonstrated Pioneering work in photochemical 1982 and photoelectrochemical energy Fundraising begins for solar 1995 Develop first “porcupine” solar Progress in monolayers conversion tower high temperature receiver from organic molecules 1983 for molecular-scale Weizmann scientists pioneer Demonstrate commercial potential 1996 Scientists use light for “coherent electronics, nanolithography, isolating photosynthesizing for Dunaliella algae control” of chemical reactions optoelectronics, and biosensors components from blue-green 1984 Pioneered field of nanoparticles algae and cyanobacteria Solar tower used to convert biomass 2001 Weizmann scientists show how to for solar energy conversion to fuel, experiments in solar-driven stabilize 2nd generation cadmium 1976 First-ever solar battery developed 1985 Invent high efficiency solar hydrogen production telluride solar cells (commercialized that can both produce and battery in collaboration with First Solar) store electricity generated by Consolar Ltd. consortium between sunlight academia and industry formed to 2002 1987 Solar tower and labs of Canadian Consolar power plant’s proof-of- promote research in concentrated 1977 Institute for Energies & Applied concept testing completed First demonstration of sunlight- Research (CIEAR) dedicated solar energy in Israel driven electrochemical reduction 2003 Experiments in biomass 1998 Weizmann scientists use catalysts of carbon dioxide First-ever quantum dot films made gasification and used as solar cells in “monolayers” 1979 Scientists develop photochromic 1999 Demonstrate cheaper, high- 1989 Zinc-bromine battery made with Consolar helps Institute build materials for lenses, films and performance 2nd generation thin-films first solar gas combined cycle other uses turbines polycrystalline solar cells 55 56 2009 Weizmann scientists demonstrate spectral splitting to use more of the sunlight for solar cells

Scientists demonstrate new catalyst In Appreciation 2004 Demonstrate solar fixing of for light-driven hydrolysis of water nitrogen. Improved high temp. to hydrogen The Weizmann Institute of Science gratefully It is thanks to this support that the Institute solar receivers. acknowledges the invaluable assistance of our is advancing groundbreaking investigations Sb2S3 shown as a novel PV 2005 Commercial-scale solar tower many generous donors worldwide who have and has become a world leader in this critical material built in Nanjing, China, with contributed to alternative energy research and research field that is poised to positively affect Weizmann help Demonstrate molten carbonate have joined us on this extraordinary journey the daily lives of people and societies worldwide. to reduce CO2 to CO for use in of discovery for the benefit of all mankind. Weizmann scientists demonstrate clean fuels (then) state-of art nanoporous solar cells 2010 AERI Biofuels Consortium formed, progress in artificial 2006 Donors and scientists launch photosynthesis Alternative sustainable Energy Research Initiative (AERI) New designs for high-voltage, nanoporous solar cells Demonstrate boron and water fuel cell for producing hydrogen Second-generation designer Thanks to our Friends who Support cellulosomes produced 2007 Science magazine recognizes Energy Research in Israel 2011 Weizmann “green chemistry” Demonstrate simple models for method “breakthrough of the artificial photosynthesis Major Benefactors year” Identify heat-tolerant stains of Mary and Tom Beck-Canadian Center for The Heineman Foundation Institute scientists demonstrate algae and photosynthetic bacteria for fuel production in marginal Alternative Energy Research first “molecular keypad” lock The Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley conditions Begin new biomass project Andrea and Charles Bronfman Charitable Trust exploring algae for fuels Demonstrate techniques Philanthropies Yossie and Dana Hollander to increase production of 2008 Create the world’s first “designer metabolites in plants The Monroe and Marjorie Burk Fund for Roberto and Renata Ruhman cellulosomes” for degrading Alternative Energy Studies 2012 cellulose 170 kW solar thermal Rowland & Sylvia Schaefer Family combined cycle energy plant Ben B. and Joyce E. Eisenberg Foundation Mechanistic differences between Foundation, Inc. testing in Almeira, Spain Endowment Fund dye cells and semiconductor- Dr. Scholl Foundation Center for Water and sensitized nanoporous solar cells Research basic limits to solar Angel Faivovich Foundation for Ecological defined. cells Climate Research Research 57 58

