Encyclopedia of Contemporary British Culture

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CONTEMPORARY BRITISH CULTURE

Edited by Peter Childs and Mike Storry

London and New York First published 1999 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor and Francis Group

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Encyclopedia of contemporary British culture/edited by Peter Childs and Mike Storry. p. cm. Includes bibliographical information and index. 1. Great Britain—Civilization—20th century—Encyclopedias. 2. Great Britain—History—Elizabeth II, 1952– —Encyclopedias. I. Childs, Peter, 1962– . II. Storry, Mike, 1943– . DA589.4.E53 1999 98–32205 306’.0941’0904–dc21 CIP

ISBN 0-415-14726-3 (Print Edition) ISBN 0-203-02795-7 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-39998-6 (Glassbook Format) TO JO CROFT

Contents

Editorial team viii Entries A-Z 1 List of contributors ix

Introduction xiii Index 577 Acknowledgements xv How to use this book xvi Classified entry list xvii Editorial team

General editors Margaret Marshment John Moores University Peter Childs Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Frank McDonough Higher Education John Moores University Mike Storry Martin Dawber Savannah College of Art and Design John Moores University Derrick Cameron John Moores University Consultant editors Sean Cubitt Andor Gomme John Moores University Keele University Eugene Lange Peter Bailey John Moores University John Moores University Nicole Matthews Jo Croft John Moores University John Moores University List of contributors

Louise Allen Dymphna Gallery Lancaster University John Moores University Neil Ankers Sarah Castell John Moores University Christ’s College, Cambridge Carole Baldock Peter Childs Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Jim Barnard Education John Barry Satinder Chohan Keele University Paul Barry Clarke David Bateman University of Essex John Moores University Christopher Colby Cary Bazalgette British Film Institute Graham Connelly University of Strathclyde David Bell Staffordshire University Helen Cooke Alice Bennett Simon Coppock John Moores University Sarah Corbett Kalwant Bhopal John E.Cornwell Alison Bomber Nicky Coutts Edinburgh University Royal College of Art Stuart Borthwick Caroline Cox John Moores University London College of Fashion Simon Bottom David Croft University of Liverpool Jo Croft Rachael Bradley John Moores University David Burrows Sean Cubitt Wimbledon School of Art John Moores University Chris Byrne Edmund Cusick Edinburgh College of Art John Moores University x List of contributors

Al Deakin George Hastings University of Westminster Manchester University John Deeney Phil Hubbard University of Ulster at Coleraine Coventry University Kay Dickinson Eamonn Hughes University of Sussex Queens University, Belfast Mark Douglas Jim Hunter Falmouth College of Arts Lawrence Irvine Iles Dave Egan British Labour Heritage John Moores University Dave Jackson Jan Evans John Moores University John Moores University Sam Johnstone Mark Evans Liverpool University Coventry University Chris Jones Fatima Fernandes National Resource Centre for Dance John Moores University Stephen C.Kenny Rob Fillingham John Moores University St Helens College Steven Kerensky Natalie Gale Eugene Lange Warwick University John Moores University Craig Gerrard Oliver Leaman John Moores University John Moores University Claire Glossop Graham Ley University of Leeds University of Exeter Charlotte Goddard Alastair Lindsley Magdalene College, Cambridge Jo Littler Barry Godfrey Sussex University University of Keele Gerard Loughlin Hilary J.Grainger University of Newcastle Staffordshire University Peter Lunt Michael Green University College London University of Birmingham Sophia Lycouris Steve Greenfield Nottingham Trent University University of Westminster Tom Maguire Matthew Grice Liverpool Hope University College Trevor R.Griffiths Jim Maloney University of North London John Moores University Jim Hall Andrea Martin Falmouth College of Arts Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra List of contributors xi

Nicole Matthews Jo Phoenix John Moores University Keele University Arthur McCullough Robert Pulley University of Ulster Falmouth College of Arts Alexandra McGlynn Andrew Quicke John Moores University Regent University, Virginia Clare McGlynn Lawrence Quill University of Newcastle Paul Rixon Betty McLane-Iles Truman State University Staffordshire University David McNeill Alice E.Sanger John Moores University University of Manchester David Mellett Pete Sheterline St Helens College Liverpool University Bob Millington Svanborg Sigmarsdottir Bolton Institute University of Essex Brett Mills Peter Simmons Canterbury Christ Church College Lancaster University Miriam Mokal Jim Sinclair John Moores University Open Polytechnic of New Zealand Liz Moor Darren Smale University College London John Moores University Joe Moran David Smale John Moores University John Moores University Ron Moy John Moores University Christopher Smith University of East Anglia Jo Murphy-Lawless University of Dublin Tamsin Spargo John Moores University Rex Nash University of Liverpool Helen Stoddart Keele University Emma R.Norman Elizabeth Storry John Offer Queens University of Belfast University of Ulster Joan Stewart Ormrod Mike Storry Manchester Metropolitan University Savannah College of Art and Design Guy Osborn Lucinda Towler University of Westminster University of Warwick Rod Paterson Ryan S.Trimm St Helens College University of North Carolina xii List of contributors

Mick Turner John Williams Sheffield Hallam University Gordon Urquhart University of Aberdeen Richard J.Williams John Moores University Jeanette Wardrop South Bank University Brian Woolland University of Reading Clare Whatling University of Manchester Roy Wormald John Moores University Colin Williams Introduction

British culture, like the proverbial elephant seized not personality and industry. The Encyclopedia is by several blindfolded persons, appears a very arranged in alphabetical order so that unlikely different beast depending on where you take hold bedfellows may stimulate the browser or casual of it. The entries in this encyclopedia are united reader. Connections can also be traced by by the term ‘British’ but separated by the consulting the subject area classified contents list stratifications of a ‘culture’ that has never been at the start and by looking up the cross-references still and always been in a state of flux. signalled by the entries themselves. It is intended Contemporary culture, like contemporary life, that this will enable several ways of approaching is changing faster than ever before, which means the material, for the general reader, the curious on the one hand that many of the traditional factfinder and the subject specialist. staple elements of ‘British life’ are no longer In a selective enterprise such as this, the range central to a definition of a contested national of entries cannot be all-encompassing and the identity, and on the other hand, because the treatment of a subject like British culture cannot speed of movement is so great, a snapshot of be exhaustive. In terms of temporal period, the current cultural practices is inevitably going to book covers British life since the 1960s, though be blurred. So, assessing the contemporary is most entries are skewed towards the 1990s. In the hardest historical problem of all; but it is also terms of scope, we attempted to cover in one the most exciting, perplexing, tantalizing and, we way or another everything that has contributed believe, the most fascinating. This book is an more than ephemerally to British social life, but, attempt to survey as much of contemporary to avoid a rapid proliferation of entries, we British cultural practice as is possible without additionally decided to focus on people born in succumbing to the inevitable self-obsolescence Britain (though some other nationals, either that such a project brings with it. naturalized or resident in Britain, have also been The Encyclopedia of Contemporary British Culture included). The question of what is or is not brings together subjects which would probably ‘British’ was largely left up to contributors, and never be found alongside each other in any other so no definitive position has been taken (and book. The entries vary in length from long would raise more problems than it solved) assessments of changes in major cultural fields beyond the political fact of any individual to short synopses of the careers of key person’s (or institution’s) nationality. As editors, individuals. The book is a compendium of many we have aimed for a certain amount of factual different and wide-ranging subject areas. Each and stylistic consistency, but the dynamic of a area has a list of entries which has been designed subject such as national culture insists upon in a particular way. This means that there are attitudinal variations and multiple perspectives. entries on many film directors, for example, but Contributors have been encouraged rather than there are no entries on authors: the literature discouraged to be opinionated and to raise section is designed in terms of genre and market, contentious issues where appropriate. xiv Introduction

The level of the book is such that it should be of interest both to the general reader and to the beginner seeking information on a specific topic. It also offers overviews and opinions for those already familiar with the content of the entries. We hope it will be of value to everyone involved in studying British culture, at all levels and in all countries. On longer entries, further reading, where available, has been recommended for anyone who wishes to study the subjects in greater depth.

Peter Childs Mike Storry Acknowledgements

We should like to thank all the editors and supportive and ever resourceful editors on a contributors for their help, plus everyone else project of several years upon which none but who has put up with this project since 1995. the brave should embark. Last and most of all, Fiona Cairns, Samantha Parkinson, Mina Gera- Peter would like to thank Childe Harold and Price and particularly Matthew Gale have been Mike would like to thank Potiphar Gubbins. How to use this book

The Encyclopedia contains over 900 alphabetically Biographical entries contain dates and places arranged, signed entries, ranging from concise, of birth and death, wherever the information is factual contributions to longer overview essays. readily available, followed by the profession of For readers with a particular interest, there is the subject. Unless a country is indicated, the a thematic contents list which groups entries place of birth/death is in the United Kingdom. according to subject, e.g. music or the visual arts. County names have been provided for some of In the body of each entry direct cross-references, the more obscure places indicated in bold type, lead to other relevant Suggestions for further reading are given articles, while a ‘see also’ section at the end where appropriate and where relevant texts are suggests related topics. easily accessible. Classified entry list

All of the entries in the Encyclopedia are categorized under the most appropriate subject heading(s). Some entries appear under more than one heading where relevant. Architecture agricultural buildings neo-classicism Alsop, Will new brutalism Archigram new towns Architectural Association Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners Architectural Foundation office building art galleries Outram, John Arup Associates postmodernism Birmingham Conference Centre Powell and Moya Byker Housing Prince of Wales’s Institute Cardiff Bay Opera House restaurants and bars Chamberlain, Powell and Bon RIBA Chipperfield, David Ritchie, Ian city redevelopment Robert Maguire and Partners Coates, Nigel Robert Matthew Johnson-Marshall and Partners conservation groups Rogers, Richard Crosby, Theo shops Cullinan, Edward Smithson, Alison and Peter Denys Lasdun and Partners Solar School, Wallasey Dixon, Jeremy Spence, Basil Foster Associates Stirling, James Gillespie, Kidd and Coia St Ives green belts supermarkets and malls Hammersmith Ark, London Terry Farrell Partnership high-tech town planning Hopkins, Michael university building Horden, Richard Wilkinson, Chris housing Wilson, Colin St John industrial buildings Yorke, Rosenberg and Mardall MacCormac, Richard Consumerism Martin, Leslie Mather, Rick advertising, influence of modernism appliances municipal buildings auctions xviii Classified entry list car boot sales armed forces and police cars Arts Council cash and carry British Council catalogue shops civil service charities and charity shops Crafts Council consumer language Design Council convenience stores Foreign Office corporate identity Freemasons credit cards further education colleges cross-Channel shopping GCSEs delicatessens GNVQs department stores ICA designer labels law courts discount stores LEAs electronic shopping local councils faxes, modems and laptops MI5 and MI6 filofaxes monarchy football pools National Curriculum franchising NHS giro culture parliament globalization and consumerism privatization green consumerism public schools heritage school examinations hire purchase school league tables junk mail schools system licensing laws scouts and guides National Lottery universities out-of-town shopping welfare state political consumerism Ethnicity and belief poverty product placement Afro-Caribbean communities promotions Afro-Caribbean youth styles sales Afropop and African music self-service Anglican Church shoplifting animal rights shopping, recreational Arabic small ads Archbishop of Canterbury special interest magazines aromatherapy sportswear Asian fashions street selling Asian theatre supermarkets and malls Asian underground surveillance Asian youth styles time shares Baha’i tobacco industry Bandung File tourism bhangra bilingual communities Education and institutions black art adult education Black Audio Film Collective Classified entry list xix black Conservatives Methodists black literature press Muslim Parliament black performance poets Nation of Islam black politics Notting Hill Carnival black press Orthodox Christianity black sportsmen and women Pakistani communities black television Presbyterianism black theatre Protestant Churches ‘Black Women Talk’ Collective Race Relations Acts black women’s movement racism in sport British Black English Rastafarianism British Citizenship Acts received pronunciation Buddhism rhyming slang Catholicism Rushdie Affair, the Celtic tradition Salvation Army Chinese communities Scottish language Christian Science scouse Church of Scientology Sikhism Cockney spiritual leaders Commission for Racial Equality Transcendental Meditation dialect Unification Church diasporan film-makers Watts, Alan Druids Welsh language Elim women priests environmentalism Yiddish Estuary English Fashion and design euthanasia evangelism accessories Gaelic Ashley, Laura Gaia Hypothesis Asian fashions Geordies Banks, Jeff Hare Krishna Biba Hinduism bicycles holistic medicine body adornment homeopathy body size hunt saboteurs campaigns Indian communities Carnaby Street Indian languages Clothes Show, The Irish communities Conran, Jasper Islam Conran, Terence Jainism cosmetics Japanese communities Design Council Jehovah’s Witnesses fashion (1960s) Jewish communities fashion (1970s) Labour Party black sections fashion (1980s) literature, African fashion (1990s) literature, Caribbean fashion, children’s literature, Indian fashion, wedding xx Classified entry list fashion, youth Boorman, John Freud, Bella Branagh, Kenneth furniture design British film industry Galliano, John Brownlow, Kevin graphic design Caine, Michael hairstyles Carry On films Hamnett, Katharine Caton-Jones, Michael Harpers and Queen Chadha, Gurinder Harvey Nichols Channel 4 Films hats Chelsom, Peter industrial design cinemas Knightsbridge comedies labels Connery, Sean Liberty Davies, Terence lingerie Day-Lewis, Daniel London Fashion Week Dearden, Basil mail order diasporan film-makers McCartney, Stella Douglas, Bill McQueen, Alexander Edzard, Christine military clothing film, children’s models, 1960s film, experimental Muir, Jean film, feminist Oldfield, Bruce film awards power dressing film distributors Price, Antony film festivals Quant, Mary film music Red or Dead film policy Reger, Janet film press retro film reviews Rhodes, Zandra Forbes, Bryan Royal College of Art Forsyth, Bill Savile Row Francis, Karl Sloane Rangers Frears, Stephen Smith, Paul gay film supermodels Grant, Hugh Vogue Greenaway, Peter Westwood, Vivienne Hammer Horror Handmade Films Film and cinema Hudson, Hugh Akomfrah, John Jackson, Glenda Anderson, Lindsay Jarman, Derek Attenborough, Richard Joffe, Roland Attwood, David Jordan, Neil avant-garde cinema Julien, Isaac BAFTA Kidron, Beeban BFI Kubrick, Stanley Black Audio Film Collective Lean, David Blair, Les Leigh, Mike Classified entry list xxi

Leland, David Clause 28 Lester, Richard divorce law Loach, Ken domestic violence Losey, Joseph eating disorders MacKenzie, John equal pay Medak, Peter family planning Merchant-Ivory Productions gay liberation MOMI ‘gender benders’ National Museum of Film and Photography lesbian chic Newell, Mike marriage NFT new man Norman, Barry outing Park, Nick pornography Parker, Alan poverty, families and Pinewood Studios prostitution Potter, Sally sadomasochism Powell, Michael Sex Discrimination Acts Rank single-parent families Redgrave family Soho Robinson, Bruce transsexuals Roeg, Nicholas WAVAW Russell, Ken women, employment patterns Schlesinger, John women in the arts and media Scott, Tony women in business Screen and screen theory women in parliament Smith, Maggie women in rock Tait, Margaret women in sport Temple, Julian Women’s Institute Thompson, Emma Intellectual life thrillers Vadim, Jean Ayer, A.J. Watkins, Peter Barton, Derek Winner, Michael Berlin, Isaiah Working Title Birmingham CCCS Workshop Declaration Carr, E.H. Yates, Peter chaos theory Clarke, Arthur C. Gender, sexuality and the family Crick, Francis and Wilkins, Maurice Abortion Acts Dawkins, Richard age of consent Eagleton, Terry AIDS Eysenck, Hans androgynous/unisex look feminist theory armed forces and discrimination Foot, Michael baby boom Gabor, Dennis bisexuality Gilroy, Paul black women’s movement global warming Child Support Agency Gombrich, Ernest childbirth Greer, Germaine xxii Classified entry list

Hall, Stuart fantasy and science-fiction Hawking, Stephen feminist publishing houses Hewish, Antony and Ryle, Martin gay and lesbian writing history Johnson, Linton Kwesi Hobsbawm, Eric literary magazines Hodgkin, Dorothy literary prizes Hoyle, Fred literary theory hyperreality literature, African Laing, R.D. literature, Caribbean Leavis, F.R. literature, children’s and teenage literary theory literature, Indian Lovell, Bernard literature, Northern Irish Marxism literature, Scottish Medawar, Peter literature, Welsh media and cultural studies Martian Poets Millet, Kate Mersey Poets Mitchell, Juliet novel Morris, Desmond poetry neo-Darwinism poetry anthologies Penrose, Roger poetry in the 1970s philosophy poetry in the 1980s political correctness poetry in the 1990s politics popular fiction Popper, Karl post-colonial writing post-structuralism postmodernist writing postmodernist theory publishing trends Rawls, John readership Russell, Bertrand romance Ryle, Gilbert science fiction Sanger, Frederick thrillers, detective and spy writing science travel writing Scruton, Roger Media sociology Stone, Lawrence ASA Strawson, P.F. Associated Press structuralism black press Taylor, A.J.P. Campaign for Press and Broadcasting Freedom Thompson, E.P. commercial radio Ward, Barbara commercial radio, national Warnock, Mary comics Williams, Raymond DJs DTP Literature EMAP Maclaren autobiography Express Group biography freesheets black literature press graphic novels ‘Black Women Talk’ Collective Guardian Group book marketing Hachette Classified entry list xxiii

Internet Asian underground IPC Music Publishers ballet music IRN Band Aid libel, defamation and privacy bhangra local press big beat local radio blues magazines, satirical Britpop Magnum classical music media and cultural studies classical music, contemporary media education classical soloists Mirror Group concert promoters national commercial radio conductors News International country newsstands and newsagents dance music News TV disco Northern Irish press DJs NUJ dub official secrets and D-Notices electro phone-ins and chat shows film music pirate radio folk music Press Association formats Press Council funk publishing houses glam rock Radio 1 heavy metal Radio 2 hip hop Radio 3 house Radio 4 indie pop Radio 5 jazz radio comedy jazz funk radio DJs jazz soloists radio drama Johnson, Linton Kwesi Reuters jungle Scottish press MTV teen magazines music colleges Telegraph plc music industry Thomson music labels top-shelf magazines music press 2000 AD new age music underground press and fanzines new romantics Welsh press new wave women in the arts and media Northern Soul women’s press oi World Service opera opera singers Music orchestras Afropop and African music pop and rock alternative music pop television ambient music producers xxiv Classified entry list progressive rock left-wing theatre psychedelic rock live art pub rock mime punk rock modern dance radio DJs performance art rap performing arts on television rave physical theatre record labels RADA reggae Royal Ballet rock festivals Royal Court sampling Royal National Theatre scratching Royal Shakespeare Company ska set design soul theatre techno theatre, regional trance theatre critics tribute bands theatre in education two-tone West End WOMAD women in the arts and media women in rock youth theatre Performing arts Politics and society actors (female) Amnesty International actors (male) Big Issue, The Actors Touring Company black Conservatives agitprop black politics alternative comedy CBI Arts Council censorship Asian theatre charities and charity shops avant-garde theatre Charter 88 ballet citizenship ballet music class system Barbican Centre Communist Party black theatre community politics choreography Conservative governments circus Conservative Party Comedy Store, The corporatism community theatre corruption in the city Covent Garden democracy devising Direct Action directors disability Edinburgh Festival and Fringe drink English National Ballet entrepreneurs feminist theatre Establishment, the fringe theatre Europe gay theatre exegesis Globe Theatre financial crises improvisation flying pickets Classified entry list xxv food Sinn Féin Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace social welfare fringe groups Thatcherism fringe parties trade unions general elections tribalism GLC Ulster Unionists government inquiries violence Green Party Westland Affair Greenham Common Winter of Discontent health policies women in business homelessness women in parliament hostages Sport Ireland labour migration angling Labour Party athletics Labour Party black sections badminton libel, defamation and privacy betting shops Liberal Democrats black sportsmen and women lobby groups boxing Lonrho Affair cricket Maze Prison cycling Militant FA Cup military conflict football monetarism golf Muslim Parliament Grand National National Front Henley Regatta nationalist parties Highland Games nature hockey New Labour horse racing North of England ice skating nuclear and arms industries and protestors long-distance runners pensioners marathons police middle-distance runners political consumerism motor racing political publications racism in sport poll tax rambling poverty rowing prejudice rugby league pressure groups rugby union privacy sailing privatization and nationalization showjumping recession sport on television regulation sports stadia riots sprinters SDP swimming secret services table tennis serial killers tennis sex scandals University Boat Race xxvi Classified entry list

Wimbledon pop television women in sport Potter, Dennis wrestling regulatory bodies yachting S4C science fiction Video and television situation comedy action series soap operas advertising, television and video sport on television animation Street-Porter, Janet arts programming talk shows Attenborough, David teenage and youth programming audience research teletext BARB television, children’s BBC television exports black television television licence breakfast television television unions Broadcasting Acts Thames TV BSkyB transmission technologies cable and satellite TV-am cartoons and puppetry video art Channel 4 Video Recordings Act Channel 5 viewing technologies Channel X youth television comedy on television Visual and plastic arts crime drama current affairs animation daytime television art galleries documentary Bacon, Francis drama on television black art Euston Films Burman, Chila Kumari facilities houses ceramics franchise auction computer graphics and multimedia game shows Courtauld Institute Granada Freud, Lucian Illuminations Frink, Elisabeth imported television Gormley, Antony independent production Hepworth, Barbara infotainment Hockney, David International Broadcasting Trust installation art IPPA, AIP and PACT Kapoor, Anish Isaacs, Jeremy Long, Richard McGrath, John Moore, Henry medical drama Nicholson, Ben Mersey Television organic art MTV painting National Viewers and Listeners Association Paolozzi, Eduardo news television photography performing arts on television pop art Classified entry list xxvii

Rego, Paula fantasy football Riley, Bridget fanzines Royal Academy fashions, youth School of London gameboys sculpture Generation X St Ives glam Tate(s) gothic Youth and alternative culture graffiti Hell’s Angels acronym groups hippies Afro-Caribbean youth styles joyriding Afrocentrists ‘lads’ and ‘lager louts’ alternative poetry mods Asian youth styles Northern Soul black performance poets bungee jumping performance poetry clubs poetry slams comics problem pages comics culture rave culture crazes rockers crusties skinheads discos teds Dr Martens teenyboppers drug culture youth television

Abortion Acts (1990). The main provisions of this Act stemming from the Warnock report, were concerned with The Abortion Act of 1967, introduced by the the moral issue arising from new reproductive Liberal MP David Steel, legalized in Britain. This technologies. Act came into force in April 1968 and applies to The 1990 Act, inter alia, amended the provisions England, Wales and Scotland. The core provisions of the 1967 Act by reducing the normal period of of the Act were that abortion was lawful in certain abortion to twenty-four weeks but permitting carefully defined circumstances. First, two abortion after that period if the child was not going registered medical practitioners had to be of the to be born alive or was to be born with a severe opinion that continuance of pregnancy would either handicap. The 1990 Act therefore liberalized the risk the mother’s mental or physical health or her law in some respects while tightening it in others. children’s health, or that there was a substantial Until recently, the number of abortions stood more risk that the child, if born, would suffer from serious or less constant at just under 180,000 a year. mental or physical abnormalities. Second, and more However, the most recent figures show a marked contentiously, the mother’s socio-economic increase of 8.3 percent from 1995. Increases in girls circumstances and psychological health could be under 16 was 11.3 percent, with teenagers overall taken into consideration in reaching a decision. showing an increase of 15.2 percent. The 1967 Act did not recognize a woman’s right It has long been the case that where the mother’s to an elective abortion. However, the social clause life or well-being is threatened by the continuation in the Act has been liberally interpreted to the of a pregnancy or birth, a doctor or midwife may extent that the right to abortion has been recognized take all reasonable measures to save that life, even in practice if not in law. Abortion under the if the cost is the destruction of the unborn child. In provisions of the 1967 Act was initially set at twenty- moral terms, this is covered by the doctrine of eight weeks but this was reduced to twenty-four double effect: the intention is primarily to save the weeks in 1990. Approximately 84 percent of all mother’s life, the incidence is that the unborn life abortions in Britain are conducted in the first is sacrificed. There are some areas in which this trimester, so lowering the time limit has made little principle still remains. practical difference. It is clearly and unequivocally the case that There have been various attempts to lower the British law does not recognize the principle of a de time limit. The best known campaign was that of jure right to abortion. However, in practice, the Liberal MP David Alton, who sought to reduce providing some minimal requirements are met, an the cut-off to eighteen weeks. The only major elective albeit often privately funded abortion will change to the law, however, has been in the course almost always be permitted. Such abortions can of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act often be legally and medically processed quite 2 accessories quickly. For example, Marie Stopes International through not only to new wave street styles, but also to controversially offers ‘lunch-time’ abortions at designers such as Zandra Rhodes and later in the 1980s several of its clinics. This regularly raises the to Jean-Paul Gaultier. question as to whether the law should be refined, The market, rather than the medium, was the to bring the de jure situation into line with factual message in the 1980s, with wealth and the image conditions. of wealth a style attribute in itself. The Big Bang, with the greater accessibility to the stock markets, See also: age of consent; childbirth; family symbolized a return to the values of laissez-faire planning capitalism and a new breed of individual developed, the Yuppie. The smart accessories were Porsche cars, Filofaxes, Psion organizers, mobile phones and Further reading laptop computers. Morgan, D. and Lee, R.G. (1991) Blackstone’s Guide In 1981 Roy Bishko, a South African lawyer, to the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990: opened the first Tie Rack branch in Oxford Street, Abortion and Embryo Research the New Law, London, thus completely revolutionizing the notion London: Blackstone Press. of the fashion accessory. The company, whose key shops are located in airports, has been a phenomenal PAUL BARRY CLARKE international success and has been instrumental in SVANBORG SIGMARSDOTTIR the appearance of countless other similar accessory- dedicated retailers. accessories The 1990s saw an enormous backlash against many of the values promoted in the 1980s. Mary Quant was at the forefront of the rising Environmentally friendly issues became increasingly importance of fashion accessories in the 1960s. influential and, despite the growing demand for new Quant introduced shiny plastic hipster belts with and exciting images, a heightened sensitivity to goods matching handbags and coloured tights which were and the way to wear them became the most all a fundamental part of the image for women. fashionable accessory. The nostalgic, wistful and romantic fashions of the 1970s were a reaction to the grim cultural scene See also: cosmetics; fashion (1980s); filofaxes; and to the militant feminism of the time. Barbara hats Hulanicki, creator of Biba, had a marked effect on the accessories development. She was the first to Further reading sell soft skull caps with fringes of angelic curls framing the face. She was also responsible for Mulvey, K. and Richards, M. (1998) Decades of popularising the pillbox hat with the small veil, Beauty. The Changing Image of Women 1890s–1990s, which in the late 1970s became the most popular London: Hamlyn. accessory for weddings (see fashion, wedding). FATIMA FERNANDES Punk, one of the biggest stories in fashion in the 1970s, provided a snarling response to conventional fashion. Born out of a relatively short lived anti-fashion street cult, it ended up representing some of the most acronym groups pivotal ideas of its time through its notoriety, its similarity A pun on the word ‘hippie’, ‘yuppie’ is an acronym to tribal intimidation techniques and its anti-establishment for Young Urban (or Upwardly mobile) Professional political stance. In 1977 Malcolm McLaren and Vivienne Person. The term was coined in the late 1970s and Westwood opened their shop Sex on the Kings Road, was followed in the 1980s by many similar London, and the key accessories consisted of a plethora acronyms: Guppie (a ‘green’ or environmentally of safety pins and metal chains, both for body piercing conscious young professional); Buppie (a black and for garment adornment. Punk anti-fashion filtered yuppie); Yummie (a Muslim yuppie); Dinkie (a actors (female) 3 person in a couple with two incomes and no kids); with younger British audiences: Superman, Robocop, Nimby (someone who is in favour of development Highlander, Airwolf, Team Nightrider and Xena: Warrior generally but ‘not in my back yard’); and Rumpie Princess. (a rural upwardly mobile professional, which is to One of the factors that militate against showing say a city dweller who moves to large country houses, more action series on television is that people are wears Barbour jackets, owns a 4-wheel drive, and concerned about the potential copycat effects of commutes to a job in the city). The trend for such watching television violence. This is exacerbated acronyms is part of a general increase in a fast-paced by the increasing numbers of channels on offer. A British society since the 1980s, towards 1996 Sheffield University report found that eight abbreviations, buzzwords, localized acronyms and out of the ten most violent programmes, measured esoteric languages, which culminated in the joke in terms of violent acts, were action films shown usage TLA (three-letter acronym). on The Movie Channel or Sky Movies. The remaining two were cartoons. In a climate of fear PETER CHILDS partly induced by the case where the young boys who murdered toddler Jamie Bolger were allegedly action series influenced by a video they had seen, action films and series are under close surveillance. Even Tom It is much easier to offer examples of programmes and Jerry cartoons are considered potentially which can be described as ‘action series’ than it is dangerous influences on young audiences. to agree on a general definition. Most people would accept that, for example, The Persuaders, Mission See also: crime drama

Impossible and The Fugitive qualify, although they are MIKE STORRY all very different. Equally, it is not easy to draw a clear distinction between genuine action series like The Bill, London’s Burning or Bugs and more coy or zany ones such as actors (female) The Avengers or The Saint, or even detective series British cinema enjoyed a golden age in the 1960s, not such as Morse, hospital series such as Casualty or only at home but abroad. For a film industry which true-life programmes such as Crimewatch. There is was formed very much in the shadow of Hollywood, action in all of these programmes, but it is not the British actors provide a fascinating insight into the predominant feature. One might say that industry’s self-perception in particular periods, and programmes from all these other genres periodically reflect cultural assumptions about Britishness. Thus, take on aspects of the action series and vice versa: British actors were often invested with a patriotic the simplified morality, the tied-up loose ends, the imperative as bearers of British national culture. excitement, the lack of subtlety. An appropriate Filmgoing had a particular role in the social lives of definition might then be: programmes where week young people, and the films of the 1960s shared and by week there is formulaic violence and where good indeed helped to shape the concepts of youth which vanquishes evil. were characteristic of the social and political discourses Action series on television are watched by both of the time. The 1960s saw the emergence of new sexes equally, and are almost as popular as soap and challenging roles for female actors, reflecting the operas and the news. To give an indication of social and moral issues which impacted on young viewing figures, 42.9 percent of adults watch The contemporary women. Films like A Taste of Honey (dir. Bill, compared with the 45.4 percent who watch To n y Richardson, 1961), and Darling (dir. John Coronation Street, the 35.3 percent who watch Schlesinger, 1965) introduced Rita Tushingham (b. EastEnders, and the 43.5 percent who watch News at 1940), and Julie Christie (b. 1940) in roles which Te n . The programmes watched by most people tend contrasted sharply with the mature woman roles of to be British rather than imports. However, the 1950s films, played by actresses such as Diana Dors following American series are or have been popular and Virginia McKenna. In the former film, the 4 actors (female) portrayal of Jo, a pregnant schoolgirl refusing to Brodie (dir. Ronald Neame, 1969), for which she won compromise, was consonant with the image of Rita an Academy Award. Since the 1960s she has Tushingham as a modern female star. A Taste of Honey appeared in films, plays and television. Emma portrays the emergence of specific discourses related Thompson began performing as a member of the to young women in 1960s society, suggesting that Cambridge Footlights and worked extensively in young women might be more powerful and more comedy before establishing her dramatic talents with confident than before. diverse award winning roles. Specifically, in 1996 The 1960s girl was placed firmly within the Thompson won two prestigious Golden Globe context of consumption and with the sex scandal of awards for screen writing and best dramatic film for the Profumo Affair (see sex scandals), which had at her screenplay of Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility. its heart a promiscuous young woman who had the But perhaps it is Dame Peggy Ashcroft (1907–91), power adversely to affect the Macmillan government, with her impressive work across theatre, film and young women were very much seen in a new light. television both in Britain and America, who best Similarly, in Darling, Diana, played by Christie, represents the outstanding quality and calibre of pushes yet further the representation and British female actors. organization of female sexuality. Christie thus added One of the many notable facets of British female sexual power and confidence to the honesty and actors is their refusal to constrain themselves to unpredictability of Tushingham and created a figure one sole medium and so have excelled in roles which was to be carried through the British cinema across theatre, television and cinema. The list of into the late 1960s and beyond. Female actors like eclectic and multi-talented women who refuse to Christie and Tushingham, representing spontaneous limit their performing arenas is too enormous to and emotionally honest young women, showed detail here, but joining the women already cinema of the time to be working within a broader mentioned, the following are worthy of note: Dame social context by reflecting contemporary attitudes Judi Dench (b. 1934), Glenda Jackson (b. 1936), to what was seen as a 1960s phenomenon. Such Vanessa Redgrave (b. 1937), Jane Lapotaire (b. films also cultivated a new key audience, the youth 1944) and Helen Mirren (b. 1946), who all began market. In contrast to the candid depictions of the acting in the 1960s. Although some have argued modern young woman, portrayed so convincingly that the notion of stardom has been seen as un- by Tushingham and Christie, there was also the British and as a consequence has profoundly phenomenal success of Julie Andrews (b. 1935) in influenced the way British female actors have been The Sound of Music (1965), a film which broke previous marketed, this is merely conceding to a Hollywood box office records. Although the film was American, mentality. Overall, and to their credit, British female Andrews’s Britishness continued the tradition of actors have consistently valued their work above upper middle-class respectability which stars like the trappings of stardom. Anna Neagle had represented in previous decades. After the period of stagnation in British cinema See also: actors (male); feminist theatre in the 1970s, predominantly caused by the withdrawal of American funding, there was a revival Further reading in the following decade and the heritage genre became extremely popular. One of the common Geraghty, C. (1997) ‘Women and Sixties British stylistic and thematic features of the genre was the Cinema—The Development of the “Darling” consistent use of specific actors, including Maggie Girl’, in R.Murphy (ed.), The British Cinema, Smith (b. 1934), Emma Thompson (b. 1959) and London: BFI. Helena Bonham-Carter (b. 1966). The superb Street, S. (1997) British National Cinema, London: Maggie Smith made her debut with the Oxford Routledge. Thumin, J. (1992) Celluloid Sisters: Women and Popular University Dramatic Society in a production of Cinema, London: Macmillan. Twelfth Night in 1952, but is best remembered for her remarkable performance in The Prime of Jean FATIMA FERNANDES actors (male) 5 actors (male) Chekhov to situation comedy, so the distinctions between stage, film and television acting are The acting tradition in Britain stretches back to blurred. Television and film were initially medieval mystery plays. For professionals, theatre considered unworthy of serious actors. Laurence is generally regarded as the greatest test although Olivier was lauded for renouncing Hollywood to it is now difficult to earn a living on stage. Most establish the Royal National Theatre. Actors such actors therefore also do television or films unless, as Ian McKellen, David Suchet and Alan Rickman like Jim Dale, they star regularly on Broadway. made their names working there or in the Royal Although cuts in arts budgets have led to many Shakespeare Company. In the 1990s these repertory companies disappearing and while the companies keep serious theatre alive, free from the film industry is almost invisible, television fills the constraint of chasing what managements call ‘bums gap. There is no shortage of acting talent. But on seats’. By contrast, commercial theatre stars such television has largely abandoned the literary plays as Tom Conti utterly reject what they see as the that once gave theatre its cultural importance, easy option of subsidized work. replacing them with sensationalist drama, action Modern acting technique emphasizes inner series, sitcoms (see situation comedy) and soap motivation, but many actors would endorse operas, although some would dispute whether the Olivier’s advice to Dustin Hoffman, who appeared latter’s formlessness qualifies it as drama. Music on the set of Marathon Man sweaty and exhausted hall traditions continue to exert an influence, after a run his character was meant to have taken primarily through stand-up comedy. Overall, the off-screen: ‘Try acting, dear boy.’ Theatre demands social revolution of the 1960s, combined with more technical ability than film work, for which it television’s thirst for talent, have fostered a cohort is often enough to stand still and avoid blinking of actors whose ability is often enlivened by concern (according to Michael Caine). Most British actors for cultural and social issues. achieve tremendous range by fusing Stanislavsky, From about 1970, with Peter O’Toole, Tom Method and classical acting with a dash of music Courtney, Albert Finney, Michael Caine and Nicol hall if required, which is what makes them popular Williamson established as international stars in in Hollywood. Recent transfers include Hugh sixties social realist films, British theatre and cinema Grant, Daniel Day-Lewis, Ralph Fiennes and the declined. There are few famous living stage alarming Steven Berkoff. Stage work makes actors playwrights. Television occupies the conversational learn from repeat performances, while television place once held by theatre and is making its own or film appearances are usually one-offs. New national stars. Actors such as Richard Briers, talent, including Jimmy Nail, Kenneth Branagh, Geoffrey Palmer, Rowan Atkinson, Benjamin Robert Carlyle, Kevin Whately, Phil Daniels and Whitrow and Peter Sallis are well known, partly Robbie Coltrane represent different paths to through ability and partly because producers favour recognition, yet some have no experience of stage proven performers. But once an actor is identified acting at all. Whether alternative routes such as with one type of role, changing image can take rock music or stand-up comedy give actors a solid Herculean efforts. Very few actors transfer technique remains to be seen. Some think standards successfully from soap opera to other genres. will decline, or have declined. Perennial favourites tend not to have taken top Television’s obsession with ratings allows little billing initially and the career paths of even the room for experiment. Programmes are often best actors are unpredictable. Stephen Rea found designed by committee so that, while the actor’s success in I Didn’t Know You Cared, Peter task remains that of putting flesh on the bones of Tinniswood’s 1980s television comedy, and has a writer’s words, the increasing tendency for since appeared in several relatively low profile but drama in all media is to concentrate on social high-quality plays and films. David Jason’s first issues, with publicity emphasizing close identity television show was in 1968, but his first starring between actor and part. Mass education and left- roles came in the 1980s. Regulars range from leaning postwar society have given actors a 6 Actors Touring Company position of cultural importance in which they are Further reading taken for Everyman figures by the media—national Callow, S. (1985) Being an Actor, London: Penguin barometers of every issue. Actors’ needs for (thoughtful and witty survey of an actor’s life). publicity sit comfor-tably with the media’s hunger for occasionally outrageous, professional, lively STEPHEN KERENSKY chat-show material, discussing work or relationships at length. Their range of backgrounds and wide variety of life experiences Actors Touring Company apparently produce empathy with television Formed by John Retallack in 1978, Actors Touring audiences; hence the large number of actors who Company (ATC) is a small-scale theatre touring appear in quizzes, magazine programmes and company. With an avant-gardist verve, ATC game shows. This exposure can place intense centralizes text and performance in vibrant and pressure on actors’ private lives and is seen by intelligent contemporary reworkings of classic some as professionally unhealthy. It has prompted dramatic, fictional and mythological narratives. Past mockery of ‘luvvies’, an epithet referring to the productions include Byron’s Don Juan, Goethe’s emotional way in which actors sometimes discuss Tasso and Jean Genet’s The Maids. each other and their work. Acting is a genuinely Appointed artistic director in 1993, Nick demanding job, nerve-wracking and physically Philippou has continued ATC’s valuable draining, made worse by its chronic instability and collaborations with other British and international the destructiveness of critics, but, compared to companies, artists and writers like Kenneth many jobs, it is fulfilling and can be lucrative. McLeish and Mark Ravenhill. Ravenhill’s critically Some questions fired at actors might be better acclaimed Faust (1997) and the Oscar Wilde- addressed to a writer, but writers are less media- inspired Handbag (The Importance of Being Someone) friendly, which leaves actors with a tight-rope to (1998) typify ATC’s pivotal role in creating a new walk between surliness and over-exuberance. theatre of dramatic and historical intertextuality at The decline in the theatre has brought a decline the forefront of the fringe (see fringe theatre). in writing for the stage. The number of companies like John Godber’s Hull Truck, which bring fringe SATINDER CHOHAN productions to national recognition, is tiny and the West End has been largely taken over by adult education musicals since the 1980s. Radio and television drama (see radio drama) make opportunities for Local authorities autonomously organize adult new writers but often only one and much of the education services. However, the Education Reform writing required is formulaic. If theatre continues Act of 1988 makes it a duty of Local Education to limit itself to literal-minded social realism or Authorities (LEAs) to provide adequate further musicals, it seems unlikely to make up any of the education provision for mature students. The main ground lost to television and work will decline. bodies working in the field are the National There is evidence that people are disenchanted Association of Educational Guidance Services with television but whether they will return to (which provides information and training for those live theatre remains to be seen, as does the who wish to start or further a career, or simply question of whether the decline of live theatre will wish to learn); the National Institute for Adult and eventually produce a decline in acting standards Continuing Education (NIACE, which runs short overall. Many fine performers have sadly gone courses and publishes many books including the unmentioned, and there are excellent performers Year Book of Adult and Continuing Education); the Unit even at student or amateur level, and at the turn for the Development of Adult and Continuing of the century British acting is thriving. Education in England and Wales (financed by the Department for Education and Enterprise to carry See also: actors (female) out research); the Scottish Institute of Adult and advertising, influence of 7

Continuing Education (which provides means of and associating products with a particular ‘lifestyle’. contact amongst adult and continuing educators); As an increasingly visible practice graphically and the Workers Educational Association (WEA, located between production and consumption, it a national organization with 900 branches which has become a key site for analysis and debate in offer courses of different lengths on a wide range media and cultural studies. of subjects to interested adults and especially On the Left in Britain in the 1950s and 1960s, workers’ movements). In addition to this there are advertising was interpreted as ‘the handmaiden of the British branch of the University of the Third capitalism’, as obscuring the conditions of production Age (founded in France in 1973, it reached the UK and portraying idealized representations of in 1983 and now has 100 British branches, consumption, but was rarely given sustained primarily supporting voluntary self-help education consideration. Many popular cultural critiques, most for those over sixty) and the Open University (OU, famously Vance Packard’s The Hidden Persuaders, founded in 1969 to offer distance-learning degrees, blended Cold War-derived conspiracy rhetoric with vocational training, short courses and summer ‘hyperdermic’ communication models, in which the schools). The OU has been a remarkable success. advertising industry’s use of motivation research was Originally named the ‘University of the Air’, it was described as having an insidious and immediate established at Milton Keynes by a Labour effect on an unwaveringly gullible populace. Anti- government expressly to provide educational advertising discourses on both the Left and Right at opportunities for part-time, mature students. this time tended to incorporate an elitist stance Regular meetings with tutors are supplemented by towards mass and youth culture, and to figure it as radio broadcasts and television programmes, but the prime example of American cultural colonization: the core of the learning process is the as an unsightly boil on the fair face of ‘authentic’ comprehensive package of course handbooks, the British culture. Advertising was figured as pivotal idea behind which has since been copied by many to a society privileging ‘the spectacle’ or ‘the image’, traditional universities. Overall, with the current and of visual over textual forms. In the 1970s, with emphasis on retraining, serial jobs and transferable the academic interest in semiology, ideology and skills, adult education is still an expanding market. psychoanalysis, structural analyses dismantled the Some university departments recruit mature signifying systems of adverts and provided more students in excess of 50 percent of their total student rigorous interpretations of the forms of symbolic population, and numbers are likely to increase. gratification they offered. Judith Williamson’s highly influential Decoding Advertisements linked Lacanian See also: further education colleges psychoanalysis to a feminist and ideological critique,

