Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XX pp. 35 to 49

EGYPTIAN MEDICAL PAPYRI

SAMIR VAHIA EL-GAMMAL*

ABSTRACT

Many valuable medical papyri on the remote civilisation of the ancient Egyptians have discovered during a period of more than 100 years ago. This immortal Egyptian medical civilisation shows a wonderful type of specialisation in pharmaceutical and medical professions and also in medical scientific writing together with an advanced surgical art. A study of these papyri shows that. the art of preparing the drugs and medicaments together with the knowledge of the properties of the was much earlier than the art of and . These papyri are considered as the pharmaco- poeias of those ancient periods.

Many valuable rolls of medical physicians). This denotes that the papyri have been discovered during ancient Egyptian was the a period of more than 100 years ago, oldest therapeutical profession, which gave light on the remote civili- practised by herbalists since very sation of the ancient Egyptians, thus remote ages, before and proved the wrongly belief that the surgery was practiced. ancient Greek civilisation was the first one to appear in all the world, and These papyri are considered as that was the real cradle and the Pharmacoepias of those ancient origin of civilisation. periods. They constitute very valuable eternal heritage. showing how the Going through these papyri, they ancient Egyptians reached a high show that the art of preparing the stage of glory in their therapeutical drugs and medicaments together with civilisation. in prehistoric ages. while the knowledge of the properties of the European ancestors were dwelling the medicinal plants was much earlier in the darkness of knowledge. than the art of anatomy and surgery. Copying of these papyri was made This immortal Egyptian medical by professional scribes who had a civilisation shows a wonderful type limited knowledge of medicine (non- of specialisation in pharmaceutical