The Bernard and Bernice Dorothy Segall Gina (Eugenie) Fromer Michael Levine Brian Steck Scholarship Fund Lisa Garoon Meyer Levy Fund for Alternative Helen Steinberg Sussman Family Center for the Study of Energy Studies llan Gluzman Larry and Mucci Taylor Environmental Sciences Cecil & Hilda Lewis Charitable P. & A. Guggenheim-Ascarelli Foundation Dale and Dennis Weiss Fund for Alternative The Wolfson Family Charitable Trust Trust Energy Estate of Joe Gurwin Robert Lewis Fredda Weiss Estate of Bronia Hacker Eric Manville Trust Supporters Estate of Martin J. Weiss Jack N. Halpern W.A. Minkoff The Charles and David Wolfson Charitable Robert Aliber Charitable Trust Jake and Dorothy Hendeles Estate of Nathan Minzly Trust Marcelo Astrachan Intel Nikken Sohonsha Corp. Robert Zaitlin Solomon and Rebecca Baker Foundation Annette Isaacson Estate of Leo Perkell Arnold (Israel) Ziff The Bendit Foundation Scholarship Estate of Sanford Kaplan Abraham and Sonia Rochlin Sharon Zuckerman Estate of Wilhelm and Ruth Berler Estate of Ilse Katz Foundation

George Brady Estate of Golda Kaufman Barrie Rose Professorial Chairs The Brita Fund for Scholarships Research James and Elaine Kay Estate of Abraham Rosenberg The Henry and Bertha Benson Professorial And Education Estate of Morris Kerzner David Rosenberg Chair (incumbent Prof. Avihai Danon) Carolito Stiftung Jack and Elisa Klein Foundation Charles Rothschild The Bronfman Professorial Chair of Plant Samy Cohn Science (incumbent Prof. Gad Galili) Estate of Lily Klein Prof. Albert B. and Heloisa Sabin Estate of Magda Collins The Gilbert de Botton Professorial Chair of The Koret Foundation Martin Kushner Schnur Plant Sciences (incumbent Prof. Avraham Eduardo A. De Carvalho The Jacob and Charlotte Lehrman Gerald Schwartz Levy) David L. Dennis, Q.C. Foundation Daniel S. Shapiro The Charles and Louise Gartner Professorial Feldman Foundation Andrew and Beverly Lengyel Chair (incumbent Prof. Uri Pick) Isabel H. Silverman Foundation Mario Fleck 59 60

The Peter and Carola Kleeman Professorial Professorial Chair of Bio-Organic Chemistry Prof. Leeor Kronik The Monroe and Marjorie Burk Fund for Chair of Optical Sciences (incumbent Prof. (incumbent Prof. Ed Bayer) Alternative Energy Studies Wolfson Family Charitable Trust Nir Davidson) The Mary and Tom Beck Canadian Center Career Development Chairs European Research Council The Murray B. Koffler Professorial Chair for Alternative Energy Research which he The Anna and Maurice Boukstein Career (incumbent Prof. Michael Hass) Helen and Martin Kimmel Center for heads Development Chair in Perpetuity (incumbent Nanoscale Science The Israel Matz Professorial Chair of Organic Dr. Ron Milo) The Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Chemistry (incumbent Prof. David Milstein) Dr. Dan Oron Charitable Trust The Edith and Nathan Goldenberg Career The Stephen and Mary Meadow Professorial Development Chair (incumbent Dr. Assaf Wolfson Family Charitable Trust The Gerhardt M.J. Schmidt Minerva Center Chair of Laser Photochemistry (incumbent Vardi) on Supramolecular Architectures which he Yossie and Dana Hollander Prof. Yitzhak Maron) heads The Recanati Career Development Chair of European Research Council The Jacques Mimran Professorial Chair Energy Research in Perpetuity (incumbent Wolfson Family Charitable Trust (incumbent Prof. Yuval Eshed) Dr. Dan Oron) Prof. Milko Van Der Boom The Charles and David Wolfson Charitable The Bruce A. Pearlman Professorial Chair Trust ‏Martin Kushner Schnur, in Synthetic Organic Chemistry (incumbent Faculty-Specific Funding Adolfo Eric Labi Prof. Milko van der Boom) Mary and Tom Beck-Canadian Center for Prof. Nir Davidson Alternative Energy Research Estate of Theodore E. Rifkin The Rowland and Sylvia Schaefer Mary and Tom Beck-Canadian Center for Professorial Chair in Energy Research Alternative Energy Research David Rosenberg Irving and Varda Rabin Foundation of the (incumbent Prof. David Cahen) Jewish Community Foundation Wolfson Family Charitable Trust Aboud and Amy Dweck The Lorna Greenberg Scherzer Professorial Nancy and Stephen Grand Center for Prof. Gary Hodes Prof. Michael Bendikov Chair (incumbent Prof. Naama Barkai) Sensors and Security Yossie and Dana Hollander Yossie and Dana Hollander The Rebecca and Israel Sieff Professorial Chair of Organic Chemistry (incumbent Wolfson Family Charitable Trust Wolfson Family Charitable Trust Prof. Gad Galili Prof. Ronny Neumann) Gerhardt Schmidt Minerva Center on Carolito Stiftung Lerner Family Plant Science Research The Robert and Yadelle Sklare Professorial Supramolecular Architectures Endowment Fund Prof. David Cahen Chair in Biochemistry (incumbent Prof. Nancy and Stephen Grand Center for Avigdor Scherz) Ben B. and Joyce E. Eisenberg Foundation Sensors and Security Endowment Fund The Maynard I.and Elaine Wishner 61