PETER CHILDS asserting that ‘advertisements are selling us something else besides consumer goods: in providing us with a structure in which we, and those goods, advertising, influence of are interchangeable, they are selling us ourselves’ (Williamson 1978:13). Advertising is used for a variety of purposes: to In the 1980s and 1990s, more attention was attempt to persuade consumers to buy goods, given to the social and symbolic relations of change the image of a commodity or service, induce consumption, and the stark dichotomies between brand loyalty, encourage retailers to stock particular ‘image’ and ‘reality’, and the ‘consumer-as-dupe’ products, sell political ideas, or keep other goods model so often evoked in previous studies were out of a market. In its modern form, advertising questioned. In particular it was recognized that by has been dominated by and so defined as the paid- itself, advertising could not be held solely for promotion of commodities through mass media responsible for the social inequalities of capitalism, communication. Since the 1960s, advertising has nor could it be divorced from other cultural moved from describing particular product features discourses; and that in this respect it had to a certain to placing greater emphasis on visual representation extent been ‘demonized’ (Nava et al. 1997:4). 8 advertising, influence of

Greater attention was given to how advertising carrying highly localized and small ads. might be read in relation to a wider landscape of Newspapers and magazines tailored service features ‘promotional culture’ (Wernick 1991) and as part to the advertising they encouraged and ran of historically specific discursive formations. sponsored articles (‘advertorials’). The relationship Advertising both shapes and is shaped by the of print media to advertising has been similar to cultural forms it is part of, most obviously the that of television in that the particular social groups media, manufacturing and service industries. or imagined constituencies valuable to advertisers— During the 1950s and 1960s advertising expanded groups which are socially and historically mutable rapidly in Britain, as companies and manufacturers —are those presented with a wider range of sought to exploit the increased spending power of publications. Historically, this has resulted in an workers made possible by full employment and the unequal range of provision in terms of wealth, as welfare state. The development of commercial more publications are targeted towards those with television in 1955 was to a significant degree the a high degree of disposable income, and in terms result of lobbying from advertisers, who believed of interest (magazines about cookery have attracted that sound and vision, direct entry into the home more advertising interest, because of the wider and immediate nationwide coverage would offer range of associated commodities, than those about them an unprecedented and unbeatable form of politics). New magazines have frequently begun promotional power. While advertising’s overt their commodity-lives as proposals to advertisers influence on television came in the demarcated to fill a perceived marketing niche. form of commercial breaks between programmes While advertisement have been targeted (‘spot ads’), it also had a more integrated influence. towards specific social and cultural groups, Event sponsorship, game show prizes (see game advertising has been crucially important in the shows) and bought-in feature films with product creation of these very categories. Demographic placements provided cheaper routes of classifications of consumers, initially made in terms promotional visibility, ones incorporated into the of occupational class, age, gender and region, were programmes themselves. The dependency of steadily expanded from the 1950s to include ‘life commercial television on advertising revenue cycle’ variables (such as ‘empty-nesters’). The influenced the type of programmes produced; as consumer group most consistently produced and advertisers in the 1960s and 1970s favoured large represented in advertising’s cultural market has and stable mass audiences, this encouraged the been women, since the business of purchasing, like series and programmes with a broad popular consumption in general in the modern West, has appeal, and discouraged those of a more overwhelmingly been gendered as female. The experimental or controversial nature. central character of advertisements in the 1950s As advertising agencies grew alongside the mass and 1960s, the happy housewife and mother, media, advertising became split into two areas: continued her high visibility during the following promotional practices mainly in the mass media, decades and was joined and modified by the ‘career for which agencies received commission (above the woman’ and the ‘juggling’ housewife. The line) and all other activity, such as direct marketing extension of advertising aimed at men in the 1980s (below the line). The competition to attract and 1990s, beyond that for work-related products advertising revenue—which meant extra costs for and cars and into a greater emphasis on style and media groups as they employed sales teams and appearance, was marked in the Levis and marketing—took place across, as well as within, Brylcreem ads and the rapidly expanding number different media formats. National newspapers, for of magazines primed for the new man and ‘new instance, did not manage to regain the amount of lad’. These represented men engaging in a realm income they had received from advertising after of consumption previously demarcated as female, television (‘the blunt instrument’) became the and so played a crucial role in formulating and favoured form, but the regional press was able to disseminating new codes of masculinity and in differentiate itself and increase its profitability by opening up new target markets. advertising, influence of 9

In the 1980s, advertising gained a new cultural brand recognition and ‘free’ press publicity, became dominance in Britain. Deregulation of the media and more widespread. The controversial ad was even advertising industries, expanding promotion of cheaper if banned. In the 1990s, new legislation leisure and retail outlets and the extensive relaxed restrictions on ‘parody ads’, giving greater privatization of public services under Thatcherism scope for ads to mock either their own genre or a meant an increase in the amount of space permitted competitor’s tactics. This marked the enthusiastic to advertising, the range of products and services interpellation by the advertising industry of more requiring it, and the shape it was allowed to take. media-literate and cynical consumers, as well as an The encouragement of free market enterprise in the incorporation of criticism. All these developments public sector meant that a greater range of public were simultaneously a response to fears about new services, such as universities and hospitals, adopted viewing technologies such as remote controls this distinct marketing ethos, and shares in newly enabling zapping, video recorders which could cut privatized utilities like British Gas were heavily out adverts, and the disruption of relatively stable promoted in the media. The proliferation of these markets by deregulation and by cable and satellite new forms of advertising became one of the more television. Many advertisers began to doubt the visible manifestations of enterprise culture. efficacy of television and either stopped using it or The growing number of advertising agency combined it with other forms of promotion mergers—which gathered momentum in the 1970s— (increasingly with Internet advertising in the 1990s). paralleled the takeovers of the manufacturing An exception was corporate programme sponsorship; companies and corporations employing them, after deregulation, sponsorship including ‘bumper increasing the consolidation and centralization of credits’ on all commercial television productions economic power in both spheres. Advertising costs except news, current affairs and controversial or soared as fewer and more powerful agencies gained political productions was permitted (for example, control of big brand clients. As companies targeted Cadbury’s patronage of Coronation Street), and cable consumers with greater precision and the market and satellite provided additional sponsorship space. became increasingly segmented, smaller, more Overall, by the early 1990s, the new technology, specialist and ‘creative’ agencies emerged. The fragmented media market, effects of the recession and conditions for British agencies were therefore the threatened position of branded goods as they extremely fertile, and they began to challenge increasingly lost out to retailers’ own labels resulted American dominance of the industry. In 1986, in a much-vaunted ‘crisis’ in the agencies, the collapse London-based Saatchi & Saatchi became the biggest of the above the line and below the line distinctions agency in the world, boosted by its intimacy with in advertising, and use of a wider range of promotional Thatcherism (it was widely credited for winning forms. the 1979 election for the Conservative Party with Advertising continued to be used in the 1980s the ‘Labour isn’t Working’ campaign). The ‘cult and 1990s by oligopolies and larger corporations of the agency’ was played out internally in the trade to block the entrance of new products into a market, magazine Campaign, and ‘advertising gurus’ had a and to attempt to retain consumers and alter their wider cultural resonance in film and television behaviour (a Kellogg’s campaign suggested that representations celebrating the creative cornflakes should be eaten at night). Alliances businessman and his brother, the designer yuppie. between transnational media groups, ‘mega As more money was spent on advertising in the agencies’ and their multiple brand-owning clients 1980s and the market became increasingly saturated, became increasingly dominant. In the post-Fordist stylistic production values rose with many market, international product advertising mainly advertisements, such as those for Levis, becoming employs ‘global but local’ strategies, such as the identifiably cinematic. This continued throughout the references in McDonald’s advertisements to British 1990s, and the use of drama (for example, Gold football, with relatively few advertisers (like Marl- Blend’s mini-soap opera) and controversy (such as boro) adopting a singular worldwide campaign (see Benetton and Wonderbra), as attempts to generate globalization and consumerism). 10 advertising, television and video

The debate around advertising’s influence in the of short slots between programmes while sponsorship 1990s, as its influence on behavioural patterns was focuses on programmes with which commercial increasingly questioned by academic and advertising concerns wish to become associated. Spot advertising agency research, mainly revolved around the is usually used to sell specific products, such as soap question of whether advertising was influential in powder, while sponsorship is the preferred method persuading consumers to buy products at all, or for developing or creating a corporate’s public whether the agencies’ greatest achievement was in persona. As national advertising rates are expensive, convincing companies of its necessity. While the because of the large audiences delivered, huge public’s increasing media literacy has been one importance is put on the placing and production of contributing factor to the decline in traditional the advert. This often leads to a situation where the promotion techniques, advertising is increasingly advert production costs per minute are more than used to secure commodity recognition in a cluttered those of the surrounding programmes. marketplace, without which commodities face While advertising is the regular means by which consignment to product oblivion. It is worth pointing the US networks are funded, those in Europe have, out that the advertising industry disputes its own until the 1990s, mostly relied on non-commercial influence so as to avoid legislation curtailing its scope, means such as the television licence fee in Britain. and has successfully resisted external control by Television advertising was first introduced into lobbying for its interests and establishing internally Britain in 1955 with ITV. Fears were initially regulated bodies. Today, as at the beginning of the expressed about the possible effect of advertisements 1960s, it remains the case that more than nine out on programme content. Advertising in a sponsored often of the most powerful corporations in the form was therefore prohibited in favour of spot marketplace prefer it. advertising. This was seen as introducing a form of editorial policy into television, similar to newspapers, See also: advertising, television and video; where the advertisements were kept separate from commercial radio the content. The number of adverts, the content of adverts, their position and their separation from programmes was controlled and regulated by the Further reading ITA (forerunner of ITC). Brierly, S. (1995) The Advertising Handbook, London: In recent years in Britain more advertising-backed Routledge. channels have appeared (Channel 4, Channel 5 and Nava, M., Blake, A., MacRury, I. and Richards, B. BSkyB), which, providing new outlets for (eds) (1997) Buy This Book: Studies in Advertising advertisers, have also fragmented the large audiences and Consumption, London: Routledge. that broadcasting delivers. There has also been a Wernick, A. (1991) Promotional Culture: Advertising, change in regulation. Some prohibitions have gone Ideology and Symbolic Expression, London: Sage while new ones have been introduced; for example, Publications. forms of sponsorship are now allowed, enabling Williamson, J. (1978) Decoding Advertisements: Ideology Wella to ‘bring you’ Friends, while others, like tobacco and Meaning in Advertising, London: Marlon sponsorship, have now been completely banned. Boyars. Advertisers have also faced a ‘revolt’ by the viewer as they use new viewing technologies, such as JO LITTLER remote controls, to miss out advertisements. Thus viewers can easily channel hop (‘zapping’), when advertising, television and video adverts are on, or can fast forward through adverts on video recordings (‘zipping’). Advertisers have Advertising is the means by which commercial values responded by making adverts more entertaining and or messages are conveyed to the public. Two main interesting, often with an ongoing narrative. They broadcast forms exist: spot advertising and have even made it possible to watch or ‘scan’ the sponsorship. Spot advertising refers to the purchase advert viewed quickly on fast forward. Afro-Caribbean communities 11

See also: ASA; National Viewers and Listeners their fares to Britain, and the loans were deducted Association; regulatory bodies weekly from their wages. Within twelve years, 3,787 Barbadians had been taken on. By 1966 London Further reading Transport had begun to recruit in Trinidad and Jamaica as well. The British Hotels and Restaurants Schudson, M. (1993) Advertising: The Uneasy Association recruited skilled workers in Barbados, Persuasion, London: Routledge. and a Tory health minister, Enoch Powell, welcomed PAU L RIXON Afro-Caribbean nurses to Britain. A great majority of the Afro-Caribbean settlers were in their twenties, with plenty to offer Britain. Afro-Caribbean communities Of the men and women who came, a mere 13 percent had no skills; of the women, only 25 In the early period of postwar reconstruction, when percent, one in four, were unskilled and half the Britain like all European countries was desperate women were non-manual workers. Almost half of for labour, there were too many jobs and too few the men, 46 percent, and over a quarter of the workers. This gave rise to the Nationality Act of women, 27 percent, were skilled manual workers, 1948, which granted United Kingdom citizenship but the newcomers found themselves in most cases to citizens of Britain’s colonies and former colonies. being offered those jobs that local white people did Along with the ownership of a British passport came not want: sweeping streets, general labouring or the right of lifelong residence in Britain. night shiftwork. In the 1950s, more than half the Despite the demand for their services, and a male Afro-Caribbean population of London held legacy of colonial rule that had left large-scale jobs with a lower status than their skills and unemployment in the British Caribbean, no dole experience fitted them for. or social security, and a cost of living that had As a result of a colonial education system in almost doubled during the war, West Indians’ which Britain was revered as the ‘Mother Country’, response to Britain’s invitation was slow. On 22 many of these new workers took their British June 1948, 492 Jamaicans arrived at Tilbury in the citizenship seriously and saw themselves not as ex-troopship Empire Windrush. Among them were strangers, but as kinds of Englishmen. Disappoint- singers, pianists, boxers and a complete dance band. ment and disillusionment of many kinds became Between thirty and forty of these first arrivals had part of the daily black experience of life in Britain. already volunteered to work as miners. In October Prejudice against West Indian people was 1948, the Orbita brought 180 Afro-Caribbean widespread. More than two-thirds of Britain’s white workers to Liverpool, and three months later 39 population held a low opinion of black people or Jamaicans, 15 of them women, arrived at Liverpool disapproved of them. Half of this prejudiced two- in the Reina del Pacifico. Next summer the Georgic thirds were only mildly prejudiced. The other half brought 253 West Indians to Britain, 45 of them were extremely antagonistic and their extreme women. A few hundred came in 1950, about 1,000 prejudice meant that they resisted the idea of having in 1951, about 2,000 in 1952. Over the next four any contact or communication with black people, years larger numbers of Afro-Caribbean people objected vehemently to mixed marriages, would arrived, including the wives and children of men not work with black people in factories or offices, settled in Britain. Ten years after the Empire Windrush and generally felt that black people should not be there were in Britain about 125,000 Afro-Caribbean allowed in Britain at all. In many industries, white arrivals since the end of the war, and British trade unionists resisted the employment of black industry gladly absorbed them. workers or insisted on a ‘quota’ system limiting In some industries, the demand for labour was them to a token handful, generally about 5 percent. so great that workers were actively recruited in their Managements often had an understanding that the home countries. In April 1956, London Transport ‘last in first out’ rule should not apply to whites began recruiting staff in Barbados. They were lent when black workers were employed, and that black 12 Afro-Caribbean communities workers should not be promoted over white. Most were prepared to lend to them forced many people people viewed the plight of the Afro-Caribbean into overcrowding and multi-occupation, invoking settlers with indifference and complacency. further racial stereotyping and, in later years, the Every encounter with white people presented a stringencies of the Public Health Act. new set of problems. In the sphere of housing, racist The postwar independence of India, and the discrimination operated by keeping blacks out of impending loss of the West Indies and Africa, had the housing market and herding them into bedsits spelled the end of the Empire and the decline of in decaying inner city areas. Colour bars operated Britain as a great power. All that was left of the to keep black people out of pubs, clubs and dance colonial enterprise was the ideology of white halls where, ironically, black and black-inspired supremacy. The new settlers were seen by many music was very popular. Churches and their white people as heathens who practised head- congregations also displayed a plangent racism hunting, cannibalism, infanticide, polygamy and towards Afro-Caribbeans. Black workers began to ‘black magic’. Blacks were seen as backward, meet in barbers’ shops and cafes and on street uncivilised and inherently inferior to Europeans, corners. Here they began to set up their own clubs eating strange foods and carrying unpleasant and churches and welfare associations. On diseases. The common belief was that most black occasions there were also efforts at collective action settlers were ignorant, illiterate and lacked proper on the factory floor. Such action often took the form education. of petitions and appeals regarding working Oswald Mosley’s prewar British Union of conditions, facilities, even wages; but, unsupported Fascists was now revived as the Union Movement by their white fellow workers, these efforts were and was matched for its racist propaganda by a often ineffectual. In 1951, for instance, skilled Afro- rash of other organizations: A.K.Chesterton’s Caribbean workers in an ordinance factory in League of Empire Loyalists, Colin Jordan’s White Liverpool met secretly in the lavatories and wash- Defence League, John Bean’s National Labour rooms to form a West Indian Association which Party, and Andrew Fountaine’s British National would take up cases of discrimination. The Party. In between these, together with various other Merseyside West Indian Association went through organizations concerned with ‘racial preservation’, a period of vigorous political activity, taking up and the right wing of the Tory Party, white racism cases of unfair dismissal or treatment and the more blossomed. Racial attacks became a regular part of general cause of colonial freedom. After being the life of the Afro-Caribbean communities in ousted from the workplace following discovery by Britain. In 1954, in a small street of terraced houses employers, they switched headquarters to a barber’s in Camden Town, London, Afro-Caribbeans were shop; then, as membership outgrew the barber’s, subjected to a spate of racial violence that lasted they moved into the white-owned Stanley House for two days, culminating in a petrol bomb attack in Toxteth. This is an example of the way in which on the house of an Afro-Caribbean settler. In many associations became community based August 1958, large-scale riots broke out in concerns. The response to the denial of decent Nottingham where 2,500 Afro-Caribbeans and housing led to the reliance on Jamaican ‘pardner’ about 600 Asians were living. Following an attack or Trinidadian ‘sou-sou’ systems, whereby a group on a black miner and his wife as they were leaving of people (often from the same parish or island) a cinema, there was fighting between blacks and would pool their savings and lend out a lump sum whites for ninety minutes in St Ann’s Well Road. to each individual in turn. Thus savings circulated Many attacks, and the clashes that often followed, among their own communities, and did not go into were stimulated by fascist propaganda urging that white banks or building societies. This was a sort black people be driven out of Britain. On weekend of community banking system engendered by evenings in particular, gangs of ‘teddy boys’ cruised tradition, but enforced by racial discrimination. The the streets over a wide area of London (armed with prices that black settlers had to pay for the houses iron bars, sticks and knives) in a systematic and and the interest rates charged by the sources that pitiless pursuit of isolated black victims. Many of Afro-Caribbean communities 13 these youth groups were directed by Mosleyites to the West Indian Standing Conference on police and the White Defence League, under the watchful brutality, ‘Nigger Hunting in England’, was eye of the police (the Notting Hill riot was a result published with little reaction. By 1972, a select of this). Many members of the Afro-Caribbean parliamentary committee on relations between black community in Britain talked seriously about going people and the police received a memor-andum from back home at this time. Others organized militant the West Indian Standing Conference warning of groups to defend their homes and their clubs. the consequences if police racism was allowed to go Outside London, an identical pattern emerged unchecked. It was largely ignored, as was the work in virtually every area of black settlement: cowardly of sociologist Maureen Cain, whose book Society and hit-and-run attacks on individuals or houses, with the Policemen’s Role, (1973), found that policemen an occasional eruption of mob violence such as the generally believed that ‘niggers’ or ‘nigs’ were ‘in Middlesbrough riot of August 1961 when the main…pimps and layabouts, living off what we thousands of whites, chanting ‘Let’s get a wog’, pay in taxes’. In 1979, a further, comprehensive smashed the windows of black people’s houses and account of police-black relations also fell on largely set a black-owned café on fire. Labour Party deaf ears. Beatings and forced confessions are part chairman Tom Driberg told the Trades Union of what has been described by the British Black Congress: ‘there are only 190,000 coloured people Panthers in 1970 as a deliberate campaign to in our population of 50 million—that is, only four intimidate, harass and imprison black people out of every 1,000. The real problem is not black prepared to go out on the streets and demonstrate. skins, but white prejudice.’ Between 1976 and 1981, thirty-one black people in Soon after the 1959 general election, a group of Britain were murdered by racists. In January 1981, Tory MPs from Birmingham set up a lobbying thirteen young black people perished after a fire- organization for the introduction of immigration bomb attack on a birthday party in Deptford. Three controls. Three years later, the first Commonwealth months later, 15,000 black people demonstrated. Immigrants Bill became law in 1962. This measure They protested against police handling of the restricted the admission of Commonwealth settlers inquiry, and demanded justice for black people. The to those who had been issued with employment police response, as seen by many members of the vouchers. This was a decisive political turning point Afro-Caribbean community, was ‘Swamp 81’, the in contemporary British race relations. Blackness first part of a London-wide exercise known as was officially equated with second-class citizenship, ‘Operation Star’. In six days, 120 plain clothes and the status of ‘undesirable immigrant’ was given policemen stopped 943 people, 118 of whom were official approval. The 1962 Bill’s ‘unstated’ and arrested. ‘unrecognized’ assumption was that black people After an entire decade of police harassment were the source of the problem. Two years after aimed at suppressing black resistance, black and the 1962 Act there came the next turning point white youth exploded together in the summer of when Peter Griffiths, Tory candidate for 1981. The action started in Brixton, then spread to Smethwick, defeated a Labour minister with the Southall and other parts of Britain. The unrest in slogan ‘If you want a nigger for a neighbour vote Toxteth, Liverpool, lasted four days, during which Labour’. Racism was thus legitimated as the basis 150 buildings were burnt down and 781 police put of an electoral appeal by the candidate of a major out of action. The popular backlash spread to political party. Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, Coventry, By the mid-1970s, two out of every five black Wolverhampton, Stockport, Maidstone, Aldershot, people in Britain were born in the country. In the Chester, Newcastle, Knaresborough, Derby, key areas of employment, housing and education, Edinburgh, Reading, Stoke, Gloucester, Halifax, those born in Britain of Afro-Caribbean parents still Wood Green, Hackney, Bristol, Portsmouth, Luton, faced a substantial amount of unfair discrimination, Walthamstow, Bedford, Hull, Nottingham, and the issue of police racism has become a major Birkenhead, Blackburn, Shrewsbury and elsewhere. subject of debate. In 1966 Joseph A.Hunte’s report This major uprising was followed by the Scarman 14 Afro-Caribbean youth styles

Report, which investigated the possible causes of the rocksteady, the Rastafarians (see Rastafarianism) disturbances. Unemployment and police brutality and reggae of the politicized 1970s to the were outlined as two major causal factors, yet in 1991 Raggamuffins of the early 1990s. Diametrically Lord Gifford’s report ‘Loose The Shackles’, based opposed to Rastafarianism, Ragga music, fashion mainly on Liverpool, showed little if any alleviation and dance celebrate an individualistic materialism, of the problems outlined ten years earlier. The forthright sexuality and ostentatious attitude. lessons to be learned from what happened in 1981 With later militant and Afrocentric variants (see are to some extent still being digested, both by Afrocentrists), the Fly-Girls and B-Boys of the Britain’s Afro-Caribbean communities and by the 1980s, Afro-American hip hop culture created a white population in general. unisex fashion consistent with the broader casual sportswear and casual trends among Afro- See also: Afro-Caribbean youth styles; Caribbean youth in Britain. Trading in a common Afrocentrists; Afropop and African music; Race currency of style, designer tracksuits, expensive Relations Acts trainers and chunky gold accessories became signifiers of power and status in the reclaimed cultural terrain of the street. Further reading Hip hop culture underlines the creative Fryer, P. (1984) Staying Power: The History of Black assemblage that defines Afro-Caribbean (and Asian) People In Britain, London: Pluto (an invaluable youth styles in Britain, whether through music resource, in terms of its volume of information, (mixing, sampling or developing musical styles), its primary sources and its perspective). dress (arranging assorted fake and real designer Lambeth City Council (1988) Forty Winters On: Memories labels) or language. In 1981, Smiley Culture’s chart of Britain’s Post-War Caribbean Immigrants, London: hit ‘Cockney Translation’ signalled the black British Lambeth City Council (this is a commemorative blending of the Jamaican ‘yardy’ and the cockney book, with an introduction by Stuart Hall, marking ‘geezer’, delivering a distinctive dialect of rhyming the fortieth anniversary of the docking of the Empire cockney slang and fast-style Jamaican patois. Windrush with the first settlers). First widely practised by black-conscious youth Phillips, M. and Phillips, T. (1998) Windrush: The during the 1970s, Jamaican patois and Afro-American Irresistible Rise of Multi-Racial Britain, London: street slang are linguistically employed to subvert HarperCollins (a valuable history as well as a forms of standard English. As with graffiti spray- companion to the BBC television series of the painted on public property, Afro-Caribbean youth same name). have reimagined linguistic and urban landscapes with non-conformist, self-affirm-ing stylistic EUGENE LANGE explosions of flowing and disrupted rhythms and colour. Institutional authorities, however, are inclined Afro-Caribbean youth styles to view their occupation of such alternative subjective and leisure spaces as transgressive. Afro-Caribbean youth culture is largely based upon Afro-Caribbean youth have exerted a decisive the mediation of black British urban experience by stylistic influence on British youth and mainstream a heterogeneous fusion of Afro-diasporic influences. cultures as evidenced by the mod, skinhead, punk As a sub-cultural group, Afro-Caribbean youth have and dance (see mods; skinheads; punk rock; converted states of urban dislocation, socio-economic dance music) appropriation of aspects of Rude- adversity and institutionalized racism to produce boy, Rasta, hip hop and sound system culture. Soul rearticulations of black British identity through II Soul perhaps ideally encapsulate the young, black musical, linguistic, sartorial and visual expressions. and British cultural awakening of the mid-1980s Afro-Caribbean youth styles have metamor- with their unique synthesis of a black British phosed through Caribbean-derived incarnations attitude, music, fashion and philosophy (Tulloch stemming from the Rudeboys of 1960s ska and 1992:93). Afropop and African music 15

See also: Afro-Caribbean communities; Afropop UK, as too did the legendary South African singer and African music; Asian youth styles Miriam Makeba. Around the same time, the young Fela Kuti was inventing his Afro-beat sound in London. The 1970s saw the emergence of Afro- Further reading fusion band Osibisa, while Hugh Masekela and Tulloch, C. (1992) ‘Rebel Without A Pause: Black Dudu Pukwana made a splash in the world of Afro- Streetstyle & Black Designers’, in J.Ash and E. jazz fusion. Manu Dbango’s ‘Soul Makossa’ was a Wilson (eds), Chic Thrills: A Fashion Reader, hit in the UK in 1973, and King Sunny Adé put his London: Pandora Press (a brief but informative brand of Nigerian ‘Ju-ju’ music on the market. historical overview). Today’s current interest in popular African dance music started in the 1980s with Europeans bringing SATINDER CHOHAN back music from their travels, and linking up with African musicians in bands like Jazira and The Ivory Coasters. London-based bands emerged, Afrocentrists such as African Connexion, Hi-life International Afrocentrists see their culture as emanating from and Somo Somo, many of whom (like Taxi Pata Africa. The two most visible groups are Rastafarians Pata) were made up of expatriates from various (see Rastafarianism), from broadly West Indian African countries, ranging from Nigeria to Ghana, backgrounds, and blacks who foreground their Zimbabwe, Zaire, South Africa, Tanzania and African ancestry. Both groups see a recognition of Kenya. Despite the prevalence of a sort of pan- African origins as crucial to the resolution of problems African political correctness amongst many African in and around their status as British subjects, redolent musicians in the 1990s, the old colonial ties divide as it is of their history as colonial peoples. Their aim the new African music scene between two major is the recognition and recovery of their lost history spheres of influence: London and Paris. and culture. Afrocentrists fear that their distinctive The current UK movement took off in London culture will be submerged in a multicultural Britain in 1983, on the back of the Greater London and, partly taking their cue from Alex Haley’s Roots, Council’s cultural policy, with a series of shows wish to celebrate their identity in clothing styles, music that launched now famous acts like Youssou and dance rhythms. Important texts are The Isis Papers N’Dour, Kanda Bongo Man, Sam Mangwana and by Dr Frances Cress Welsing and the Nation of Islam Les Quatre Etoiles. In 1988, Mali’s Mori Kanté hit speeches of Minister Louis Farrakhan. They celebrate the number one spot in several European charts an alternative to Christmas, called Kwaanza, in part with ‘Yekke Yekke’. African musicians were finding centring on ancient Egyptian culture. Influences are a global market for their sound. Much of the music Dr Ron Karenga and the American film director Spike coming out of Africa since the 1980s has been Lee. categorized as ‘world music’. Papa Wemba embraces the term ‘world music’ as a category that See also: Afro-Caribbean communities; Afro- denotes his eclectic approach, which itself is part Caribbean youth styles; Afropop and African of the change that international attention has music brought. Wemba plays for an international audience, but recognizes the need to plunge back MIKE STORRY into traditional music. In relation to African music at a WOMAD press conference he is quoted as Afropop and African music saying: ‘We are not a fashion. We are a continent.’ Fellow Zairean Ray Lima also admits that he is not In the 1950s, Franco’s Jazz in Zaire was one of the playing the Zairean music he would play at home. rare African bands to reach as far as Britain. In the At the other end of the continuum, people like 1960s, South African Abdullah Ibrahim, and the Thomas Mapfumo are rejecting the term ‘world whole township Jazz scene, made a mark in the music’ in order to emphasize cultural specificity. 16 Afropop and African music

Both Mapfumo and master mbira player and fellow Ali Farka Touré plays a sort of African blues, while Zimbabwean Ephat Mujuru have contributed to Angelique Kidjo from Benin, now a major force in the creation of the staunchly traditional Europe, plays a very funky Americanized form of ‘chimerenga’ music. her own traditional music. Jamaican reggae is also The diversity between artists who play very popular throughout Africa: Alpha Blondy traditional music, those who fuse and spice up the from Abidjan, like many Rasta-inspired bands, traditional, and artists who cross over completely plays straight-up ‘roots rock reggae’, the only to Western idioms is vast. Collaborating musically difference being that he sings in a combination of with Peter Gabriel put Senegal’s Youssou N’Dour his own local dialect with French and some English. on the European map in much the same way that Blondy recorded a complete album with Jamaican appearing on Paul Simon’s ‘Graceland’ album made band The Wailers, and his first album in 1983, Jah international figures of South African band Glory, launched him as Africa’s first reggae star. In Ladysmith Black Mambazo. While pioneering the late 1990s, South Africa’s Lucky Dube is set to Senegalese ‘mbalax’ music, people like N’Dour are steal Blondy’s crown as the king of African reggae. also taking it forward into the future, using The debate surrounding the influence of the European instruments to make their music more Western music industry on Afropop continues. On accessible to Western audiences. Despite the desire the continent of Africa itself, there are two big to cross over into the Western market, and the problems that hinder its continued growth. The various efforts to conform to the marketing first is the lack of recording studios and of the basic strategies of corporate entities like Peter Gabriel’s infrastructure that fosters a music industry. Due to Real World Records, many African musicians feel this shortfall in resources, African musicians are that there is a covert racism in operation in the plagued by piracy, lack of copyright protection and Western press. It appears that while these new scarcity of the most basic tools of their trade, such musical collaborations allow Peter Gabriel or Paul as reeds and guitar strings, not to mention Simon to enrich their cultures, many critics feel that instruments themselves. With their first big earner, African musicians are compromising their own. the Bhundu Boys returned to Zimbabwe, bringing Because a large proportion of up-and-coming with them only their country’s second public African musicians are university educated, address system; the government then impounded technologically aware and computer-literate, many this because it was unhappy that the band did not want to break out of the closed cultural systems bring hard currency back into the country. that they have been brought up in, making This leads us to the second biggest problem facing inevitable such fusions as Les Têtes Brulée’s African musicians: political turmoil. A number of ‘bikoutsi-rock’ from Cameroon. But many people African countries are experiencing democracy for the feel that, like Africa’s raw materials in the past, its first time since independence. Ethnic and religious music is being plundered, manipulated and tensions remain strong in many regions. Many exploited to suit Western tastes. For example, Remi Algerian ‘rai’ stars have had to retire into exile in Ongala, Zairean-born Tanzanian superstar and UK France because they have come under scrutiny by favourite of the WOMAD festivals, radically Islamic traditionalists, who claim they are playing changed his original line-up and the fundamental debauched street music. Nigerian Fela Kuti’s conflicts sound of his band after WOMAD, insisting on a with the Nigerian government are legendary, and the more mainstream Zairean sound. Also worthy of inventor of the Afrobeat has been imprisoned once mention, the Bhundu Boys play Zimbabwean ‘jit and continually harassed since the 1970s for his jive’, a very pan-African dance sound, like hi-life criticisms of his government and its military regimes. and soukous. Yet, despite these hurdles, African music is becoming The Wassoulou Sound, a group of women a major force in the world of popular music. singers from Mali, perform mainly traditional music, while Baaba Maal and Selif Keita blend See also: Afro-Caribbean communities; Afro- traditional and Western forms very successfully. Caribbean youth styles agitprop 17

Further reading agitprop Bergman, B. (1985) African Pop, London: Cassell. Agitprop, a compression of agitational propaganda, Ewens, G. (1991) Africa Oye!: A Celebration of African can be considered as both a theatrical form and a Music, Enfield: Guinness. distinctive function for artistic works (Szanto 1978).

EUGENE LANGE Evolved during the Russian Revolution, it was employed by socialist activists throughout Europe and the United States to raise the consciousness of age of consent the masses. It was revived in the 1960s in Britain in response to the demands of political campaigners, The age of consent has been discussed from pressure groups and trade unions trying to Plato, through Locke and into contemporary communicate political analysis to popular audiences. public policy. It covers a variety of different The earliest company, formed in 1965, was Cartoon situations, from smoking, taking alcohol and Archetypal Slogan Theatre (CAST). For CAST, rock watching X-rated movies to legal permission to and roll music was the main formative influence. engage in various forms of sexual intercourse. Performances were characterized by direct audience In Britain, the age of consent for smoking is address, swiftly interchanging sketches, sixteen years, and for taking alcohol is eighteen documentary and music so that metaphors were years. Ages of criminal responsibility vary widely created to explain the underlying politics of current according to the offence and are currently under events. An AgitProp collective was formed in review. Similarly, ages of civil contractual ability London in 1968 which promoted a range of cultural vary, but are generally set at sixteen or eighteen political interventions, including street theatre. Other years. Until 1994, the age of consent between companies such as Red Ladder, Broadside Mobile gay men was twenty-one years of age, after which Workers Theatre and Northwest Spanner developed it was lowered to eighteen. Between similar short revue performances which were taken heterosexuals, the age of consent is sixteen years. on to the street and to political meetings, working This anomaly was challenged at the European men’s clubs and picket lines. More extended Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. In 1997, treatments were also possible, such as in Red the incoming Labour government dropped the Ladder’s ‘Strike While The Iron is Hot’ (1974) UK defence and sought an out of court addressing equal pay issues. settlement in which it would offer a free vote on Three main factors reduced the use of agitprop the issue in the House of Commons. Subject to as a political weapon over the course of the 1970s Parliamentary time, it is almost certain that the and 1980s. First, there was a loss of confidence in age of consent for same-sex relations will be the relationships between left-wing theatres (see left- reduced to sixteen (approved by the Commons wing theatre), an increasingly fractured and vote in June 1998). At the same time, the ineffective political left, and popular audiences. government expressed a determination to Second, while the work was usually the product of increase the age of consent to smoking to collective creation, frustration at the perceived eighteen. The apparent anomaly is explained by crudeness of analysis allowed by the form led reducing gender inequality on the one hand and writers like David Edgar into other dramatic discouraging smoking, regardless of gender, on modes. Third, following the 1979 election, the Arts the other. Council progressively withdrew funding from left- wing theatre companies in England. In the absence See also: armed forces and discrimination; family of income, professional companies either split up planning; gay liberation or moved away from such polemic material. In Scotland, agitprop survived into the 1980s in the PAUL BARRY CLARKE work of companies like 7:84 (Scotland), Wildcat SVANBORG SIGMARSDOTTIR Stage Productions and The Merry Mac Fun 18 agricultural buildings