*Historian. P. O. Box 136. Maddi, Cairo. EGYPT. 36 Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XX and medical professions and also in It is believed to have been written medical scientific writing together in 1550 B.C. at the beginning of the with an advanced surgical art. Thanks 18th dynasty, evidenced by the appea- to these medical papyri which were rance of the name of the king of that preserved for the present generation time. It clearly shows that it was and the generations to come, which copied from an older manuscript. It in the past were copied and adopted is written in writing of the by the near-by countries of the Middle , with heads of the East and crossed the Mediterranean subjects in red ink. It also consti- sea where it went deep in ancient tutes the oldest proof on the high Greek and Mid of Europe and became level of civilisation in the art of phar- a part of their folk-traditional curative macy in . (Translated formulae and thus shows the influence by Wreszinski in 1913 and again by of the ancient Egyptian medical civi- B. Ebbell in 1937). Iisation on the whole of the civilised world. One can observe the following: a) The medical prescriptions were Both Edwin Smith and Ebers arranged according to the different papyri were discovered together in organs of the human body. This one jar. The former was considered tabulation is the primary step in the by the ancient Egyptians as the Text- pathway of development for the sake Book of Surgery ~while the latter as of . theText Book of Medicine. b) The begins with three These medical papyri are: incantations. Here we find the first 1. Ebers medical papyrus: separation between and medi- It was discovered in 1862 in cine, since it contains about 877 somewhat good condition, bought by medical prescriptions and only twelve the German, George Ebers in 1872 incantations. This is a clear evidence and was named after him. It is the for the dependance on drugs rather longest, most important and famous than magic and proves that the phar- historical and medical document. It macist was the only one in charge of is kept in Liepzig University. It is the preparation of the prescription's neatly written denoting good care in ingredients. its writing, in red and black ink, and comments on some of the prescrip- c) It also contains the ways of tions, describing them as good, which treatment of the diseases, caused by might be the work of a pharmacist worms, haematuria, vitiligo, leprosy, who found it beneficial while prepa- ophthalmias (endemic diseases in ring some of its recipes. ancient Egypt from remote periods), Egvptian Medical Pepvri=Semir Yahia £I-Gamma! 37 also against wounds, turnouts, boils, registration and monopoly, same as nasal and ear affections, to-day . .. etc., drugs against termites, scorpi- ons, lizards, rats ... etc. f) The pharmacists at that time were very skilled in the preparation of d) It is nearly the only papyrus that medicaments and in their selection. mentions diagnosis together with the They used fresh medicinal plants or prescriptions; a matter which was som=times boiled; fruits unripe, ripe very rare in the rest of the medical and over ripe, all parts of the medicinal papyri discovered. It also shows that trees even their spikes, thorns or resin the ancient Egyptians knew how to with special attention to the right and differentiate between closely related exact time for choosing these drugs, diseases, and their tend to perform and their preparation time and the many trials and experiments, as obser- best localities to obtain them. ved in that prescription for the regro- wing of the scalp's fallen hair, They also added sweetening prepared by the King Teta's mother agents so as to obscure the bad taste (3rd king of the 1st dynasty), which of some of the drugs, by using beer shows that this papyrus W2S the or milk. They also knew how to result of many years of experiments differentiate between simple, cold before it was written, probably before and bitter kinds of beer, and between the dynastic period, and that medical fresh, sour and cooked milk from knowledge was interchangeable bet- different sources such as mares, cows ween ancient Egypt and other neigh- or human. Also, knew sycamore bouring countries like the city of latex, simple and mineral water, Byblos ill Lebanon. Certain words linseed emulsion, flour water. natran were found to be orehistoric while water .. etc. copying, so a side note was added to explain their meaning. g) The prescriptions contained dif- fernt sorts of food. skin and hair is 20.23 metres long, ointments, pills for chewing. enemas, with 108 columns each of 20-22Iines. ear wash, body wash, nasal drops, e) Also mentioned in the papyrus, a gargles, suppositories. snuffs, incense, ~;:escription pr -parad bv a pharmacist purification vapours. perfumes, inhala- named "Khov" in Heliopolis for the tions, potions, cataplasrna. ophthalmic cure of oecular infections. This preparations; eye ointments and proves that there existed in Heliopolis. drops, Kohl and several medical pharmacists who used to prepare advices. certain medicaments, c~lIed after their names (!S a sort of trade mark The surgical part was written in 38 Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XX the same pattern as in Edwin Smith c) It is also concerned with the papyrus. treatment of surgical cases together with some magical incantations and 2. Edwin Smith surgical papyrus: spells. It shows how great the human It was discovered in 1862 A D. mind war; in discovering the hidden by the American Edwin Smith, toge- secrets of the human body and how ther with the Ebers papyrus, and is progressive were the ancient Egyp- kept now in the Historical Society of tians in the classification of the study New York. It dates back to nearly of the surgical cases by first descri- 1700 B.C, but shows that it was bing them, then their examination, recopied from the original manuscript diagnosis, choice of the treatment, which was written by , the ways of preparation of the medica- famous physician of that age, round ment and mode of use. 2800 BC., (Translated by James Concerning surgery, the ancient Breasted in 1930). Egyptian surgeons were very skilled in operating on wounds, head It shows the following a) It comprises 17 columns, 469 concussions, broken limbs .. etc. using various surgical instruments of lines, with a length of 4.68 metres, various shapes such as curved knives full of ancient Egyotian drawings, drills, saws ..etc. They used to open vertically and horizontally oriented the skull, remove any blood clots or and believed to have been written by stop bleeding, then clean the damaged different persons due to the insimila- tissues and finally replace the piece rity of the writings, but looks identical of skull and bind it in position with to that kind of writinq commonly bandages and adhesives. used during the Hvksos invasion.