Prof. Avraham Levy Prof. David Milstein Dr. Assaf Vardi Prof. Jacob Karni

The Jacob and Charlotte Lehrman Helen and Martin Kimmel Center for Charles Rothschild Israel Strategic Alternative Energy Foundation Molecular Design which he heads Foundation Roberto and Renata Ruhman Yossie and Dana Hollander Bernice and Peter Cohn Catalysis Research Luis Stuhlberger Fund European Research Council Prof. Igor Lubomirsky European Research Council European Research Council Prof. Levy heads the Melvyn A. Dobrin Adolfo Eric Labi Center for Nutrition and Plant Research, Armando and Maria Jinich Wolfson Family Charitable Trust Prof. Naama Barkai the Charles W. & Tillie K. Lubin Center Nancy and Stephen Grand Center for for Plant Biotechnology and the Harry Helen and Martin Kimmel Award for Dr. Dror Noy Sensors and Security and Jeanette Weinberg Center for Plant Innovative Investigation Molecular Genetics Research Yossie and Dana Hollander Jeanne and Joseph Nissim Foundation for Life Sciences Research Prof. Yitzhak Maron

Dr. Ron Milo Prof. Uri Pick Lorna Greenberg Scherze Sandia National Laboratories

Lerner Family Plant Science Research Jack N. Halpern Estate of John Hunter Irving and Dorothy Rom Charitable Trust Endowment Fund European Research Council Carolito Stiftung European Research Council Prof. Avigdor Scherz The Estate of Hilda Jacoby-Schaerf Yossie and Dana Hollander Wade F.B. Thompson Charitable Foundation Prof. Ronny Neumann The Larson Charitable Foundation Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation Prof. Michael Hass Yossie and Dana Hollander Wolfson Family Charitable Trust Yossie and Dana Hollander Carolito Stiftung Bernice and Peter Cohn Catalysis Estate of David Arthur Barton Sharon Zuckerman Estate of David Turner Research Fund Anthony Stalbow Charitable Trust Estate of Nathan Baltor Mary and Tom Beck-Canadian Center for Stella Gelerman Alternative Energy Research A publication of the Department of Resource Development The Weizmann Institute of Science P.O.Box 26, Rehovot, Israel 76100 Tel: 972 8 934 4582 e-mail:[email protected] J^[M[_pcWdd?dij_jkj[0 TalkingBrands.co.il J^[M[_pcWdd ?dij_jkj[0 6EdlZg]djhZd[:cZg\nGZhZVgX] 6EdlZg]djhZ d[:cZg\nGZhZVgX]