Company. By the 1990s, however, professional of drug abuse combined with high rates of male agitprop had largely disappeared and the form same-sex activity. That view, which still prevails in reverted to its origins in the community activism some places, was challenged by the view that a of companies like Kirkby Response on Merseyside. virus, HIV, triggered the syndrome. High death rates, particularly among male same- See also: avant-garde theatre; fringe theatre sex partners in the US and the UK, have resulted in a culture of ‘safe sex’, that is, sex which either does not involve penetration or which involves only Further reading protected penetration among certain sections of the Itzin, C. (1980) Stages in the Revolution: Political Theatre population. It has also led to a decline in needle in Britain since 1968, London: Eyre Methuen. sharing among intravenous drug users. Increased Szanto, G.H. (1978) Theater and Propaganda, Austin, abortion rates indicate that the culture of safe sex TX: University of Texas Press. is not fully established. There is some dispute about the precise source of AIDS and its mechanism of TOM MAGUIRE spread, but the decline of its incidence in those sectors of the population that have adopted practices of ‘safe sex’ and clean needles is significant. agricultural buildings It seems to confirm that care counts and One of the major determining characteristics of complacency is foolish. Britain’s landscapes is its agricultural buildings. Distinctive examples include Kentish oast houses, See also: Clause 28; gay liberation Yorkshire and Snowdonia stone barns, and Cots- wolds byres and cowsheds. However, in the postwar Further reading period a decline in standards of aesthetic design has occurred. This has happened partly because Clarke, P.A.B. (1988) Aids: Medicine Politics and Society, agricultural holdings have been exempt from London: LCAP. planning legislation and building control Shilts, R. (1988) And the Band Played On, regulations, which apply generally but which are Harmondsworth: Penguin. strictest in sensitive areas such as National Parks, PAUL BARRY CLARKE where planning permissions are sparse and insist on stone cladding, slate roofs and so on. Consequently, Britain’s rural landscape has become Akomfrah, John dominated by purely functional steel and breeze block constructions and north American type grain b. 1957 silos which, however efficient, make no attempt to Film-maker blend in with their surroundings. John Akomfrah is best known for his two films, See also: industrial buildings; municipal buildings Seven Songs for Malcolm X (1993) and Last Angel of History (1995), made for Black Audio Film MIKE STORRY Collective/Channel 4 Films. The former combined documentary and narrative, and was offered in homage to the late African-American civil AIDS rights leader. It was a collection of testimonies of AIDS, or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, those who knew Malcolm X, including his widow is the generic term for a syndrome of opportunistic Betty Shabazz and the film maker Spike Lee. It won diseases that result from a weakened immune the prize for Best Use of Archive Footage in a system. First identified in 1981 in Los Angeles and Documentary, at the 1993 Chicago Film Festival. San Francisco, it was thought to be a consequence The latter was an equally committed film and dealt alternative comedy 19 with interpersonal relationships within the black The demographic of the expansion shows a community. clear increase in the middle-class audience in the south. A new wave of comedy has erupted out of See also: Black Audio Film Collective; diasporan the change of direction in stand-up comedy made film-makers; Julien, Isaac by the so-called ‘alternative’ comedians of the early 1980s. The traditional act is joke-based or gag- MIKE STORRY based. Carefully constructed stories leading to a punchline or one-liners are formed around figures Alsop, Will and structures—the mother-in-law, the fire-breath- ing wife, the meeting of an Englishman, an b. 1947 Irishman and a Scotsman—which are as fixed as the Punchinella and Columbine of medieval Architect commedia dell’arte. Its home had been the working Alsop has been Principal of Alsop Stormer Architects men’s clubs of the north, with women often the since 1981. He was educated at the Architectural stock figures positioned as the butt of the humour. Association and taught sculpture at St Martin’s The change of direction initiated by the College, London. He collaborates with Bruce ‘alternative’ comedians was essentially towards the McLean (on architectural drawings), has worked political, but also towards the politically correct. with Cedric Price, and was formerly in practice with Commenting, as they largely did, from a left-wing John Lyall. Major projects have been design work or at least a liberal perspective, the alternative on the Cardiff barrage, planning on the rework of comedians opened up a younger, trendier and more the De Lorean Belfast car factory, government affluent audience in the middle classes, and also buildings in Marseilles and design work on a ferry created an arena which is more female and minority terminal in Hamburg. As long ago as 1975, Alsop friendly. There was a genuine undercurrent of notably defined conceptual architecture at a London anger in the comedy of performers such as Ben ART Net conference as ‘a limitless activity devoid Elton and Alexei Sayle, anger directed almost of direction or dogma’. In other words, Alsop felt exclusively against the Establishment, the that the process and not the product was the chief Conservative government, its policies and their goal of conceptual architecture. perceived effects. The political diatribe attacking the Establishment is a direct descendant of the See also: Architectural Association ground-breaking satire of the 1960s, a natural consequence of the irreverence shown for PETER CHILDS previously unassailable institutions by shows such as That Was The Week That Was. alternative comedy As an extension of this political development, the stand-up routine naturally became more Comedy in the 1980s and 1990s has been called observational, pointing out and pointing up the ‘the new rock and roll’. Certainly there has been a oddities, irritations and absurdities of everyday huge surge in audience figures for live comedy, and British life, particularly from a political angle. This in response to the demand, new clubs and comedy observational tack in turn led to routines which venues have sprung up to provide an arena for were less a series of unrelated jokes and more a comedy performers. When the Comedy Store, stream of consciousness monologue of ideas. The which now advertises itself as ‘the unofficial burgeoning of the comedy circuit which has National Theatre of comedy’, opened in the followed these alternative comics has seen these summer of 1979 it was an isolated platform for trends develop. The trains of thought and comedy. By the mid-1990s, in London alone well observations are no longer necessarily politically over 100 shows could be found each week at dozens motivated, but may be absurd, surreal or more of venues. personal. Increasingly, performers are displaying 20 alternative music their own personality, or that of the character they extension, a team of comedians will improvise create as a mouthpiece. It is arguably this emphasis scenes and dialogue. Improvisation is now the style on individual personality which has led to the favoured by the Comedy Store Players, hosts at identification of comedy as the new rock and roll. the best-known of the London comedy venues. Individuals stand out, audiences select favourites, Stand-up is the staple of most comedy clubs, stars are created; stars beget fans and so the industry but some offer more of a cabaret for an evening’s expands. entertainment. Stand-up acts may be featured, but The material of the new comedy may encourage they will be interspersed with sketches, singers or a more politically correct atmosphere, a more some of the many novelty acts who now ply their demographically varied audience, but ‘punters’ are trade on the comedy circuit; groups such as Corky no easier to please. Rather than face alone the and the Juice Pigs, whose act is formed of comic frequently hostile heckling which is now common songs and musical impressions, or perhaps the more at most new comedy venues, many performers, in circus-based antics of The Umbilical Brothers. accordance with the old adage that there is safety in Current British comedy has been revolutionized numbers, choose to pursue a slightly different branch by the alternative movement of the late 1970s and of comedy, working as part of a duo or team. The early 1980s, and it now has a firm foothold in the revue format is a university tradition; the Cambridge television schedules with stars like Lee Evans, Jack Footlights and the Oxford Revue have been in Dee and Julian Clary who have their own shows. competition for decades. Again, it was in the 1960s that they came to the attention of a broader audience. See also: comedy on television; Comedy Store, The now legendary groups such as Dudley Moore, The Peter Cook, Jonathan Miller and Alan Bennett in Beyond the Fringe, or the Monty Python team, Further reading combined members of both University revues and, largely through radio and television, broke through Double, O. (1988) Stand Up, London: Methuen. to a much larger audience. ALISON BOMBER Their legacy is seen in the sketch groups of today such as the Cheese Shop or Curried Goat. In addition, although a female stand-up is no longer alternative music such a rarity (the demographic changes apply to performers as well as audiences, and Jo Brand or The label ‘alternative music’ was most prevalent Jenny Eclair can quell a heckler as well as any man), during the mid- to late 1980s, and was often used as many women seem to work fruitfully within a synonym for ‘indie music’, the latter being seen partnerships; French and Saunders forged the path by some commentators and fans as a misnomer, as which others such as Mel and Sue or the Girls with many of the ostensibly independent labels were Big Jests are now following. These duos, like the actually controlled by major record labels (see indie sketch teams, base their acts upon short scenes and pop). For example, The Cure, one of the leading varied characters. bands of the indie/alternative scene, were signed to The revue format may mean that the sketches, Fiction, a small subsidiary of the Polygram empire. skits and, occasionally, songs have a linking theme, Furthermore, the term ‘alternative’ could also be but more usually the sketch show is simply a series applied to bands who sounded like indie bands but of unconnected humorous situations presented who recorded for major labels, such as Simple Minds dramatically, rather than just recounted as would (in their early years) who were signed first to Arista be the case with a stand-up comic. This is the format and then to Virgin. most often translated to radio and television, as it Stylistically, alternative music was characterized is not as dependent as stand-up on having an primarily, but not exclusively, by guitar-based rock. audience to address because the members of the Bands as diverse as Echo and The Bunnymen, with group can interact with one another. At its furthest their 1960s-influenced sound, The Cult, who alternative poetry 21 adopted a fairly straight take on heavy rock, and reggae and hip hop), performance poetry is usually the Spacemen Three, who experimented with composed in the vernacular—often the dialect of layering textures of sound over infrequently specific regions or cultural groups—using devices changing chords, were all encompassed within the (such as rhyme and alliteration) from oral rather ‘alternative’ tag. This broad stylistic range may be than literary poetic traditions. partially due to the fact that many of the bands Inspired by the American Beat writers, in the who comprised the alternative scene either late 1950s and early 1960s Christopher Logue’s stemmed from or drew their inspiration from the ‘jazzetry’ and Michael Horovitz’s Poetry Olympics post-punk movement, which in itself encompassed sought to recover poetry from the academic and a wide range of sounds. Another, possibly more literary establishment. Performances across the likely explanation is that the variety found within country by such poets as Adrian Mitchell, Jeff the alternative scene can be attributed to the fact Nuttall, Libby Houston and Tom Pickard that the term was used to describe any band that culminated with the Royal Albert Hall Poetry could not be neatly categorized as belonging to any Olympics of 1965, attended by crowds of 8,000. of the established genres of the time. The success of the Mersey Poets’ pop-based writing It was perhaps this understanding of alternative of the late 1960s, and of John Cooper Clarke’s punk music that led to the phrase becoming redundant. poetry and the dub poetry of black performance Alternative music was defined by what it was not, poets in the 1970s, opened up new audiences rather than by what it was. Most importantly, it was through recordings (often with musical not mainstream chart music (a fact from which many accompaniment) for independent labels and local alternative music fans took an elitist pleasure), so radio. The dub and punk poets (also known as when an ‘alternative’ band such as The Smiths had ranters) helped make protest poetry the dominant a succession of top twenty singles, it became difficult mode of performance poetry in the 1970s. The early to describe them as an alternative anymore. Similarly, 1980s saw comic poets like John Hegley and alternative music was not dance music, but when Seething Wells appear on the alternative cabaret groups such as Primal Scream began approaching circuit, and new wave performers like Attila the dance producers such as Andrew Weatherall to Stockbroker, Henry Normal and Joolz performed remix their songs, the distinction became blurred. on the fringe at rock festivals. There was also a Ultimately, the term alternative music ceased to have 1960s revival of Dada- and Surrealist-influenced much meaning, and it fell out of common usage. experimental performance poetry: from Bob Cobbing and Edwin Morgan’s sound poetry See also: indie pop; new wave; punk rock through to the spellbinding performances of profoundly deaf poet Aaron Williamson, the avant- garde used performed poetry to explore the Further reading boundaries between language and physical sound. Savage, J. (1991) England’s Dreaming: Anarchy, Sex Despite critics’ fears in the 1960s and 1970s that Pistols, Punk Rock and Beyond, London: Faber & performance poetry would break literature into Faber. rival camps, conventional poets have shown an increasing interest in performing their works. As a SIMON BOTTOM BBC radio producer from 1973, the Group poet George MacBeth presented performances from new alternative poetry young poets to a wide non-specialist audience, and Tom Leonard, Liz Lochhead, Wendy Cope, Tony The strongest ‘alternative’ tradition in Harrison and Rita Ann Higgins are among the contemporary British poetry is performance poetry, many poets to whom performance is as important a form as varied as its practitioners. Often based as publication. By the 1990s, performance poetry on song-structures (such as repeated refrains) and was being taught on university courses and at the rhythms of popular music (including jazz, rock, workshops. Poetry slams regularly attracted large 22 ambient music audiences, and poets performed with club DJs and The KLF (symbolized by the photograph of sheep in a variety of media, exploiting new video and on the cover of Chill Out) became increasingly recording technologies. The commercial potential popular, and many ambient musicians recorded of performance poetry was acknowledged by EMI’s music that, like Chill Out, contained no beats at all. much hyped £1 million advance to Murray Lachlan The samples contained within this style led to Young in 1997. criticisms that ambient music had become obsessed with ‘new age’ philosophy and green issues. Some See also: black performance poets; performance artists began to reject the soporific nature of early poetry; poetry slams ambient music in favour of a more abstract electronic sound. A good example of this move was The Aphex Twins’ Selected Ambient Works Volume Two (1994), which Further reading eschewed the serenity of previous ambient music in Forbes, P. (ed.) (1997) Poetry Review 87(3)(special favour of a minimal electronic darkness. issue on performance poetry). The career of the seminal ambient act The Future Sound of London can also be seen as SIMON COPPOCK following the three phases outlined above. While their first single ‘Papua New Guinea’ (1992) ambient music contained natural sounds combined with a house beat, their second single ‘Cascade’ (1993) was a Drawing influence from artists such as Brian Eno, more dreamy atmospheric sound, while their The Yellow Magic Orchestra and Tangerine second album ISDN (1995) was an altogether more Dream, ambient music contains soothing natural disturbing affair. noises such as bird song, whale speech and other One sub-genre that has developed within aquatic sounds, often laid over the top of a slow ambient music is ambient dub, which combines the ‘break beat’ or house rhythm. slow rhythm of dub reggae music with the natural Ambient music was largely ignored by the and synthesized sounds characteristic of ambient. mainstream until the rave culture boom of the late Again, The Orb have been at the forefront of this 1980s. While the main dancefloors of most raves development with their track ‘Towers of Dub’. and clubs invariably played acid house, it was in Following on from this development has been the the ‘chill-out rooms’ of such clubs that ambient rise of a hybrid genre entitled ambient jungle. music could be found. Acclaimed records of this Ambient jungle takes on board the frenetic period included The KLF’s Chill Out (1988), The percussion of jungle, but avoids its aggressiveness Orb’s A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain that Rules through the creative use of strings, ‘pads’ and From the Centre of the Ultraworld (1989) and an untitled natural sounds. Artists working within this field album by Space, which was a collaboration between include T-Power, LTJ Bukem, Alex Reece and The KLF’s Jimmy Cauty and The Orb’s Alex Jacob’s Optical Stairway. Patterson, an ex-employee of EG, the record STUART BORTHWICK company that released Brian Eno’s early ambient records. While some ambient music of this period was implicitly connected with drug culture, The Amnesty International Orb’s record made this connection explicit, with its cover sleeve claim to be ‘ambient house for the Amnesty International was founded in 1961 by E generation’. Peter Benenson. It is an independent worldwide During the early 1990s ambient music’s voluntary movement, with a membership of popularity broadened beyond rave culture, 120,000 individuals in over 300 local groups although it remained popular with fans of dance throughout the UK. The organization’s mandate music, and was often listened to after a night spent calls for the release of all prisoners of conscience, at a club or rave. The natural calming sounds of fair and prompt trials for all political prisoners, and androgynous/unisex look 23 an end to torture and execution. As such, it is based Music-related subcultures have had a major on the United Nations Universal Declaration of influence on men’s embrace of unisex styles. Swinging Human Rights (1948). London and psychedelic styles, emerging in 1967 and Amnesty International UK has benefited from 1968 from the mod look, took up bright colours and the growth in popularity of single-issue politics and Op art designs in vivid and decorative clothing worn pressure groups during the 1980s and 1990s. The by men and women alike. The hippie subculture of cases of ‘prisoners of conscience’ such as the Beirut the late 1960s and early 1970s allowed men to wear hostages, Nelson Mandela, and more recently Ken long hair, beads and headbands, a shift in style that Saro-Wiwa, have hit the headlines. was interpreted by contemporary commentators as accompanying a gentler style of masculinity and a See also: Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace more liberal approach to diverse sexual practices. RACHAEL BRADLEY British glam rock took this emphasis on androgynous, sexualized style to a new limit in the early 1970s, with Marc Bolan and David Bowie Anderson, Lindsay adopting the glam personae of the Cosmic Crusader and Ziggy Stardust/Aladdin Sane, b. 1923, Bangalore (India); d. 1994, respectively. These characters from a genderless Dordogne (France) future emerged in prosperous circles in London, Film-maker in contrast to the black funk style appearing simultaneously in the USA. Some new romantics Anderson’s early career as an essayist and an of the early 1980s, especially Duran Duran, ABC exponent of experimental ‘free cinema’ developed and Culture Club, took up similar glamorous, a unique style which reflected upon the process of androgynous male styles. Figures like Boy George film making and the role of the individual in showed the influence that gay subcultures had on initiating social change. His first feature film, This these music-related styles, as does the origins of Sporting Life (1963), was an intense drama of the word ‘punk’ as a term for a homosexual lover. northern English working-class life. This was Musical trends also had an influence on followed by a thematically linked trilogy. If (1969) women’s adoption of androgynous styles. Jeans and offered the metaphor of the public school as the t-shirts as unisex wear were popularized by the state of the nation. The sequel, O Lucky Man (1972), hippies and the mods, while jeans and dungar- considered big business, civic corruption and the ees were also embraced by the women’s movement perversion of science and religion, but resisted easy as comfortable, relatively unrestrictive clothing. conclusions. Britannia Hospital (1982) was less Punk, too, offered a less feminine dress style for successful, using the ailing NHS as an analogue women, which has been more recently adapted by for a moribund Britain. the Riot Grrrls. However, only in the 1980s did

GORDON URQUHART mainstream female musicians offer exemplars for androgynous style. Grace Jones, who went on to appear in the Bond androgynous/unisex look film A View to a Kill in the mid-1980s, adopted a punk-glam look of short sculptured hair and Androgynous looks have been produced under masculine tailoring. Jones’s image showed the the various influences of politics, subcultures and influence of high fashion through her collaboration musical styles. For men, embracing an with Jean-Paul Goude. Annie Lennox’s adoption androgynous style has meant the adoption of a of the male suit in the earlier part of her career was decorative and sexualized style of clothing. a way of symbolizing control over her musical Ironically, for women it has often involved the identity, and the adoption of the suit as a way of opposite, a desexualization and simplification of demonstrating a non-sexualized competence has dress styles. persisted throughout the 1980s. 24 Anglican Church

The women’s movement, gay subcultures, In terms of ecclesiastical administration, lesbian ‘butch’ styles and peacenik hippie politics England is divided into two ‘Provinces’, with the have all had an impact on androgynous styles. Archbishop of Canterbury presiding over thirty Nonetheless, there is considerable debate as to sees (or dioceses), and the Archbishop of York whether the popularity of unisex dress styles is presiding over fourteen sees in the north of the connected to a liberalization of the distinction country. Sees are headed by diocesan bishops, between genders or transformations in attitudes to increasingly with support from deputies called gay and lesbian sexuality. ‘suffragan bishops’. Archdeacons oversee subdivi- sions of sees, with rural deans (not to be confused See also: bisexuality; ‘gender benders’; with the deans who head chapters of canons in transsexuals cathedrals) leading groups of parish clergy. The traditional parish priest (whether called ‘rector’ or ‘vicar’ made little practical difference) caring for a Further reading parish, often for decades with scant guidance or Garber, M. (1992) Vested Interests: Crossdressing and interference, has become far less common. Today Cultural Anxiety, New York: Routledge team ministries, often including women priests, Polhemus, T. (1994) Streetstyle: From Sidewalk generally look after a number of parishes. toCatwalk, London: Thames & Hudson. The Church of England is not state-funded, but receives income from congregations and from NICOLE MATTHEWS endowments managed, not to universal approba- tion, by the Church Commissioners. It uses the Anglican Church money to pay and pension the clergy according to their place within the hierarchy and to maintain Henry VIII’s defence of the sacraments against an expensive heritage of ancient and beautiful Reformist tendencies led Pope Leo X in 1521 to churches. bestow on him the title ‘Defender of the Faith’, which Though the Church of England is technically is still held by the British monarch. Just a few years England’s ‘established church’, the meaning of this later, failing to persuade Pope Clement VII to annul status has undergone considerable change. It does his marriage to Catharine of Aragon so that he could not, as a state church, impose religious uniformity; make Anne Boleyn his second wife and perhaps from the earliest days, some variation in faith and father an heir, he repudiated Roman authority over practice was generally tolerated, and legal the Church in England and also gained control over discrimination against both Catholics and the Church’s possessions in England. Since the Protestant nonconformists effectively ended in sixteenth century, the Church of England has steered 1829. The monarch, who under the 1701 Act of an uncertain course between Catholic tendencies on Settlement regulating succession to the throne must the one hand (despite persistent preferences for be Protestant, remains the ‘supreme head’ of the national autonomy) and Protestant attitudes on the Church of England, vowing to defend it on other. Though asserting independence from papal accession and at coronation. But the powers of authority, the Church of England claims to be part appointing the higher clergy secured by Henry VIII of the Catholic church, participating in the apostolic are, like other royal prerogatives, now exercised succession as direct inheritors of Christ’s mandate by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, to St Peter. Especially acute in Victorian times, the who only rarely rejects the recommendations he orientation of the Church of England remains a live or she receives from Church of England bodies. issue today, for the Evangelical tradition has great The Church of England retains certain strength, even though today’s services, particularly constitutional privileges. Since the Middle Ages, the increasing emphasis on the Eu-charist, would when they represented a considerable ‘estate’ within have seemed distinctly ritualistic and Romish in the realm, senior churchmen have sat in the House previous centuries. of Lords as ‘Lords Spiritual’, originally angling 25 outnumbering the ‘Lords Temporal’. They currently though still widely reported, no longer command comprise the two archbishops, the bishops of great respect in a multicultural, multi-faith country London, Winche-ster and Durham and twenty-one where those who used to profess nominal allegiance other diocesan bishops in order of seniority, these to the Church of England are now generally numbers being limited in Victorian times when indifferent. additional bishop-rics were created. The Lords The Empire and missionary endeavours have Spiritual are in effect ex officio life peers for as long as spread the doctrines, liturgy and organization of the they hold office. Particularly meritorious archbishops Church of England far and wide. The Anglican or bishops are then generally nominated as life peers Communion, as it is called, numbers some 70 million on their retirement, meaning they continue to sit in people. Its leaders come together once a decade in the Lords. Peers who are in the clergy may sit in the the Lambeth Conference, named after the House of Lords, but clergymen or women who are Archbishop of Canterbury’s London residence. As commoners, though entitled to vote in Parliamentary well as maintaining and developing Anglicanism, the elections, cannot become MPs. Changes in the Church places reunification with other churches and Church of England’s representation in the House denominations high on its agenda. of Lords, mooted in Victorian times, will probably be included within wider reforms of the House of See also: Archbishop of Canterbury; Protestant Lords being discussed at time of writing. churches; women priests Historically, the foundations of worship in the Church of England have been the Book of Common Further reading Prayer, which took its definitive form in 1662 after more than a century of evolution from the Catholic Baker, J. (1978) The Church of England, Exeter: service books, and the Authorised Version of the Religious Education Press. Bible (the King James Version), a translation dating CHRISTOPHER SMITH from 1611 and also the product of prolonged development. Stylistically impressive, both were revered. But language changed, scholarship angling undermined interpretations, and the conviction grew that a renewal of the liturgy would make a wider There are 1,710 angling clubs, with 405,000 appeal. Attempts to revise the Book of Common members, in Britain. Problems facing anglers Prayer in the 1920s were voted down by MPs, many include a decline in sponsorship, opposition from of whom were not Anglicans. Since then the Church animal rights activists and the increase in numbers of England has won greater control over its affairs. of seabirds flying inland to take fish (for which The General Synod, with representation for bishops, reason anglers would like cormorants to be taken clergy and laity, introduced alternative services in off the protected list). Sea anglers also have 1980 and encouraged the use of, for instance, The experienced a decline in fish stocks. In the case of New English Bible. Currently, worship in the the declining stocks of sea trout, much of the blame Church of England appears highly eclectic as it has is placed on salmon farms, which attract sea lice assumed a great variety in liturgical forms and styles, who attach themselves to the trout and eat them reflecting not only the tastes of different alive. Angling is also threatened with loss of congregations and their clergy but also considerable sponsorship from tobacco companies and there has diversity in doctrine within a generalized Christian been some opposition to angling from animal rights outlook. The response is mixed. Some parishes and activists, who regard it as a ‘blood sport’. It has cathedrals attract large numbers, but the Church of however become popular on television, where some England can no longer claim, even for baptisms and of the angling is done abroad. weddings, the loyalty of either the mass of the MIKE STORRY population or of the upper classes who were once its keenest supporters. The opinions of its leaders, 26 animal rights animal rights growth in the number of small studios in the UK. During the 1960s a number of animators began to The issue of animal rights has theoretical and operate independently. Perhaps tired of the mass practical dimensions relating to the treatment of production techniques necessary to work for animals by humans. On the theoretical side, animal television, animators began to assert more rights refers to the idea that animals ought to be individual, expressive styles and tackle a wider ascribed rights to protect them from being abused range of subjects. and/or treated in particular ways. Animals are held Influential in this shift was George Dunning, to possess the capacities (such as sentience or whose The Flying Man (1962) inspired others to push consciousness) which make them deserving of rights for greater artistic freedom. Dunning is perhaps in the same way that humans have rights on account best remembered for his work on the psychedelic of these capacities or properties. On the practical Beatles epic Yellow Submarine (1968). Bob Godfrey side, the animal rights movement in Britain is most worked anarchic humour into his parodies, many usually associated with the more radical end of the of which were concerned with sex; Kama Sutra Rides ‘animal welfare’ movement. Those agitating for Again (1971) and Dream Doll (1979) are the most animal rights include hunt saboteurs and those prominent examples. Godfrey’s irreverent attitude seeking to end hunting foxes and deer with dogs, has been compared to the radio comedy The Goon and others (such as the Animal Liberation Front) Show. A blend of surreal humour and Dada-inspired who oppose the use of animals for food, clothing, cutout graphics formed the basis for Terry Gilliam’s entertainment and medical experimentation. animations for the television comedy show Monty

JOHN BARRY Python’s Flying Circus (1969–74). Advertising and children’s entertainment continued to provide the bulk of work for animators animation in the 1970s, representing opportunities to experiment with different techniques. Several With a long history in the United Kingdom, feature-length animated films were produced for animation has developed along different lines to the cinema, largely adaptations of children’s books the much larger industry in North America. The such as Lee Mishkin’s Butterfly Ball (1974), and lack of a large film distribution network meant a Martin Rosen’s Watership Down (1978). As the relative scarcity of work for animators in the number of films produced increased, so postwar period. There was no market for independent animators found they could explore syndicated cartoons, nor an equivalent of the large more personal subjects and vary their graphic studio system employed by Walt Disney. At that styles. Geoff Dunbar’s short film Lautrec (1974), time, the only real outlet for indigenous animators’ based on the French artist’s cancan drawings, won talents was cinema advertising. wide acclaim. Ubu (1979), derived from Alfred A handful of studios operated in London, the Jarry’s play Ubu Roi, shocked many with its angry, most notable being that of John Halas and Joy grotesque characters. Alison de Vere’s films use Batchelor. They produced the first British animated powerful symbolism to convey emotional and feature film, an adaptation of George Orwell’s spiritual states. Mr Pascal (1979) deals with religious Animal Farm (1954). With its serious political belief and transformation, and The Black Dog (1987) allegory, this landmark production demonstrated is a journey through a haunting dream landscape. the artists’ commitment to animation for adults. Certain artists began to move away from The first ever cartoon opera, Joy Batchelor’s traditional techniques of two-dimensional cell Ruddigore, (1964), was further proof that animation animation in the Disney mould, and towards a was not solely intended as a novelty or for children. more mixed media approach. In particular, stop- The arrival of commercial television, and the motion photography using real objects, people or resulting increase in work for advertising (see puppets became popular. The Brothers Quay, advertising, television and video), led to a rapid influenced by Czech film maker Jan Svankmajer, appliances 27 started producing animated shorts using found absurdity and desperation into her characters more objects such as dolls’ heads, pieces of meat, hair reminiscent of a situation comedy. Coupled with and bones. Their dark, neo-Gothic style with its outrageously scatological humour, the innovative macabre air of decay is seen in Epic Of Gilgamesh animated series is a unique contribution to British (1981) and Street of Crocodiles (1986). Much of their culture. commercial work has been made for music videos These two long-running series (Crapston Villas or television channel identifying graphics. and Pond Life) indicate a wider trend in television Aardman Animations, a studio started by Peter towards including animation in the wider field of Lord and David Sproxton, specialized in plasticine entertainment programming. Popular American animation. This technique was used throughout their shows such as Beavis and Butthead and The Simpsons Morph series for BBC children’s television in the have influenced this move. While children’s 1980s, and to great effect in the milestone music television (see television, children’s) and the films video for Peter Gabriel, Sledgehammer (1986). of Disney still dominate the popular perception of Aardman enjoyed international success with Nick animation, it seems that an approach more geared Park’s Creature Comforts (1989) and The Wrong Trousers towards adults is here to stay. (1993), the second film featuring two enduring animated characters, Wallace and Grommit. See also: cartoons and puppetry Animation has always been an area of the media industries more open to participation by women. Further reading Throughout the 1980s and 1990s they have taken an increasingly important role in the field in the Halas, J. (1987) Masters of Animation, London: BBC UK. The role of Channel 4 in funding much of Books. this work has been widely recognized. The Pilling, J. (1992) Women and Animation, London: channel’s remit to cater for niche audiences led to British Film Institute. a separate commissioning department for Russett, R. and Starr, C. (1976) Experimental animation for adults: many of the resulting films Animation, New York: Da Capo Press. have been made by women. CHRIS BYRNE Kayla Parker makes films that are experimental in form, with uncompromising subject matter. Cage of Flame (1992) celebrates menstruation and uses a combination of live action, stop-motion and appliances scratching on the surface of the film to convey The terms ‘black goods’ and ‘white goods’ apply haunting, powerful imagery. Sunset Strip (1996) is a to audio, hi-fi and video equipment on the one time-lapse film of drawings of sunsets made every hand, and washing machines, fridges and freezers evening over one year. The images are drawn directly on the other. These are catch-all terms which onto the film using a variety of materials including illustrate the retail industry’s offering of discrete nail varnish, magnolia petals, hair and net stockings. products to a mass consumer market. Ownership Candy Guard examines everyday life through of possessions is connected with upward social the eyes of her neurotic female characters in Fatty mobility. Hence, twenty years ago, only members Issues (1990) and the series Pond Life (1996). Boyfriend of higher social classes would own certain trouble, shopping with Mum and weight watching appliances such as videos, hi-fi equipment and all come under the microscope. The resulting mild dishwashers. Now, irrespective of need, members misfortunes are played to hilarious effect. of all social classes will own such black appliances Sarah Ann Kennedy works with more biting as videos and such white ones as dishwashers. Even satire. Her Crapston Villas (1996) is a raucous parody people on social security benefits expect to own a of community values as represented by the East- television, a video and other ‘non-essential’ items. enders soap opera. Kennedy playfully subverts the conventions of the soap genre, injecting an air of MIKE STORRY 28 Arabic

Arabic Ramsey (appointed 1961) is remembered primarily for his attempts to secure a rapprochement with With the advent of immigrants from countries in Rome. Dr Donald Coggan succeeded Ramsey in North Africa and the Middle East, the growth of 1974. Robert Runcie (appointed 1980) is perhaps Islam in Britain and a general awareness of the need the most well-known archbishop of recent years. for recognition of cultural diversity, there has been His intellectual, learned and considered liberal a revival of interest in the Arabic language. Such approach was offset by Prime Minister Thatcher’s interest had hitherto been largely confined to such appointment of an archbishop from the evangelical elite schools as London’s School of Oriental and wing, Dr George Carey. African Studies (SOAS), or to the writings of Carey became the 103rd archbishop of eccentric travellers like Sir Richard Burton, Wilfrid Canterbury in 1991. His indeterminate views Thesiger and other ‘Arabists’. Immigrant groups against homosexuality and common law in Birmingham, Bradford and Leicester have set cohabitation have somewhat alienated him from up weekend classes to teach their children Arabic. both wings of the Church. The upshot is first, a Also, expansion in higher education has meant that putatively established church for which the many more courses in spoken Arabic, as opposed pressures of disestablishment are great and second, to classical Arabic language are now taught. a putatively established church which claims to represent the people as a whole but which See also: Baha’i; Islam commands almost no popular nor constitutionally MIKE STORRY safe and secure support. It now commands less than 5 percent of the active support of the population, Archbishop of Canterbury and most of these are over 60 years of age. In the long term, it must be doubted whether The Archbishop of Canterbury and Primate of All the Church can command popular support or England is the centre of Episcopalian Christian unity. justify its establishment. Structurally, and from the The archbishopric was established in 601 AD when behaviour of its primates, it is far from clear if it is Pope Gregory I sent St Augustine to establish the in its interest to be so tied to and so restricted by authority of the Roman Catholic church in England. the State. So far, no Archbishop of Canterbury Augustine became the first Archbishop of seems to be willing to grasp the issues involved. Canterbury. By 1900 the arcbishopric had become Without imaginative leadership in all these areas, part of the axis of Church and State that forms part it seems the Church is bound for difficult times. of the Establishment. It has also, from time to time, adopted a critical voice with respect to the state, See also: Anglican Church; women priests particularly on matters of social justice. William Temple (archbishop 1942–4) brought Further reading the Anglican Church national exposure and authority concerning unemployment and human Hastings, A. (1991) A History of English Christianity: rights. He supported the 1942 Beveridge Report 1920–90, London: SCM Press Ltd. on social security. The position of the Archbishop PAUL BARRY CLARKE of Canterbury has become an increasingly political EMMA R.NORMAN appointment made by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day. These exercises of political patronage are increasingly seen as irrelevant, and sometimes even insulting, to the Archigram diverse views and cultures both within and without Formed in Hampstead in 1960 by Peter Cook, David the United Kingdom. Green and Michael Webb, Archigram was Recent appointees have shown marked responsible for an eponymous journal, but almost independence from their state patronage. Michael no buildings. Inspired by the architect Buckminster armed forces and police 29

Fuller and the critic Reyner Banham, it explored modern buildings. The display, called ‘London the application of technology to architecture, but was Interactive’, was opened by the Culture Secretary little concerned with its social effects. Archi-gram’s Chris Smith. Plans include an ambitious electronic highly exaggerated and ironic projects included Ron future projection of the ‘eCity’, and also a ‘virtual’ Herron’s Walking City and Peter Cook’s Plug-In City: retrospective where citizens of 2050 can revisit the fantastic, unfeasible structures which accommodated city of today including seventy-four featured change by being themselves mobile or temporary. London developments built in the past decade. The The group’s main built project was the British sites range from the Oxo Tower restaurant, the ITN Pavilion for Expo ’70, but the clearest expression of building and the Saatchi Gallery, to Piers Gough’s their ideas may be the Centre Georges Pompidou, public lavatories in Westbourne Grove, London. Paris by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers (1975). MIKE STORRY Archigram disbanded in 1975.

RICHARD J.WILLIAMS armed forces and Architectural Association discrimination With the end of the Cold War, the armed forces’ In 1847, after much complaint in The Builder about practices have come under scrutiny. Cases of sexual the inadequacies of the training available for harassment and dismissal from the service for architects, the Architectural Association was pregnancy have brought adverse court judgements. founded in London, predominantly by younger Complaints about pressure to have abortions have practitioners who had not yet made their name. It also generated bad publicity. Homosexuals who was the successor of the Association of Architectural admit to being active are still barred from entry to Draughtsmen, set up five years earlier. Its objectives the armed services on the grounds that they combined the enhancement of the professional represent a security risk or that others will feel standing of its members through improved threatened by them. A number of cases of educational opportunities with the development of differential treatment of officers and enlisted men both the practical and aesthetic aspects of have occurred. For example, SAS soldiers have been architecture. From relatively modest beginnings, prevented from publishing memoirs, while officers the Architectural Association gained numbers and have been allowed to publish theirs. respect as it assumed responsibilities for teaching and examining and began to collect books and See also: age of consent; armed forces and police; other material for its library. The Architectural gay liberation Association retains its status in the training and education of architects and, for example, Will MIKE STORRY Alsop, David Chipperfield and Rick Mather have all studied and/or taught there.

CHRISTOPHER SMITH armed forces and police The armed forces encompasses the army, navy and air force. They protect the interests of the UK Architectural Foundation overseas. Since the Second World War, the forces The Architectural Foundation is a London-based have adapted to a new role. The standing armies charity founded in 1847. It celebrates the of the Rhine and the Far East were withdrawn when achievements of modern architecture, showcases Germany reunified and Hong Kong reverted to good design and encourages greater public Chinese control. The forces are now envisaged as involvement in the built environment. In 1997 it a rapid reaction force able to ‘police’ trouble spots staged a digital exhibition of the capital’s best on behalf of Britain, NATO or the United Nations. 30 aromatherapy

Recently, task forces were sent to the Falklands in Further reading 1982, the Persian Gulf in 1991 and Bosnia in 1993. Dandeker, C. (1990) Surveillance, Power and Modernity, The organization of the forces has also changed. Cambridge: Polity Press. Regiments have been merged in order to reduce Jefferson, T. (1990) The Case Against Paramilitary personnel, and technological advances in military Policing, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. hardware have necessitated well-educated personnel. The forces have always recruited mainly BARRY GODFREY from the working classes, and originally had a steady supply of conscripted men from National Service, which ended in 1957. The officer core, once aromatherapy provided by the public schools, now comes from One of the most popular alternative therapies in bursary-funded graduates. However, despite high Britain, aromatherapy is based on the use of unemployment the armed forces now struggle to essential oils, that is, those forming the odorous recruit high-calibre personnel. Some observers point principles of plants. These are extracted and to falling educational standards as the reason for used to promote health and relaxation, to this, while others cite the natural reluctance of combat infection and to treat a range of youths to risk themselves in Northern Ireland; ailments. Massage is one of several ways in before the Irish ‘troubles’, few service people have which the oils can be effectively applied. died in combat since 1945, except in specific Practitioners undergo a certified training course engagements such as those in Malaysia, Korea and which includes the study of anatomy and the Falklands. physiology. Aromatherapy has its roots in Since the foundation of the Metropolitan Police ancient Egypt, but the twentieth-century in 1829, the police have been likened to an army for promoter of its use was a French chemist, René the maintenance of order inside rather than outside Gattefosse, whose research into perfumery lead Britain’s shores. The police and armed forces are to the discovery of the therapeutic value of similar in many ways. Both recruit rank and file from essential oils. the working classes and higher echelons (sergeants, commanders) from the educated middle classes, and See also: holistic medicine; homeopathy both have struggled to recruit women and ethnic minorities because of ill-treatment and lack of JAN EVANS promotion opportunities. Both also wield the coercive power of the State, and are the only art galleries legitimate users of violence. This aspect of police work and ‘colonial’ or ‘paramilitary’ policing is Art galleries and museums, particularly after 1980, repeatedly criticized. For instance, the tactics used have formed some of the most exciting and during large-scale demonstrations, the use of riot controversial examples of postwar architecture in police ‘snatch squads’, CS gas and pepper spray have Britain. They form part of a global burgeoning of been attacked. However, despite persistent criticism architecture commissioned to serve cultural from sections of the community, both agencies enjoy purposes. The reasons for this expansion are popular support, evidenced by the popularity of the complex and diverse, ranging from the changing detective genre and series such as Soldier Soldier on functions and purposes of these institutions, the television. Despite this, most young people democrati-zation of culture, the interest in heritage, applauded the sentiment of anti-militarist films such tourism and changes in the funding mechanisms as The Deer Hunter and Apocalypse Now. designed to support cultural activities. Diane Ghirardo (1996) identifies four types of museum— See also: MI5 and MI6; police; secret services as shrine, as warehouse, as cultural shopping mall and as spectacle—in addition to other solutions. The Tate Gallery has provided some of the most arts programming 31 interesting developments, beginning with the Clore Arts Council Gallery (1980–5), designed by Stirling Wilford Associates. The decision to decentralize its The Arts Council of Great Britain was established collections led to the Tate Gallery, Liverpool, (1988) as an independent but government-funded public by Stirling Wilford and the Tate Gallery, St Ives, body by John Maynard Keynes at the end of the (1991–3) by Evans and Shalev (see Tate(s)). Second World War. Since 1994 there have been Hertzog and De Meuron’s designs to transform separate councils for England, Scotland, Wales and Bankside Power Station into the Museum of Northern Ireland. Gerry Robinson, the head of Modern Art are now well advanced. Similarly, the Granada, became chairman of the Arts Council Design Museum (1987–9), designed by Conran of England in May 1998, when the membership Roche, forms part of the revitalization of the was reduced from 22 people to 10. In 1998 the docklands area of London. The Sainsbury Wing Arts Council of England shared out £187 million of the National Gallery (1988–91), has proved to between 165 regularly-funded bodies including the be one of the most controversial commissions, Royal Shakespeare Company and the Royal eliciting condemnation by the Prince of Wales as a Opera, and over 100 other schemes. It also had ‘monstrous carbuncle’ on the face of a ‘much loved £250 million of National Lottery money to friend’. The winning competition entry by Venturi, distribute. Following the removal of regional arts Scott Brown and Associates witnesses their belief boards (RABs) members from the ruling Council, that ambiguity and complexity in architecture are a process of devolution to the regions is currently best suited to the contemporary context. Other in hand under Robinson, and the days of the Arts extensions to museums and art galleries include Council may be numbered. the Sackler Galleries, Royal Academy, (1989–91) by Foster Associates, and the Entertainment See also: Crafts Council; Design Council

Pavilion, Hayward Gallery, (1994) by Allies and PETER CHILDS Morrison. The Natural History Museum boasts the Ecology Gallery (1991) by Ian Ritchie, the Dinosaur Gallery (1992) by Heron Associates, and arts programming Imagination and Wonders at the National History Museum (1993), by David Chipperfield. There Coverage of the arts on television is part of the have also been developments in the provinces, remit of both the BBC and the commercial stations. notably the Museum of Science and Industry in Those involved in ‘the culture industry’, complain Manchester, designed by BDP in 1986, The Henry that the arts are not taken seriously and general Moore Institute, Leeds (1993) designed by Jeremy commentators talk of a dumbing down, and in 1997 Dixon in association with BDP, The Pump House: the Independent Televison Commission (ITC) People’s History Museum, Manchester (1993) by criticized ITV for its low provision of arts shows. OMI, and the Broadfield House Glass Museum, However, compared with television in other Glass Pavilion, Kingswinford, (1994) by Design countries, the arts are given considerable Antenna. prominence in Britain. Dance, opera and orchestral music are all shown in prime time and serious See also: St Ives; Tate(s) attempts are made to cover culture which forms part of the fabric of British life. For example, during Further reading the Edinburgh Festival there is a nightly roundup on BBC2 called Edinburgh Nights and the annual Ghirardo, D. (1996) Architecture After Modernism, Promenade Concerts from the Albert Hall, London: Thames & Hudson. London, are broadcast every year. Papadakis, A.C. (1991) New Museology, An Art and Though the highest profile arts programme is Design Profile, London: Academy Editions. ITV’s The South Bank Show, hosted by Melvyn HILARY GRAINGER Bragg, the station with the strongest claim to 32 Arup Associates broadcasting high culture is BBC2. While and consulting firm Arup and Arup with his cousin. programmes like The Late Show and Late Review may In 1946 he opened an independent engineering cater to ‘minority’ interests, they are flagships for office, which operated from 1949 under the name the BBC and indicate their commitment to quality Ove Arup and Partners. Finally, in 1963 the programming. interdisciplinary and now internationally famous Channel 4 has a reputation for showing the planning firm Arup Associates was launched. most innovative and specialized arts programmes, In 1933 Arup was one of the founding members including contemporary dance. It has been re of the MARS group (Modern Architectural Research sponsible for screening much innovative drama. In Group), indicating his early commitment to modern his later years, Channel 4 was the preferred outlet architecture. Acting as a consultant to the Russian for his plays by Dennis Potter (for example, Cold architect Berthold Lubetkin and his Tecton Group, Lazarus). It was also the proving ground for Alan he was involved with High Point I flats (1933–5), Bleasdale, who went on to promote new playwriting the Finsbury Health Centre (1935– 8) and the talent through his series of screenplays by new innovative buildings at London Zoo. Lubetkin and writers. Channel 4’s reputation for supporting the Arup were concerned to promote investigations into arts declined slightly before the head of Channel the employment of new materials and to establish 4, Michael Grade, announced he was leaving the an authentic technical base for modern architecture industry in 1997. He was widely held responsible in Britain. Examples of their postwar engineering for the station’s losing its creative edge in arts work include the school at Hunstanton, Norfolk broadcasting. (1949, 1952–4) by Alison and Peter Smithson, the Many commentators are fearful that the Sydney Opera House (1956– 74) by Utzon, the John continual demand for high audience ratings figures Player Horizon factory at Nottingham (1968) with will adversely affect broadcasting of the arts on its integrated servicing and planning system, the television. They suggest that competition to multi-functional Bundesgar-tenschau Hall, terrestrial stations from cable and satellite television, Mannheim (1973–4), as well as the controversial which are now available in 25 percent of British structure for the Centre Pompidou in Paris (1971– homes, tends to jeopardize quality. However, there 7) by Piano and Rogers. Arup Associates have been are many exceptions. For example, even the involved in a number of university buildings; at ‘traditional’ BBC is still very innovative. It is behind Corpus Christi, Cambridge (1963), their precast a risky project to produce Comedy Nation, a cross concrete structure enhances the appearance of the between BBC2’s Video Nation and a traditional architecture, while at Loughborough University of sketch show which is shot on hand-held cameras, Technology (1967), their development of a regular and airs at midnight on Fridays. The rub may be planning module has allowed for considerable that it costs £29,000 per episode to produce, flexibility. compared with more than £200,000 per episode The dramatic footbridge linking the steep banks for shows like The Fast Show. of the river Wear in Durham (1963), connecting the older precinct and the newer university See also: performing arts on television development, Dunelm House (1964) is an example of Arup’s personal design work. The height of the MIKE STORRY bridge exploits the dynamic of the diagonal slender struts. Recent work includes the overall planning Arup Associates of Stockley Park, (1984), a new breed of business park where the firm has contributed twelve flexible Born in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1895, Ove Arup units, including the award winning headquarters studied philosophy, mathematics and then civil for Haspro; and the design for Broadgate Square, engineering. Director and chief engineer of the with its ice rink in the heart of a tiered amphitheatre English engineering firm J.L.Kier and Company, housing restaurants, bars and shops as part of from 1934 to 1938, he then founded the engineering Broadgate, London (1985–91). Asian artists 33

Further reading strictly limits the content and context of such advertisements. Other specific categories of Brawne, M. (1985) Arup Associates, London: Hacker advertisements that are singled out include alcoholic Art Books. drinks, health and beauty and medicines. The ASA HILARY GRAINGER may also be consulted in an advisory capacity by advertisers seeking to pre-empt potential problems. ASA The ASA is a founder member of the European Advertising Standards Alliance, which includes all Commercial advertisements were first transmitted EU members, and a complaint made to ASA on British television in 1955, and prior to 1962 regarding an advertisement originating outside of regulation and control of advertising had been the UK will be referred by the ASA to the national based on a number of voluntary codes. However, regulatory body in question. the system lacked any overall coherence. It was felt that some external regulation was necessary to See also: advertising, television and video; preserve public confidence. The creation of the ASA National Viewers and Listeners Association; (Advertising Standards Authority) was designed to regulatory bodies remedy this and to ensure that non-broadcast GUY OSBORN advertisements are ‘legal, decent, honest and STEVE GREENFIELD truthful’ by requiring that the rules contained in the British Codes of Advertising are followed by all advertisers (advertisements on television and cable programmes are regulated by the Independent Ashley, Laura Television Commission). Although the principle of self-regulation still applies—the Codes are drawn b. 1925, Merthyr Tydfil; d. 1985 up by the advertising industry—there are numerous Fashion designer statutes which may affect advertisements. Following Laura Ashley was one of the best-known names in government criticism, the Code of Practice was British fashion. A self-taught designer, she started strengthened in 1974 and the work of the ASA is her own company in 1953, selling printed scarves, now funded by a levy placed on display and direct tea towels and aprons. In 1969 she developed a mail advertising, collected by a separate body in clothing range including smocks and dresses in order to preserve ASA independence. traditional feminine shapes and simple floral prints, There are an estimated 30 million advertisements which epitomized her distinctive style and published in the UK each year and these produce nostalgically evoked a lost world of pastoral around 10,000 complaints to the ASA, of which some England. From the late 1960s her stores in Britain 25 percent are upheld. In addition to reacting to and around the world were extraordinarily complaints, the ASA will also carry out its own successful, and the company also developed soft checks to ensure compliance with the Codes. ASA furnishing and home decor ranges. The company’s powers include ordering adverts to be withdrawn fortunes have been variable since her death, and overnight, temporarily removed or changed, with the Laura Ashley style has been updated to fit more the potential ultimate penalty of a referral to the sophisticated modern trends. Office of Fair Trading and criminal proceedings. However, proceeding to court is used only as a last TAM S I N S PARG O resort, as advertisers falling foul of the Codes of Practice will be subject to adverse publicity through the ASA’s monthly report which is widely circulated Asian artists through the industry. Cigarette advertising has proved one of the most As a loose grouping of largely migratory artists of controversial areas, and a specific Code exists which Asian birth and British-born artists of Asian 34 Asian fashions descent, Asian artists have counterpointed and cultural understanding through evocative art and hybridized Eastern and Western artistic styles and materials are echoed in Perminder Kaur’s subtle traditions to produce a culturally syncretic art which equivocations on themes of innocence and loss. interrogates primary notions of identity, difference With British artists such as Burman, Keith and representation within post-colonial contexts. Khan and photographer Roy Mehta (and even Between the mid-1950s and mid-1960s, Indian the fascinating epistemological enquiries into art artists Francis Newton Souza and Avinash and science of the late ‘Young British Artist’ Chandra, and Pakistani artists Iqbal Geoffrey and Hamad Butt) provocatively exploring cultural Ahmed Parvez, rose to prominence in a British art multivocal-ities in diverse media, the once scene intrigued by modernist expressions of celebrated ‘exotic’ difference of Asian artists is ‘otherness’. Against Chandra’s more vivacious being superseded by a generation reshaping the style, Souza’s paintings subverted imperialist- parameters of British art. colonial dialectics, engaging with religion and sexuality from the conflicted self-perspective of a See also: painting; sculpture Hindu heritage, Catholic and colonial upbringing. Parvez, as one of several 1950s Pakistani abstract Further reading expressionist painters pursuing their art in Britain, created a highly individualized style infused with Araeen, Rasheed (1989) The Other Story: Afro-Asian properties of Muslim art, while Geoffrey’s work Artists in Post-war Britain, London: South Bank was riddled with artistic contradictions and con- Centre (essential documentation of black and ceptualisms. Their influence however, subsided Asian art). after an initial resounding impact. Fellow Pakistani SATINDER CHOHAN Rasheed Araeen progressed from painting to minimalist, abstract sculptures inspired by the 1965 New Generation Sculpture to 1970s politicized art, Asian fashions before undertaking his visual art projects of subsequent decades. Asian fashions had an extensive impacted on British The 1970s and 1980s produced sculptors like culture following postwar immigration and the Avtarjeet Dhanjal, whose organic art exquisitely 1960s counter-cultural mystification of the East, unifies nature and culture through contrasting with the prejudicial British stereotypes initially materials, environments and traditions. Anish associated with traditional Asian dress gradually Kapoor’s sublime sculptures are imbued with shifting to Western mainstream appropriations of transcendental and metaphysical dimensions. ethnic style and fashion. Dhruva Mistry’s works reflect the craftsmanship and Subject to subcontinental regional variations, sensuous aestheticism of ancient Indian sculpture, Asian fashions are based around traditional gendered while Juginder Lamba’s sculptures similarly attempt garments including women’s casual shalwar (cotton to exteriorize inner emotional and spiritual lives. pyjama trousers) and kameez (tunic top) with dupatta The politicized 1980s and the 1990s witnessed or chunni (chiffon head scarf) outfit. More intricately the ascent of Asian female artists including Sutapa embroidered, classically or extra-vagantly designed Biswas, Zarina Bhimji, Chila Kumari Burman and versions of these suits are reserved for special social Perminder Kaur. Their varied artistic and and religious occasions, as are the lengha, (a long performative approaches to race, gender, class, heavy flaring skirt coupled with kameez-style tunic top) sexual politics and representation have elicited and sari. Bengali and Gujarati women don durable resolute challenges to established orthodoxies. cotton saris as daily wear, with regionally diverse Biswas’s real and imagined reconstructions of styles ranging from the hand-woven Bengali jamdani migration, memory and history are deployed to silk South Indian saris. through mixed media, while Bhimji’s sensory Traditional male garments centre around the expressions of historical trauma, recovery and cross- men’s shalwar-kameez or kurta (tunic top of slightly Asian theatre 35 shorter length than the kameez) and pyjama, Asian theatre commonly worn by older Asian men or informally in the home. The pronounced British Asian theatre embraces the work of writers, religious influences of modest traditional dress performers and companies, with the involvement are visible in the turbans and white caps worn of musicians and choreographers such as Shobana by Sikh and Muslim men respectively (the Jeyasingh. Leading performers such as Saeed different styles of turbans are indicative of Jaffrey, Jamila Massey and Roshan Seth work in regional and caste-based differences), and also film, television and radio as well as in mainstream Muslim women’s hijab. theatre, and the writer Ranjit Bolt primarily Asian fashions fluctuate between preserving translates and adapts European classics. Writers traditions, Western appropriations as such as Hanif Kureishi and Rukshana Ahmad (both ‘authentic’ cultural markers and in fiction as well as drama), Tanika Gupta, Parv accommodating Western trends to produce a Bancil and Ayub Khan Din have concerned modified or hybridized look. Western themselves with issues of Asian identity; so too have appropriations which began with sandals, the leading companies Tara Arts and Tamasha, and beads and kurta tops in the 1960s now include the independent director Indu Rubasingham. accessories and body adornment such as Diversity increased sharply during the 1990s, with mehndi-decorated hands, other henna tattoos, multimedia presentations coming from companies facial markings, bindis, nose rings, bangles and such as Man Mela and Moti Roti. weightier Indian gold accessories, once Two independent British productions in 1970 traditionally worn by married women only. involved the established performers Massey and As Asian affluence grows, Bombay and Delhi- Jaffrey in dramas about India: Dilip Hiro’s To Anchor style fashion boutiques are becoming popular a Cloud and Partap Sharma’s A Touch of Brightness, among the Westernized Asian middle classes, which engaged with the lives of prostitutes in selling ready-made designer suits alongside more Bombay. In 1974 Roshan Seth became an assistant traditional fabric outlets. Economic stratification director for Cymbeline for the Royal Shakespeare locates the continued practice of homemade Company, and during the 1970s increasing pressure fashion, based on classic and the latest imported for integrated casting was put on the subsidized subcontinental fashion designs, among ex-rural theatres by the Afro-Asian Committee of British migrants in particular. Actors’ Equity. Critical recognition was achieved by While traditional fashions are maintained Hanif Kureishi, with his plays The Mother Country among older Asians with social and religious (1980), performed at the Riverside Studio, and aspects intact, Asian youth styles reflect the cross- Borderline (1981), devised with Joint Stock. The cultural influences of recontextualized Asian principle of integrated casting became more fashions, although as Naseem Khan suggests, the thoroughly established during the 1980s, with conspicuous lack of an outstanding British Asian productions such as Hedda in India (1982), directed designer perhaps indicates the future of Asian by Madhav Sharma, and Joint Stock’s The Great fashions in Britain. Celestial Cow (1983) at the Royal Court. David Hare’s A Map of the World (1983) at the National Theatre included an original role for an Asian actor, realized Further reading by Roshan Seth, and Seth also took the role of Lear’s Khan, N. (1992) ‘Asian Women’s Dress: From Fool in the National Theatre’s King Lear (1986). Burqah to Bloggs—Changing Clothes for Of the British Asian theatre companies, Tara Changing Times’, in J.Ash and E.Wilson (eds), Arts staged its first production, Rabindranath Chic Thrills: A Fashion Reader, London: Pandora Tagore’s The Sacrifice, in 1977. Tara’s artistic aims Press (solid, informative introduction to (British) have been to examine the cultural position of Asians Asian fashions). in Britain, and its artistic director, Jatinder Verma,