Such operations were performed b) It contains explanations of seve- by the ancient Eqvptims, even in r21 cases without mentioning the pre-dynastic times (a number of skulls treatment. Also other cases which have been found which bear evidence could not be cured, description of of trepanning, and the patient some- wounds and fractures that occur in times survived as the fact that the the different parts of the body. Also severed section of the skull had knit contains some incantations and pres- to the parent bone, as was found in cription!' for rejuvenation of the elder one of the mummies). people. So it shows how remote the ancient Egyptians' great civilisation, Other operc.tions as delicate as and to how extent was the develop- this were performed by the Egyptian ment of surgery by them. surgeons, as was written in Edwin -Samir Yahia E/-Gammal 39

Smith surgical papyrus (c. 1700 B.C.) preserved in California museum. It which is considered the oldest book is believed to have been written at of surgery in the world, with cases the same time with Ebers papyrus, ranging from injuries of the cranium but is not 8 copy of it, although very to the lower spine, all methodically similar in its prescriptions, but con- arranged. Each of its 48 cases were tains 8 lot of informations that are preceded by a brief caption expres- not present in Ebers, and some sing a summary diagnosis, followed prescriptions are literally repeated in by another detailed diagnosis, a brief both of them. Also the arrangement but clearly formulated prognosis and of the prescriptions are quite different sometimes the therapy. In most and some of the headings in the cases, a later Egyptian commentator identical ones differs. (Translated by added one or more explanatory notes Reisner in 1905, then by Werszinski to the original text, in order to in 1912 then by Lutz et al in 1935). interpret expressions difficult to understand or to expound obscure It is clearly evident that the passages containg words or expres- writer of had t ake n sions which have become obsolete his informations from Ebers papyrus since the original text of the manus- and from some prescriptions gatherd cript. and collected by some physicians from the folkloric medicine of the This papyrus must therefore have villagers which was handed from been one of the standard text-books generation to generation, either used in the Egyptian medical schools, verbally or in writing. (Sometimes and was certainly much older than considered as the practitioner's recipe the date of the present manuscript, book) . in fact it is most probably over 6000 years old. Also, it is clearly evident that Hearst papyrus was written in a small 3. Hearst medical papyrus: village in contrast to Ebers papyrus which was written in the big and It was discovered in 1901 and modern city of Thebes due to the was named after the lady who paid contents of the civilised medical for the expences of Dr. Reisner's information. expedition in Egypt, and her name was Mrs. Phoebe Apperson Hearst of One can cleady see the following; America. The papyrus contains 18 a) The ancient Egyptians arranged columns, 273 lines and 660 prescrip- the ways of treatment according to tions. the organs of the human body. with mention of the cure for expelling It dates back to 1500 B.C., and is evil spirits, fear, anxiety ..etc. 40 Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Mad, Vol. XX b) Decoctions were prepared in the dressings, cataplasma, limb plaster, open dew, and the ointment bases diet food, creams, ointments, pow- consisted of lard, fat, olive oil ..etc. ders, magic incantations ..etc. c) Incantations were recited during i) Hearst Papyrus resembles to a weighing of the prescription's ingre- great extent the Berlin papyrus, with dients, showing [how accurate the literal and identical similarity to the ancient Egyptians were in specifying Ebers papyrus prescriptions. each dose. 4) Berlin medical papyri: d) Oil, honey and beer had special (Nos. 3038 & 3027); (Erman appreciation, and whenever any of papyrus) ; them was mixed with other ingre- They were found together by the dients, a special pray was done. Italian 'Gulsepoe Passalacqua' in 1825 near Memphis and are kept in Berlin e) The patient's name was always Museum. They are of great similarity, written in red ink while the ingredients specially that of No, 3038, to that of were in black with the doses in red. Ebers and Hearst papyri. Both were f) The ancient Egyptians had special written in black and red ink. They ways of treatment concerning teeth wer j considered as the most precious inflammation, headaches, breast volumes in the Iibrarv of the God swelling, stomachache, heart trou- Imhotep in Memphis. (Translated by bles, broken bones, tumours, boils, Erman in 1901). bites of crocodiles, pigs, wild buffaloes, lions, human beings, ..etc. The first one (No. 3038) which is Also for the different types of wounds, the most important of them, is of urinary infections and diuresis, 5.16 rretres long, with 15 columns, bladder infection, general