SATINDER CHOHAN stated that ‘we need to be as critical of ourselves as 36 Asian theatre we are of the society outside’. The company is (1994), which examined the marriage between a based in London, and has a tradition of touring. It Hindu and a Moslem in Ahmedabad, and Carter’s has also worked on co-productions with Contact A Yearning (1995), an adaptation of Lorca’s Yerma Theatre (Manchester) and the Lyric Theatre to the Punjabi community in Britain, were co- (London), and has twice been invited to produce produced with the Birmingham Rep, and at the Royal National Theatre. The company has concluded their tours in London. Ayub Khan-Din’s only ever had a small workshop space of its own, East is East (1996 and 1997) looked at the history although funding allocated in the 1990s will see its of a Pakistani immigrant in 1970s Salford, and the facilities in Wandsworth enhanced. cultural clash experienced by the son of the family: Early plays such as Inkalaab 1919 (1980) and the play came from a script workshop for British Lion’s Raj (1982) were devised, or scripted by Asian writers held at the Royal Court. The Verma, and thematically they mediated between company-devised production A Tainted Dawn (1997) the historical experience of the Raj and commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of partition contemporary society. In the 1980s Tara began to by drawing on the work of leading South Asian explore plays from the ancient Sanskrit tradition, writers, examining the lives of ordinary people such as The Little Clay Cart, and to develop the kind caught in the political events of 1947. of theatre established in Indian performance, using Independently of these companies, the director the resources of dance, movement and music. With Indu Rubasingham has promoted multicultural Buchner’s Danton’s Death (1989) Tara began an casts and aesthetics in her productions of Kalida- exploration of European classics, including Mo- sa’s Shakuntala (1997) and of two scripts by Tanika lière’s Tartuffe and Gogol’s The Government Inspector Gupta: Voices on the Wind (1995) and Gita Mehta’s (1990), Sophocles’s Oedipus the King (1991), A River Sutra (1997), adapted by Gupta. Rukhsana Molière’s Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1994), and Ahmad has written for theatre and radio: Song for a Rostand’s Cyrano de Bergerac (1995) in a version by Sanctuary, on the loyalties and fears in a women’s Ranjit Bolt. Of these productions, Tartuffe was a refuge, was produced at the Lyric Theatre (1991) major critical success which transposed Molière’s and then on radio (1993), followed by the radio hypo-crite into a parasite in an Indian household, play An Urnful of Ashes (1995). Ahmad and Rita Wolf in a production which toured nationally. A further founded Kali Theatre in 1990, using workshops stage in this development was represented by and rehearsed readings to support and develop the productions of Shakespeare, featuring Troilus and role of Asian women writers. Keith Khan and Ali Cressida (1993) and A Midsummer Night’s Dream Zaidi have explored visual and physical theatre with (1997). For the latter, Verma acknowledged their company Moti Roti, and taken their work influences from Beijing Opera, West African dance, abroad to Canada, Pakistan and the USA. Man Morris dancing, and Indian classical and folk dance, Mela, founded in 1993 and directed by Dominic and Tara remains committed to what Verma calls Rai, has brought classical and contemporary music ‘the aesthetics of multiculturalism’. and dance together with contemporary Asian Tamasha was founded in 1989 by Sudha literature in multimedia events, and developed Bhuchar and Kristine Landon-Smith to produce scripts on HIV and club culture. Untouchable, an adaptation of the novel by Mulk Raj Anand, which explored the treatment of India’s See also: black theatre lowest caste. Tamasha has produced plays on contemporary life in South Asia, and on the lives Further reading of Asians in Britain. Ruth Carter’s Women of the Dust (1993) commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of Ley, G. (1997) ‘Theatre of Migration and the Search the foundation of Oxfam by focusing on the lives for a Multicultural Aesthetic: Twenty Years of of women construction workers in Delhi; the Tara Arts’, New Theatre Quarterly 52: 349–71. production was researched in India, and returned Verma, J. (1996) ‘The Challenge of Binglish: to India to tour. Abhijat Joshi’s A Shaft of Sunlight Analysing Multicultural Productions’, in P. Asian youth styles 37

Campbell (ed.), Analysing Performance, 1980s, the closely forged links between the second Manchester: Manchester University Press. generation descendants of the largest British ethnic minority groups were fortified by the commonality GRAHAM LEY of racism, their homogenized political categorizing as ‘black’, and working-class urban propinquity. Fluidly manoeuvring themselves between white Asian underground British and Afro-Caribbean cultures and their own Since the 1980s, Asian musicians in Britain have been culture, Asian youth have assimilated Western experimenting with rap, dub technology, jungle influences without relinquishing traditional ones. breakbeats, traditional Indian music and rock. In Late 1980s sampler and rave culture enabled the mid- to late 1990s, Anglo-Asian artists with sitars, bhangra to emerge from its sequins and synthesizer guitars and decks, such as Cornershop, Asian Dub confines in crossover musical fusions with other Foundation, Fun-da-mental, Talvin Singh and dance styles such as house and techno, increasing Niwtin Sawhney, broke into the pop mainstream. its accessibility for ‘British-Asian’ youth. Daytime Talvin Singh’s Anokha played club nights at The bhangra concerts were arranged, providing an Blue Note in London which attracted media stars, alternative space for Asian youth to gather and and Cornershop’s 1997 album When I Was Born for dance without need of parental permission. the Seventh Time became a critical and commercial Bhangra’s fusion with ragga produced success (and included the number one single ‘Brimful ‘bhangramuffin’ in the continued youth dialogue of Asha’). Though the bands vary in their political between Asian and Afro-Caribbean youth; Apache engagement, Asian Dub Foundation released their Indian embodies the bhangramuffin sound and single ‘Free Satpal Ram’ in 1998 as a protest against style. the imprisonment of a Birmingham Asian who In 1996, the London-based emergence of an defended himself against racist attacks. Asian underground identified another uniquely ‘British-Asian’ subculture integrating classical and See also: bhangra popular Asian and Western musical and stylistic influences. Musical pioneers like Talvin Singh and Nitin Sawhney fused drum ’n’ bass, frenetic Further reading breakbeats and experimental dance styles with Sharma, S., Hutnyk, J. and Sharma, A. (eds) (1996) classical Indian instrumentation (such as tablas, Dis-Orienting Rhythms: The Politics of the New Asian sitars, sarongis and bhajans), quawwali vocals and Dance Music, London: Zed Books. Bollywood samples by musical icons such as Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle. PETER CHILDS Asian underground youth combined traditional Indian dress like the shalwar-kameez (normally reserved for domestic and cultural occasions), Asian youth styles Nehru tunics, kurtha, sari tops and bindis with trainers, club and combatwear (denoting a harder- Asian youth styles derive from the dualistic heritage edged, politically conscious musical-stylistic alliance bequeathed to second generation Asians in Britain. exemplified by bands like Fun da Mental and Asian Spanning geographical, religious and caste divides, Dub Foundation). it is a heritage comprising the traditional Asian Stereotypically regarded as a passive, alien diasporic culture of their parents (who arrived as group, resisting assimilation because of their South Asian and African immigrants between the cultural, religious and bilingual backgrounds, Asian 1950s and 1970s) and the indigenous British culture youth have begun to hybridize their collective of their birth and/or upbringing. influences through a genuinely expressed British- Afro-Caribbean youth styles comprise a third Asian identity that confidently counter previous strongly discernible influence. During the 1970s and cultural displacements. 38 Associated Press

See also: Asian fashions Steve Cram, Sebastian Coe, Steve Ovett, Sally Gunnell and Roger Black were the main stars of that period), the 1996 Atlanta Olympics performance Further reading was poor, with few track medals (and only a handful Sharma, S., Hutnyk, J. and Sharma, A. (eds) (1996) in field events), and Britain was outperformed by Dis-Orienting Rhythms: The Politics of the New Asian smaller and less wealthy countries which had Dance Music, London: Zed Books (an incisive invested considerably more over the years. This led examination of Asian dance music, providing a to a fundamental debate about the nature and contextual grounding for Asian youth styles). standard of British coaching and athletes, and the level of support given to the sport by the State. SATINDER CHOHAN The most widely accepted argument post- Atlanta was that not enough money has been invested in facilities and full-time coaches over the Associated Press years, compared to countries such as France and The Associated Press was a cooperative endeavour Australia. Both of these spent heavily on training of six New York City newspapers, begun originally facilities and full-time coaches, and both did well in 1840 to share the expense of sending a reporter to in Atlanta. Britain has traditionally employed very cover the Mexican War. It now gathers and distributes few full-time coaches, so the time spent with athletes news from 150 cities throughout the world. Its impact is shorter than is the case abroad. The training in Britain has been both to supply world news to facilities are also not as good, as British-born long newspapers here and to provide an outlet for the work jumper Fiona May pointed out after winning a of many journalists working in Britain. Commentators silver medal at Atlanta for her adopted Italy. worry that because news is controlled by three main Two solutions have been suggested, both agencies, Reuters, United Press International (UPI), involving National Lottery funds. At the and Associated Press (AP), (the last two being beginning, Lottery money could be used to build American) it tends to reflect a US world view. Others new sports centres, but not to pay coaches (a rule say such reporting is inevitable in the global village, relaxed in 1996) or for competitors’ preparation and serves as a safeguard against the parochialism of costs. Money is also expected to become available British tabloid journalism. for a British Academy of Sports, to build excellence in young elite performers. Whether that can repair MIKE STORRY the damage of the 1980s, when schools sold off thousands of acres of sports fields to raise money, is another matter; changes to school curricula in athletics the 1980s and early 1990s also mean that fewer teachers have the time and energy to take sports Britain has had a long and proud record in athletics, classes after hours, and the British Athletic notably in running, but the 1980s and 1990s saw a Federation (BAF) has declared itself unlikely to use decline in performance and public interest, sparking the Academy as a training base in any case. a debate about how best to train top athletes. Most The Federation, which runs the sport, itself observers accept that athletics requires serious work suffered in the 1990s. The most disturbing event to remain one of Britain’s top sports, and to make was the sacking of Andy Norman (largely Britain a strong contender in international responsible for the aggressive marketing of athletics) competition once more. A temporary boost to the in 1994 after allegations were made about his role sport was given by the British athletics team’s in the suicide of a respected journalist, and it soon topping (for the first time since 1950) of the became clear that Norman ran the BAF as a private European Championships medals table in 1998. fiefdom. Other problems include public rows with While British running’s history in the 1980s and Linford Christie, Colin Jackson and Tony Jarrett 1990s is impressive (Linford Christie, Colin Jackson, over appearance money, which dragged on through Attenborough, David 39

1995, while the biggest issue remains drugs. Since athletes’ union formed by Roger Black in 1995 will drug testing became routine in the postwar period, help redress the balance. Britain has suffered very few confirmed cases Athletics in the 1990s occupies a similar position amongst its athletes, but even the suspicion of drug to tennis, in that it struggles to build on the success taking is enough to damage the sport; the most of its regular major tournament in Britain. There serious case, involving runner Diane Modahl in are thousands of committed athletes and coaches, 1994 and 1995, alienated existing sponsors and put attending hundreds of meetings annually, but the potential backers off altogether. Modahl was sport remains short of money and facilities and is eventually cleared, but athletics has struggled for increasingly shorn of its established stars. Television years to keep its sponsors, creating long-term and sponsors are only interested in telegenic, well- uncertainty and making planning difficult. known stars to focus on, and the decline of existing The precarious financial position of athletics is household names leaves athletics struggling to attract clearly tied to the level of television coverage, which and maintain television and sponsor interest. Money has long been crucial to sponsors. Meetings are no has long been the main problem (by the mid-1990s, longer televised in Britain (some, including even this was even causing promising athletes and coaches big international meetings, were cancelled as a to leave athletics for professional rugby union), but result), and the sport’s media profile in the 1990s at least the BAF recognizes the importance of the is generally low, a far cry from the heady days of questions hanging over the sport. The biggest issue the 1980s when Sebastian Coe and Steve Ovett might turn out to be ‘who actually runs athletics in dominated the headlines and generated huge public the 1990s: television, the promoters or the BAF?’ and media interest. The Olympics and Commonwealth Games obviously attract attention, See also: long-distance runners; marathons; but regular meetings around the country get little middle-distance runners; sprinters coverage, and are probably not the first choice of REX NASH those stations that do screen them. With declining television and commercial interest, the BAF has struggled for years to finance its operations, even those limited contributions made to athletes and Attenborough, David coaches. Over two financial years up to 1996, the BAF lost some £750,000 and made cuts in b. 1926 promotions and coaching as a result. Naturalist and broadcaster These payments to competitors are more vital than the public might think; athletes at the top end David Attenborough, younger brother of actor- of the sport, like Christie and Gunnell, can make director Richard Attenborough, joined BBC fortunes on and off the track but the average runner, television in 1952, fronting Zoo Quest, the jumper and thrower has never had any such programme which, between 1956 and 1965, security and struggles to make ends meet. Most transformed the teatime wildlife show from have relied on help from family, the BAF and any patronizing sentimentality into serious education sponsors who could be persuaded to fund their children’s programming. Attenborough then training. Two competitors at Atlanta even admitted entered the BBC’s administrative hierarchy, where to selling their official British team sweatshirts after he established both BBC2 and colour transmission. the Games to raise money, such was their plight. His catholic tastes and scheduling instincts brought Athletics has become increasingly heavily divided shows as varied as snooker, ‘The Forsyte Saga’ and over the last two decades, with a few performers Jacob Bronowski’s ‘The Ascent of Man’ to BBC2, becoming very highly paid thanks to television and establishing it as a widely appealing and innovative sponsorship, and a large mass of competitors below service. After fifteen years, however, Attenborough them earning far less. It is open to debate how this returned to broadcasting to complete the trilogy has affected the use of drugs, and whether the begun with ‘Life on Earth’, which was seen by an 40 Attenborough, Richard estimated 500 million people worldwide. Flanders (1996) was acclaimed. It treated farcically Subsequent prestige series have made him perhaps the life of someone who, though both prostitute the most universally popular, respected and (Moll) and thief (of Flanders lace) in the picaresque influential broadcaster and ecologist on the planet. tradition, triumphed over her difficulties.

SEAN CUBITT MIKE STORRY

Attenborough, Richard auctions b. 1923, Cambridge The major auction houses in Britain are Sotheby’s, Christie’s, Bonham’s and Philips. Scandals over the Actor and film-maker provenance of antiques in Italy and of the selling Richard Attenborough’s distinguished and prolific on of antiquities from the East have soured the career in film making began with supporting roles reputation of Sotheby’s. The popular television in dramas, war films and comedies, highlighted by series Lovejoy thus reflects sceptical public attitudes his performance as the amoral gangster Pinky in to the higher echelons of the antique trade. Brighton Rock (1947). He soon combined acting with Throughout Britain there are numerous smaller producing, making films such as The Angry Silence privately owned auction houses, dealing only (1960), the powerful story of a trade union dispute, occasionally in antiques and mainly in household Seance on a Wet Afternoon (1964) and 10 Rillington Place goods from beds and living room furniture to (1970), which demonstrated his capacity for studied, electrical appliances. Many of these firms have disturbing performances. Turning to directing in followed the major firms’ introduction of a so-called 1969 with Oh! What a Lovely War, Attenborough’s ‘buyer’s premium’ of 10 percent of the purchase perception of the film maker’s role as that of a price as a means of boosting their typical storyteller is borne out with his epics Gandhi (1982), commission rates of 17.5 percent on the first £100. Cry Freedom (1987) and Chaplin (1992). His versatility MIKE STORRY is confirmed by later acting roles, with appearances in Hollywood productions such as Jurassic Park (1993) and Miracle on 34th Street (1994). audience research ALICE E.SANGER Audience research has developed in two main interlinking strands: research by those working in Attwood, David the industry and research by academics. Industry research developed as a mechanism by which media b. 1952 producers and advertisers could both understand Film-maker and shape media products for a knowable media audience. Such research has come to be dominated David Attwood has directed films for television by a conception of the media user as part of (often joint ventures with US/UK stations) aimed homogeneous mass audience, one with similar uses, at a young avant-garde audience. Wild West (1992) tastes, wants and desires that could be easily was written by Harwant Bains, a 29-year-old of quantified. Those working in the more critical Punjabi extraction but born and raised in Southall. academic paradigm have come to problematize this Attwood’s film was likened to Stephen Frears’ My notion, preferring instead a view of the media Beautiful Laundrette (1985) (written by Hanif Kureishi), audience as heterogeneous and segmented. and dealt with the family relations of anarchic young However, as the industry finds its notion of the Indian Londoners. His mini-series based on Daniel mass audience questioned, the two strands have Defoe’s novel, The Fortunes and Misfortunes of Moll come closer together. autobiography 41

Industry research, either undertaken in-house autobiography or contracted out to independent research companies, is often coordinated by joint industry While critiques of intentionalism and representa- research boards, such as the Radio Joint Audience tionalism may have pointed to the impossibility of Research (RAJAR) for radio, Broadcasters’ unmediated self-expression, autobiography has Audience Research Board (BARB) for television proved a resilient genre in recent years, even and Joint Industry Committee for Poster Audience emerging on the cutting edge of critical theory. Research (JICPAR) for posters. These produce These theoretical developments have been audience data for their respective media, broken mirrored in fiction, where autobiography has been down into such divisions as social class, age, gender used both to question the nature and status of and geographical location. Such audience data is fiction and to show how the self is created rather used by the industry, amongst other things, to than merely represented in narrative. Examples of improve the provision of its media output, to help this self-conscious blurring of the distinction fix advertising rates and to find the appropriate between autobiography and fiction can be found, placing for advertisements. The methods used to for example, in the novels of Jeanette Winterson, collect such data tend to fall into two categories: Julian Barnes and Martin Amis (see novel). In non- random surveys of media users and ongoing panel fiction writing, there has been a similar questioning surveys. While random surveys provide an instant of the self-containedness of autobiography as a snapshot of a media audience, panel surveys are genre, which is itself part of the general slipperiness able to offer a long term view by studying the same of the boundaries between different genres and sample of media users. disciplines in recent years. Works published in the Against these more quantitative approaches, 1980s such as Ronald Fraser’s In Search of a Past, many working in the academic strand (for example, Carolyn Steedman’s Landscape for a Good Woman and David Morley’s work on the family audience) have Ann Oakley’s Taking it Like a Woman seek to link come to problematize the notion of a passive sociological and psychoanaly-tical theory with unsegregated audience. By using more qualitative personal experience, in order to both restore styled approaches, attempts have been made to subjectivity to theoretical writing and to show how understand how different audiences understand identity is culturally constructed. and make use of the media. Thus, a more active The last two of these works also demonstrate view of a segmented audience has been obtained. the ways in which autobiography has been used to Recent developments have seen a move away from draw attention to unwritten histories marginalized studying the reception of the media by the viewer by official discourses. A series of multi-authored towards more ethnographic methods to study the collections, intersecting with the burgeoning field way the media is used within a specific social- of oral history and life studies, similarly show how cultural context. the normally individualistic genre of autobiography can be transformed into a collective process of See also: BARB resistance to dominant narratives. Examples include Liz Heron’s Virago anthology, Truth, Dare or Promise: Girls Growing up in the Fifties, and Between Further reading the Acts, a series of moving testimonies edited by Ang, I. (1991) Desperately Seeking the Audience, Kevin Porter and Jeffrey Weeks telling the story of London: Routledge (critical account of the British gay men in the period of the criminalization experiences of European and American of homosexuality between 1885 and 1967. broadcasters to conceptualize the audience). Working-class autobiographies produced by collaborative projects like the Federation of Worker PAU L RIXON Writers and Community Publishers since the 1970s have fulfilled a similar purpose. Whereas the traditional notion of autobiography might show the 42 avant-garde cinema subject triumphantly transcending his or her the medium, it forced subjective existential choices immediate environment, these autobiographies and non-hierarchical mental activity on the viewer, reveal the subject as inextricably embedded in as in Malcolm Le Grice’s Little Dog For Roger (1967) society and history. and Yes No Maybe Maybe Not (1967), Peter Gidal’s Room (1967), Roger Hammond’s Window Box (1972), Mike See also: biography Leggett’s Shepherd’s Bush (1971) and Steve Dwoskin’s Moment (1969). Its intention was to challenge Further reading cinema’s illusionism and voyeurism with its own Marcus, L. (1994) Auto/biographical Discourse: Theory, formal image making. Criticism, Practice, Manchester: Manchester This formula encouraged eclectic organization. University Press (the second half of this book As the LFMC’s democratic workshop approach examines autobiographical theory and writing developed in a climate of anti-imperialist radicalism, of the last few decades, using predominantly beat poetry and Peoples’ Shows, new film networks British examples; an excellent synthesis of recent rapidly grew up around the British Film Institute scholarship). (BFI), the Other Cinema and the Independent Film- Makers’ Association. Many film-makers were located JOE MORAN in the London art schools, and were supported by the Arts Council of Great Britain’s Film and Video avant-garde cinema Artist’s Sub-committee set up in 1977. By then the whole movement was saturated with the cultural The British avant-garde film movement surfaced politics and aesthetics of the late 1960s and 1970s. in the late 1960s when it was stimulated by the The formalist canon was soon infiltrated by London Film-Makers’ Co-operative (LFMC) and underground, anarchic, and gay critiques associated by American influences such as Stan Brakhage, with film-makers such as Derek Jarman, James Kenneth Anger and Andy Warhol. Key figures in Mackay, John Maybury, Steve Chivers, Holly Britain included Steve Dwoskin, Andy Meyer, Warburton, Michael Kostiff, Cerith Wyn Evans and David Curtis, Peter Gidal, Malcolm Le Grice and Isaac Julien. They frequently trans-gressed the film Annabel Nicolson. Instead of using the term ‘avant- medium in the Super 8 festivals in Europe (1984– garde’, they chose labels such as structural, abstract, 7), and innovatively fused video and film techniques experimental, expanded or free. Their broadly (particularly Jarman and Peter Greenaway). structural and formal point of view quickly spread Academic critiques were mostly deconstructive into disparate organizational, artistic and political and psychoanalytic, theorized in Screen and currents, resulting in the evolution of a diffuse and Framework. These reflected Gidal’s structural/ variegated group. materialist focus on freeing the subject from the British popular audiences had been left cold by instrumental and reproductive power of the camera, earlier film movements, such as elitist avant-garde and Laura Mulvey’s negation of the voyeurism of experiments, middle-class realism (Anderson, narrative film. Peter Wollen, whose long-term goal Richardson, Reisz and so on), critiques of the upper- was to synthesize formalism with the political class (as in Losey-Pinter films), and even the aesthetic of the European avant-garde, combined Workshop Declaration. For the most part they were with Mulvey to produce landmark films: Penthesilea: absorbed by Hollywood films, and were often Queen of the Amazons (1974) mimes the play by Kleist, suspicious of political or avant-garde cinema in and interrogates the role and grounding of feminist Europe. Ironically, the British avant-garde’s practical images; and Riddles of the Sphinx (1977) explores the foundations in structuralism and formalism enabled mother/child relationship in the encounter of it to assimilate radical changes without engaging Oedipus with the Sphinx, opening with mythic revolutionary ideologies. It cut away the visionary images of women and ending with an Egyptian anti-Americanism that underlay American sphinx with Greta Garbo’s face. Whereas Gidal structuralists. Concentrating on material aspects of and Le Grice were interested in the material aspects avant-garde theatre 43 of ideology, Mulvey and Wollen were moving successfully engage in a wide spectrum of audio- towards a critique of ideology itself, and of visual media, ranging from film and television mythologizing in the film medium. through to video and animation. Related works include Steve Dwoskin’s Girl (1974), which films a naked woman who returns See also: agitprop; avant-garde theatre; film, to the camera thus disturbing the audience’s experimental voyeuristic position, and Carola Klein’s Mirror Phase (1978), which analyses home movies of her Further reading daughter’s mirror recognition of herself. In Telling Tales (1978), Richard Woolley deconstructs British MacDonald, S. (1993) Avant-Garde Film: Motion culture by examining film clichés of television soap Studies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. serials like Crossroads and Coronation Street. William O’Prey, M. (ed.) (1996) The British Avant-Garde Film and Marilyn Rabin’s Black and Silver (1981), based 1926–1995, Luton: University of Luton Press. on Velasquez’ painting Las Meninas, is an ARTHUR McCULLOUGH experimental narrative of Oscar Wilde’s The Birthday of the Infanta, reflecting on the medium of film. Peter Watkins’s work aims for reflexive critical avant-garde theatre practices that will more generally undermine the conventions of the medium. The term ‘avant-garde’ (derived from a French Questions of narrative technique, subjectivity, militaristic term meaning ‘vanguard’) in avant-garde documentary, and autobiography are worked theatre refers to the pioneering innovation in a consistently by feminist film-makers who broke with progressive, experimentally-based anti-establish- the LFMC to set up their own circles in East London. ment theatre. Avant-garde theatre seeks to Sally Potter’s Thriller (1979) dissects popular artistically and aesthetically surpass existing forms narrative by using Mimi’s return to La Boheme to of dramatic performance and expression of a denor- investigate her own death as a conventional source malizing, stimulating theatre of the imagination. of sentiment and drama. Potter’s The Gold Diggers Christopher Innes argues that along with ‘anarchic (1983) uses the gold rush for surrealist metaphors primitivism’, ‘…anti-materialism and revolutionary about the search for knowledge. Lis Rhodes’s Light politics, the hallmark of avant-garde drama is an Reading (1978) investigates the formal aspects of film aspiration to transcendence, to the spiritual in its through autobiographical materials, developing widest sense.’ (Innes 1993:3) earlier concerns of Le Grice’s films about point of Located in non-theatrical spaces, fringe and even view and narrative space. popular or mainstream venues (for example, the Most of these films are interested in the medium Royal Court’s discontinued annual avant-garde of film and its narrative codes and conventions. season), avant-garde theatre explores the For the British avant-garde, form and content of psychologies and physicalities of the self. Assimilat- the medium have always been a central part of the ing myth, symbolism, ritual and art forms from message. While Le Grice is currently involved in other cultures to deploying music, mime, mixed computer and electronic image making, others are media, performance art and other sub-cultural and interested in live reproductions of illusion, and popular cultural art forms in site-specific and other correspondences of image and sound. The focus spaces, avant-garde theatre functions as an on film as material has always persisted. exploratory reflection of the unconscious and The avant-garde has never since its structuralist modern human condition. It animatedly revitalizes beginnings reflected violent politics, but it has imaginations through a ‘theatre of mixed means’ always been in line with radical groups such as the by trampling largely British realist and naturalistic Leeds Animation Workshop, Black Audio Film theatrical traditions. Collective and Sankofa Film and Video Collective. Preceding and flourishing during the late 1960s Its strong point has been its ability to adapt to and British fringe theatre explosions, specialist touring 44 Ayer, A.J. companies, small theatres and theatre laboratories Further reading emerged as places of artistic and technical Innes, C. (1993) Avant-Garde Theatre 1892–1992, experimentation including the freewheeling The London: Routledge (a foundational history of People Show, Grotowskian-influenced Freehold, avant-garde theatre, albeit from a necessarily Charles Marowitz’s Open Space Theatre and the North American and European perspective). Roy Hart Studio which explored voice through sound, emotion, psychology and technique. Mar- SATINDER CHOHAN owitz’s 1964 collaboration with Peter Brook on an Artaudian ‘Theatre of Cruelty’ season organically interrogated theatrical language through sublime Ayer, A.J. physical performance, visceral atmosphere and abstract shock forms of verbal and non-verbal b. 1910, London; d. 1988 communication. The endless subjective-creative Philosopher potentialities suggested by Brook’s theorizations of the stage in The Empty Space (1968) were A.J.Ayer’s Language, Truth and Logic (1936) demonstrated by his continuing indefatigable avant- expounded the main themes of logical positivism, gardism. which has as its central tenet the ‘verification Alongside other paradoxically established avant- principle’, whereby verifiability is the criterion of gardist practitioners such as Stephen Berkoff and meaning. Statements which can be verified neither Lindsay Kemp, fringe venues like Battersea Arts by experience nor by deduction from a priori Centre continue to feature anarchic premises are literally meaningless. Ayer and others experimentation by groups like the Empty Space applied this principle to the analysis of ethical Theatre Company’s subversive classic performative propositions such as ‘x is good’. Such statements theatre, Fecund Theatre or Perpetual Motion’s are neither true nor false, but merely expressions energetic fusions of narrative, textual and live of emotion (the emotivist theory of ethics). While communicative forms. Yet the absence of a strongly adhering to the verification principle, Ayer avant-gardist tradition within a largely realist and distinguished a mode of ‘weak’ verifiability naturalist British theatre is perhaps also attributable whereby propositions may be considered to the lack of extreme socio-political conditions meaningful if some conceivable method of necessary for such a theatre to thrive, with the verification can show them probable. Critics future theatrical vanguard partly contingent upon observe that the verification principle cannot itself cultural extremities to trigger their own imaginative be verified. extremes. ROD PATERSON See also: agitprop; avant-garde cinema; fringe theatre B

baby boom taught artist who worked against the current of mid- The term refers to the sharp increase in the rate of century painterly abstraction, Bacon experimented births in Europe and the US after 1945, when soldiers with the visceral and expressive dimensions of returned from the war. The boom continued almost figuration. His aim, he famously suggested, was to uninterrupted to 1964, followed by a slump (or baby ‘hit the nervous system’, and this desire to shock bust) in the mid-1960s. It is estimated that in 2030 in part explains his concentration on the grotesque there will be fewer than half as many children under and exploration of violent and disturbing images. five as there were in 1961 (3.5 million). The boom- Bacon’s first major painting, the triptych Three slump cycle has led to a shift in the average age of the Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion (1944), UK population, such that one person in three will be exemplifies his distinctive coun-terpointing of 60 or over in the year 2025. Economically, this has brutally contorted biomorphic forms and the contributed to fears of a declining workforce, earners’ unadorned geometric settings which confine and ability to sustain pensions payments and surplus isolate them. The harsh flatness of Bacon’s early consumer goods. Meanwhile, baby boomers are paintings and their traumatic iconography became currently responsible for running the country (for points of cultural reference in postwar Europe. example, Tony Blair and William Hague) and Bacon radically reworked particular images from producing its cultural output (hence the recycling in the tradition of European oil painting. In his well- the 1990s of the fashions, celebrities and music of the known sequence of ‘screaming popes’ (1949-mid- 1960s and then the 1970s). 1950s), he transformed the formal iconography of Velazquez’s portrait of Pope Innocent X (1650) into a See also: childbirth; family planning series of nightmarish studies in modern claustrophobia and isolation. Bacon’s practice of serial image making PETER CHILDS was informed by his study of photography, and he used newspaper photographs, radiographic images Bacon, Francis and film stills as source materials. Bacon particularly admired Eadweard Muybridge’s photographic b. 1909, Dublin; d. 1992, London motion studies of men wrestling (c.1885) and based Painter an important series of male nude images on them. The motif of the male nude and copulating male Francis Bacon was the most prominent English bodies spans Bacon’s career from Two Figures (1953) painter of the twentieth century until his death in to Triptych-Studies of the Human Body (1979), and 1992. Major retrospectives were assembled by the represents his most sustained and complex aesthetic Tate Gallery in 1962 and 1985 (see Tate(s)). A self- exploration of homosexual desire. 46 badminton

In the 1960s–1970s, Bacon produced studies in the difference in international performance between the male nude, self-portraits and portraits of friends. these countries and the UK. In these works the mood is more personal and their That said, the Olympic status that badminton style less distorted. Following the suicide of his lover secured in 1985 (with full competition starting in and companion George Dyer in 1971, Bacon Barcelona in 1992, after demonstration participation produced a series of memorial triptych paintings, in 1988 in Seoul) has helped the financial situation, including the poignant images of Three Portraits- with total funding rising by 40 percent between 1992 Triptych (1973). In his late work, Bacon continued and 1995. The top players get help direct from the to explore uncanny images, as exemplified by the British Olympic Association, leaving the national truncated male nude torso adorned in cricket pads associations to focus their energies and resources on in Study of the Human Body (1982). Bacon’s influence junior and upcoming talent. can be traced in the work of David Hockney and Despite its problems, badminton is clearly more generally in the figurative revival associated determined to expand and revive its fortunes, as with Neo-Expression-ism. seen in the formation in 1995 of the first British circuit, the Grand Slam. But this must address the See also: painting problem of top players withdrawing from tournaments to appear in lucrative European events, making the home circuit hard to publicize Further reading and market to spectators. Badminton could also Sylvester, D. (1987) The Brutality of Fact: Interviews hope to expand if calls for it to become part of the with Francis Bacon, London: Thames and Hudson school curriculum were heeded. Many schools (a series of definitive interviews). already offer badminton, but were it added to the curriculum itself, then the sport could conceivably MARK DOUGLAS enhance its potential source of future talent. In the meantime, badminton in England is forced to hope badminton that appointments like that of the former European and Commonwealth champion, Steve Baddeley, as Badminton is played by a relatively large proportion director of elite play will improve standards and of the British public, but it has long been in the results, with all the spin-offs that can generate. shadow of tennis and lacks the latter’s media profile, television coverage and finances. However, the sport Further reading remains optimistic about its future, and universities and colleges in particular have strong badminton Badminton Association of England (1994) traditions; the game is also very popular amongst Badminton, London: Black. people of minority backgrounds. In 1996, it was REX NASH estimated that some 4 million people played badminton, or about 8 percent of the UK population. But such relative popularity cannot hide the fact BAFTA that British badminton has a low media profile, is short of finances and has a poor world standing. BAFTA (the British Academy of Film and Of the top 50 women players in the world in 1996, Television Arts) was formed in 1959 by the only three were British, and only one of the top 50 amalgamation of the Guild of Television Producers men was British. This and the poor performances and Directors, dating from 1954, and the British put in by the England side in the Sudirman Cup in Film Academy. The latter had been set up in 1946 Lausanne in 1995 prompted calls to end the historic by leading figures in British cinema as a non-profit- underfunding of the sport. By comparison with making organization with the object of improving Denmark, Indonesia, China and others, badminton standards and enhancing the status of British in Britain is financially weak, and this helps explain cinema and also to campaign for increased ballet 47 government recognition and financial support. It Guardian, 21 March (an informative, if rather was a natural development to embrace the cognate jaundiced article). arts of television; by the end of the 1950s television CHRISTOPHER SMITH audiences had grown while cinema admissions were falling (though they have since picked up), and the overlap in personnel in the two media, which was Baha’i already considerable, was to become even more marked as time passed. BAFTA, which has a The Baha’i (from the Farsi Ar baha (Allah)) faith preview theatre at its London premises at 195 was founded in nineteenth-century Iran by Piccadilly, awards fellowships to distinguished Baha’u’llah. Baha’is believe people need material practitioners in cinema and television. The concept and spiritual fulfilment. It is because the material of the Academy, along with its somewhat and the spiritual aspects of life are not balanced in pretentious appellation, plainly owes something to our world that people live in a state of anxiety. They the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and seek to promote tolerance among all faiths and Sciences, founded by Louis B. Mayer in 1929. Like between the sexes. They want global unity and its US counterpart, BAFTA is best known for recognize the role of other religions’ prophets, annual awards that are presented at quite glittering including Moses, Mohammed and Buddha, in occasions. Though sought after and respected, these securing it. Baha’i assemblies are dispersed have not as yet acquired anything like the same throughout Britain and are organized regionally. prestige—or box office clout—as the ‘Oscars’. As well They make extensive use of modern as giving awards for such categories as Best Film, communications and maintain a website. Best Single Television Drama and Best Television Children’s Programme (Factual), BAFTA, keen to See also: Buddhism; Islam promote the particular crafts within the wider MIKE STORRY sphere of film and television production, also singles out excellence in narrower fields such as Best Graphic Design, Best Television Make-Up and even ballet Best (Film) Make-Up Hair. The important contribution of stalwarts to British film and Only two ballets created in Britain in 1960 are still television is commemorated by BAFTA in awards performed: Frederick Ashton’s La Fille mal gardeée named after, for instance, Anthony Asquith, and Kenneth MacMillan’s The Invitation, made for Alexander Korda, Michael Balcon and Richard the Royal Ballet and its touring company, Dimbleby. respectively. This is not surprising: Ashton and BAFTA should not be confused with the BFI MacMillan are Britain’s best-known (British Film Institute) which was founded in 1933 choreographers, whose styles and reputations have and also seeks to promote interest in the moving cast long shadows. Their works are pillars of the image in cinema and on television, but does so by repertoire of the Royal Ballet, the nation’s flagship maintaining the National Film Archive, the ballet company, which is mindful of keeping their National Film Theatre and the Museum of the legacy alive. Moving Image, and by publishing the Monthly Film In 1960, Ashton was an established Bulletin and the quarterly Sight and Sound. choreographer with thirty-four years’ experience and several masterpieces behind him, entering his See also: BFI; film awards last decade of sustained creativity. Widely regarded as the greatest British choreographer, Ashton was a classicist, interested in the formal properties of Further reading the ballet vocabulary and using them to explore Lee, Veronica (1997) ‘The Curse of the Award and express moods and emotions. Characteriza- Ceremonies Too Numerous to Mention’, tions emerge from the steps rather than from an 48 ballet overlay of acting, as in La Fille mal gardée, which prices’, continued to cater to the conservative typically is also suffused with an affectionate regard regional audiences’ taste for foreign stars and easy- for the characters’ foibles and imbued with a sense to-watch spectacle. Competing with it on the of community. Known for his musicality, Ashton touring circuit were Ballet Rambert, with its core often dealt with romantic love in his ballets. of Antony Tudor works and less hackneyed three- In 1960, MacMillan was an emerging acts, and the Royal Ballet’s second company, a choreographer with six professional ballets behind training ground for young dancers and him, his most important works still to come. choreographers (such as MacMillan) that toured Dramatic and expressionistic, MacMillan’s selections of the main company’s repertoire. uncompromising ballets explore the dark sides of At the Royal Opera House (Covent Garden), human behaviour and the psyche, requiring the Royal Ballet under Ashton’s directorship (1963– dancers with strong acting abilities. Often 70) carried on its three-pronged approach with new unsettling, his ballets brought gritty and harsh productions of the classics, the acquisition of realities to the idealized world of ballet, as in The masterworks from the 1920s and 1930s, and Invitation in which a young woman is raped. commissions from Tudor, Roland Petit and MacMillan’s has always been a difficult talent to MacMillan (notably his first three-act ballet, Romeo assess. His ballets still provoke debate over their and Juliet, in 1965). Ashton’s new ballets during this choreographic craftsmanship, treatment of women, decade continued his musings on romantic love (The and subject matter, but there is no doubting their Two Pigeons, 1961; Marguerite and Armand, 1963; The powerful theatricality and challenge to ballet’s Dream, 1964; and Enigma Variations, 1968) and his conventions—and audiences. essays in ‘abstract’ classicism (Monotones, 1965–6). In the late 1950s and early 1960s, MacMillan In the middle of the decade a new genre, was not alone in his desire to depict real people American modern dance, took root in Britain grappling with difficult situations. Peter Darrell at (where it was called ‘contemporary dance’), and Western Theatre Ballet and Norman Morrice at the explosion of creativity experienced by this new Ballet Rambert, also influenced by new wave cinema art form into the 1970s underscores the distinct and kitchen sink dramas, were making ballets about absence of promising new voices in ballet in this contemporary life, problems and relationships, period. Ballet Rambert even bid farewell to ballet, thereby broadening the subjects ballet could address. at Morrice’s suggestion, and embraced Founded in Bristol in 1957, the small-scale Western contemporary dance in 1966 when dwindling Theatre Ballet performed predominantly short new finances and audiences threatened its demise. works with a dramatic thrust. Darrell’s subject matter In a less radical move, the Royal dissolved its ranged across betrayal and entrapment (The Prisoners, large-scale touring company in 1969 and formed 1957), youth gangs (Mods and Rockers, 1963, set to the New Group to tour small ballets and more Beatles songs) and mental illness (Home, 1965). experimental pieces. American Glen Tetley, whose Morrice emerged as Rambert’s in-house works merged the ballet and modern vocabularies, choreographer in 1958 with Two Brothers, a love started the group off with Field Figures (1970), which triangle centred on a James Dean-inspired loner. The was followed by acquisitions from Hans van women in his dance dramas never wore pointe shoes, Manen, a Dutch choreographer working in a ballet’s distinguishing artifice. similar vein. The new repertoire did not fare The long-established companies absorbed this particularly well with the provincial audiences, new trend while adhering to the typical three- however, and gradually the group grew to resemble pronged repertoire of the model ballet company: its former self in size and repertoire, taking the name the three-act ‘classics’ from the nineteenth century; Sadler’s Wells Royal Ballet (SWRB) in 1976. proven twentieth-century ballets from the Diaghi- Under MacMillan’s directorship (1970–7), the lev era, foreign troupes’ rosters and the company’s Royal Ballet also imported examples of ‘modern own heritage; and new work. London Festival ballet’ from the continent and updated the Ballet, which offered ‘popular ballets at popular American slice of its repertoire with an influx of ballet 49 ballets by George Balanchine, Jerome Robbins and Isadora (1981), about the private life of modern Tetley. The new works were predominantly by dance pioneer Isadora Duncan. MacMillan had his MacMillan himself, including two full-evening quiet moments: the lyrical Gloria (1980), a requiem ballets: Anastasia (1971), which explored the for soldiers of the First World War, and the classical troubled past and psyche of the supposed surviving three-act The Prince of the Pagodas (1989). But his final Romanov princess, and Manon (1974), which delved ballet, The Judas Tree (1992), returned to form, into the love and sex life of its materialistic heroine. echoing the controversial climax of The Invitation; Meanwhile, regional ballet had firmly taken only this time the woman is gang-raped. root. Western Theatre Ballet transferred to Glasgow Darrell’s final years at Scottish Ballet were in 1969 to become Scottish Theatre Ballet (now overshadowed by wranglings with the Scottish Arts Scottish Ballet), directed by Darrell, whose output Council, and his resignation in 1986 led to tentative continued unabated (notably, The Tales of Hoffmann, appointments of artistic directors until Galina 1972; Mary, Queen of Scots, 1976; Five Rückert Songs, Samsova, a former ballerina at SWRB, took the 1978). Also in 1969, a new company, Northern helm in 1991. (She left six years later after further Dance Theatre (now Northern Ballet Theatre), was battles with the Arts Council.) Since his death in founded in Manchester by Laverne Meyer, 1987, Scottish Ballet has largely ignored its Darrell formerly Western’s assistant director. In London, repertoire. Festival Ballet under Beryl Grey acquired its first The 1980s saw additional changes in directorship. Sleeping Beauty (1890), staged by Rudolf Nureyev, Dancer Peter Schaufuss took over at Festival in 1984; who also choreographed his well-received Romeo dancer Anthony Dowell at the Royal in 1986; and and Juliet (1977) for the company. dancer Christopher Gable at Northern Ballet Theatre After a marked scarcity of emerging (NBT) in 1987. Schaufuss’s six-year directorship choreographers, the 1980s at the two Royal rekindled the flair and enthusiasm that Festival had companies percolated with a series of new works been known for in the 1950s, after worries that it had by young dancers. Quickly singled out was David become too close to the Royal Ballet mould under Bintley, who produced an array of works for both Grey and John Field (both former dancers at the Royal companies, such as the classical Galanteries (1986) Ballet). Key events in his reign include rescuing and the character-based ‘Still Life’ at the Penguin Café Ashton’s Romeo and Juliet (1955) from oblivion, (1988). More an upholder of tradition than an appointing as resident choreographer Christopher innovator, his style drawing on those of past Bruce, an alumni of Ballet Rambert in its modern masters, Bintley was initially a dancer and the dance guise, and renaming the company English resident choreographer at SWRB before moving National Ballet (ENB). to the main company in 1986 in the same capacities. In 1990 Peter Wright, who had directed SWRB Less feted but more innovative, Ashley Page since its New Group days, guided the company’s heralded his choreographic concerns in his first move to a permanent base in Birmingham. This work for the Royal Ballet, A Broken Set of Rules engendered a new name, Birmingham Royal Ballet, (1984), which deconstructed ballet classicism. On and financial independence from the Royal Opera the side, Page choreographed for contemporary House. Known for his sure touch in producing the dance companies and worked with postmodern classics and in programming mixed bills that dancers, and this exposure to other genres has interested public and critics alike, Wright built a informed his exploration of the ballet vocabulary company that finally stepped out of the shadow of and its conventions. its older sister and became a significant rival. Upon Although having handed over directorship of Wright’s retirement in 1995, Bintley became artistic the Royal to Norman Morrice in 1977, MacMillan director, having resigned from the Royal Ballet two continued choreographing for the company, years earlier. pushing balletic theatricality to breaking point with Perhaps to counter criticisms over leaving the works such as Mayerling (1978), about the sordid resident choreographer post vacant, in 1994 the life of the Habsburg Crown Prince Rudolf, and Royal Ballet inaugurated its annual Dance Bites tour 50 ballet music in which a small group of leading dancers take new as directors (Grey at Festival and Samsova at Scottish) short ballets by emerging choreographers to regional or as choreographers Jennifer Jackson and Susan venues. As well as providing a training ground for Crow at SWRB in the 1980s). In the age of gay young choreographers, Dance Bites is an outlet for pride, homosexuality was rarely acknowledged, an seasoned practitioners, particularly Ashley Page. exception being Bintley’s Edward II (1995). With the economic necessity to fill theatres, In the age of accountability, the Royal Ballet artistic directors played it safe in the 1990s, was tarnished by the financial and managerial programming mostly full-evening story ballets, scandals at the Royal Opera House, which caused which traditionally sell more tickets than mixed an outcry over the level of government funding bills of short works. To sustain interest, productions for ‘elitist’ pastimes. Hampered by the public image of the classics resorted to startling redesigns, such of ballet as the preserve of the very rich or the very as Maria Bjørnson’s postmodern, skewed young, artistic directors had to programme to entice perspective set for the Royal’s Sleeping Beauty; shock the punters, leaving the knowledgeable dance-goer tactics, like Northern Ballet Theatre’s reworking to wonder, ‘whither ballet?’ The deaths of Ashton of Swan Lake (1995) in which all the swans are shot (in 1988) and MacMillan (in 1992) marked an end in a military coup; and spectacular gimmicks, such of two overlapping eras in the artistic life of British as ENB’s Swan Lake in the round at the Royal Albert ballet, which seemed to lie fallow, awaiting a new Hall, for seventy swans. innovative classicist or audacious expressionist to New full-evening works, aiming at popular make works that challenged and stretched their appeal and accessibility, were based on familiar, creator, the audiences and the art form. usually literary storylines, and on the whole these ballets-as-entertainment were choreographically See also: ballet music; choreography; modern insubstantial. Northern Ballet Theatre’s dance productions (in which Gable is billed as director alongside the choreographer) had the feel of musical Further reading shows, high on theatricality but low on memorable choreography (A Christmas Carol, 1992; The Hunch- Bland, A. (1981) The Royal Ballet: The First 50 Years, back of Notre Dame, 1998). ENB aimed at the London: Threshold. children’s market with Alice in Wonderland (1996) Goodwin, N. (1979) A Ballet for Scotland: The First by Derek Deane, its director since 1993 and a Te n Years of the Scottish Ballet, Edinburgh: former dancer and choreographer at the Royal Canongate Publishing. Ballet. In Birmingham, Bintley followed up his 1989 Vaughan, D. (1977) Frederick Ashton and His Ballets, hit Hobson’s Choice with another crowd-pleasing London: A. & C.Black. drama, Far From the Madding Crowd (1996). Woodcock, S. (1991) The Sadler’s Wells Royal Ballet, At the Royal Ballet, Dowell took a risk with Mr Now the Birmingham Royal Ballet, London: Sinclair- Worldly Wise (1995) by Twyla Tharp, an American Stevenson. postmodern choreographer, whose ballet CHRIS JONES challenged audiences to make their own reading of the narrative. As with Dowell’s only other forays into the experimental—acquisitions from another ballet music postmodernist, William Forsythe of the Frankfurt Ballet—reactions were mixed. Tchaikovsky is by far the most well known ballet As the twentieth century drew to a close, ballet composer in 1990s Britain, and his ballet scores form was out of step with contemporary society on several a large part of most companies’ repertory. Attending levels. In an age of multiculturalism, ethnic minorities a performance of The Nutcracker, which has a seasonal continued to be a rare sight on the ballet stage. In story, has become a Christmas tradition for many. the post-feminist age, women had made only the Audiences becoming familiar with ballet music in odd transition from performing to artistic control, this way has assisted ballet’s current popularity, Bandung File 51 ensuring that many pieces originally written for ballet Further reading productions have a life of their own away from the Volkov, S. (1993) Balanchine’s Tchaikovsky, London: theatre, being performed live in orchestral concerts, Faber & Faber (choreographer on composer). recorded and used in advertising. Classical ballet’s short, attractive movements are also suited to use as ANDREA MARTIN advertising jingles, and through these have reas- serted their own popularity, drawing a new audience to the repertoire. This is clearly illustrated by Band Aid Tchaikovsky’s Dance of the Mirlitons, nicknamed ‘Everyone’s a Fruit and Nutcase’ after being used in The music industry’s social conscience was thrust a television advertisement. Advertising’s influence forcefully into the limelight with the formation of is perhaps most readily apparent in the compilations Band Aid in 1984. A coalition of musical artists as released of music popularized through commercials. diverse as Boy George, Paul Weller, U2 and Sting Such ‘bite-sized chunks’ also found an eager audience was skilfully brought together by Bob Geldof in 1990s Britain through Classic FM’s output of (Boomtown Rats) and Midge Ure (Ultravox) with shorter pieces, such as Herold’s Clog Dance from the aim of raising funds for Ethiopian famine relief. La Fille mal gardée. Band Aid produced one single, ‘Do They Know Certain pieces are played as mainstream concert It’s Christmas?’ which featured a plethora of artists, hall material more often than they are danced, with and also put together the ‘global jukebox’ that was staged performances naturally requiring greater Live Aid, with concerts held simultaneously in resources. Scores from Diaghilev’s ballets such as Philadelphia and London. The single twice reached Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring and The Firebird or number one, spending a total of twenty-six weeks Ravel’s Daphnis and Chloë draw audiences into in the charts. Overall, Band Aid raised over £100 concert halls due to the strength of the music; they million for Africa, and inspired spin-offs such as are powerful alone, though more so when danced. Sport Aid and Comic Relief. Conversely, scores are taken from concert hall to theatre and choreographed. Scottish Ballet’s See also: charities and charity shops production of A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1993) GUY OSBORN employed Mendelssohn’s original music expanded STEVE GREENFIELD into a full-length ballet score by Barrington Pheloung and choreographed by Robert Cohan, who also choreographed Vivaldi’s The Four Seasons Bandung File (1996) for the company. Even composers of the stature of Tchaikovsky and Bandung File was a Channel 4 programme which Prokofiev were beholden to choreographers, dealt with matters of concern to ethnic minorities. It choreography having a higher profile than was named after the Bandung Conference, a meeting composition. Christopher Gable, artistic director of of Asian and African states organized by Indonesia, Northern Ballet Theatre (NBT) maintains that this Burma, Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan in Bandung, can prevent the composer from providing particular Indonesia, in 1955. The television programme skilled input. NBT has worked in a more cooperative offered a radical perspective on contemporary issues, way with composers, with Gable himself collaborating such as the ethnic origins of western culture and with composer Carl Davis on A Christmas Carol (1992). issues surrounding racism and discrimination, as well NBT has developed its music provision from the use as disputes on multiculturalism, ‘political correctness’ of recordings and occasional chamber ensembles, to and Afrocentric curricula. Frequent contributors having its own regular orchestra which performs and were Darcus Howe, Paul Boateng and Tariq Ali. A records in its own right. typical production was Black Athena (1991) on Martin Bernal’s theories of the African origins of Greek See also: ballet civilization. 52 Banks, Jeff

See also: black television See also: audience research; National Viewers and Listeners Association MIKE STORRY PAU L RIXON

Banks, Jeff Barbican Centre b. 1943, Ebbw Vale The Barbican Centre was set up in 1982 to be both Fashion designer a national centre for the Arts and also to cater for Banks, trained at St Martin’s School of Art, is one the constituency of its immediate locality in the heart of the most industrious designers and promoters of London. It houses the largest of the City’s lending of the British fashion industry. His Clobber libraries and its main Children’s Library. The Royal boutique sold his own designs and those of other Shakespeare Company has a full programme at the designers between 1964 and 1974, and in the mid- Barbican Theatre, while the Barbican Art Gallery 1970s he launched the highly successful Warehouse has an outstanding programme of temporary chain of high street stores selling his own affordable exhibitions including photographs by George high fashion but wearable designs. He now has his Rodger, Cecil Beaton, Karsch, Bill Brandt and the own Jeff Banks label as well as design licenses for Hulton Deutsch Collection. It currently attracts over other companies. He was a presenter of early series 150,000 visitors a year. The Barbican’s two of the BBC programme The Clothes Show, the Exhibition Halls offer over 4,000 square metres of first mainstream fashion programme on British net exhibition space on two levels while the Barbican television. Hall seats 2,000 delegates, has three presentation cinemas, and numerous smaller conference suites. See also: Clothes Show, The; fashion (1980s); fashion (1990s) See also: Chamberlain, Powell and Bon MIKE STORRY TAM S I N S PARG O

BARB Barton, Derek The Broadcasting Audience Research Board b. 1918, Gravesend; d. 1988, Texas (BARB) replaced the Joint Industry Committee for Chemist Television Audience Research (JICTAR) in 1981 to permit an industry standard for the collection of Derek Barton was one of the pre-eminent chemists audience data. BARB, while jointly owned by the of the century. He won the Nobel Prize for BBC and Independent Television Authority, chemistry (with Odd Hassel) for a four-page paper includes on its committees representatives from which revolutionized his field of organic chemistry. other broadcasters and the advertising industry. He graduated from London’s Imperial College of BARB has contracts with AGB and RSMB Science and Technology in 1940 and continued to Television Research (1991–7) for the collection of work in the same department for many years before viewing information from a panel of 4,700 posts at Harvard, Birkbeck, Glasgow, and then back households. BARB compiles viewing information to Birkbeck as Hofmann Professor of Chemistry from Peoplemeters, attached to television sets, via until he retired at 60. He then worked in the USA telephone lines overnight, allowing the quick release and France, receiving many honours including a of detailed audience data. Qualitative data, in terms knighthood, the Légion d’honneur and the of an Appreciative Index, is collected for BARB by Japanese Order of the Rising Sun. His chief areas the BBC’s research department. of contribution were conformational analysis, Berlin, Isaiah 53 through which he changed the way chemists mountain. It also meant the loss of expertise; one understand the shape and reactivity of molecules result was the closing of the world famous Costume in three-dimensional space, steroids, natural Department in 1996. Possibly the most damaging product research and the significance of synthesis. episode was the threat to the World Service in 1996, when BBC management seemed to fundamentally See also: science misunderstand the importance of the Service and were less than open about their plans for it. MIKE STORRY But while the reforms were controversial, the BBC was at least thankful that the licence fee BBC remained in place. The Broadcasting Bill of 1996 saw heated debates about the role of the BBC, and Postwar, the previous stability of the BBC belied whether the fee should stay. The BBC won the its adaptations and responses to national and global battle, but the licence fee was deliberately kept below cultural changes. The 1950s quiet Reithian inflation for much of the 1990s, with the government conservatism did not last very long, as the BBC claiming that there was scope for efficiency savings. reacted to the cultural shifts of the early 1960s. Under Director-General Hugh Greene, the BBC See also: Radio 1; Radio 2; Radio 3; Radio 4; engaged much more fully with the spirit of the time, Radio 5 with programmes like That Was The Week That Was, Cathy Come Home, Till Death Do Us Part, and Greene’s Further reading parting shot to the BBC, Monty Python’s Flying Circus, all of which received criticism and cause offence to MacCabe, C. and Stewart, O. (eds) (1986) The BBC both left-wing and right-wing commentators. Self- and Public Service Broadcasting Editors, Manchester: appointed ‘moral’ watchdogs such as Mary Manchester University Press. Whitehouse saw him and the BBC as dragging SAM JOHNSTONE Britain into an amoral, anti-Christian, violent, crudely sexual mess. Such attacks have dogged the BBC ever since, with the Conservatives in the 1980s regularly accusing the BBC of left-wing bias Berlin, Isaiah and of not upholding ‘British’ standards, a confused phrase implying a lack of patriotism, particularly b. 1909, Riga (Latvia); d. 1997, Oxford during the Falklands conflict in 1982. Philosopher The BBC long personified decency and stability since its inception in 1922, but the 1990s saw a Isaiah Berlin was a philosopher and historian of painful and often controversial process of change. ideas. He came to Britain from Riga, Latvia in 1920. While much of the history of the BBC from 1945 He studied at Oxford and went on to became a was calm and unchanging, the 1990s saw un- fellow of All Souls (1932). During the Second World charted waters of internal strife, job cuts, constant War he served at the British Embassy in controversy and low morale as Thatcherite Washington. He later became Chichele Professor economics were brought to bear upon it. During of Social and Political Theory (1957–67), and John Birt’s term as Director-General the BBC’s Master of Wolfson College (1966–75). He was structure was thoroughly overhauled; the creation knighted in 1957. His works include: Karl Marx of an internal market forced producers to buy in (1939); Historical Inevitability (1954), a criticism of expertise rather than co-opting other departments. determinism in history; and The Crooked Timber of Birt claimed that this was more efficient in an age Humanity: Chapters in the History of Ideas (1991). He of tight public spending, but opponents have argued maintained friendships with American academics that the move simply claimed jobs, destroyed and thinkers and was influential in affecting policy morale and generated an administrative paper makers in the UK and USA. 54 betting shops

See also: history; philosophy; politics per week, but this is misleading because individual gamblers spend much larger sums and the National MIKE STORRY Lottery has taken up much of the slack. Periodic claims are made that betting shops will betting shops be made more alluring to punters, through such measures as the serving of refreshments or Betting shops appear on every British high street. The providing comfortable chairs. In practice they following companies operate shops: Ladbrokes (1,906 remain largely male haunts, where, because of legal shops), William Hill, owned by Grand Metropolitan constraints, passers-by may not even see in through (1,510), Coral Racing, owned by Bass (833) and the windows and the family is excluded. Stanley Racing (564). Fears of monopoly have led to the ‘440 yard’ rule. Because most people walk to place See also: Grand National; horse racing a bet, when a merger of ownership is proposed MIKE STORRY between two shops within that distance, one must be sold to increase competition. It is generally assumed that betting shops receive the bulk of consumer BFI spending on gambling; in fact casinos, at £2,461m, account for more than twice the amount spent in The British Film Institute (BFI) has operated to betting shops (£1,225m) and both bingo (£811m) promote moving image culture in Britain since its and football pools (£823m) are close runners-up. Total establishment in 1933. The BFI was set in place betting shop revenue is about the same as the Govern- following a Report on the Commission on ment’s Premium Bonds (£1,279m), though these do Educational and Cultural Films in the late 1920s. have an investment element. This background continues to be reflected in its There is no tax on ‘on course’ betting which broad aim to establish the importance of recognizing accounts for an estimated 10 percent of the overall film as a constitutive element of the cultural heritage. total, but the government takes 37.5 percent of stake The emphasis upon the cultural significance of film money on football pools, 9 percent on general and television is set out in a Royal Charter, which betting and 12 percent on the National Lottery. states the BFI’s primary objective to nurture the Most bets are still on horse and greyhound understanding of film ‘as a record of contemporary racing, but in recent years betting shops have life and manners, to foster study and appreciation extended the range of bets they will take. Some of it from these points of view’. are ‘exotic’, such as the likelihood of a human In practice, the BFI’s services towards the landing on Mars, but they are usually still sport- promotion and development of the moving image related: the outcome of games in the soccer World are extremely wide-ranging. The BFI’s complex Cup, the half-time score of particular matches, the on the South Bank combines the National Film first player to score and so on. Theatre (NFT), the Museum of the Moving Image Betting shops are traditionally an integral part (MOMI) and the administrative headquarters of of working-class life. They reflect a tradition of the annual London Film Festival. It stands as a interest in horse racing, which is both upper and national centre for the appreciation of film and lower class and from which the middle class are by television in a cultural rather than commercial and large excluded. The puritanism of the latter in context. regard to gambling has been tempered only by The National Film and Television Archive was government sponsored Premium Bonds and the founded in 1935 and holds almost 300,000 film National Lottery, and many middle-class people and television titles from 1895 to the present day. only bet on the Grand National and perhaps the This resource is further supported by the Library Derby. Expenditure on betting and gaming by the and Information Services Division, which boasts average household has declined in real terms during the world’s largest collection of documentation on the period 1983–96 by 32.3 percent, to 90 pence film and television, with all material available for Biba 55 access through a national database (Source in traditional folk songs. Its rhythms have been Information on Film and Television (SIFT)). adapted to modern musical instruments with the The BFI’s Research and Education Division traditional tumbi, dholkie and tabla providing the promotes media education through publishing, unique bhangra sounds. Groups like Heera, Alaap television production, the support of formal media and Chirag Pechan dominate the scene, but education and the organization of events. These individuals such as Apache Indian, Bally Sagoo and services take many forms, including the annual Johnny Zee have also become well known and have publication of the BFI Film and Television Handbook, had a major impact on the mainstream music scene. the monthly publication of Sight and Sound Exceptions to the rule of all-male performers are magazine and the production of documentary Sangeeta, Najma Ahktar and Sabeena. Bhan-gra television programmes (such as the Century of groups are much in demand for performance at Cinema series). weddings. The BFI also promotes the development of contemporary British cinema culture by See also: Asian underground supporting the distribution and exhibition of under-repre-sented film genres through its Further reading association with thirty-five regional film theatres. In addition, it generates revenue for the Sharma, S., Hutnyk, J. and Sharma, A. (eds) (1996) production of innovative and otherwise Dis-Orienting Rhythms: The Politics of the New Asian commercially marginalized ventures. Dance Music, London: Zed Books. Half of the BFI’s funding comes from the MIKE STORRY government, with the rest from subscriptions from its 26,000 members, the provision of services, and sponsorship and donations. In recent years the BFI Biba has been engaged in a political debate to ensure sufficient government funding to carry out its ‘BFI For many young women in Britain in the 1960s 2000’ programme, a strategy for its future survival. and 1970s, Biba was the epitome of style. The label In July 1998 the Culture Secretary, Chris Smith, was created by Polish-born designer Barbara announced a new Film Council, which will bring Hulanicki and her husband Stephen Fitz-Simon. together the BFI, British Screen, the British Film Biba started in 1963 as a mail order boutique, then Commission and the films lottery department of moved to London shops of increasing size, the Arts Council. culminating in the purchase of Deny and Toms department store in Kensington High Street in 1973. See also: MOMI; NFT Hulanicki’s designs combined the glamour of early Hollywood style with Art Deco pastiche, and the Biba store’s complementary decor made it one of Further reading the most distinctive shops in London. The clothes British Film Institute (1997) BFI Film and Television included body-hugging dresses in muted colours Handbook 1997, London: British Film Institute. at affordable prices, and glamorous accessories including 1920s and 1930s-style hats and feather MATTHEW GRICE boas. Biba’s product range expanded rapidly to include cosmetics in adventurous colours, which bhangra were available in the company’s stylish black and gold packaging. The Biba store closed in 1975 and The term ‘bhangra’ describes the traditional the company’s fortunes declined. The label was agricultural folk music of the Punjab, but has come relaunched by a new company in 1996 and now to be applied to all modern Asian pop music. It features retro-styles which offer an updated Biba began in the UK in the late 1970s, but is still rooted look for a new generation. 56 bicycles

See also: designer labels; labels Big Issue, The TAM S I N S PARG O Anita Roddick and John Bird founded The Big Issue in 1991 in response to the problems faced by the growing number of homeless people in Britain. In bicycles 1998 there were four independent companies. Vendors buy copies of the magazine at a minimal Whereas BMX (bicycle motocross) appealed cost and sell it on the streets. Vendors make a living primarily to teenagers, the arrival of the mountain by keeping 60 percent of the cover price. In 1998, bike in the early 1980s made cycling chic. Taking The Big Issue national sales reached 293,000 per with them the rock outlaw image from the week, with a readership of 1,213,000. Organizations Californian hippies who prototyped them, the ease such as The Big Issue became increasingly more of handling, garish accessories and subcultural important because Britain in the 1990s remained a jargon captured the imagination of a generation divided society and the number of homeless people, who had previously thought cycling too staid or from all walks of life, continued to grow at an childlike. By the 1990s, as cyclists began to find alarming rate. mountain bikes too sluggish for everyday use, road bikes, for both racing and touring, flourished and See also: homelessness; poverty, families and nostalgia developed for classics like the Raleigh FATIMA FERNANDES Chopper.

See also: cycling bilingual communities GORDON URQUHART In Britain, bilingualism exists in those areas where linguistic minorities are present, usually as a result of historical and political changes. The Swann Report big beat in 1985 revealed that there are at least twelve main languages in Britain, each involving over 100,000 An underground music scene which broke speakers. However, because of the uniformity of the through in 1997 but had its origins earlier. Roots educational system in England and the existence of can be traced back to the Beastie Boys 1989 regulatory bodies which give an impression of album Paul’s Boutique or to the three Give ‘Em linguistic harmony and order, the English language Enough Dope 1990–1 compilations by Mark Jones. continues to represent and enhance a mythical unity More recent sparks were generated by Wall of within Britain. Therefore, it is important to paint a Sound, the Chemical Brothers’ 1994 ‘Chemical more accurate picture by identifying the silenced Beats’ track or the Propellerheads’ 1996 ‘Take languages. There are many examples of indigenous California’. Big beat is a dance music that moves and ethnic languages which challenge the pervasive on from hip hop and trip hop via funk and power of the English language. For example, since backbeat, fusing deep bass lines and big drum the rise of Welsh nationalism in the 1970s, the sounds. Turntable and sampling techniques are popularity of the Welsh language has continued to blended with lush strings and brash brass, and grow. Britain has also had well-established black, sometimes vocals, but also with traditional pop Chinese and Indian communities since the nineteenth and rock songwriting skills. The release of the century; specifically in London and port areas such Propellerheads’ first album Decksandrums- as Liverpool and Cardiff. Furthermore, since the androckandroll in January 1998 marked the 1950s and due to economic and political reasons, mainstream arrival of big beat. people from West Africa, the Caribbean, India, PETER CHILDS Pakistan and Hong Kong have settled in Britain. Languages are closely tied to notions of identity; thus, biography 57 migrating people brought languages and cultures to Drabble’s Arnold Bennett: A Biography. Drabble’s work Britain as a way of rebuilding or replacing lost on Bennett was soundly researched but often far countries and communities, as has happened in too cavalier and dismissive in her eccentric Chinatown in London and in Liverpool. judgements of both her subject and his vital friends, such as literary editor Charles Masterman. FATIMA FERNANDES Continuity with pre-1960 British biographical traditions is strong and abundant, an enduring biography homage to the somewhat sceptical British reader’s love of verisimilitude and factual veracity. Political The biography industry since 1960 has been biography of high quality most attests to this sense remarkable in terms of its high quality, its continuity of continuity. It retains Lytton Strachey’s rudely with past traditions, the distinctive nature of its quizzical ‘debunking’ tradition on the one hand, and topical variety and its sheer range of subjects. Sir Philip Magnus’s reverential if mildly sceptical Standards and productivity have been high, despite tradition on the other. In respect of the first, BBC the fact that the lavishly funded competition from and ITV (Newsnight, World in Action) reporter Donald abroad is fierce, even on what narrowly might be McCormick authored a significant biography at the regarded as ‘home turf’ subjects (for which start of the 1960s in which he is acerbically critical subsidised support is not so readily available to of his left-wing subject (The Mask of Merlin: A Critical British researchers). Biography of David Lloyd George). As regards the second British biographers have also managed to tradition, Lord Roy Jenkins was awarded the achieve their singularity of appeal since 1960 by Whitbread Prize for biography in the 1990s for his venturing abroad themselves, writing on topics that tome on Gladstone which embodies the opposite publishers of earlier decades tended to consider ‘un- extreme of too much pompous centrist reverence English’. That is, support has been extended to for all but a few of its subject’s rather sanctimonious biographical studies of cultural icons of continental ‘grand old man’s’ priggish traits! Europe and beyond. Examples of such successful Yet, in the final analysis, the robustness of British projects are journalist Margaret Crosland’s Piaf and biography since 1960 in terms of both insightful- Marianne Gray’s Depardieu: A Biography. The quality ness and commercial success is explained by this of writing and the depth of insight in both portraits diversity and love of controversy, this refusal to be of the French ‘artiste’ are equal if not superior to ‘objective’ and ‘detached’ or ‘neutral,’ even if in French and American rival productions. unspoken adherence to strong biographical Moreover, although the new ‘red brick’ continuity with either the satirical or hagiographical universities of the 1960s and the ex-polytechnics traditions. Personal familiarity with the subject, for in the 1990s have tended not to shelve a separate instance, produces unique insights which bristle library classification called ‘biography’, biographers through the work of biographers of the 1970s, from have found that UK television, radio and the Quentin Bell (Virginia Woolf: A Biography) to ‘quality’ press have consistently boosted their work Christopher Sykes (Nancy: The Life of Lady Astor). suppor-tively. The works of writers such as John As a result of each author’s affectionate yet critical Grigg and Peter Ackroyd, the biographers of Lloyd empathy with the subject, the reader arrives at a George and William Blake respectively, have been unique comprehension of the creative vitality of highlighted in features and documentaries by the former ‘Bloomsbury’ women’s much over- BBC2 and ITV’s The South Bank Show. psycho-analysed ‘moods’, in Woolf’s case, and of Such biographers have challenged their overseas, the rather unhappy personal private life of Britain’s generally academic rivals through their painstaking first sitting woman MP, Astor, which explains her research, by the belief that period or contextuality alleged ‘hysteria’ and supposed ‘bad’ temper, traits often matters as much as subjectivity, and by their used unfairly against her until her death. frequently magisterial but nevertheless empirical Some national cultures may well find the future style. An example of this would be Margaret of their own biographical traditions in academic 58 Birmingham Conference Centre canons; for instance, in the United States the on the other. The presence of an increasingly University of Hawaii now publishes the world’s politicized bisexual (or ‘bi’) community in Britain only English language Journal of Biography. However, repeatedly brings these tensions to the fore, with in Britain readers do seem to prefer non-institu- debates around the inclusion of ‘bisexual’ in the tionalized biography. Empathy, eccentricity and a title of Britain’s annual Gay Pride festival and traditionally critical spirit remain the preferred admitting bisexuals into lesbian and gay social weapons of insight of British biographical writers. spaces, for example, fuelling argument and pre- cipitating both divisions and new alliances. The See also: autobiography problematic adoption of the inclusive term ‘queer’ to define all sexual dissidents has also been the subject of widespread debate, at least in part Further reading reflecting the fragility of the relationship between Hamilton, I. (1994) Keepers of the Flame: Literary Estates bisexuality and homosexuality. and the Rise of Biography, London: Faber & Faber On a more positive note, the bi community in (a useful discussion of the difficulties confronted Britain has established a strong identity through a by biographers). variety of self-run resources. These include a national magazine, Bi Community News, an annual conference, LAWRENCE IRVINE ILES a telephone helpline and the development of a network of local and regional groups which hold Birmingham Conference meetings and events, liaise with local lesbian and Centre gay groups and promote bi awareness in their locality. There also exists the Bi Academic Network, Birmingham’s International Conference Centre bringing together bisexual academics to discuss their (1983–91), an investment by Birmingham City work. In the academic arena, in fact, much important Council and the European Community, is the work has been done, exploring the position of largest of its kind in the UK, providing a meeting bisexuality within contemporary culture. facility for up to 3,000 people. Included in the Also significant to contemporary British complex is the acclaimed Symphony Hall. Eleven bisexuality have been discourses within popular main conference halls and ten executive rooms are culture, and those surrounding HIV/AIDS. In the grouped around the spectacular Mall, which forms case of the former, there have been a number of a route between Centenary Square and Canal high profile bisexuals ‘coming out’, including Street. The architects’ townscape study ensured Britpop singer Brett Anderson (of Suede) and commendable coherence in linking the complex supermodel Rachel Williams, and coverage of with the city centre. While the nearby restored bisexuality in the press, in films such as Basic Instinct Victorian buildings and revived canal network and novels such as Dan Kavanagh’s Duffy series. The reflect Birmingham’s industrial past, the HIV/AIDS discourses, on the other hand, have contemporary architecture of the ICC endorses demonized bisexuality as the transmission route Birmin-gham’s claim to being a city with from the homosexual to the heterosexual international facilities and aspirations. community. Together these discourses and representations have often constructed bisexuals as HILARY GRAINGER promiscuous, libertarian and uncommitted. Against this tide, the British bi community has offered many bisexuality alternative discourses, seeing bisexuality as challenging conventional sexual binaries (male/ Bisexuality occupies an ambivalent position in female, homosex-ual/heterosexual) and norms (such contemporary British sexual culture, and continues as monogamy and fixed sexual identity), and to have an uneasy relationship with gay and lesbian offering new possibilities for sex and gender relations culture on the one hand and heterosexual culture within society. Black Audio Film Collective 59

See also: AIDS; gay liberation; ‘gender benders’; Black Audio Film Collective outing The London-based Black Audio Film Collective emerged from the shared experience of British art Further reading schools, specifically Portsmouth, in the first years Rose, S. (ed.) (1996) Bisexual Horizons: Politics, of the Thatcher government (1979–90). The Histories, Lives, London: Lawrence & Wishart Collective’s first work, Expeditions (1983), an (written by members of the bisexual community, innovative and searching tape-slide production on this provides a useful overview of key issues). colonial history and its legacies, received widespread critical interest and paved the way for DAVID BELL their first major documentary, Handsworth Songs (1986), looking at the uprisings in Birmingham and London, with its slogan ‘there are no stories in the black art riots, only the ghosts of other stories’. Handsworth took the Grierson prize for documentary, and has Naseem Khan’s 1976 survey of the cultural proved highly influential, despite controversy over activities of ethnic minorities in Britain revealed its challenge to normative film language. The film that little financial support was provided by official had several influential features: a powerful sense bodies. This led to the establishment in London of of the spoken word as cinematic medium, a refusal the Minority Arts Advisory Service (MAAS) and to accept that black audiences required simple its inter-cultural magazine Artrage. The term ‘black narration and positive images, and a devotion to art’ most helpfully identifies work which draws the evolution of a new film language for the black upon the experience of black individuals and experience. communities in Western societies, such as the 1977 The follow-up feature, Testament (1988), again mixed media performance by Rasheed Araeen directed by John Akomfrah and shot on location called ‘Paki Bastard—portrait of the artist as a black in Ghana, analyses in elliptical and poetic frag-ments person’. However some ‘black artists’ object to the ‘the war zone of memories’ of post-colonial struggle term, and to ‘ethnic’ or ‘minority’ art, on the and the losses of exile. This theme would be grounds that it encourages ghettoizing and the reworked with Reece Auguiste in the director’s chair frequent assumption that they will produce work in Twilight City (1989), an allusive, dense vision of that is both outside the mainstream and also London as a city of exile. Inspired by the work of redolent of their ethnic background. A large Homi Bhabha, Paul Gilroy and Stuart Hall (who number of black artists in the 1970s and 1980s have appeared in several of their productions), the became familiar names in the art world, including collective went on to analyse in Who Needs a Heart Frank Bowling, Gavin Jantjes, Sokari Douglas (1991) the histories of Black Power in the UK, again Camp, Lubiana Himid, Marlene Smith, Sonia in characteristically elliptical form, and again with Boyce and Keith Piper. Several new magazines the disparities and juxtapositions welded into a whole (such as Black Phoenix and Black Arts in London) were by unique and inventive sound design by Trevor also founded at this time, and galleries opened Matthison. The impact of films like Haile Gerima’s (Black Arts Gallery and Creation for Liberation, Harvest 3000 (1976), and Julie Dash’s Illusions (1982), both in 1983). Important initiatives in film were with their intimations of a film aesthetic as radically the Black Audio Film Collective and True Corner renewed as pop music had been by the emergence Productions, an independent black film company of hip hop, was transformed in these films, and in established by Rosemary Boateng, sister of the the series of television documentaries that have Labour MP Paul Boateng. followed, perhaps the most impressive of which is Mothership Connection (a.k.a. The Last Angel of See also: black television; black theatre History), a history of science fiction imagery in PETER CHILDS diasporan music, distinguished by the intensity of 60 black Conservatives its compositions and the dramatic use of digital Books, Peepal Tree and Bogle-L’Ouverture also effects. As with other diasporan film-makers, the started to make significant inroads into the poetry current climate has proven inimical to innovation as market. In the academic sphere, of most note is much as to black culture. The only workshop to Wasafiri, a journal of literary criticism, imaginative have survived the end of the Workshop writing, essays on the arts, events and resources Declaration, Black Audio Film Collective is one of related to Caribbean, African, Asian and associated the major centres of the emergent culture of literatures in English. Founded in 1984, it was contemporary Britain. originally published by The Association for the Teaching of Caribbean, African and Asian See also: diasporan film-makers Literatures to foster multicultural debate and publish new writing. SEAN CUBITT

See also: black press; literature, African; literature, Caribbean black Conservatives PETER CHILDS Which major political party has been most accessible to people from ethnic minorities has been the subject of much debate. In 1987, four black black performance poets Labour MPs became the first to be elected to Parliament for sixty years, despite the fact that more Black performance poets have developed African than 5 percent of Britain’s population is black. The and Caribbean oral traditions into a varied poetic first black Conservative MP, Nirj Deva, was not language that is rooted in the speech of their elected to Parliament until 1992, but he did go on communities, creating a powerful sense of black to become a minister before he lost his seat in May British identity through social documentary, the 1997. John Taylor, a barrister, was confronted with articulation of autonomous political thought and racist opposition in his attempts to be selected as pure entertainment. Many poets have also candidate for Cheltenham in 1992. An embarrassed developed sophisticated methods of transcription John Major elevated him to the House of Lords. for their essentially oral work, so that the sound of the spoken voice is brought to the reading eye. See also: black politics; Labour Party black In 1976 Linton Kwesi Johnson coined the term sections ‘dub poetry’ for work that he and the Jamaicans Michael Smith, Mutabaruka and Oku Onuora were MIKE STORRY performing, inspired by the ‘toasting’ of reggae sound-system DJs U Roy and Big Youth, and the black literature press Last Poets’ percussion-driven street poetry. Using Afro-Caribbean patois (following the example of Black literary and arts presses and magazines the previous generation of writer/performers include: Payback Press (re-releases key black texts including James Berry, Edward Kamau Brathwaite such as Ben Sidran’s Black Talk), X Press (London and Louise Bennett), dub poetry uses speech- and based publishers since 1992 of new and classic black reggae-rhythms (rather than the iambic penta- fiction and especially pulp fiction such as Victor meters that predominate in conventional English Headley’s Yardie), Hansib (the oldest and largest poetry) simultaneously to resist received black publishing house in Britain), Ruther-ford pronunciation and to make their poetry familiar (imprint of Dangaroo press publishing black British to audiences alienated by literary/academic writing. literature), The Voice (Afro-Caribbean weekly), Trends Much dub poetry deals with contemporary socio- (UK’s most popular Muslim magazine), and Artrage political issues, but its variety is demonstrated by (a long-standing black arts magazine). In the 1970s Jean Binta Breeze’s love poetry and the playfulness and 1980s, black presses such as New Beacon of Benjamin Zephaniah. black politics 61