debility, and dates back to 1550 B.C. A heading at its beginning denotes that g) They used to cure anaemia by it was an "Introductory for medical eating cooked hull's liver or its blood, prescriptions aqiinst pain", and that had prescriptions for body pain. Evil it was copied from an old papvrus spirits were expelled from the sick that was found at the feet of the God bodies with special prescriptions Anubis in Osim (Imbaba to-day, a composed of several herbs mixed subsrb of Greater Cairo), during the with honey, This clearly shows that reign of the King Athothis, the 2nd they did not use magic only for that king of the 1st dynasty, (who was purpose. also a physician and wrote a valuable volume on anatomy), then that old h) The papyrus contain prescriptions papyrus b .came the possesion of for the preparation of pills, potions, King Send. (Galen referred much in Egyptian Medical Papyri-Samir Yahia EI-Gammal 41 his medical books about this old . It is written in the papyrus). (contains 279 lines and Hieratic writing, and mostly deterio- 204 prescriptions). It was written by rated, with many incantations and the physician "Neterhotep". One can few prescriptions, dating to 1350 observe the following in this papyrus: B.C. (63 prescriptions, 11 of them a) It contains prescriptions against were mentioned in Ebers papyrus). pain, evil spirits, painful micturition It was thought first that it belonged and haematuria (Bilharziasis). and to the 4th dynasty (2720 B.C.) due intestinal worms (Ascaris & tape to the mention of the name of the worms), against vomiting, fever, King Khufu (Cheops), but it was breast tumours, stomach and heart found from the pattern of the writing troubles, scorpion bites, burns, ear that it was written in the 19th dynasty. pain ..etc. Most of the prescriptions were copied from older texts, but due to the b) Liniments were used orally in two abundance of magical spells, it shows prescriptions. that magic at that time was dominant over medicine and drugs. (Translated c} It also contains 8 prescriptions by Wreszenski in 1912). for detecting women's ability to pregnancy, thus proving the great One can deduce the following; interest of the ancient Egyptians in a} One of the incantations was that matter, to the extent that they against strong fever, in which a plead called the God Imhotep "children to the Gods was made to remove the giver to those who have none". bad glands from the patient (most probable a tumour). d) It also contains 3 magical in- cantations; one of them to be recited b) It contains 11 prescriptions before the oral intake of drugs, the composed of cataplasma and dres- second to alleviate pain, and the third sings, 6 ointments, 26 incantations against stomach pain. . etc. The other Berlin medical papyrus (No. 3027) dates back to 1350 B.C., c) The medical prescriptions are few and is composed of 21 columns, 3 and simple in their formulae, using prescriptions and 30 incantations. herbs which were available at home (Translated by Wreszenski in 1909). such as wheat, barley, lard, lettuce, honey, carob, sycamore latex, palm 5) : pollen grains. etc. (No. 10059); It is a small papyrus roll, found d) Chemicals such as heavy metals in 1860 A D., and is preserved in the were introduced in the prescriptions 42 Bul!. Ind. tnst. Hist. Med. Vol. XX such as white lead, red lead oxide, are also preserved in the British antimony sulphide ..etc. Museum; the 1st one totally dedicated to prescriptions against sexual weak- e) Most of the prescriptions were ness, while the other two are on meant for the treatment of burns, medicine and magic. wounds, using lead salts, poppy plant for gangrenous burns. 7) Kahun medical papyrus: It was discovered in 1889 and f) It is composed of 19 columns. is considered the oldest medical papyrus, written circa 1900 B C. It 6) Chester Beatty medical papyrus: deals with diseases of women. The This papyrus dates back to 1250 description of each disease begins B.C. It was bought by Chester Beatty with the chief symptoms. The last at the end of the 19th century and page mentions methods of ascertain- was given as a gift to the British ing pregnancy and sex of foetus. It Museum. It consists of 8 columns, is 1 meter long and 32.5 em wide, each with 14 lines, and contains 41 composed of three columns. It prescriptions for the treatment of the resembles the texts of the other anal diseases. The scientific opinions medical papyri and does not contain in this papyrus resembles very much any description of surgical treatment, those ones which Hippocrates adopted but with many drugs. (Preserved in in his works concerning the anal the British Museum). It contains anatomy and diseases. Also the 154 lines, 34 prescriptions. (Tran- prescriptions are classified into sub- slated by Griftith in 1898). This jects, with similar pattern, denoting papyrus proves to be the origin from that the writer was a specialist in the which Ebers and Edwin Smith papyri anal diseases. (Translated by Jon- have copied, due to the similarity of kheere in 1947). the prescriptions.

The scientific level of this papyrus Another papyrus wa s discovered coincides with that at Ebers and by the same person, and was called Kahun papyri, and with same impor- Kahun veterinary papyrus. It treats tance as Berlin papyrus. It does not fish, birds and animals. Also preser- contain any new medical informations ved in the British Museum. It dates because the anal diseases were back to the same period as the mentioned in Hearst, Edwin Smith medical one (Also translated by and Ebers papyri. Griffith in 1898).

Other Chester Beatty medical Ramesseum papyri: papyri (Nos 10690, 10695, 10698), These are five small medical Egyptian Medical Papyri-Samir Yahia £I-Gamma/ 43 papyri. each with about 20 lines, and and composed of 29 lines, deals with contains prescriptions for the treat- gynaecology and midwifery. ment of different diseases of the eyes, burns, urine, pain, worms ..etc. They Carlsberg medical papyrus; (No.8): date back to the 19th dynasty. It is composed of deteriorated bits of papyri, preserved in the Uni- lieden papyrus: versity of Copenhagen, Denmark, This medical papyrus is preser- dates back to the 19-20 dynasty ved in the Lieden Museum, Holland, The front columns contains pres- and dates to the same period as that criptions ophthalmology while the of Berlin papyrus (No. 3038). i. e. back on gynaecology, with delivery round 1350 B.C., but less important symptoms, sex of the babv ..etc. It since the medical prescriptions are resembles that of Berlin papyrus few and the incantations are many, (No. _038) and that of Kahun papyrus, composed of 10 columns. (Translated by Erik Inversen in 1939 and by H. Grapow). louvre medical papyrus: This medical papyrus is preserved Many of the theories enclosed in in the Louvre Museum. France. It is this papyrus were copied by Hippo- very short, composed of 3 columns. crates, which were later found in the English folkloric medicine of the 12th Turin papyrus: century A D., and in the German folk- It is a small papyrus with many loric medicine of the 17th century AD, incantations. Most of these informations on medi- cine were distributed in Europe by The Greek medical papyrus: the famous physician Constantinus It is a big papyrus, preserved in Africanus who was a graduate of the Lieden Museum, Holland. It contains famous school of medicine of Salerno, prescriptions similar to those in Berlin Italy in 1200 AD, and were found in papyrus (No. 3038). composed of his belongings after his death. This ointments and mixtures, mostly about school played a great role in the sex problems, written in Greek. spread of the ancient Egyptian medi- The Lieden Greek papyrus: cine in the whole of the European It was written in the 1st century continent, thus proving that the anci- A.D. in Greek, found in Upp ir Egypt ent Egyptian medicine was adopted by the Greeks which was later trans- and is preserved in Lieden Museum, f erred to the Romans. Holland. Carlsberg medical papyrus was Gardner medical papyrus: literally copied from the Ophthalmo- It was written circa 2000 B C., chapter of Ebers papyrus. 44 Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XX