Black performance poetry has taken many as a unifying term of empowerment among ‘ethnic forms and subjects. Louise Bennett’s investigations minority’ groups to describe the commonality of of folklore and dialect poems influenced John their historical oppression, marginalization, personal Agard’s playful ‘calypso poetry’. Merle Collins has and institutionalized racist experiences. drawn on the African tradition (often performing Black politics have been organized around the to Ghanaian high-life accompaniments played by loosely successive phases of New Commonwealth African Dawn). Valerie Bloom, Scottish-born Jackie immigration, settlement, protest and an active Kay and Grace Nichols have focused on the involvement in community and mainstream politics. experiences of black women. A new generation of The Commonwealth Immigration Bill (1962) and poets have relied on rap and hip hop rhythms, Race Relations Act (1965) (see Race Relations Acts) rather than on reggae (often explicitly titling poems initiated the black immigration control and anti- ‘raps’). Lemn Sissay has become a significant figure discrimination legislation which has illustrated in the 1990s: in addition to his own work (including conflicting state attitudes to race. Govern-ment- a collaboration with dance act Leftfield in 1995 on sanctioned organizations like the Community their 100,000-selling album Leftism) he has been Relations Councils (later the Commission for active in promoting black and Asian performers Racial Equality) coexisted alongside numerous through community publishing, workshops and politicized black welfare and cultural groups visits to schools and libraries, in a tradition of autonomously mobilized at an urban and grassroots community-based action exemplified from the level. Larger organizations such as the nationwide 1970s by Linton Kwesi Johnson’s involvement with and left-wing Indian Workers Association (IWA) the Race Today collective. Although still provided practical and legal support and advice for marginalized, black performance poetry has an newly arrived and settled Indian migrants. The increasing currency in the mainstream, signalled Campaign Against Racial Discrimination (1965) and by Agard’s appointment as first poet in residence Black People’s Alliance (1968) enlisted the support at London’s South Bank Centre, and Zephaniah’s of black representative groups in conglomerate fronts (unsuccessful) nomination for honorary chairs in against racism. poetry at both Oxford and Cambridge. During the racially polarized 1960s, Black Power groups like Black Unity and Michael X’s See also: alternative poetry; performance poetry; Racial Adjustment Action Society (RAAS) offset poetry slams Powellist politics and heralded the more confrontational tone of the 1970s. Industrial action protesting against exploitative migrant labour Further reading proliferated, while racist killings, conflict and the Binta Breeze, J. (ed.) (1986) Critical Quarterly National Front led to the formation of the Anti- 38(4)(‘Word Sound Power’, a special edition on Nazi League (ANL) and youth organizations such performance poetry). as Southall Youth Movement (SYM). Riots Sissay, L. (ed.) (1997) The Fire People: A Collection including Notting Hill (1976), Southall (1979), St ofBlack British Poets, Edinburgh: Payback Press. Paul’s and Brixton (1981) and Broadwater Farm (1985) demonstrated the swollen social and political SIMON COPPOCK disaffection among black communities (see riots and civil disobedience). black politics The 1980s anti-racism and racial equality campaigns accompanied the election of four black ‘Black’ as a political construction derives from the Labour candidates to Parliament in 1987: Diane protracted race struggles of the 1950s and 1960s Abbot, Paul Boateng, Bernie Grant and Keith Vaz. onwards. A contentious term criticized for its However, the formation of the Labour Party black simplistic reduction to an implicit ethnic dualism of sections and the black Conservatives created black and white, ‘black’ has conversely functioned controversy over their ‘ghettoization’ of black 62 black press political interests, with the ascendancy of the ethnic newspapers and journals appeared in the 1950s and right (such as the Muslim Parliament) also 1960s, including Black Voice, Grassroots, Freedom News, exposing the inadequate representation of black Frontline, Black Peoples Freedom Weekly, Black Workers interests in mainstream politics. Yet from grassroots Action Weekly, Black Liberator, Link, Carib, Anglo- activism to its gradual integration into the racialized Caribbean News, Tropic, Daylight International, West Indies political mainstream, black political concerns are Observer, Afro-Asian-Caribbean News and Magnet. gradually emerging as an irrepressible force. More recently, the political journal West Indian Digest, the Caribbean Times, and The Voice appeared in the early 1980s. Black Briton and Weekly Journal Further reading both started publishing in the early 1990s. A wide Gilroy, P. (1987) There Ain’t No Black in the Union range of glossy magazines including Root, I- Jack, London: Routledge (a classic cultural Conception, Chic, Origin and Black Beat International all study conveying the complexities of race and became available on the newsstands. nationhood). Some papers catered mostly for settlers interested in ‘news from back home’. The Voice was SATINDER CHOHAN the first paper to specifically target young blacks in Britain, which was unusual since most tabloids black press target social class rather than age. As a popular tabloid, it was expected to appeal to the average The emergence of the black press in Britain grew ‘Mirror’ reader, and to have a core readership in out of the demand for a representative voice, a voice the 18–39 age group. that redresses the balance of the discriminatory The black glossy magazines have tended to mainstream media. Many black publications aim target a broader economic band and age range. The to address the social, cultural and political issues magazines fall into several categories. There are pertaining to their communities by supplying an women’s magazines: Pride, Black Beauty and Hair, alternative to the often negative stereotypes Candace and Visions In Black. There are special interest propagated by some mainstream news organs. The magazines, such as the political magazine Race and black press also provides employment opportunities Class, the multicultural magazine New Impact, the for black people in the media professions. literary journal Wasafiri, and the arts and By the end of the 1990s there were an estimated entertainment magazines Artrage and Flava. There four hundred black newspapers and periodicals in are also several religious magazines, Trends, Britain. This abundance has developed from the Muslimwise, The Crescent and Sufi, to name but a few, singularity of The Letters of Ignatius Sancho in 1782, as well as several sports magazines and a plethora published in letter form in periodicals of the day, of black music papers and magazines such as Blues up through the collective voices of Africans in the & Soul, Black Echoes, True, Hard Edge, Black Jazz and diaspora in prewar and mid-war era papers like Hype. Some of the latter are inter-racial initiatives. The Pan African, the African Telegraph and The Black Man. Postwar papers like the Jamaican Gleaner, the See also: black literature press Caribbean Times and the West Indian Gazette were unrelenting in their editorial attack on racial Further reading injustice. By the mid-1960s, most of these news organs had disappeared. Benjamin, I. (1995) The Black Press In Britain, Stoke- The period between 1960 and 1970 was a on-Trent: Trentham Books (interesting in terms turning point for black publications, particularly of its historical contextualization of black as it saw the emergence of the journal Race Today, publishing in Britain). whose first editor was Darcus Howe (who actually EUGENE LANGE started his career with a Notting Hill-based paper called Hustler). A number of pamphlets, newsletters, black television 63 black sportsmen and women sportspeople are not yet treated like whites, but with the current generation proving so successful, Britain boasts an impressive array of black and with high profile anti-racism campaigns getting sportsmen and women in the 1990s, with some of backing from top black performers in the 1990s, the problems they face having declined (albeit the situation should improve further. slowly) since their arrival in mainstream professional sport in the late 1970s. Since then, the See also: athletics; sport, racism in England football team has picked a black captain and the England cricket side has featured many Further reading black players, as have rugby and athletics. There is also the heavy concentration of black competitors Cashmore, E. (1982) Black Sportsmen, London: in boxing, though this might reflect the generally Routledge. lower incomes of black people in Britain. REX NASH Most sports have come a long way since the late 1970s, but football has made particular progress. Here the trend setters were West black television Bromwich Albion, with their classy trio of Batson, Regis and Cunningham, but most clubs would not The converging histories of Afro-Caribbean pick blacks until the 1980s. The first black England immigration and the mass expansion of television player was Viv Anderson in 1978, but this did not in 1950s Britain have belied their continuing stop abuse from fans and team mates. John Barnes divergence on a predominantly white broadcasting was told by right-wing fans in 1984 that goals by medium. Programmes targeted at Afro-Carib- black players ‘do not count’. Spectator racism has bean communities seek to redress the historical long been a problem in cricket, rugby league and imbalance of black stereotyping, misrepresentation football, with abuse from fans a regular part of the and mainstream marginalization on British black performer’s career. television, addressing specific Afro-Caribbean Black sportswomen are less well known cultural issues in various genres. (sportswomen generally have a lower media profile), During the 1950s and 1960s, occasional dramas though many of the best British women athletes such were produced against an impending national panic as Ashia Hansen, Kelly Holmes and Diane Modahl over race, immigration and an emergent racist politics are black. However, athletics is the one sport where which culminated in the speeches of Enoch Powell. black women have succeeded. Generally there are John Elliot’s A Man From The Sun (1956) dispelled no, or very few, black competitors in British golf, colonial myths about the mother country from a tennis, swimming or hockey. working-class Afro-Caribbean perspective, while John The situation has clearly improved since the Hopkins’ Fable (1965) caused a political furore by offensive attitudes of the 1960s and 1970s, when depicting a British apartheid state based on black many coaches believed black players could not superiority. Theatrical adaptations confronted issues perform in the cold, only had pace and power, and of interraciality in Ted Willis’s Hot Summer Night (1952), would upset dressing room harmony by not and from positions of black inferiority in Barry tolerating racist ‘jokes’ from colleagues. However, Reckford’s You in Your Small Corner (1962). in the commercialized world of British sport in the In contrast, hugely popular shows including The 1980s and 1990s, the question of race became less Black and White Minstrel Show (1958–78), situation important, and commercial opportunities in the comedies ‘Till Death Do Us Part (1966–74), Love Thy 1990s are now open to black competitors if their Neighbour (1972–5), Mixed Blessings (1978), and even sport’s profile is high enough. Yet some sports still the all-black comedy The Fosters (1976), the black lack any top level black participants, and the police drama Wolcott (1981) and ‘explanatory’ ‘genetic’ abilities of black players are still sometimes documentaries such as Them and Us (1970) have questioned, as is their loyalty to their team. Black tended to reinforce racial stereotypes. 64 black theatre

The first all-black soap Empire Road (1978–9), black theatre alongside the appearance of black professionals in Black Silk (1985) (and also John Elliot’s black lawyer- Black theatre occupies an interdisciplinary space based Rainbow City (1967)) and crime drama South which integrates an eclectic fusion of Afro-diasporic of the Border (1988) positively challenged damaging and black British literary-based dramatic text, black representations in traditionally white domains music, song, dance, various media, linguistic forms, and genres. live art and performance art. By creating a Mainstream institutional bodies like the London diachronically and culturally resonant black Minorities Unit (LMU) established in 1980, and vernacular inscribed with issues of identity, the BBC’s Afro-Caribbean Programmes Unit representation, tradition and history, black theatre (1989) and Multicultural Programmes Department dismantles the conventional structures of an (1990) were created to consider ‘minority’ exclusively white or Eurocentric theatre inclined audiences. The LMU’s first production Skin (1980) to marginalize black experience. introduced the current affairs magazine format A nascent black theatre involved Royal Court adopted by Ebony (1982), Channel 4’s Black on Black productions of Errol John’s Moon on a Rainbow Shawl (1982) and its revised incarnations Bandung File (1958), followed by a trilogy of Barry Reckord and Black Bag (1991). plays. During the 1960s and 1970s, other Car- Channel 4’s 1982 launch included a ground- ibbean-born dramatists such as Mustapha Matura, breaking multicultural remit and, along with Alfred Fagon and Edgar White emerged to explore BBC2, the channel has broadcast numerous migrant identities, colonial legacies and conditions dramas such as We the Ragamuffin (1992), the inner of exile, displacement and conflict between city Blazed (1995) and Caryl Phillip’s The Final Caribbean and British culture. Passage (1997). There have also been the black In 1970, an Institute of Contemporary Arts comedies Desmonds (1989) and The Real McCoy and (ICA) series of Black and White Power plays documentaries like Lest We Forget (1990) and featured Mustapha Matura’s first play Black Pieces, Windrush (1998). productions concerning the 1960s American civil The creative and institutional shift in black rights and Black Power movements, and a general programming in the 1980s abandoned a troubled desire for cross-cultural articulations fortifying black race relations paradigm to convey the pluralities of artistic activity in Britain. The Dark and Light and black experience. Nevertheless, segregationist Temba Theatre companies, along with fringe and aspects and a reluctance in broadcasting to risk specifically black venues like London’s Keskidee alienating mainstream white audiences, particularly Arts Centre and The Factory, produced myriad by commissioning cutting-edge programmes from black plays during the politically inspired 1970s. more independent black production companies, A subsequent generation of black British-born continues to impede the development of black playwrights such as Tunde Ikoli and Caryl Phillips television. offered visceral dissections of cultural and intra- generational conflicts in plays like Phillips’s Strange Fruit (1979). Their advancement of a predominantly Further reading male and politically based theatre which passionately Ross, K. (1996) Black and White Media: Black Images responded to issues including racism, immigration, in Popular Film and Television, Cambridge: Polity disenfranchised black youth and communities were Press (includes a section robustly discussing soon diversified by the feminist concerns of 1980s multicultural programming). black female dramatists like Jacqueline Rudet, Paulette Randall, Winsome Pinnock and Jackie Kay, whose SATINDER CHOHAN black lesbian feminist choreopoem Chiaroscuro (1986) embraced kaleidoscopic performative techniques. Amali Nepthali’s Ragamuffin hybridized Caribbean popular traditions and black popular black women’s movement 65 and political culture to collapse boundaries black women’s movement between its MC performers and audience. With an emphasis on communality and orature (for The black women’s movement emerged during the example, Benjamin Zephaniah’s dub poetry black and feminist consciousness-raising decades plays), black theatre also demonstrates its of the 1970s, drawing upon Black Power and anti- polyphonic nature through revisionist adaptations imperialist national liberation and women’s of Western classics like Talawa Theatre liberation movements. The black women’s Company’s King Lear (1993) and A Doll’s House movement gained momentum among black women (1996). Other companies such as Black Mime during the late 1970s and 1980s through Theatre (1984) amplify continuing discussions demonstrations of collective social and political about a British black theatre aesthetic. Alongside activism. Talawa, however, the Black Theatre Cooperative Like the women’s liberation movement, the black (1979) is the only other fully funded British black women’s movement was not comprised of a single theatre company, a serious infra-structural organizational unity, instead existing as a loosely underfunding which threatens a vital British structured network of black women’s organizations, theatre dramatic narrative. support and discussion groups mobilized at grassroots and community levels. The black women’s movement unified Afro-Caribbean and Further reading Asian women through commonal-ities of race and Tompsett, A.R. (1996) Black Theatre In Britain, gender, while simultaneously recognizing internal London: Harwood Academic Publishers (a differentiations of class, cultural background, sexual valuable introduction to black theatre theory orientation, politics, religion and language. and practice). The terminology of ‘black’ and ‘feminist’ labels triggered self-defining and contentious debates SATINDER CHOHAN within the black women’s movement. A non- essentialized, politicized term, ‘black’ stressed both the foundational Afro-Asian unity of the black ‘Black Women Talk’ Collective women’s movement and the heterogeneity of black women everywhere. The term ‘feminism’ was often ‘Black Women Talk’ is a collective of women of rejected for its implicit racism or reappropriated Asian and African descent living in Britain. It is under the label ‘black feminism’, with the black concerned about the lack of outlets for black women’s movement primarily originating in women’s writing and accuse publishers of only response to the exclusionary nature of an ethno- publishing Afro-American women’s writing in centric and eurocentric feminism advocated by the Britain because it is lucrative. The Collective is largely white, middle-class women’s liberation committed to publishing black British women’s movement. The black women’s movement work because it feels that they have something questioned their universalist assumptions of female distinctive to say, something which has been sexual and political oppression, exposing white deliberately suppressed. It also seeks to make feminism’s emphasis on gender and personal politics alternative material available to schools, libraries through a privileged, predominantly separatist and other public information centres and to share discourse which entirely negated black women’s (and skills cooperatively. It identifies its ‘sister’ presses men’s) experiences of racism, colonialism and as Kitchen Table, in the USA, and Third World imperialism. As Hazel Carby declared: Women Press in Delhi.

Black feminists have been, and are still, See also: black literature press; black women’s demanding that the existence of racism must movement be acknowledged as a structuring feature of our MIKE STORRY relationships with white women. Both white 66 black women’s movement

feminist theory and practice have to recognize black female migrant workers were often instigating that white women stand in a power relation as agents and participants in industrial strikes and oppressors of black women. This compromises disputes, driven to activism by the race and any feminist theory and practice founded on employment issue. In a landmark 1977 dispute, the notion of simple equality. Asian women led a high-profile strike against (Mirza 1997:46) employers at the Grunswick Photoprocessing Plant, North London, against discriminatory terms and The black women’s movement enabled black conditions of employment. In 1995, predominantly women to assert themselves against a ‘double Asian female cleaners at Hillingdon Hospital, invisibility’ or ‘double colonization’ and to rally Middlesex, embarked on a continuing dispute against oppressive forms of racism and sexism in all following their sackings over rejected pay cuts. their personal and institutional guises. By recovering In 1978, the socialist-based, non-hierarchical the marginalized narratives and voices of black national black women’s Organization of Women women through a developing black and post-colonial of African and Asian Descent (OWAAD) provided feminism, the black women’s movement confronted a discursive platform of exchange and network forces of cultural imperialism in hegemonic between black women and off-shoot black women’s discourses, systems and practices, whether white movement organizations. OWAAD held four feminism or the capitalist British state. conferences between 1978 and 1982, the first Black female academics like Carby and Pratibha conference leading to the formation of women’s Parmar critiqued white feminism and rejected its groups nationwide, offering practical support for patronizing attitudes towards black women on black women involved in protest campaigns, issues relating to the family, class and sexuality. deportations, strikes, industrial disputes, domestic Commonly cited as a source of women’s violence and for those with health, education or oppression, the family also offered a means of housing problems. For example, OWAAD staged resistance for black women against racist and a sit-in protest at Heathrow Airport to protest at imperialist forces, for example, state immigration the virginity tests conducted on Asian female laws that divided black families, forced sterilizations immigrants to verify their claims of residency and and fuelled an abortion debate among black marriage in Britain. The black women’s movement women. Black women objected to the cultural exposed the tests as another demonstration of state solopsism of white feminists, who denounced racism intruding upon the personal and sexual lives traditional practices such as purdah or arranged of black immigrants. OWAAD eventually collapsed marriages through a misinformed understanding over structural deficiencies, internal wranglings of the cultural complexities, simplistically imposing over black sexualities and a unifying ‘black’ label judgements shaped by their own ideological which exposed its conflicting political perspectives, conditioning instead. Black feminists criticized their vying for OWAAD’s prioritization in, for example, own misrepresentation and that of subaltern African liberationist struggles or British race issues. women by a ‘First World’ feminism constructing OWAAD led to groups like Brixton Black itself as a liberationist force for the oppressed Women’s Group, the Asian Refuge Centre, victims of traditionalist cultures. Much early black Manchester Black Women’s Cooperative and the feminist scholarship also sought to locate black championed Southall Black Sisters (SBS), women within their own subjective and critical supporting black women subjected to domestic and spaces through processes of historical reclamation. racial violence. SBS was involved in the historic The black women’s movement acknowledged over-turning, on the grounds of severe its origins of struggle within a collective diasporic psychological and physical abuse, of Kiranjit history of oppression through slavery, colonialism, Ahluwalia’s 1989 conviction for her husband’s Third World liberationist struggles, state racism murder. Women Against Fundamentalism was also and economic exploitation. Portrayed by white created to counter the patriarchal stance of religious feminists, for example, as passive, docile females, fundamentalism within ethnic communities. blues 67

Despite its fragmentation during the 1980s and have been Bad Behaviour (1993) and Jump the Gun 1990s, the black women’s movement has localized (1997). The former starred Sinead Cusack and in instances of individual and collective ‘black’ Stephen Rea and dealt sympathetically with middle- activism and black British feminist agency. As Mirza class love in Dublin. The latter is more political emphasizes: ‘Strategic multiplicity and contingency but still retains elements of domestic comedy. The is a hallmark of black British feminism. If anything, film, which was well-received in South Africa, deals what our struggles demonstrate is that you can have with relationships in a post-apartheid society where difference (polyvocality) within a conscious one of the new realities is a burgeoning sex industry. construction of sameness (i.e. black feminism)’ MIKE STORRY (Mirza 1997:21) The black women’s movement made pioneering gains by introducing a myopic feminism to vital pluralisms, demonstrating the blues shortcomings of feminist theories which obviated factors of race and imperialism as power constructs. The blues is a folk musical style evolved by rural Importantly, it extended the post-colonial/ southern African Americans around 1900. It speaks postmodernist debate about women, race and predominantly of their conditions in pre-Civil imperialism in subjective, critical and political Rights America: disenfranchisement, alcohol-ism, spaces from imposed positions of historical migration, poverty and domestic strife. marginalization to one of empowered visibility in Blues traditionally adheres to a rigid musical British institutional life and on its streets. structure of twelve-bar groupings (three lines of four bars each), lyrically following an AAB rhyming See also: ‘Black Women Talk’ Collective pattern. Its scale, with its non-western ‘blue notes’, probably derives from Africa. Stylistic constraint, Further reading mirroring its performers’ social subjugation, is countered by personalized vocal inflection and Amos, V., Lewis, G., Mama, A. and Parmar, P. improvisation. (eds) (1984) ‘Many Voices, One Chant: Black By the 1960s, African Americans began to Feminist Perspectives’, Feminist Review 17(a dissociate themselves from its unproductive formative black women’s movement text which pessimism, while a new, mainly white fan base was encapsulates nascent black feminist concerns). developing through an appreciation of rare imported Mirza, H.S. (1997) Black British Feminism: A Reader, records in Britain. Blues artists’ championing of London: Routledge (a definitive text of a underdog resistance appealed to the alienated developing post-colonial and postmodernist teenagers of postwar Britain. Middle class and black feminism). mainly living at home, they were caught between a

SATINDER CHOHAN desire for adult freedoms and strict parental regulation. Performing musicians of this age group increasingly turned to the blues for solace. Blair, Les From the 1950s, American blues artists had been touring Britain. Enthusiastic but financially b. 1941 limited promoters flew over single performers to play with young British backing bands. Film-maker Reverential white British audiences, although not Les Blair was at Salford Grammar school with Mike untainted by racist tendencies, often treated them Leigh and Albert Finney. He produced (and Finney with more respect than the ingrained segregation financed) Leigh’s first film, Bleak Moments. He and at home allowed. The collaborations of the Ken Loach are now partners in Parallax Films. As American and British performers involved, many a director, he favours an improvisational style and of which were recorded, benefited both parties has an optimistic outlook. His major films to date artistically. 68 body adornment

Bands associated with and inspired by this adornment ‘scene’ has become a distinct and visible union, such as Graham Bond, Spencer Davis, The subculture in contemporary Britain. Animals, The Rolling Stones and The Yardbirds, Simultaneously, its practices have proliferated, with gained popularity during the 1960s ‘British Inva- tattooing and piercing enjoying prominence among sion’ of the United States (along with extended assorted subcultures, including ‘new age’, ‘queer’, worldwide acclaim). It is largely to their credit that and music-based and style-based cultures such as the blues tradition, with its waning relevance to crusties and punks. Although tattoos and certain the African American community, was kept alive forms of piercing (especially ear piercing) have long in its country of origin. It was they who first been popular, other forms of body adornment have attracted a multi-racial audience to the genre, forged also percolated into the mainstream (nose and navel links that crossed prohibitive ‘race’ boundaries and piercing, for example), leading to debates about brought performers out of obscurity. legislative regulation on health and age grounds. British blues in the 1970s increasingly adopted Proponents of body alteration argue that the western classical virtuosity, jazz improvisation and body is a primary means of self-expression, and extended solo use. This acknowledged a sense of that adornment is a form of resistance to freedom and self-indulgence—both social and powerlessness in modern life. Marking oneself as musical—that had evaded the early blues artists. different is seen to challenge social norms. Pleasure Despite major label disinterest in new bands, is also evoked as a motive for adornment: both the blues is still popular in British pubs and at specialist pleasures of public shock or transgression, and the festivals. Famous artists such as Eric Clapton more private pleasures of heightened erotic continue to voice their indebtedness to blues possibility and sensation. These erotic aspects are musicians. commonly emphasized in cultural commentaries, and are especially central to the so-called ‘fetish scene’ which links adornment with other sexual Further reading practices such as bondage, submission-domination Brunning, B. (1995) Blues in Britain, the History 1950 and sadomasochism (although there is no necessary to the Present, London: Blanford. co-existence between the two). Cosmetic surgery and body building are in KAY DICKINSON some ways distinct from piercing and tattooing, but deserve inclusion since both involve the purposeful body adornment alteration of the body for assorted motives, including pleasure. While these exist separately Contemporary body adornment practices include from other forms of adornment, there are significant tattooing and piercing (the two most common crossovers. Similarly, cross-dressing and ‘gender- forms), scarification, branding, and, arguably, bending’ modifications warrant inclusion here, but certain kinds of attire (especially cross-dressing and cannot be understood solely in this context, for clothes which fetishize the body), make-up and these too encompass a range of practices with quite body painting, hair styling, body building and other distinct motives and meanings. forms of ‘body sculpting’ (cosmetic surgery, trans- gender transformations, corsetting, plus other less See also: ‘gender benders’ common techniques of body-part modification, such as scrotal elongation by weighting). Mixing Further reading ‘tribalism’ or ‘modern primitivism’ (most Polhemus, T. and Randall, H. (1996) The Customized commonly based around a blend of shamanistic, Body, London: Serpent’s Tail (lots of Native American, Oriental and Polynesian photographs, and useful overviews of many inspirations) with practices associated with sexual aspects of the body adornment scene). subcultures (fetish and sadomasochism) and, increasingly, cyberpunk aesthetics, the body DAVID BELL Boorman, John 69 body size advance received by first-time author Nicholas Evans for The Horse Whisperer in 1995— can even be used as Fashion imagery operates around the display of a source of free press publicity for the author. an idealized body shape which, while continually However, the most effective indirect form of book changing, is always at variance with the general marketing remains the attempt to ensure that books population. In the 1960s, Twiggy encapsulated the are reviewed in the media, and publishers make underdeveloped waif, which was to be revived in strenuous attempts to do this by sending out proof the 1990s in reaction to the aerobicized and copies and lobbying influential literary editors worked-out body of the late 1970s and 1980s. In through networking. Since publishers generally only the 1990s, men have not escaped notions of the make serious efforts to publicize a small percentage ideal with the stress on perfect pectorals and a of their list, and the gap between the so-called ‘leads’ muscular abdomen. The ideal body shape as and the ‘midlist’ is becoming wider, some observers perpetuated by the fashion industry met with have complained that the book industry is wielding criticism as a result of the critique provided by a disproportionate influence in determining which feminism in the late 1960s and 1970s. Feminism books receive media attention. continues to question the viability of a fashionably The rise of major book chains like Waterstones ideal body to which women should aspire. and Dillons has recently added another major player to the area of book marketing, through their See also: eating disorders instigation of ‘Books of the Month’ and in-house

CAROLINE COX magazines. Major publishers have also begun to create interactive bookstores on commercial online services such as Compuserve and Delphi or on the book marketing World Wide Web, through which readers can order copies either on-line or by telephone. It is Sophisticated forms of book marketing are a anticipated that these bookstores will account for relatively recent phenomenon. The prevailing notion a significant proportion of the market in the future. of publishing as a gentlemanly profession, in which the love of literature was more important than profit, See also: publishing trends and the widespread belief that books were all distinct products and therefore unmarke-table anyway, Further reading contributed to the half-hearted and generally inefficient nature of book marketing up until the Baverstock, A. (1993) Are Books Different? Marketing 1980s. However, book marketing has grown in in the Book Trade, London: Kogan Page. significance in recent years, largely as a consequence JOE MORAN of the increasing consolidation of the industry into the hands of commercially minded conglomerates. Book marketing can be divided into direct and Boorman, John indirect forms. Direct forms are centred on books themselves and include paid advertising in mass b. 1933 media such as magazines, newspapers and television, Film director special displays (or ‘dump bins’) in bookshops, and dustjacket blurbs and endorsements. More indirect Boorman was head of documentaries at the BBC forms of marketing are generally less expensive and from 1960–4 before going on to direct his first are centred around arranging interviews for the feature, Catch Us If You Can (1965). His subsequent author in the media, and appearances at bookshop departure for the USA to direct Point Blank, a signings or at literary festivals such as the annual Hollywood-produced thriller with European events at Hay-on-Wye and Cheltenham. In some sensibilities, was followed by trans-Atlantic projects cases, the size of book contracts—like the seven-figure involving dichotomous and mythic explorations of 70 boxing conflicted psychological, political and spiritual states Albert Hall in his fight with Ukrainian Sergei of humanity. These included the surreal Leo the Last Devakov. Despite a public outcry, Tony Banks, the (1969), Zardoz (1973) and the allegorical quest Sports Minister, rejected calls for a ban. narratives of Deliverance (1972), Exorcist II: The Heretic Interest in boxing as a spectator sport stems (1977), Excalibur (1981) and The Emerald Forest broadly speaking from the upper and lower classes, (1985). The autobiographical Hope and Glory (1987) rather than the middle classes. At the National and the factually based Irish gangster film The Sporting Club in London, the audience wear dinner General (1988) consolidated Boorman’s domestic suits and applaud only at the end of each round. (and international) reputation, celebrating an At boxing matches around the country, on the other impassioned and determined directorial brilliance hand, audiences are largely male and working class. that has rarely wavered visually. Meanwhile, despite qualms about health and safety, women have been pushing to enter the sport. Britain’s top woman boxer, Jane Couch, took the Further reading British Boxing Board of Control to a tribunal with Ciment, M. (1986) John Boorman, London: Faber. a claim of sexual discrimination after it rejected her application for a licence to work as Britain’s first SATINDER CHOHAN professional woman boxer. The license was finally granted in June 1998, clearly marking a new era boxing for British boxing. The sport was also given a boost by Jim World boxing has several ‘governing bodies’ (even Sheridan’s 1998 film The Boxer, in which Daniel after the 1998 merger of the World Boxing Day-Lewis’s performance in the ring without an Association and the World Boxing Council), but understudy achieved universal accolades. Day- British boxers who hold world titles at the time of Lewis was coached by Barry McGuigan, the former writing include Lennox Lewis (heavyweight), WBA featherweight champion, whose official Robin Read (super-middleweight), and ‘Prince’ biography was written by Sheridan. Naseem Hamed (featherweight). Other prominent boxers who have become national figures and See also: sport, racism in; wrestling appear on talk shows include Chris Eubank, Joe MIKE STORRY Bugner and Frank Bruno. Boxing in Britain has for many years been surrounded by negative publicity because of its Branagh, Kenneth health risks. With an influential official body like the British Medical Association campaigning for a b. 1960, Belfast government ban on the sport, it has been difficult Actor and director to promote it, for example in schools. Attention focuses on periodic bouts where boxers are maimed Branagh graduated from RADA with the gold or suffer brain damage. The latter has been medal, garnering work immediately in the West associated, in American studies, with the effects of End and with the RSC. In 1985 he decided to create dehydration as boxers try desperately to get down a smaller scale company which could be truer to to their weights immediately before a contest. In the principle of repertory, dividing roles fairly and 1990, despite warnings, Nigel Benn was five allowing actors more influence. His Renaissance pounds overweight forty-eight hours before the Theatre Company also gave established actors the weigh-in for his fight with Chris Eubank. In May opportunity to direct, amongst them Dame Judi 1998, much adverse publicity was generated by the Dench, Derek Jacobi and Geraldine McEwan. tragedy of Spencer Oliver, Young Boxer of the Year Following the success of the film version of and defending European super-bantamweight Shakespeare’s Henry V (1989), starring, adapted and champion, who sustained a blood clot at the Royal directed by himself, Branagh shifted the main thrust British Council 71 of Renaissance towards cinema, releasing in quick the two. British Black English is spoken primarily succession between 1991 and 1995 Dead Again, in London, but also in Birmingham, Leeds and Peter’s Friends, Much Ado About Nothing, Mary Shelley’s other major cities. Patois has also entered the speech Frankenstein and In the Bleak Midwinter, followed by of some whites. Many poets also use British Black an acclaimed version of Hamlet (1997). English, notably Grace Nichols and Fred D’Aguiar.

See also: Thompson, Emma See also: black performance poets

ALISON BOMBER Further reading breakfast television David Sutcliffe (1982) British Black English, Oxford: Blackwell. Breakfast television is older than most people imagine. PETER CHILDS It was first tried in the London ITV area in the late 1950s, and then in Yorkshire in the early 1970s. In the early 1980s, however, the IBA offered a separate British Citizenship Acts breakfast franchise and TV-am duly began Good Morning Britain in February 1983, one month after the These Acts define who can live in Britain. Like all BBC had crept in with its rival broadcast Breakfast those before it, the British Nationality Act (1981) Time, with Frank Bough and Selina Scott. Channel is contentious. It created a new British Dependent 4’s bright, brash and home-based contribution, The Territories citizenship, which does not give a right Big Breakfast, started by Paula Yates and Bob Geldof, of abode in Britain. As people from both Gibraltar became a huge success and made a success of Chris and the Falkland Islands were exempted from it, Evans, a drag star of Lily Savage, and then a minor this has been seen as a racist measure. The celebrity of Johnny Vaughan. government unwillingly gave 8,000 mainly Indian and Pakistani citizens of Hong Kong passports only See also: daytime television because they would become ‘stateless’. Discretion- ary treatment of certain high-profile individuals has PETER CHILDS laid various Home Secretaries open to charges of racism: Mohamed Al Fayed was denied, but John British Black English Paul Getty was accorded British citizenship by Michael Howard. The current Home Secretary, British Black English is used to describe the many Jack Straw, has been pressured to introduce a more strains of creole English spoken in Britain by even-handed approach. immigrants from the Caribbean and their children. Particularly, it refers to the language used by the See also: Race Relations Acts children of those who arrived in the 1950s and who MIKE STORRY have blended local varieties of English with the creole of their parents. Terms which cover similar areas are patois, creole and black English British Council vernacular. Black youth culture, especially Rastafarianism and reggae, uses the mix as part Founded in 1934 and granted a charter in 1940, of an aesthetic of black British identity, and there the British Council is an independent, non-political has also been a change wrought on ‘English’ organization that receives government funding and literature to express black British experience. Many generates fee income. Its mission is to promote people switch from English to patois, and it is worldwide knowledge of the English language and unclear whether these are separate speech systems all aspects of British culture and the British ‘way of or whether there is a spectrum of varieties linking life’. This it does by maintaining libraries and 72 British film industry centres for language teaching and other studies in went on became increasingly liable to US more than 200 towns and cities in more than a subversion. hundred countries. The British Council also Thus the Eady levy taken from cinemas and commissions works of art of every sort from British given to British film-makers failed as the writers, artists and composers, and mounts Hollywood majors took more and more British exhibitions in the United Kingdom and abroad. studio space in order to qualify themselves for levy share. Quotas on cinemas having to screen a See also: Arts Council proportion of British features also failed as the number of films registered as British fell dramatically. As the high risk character of film Further reading investment intensified, the main funding body, the Donaldson, F. (1984) The British Council: The First National Film Finance Corporation, had to be Fifty Years, London: Cape. converted into a private company, British Screen Finance Limited. Even the most significant CHRISTOPHER SMITH companies, Goldcrest, Thorn-EMI and Virgin, eventually had to stop production. British film industry The underlying reason for these problems began in a phase of the IFS, lasting from the early The influence of the United States on British cinema 1960s to early 1980s. The crux was that is so overwhelming that the very existence of an Hollywood came to see Britain as a product of its indigenous British film industry is question-able. own domestic and international role, Leading British film critics Sarah Street, Geoffrey compensating for its own anti-trust regulations, Nowell-Smith, John Hill, Duncan Petrie and John determined by competition at home, the strength Caughie agree that it has become increasingly of the dollar and the prospects of cultural difficult to define any part of the industry as British hegemony in the international film industry. The rather than Anglo-American. Since 1980, no British USA’s increasing domination in the IFS drew a company is involved in all aspects of the film business series of national responses across Europe, such (as Rank and Associated British Picture Corporation as new wave film movements, and a playing out once were). There seems only a British input into of national and class film cultures versus international (US) cinema. Intense international Hollywood cultures. divisions of labour and huge expenditure on stars In Britain there were two main reactions. One and publicity leave Britain to face American block was located in cultural and studio-based booking, joint operation with American studios, and organization, as at Shepperton Studios or star drain to Hollywood. Hollywoodization appears Pinewood Studios, providing film genres such as an accom-plished fact. British realism, Hammer Horror, James Bond, In this context, it makes little sense from a British Carry On films and the cinema of 1960s Swinging point of view to think of the film industry as an London films. The other was a direct response to integrated organization controlling its own America implanting its film formulas and film production and distribution. Yet funding has been making on British soil. The high costs and risks conducted as if an infrastructure for such an involved in hit-or-miss production encouraged industry could be sustained in Britain. It is more erratic growth and exhaustion. At one point the meaningful to see the British position in relation to problem was tackled by buying into exclusively an International Film System (IFS). Indeed a major American subjects, but for the most part this development occurred in the IFS in the early 1980s strategy flopped expensively, as with The Jazz Singer on the basis that the infrastructure was decisively (1980), Can’t Stop the Music (1980) and Honky Tonk occupied at an international level by the United Freeway (1981). Further efforts on the American States. Thereafter infrastructure policy in Britain market followed, as Petrie commented, in the wake left an accumulating production bias, which as time of the disastrous Raise the Titanic (1980). British film industry 73

As Rank and Thorn-EMI were forced out of include the European Script Fund, Eurimages, production in the mid-1980s, British production European Co-production Fund, European Media scattered to over 300 independent companies. There Programmes, British Screen Finance, British Film were still important film successes, like Chariots of Institute (BFI), Glasgow Film Fund and Scottish Fire (1981), Time Bandits (1981), Gandhi (1982), Film Production Company, Northern Ireland Film Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984), Company of Wolves (1984) Council, the National Lottery, Channel 4 Films and A Passage to India (1985). These were mainly BBC Films and ITV undertaken by Goldcrest, Handmade Films, Television played a key role in the transition Merchant-Ivory Productions, Palace Productions, from film industry studios to audio-visual systems, Virgin Vision and Working Title. However, with and continues to do so with the emergence of the exceptions of Merchant-Ivory, Renaissance Films, BSkyB as a major new source of investment Parallax, Recorded Pictures, Thin Man Films and funding through pre-investment and acquisition of PolyGram Filmed Entertainment, this period left pay-TV rights. This is paralleled by fragmentation, little continuity in British film production, which vertical de-integration and even casualization of the declined in the early 1980s. Since then there has British film industry, though it has broadened the been a widespread tendency towards low-budget film variety of film cultures and access to marginal making, with just a few companies making more producers, communities and workshops. than one film, as with HandMade Films, Metrodome Although European television companies invest Films, Recorded Picture Company, Branagh’s much more money in cinema than their British Renaissance Films, Parallax Pictures and Scala counterparts, British television has been one of the Productions. The only significant lasting company last remaining props for British film making. has been PolyGram (now 75 percent owned by the Channel Four developed its public service role Dutch company Philips), as the sole inheritor of the through partnerships with British Screen and the mantle once shared by EMI, Rank, Goldcrest, Virgin BFI, and commissioned many critically important and Palace. films including The Draughtsman’s Contract (1982), The subsequent phase of the IFS dating from Angel (1982), The Ploughman’s Lunch (1983), A Room the early 1980s took shape with intensifying US With a View (1985) My Beautiful Launderette (1985), and multinational control over box offices and film Letter to Brezhnev (1985), Caravaggio (1986), Mona Lisa distribution, and with struggles for control in the (1986), Distant Voices, Still Lives (1988), Riff Raff media and communications industries, which (1990), Life is Sweet (1990), The Crying Game (1992) exposed cinemas to new relationships in film and Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994). consumption. Hence the USA increasingly gained The IFS has brought a new international division the power to control both audio-visual markets and of labour to the British film industry, particularly in the wider aspects of international media property relation to Hollywood. In Hollywood there is an rights. Well over half of the revenue earned by most influx of British talent at every level of film making, films now comes from the secondary markets of including producers such as Sarah Radclyffe and television and video. US domination of Europe in Eric Fellner, directors like Stephen Frears, Alan video distribution is even greater than in cinemas. Parker, Adrian Lyne and Mike Figgis, All this became apparent with the US campaign cinematographers like Douglas Slocombe and David for complete deregulation of the EU’s audio-visual Watkin, set designers, and a new international set industries during the 1993 negotiations over the of actors such as Gary Oldman, Miranda Richardson General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade, and with and Tim Roth. Among leading British earners in European policies for supporting co-produc-tions, Hollywood are Sean Connery, Daniel Day-Lewis, distribution and training, and promoting culture Liam Neeson, Ralph Fiennes, Kenneth Branagh, and media industries as a means for regional Jeremy Irons, Anthony Hopkins, Hugh Grant, Gary development and economic regeneration. This is Oldman and Ewan McGregor. evident in the increasingly varied sources of Within Britain, this division of labour takes the financing available for UK film production, which form of a service sector for international film 74 British film industry making. Hollywood has increased its film making The difficulty for the independent sector is that in Britain so that 121 feature films were produced its successes become embedded in the core or shot in 1996, compared to seventy-three in 1995 processes of other audio-visual and television and ten in 1986. By 1995 the total production value industries, or in distribution controlled by other of UK films reached £450 million, with the growth corporations (as with The English Patient (1997)). A of Hollywood films bringing US investment here key problem is the need to retain rights and gain to £280 million, alongside a steady stream of access to distribution channels; and not being in European co-productions. Despite withdrawal from the core means the lack of an adequate legal regime Eurimages at the end of 1995, twenty-eight UK- for protecting property rights. European co-productions were shot in 1996 (and A worrying prospect is that the autonomy and twenty-six in 1995). At this point there were low-budget talents of the small sector may be used fourteen US-UK collaborations (the same as 1995), to shore up the creative gaps in core production. seven Canada-UK partnerships and nine UK Equally there are problems about the main service combinations with Japan, South Africa or Australia. sector: while on paper 1996 and 1997 looked like After decline in the 1980s, it became difficult to great box office years for US studios in the UK maintain studio space anywhere in the UK. Despite market, in reality their profit margins narrowed this, Pinewood Studios saw a turning point with dramatically as screen bottlenecks caused many new US and US-UK productions in 1994. Elstree films to underperform. Unless the US industry can was re-opened in 1996 after scaling down three of save at least ten percent it will not come (as it its ten stages, and Ealing was bought by the National showed in Ireland). Hollywood increasingly needs Film and Television School. New demand for space diversified leisure/consumer complexes tied to prompted a new studio, Leavesden, while Ridley media strategies which integrate marketing and and Tony Scott expanded Shepperton Studios to merchandising, along the lines of 101 Dalmatians become the biggest post-production studio, with (1997) or Space Jam (1997). digital facilities to keep US post-production in In policy terms, the Arts Council’s plan for Britain. Another notable development was Warner franchises with National Lottery funds to Brothers’ search with United News and Media for a encourage new groups of distributors and movie-themed amusement park. producers appears to approach several of these On the periphery of this division of labour problems. Many of the strongest bids for funding, there is a small-scale independent British sector however, have so far been coming from foreign- mostly formed by new production alliances. Fifty- backed consortia of producers. Given the state of three of the starts made in 1996 were completely the contemporary IFS, a major question has to be UK funded (triple the 1995 total). Almost all were whether it is wise to encourage such production at made for considerably less than £2 million. They the expense of policies for new audio-visual include notable films such as Glasgow Film Fund’s organization and property rights, or cinemas or Shallow Grave (1994) (backed by the European distributors, especially when the vast majority of Regional Development Fund), Merseyside Film British films cannot get screening in Britain. The Production Fund’s Butterfly Kiss (1995), and intention that franchises promote shadow-like Scottish Film Production Fund/BBC Scotland’s vertically integrated combines could have had a Franz Kafka’s Its a Wonderful Life (1995). On the far more appropriate hearing in the previous phase other hand, many independents had to rely on of the IFS. major international studios for extra backing, and thus lost their own share of the profits. Britain’s See also: BAFTA; BFI; cinemas Working Title, without benefit (or restriction) of a major studio, made Four Weddings and a Funeral Further reading (1994), Dead Man Walking (1995) and Fargo (1996) for under £4 million each, financed at arm’s length Finney, A. (1996) The State of European Cinema, by PolyGram. London: Cassell. Britpop 75