Of the later medical papyri, which long and 27 cm wide with 240 lines were copied from the earlier ones are and 237 prescriptions. the following: 1) The London medical It resembles very much the earlier papyrus: ancient Egyptian papyri and contains It was written in the Demoting more about the Greek knowledge on writing of the Egyptian language, and medicine and the Arabic civilsation, dates back to the 3rd century A.D. evidenced by the abundance of Arabic It contains a good some of the old names of drugs in the text. It is medical informations, and preserved preserved in the French Institute of in the British Museum. Oriental Antiquities, Cairo. (It was translated by Chassinat). It is charac- 2) The Golenishef papyrus: terised by the extensive use of opium It dates back to the Roman period, as a sedative in gynaecology and round the 3rd century A.D., and ophthalmology. devoted to gynaecology, written in Greek. b) Zijega medical papyrus; (7-8th centuries A.D.) : 3) Cattawi papyrus: It is preserved in the Vatican It is devoted to surgery, written library, and consists of two papers of in Greek, and dates back to the 3rd parchment in 4 pages, and contains century AD. 45 prescriptions on dermatology. It 4) Coptic papyri: was a part of a big and important They are papyri or parts of big volume (245 p) which was lost. It is volumes, written on parchment paper, written in the Coptic language, after found in different parts of Egypt and being translated from that pharaonic contains many medical prescriptions, volume which was preserved in giving a clear idea on the medicine lmhotep library in Memphis. with the during the 1st-8th century A D, all approval of its keepers. (It is preser- written in the Upper Egypt coptic ved in Italy and was translated by language. Z6ega). a) EI-Mashayekh or Chassinat It clearly shows the influence of papyrus; (9-10th cent. A.D) : Christianity on the pattern of writing It is one of the important refe- of the text. in which the names of rences on the drugs and medical the Pharaonic Gods were replaced treatment, written during the 9-1 Oth with the names of Christian archan- centuries A D. and was found in gels (Isis. Horus to Gabriel, Rafael, Upper Egypt in 1890. It is 2.48 metres Israel, Michael ...etc.). Egyptian Medical Pepvri=Semir Yahia EI-Gammal 45

This papyrus explains the ways gical like Edwin Smith and some of preparing the drugs, uses of sulphur with magical incantations and baths in hot water for the treatment spells like Berlin papyrus. of Scabies, and the extensive uses of minerals in topical usage. 3) Some of them are well arranged scientifically, in the following c) Xenon papyrus: manner: A small medical papyrus, found a-type of disease. in a deteriorated state. b-method of examination. c-diagnosis. Other medical papyri are distri- d-description of the treatment. buted in the museums of Paris, London, Turin, Berlin, Budapest, e-method of preparation of the Vatican and others, which show many prescription. of the medical traditions that are still f-mode of use. in use up till now in Egypt, in the same way, and even in Europe. A mere glance to one of the cases in on sur- Other papyri which are found in gery shows how accurate were the British museum and in Turin the ancient Egyptians in their contain almost identical sections and scientific knowledge. seem to have been transcribed from 4) All of the medical papyri contains one master book. drugs of plant, animal and mine- Conclusion: rai origin, with more than half of the former. 1) These medical papyri are conside- red as documents and text books, 5) Many of the plants used in the semi-official, copied from earlier different prescriptions are volumes with or without some unknown up till now, because modifications. They were valued many of them were given secret as educational references, that laid discriptive names, many have down strong cultural bases to the stopped to exist in Egypt, others profession of Pharmacy and all have been imported from the medical branches including sur- neighbouring countries, ..etc. gery. They were considered as the Pharmacoepias of those pe- 6) All these medical papyri are won- riods. derful and immortal heritage to Egypt and to all the civilised 2) Some of these papyri are wholly world, showing how glorious medical such as Ebers, some sur- were the ancient Egyptians in 46 Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XX

their medical knowledge since The Kahun medical papyrus spe- very remote historical periods, and aks of the different diseases of wo- also gives a good example about men as being due to morbid states, the specialisation in professions or wanderings of the uterus; exactly and in medical writing and also the same statement is found in the about the great development in Hippocratic work "de morbis mulie- surgery they achieved. rum", 2nd book.