Friedman, L. (ed.) (1993) British Cinema and New Musical Express (NME) —in early 1994. They Thatcherism: Fires Were Started, London: UCL had been struggling to come to terms with the Press. success of dance, particularly since the explosion McIntyre, S. (1996) ‘Art and Industry: Regional of rave culture in 1988. Forms of dance music such Film and Video Policy in the UK’, in A.Moran as techno are largely DJ and club-based, rather than (ed.), Film Policy: International, National and Regional being reliant on live gigs and ‘pop stars’. The Perspectives, London: Routledge. weeklies, having a long history of championing Street, S. (1997) British National Cinema, London: music with a ‘radical attitude’, found themselves Routledge. unable to deal with the more anonymous and blatantly escapist elements of dance music. ARTHUR McCULLOUGH Grunge did fit many of the criteria for credibility to the weekly press, but chauvinistic elements BRITISH LIBRARY see Wilson, Colin St John needed to champion a new, home-grown guitar- based movement. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, a succession of these—Riot Grrll, Queer-core, Britpop New Wave Of New Wave—were given extensive coverage, but all failed commercially. Throughout Britpop was a label given to a number of British 1993 the weeklies continued to focus on grunge, guitar-based groups who either emerged or but also covered new British groups such as achieved their first commercial success in the period Radiohead, and more particularly Suede, a key 1993–4. The most well known Britpop groups were bridging band whose success did much to pave the Blur, Pulp and Oasis. As with other generic terms, way for Britpop. Britpop was partially a construction by the UK’s Pulp and Blur were not new bands, but 1993 weekly pop press. Unlike punk, there was no saw both begin the transition towards mainstream coherent set of values within Britpop, and the success. In November Pulp released their first single movement remained fundamentally musical rather for a major label, ‘Lipgloss’, and Blur released their than subcultural. second album, Modern Life Is Rubbish. Both groups Despite the inevitable stylistic differences have a ‘retro’ sound and laid great stress on their between the various groups, the vague term ‘Britishness’ in terms of style, delivery and lyrical ‘Britpop’ does encompass certain common concerns. One of the main themes of Blur’s album characteristics. Britpop tended to be traditional in was an explicit critique of the Americanization of terms of instrumentation and song structure. Great British life, and rock music in general. This was to emphasis was placed upon songwriting craft, remain an important aspect of Britpop. melody, harmony and lyrical content. Britpop’s In January 1994, an unnamed reviewer in Melody influences lie with earlier groups operating in a Maker touted Creation Records’ new signing Oasis similar vein: The Beatles, The Kinks, The Small as having a big future. In a four-line feature, Oasis Faces, Slade, T. Rex and Madness. For the most were said to ‘plunder the vaults of golden part, Britpop placed the importance of the song Psychedelic Britpop with shameless glee’. Oasis and live performance above dance music’s values. were given their first major press coverage in the Sam-plers and other computer-based modes of same week that Kurt Cobain died, effectively composition and performance had a very low robbing Grunge of its only international figurehead. priority. Britpop groups harked back to the By the time Oasis’s first album, Definitely Maybe, somewhat mythical notion of a ‘golden age’ of pop was released in August, entering the British charts when groups wrote well-crafted pop songs, at number one, it was obvious that the combination performed them live and dealt with ‘real’ concerns of hype, chauvinism, the media-friendly frontmen and emotions in an authentic, ‘honest’ manner. of the most popular bands (Blur’s Damon Albarn, As noted, the term ‘Britpop’ was coined by the Pulp’s Jarvis Cocker and the Gallagher brothers of weekly music press—principally Melody Maker and Oasis) and some pop songs in the classic vein would 76 Broadcasting Acts ensure that the Britpop movement had become a songs and the genuine star qualities of many of genuine phenomenon. Pulp’s His’n’Hers, Definitely Britpop’s best performers, the characteristic sounds Maybe and Blur’s hugely successful third album and values behind the Britpop phenomenon were Parklife each spawned hit singles, and these three essentially conservative and reactionary. bands, alongside others drawn into the Britpop Nevertheless, in commercial terms Britpop catchment area—Elastica, Supergrass and Sleeper— provided a huge lift to the whole British music began to gain success worldwide, although the industry, boosting singles sales in an era of general North American market proved the most resistant decline, and increasing success for a variety of to the sounds of Britpop. British bands throughout the world. In the summer of 1995 the British media succeeded in their attempt to set up Blur versus Oasis See also: pop and rock as representatives in some kind of heavyweight boxing bout, with their assumed differences (self- Further reading conscious southern pop stars versus bluff northern rock realists) adding spice to the campaign. Although Leigh, S. (1996) Halfway to Paradise: Britpop 1955– Blur won the battle to the top of the singles charts 62, Folkestone: Finbar. when ‘Country House’ and ‘Roll With It’ were RON MOY simultaneously released, from this point onwards it was Oasis who gained the critical and commercial ascendancy. Their second album, (What’s The Story) Broadcasting Acts Morning Glory, was a huge international success, remaining in the bestseller lists for many months, The 1980 and 1990 Broadcasting Acts are among while Blur’s The Great Escape was a disappointment, the most important UK media legislation to date such that they (ironically) turned to American music and have had significant effects, though not always for inspiration on their next, self-titled album. Pulp’s as envisaged. headlining appearance at the UK’s premier festival— The 1980 Act created the framework for Glastonbury— in June was one of the musical Channel 4, and its specific identity and remit. The highlights of the year, although the release of Different station would serve a range of interests (notably Class at the end of 1995 brought them good reviews minorities), innovate in programme design and but less commercial success than His’n’Hers production, and focus on education. Channel 4 (subsequently Pulp have done very well both would not produce programmes, but would critically and commercially). commission them from independent producers. By 1996, the sights and sounds of Britpop were This fulfilled the government’s desire to introduce an established worldwide phenomenon, with Oasis competition to the industry, and so the Act mixed in particular topping the charts in all major music traditional public service concepts with Thatcherite markets and selling out large outdoor venues in competition. ITV would sell airtime for adverts on their hometown of Manchester in a matter of hours. Channel, and Wales was allocated a channel, S4C. Both the single ‘Wonderwall’ and their second The 1990 Act addressed the question of ITV album made the American top ten, and the band network franchises. All commercial licences were received the pop press’s biggest accolade when they now put out to tender, with two thresholds to be made the cover of Rolling Stone magazine in May. cleared; a ‘quality’ barrier (based on programme There is little doubt that Britpop to a large content) and the size of the bid (with the highest degree defined the state of white British guitar pop bidder expected to win). in the mid- 1990s, with tracks such as Blur’s ‘Boys The Act was amended, however, to allow the And Girls’, Supergrass’s ‘Alright’, Pulp’s ‘Common Independent Television Commission to look more People’ and Oasis’s ‘Live Forever’ set to become carefully at the quality criteria and award licences the Karaoke staples of the next decade. However, to lower bids. This ‘exceptional circumstances’ many would claim that despite the hype, the strong clause partly explains why only seven of fifteen BSkyB 77 franchises awarded in 1991 went to the highest worked for Photoplay Productions, founded by his bidders. The Act also rejected calls to introduce collaborator David Gill. In 1975, at the invitation subscriptions to fund the BBC, and switched of Jeremy Isaacs, he worked at Thames Television Channel 4 from an IBA subsidiary to an on a thirteen-part series about Hollywood in the institutional trust. A funding formula was era of silent films. David Gill had secured many established for Channel 4, so that if advertising old reels of Chaplin films, which he and Brownlow revenue fell below a certain level, ITV companies restored and made into a three-part series, Unknown would contribute some of the shortfall; conversely, Chaplin, which won an Emmy and a Peabody any Channel 4 advertising surplus would be shared Award. He reconstructed Ben Hur (1926) and out among the ITV companies. restored The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921). Both Acts have proved important. The 1980 MIKE STORRY legislation has worked well, with Channel 4 maintaining its market share at around 11 percent, pioneering innovative programmes and contributing BSkyB strongly to British films. But the 1990 Act is more contentious, with complaints of declining quality and Sky TV was launched in Britain in 1988, and from the loss of thousands of jobs. Certainly the regulatory very shaky foundations has become a key player bodies have warned some of the new companies in British broadcasting, and the unchallenged about their output, while Channel 4’s funding master of Britain’s satellite industry. Owned by formula has worked in reverse, with the channel Rupert Murdoch’s News International, about 20 paying millions in advertising surpluses to ITV percent of the British population subscribed to Sky (although this rule was scrapped in 1996). in 1996, helping it to make a £250m profit. It is However, it is too early to say how tendering thus a very significant force (a position enhanced will work in the long term, and 1996 saw talk of by News International’s ownership of The Times and privatizing Channel 4, a new challenge for the Sun). commercial television alongside the 1997 arrival However, in the late 1980s this outcome was of Channel 5 and cable, and BSkyB. impossible to envisage; the fight between rivals British Satellite Broadcasting and Sky for the See also: Video Recordings Act satellite market was only helping to destroy both, and the future looked bleak. Then Sky took over Further reading BSB in November 1990 (though officially it was a ‘merger’), and although News International Seymour-Ure, C. (1996) The British Press remained £4 billion in debt, BSkyB at least had andBroadcasting Since 1945, Oxford: Blackwell, some hope of survival. Ironically the deal that 2nd edn. ultimately saved BSkyB (buying the rights to screen

REX NASH top flight English football in 1992) would have been impossible without the BBC. Had the BBC not joined forces with BSkyB in the bid, BSkyB Brownlow, Kevin could probably not have won. Since then, BSkyB has grown both in size and b. 1938, Crowborough market share, and offers a wide portfolio of new and classic movies, 24-hour news, lifestyle Film-maker programmes, family viewing and three sports Kevin Brownlow has devoted his life to film. He channels. It is clear that the sport stations are the has been a film historian, a restorer and presenter key to BSkyB’s success, hence the astronomical of silent movies, and a writer. He has made films (and successful) £670m bid for the football deal in and television series about, for example, Abel 1996; rugby league, rugby union and cricket were Gance, Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton. He also snapped up in the mid-1990s. 78 Buddhism

However, BSkyB faces problems in its long-term to the population of 1960s Britain, particularly the future. Most seriously, the key football deal was ‘hippie’ youth (see hippies), in the prevailing mood placed under investigation by market regulators in of liberation in all areas of life. Freedom from postwar both the EU and Britain in 1996. Channel 5 came austerity gave people the chance to experiment with on air in the UK in 1997, cable television is growing different lifestyles and there was a move away from in popularity (and is considerably cheaper than established institutions. Meditation centres began to BSkyB), and some analysts argue that BSkyB cannot open around the country, and by the mid-1990s further expand its subscriber base. This means that almost three hundred groups and centres were listed either subscription rates rise considerably or BSkyB in the UK. must start to shed some of its sports, either of which Prior to this, Buddhism already had a will damage market share and profitability. The foundation in Britain with the Buddhist Society, question of media cross-owner-ship might also affect founded in 1924 by the late Christmas Humphreys BSkyB, since if legislation restricting cross-ownership QC. The society provides information and were introduced, the biggest casualty in Britain instruction in all schools of Buddhism. Over the would be News International. Left untouched, years the religion has moved away from its place BSkyB will remain very powerful, and has significant on the fringes of the culture; most of those who expansion plans in areas such as digital broadcasting now flock to the various centres for retreats and and pay-per-view that could revolutionize the whole study tend to come from the educated middle class industry (this trend was exemplified by BSkyB’s in the ‘thirtysomething’ age group. One of the most announced takeover of Manchester United football popular centres is the Kagyu Samye Ling Tibetan club in September 1998). Centre in Dumfries-shire, established in the late 1960s by two young Tibetan monks who had fled See also: cable and satellite to the East in 1959 in the wake of the Chinese invasion of their country. The Centre’s twenty-fifth anniversary celebrations in 1993 were attended by Further reading the Dalai Lama, as well as by various British Chippendale, J. and Franks, J. (1992) Dished! The dignitaries including Sir David Steel MP (later Lord Rise and Fall of BSB, London: Simon & Schuster. Steel). The Buddhapadipa temple in West London, staffed by missionary monks from Thailand, has REX NASH also become a popular centre for study and traditional Theravada Buddhist practice. Buddhism Established for many years, its present site was inaugurated in 1982 in the presence of HRH Buddhism is a term popularly applied to the many Princess Alexandra. The Buddhist Prison and varied schools of thought which grew and Chaplaincy Organisation and the Buddhist developed from the teachings of the Buddha in India Hospice Trust enable a wider section of the more than 2,500 years ago. Its influence has spread population to have access to the religion. throughout the world and it has been an accepted part of British culture for some time. The various See also: Hinduism; Islam; Jainism branches of the religion all emphasize the Buddha’s JAN EVANS teaching that individuals can gain liberation from an ongoing cycle of birth and death and the suffering contained therein. This is achieved by the cultivation bungee jumping of awareness and understanding gained through meditation, the goal of which is to attain nirvana, or Bungee jumping is a controversial sport in which enlightenment, a state which transcends this cycle. participants leap from bridges, cranes or other high Perhaps it was the religion’s lack of determinism and spots, attached only by a long elastic rope secured an emphasis on individual free will which appealed to their ankles. It became popular in the 1980s, Byker Housing 79 and in the 1990s a national organization was Contemporary Arts, creating an installation established in Britain to establish safety rules and comprising of body prints overlaid with slogans standards. Many jumps have been prevented by which urged women to ‘Reclaim Our Bodies’. In local authorities on the grounds of dangerous her ‘auto-portraits’ she adopts a number of Western activity. The term ‘bungee’ is itself taken from the and Asian identities, which examine the roles of children’s word for a rubber, but it is also used for women in both cultures, and she regularly includes the elastic rope with hooks used by cyclists to secure autobiographical elements in her work. belongings to their racks. A distant offshoot is LUCINDA TOWLER bungee running in which participants are tied to the wall of a bar by an elastic cord and then required to run (sometimes for a drink) towards the other Byker Housing end of the room. Barfly jumping is stranger again: a participant in a velcro bodysuit jumps against a The Byker Housing project in Newcastle (1968) velcro covered wall in an attempt to stick to it as was a pioneering example of community high up as possible. architecture. It was designed by Ralph Erskine (b. 1914), a Swedish-based Scottish architect who See also: crazes believed that potential users of buildings should be consulted at the design stage. In order to PETER CHILDS establish direct contact with the future residents, Erskine established an office in the area earmarked for demolition and renewal. Local residents were Burman, Chila Kumari encouraged to visit the design team during the sketch planning and detail design stages. Regular b. 1957, Liverpool formal liaison and progress meetings between Multimedia artist tenants and architects were also held. The project office effectively served as a local community Chila Kumari Burman works with, amongst other centre. The new housing produced by this materials, collage, paint and video. Her images consultation process is uncom-promisingly modern, question racial and female stereotypes. In the 1980s mostly low-rise, informally planned, and built with she took prints from her own body, emphasizing traditional materials. the breasts or genital area by adding paint or glitter, to produce images of the female form which See also: housing confront the viewer. In 1985 she took part in The JIM HUNTER Thin Black Line exhibition at the Institute of C

cable and satellite It was not until the early 1980s that the British government began to investigate cable and satellite Since the early 1980s, the emergence of cable and as a means of introducing competition to domestic satellite broadcasting has triggered a process of broadcasting, a move symptomatic of the free change in the structure of British broadcasting. As enterprise ideology that characterized the alternative programme distribution technologies to simultaneous reform of other service industries, such terrestrial broadcasting, cable and satellite have as gas and electricity. In 1981 the Conservative increasingly enabled transnational corporations to government formed the Information Technology challenge the monopoly position traditionally held Advisory Panel (ITAP) to promote the development by Britain’s existing public service television of cable networks throughout Britain, providing broadcasters. distribution services to be operated by private The concept of the provision of broadcast companies. The franchise for direct broadcasting by services by cable and satellite is not new. satellite (DBS) was granted in 1986. The race to secure Underground cable networks have existed in programme transmission was finally won in 1990 by this country since the 1930s, later adapted for Rupert Murdoch’s Sky, after a series of financial the delivery of television signals to areas with setbacks had forced its sole competitor, British Satellite poor atmospheric reception. Satellites have been Broadcasting (BSB), into a merger (see BSkyB). used for the exchange of live television The advance of cable and satellite in this country broadcasts between nations since the USA has been piecemeal, held up by a complex political launched the first commercial communications debate centred upon issues of quality and choice. satellite in 1965. Both systems have undergone Projections of a fully commercialized adaptive technological improvements since, communications marketplace remain polarized: it gradually becoming economically viable is seen on the one hand as facilitating consumer alternatives to terrestrial broadcasting. In choice, and on the other as inevitably resulting in satellite broadcasting, signals are beamed from the destruction of television’s social purpose to ground stations to geostationary educate and inform as well as to entertain. communications satellites and reflected by them to receiving stations which relay the signals to MATTHEW GRICE receiving dishes or antennae. Cable or CATV (Community Aerial Television) involves the Caine, Michael distribution of television signals to subscribers’ homes from shared community satellite stations, b. Deptford, London, 1933 as opposed to from the free-space radiation of Actor signals. This involves the use of specialized low- loss coaxial and optical fibre cables which can Michael Caine (born Maurice Micklewhite) is carry high numbers of channels in multiplexed regarded as the most successful of the breed of form. English film actors that came to prominence in the campaigns 81 mid-1960s. The idea of working-class actors being provoke debate and discussion, and it has achieved major stars was new to the industry, and along with some success in this way via lobbying activities. others such as Terence Stamp, David Hemmings and Another crucial part of CPBF activities has been Albert Finney, Caine personified the shift in class raising awareness by holding conferences on topical cultures within the arts. Making his name in the films issues; for example a 1997 conference on racism in Zulu (1964), The Ipcress File (1965) and Alfie (1966), the media to tie in with the European Year against Caine moved to Hollywood, where he starred in Racism. The Campaign is crucially aware of the numerous blockbusters. He received an Oscar for importance of technological change to the distribution his role in Woody Allen’s Hannah and her Sisters of material through the ‘information superhighway’, (1986), and has since returned to live in Britain. and it has produced a Media Manifesto, 21st Century Media: Shaping the Democratic Vision. SAM JOHNSTONE

See also: censorship; libel, defamation and privacy Campaign for Press and Broadcasting Freedom Further reading The CPBF was formed in 1979 as a broad-based Williams, G. (1996) Britain’s Media: How They are organization that campaigns for a democratic and Related (available from CPBF, this provides an accountable media. The term is widely defined excellent analysis of ‘the media revolution’ and including the traditional press and broadcast media useful discussion on areas such as media control but also extending to cable and satellite and newer and ownership). forms of information dissemination. It argues in favour of diversity and plurality rather than GUY OSBORN established concepts of impartiality and balance in STEVE GREENFIELD broadcasting and objectivity in newspapers. At the heart of its programme in relation to broadcasting is a commitment to the concept of public service campaigns broadcasting, which the CPBF argues should be extended to all broadcast output. As an unfunded In the 1980s and 1990s, people who refuse to accept pressure group, it relies on subscriptions and the entire agenda of a particular political party have donations from its members (approximately 1,500) focused instead on single issues. Organizations such and affiliated groups such as trade unions and other as Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth and various supportive groups. The CPBF have centred their campaigns to free those unjustly imprisoned (the campaign on the right to reply, media ownership and Birmingham Six, the Guildford Four) have journalistic standards and ethics, although specific benefited from this trend. Lobbyists for particular campaigns have also been launched in areas as diverse campaigns have used sophisticated advertising as racism and democracy. In addition to producing methods, including t-shirts and narrowly targeted literature, books and other material, CPBF also television and newspaper advertisements. Slogans publishes a bi-monthly magazine Free Press which like ‘meat is murder’ and ‘furs are worn by beautiful provides excellent updates and commentary on related animals and ugly people’ placed on lapel badges issues. As part of its campaign to monitor press and bumper stickers have created a climate of coverage in election years, CPBF encourage members vegetarianism which has virtually eliminated the to take part in ‘Electionwatch’. The Campaign’s view fur trade and produced ‘vegetarian’ (i.e. synthetic) is that the media should reflect diversity and not be Doc Martens boots. dominated by any single party or view. The upshot of much of the research and See also: Band Aid dissemination of information by the CPBF is to MIKE STORRY 82 car boot sales car boot sales towards surveillance of the population at large, and are an attempt to criminalize gatherings which prior Car boot sales, along with garage sales and attic to the Criminal Justice Act (1994) would have been sales, as forms of private selling are a phenomenon perfectly legal. of recent years and reflect a number of economic MIKE STORRY and social trends and cultural practices. Jumble sales have traditionally been held in, for example, church halls and involved a recycling of clothes from the Cardiff Bay Opera House better-off to the less well-off. Proceeds were given to the owner or user of the premises: church, Scout Planned as the centrepiece of the Cardiff Bay or Guide group and so on. However, jumble sales, redevelopment, the Cardiff Opera House was the though very cheap (a bag may commonly be filled subject of an international design competition in with clothes for 50 pence during the last hour), 1994. Against competition from Norman Foster (see acquired a reputation as ‘un-chic’ affairs where one Foster Associates) of Britain and Rafael Moneo of had to elbow aside competing purchasers and Spain, amongst others, the Iraqi-born Zaha Hadid where a careful watch was kept for thieves. They won. Her spectacular proposal, which she described thrived during periods of recession such as 1990– as a ‘crystal necklace’, was a severe, modernist, 1, but are now less common than formerly. largely glass structure overlooking the bay. The With increasing affluence, people turned to ‘attic’ design was widely praised by the architectural sales which were still held for charitable ends. People profession, but a local media campaign against the would pay £5 to a church or YMCA to rent a table building coupled with hesitant support from local in a hall. Proceeds of sales of general goods and bric- government led to the rejection of the winning a-brac would be kept by the vendors, and the quality design in 1995, and the virtual collapse of the of goods on offer would be much higher than at project. A ‘millennium centre’ by a different jumble sales. They were a way for the middle classes architect was later proposed for the site. to dispose of goods they would otherwise have to advertise or take to the tip. Garage sales tended to See also: modernism focus on the sale of household goods. They are the RICHARD J.WILLIAMS equivalent of US ‘yard sales’, but in Britain are nothing like as prevalent. Car boot sales (akin to US ‘flea markets’) have Carnaby Street become the predominant means of private selling. People rent space outdoors, often from a During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Carnaby commercial provider, and sell household goods. At Street, located in London’s Soho district, was some huge regular car boot sales, a large turnover transformed when a group of ‘youthquake’ fashion of money is involved and the police (at the behest designers, including John Stephen, Sally Tuffin and of local retailers) have sought to intervene to prevent Marlon Foale, were attracted there by the new goods from being sold. Local authorities have combination of low rents and West End location. often banned regular car boot sales on the grounds Carnaby Street rapidly became both stage and that they cause parking problems and annoy local centre for the image conscious mods and the residents. growing metropolitan gay culture. Reciprocally, this Supporters suggest that these sales form a combined spending power attracted increasing cultural space, which is not so much about money numbers of designer retailers, notably Ian Gray’s as exchange. They fill a void on Sunday mornings Gear Boutique and John Michael’s Mod Shop. By which used to be taken up with churchgoing, and the mid-1960s Carnaby Street, now popularly provide a forum for healthy socializing. Any named ‘Peacock Alley’, had become an attempts to control and regulate these events are internationally recognized symbol of ‘swinging seen as unhealthy and reflect an increasing tendency London’. Carry On films 83

See also: fashion (1960s) life, based around situations encompassing work, history or film parody. The first in the series was Carry On Sergeant, Further reading which started life as a straight film adaptation of Cohn, N. (1971) Today There Are No Gentlemen, R.F.Delderfield’s The Bull Boys. Thomas and Rogers London: George Weidenfeld & Nicholson. were well acquainted with English cinematic humour; both were involved with the Doctor series MARK DOUGLAS of movies, adapted from the books by Richard Gordon. They adapted Delderfield’s work in a similar fashion, and the Carry On series was born. Carr, E.H. Although not as ribald as later efforts, the film was so successful that the duo quickly embarked on b. 1892, London; d. 1982, Cambridge producing a follow up, this time a humorous swipe Journalist and historian at the National Health Service, called Carry On Nurse. The initial films owed much to the tradition of Edward Hallett Carr was variously a historian, gentle British film comedies, and it was not until diplomat, journalist and essayist. After studying at 1965 and the production of Carry On Cleo (a parody Cambridge he worked in the Foreign Office from of the Burton/Taylor Cleopatra epic), that the series 1916 to 1936, when he took up a professorship at gained its saucy label. There followed twenty films Aberystwyth. His major publication of this period of riotous slapstick, seaside postcard type jokes and was The Twenty Years Crisis 1919–1939: An Introduction definitive vulgar humour. to the Study of International Relations (1939), in which Appeals were made to the American market by he rejected the ‘harmony of interests’ philosophy filming in colour, and in the fourteenth film Follow for the view that international diplo-macy is a that Camel, the use of Phil Silvers, the popular matter of hard bargaining over contrary interests. American comedian who played Sergeant Bilko. This was followed by a period (1941–6) as assistant This, unfortunately for the production team, did editor of The Times, during which he advocated not work, and the Carry On series still has only a cooperation with the Soviet Union, which had by cult following in the USA. The question of star now been his major research interest for thirty names never bothered the producers again. The years. His masterpiece was A History of Soviet Russia, cast for each film was repertory based, with no star published in fourteen volumes from 1950 to 1978. billing given to any of the main players. The series Most famously, he argued in What is History? (his created star names, including Sid James, Kenneth 1961 Cambridge lectures) that history is the product Williams, Charles Hawtrey (all of whom were fairly of not the past but of historians, who are shaped well-known anyway) and Barbara Windsor, and by their own society. When he died he was part these actors portrayed similar characters in all their way through a history of the Communist appearances: James became the ‘archetypal dirty International. old man’, Williams a prissy know-all, Hawtrey a hapless, slightly camp innocent. The characters See also: history; Hobsbawm, Eric; Taylor, A.J.P. became associated with the actor, and it is no MIKE STORRY coincidence that in later films, the characters usually bore the actor’s Christian name. The final film in the series was Carry on Columbus Carry On films (1992), a misguided attempt to recreate the heyday of the Carry Ons, but with the majority of the A series of thirty films, produced over five decades, original cast dead, the film floundered, receiving the Carry On films were the brainchild of producer terrible reviews. The death of Thomas in 1995 Peter Rogers and director Gerald Thomas. The meant that no other Carry On films would be films were essentially bawdy vignettes of English made. 84 cars

See also: comedies; comedy on television; Woodentops, Muffin the Mule and Harry Corbett’s Sooty situation comedy Show. But none of these achieved the audience reached in the 1970s by Ivan Owen’s Basil Brush. SAM JOHNSTONE Twelve million viewers made him a national figure. The Queen, Princess Anne and James Callaghan, cars the prime minister, were said to be fans. He appeared regularly with Derek Fowlds (Sir Cars in Britain are not as culturally prized as in the Humphrey’s sidekick in the situation comedy Yes, USA. However, image and aspiration prevail over Minister) and with Sir Michael Hordern, breaking need. More four-wheel-drive vehicles are sold per a convention that puppets and humans don’t mix, capita in urban centres (where this capacity is least and is set to reappear on satellite television. necessary) than in the country at large. Television One of the most successful puppet series of advertisements use backgrounds which ‘sell by recent years has been Spitting Image. It is credited association’: Range Rovers are shown negotiating with destroying the political fortunes of the Liberal rugged terrain, Fiats drive round tortuous cobbled Party with its puppets of the two Davids, Owen streets in small Continental towns. Often no other and Steel, and its scathing representation of the traffic is present. The advertisements sell an illusion monarchy has undoubtedly influenced as well as of individual exploration and freedom, ignoring reflected popular opinion. Teletubbies would appear real-life traffic jams and the fact that the backdrops to be in the crude mode of Bill and Ben, but shrewd shown are usually under threat from motor marketing has ensured its export and financial vehicles. Friends of the Earth is virtually the only success. organization opposed to an unlimited increase in Since 1992, three cartoon channels primarily car ownership (see Friends of the Earth and aimed at children have been launched: The Greenpeace). Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon and the Disney Channel. These can move markets: in 1996, British See also: motor racing supermarket chains claimed that spinach sales in Britain doubled for two years in a row, due to a MIKE STORRY rerun of Popeye cartoons on the BBC. The Cartoon Network now commands 30 percent of all television cartoons and puppetry watched by children aged between two and nine. The most striking cartoon series have come to One of the great growth areas in television has been television via animation. Terry Gilliam’s Monty cartoons and puppetry. American television has Python animations have given way to those of Nick clearly been influential, with Sesame Street and The Park, who won Oscars for his works The Wrong Simpsons, especially as children and teenagers watch Trousers and A Close Shave with the characters more television than adults and programme makers Wallace and Grommit. These cartoons are have been able to ‘follow the age curve’ by influenced by the (over)complex inventions of supplying new shows to growing audiences. Heath Robinson. Research from the Independent Television Commission in 1996 showed children watching See also: television, children’s ninety minutes more television per week than three MIKE STORRY years previously. Many of the ideas have originated in Britain: Jim Henson’s Muppet Show was based in London, Super Ted started on S4C, and Spitting Image cash and carry and Nick Park’s Wallace and Grommit are entirely home grown. The changes in contemporary shopping, Puppetry developed from crude beginnings on particularly for food, are not purely a matter of television with Bill and Ben the Flowerpot Men, the shifts from small retail units to supermarkets. The catalogue shops 85 retail customer may select one of the major bulk See also: cross-Channel shopping; supermarkets buying outlets for cheap products, and most of the and malls latter generally advertise a competitive price system of some form. This has led in some areas to the GUY OSBORN demise of local ‘corner shops’, which find it difficult STEVE GREENFIELD to compete on price and range with their supermarket rivals. A clear area where the small shop could previously outperform was in terms of catalogue shops their longer opening hours, but with the advent of late-night shopping and more lately the twenty-four- Argos is the leading catalogue store chain in Britain, hour supermarket, this advantage has been largely and third in the world behind the American Best lost. The small shops and indeed social clubs rely Products and Service Merchandise Groups. Argos on ‘cash and carry’ businesses for supplies, where has over 430 stores throughout Britain and the goods may be bought in bulk with little packaging Republic of Ireland. It is estimated that around or frills and at lower cost. The mark-up between seven out of ten British households have a copy of the cash and carry price and subsequent retail price the Argos catalogue. It is also the owner of Britain’s provided the element of profit for the small leading promotions and incentive company, Argos shopkeeper. The concept of cash and carry Business Solutions. Argos was launched in 1973 shopping has now spread into the retail market, by Richard Tompkins of the Green Shield Trading with some major retail stores adopting a more Stamp company, which he initiated in 1958. Spartan approach to shelving and packaging in Tompkins recognized that trading stamps had a order to pass on price savings. limited public appeal and launched Argos as a A significant further example of this diversification, having imported the idea from the phenomenon has been the use by British USA, where catalogue shopping was flourishing. daytrippers of the vast French hypermarkets which When Argos was launched, catalogue shopping have sprung up close to the French ports. Because referred to mail order. Argos offered the consumer of differing national rates of duty on alcohol and a all the benefits of browsing through a catalogue at reassessment of duty-free allowances in the UK, home but coupled this with the immediacy of high British shoppers can enjoy extremely significant street stores and instant purchasing. The Argos price savings over domestic purchases even on concept caught the nation’s imagination. Even in a discounted prices at large retailers. Changes in time of national inflation, a three-day week and a domestic law have enabled purchases to be limited shortage of raw materials and finished goods, it only by the notion that goods purchased must be became an immediate and phenomenal success. In for personal use; selling goods on remains unlawful, 1979, partly as a result of the failing health of although there is much anecdotal evidence that this Tompkins, Argos was acquired by British and does in fact occur. This has not deterred the illicit American Tobacco for £35million. Over the next trade in cheap alcohol and the emergence of ‘booze eleven years the number of stores quickly increased cruises’ designed to take advantage of the cheaper from 91 to 251 and sales rose from £113 million in continental ‘cash and carry’ prices, a situation that 1979 to £818 million by the end of 1989. Also, since is sure to continue with the advent of the it began, Argos has been noted for its innovative Eurotunnel and an increase in the frequency of use of information technology. It is Britain’s leading ferry channel crossings. The consequences for the retailer in many product areas, such as toys and small British brewing and retail market in alcohol have electrical appliances, and has a significant market been significant, with an increasing number of share in the sale of jewellery, sports equipment and public house closures particularly in areas around do-it-yourself products. It has dominated the field ports. This also led to a legal challenge by one since it first began and only one other company, brewery over the Government’s refusal to synchro- Index Limited, which started trading in the late nize duty rates. 1980s, has been successful in securing a share of the 86 Catholicism market. Ultimately, Argos and other similar quintessential account of these changes in his novel catalogue shops are signifiers of the symptomatic How Far Can You Go? (1980). immediate gratification which the late 1990s Nevertheless, British Catholicism has not consumer demanded. suffered the divisions between episcopacy and laity evident in other European countries, especially See also: mail order Germany and Holland. With the appointment of the Benedictine monk Basil Hume as Archbishop FATIMA FERNANDES of Westminster in 1976, Catholicism became increasingly respected and respectable, and in the Catholicism 1990s, even fashionable. It also became a refuge for Anglo-Catholics fleeing women priests in the The Second Vatican Council (1962–5) opened the Anglican Church. Catholic sensibilities have been Roman Catholic church to the modern world, in evident in politics (Norman St John Stevas, Shirley Britain as elsewhere. The liturgy was reformed, Williams), literature (Anthony Burgess, Muriel Latin was thrown out and the vernacular was Spark) and film (Terence Davies, Ken Russell). introduced (fully from 1967). The laity was encouraged to participate in all aspects of church Further reading life, in worship and organization. Parish councils were set up and house masses introduced. (This Hastings, A. (1991) A History of English Christianity involvement continues to increase as the number 1920–1990, London: SCM Press (a readable of priests and religious—friars, monks and nuns— and judicious account that situates Catholicism decreases.) Of equal importance was a new in the wider Christian world). openness to ecumenism, together with an ever- GERARD LOUGHLIN growing number of inter-marriages. These changes came at a time when the number of middle-class Catholics was increasing, with more of them entering higher education and the professions. As Caton-Jones, Michael a result, British Catholics became more involved and influential in mainstream culture, and more b. 1958, Broxburn knowledgeable and enquiring of their faith and Film-maker church. The high point of these developments was the Liverpool National Pastoral Congress in 1980, Michael Caton-Jones has become known for his which provided a model for a semi-democratic probing films about American life. His first film, church, open to the possibility of married and Scandal, an account of the Profumo affair, an women priests. Establishment sexual imbroglio which pre-occupied However, nothing came of the Congress, and from courts and tabloids in the 1960s. The film featured the mid-1960s the Catholic church, like other John Hurt as Stephen Ward, osteopath to the denominations, was in numerical decline. The reasons Establishment, and Joanne Whalley-Kilmer as for this are complex, but a defining moment was Pope Christine Keeler, the eighteen-year-old at the centre Paul VI’s encyclical Humanae Vitae (1968), which of the affair. Ian McKellen, John Hurt, Leslie extolled married life and accepted birth control, but Phillips and Britt Ekland also appeared. His condemned the use of artificial contraceptives. As a Scottish-American film, Rob Roy (1995), with Liam result of this and other social and cultural Neeson, Jessica Lange and John Hurt, showed his developments (increasing affluence, consumerism and sure commercial touch through its appeal to an the women’s liberation movement), an ever-growing American audience. Other films are This Boy’s Life number of Catholics ‘lapsed’; those that remained (USA 1992) and The Day of the Jackal (1997). increasingly practised an internal dissent—in the MIKE STORRY bedroom and elsewhere. David Lodge provided the censorship 87

CBI censorship The CBI (Confederation of British Industry) was To censor is to suppress communication that is formed in 1965 by a merger of the three main deemed destructive of the common good. Thus employers’ associations to represent business censorship is usually associated with the exercise interests. It is financed by business, and in 1997 of authority over individuals. In Western society represented around 250,000 members. It acts as a the term dates back to ancient Rome, where control pressure group for its members through the over the moral character of the community was administration. It was particularly influential in deemed an essential role of government. In the era of government planning in the economy, conducting the census, the patrician censor as the voice of industry on corporatist bodies. The excluded from public rights those whose beliefs did chief executive of the CBI is the Director General, not meet the needs of the regime. In modern usage and the democratically elected Council is its the concept has become rather more complex, seen governing body. The most pressing concerns as central to the well-being of the individual and facing the CBI in the 1990s were the proposed the community but also synonymous with the single European currency, to which it gave abuse of power of governments over individuals. qualified support, and the European Social There are two related sets of justifications which Chapter and working time directive, to which it structure modern manifestations of censorship. The was opposed. first set of concerns is embodied in legislation such as the UK Official Secrets Act, a mechanism for See also: corporatism; corruption in the City; safeguarding not only military secrecy but also the pressure groups; trade unions everyday running of vital state services. Here the focus of censorship is political; it is a pre-emptive COLIN WILLIAMS and punitive legislative framework designed to facilitate the everyday governance of the community, through the establishing of a set of Celtic tradition proscribed rules and a framework for punishing The Celtic people probably migrated to the British those who contravene them. Isles from a common Indo-European homeland Other forms are more educational in nature, and somewhere in eastern Europe. The traditional have to do with moulding the character and morality Celtic nations are Alba (Scotland), Breizh (Brittany, of people. This type of censorship takes many forms. or Gaul), Cymru (Wales), Eire (Ireland), Galatia For example, contemporary concerns regarding the (northern Spain), Kernow (Cornwall), Mannin (Isle role of the media are expressed in laws such as of Man) and Britain. Celtic traditionalists are keen defamation, which prohibits speech or writing to reconnect or ‘ground’ themselves in history. designed to injure or offend, and obscenity, which Hence there has been a ready audience for the prohibits that which is likely to deprave or corrupt wealth of recent material produced from Celtic (especially children). Legislation of this kind gives roots, such as Irish cultural products from musicians rise to an additional form of censorship, namely self- such as Enya and the Chieftains to films like Neil censorship, the act of restraining one’s expression Jordan’s The Crying Game and The Commitments and for fear of external suppression. novels like Roddy Doyle’s Paddy Clark Ha Ha. and The concept of censorship carries a negative Patrick McCabe’s The Butcher’s Boy. charge, reflecting the centrality of the status of the individual in prevailing Western notions of liberal See also: Irish communities democracy. The premise of John Milton’s Areopa- gita, a tract published in 1644 denouncing the MIKE STORRY insidious prohibition of press freedom by the state, is re-echoed in contemporary debates concerning free expression. The infamous Spycatcher case of 88 ceramics

1987 marked a triumph of free speech over state history of ceramics from Britain and abroad. Under censorship; a government injunction preventing the its Chief Curator of Ceramics and Glass, Oliver publication of sensitive material was overturned in Watson, the V&A Ceramics department has 70,000 the High Court. The emergence of new systems of objects in its care. However, despite its crucial communication and information distribution has responsibility, the V&A only has £12,000 a year to further revived discussions of the proper role of spend on acquisitions (aside from some private censorship, with concerns focused upon the free help) and this has to cover the fields of ceramics, exchange of data facilitated by new technologies. glass, stained glass and plastic. Hence it will always be a record of ceramics from the past rather than a See also: Campaign for Press and Broadcasting determinant of the direction of the contemporary. Freedom The Crafts Council, on the other hand (which has an annual budget of £3.2m), attempts to fund individual potters working in the here and now. It Further reading disbursed £175,000 to individuals setting up as Kelly, S. (1978) Access Denied, Beverly Hills, CA: potters in 1996–7. By deft administrative Sage. manoeuvring, it has managed not to be subsumed into the Arts Council, but ceramists complain that MATTHEW GRICE it lacks the creative vision to supply leadership to the field of ceramics. Its current remit ceramics controversially includes the promotion of fashion. As regards individual potters, perhaps the best The ceramics most people are familiar with is known and most influential figure this century has commercial and is therefore functional rather than been Bernard Leach. The major exhibition aesthetic/sculptural. This industry is dominated by ‘Bernard Leach—Potter and Artist’ toured six Staffordshire companies including Wedgwood. Japanese museums and ended at the Craft Council Although these are technologically innovative, in 1998. Leach studied at two art schools in London advances in design are fewer than in the nineteenth and went to Japan in 1911, and ‘discovered’ pottery century. For example, at Josiah Wedgwood’s as a medium capable of expressing universal values. Etruria factory, modellers and artists created a series On his return to England he established the Leach of fine figures and the firm produced outstanding Pottery at St Ives, Cornwall. His essay ‘Towards a wares in creamware, jasperware and Parian. Standard’ and A Potter’s Book were well regarded Contemporary ‘non-commercial’ craft ceramics, for the rigour and philosophical basis on which they on the other hand, very often sees itself as a poor sought to place ceramics, and they became highly relation to the fine arts, in terms of its profile in influential. Practitioners became more aware of the education, its funding from government and its philosophies behind the works they were public esteem. It has gone through the doldrums, producing. Leach applied Zen to the practice of and there is a consensus that the 1980s were more the craft. History has not been kind to his ideas in dynamic than the 1990s. However, where exhibitors the sense that the dispersal of the ‘stable self’ and can provide the space, the interest is there. For ‘grand narratives’ has empowered the marginalized, example, in 1993 the Ceramic Contemporaries and he can thus now sound patriarchal and exhibition of work by art school students and recent authoritarian. However a potter like Terry Bell- graduates at the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) Hughes who feels that his own work is about the was visited by 12,000 people. reconciliation of conflicting ideas of modernism and Arguably, the two major institutional influences contemporary rapid change (that is about the self- on British ceramics are the V&A and the Craft conscious rather than the un-self-conscious) Council, though the former is better known to the nevertheless acknowledges Leach’s influence and public than the latter. For generations, the V&A pays tribute to his opening up of British ceramics has been the place to visit for an overview of the to an oriental vision. After some uncertainty about Chamberlain, Powell and Bon 89 the Leach Pottery in St Ives following the death of exclusivity agreements with thirteen artists, including Janet Leach in 1997, English Heritage has such established names as Alison Britton and Martin designated it as a site of historic interest. Smith, head of ceramics at the Royal College of Art. A contrasting influential figure was the German immigrant Hans Coper, whose approach was Further reading intellectual and urban where Leach’s valued the instinctive, rural and natural world. Coper’s work Ceramic Review, London: The Craft Potters was closer to that of the modernists Brancusi and Association of Great Britain (the most widely Mies Van der Rohe. His friend Dame Lucie Rie, a circulated and authoritative journal of ceramics). Viennese refugee, produced colourful, urban and MIKE STORRY sophisticated new wave vases which now achieve the highest auction prices. The influential collector Liliana L.Epstein bought her work and that of the Chadha, Gurinder abstract, sculptural potters Gordon Baldwin (former head of ceramics at Eton College) and In her two best films to date, Bhaji on the Beach (1993) Ewen Henderson (who was taught by Rie at for Channel 4 and Rich Deceiver (1995) for the BBC, Camber-well). Baldwin and Henderson Chadha has explored questions of race, ethnicity, transcended the vessel shape at a time when, in class and community. Bhaji on the Beach explores the eyes of the art market, pots were pots and when problems faced by Asian women squeezed between the craft-versus-fine-art controversy seemed two cultures, and to an extent victimized by both incapable of resolution. their own cultural tenets and British Asian There are some positive straws in the wind for community standards. No easy resolutions are ceramics. The University of Sunderland has offered and Chadha does not flaunt a particular launched a £16 million scheme to develop a political line, but sympathizes with the pragmatic glassmaking facility under Dan Klein, Professor of choices of today. Based on Gillian White’s literary Glass. The project includes a National Glass Centre. original, Chadha’s film Rich Deceiver concentrates An example of the kind of work likely to be produced more on contemporary social problems (created by is that of Anna Norberg. She made fifty-one glass the windfall of winning the lottery) and male-female chairs, one for each day of the 1998 Sunderland relations. It also examines the role of capitalism in Glass Season exhibition. Titled: ‘I Do Not Know determining personality. What It Looks Like When Someone Dies: Electric Chair’, a tiny, 10.5 inch tall chair consists of glass See also: diasporan film-makers tubing containing a glowing electric filament. When MIKE STORRY the hot filament is turned off at the end of each day, the glass shatters and the chair dies. A heap of glass accumulates around the chair’s plinth. Rising British Chamberlain, Powell and Bon glassmakers, in cast rather than blown glass, are Colin Reid, Peter Layton, Lucien Simon and Emma The architectural firm of Chamberlain, Powell and Woffenden. Ceramists include Joanna Bon is a partnership founded in 1952 by Peter Constantinidis, Morgen Hall and Edmund de Waal. Chamberlain, Geoffrey Powell and Christof Bon. An attempt has been made to replicate the kind Their prize-winning scheme for high-density of arrangement common in painting galleries where housing at Golden Lane, London (1953–7) artists are ‘tied’ to the gallery. The Barrett Marsden rehearsed a controversial layout involving multiple Gallery in Islington, under its co-founder, Taijana ground levels, later embodied in their plan for the Marsden, formerly director of the charitable crafts Barbican, London (1957) where the loose mixture organization Contemporary Applied Arts (CAA) of high-rise towers and slab blocks and separate and now a ceramics consultant to Christie’s, has traffic and pedestrian routes, gave architectural taken the controversial step of making London-wide form to postwar socialism. At Vanbrugh Park, 90 Channel 4