7) The information contained in all At the beginning of Edwin Smith these medical papyri were copied papyrus, various injuries to the skull and recopied by all the neighbou- are described, quite systematically ring countries of the mediterra- arranged: first, the superficial wounds nean region, going deep into the and then successively the deeper- the heart of Europe, evidenced by going wounds. This recalls the des- the strange similarity of their cription in the Hippocratic writing folkloric recipes to those of the "de capitis vulneribus". ancient Egyptians, thus showing how much they owe to the Egyp- According to Ebers papyrus, li::;n civilisation. prescriptions 36-43, affections of "mouth of the stomach", may be It must be pointed out that, a accompanied by diseases in different very great deal of the Greek medicine organs. Herewith may be compared has been taken over from the ancient Alexander Traltianus ' statement VII, Egyptians. This is especially conspi- chapter 1; .. "that when the mouth of cuous in materia medica; an over- the stomach is ill, it becomes a source whelming number of remedies in the of many ailments, bringing about medical papyri are found in Diosco- epilepsy, cramps ..etc". The surgical rides book of herbs and are prescri- section in Ebers papyrus (106-110). bed against exactly the same disea- treating the different kinds of swell- ses, so there can be no doubt that ings, reminds one of Galen's work the Greeks must have borrowed them "de tumoribus contra naturarn", and from the Egyptians. may, no doubt, be considered as a forerunner of the same. The Ebers papyrus contains but minute parts of nosology and patho- Indeed, even the ancient doctrine logic doctrines. It is difficult to of the disease-producing humours as make out how much of the rest of the cause of different diseases, as Greek medicine is a loan from the concerning tho Phlegm theory, shows Nile valley. that it has come from Egpyt. (Ebers a

Egyptian Medical Papyri-Samir Yahia £I-Gamma/ 47

papyrue 25 and the Hippocratic work physician whom the Egyptians gave "de glandulis", chapter 14). this dignity, that is Imhotep.

So the Greek medicine has taken This immortal Egyptian civilisa- over very much from the Egyptian tion shows a wonderful type of spe- medicine and can only be looked cialisation in pharmaceutical and upon as a further development of the medical professions, and also, in latter. The best evidence of the high medical scientific writing together value of the Egyptian remedies, is with and advanced surgical art. the fact that, they have been able to Thanks to these medical papyri which hold their ground during thousands were preserved for the present gene- of years; a great many of them are rations which were copied by all the found in the works of Dioscorides, neighbouring countries thousands of Hippocrates, Galen ...etc., and from years ago and went very deep in them, they have been handed down their culture specially the Greeks and to later times. mid of Europe, and so became a part of their folk-traditional curative for- So Egypt and not Greece must be mulae thus proving the great influ- considered the original home of the medical art, and we ought not to set ence of the ancient Egyptian medical up the Greek Asklepios as the patron civilisation on the whole of the civi- genius of medicine, but rather the lised world. 48 Bull. Ind. tnst. Hist. Med. Vol. XX

REFERENCES 1-The Technical of the Ancients; by Albert Newsberger (1930). 2- The Divine Origin of the Herbalists; by Budge. 3-The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus; by Breasted (1940). 4- The Four Thousand Years of Pharmacy; by Charles H. Lawall. 5-Un Papyrus Medical Copte; by E. Chassinat. 6-W. R. Dawson. 7- The Papyrus Ebers; by EbfelJ. 8- Egyptian Murnies; by Eliot Smith. 9-Lectures in the ; by Georgy Sobhy. 10- Lectures in the Book of Simple Drugs; by Georgy Sobhy. 11-Die Garten Pflanzen im Alten Aegypten; by L. Keimer (1924). 12-AII Medical Papyrus; by Wreszinski. 13-Die Flora das Juden, 5 vols.: by Law (1924). 14-Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries; by Lucas (1948). 15- The Ancient Botany; by P. E. Newberry. 16-0rigins and Development of Applied Chemistry; by Partington. 17-The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides; by Robert T. Gunther. 18- De La Flora Pharmaceutique; by Schwein Fusth (1882). 19- Les Vegetaux Antiques; by Victor Loret. 20-Chronicles of Pharmacy, 2 vols.; by Wooten. 21-A History of Medicine; by A. Castigloni (1947). 22-Drugs of Ancient Egypt; by Saber Gabra (1951). Egyptian Medical Pepvri=-Semir Yahia EI-Gammal 49

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