Greenwich (1962) houses and flats form courtyards, importing several American soaps and dramas such squares and walkways. Educational buildings as Friends, ER and NYPD Blue. But C4’s success include Bousfield Primary School, London (1954– also forced changes to the funding formula created 6), Birmingham University Sports Centre and the by the 1990 Broadcasting Act. It was argued that Leeds University development plan (1958). A C4’s advertising revenue was unstable, so any respect for the wider context of urban design is shortfall below a certain level would be evident in their work. underwritten by the various ITV companies. However, C4’s strong portfolio since then has See also: municipal buildings; town planning meant the station has been penalized by the formula, since any advertising surplus is shared out HILARY GRAINGER amongst the ITV companies. By 1996, this was running at £60m, which Grade called a ‘sick joke’. Channel 4 However, 1996 also saw C4 fighting the possibility of privatization. Grade argued that C4 Launched in 1982 under the 1980 Broadcasting served a distinctive purpose that a duty to share- Act, Channel 4 (C4) has proved itself a viable, holders would destroy or negate, and his profitable and innovative channel, albeit one that determined campaign won the day. Grade attracts controversy. C4 was created with a specific subsequently resigned as CEO in 1997, leaving the purpose, to serve minority and alternative tastes station in a very healthy situation. and interests and to revolutionize programme production. It was also deliberately framed to bring See also: Channel 4 Films; Channel 5 market disciplines to the production industry, since C4 was not to produce its own programmes, but Further reading would commission them from independent companies. Thus, the new station would bring McRobbie, A. (ed.) (1982) Four on 4, Birmingham: some competition to the industry, in line with Birmingham West Midlands Arts. Thatcherite economics. The channel would also SAM JOHNSTONE concentrate on education. In many ways, C4 has been a success. The station has built up a loyal base and distinctive identity and Channel 4 Films has kept its market share at around 11 percent. However, its minority remit has not been to everyone’s Channel 4, which first began broadcasting in 1982, liking, particularly under Michael Grade: seasons of developed its public service role through programmes about sex (the ‘Red Light Zone’), partnerships with British Screen and the BFI, and homosexuality, homelessness and other challenging commissioned many critically important films of subjects caused right-wing critic Paul Johnson to dub the 1980s and 1990s, including The Draughtsman’s Grade ‘Britain’s pornogra-pher-in-chief’. Brookside also Contract (1982), Angel (1982), The Ploughman’s Lunch attracted considerable controversy (notably for a (1983), Another Time, Another Place (1983), A Room lesbian kiss in 1994), as did Lipstick on your Collar, With a View (1985), Letter to Brezhnev (1985), Eurotrash, The Girlie Show and The Word. Perhaps such Caravaggio (1986), Mona Lisa (1986), Distant Voices, criticism is inevitable, however, since C4’s remit is for Still Lives (1988), Riff Raff (1990), Life is Sweet (1990), material that would not find its way onto ITV and The Crying Game (1992) and Four Weddings and a that reflects minority tastes. Funeral (1994). Films made for Channel 4 are Equally, C4 has made a significant contribution frequently characterized by a juxtaposition between towards the British film industry, backing movies perceptions of the familiar and the foreign, the like Four Weddings and a Funeral, and showcasing domestic and the exotic. They also tend to deal other British films that would not appeal to ITV with less mainstream aspects to society (for In the mid-1990s, C4 has also been successful in example, homosexuality in Another Country (1984), chaos theory 91

My Beautiful Launderette (1985), Maurice (1987) and A reflection of Channel 5’s youthful target Prick Up Your Ears (1987)) but in a soft-focus, audience is that there are pop music programmes traditionalist way that makes the subjects palatable like The Pepsi Chart and Dr Fox’s Chart Update. It also to mainstream audiences. In this way, the films seem shows re-runs of cult series like Prisoner: Cell Block to fulfil the television station’s remit and raise H in the small hours. Channel 5 sport includes audience consciousness but also make a commercial more imports from America: major league baseball, profit. shown live, the Asian Football Show and its late-night sports magazine programme, Live and Dangerous. See also: Channel 4; Euston Films The channel appears to have gained viewers more at the expense of the other commercial PETER CHILDS stations than of the BBC. However, partly because of its shaky start and partly because it has so far Channel 5 failed to find a suitable niche for itself, many critics feel it will have to be relaunched if it is to survive. Channel 5, television broadcasting’s first new terrestrial station for ten years, was set up in 1997 See also: Channel 4 after several false starts. Its advent had made existing MIKE STORRY stations apprehensive, but in the first two years they have not had much to worry about. Channel 5 is a free-to-air commercial station, whose start was CHANNEL TUNNEL see Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners delayed from January to Easter by technical problems which caused poor broadcast quality. Cartoonists joked that the snow on television screens was the Channel X Channel’s identifying signal. These problems continue to dog the station in some regions. Channel X is a television company headed by the An indication of its aims, ethos and youth independent producer Alan Marke. He is perhaps orientation was given by its opening on Easter best know for bringing Jonathan Ross and The Last Sunday, serenaded by the Spice Girls. Critics Resort to television screens in 1987. The formats of accused the station of ‘dumbing down’ in its search both this show and the television channel are for viewers. Its schedule originally contained many borrowed from the USA, particularly from Late American imports and its programming was low Night with David Letterman. This is acknowledged budget. It screened a new soap opera, Family Affairs, and is seen regretfully in some quarters as a sign of made in Britain but by Grundy, makers of the creeping Americanization of British television. Australian soap Neighbours. This offering was Programming at Channel X is likely to become panned by critics, but did secure a small following. more and more like American television in trying The station’s content has turned out to be nearer to fill airtime with cheap chat and game shows and to that of Sky (see BSkyB) than of existing terrestrial even soft porn. Concepts of quality and a mission stations. It is a tabloid version of Channel 4 which to raise the level of the audience are left out of covers more mainstream concerns than the latter, consideration. but has similar documentaries on, for example, MIKE STORRY royalty, current affairs and endangered species. It has a snappy style in its presentation of news, placed at 8.30 pm to scoop the other networks. Kirsty Young chaos theory and Ruth England are youthful solo presenters who, innovatively, are not seen sitting at desks or consoles Chaos theory is a mathematical theory which but move around the studio. However the content describes systems whose behaviour is apparently of the actual news presented is as traditional as that unpredictable, but which in fact conform to long- of the other stations. term repetitive patterns. Weather is an example of 92 charities and charity shops such a system, in that it may seem unpredictable, seek more complicated ways of explaining the yet it operates through a continuum of established complexity of cultural or social systems. patterns of cloud types, cold fronts and regions of high and low pressure. The unpredictability of Further reading ‘chaotic’ systems comes from the existence of one or more events which can follow either one path Prigogine, I. and Stengers, I. (1984) Order out of or another (a ‘bifurcation’), but where very small Chaos: Man’s New Dialogue with Nature, London: changes in the environment can influence which Flamingo. path is most likely to be taken. A popular metaphor PETE SHETERLINE for chaos has been the concept that storms and hurricanes in the Caribbean could have been initiated by the fluttering of the wings of a butterfly CHARING CROSS see Terry Farrell Partnership in China. Apparently insignificant local events can lead to very large consequences because elements within the system are poised at bifurcations and a charities and charity shops number of small events taking one path can bring about major changes. Change is caused by an input Traditionally, indeed legally, the qualification for of energy, such as heat from the sun. Patterns charity status has involved the patronage of one or develop in the behaviour of the system because it more of four areas; the advancement of education, contains a limited number of components; in the the relief of poverty, the advancement of religion, case of weather these include water, air and so on. or other purposes beneficial to the community. These are affected by closely defined factors: the These principles were set out in 1891 and, although volume of the atmosphere, area of the oceans and it is now accepted that charitable objectives alter so on, and the results are inevitable. over time, these four basic areas remain the One of the first analysts of chaotic systems was foundations of most charitable institutions. Recent Ilya Prigogine, who was awarded the Nobel Prize moves have suggested a widening of the definition in 1977. He founded the ‘Brussels School’ of to embrace some small shops and post offices in mathematical thought which focused on so-called order to provide the benefits of charitable status ‘dissipative’ systems. Unlike closed systems, where and preserve essential services for rural villages: the more classical chemical and physical concepts ‘The key to charity law is public benefit…. If rural of stability, uniformity and equilibrium dominate, communities can demonstrate that village shops dissipative systems exchange energy and matter play a vital part in an area of social and economic with their surroundings. deprivation, we would be willing to consider Through interdisciplinarity, chaos analyses, registration of the organization promoting the which have been used mainly in biology and package as charity’ (Framework for the Review of the chemistry are now applied to economic and political Register of Charities 1998). events where ‘unpredictable’ yet repetitive patterns Charity has become linked with popular culture of booms, recessions, crashes, revolutions and via a number of routes. Perhaps the most popular political shifts occur. Chaos theory and manifestation of ‘charity consciousness’ was seen with environmentalism have also influenced the new the Band Aid phenomenon, although this was literary-critical field in British universities of eco- followed by a number of other attempts to make pop criticism, which challenges postmodernism and stars/glitterati seem more compassio-nate by shifts discussion back from the artificial to the supporting charitable causes. Usually these have natural. Moreover, in an increasingly secular world focused on responses to particular events such as the where moral absolutes and the certainties of religion tragedies at Dunblane (a reworking of the Bob Dylan have been eroded, chaos theory appeals to thinkers song ‘Knockin’ on Heaven’s Door’) and the Bradford in the ‘new’ fields of literary theory and cultural City Football Ground fire (as a response to that studies, such as Stuart Hall or Dick Hebdidge, who disaster, ‘Ferry Cross the Mersey’, the most famous Charter 88 93 of all football anthems, was re-recorded by Gerry opened, and in the following year the two shops Marsden from Gerry and the Pacemakers, along with raised a combined total of £38,695. By 1971 Oxfam The Crowd, an all-star backing group). Perhaps the had 310 shops operating, with the number rising to most successful example of this in terms of critical over 850 in the 1990s; there are now specialist acclaim was the Help CD which was put out under furniture and book shops. A further approach has the auspices of the Warchild charity. Warchild was been to develop the sales of new products (such as set up by two film makers, Bill Leeson and David nuts, jams, coffees, teas and hand-crafted goods such Wilson, after they witnessed the plight of children as baskets and ceramics) on the basis of the Fair Trade caught up in the war in former Yugoslavia and Help programme with Third World producers. Oxfam included works by artists including The Manic Street has clearly followed retailing and marketing trends, Preachers, Oasis, Blur, Paul McCartney, Brian Eno, seeking to maintain its position as brand leader Radiohead, Portishead and Massive Attack. against increasing competition from other charities While many of these popular developments which have similarly sought to exploit the retail may have begun as a charitable response, possibilities. increasingly they came to be seen by many as a A further link between charity and popular more cynical exploitation of the public and charity culture can be seen in the way in which the became perceived by some as a means of selling perception of charity shops changed and became product (see for example the response of Leeds fashionable when pop music icons such as Morrissey anarchists Chumbawumba, who, twelve years (once of Mancunian legends The Smiths) and Jarvis before their Warholian fifteen minutes of fame on Cocker (Pulp) flaunted the fact that they shopped the back of ‘Tubthumping’ (1997), released an LP for many of their clothes at charity shops, beginning entitled Pictures of Starving Children Sell Records). what might be called an ‘Oxfam chic’ that was Notwith-standing this, the popular music/charity adopted by students and fashion victims throughout crossovers and in particular the Band Aid the country. This has now been exploited by the phenomenon have undoubtedly increased public charity, which has started to extract the more sought- consciousness of the plight of charities at a time after clothes and sell these in a specialist outlet, when successive governments have attempted to following the examples of books and furniture. shift the burden of charitable donations away from the state and onto the whim of the individual. See also: Band Aid Every high street now contains its share of charity shops offering mainly second-hand but also new Further reading goods. The benefits for charities are that shops provide an outlet for goods donated by the public Raphael, T. and Roll, J. (1984) Carrying the Can: and are staffed by volunteers; costs are thus Charity and the Welfare State, London: London minimized. A key factor in the rise of charity shops Family Welfare Association. has been the availability of retail units in the high GUY OSBORN street, caused in part by the shift towards out-of- STEVE GREENFIELD town shopping facilities. The revenue from such shops should not be underestimated. In 1993–4 the Oxfam shops raised over £17m, which amounted Charter 88 to more than 25 percent of the charity’s total income. The original Oxfam shop was established in 1947, By the end of the 1980s, concern was growing over in Broad Street, Oxford, acting as a sorting centre the perceived erosion of civil liberties under the for clothing donated for a national ‘Appeal for Thatcher administration and the inadequacies of Europe’. The spin-off was to establish a gift shop Britain’s unwritten constitution. Consequently, which resold the donated goods that were of no direct Charter 88 was founded with the support of many use to those overseas; in its first full financial year, prominent intellectuals in 1988, a date symbolically the shop raised £650. In 1960 a second shop was significant as the tricentennial of Britain’s ‘Glorious 94 Chelsom, Peter

Revolution’. This pressure group seeks a written because of its mountainous caseload, and setting constitution to redress the balance of power aside previously agreed court settlements. The between the executive and the citizen. Charter 88 agency went through turmoil under three directors calls for a Bill of Rights to guarantee the civil in its first four years. In 1997 the National Audit liberties of the individual, freedom of information Office refused to accept its annual accounts because and open government, an electoral system of of the high level of mistakes, and the Child Poverty proportional representation and an independent, Action Group said it was impover-ishing families. reformed judiciary. Executive dominance would be In 1998, Labour proposed revisions that would give further constrained by distribution of power to local male parents who were not husbands similar rights, and regional levels and a democratic, reformed and also financial responsibilities, to fathers married second chamber of government. to their children’s mothers.

See also: democracy; pressure groups See also: poverty, families and; single parents

COLIN WILLIAMS MIKE STORRY

Chelsom, Peter childbirth b. 1956, Blackpool Childbirth and its management have been subject to radically different arguments since the 1960s, with Actor and film-maker one argument coming from the medical community Peter Chelsom is an English actor and screenwriter and a second coming from women. The principal as well as director. He first started acting in 1978 source of controversy has been the issue of defining after studying at the Central School of Speech and what is best for women during childbirth, with, on Drama. His directorial debut was Hear My Song the one hand, a medical view of the paramount need (1991), starring Adrian Dunbar and Tara Fitzger- to establish maximum safety, and on the other hand, ald, followed by Funny Bones (1995), with Lee Evans a contention about the need to secure circumstances and Jerry Lewis, both of which he co-wrote. His for women that reflect the totality of physical, films are gentle comedies, rooted in music hall and psychological and social aspects of childbirth. The popular entertainment, but distinctively filmed with dominant voice in the care of pregnant women, an equal emphasis on slapstick and pathos. To some represented by the Royal College of Obstetricians and they seem nostalgic, but the films are perhaps Gynaecologists, consistently argued before official unique in their dissection of continuities and review committees, from the Cranbrook Committee influences across generations. His new Mir-amax in 1959 to the Short Committee in 1984, that birth in film in 1998 was The Mighty. hospital, especially birth in consultant-led units, would ensure the greatest safety for women and babies. PETER CHILDS The counter-argument began with two women- led organizations, the Association for Improve- Child Support Agency ments in Maternity Services (1960), a platform for exposing poor, unevaluated hospital care, and the The Child Support Agency was established at six National Childbirth Trust (1961), which focused centres—Belfast, Birkenhead, Falkirk, Dudley, on preparing women to enjoy childbearing, Hastings and Plymouth—in 1993. It aims to help according to individual needs and expectations. single parents secure child maintenance payments Both promoted the value of a woman’s control of from their (often absent) partners. There was her own birth situation. Their work was widespread informed criticism of its approach: it strengthened by Sheila Kitzinger, doyenne of the was seen as government ‘interference’ in people’s British childbirth movement, who emphasized in private lives, biased against men, unworkable many books that the highly individual nature of Chinese communities 95 birth was disrupted by a medical policy of Chinese people first began to arrive in the UK increasing technological intervention. in the nineteenth century as seafarers (employed The lack of a sound evaluative basis for the at a fraction of the cost of non-Chinese) on boats medical model of birth led to reconsiderations plying their trade mainly between the major port within the medical community. A 1987 report from cities of southern China (Canton and Hong Kong) the National Perinatal Epidemiological Unit and London, Liverpool and Bristol. Many Chinese challenged the notion that hospitalized birth was escaped the harsh conditions of life at sea by staying responsible for the drop in perinatal deaths. In 1992, on at British ports when their ships sailed. Liverpool the Winterton Parliamentary Committee claims to have the oldest Chinatown in Europe concluded that the medical model of birth should following the founding, after the Opium Wars, of no longer drive maternity services. The 1993 the Blue Funnel Line and the ‘first direct steamship government publication, Changing Childbirth, link between Britain and China’. Small numbers accepted the need for unbiased information about of Chinese settled in the South Docks area of maternity services and choice for women, in Liverpool around Cleveland Square and Pitt Street deciding their preferred maternity care and place and in the Limehouse area of London, and of birth. established small service businesses mainly for the transient Chinese seafaring population. Initially the See also: family planning immigrant Chinese were known for their candle- making, boarding houses and launderettes, which could be set up with little capital in terraced houses Further reading and run as a family business. Numbers fluctuated Department of Health (1993) Changing Childbirth, with political events in China and Britain and London: HMSO (current government policy reached a peak during the Second World War. on maternity care). Because they were concentrated around the Kitzinger, Sheila (1987) The Experience of Childbirth, docks, the Second World War wiped out much of 5th edn, Harmondsworth: Penguin (remains the the original Chinatowns in London, Liverpool and essential text for women). other major cities. In the postwar period the profile and location of Chinese communities began to JO MURPHY-LAWLESS change. Large numbers of people from the New Territories of Hong Kong (who currently make up Chinese communities about 90 percent of ethnic Chinese living in the UK) arrived and settled in the late 1950s and early Reliable and accurate numbers for ethnic Chinese 1960s after the collapse of agriculture there, and living in the UK are notoriously difficult to come these communities were swollen by Malaysian, by, as the community is scattered and widely Singaporean and Vietnamese refugees over the next dispersed and contact with local government twenty years. London’s Chinatown moved from structures is low. However, most surveys, including Limehouse to Soho, Liverpool’s from Cleveland the mid-1980s report on the British Chinese Square to the Nelson Street area, Manchester community by the Home Office, put the figure at became the second largest Chinatown in the over 100,000 with the heaviest concentrations in country and much of the emphasis changed to London, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow, catering and restaurants. These new Chinese Edinburgh, Birmingham and Cardiff. Despite the helped, along with immigrants from the Indian sub- fact that this is one of the largest ethnic groups in continent, to revolutionize the postwar eating habits the UK (fully one percent of the London of British people and the Chinese ‘chippy’ became population, for instance), the figure is small when a common sight in most of the country’s city centres one considers the size of the native Chinese and suburban streets (there are over seventy population and the long colonial relationship Chinese restaurants in London’s Soho alone). between the two countries. While the Cantonese (later Sichuan and Beijing) 96 Chipperfield, David style of cooking food was imported, the sauces were Britain’s policy towards the Hong Kong made sharper and sweeter for British palates. handover to China in 1997 seemed to confirm this Chinese immigrants also brought with them account. Most Hong Kong Chinese were refused medical ‘alternatives’ —notably acupuncture — British passports, and those who came to the UK which have made significant inroads into mainly included members of the former Hong mainstream medical practice in Britain. Kong police, army and colonial bureaucracy fleeing Despite some second-generation Chinese entering possible retribution by the communist government. professions like accountancy and law, the Many of these new Chinese who did not find a overwhelming concentration of Britain’s Chinese home with Chinese already living in the UK settled population is in the catering trade (some 90 percent in Milton Keynes. by most estimates). Their relative cultural isolation has been the subject of some speculation and is often Note: Thanks to David Tan, Chinese Liaison Officer ascribed to the cultural preferences of the Chinese for the City of Westminster, for his help with this themselves, in particular their reliance on their own survey. family networks. For instance, the Runnymede Research Report, in its summary of the Home Office See also: bilingual communities; Japanese Committee Report on the Chinese community, stated: communities

Chinese people from Hong Kong have been Further reading hardly anglicized at all in the century and a half since Hong Kong island became a colony. This Runnymede Research Report (1985) The Chinese can more easily be appreciated if one compares Community in Britain, London: Runnymede Trust. them with Caribbean people, of any sort of DAVID McNEILL ethnic descent, or with people from India…. But the Chinese are not especially interested in influencing other people nor do they readily accept non-Chinese influences on themselves. Chipperfield, David

However, Chinese people living in Britain have b. 1953 themselves challenged this account and pointed out Architect that the profile of the Chinese population in other David Chipperfield’s influences are Western Western countries like the USA is quite different modernism and traditional Japanese architecture. from the UK. These accounts blame a combination He studied at Kingston Polytechnic and the of factors for the isolation of the Chinese community, Architectural Association before working for, which include institutionalized racism and the among others, Richard Rogers and Partners and ‘restrictive system of immigration controls and work Foster Associates. He established David permit quotas’ which has forced Chinese immigrants Chipperfield and Partners in 1984. The practice to fall back on family support structures. Britain has, has worked on the Arnolfini Gallery in Bristol, according to the Chinese Information and Advice Issey Miyake’s shops in London, and the WG Centre, at best reluctantly accepted its obligations design and craft shop in Kensington. Chipperfield to its former colonial dependants and a succession has predominantly worked in London and Tokyo, of strict immigration controls since 1962 have left taught at the Royal College of Art and served as many Chinese in the UK in a kind of legal limbo a director of the 9H gallery, London’s only gallery which has been an important element in their lack devoted to contemporary international of access to central services. This problem has been architecture. exacerbated by the state’s policy of placing refugees (such as the 20,000 Chinese-Vietnamese who came PETER CHILDS here in the 1970s) in remote parts of Britain. choreography 97 choreography Dartington Festivals (1978–87) which hosted the main manifestations of British experimental dance Originally referring to dance notation, by the throughout the 1980s. The ADMA (Association beginning of the twentieth century the term came to of Dance and Mime Artists) Festivals of 1977 and mean the art of making dances as this is understood 1978 in London had similar purposes but were less in the context of Western theatre dance forms. In the successful due to ineffective organization. In 1978, radical social, political and artistic climate of the 1960s Dance Umbrella festival was also inaugurated in the notion of choreography was deeply questioned, London under the initiative of Val Bourne and directly affecting subsequent dance production in both featured work by both American and British artists the American and British scenes. throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Rosemary In British ballet, new approaches to choreography Butcher, Miranda Tufnell, Laurie Booth, Yolande became possible in direct relationship to major Snaith, Ian Spink, Gaby Agis, Sue Maclennan and structural and administrative changes within the Emilyn Claid are some of the key artists whose institutions involved, such as the Royal Ballet. In work shaped the identity of British alternative 1966, Ballet Rambert was transformed into a dance under the name New Dance. modern company with a focus on blending classical The birth and consolidation of New Dance and modern tradition, and supporting work by both would not have been possible without the support American (Glen Tetley) and British choreographers of X6 collective, an artists’ organization which (Christopher Bruce and Richard Alston). safeguarded and promoted the philosophical, artistic In 1966, the foundations of British modern and political principles of British alternative dance. dance were successfully laid. Robin Howard In 1975, Emilyn Claid, Fergus Early, Maedée formed Contemporary Ballet Trust, an umbrella Duprès, Jacky Lansley and later Mary Prestidge organization for the promotion of modern dance formed X6 to face collectively the lack of space for in Britain with particular emphasis on Graham training as well as rehearsing and performing technique, initially including a school and, a year alternative dance. They ran classes and workshops, later, a company (Contemporary Dance Group) mainly led by American dancers and teachers such under the artistic directorship of American dancer as Mary Fulkerson, Steve Paxton and Lisa Nelson, and choreographer Robert Cohan. and organized informal presentations of work. X6 However, New Dance, an alternative dance also launched a quarterly publication under the name movement born in the early 1970s, became the most New Dance (1977–88). The role of X6 was highly radical British territory in which choreographic and overtly political, in the sense that the collective practices were reconsidered. In the American avant- was concerned with achieving specific social changes. garde dance of the 1960s, Yvonne Rainer, Trisha This element becomes rather crucial when one Brown, David Gordon, Steve Paxton, Lucinda attempts to explain the unique characteristics of Childs and Meredith Monk used pedestrian British alternative dance from the 1970s onwards. movement, chance procedures, improvisation and The agenda of X6 included issues of freedom indeterminacy, speech and elements of popular and equality approached not only through culture in alternative choreography. Visiting New choreographic work with specific meanings but also York in the early 1970s, the British choreographer through the methods and policies adopted in the Rosemary Butcher was inspired to develop a making. Dance was understood as a non-specia- personal approach to choreography driven by her lized activity, and as a space in which the personal own questions about dance and a working method could be expressed, encouraging in this way the informed by visual art practices. subsequent development of both community dance In 1973, American dancer and choreographer and highly personalized professional choreography. Mary Fulkerson was appointed head of dance at Dance was expected to make people aware of social Dartington College of Arts in Devon to run a and political issues; hence an early interest in programme of alternative dance training. Fulkerson exploring women’s issues, which soon became a was also responsible for the organization of the strong enthusiasm for issue-based work. 98 Christian Science

British New Dance shared with American avant- Further reading garde dance of the 1960s and 1970s the use of Mackrell, J. (1992) Out of Line: The Story of BritishNew pedestrian movement, non-trained performers, Dance, London: Dance Books. improvisation, collaboration, non-traditional White, J. (ed.) (1985) 20th Century Dance in Britain: performance spaces and the interest in alternative A History of Five Dance Companies, London: Dance movement systems (release, contact improvisation), Books. alternative approaches to the body (Alexander technique, Feldenkrais, body-mind centring), and SOPHIA LYCOURIS non-Western movement techniques (martial arts, tai chi, capoeira). During the 1980s some of the small independent Christian Science British companies, such as Janet Smith and Dancers, Extemporary Dance Theatre and Second Stride, Christian Science was founded in the USA in 1879 moved to middle scale, while the majority of by Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910). About one-third independent choreographers became increasingly of its 3,000 worldwide congregations are based clearer in their aims. By the early 1990s British outside the United States. It is popularly best known independent dance had become a vast arena of diverse for its commitment to faith healing and its avoidance statements choreographically manifested in a of conventional medicine, though this emphasis on multiplicity of ways. The spectrum includes Emilyn healing has diminished in recent years. The definitive Claid producing feminist and lesbian dance, Lloyd statement of the movement’s teaching is contained Newson and his company DV8 critiquing sexual in Eddy’s book, Science and Health with Key to the stereotypes, Michael Clark exploring gay and camp Scriptures. The respected Christian Science Monitor, its work, Nigel Charnock blending movement and text daily newspaper published in Boston, promotes its in queer work, Wendy Houstoun bringing movement teaching today. In Britain, Christian Science does and text in cabaret style solo work, Shobana Jeyasingh not have a particularly high national profile, but the and Nahid Siddiqui fusing classical Indian dance with church’s chain of Christian Science Reading Rooms Western contemporary dance elements, CandoCo in large and small towns throughout the country Dance Company pioneering integrated dance work are a feature of provincial cultural life. which brings together able and disabled bodies, Julyen Hamilton and Kirstie Simson working in See also: Church of Scientology; evangelism improvisation, Liz Aggiss experimenting with MIKE STORRY movement, speech, singing, props, projections and elaborate costume to create an overall sense of image, Lea Anderson exploring the visuality of dance Church of Scientology through a range of means including film, Jonathan Burrows and Russell Maliphant questioning their Scientology is a religio-scientific movement classical dance backgrounds through formal developed in the USA in the 1950s by the science exploration of movement in relation to light, Matthew fiction author L.Ron Hubbard (1911–86). Its Bourne concentrating on highly subversive members, who include John Travolta, Tom Cruise reworkings of the classics, Mark Baldwin introducing and Priscilla Presley, believe that only through the use of computers to choreography, Wayne understanding themselves as spiritual beings can McGregor working on the threshold between live they come to understand the ‘supreme being’. They dance and virtual reality, Javier de Frutos interested practise psychotherapy via an electrical machine, in the uses of nudity, and company Ricochet in to which the subject speaks. Movements of a celebrating the concept of a dancers-led company. dial indicate whether or not the talker is suppressing emotion. The church claims 100,000 members in See also: ballet; English National Ballet; modern Britain, and has been allowed to advertise on dance television since 1996. It is better known by the cinemas 99 general public for charges of false imprisonment series such as Steptoe and Son, On the Buses, George made by former disillusioned members, who regard and Mildred, The Likely Lads, Dad’s Army and Monty it as a cult. Python’s Flying Circus. By the 1980s television was modifying film-making genres, with series like Jewel See also: Christian Science; evangelism in the Crown (1983) and Brideshead Revisited (1981), and with television backing for films such as Maurice MIKE STORRY (1987), A Handful of Dust (1987), Chariots of Fire (1981) and the Merchant-Ivory Productions’ Room With cinemas a View (1985) and Howards End (1991). Television enlivened film music, particularly British cinemas evolved from unsophisticated through hit programmes such as Top of the Pops (the palaces for fantasy in the 1920s and 1930s, to more longest running British popular music show based streamlined plush-carpeted and chromed viewing on hits from the current week’s top twenty or thirty, places in the postwar period, to multiplex sites with studio guest artists miming their songs). Pop designed for a new range of audience experiences and rock films portrayed leading groups, as in in the 1980s and 1990s. They have seen Richard Lester’s A Hard Day’s Night (1964), and concentration of buildings associated with John Boorman’s Catch Us If You Can (1985). proliferation of culture industries. Yet, while Meanwhile the music industry entered cinema in focusing on films with a widening range of a major way with EMI’s takeover of Associated consumer practices, cinemas have been conveying British Picture Corporation in 1969 (later Thorn- them to a narrowing band of the consuming public. EMI Screen Entertainment). British cinemas seem to be in the centre of a By the time Roeg and Cammell’s Performance whirlpool of culture industries. (1970), starring Mick Jagger, was released it was This is not only a matter of Americanization of clear that musical styles were destined to have a the British cinema audience, although that is vital impact even in the most unlikely film genres important: major US film distributors still (in this case, an underground film about a London determine the vast majority of decisions about what protection racket). Avant-garde film-makers (see films will appear, when, and on how many screens avant-garde cinema) influenced this pattern with in the UK. But there are also significant interactions Derek Jarman making a music video for the Pet between films and British culture industries, which Shop Boys, and Sophie Muller making a film mean that most successful films are those which promotion for the Eurythmics, called Savage (1987). express the logics of these industries, and cinema mods and punk music (see punk rock) appeared audiences are more likely to conform to the with The Who in Quadrophenia (1979 re-released in consumer mentalities implied by them. 1997), and Hazel O’Connor in Breaking Glass Since the 1960s British films have responded to (1980). The Sex Pistols played in The Great Rock ’n’ television, music, heritage, fashion, advertising roll Swindle (1980), while Sid Vicious was the subject and an array of culture industries that helped launch of Alex Cox’s punk love story Sid and Nancy (1986). the styles of Carnaby Street, mods and Sloane Alan Parker put Pink Floyd’s entire album The Wall Rangers, followed by youth/music fashions and into a rock video in Pink Floyd: The Wall (1982). Britpop. These trends were previewed in Help British music arrived inexorably with Ken Russell’s (1965), Darling (1965), Alfie (1965) and Blow Up Tommy (1975), Michael Apted’s Stardust (1974), Alan (1966), as a new generation of British cinema-goers Parker’s The Commitments (1991) and Iain Softley’s were disengaged from the cinematic style and Backbeat (1993), inciting a spate of films and film tempo of Hollywood narrative films. music extending from rock concerts to rave music British television also helped change the viewing (see rave). of mainstream audiences, giving birth to a new The impact of such films has been made on a crossover viewer in the 1970s, with the attempted new audience generation. Over half come from the transfer to the big screen of successful television 15–35 age group (26 percent of the whole 100 cinemas population), containing various multicultural Among major film-going countries, Britain has groups interested in music consumption. But there a uniquely high concentration of cinema ownership. are also signs of social class consumption, most Whereas in the USA no company owns more than clearly visible in the so-called heritage film. Film 10 percent of the cinemas (with firms like Warner critics focus on heritage film because it highlights and Paramount owning less than 5 percent of all images of Britishness as commodities for US cinemas), in Britain four of the five largest consumption in the international market, and cinema owners are US-owned, and all major film because it now accounts for up to 20 percent of distributors are closely related to them. Even so, current British film making. It sprang up with the UK has fewer screens than any other major Chariots of Fire (1981), A Room with a View (1986) country, despite doubling its screens in the last and The Remains of the Day (1993), and in 1995 five decade. In 1995 the number of screens per million of the top ten British films in the USA were historic of population in Europe and the US was Sweden or literary adaptations. That year’s output included 138, US 100, France 77, Italy 65, Canada 64, Sense and Sensibility, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Germany 61, Ireland 50 and the UK 33. Wind in the Willows, The Woodlanders, Emma, Othello, The doubling of British screens is almost The Portrait of a Lady, Richard III and Twelfth Night. entirely due to multiplex development, accounting Heritage films assist industries such as fashion, for more than 40 percent of all admissions. In 1994, theatre and tourism. Tourist guides to film locations there were 75 multiplex sites having 650 screens, in Britain and Ireland recommend visitors to the sites 90 percent of which were owned by the five major of films by Kenneth Branagh, Hugh Hudson, Mike distributors (United Cinemas International, MGM, Newell and Merchant-Ivory. Even book marketing National Amusements, Warner and Odeon). By is boosted: at the height of the success of Four Weddings 1997, 800 screens out of a total of 2,000 were and a Funeral (1994) shops sold out of copies of the multiplex, built mostly in large cities. Warner and poems of W.H.Auden because ‘Funeral Blues’ was Virgin Cinemas plan megaplexes (5,000 seat, read at Simon Callow’s funeral. The tourist twenty-screen sites) in Sheffield, Glasgow, Bristol perspective and encouragement of cultural artefacts and Leeds, while American Multi Cinemas plans hallmark British heritage films as culture industry a twenty-six-screen site in Manchester. vehicles. Their presumptions of historical reality and A result of these developments has been the themes of romantic, non-exploitative relationships intensive organization of the international film system imply passive culture-confirming roles for film, cultural in Britain. The drive to monopolize cinema screens consumption for cinema audiences and commercial increases competition by conglomerate producers and environments for film viewing. distributors so that British film advertising and These trends towards culture industry milieus printing are exceptionally expensive. Advertising are supported by other audience trends. The movie alone is an important source of consumer siphoning, cathedrals that once showed spectacular epics and sometimes being the sole attraction to cinemas, as romances have given way to modern cinema outings opposed to personal or other forms of which offer only the choice of more immediate recommendation. More significant is the scope consuming interactions over other film viewing sites. allowed for devolving property rights upon how films Two main consumer channels siphon film viewers can be displayed, and where profits can be maximized. into cinemas. One is Hollywoodization of the British While British consumer spending on feature films cinema environment, con-densing audiences into rose steadily in the 1990s from £500 million to around urban service class spending environments. The £2,500 million, this breaks down into approximately other is the specific origin, content and process of one-third video retail, one-quarter movie channel film viewing, providing British cinemas with mainly subscription, one-fifth video rental, and only one-sixth Hollywood blockbus-ter movies, eating away at cinema box office admissions. artistic and foreign language films and restricting An important indicator of this changing structure British films, particularly specialist ones, to a paltry is the decline in foreign language films at the UK cinema existence. box office. Foreign language films take under 2 circus 101 percent of total earnings, and UK audiences for (US/UK), Interview with the Vampire (US/UK), foreign films dropped heavily from 1.94 million in Pocohontas (US), Die Hard with a Vengeance (US), 1993 to 0.25 million in 1995. In London, where Stargate (US) and Dumb and Dumber (US). By borderline and subtitled films found the biggest comparison, the top twenty films made in the UK audiences, most of the art house venues have gone. took under £10 million altogether, the first three Since 1970 the Academyscreens, Berkeley, Cameo- being Shallow Grave (£5 million), The Englishman Who Poly, Cinecenta, Continentale, Gala Royal, Paris Went Up a Hill But Came Down a Mountain (£2 Pullman, Venus, Times and various Classics have million), and Priest (£1 million). This leaves about all closed. Not surprisingly, even the most spectacular £2 million for the other main productions. (The European co-productions, such as Malle’s Damage Madness of King George (US/UK) took £5 million). (1992), Polanski’s Bitter Moon (1992), Annaud’s The Any growth in screens has therefore only served Lover (1992) and Scott’s 1492, with their formulas to concentrate both the variety of films being seen of European high culture, have been coolly received and the range of audiences attending in Britain. It (or coolly distributed) in Britain. might have been expected that relationships with Several new award-winning European films are expanding cultural networks would extend cinema unlikely to get any screening at all in the UK. audiences, but this has patently not been the case. Earnings of foreign language films at the UK box The majority of all cinema-going in the UK is now office compare dismally to English language films. done by under 5 percent of the total population. Screen International’s top ranking (1990–6) films The cinema audience in Britain seems to be in the English language are Jurassic Park (1993, US) converging in urban, multiplex, culture industry £47.1 million; Independence Day (1996, US) £37.0 environments, into an increasingly coherent and million; Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994, UK) £27.8 exclusive social group. million; Ghost (1990, US) £23.3 million; and The Lion King (1994, US) £23.1 million. In foreign See also: British film industry language the top films are Cyrano de Bergerac (1990, Fr) £2.4 million; Il Postino (1995, It/Fr) £1.3 million; Further reading Delicatessen (1990, Fr) £1.3 million; Farewell My Concubine (1993, Hong Kong/China) £1.0 million; British Film Institute (1997) BFI Film and Television and Cinema Paradiso (1988, It/Fr) £1.0 million. Handbook 1997, London: British Film Institute. British films are in a dangerously comparable Friedman, L. (ed.) (1993) British Cinema and Thatcherism: position to non-English language films. Their Fires Were Started, London: UCL Press. earnings of between only 4 and 10 percent of the Higson, A. (1995) Waving the Flag: Constructing a UK box office in the 1990s are by no means due National Cinema in Britain, Oxford: Clarendon to any lack of production. Far more British films Press. are being produced than can be presently absorbed. ARTHUR McCULLOUGH Approximately half of all films made here never get released. Of those that do, many get a better showing elsewhere: Secrets and Lies (1996 Palme circus D’Or winner) made more in seven days in France than it did in nineteen weeks in the UK. Both In the course of the past two decades there have British and foreign films appear to be unsustainable been two signal and connected developments in the British cinematic complex. within the reshaping of the circus in Britain. First, The contrast with Hollywood blockbusters is an ongoing public controversy about the training, arresting. Taking 1995 as a typical year, the top performance and keeping of animals by circus ten films shown in the UK took £125 million from companies has resulted in around 180 local a total box office of £380 million. In descending authorities nationwide banning circuses with animal order the films were Batman Forever (US), Casper acts. The economic impact on traditional circuses (US), Goldeneye (US/UK), Apollo 13 (US), Braveheart such as Cottle’s, Chipperfield’s, Roberts’ and 102 citizenship

Miller’s has been severe, forcing them either to Britain are not citizens but subjects of the Crown, adapt in various ways or to supplement their tours and British democracy rests not on the sovereignty with shows abroad. A major boon to these of the people (as in most other democratic societies), companies in the last decade, however, has been but on the sovereignty of the ‘crown in parliament’. the exodus of highly skilled and state-trained As a political identity, citizenship denotes performers from the former Soviet Union. Second, membership of a particular polity; hence it is an there has been a growing excitement of interest in exclusive identity, demarcating ‘members’ from what has been dubbed the ‘New Circus’. Though ‘non-members’. In this sense, citizenship is a there exist huge variations in both scale and style political sense of identity and belonging to a within the ‘New Circus’, what unites them all is particular political entity and community of fellow their rejection of animal performers as well as a citizens. However, citizenship is often not common genesis in the alternative arts of the 1970s, commonly viewed or experienced as an exclusively particularly street theatre and dance. Some of the ‘political’ identity, in that citizenship is often performers, such as Pierrot Pillot-Bidon (founder understood in terms of ethnic, racial or other terms. of the French company Archaos), are the renegade While it is most closely associated with the state, children of the traditional circus families in circus citizenship is more commonly associated with the schools such as Circus Space in London. ‘nation’. On this view, citizenship implies belonging Two results of this broadening of the availability not just to a political entity (the state) but to a more of skills have been that there is now more artistic nebulous and amorphous collectivity: the ‘nation’. interchange between circus and other perfor-mance- In Britain, this association of citizenship and nation based arts so that circus skills are more in evidence has often expressed itself in racial or ethnic terms within contemporary dance, opera and theatre, and such that ‘British citizenship’ is not a freely chosen at the same time the ‘New Circus’ is frequently more political relation or identity between individual and theatrical and narrative-based or theme-based than state, which means that anyone, any immigrant (in it has been since the early nineteenth century. theory), can become a British citizen by being Government funding for such training in the UK accepted by and in turn agreeing to obey the law has been practically non-existent, so European and of the land. There are those, mostly on the right- North American companies (for example Cirque du wing, nationalist side of the political spectrum, for Soleil, The Big Apple Circus, Circus Baroque and whom citizenship does not automatically translate Circus Oz) have tended to dominate the stage. From into ‘full membership’, since from this perspective, the outset, however, the circus (founded in London citizenship and belonging are a matter of blood or in 1768 by Philip Astley) quickly became identified ethnic lineage and are not ‘voluntary’. An example for its internationalism and this is just as true for the of this ethnic sense of British citizenship can be ‘New Circus’. Finally, the relationship between ‘old’ seen in the fascist British National Front slogan that and ‘new’ circus in Britain is not necessarily an ‘There ain’t no black in the Union Jack’, which antagonistic one, as was demonstrated by Circus of claims that one cannot be black and British. This Horrors, the commercially successful collaborative minority view has increasingly been marginalized project between Archaos and Gerry Cottle. as Britain becomes a more multicultural society, and a less ethnic (i.e. white) sense of Britishness See also: mime; physical theatre and citizenship has flourished. As a relation between state and individual, HELEN STODDART citizenship connotes a set of rights and duties attached to the citizen. Citizen rights include the citizenship following: the right to be free from excessive interference by the state or its agencies, the right to Citizenship can refer to a political identity, a a fair trial, the democratic rights of free association, particular relation between state and individual, or voting and standing for office and freedom of a political activity. Strictly speaking, individuals in religion and conscience. More recent ‘social’ rights, city redevelopment 103 as a result of the creation of the postwar British faire approach; and finally, the current situation in welfare state, include the right to the services of which state controls have been strengthened again. the welfare state such as unemployment benefit, In terms of the results that planning, or lack of it, housing, education and health care. Citizen duties has produced in Britain, it could be said that the are obligations to the state and fellow citizens, and models for the first and second phases have been these include upholding and abiding by the law, American, while recent efforts at urban being a jury member if selected and abiding by the redevelopment have followed a continental instructions of state representatives. European model, with sometimes striking results. As an activity, citizenship can mean either The postwar planning effort is described by a ‘passive’ or ‘active’ citizenship. By ‘active major piece of Parliamentary legislation, the Town citizenship’ is meant the participation of citizens in and Country Planning Act of 1947. It enshrined the political life and political decision making. Passive principle of securing ‘a proper balance between citizenship is how most people understand competing demands for land’, but it could be argued citizenship, voting in periodic national and local that its idea of ‘balance’ was one that was elections and electing representatives to govern, fundamentally biased against the European model make laws and pass legislation. of urban development. A central belief was that the cities were overpopulated, and that their ‘overspill’ See also: Charter 88 populations should be removed from the centre (this idea was nothing new, and had been promoted since at least the 1840s). The means of doing this was the Further reading establishment of new towns, of which twelve were Marshall, T.H. (1950) Citizenship and Social Class, originally envisaged, eight around London, two in Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. the Northeast, one in Northamptonshire and one in Oliver, D. and Heater, D. (1994) The Foundations of Wales; each was envisaged as a self-contained and Citizenship, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester balanced community. The New Towns provided a Wheatsheaf. very high standard of housing for those on average Turner, B.S. (1993) Citizenship and Social Theory, incomes, and the policy has generally been regarded London: Sage. as a success: but it actually accounted for only 7 percent of the housing constructed since 1945. The JOHN BARRY rest was concentrated either in small private suburban developments, or in the public housing city redevelopment estates now surrounding most of Britain’s major towns and cities. The spate of urban riots in Britain in 1981 helped The fracturing of the urban fabric was induce the perceptions that state policy towards exaggerated by energetic slum clearance during the cities up to that point had failed, and that the cities 1950s and 1960s, and the zoning of most major themselves were in ‘crisis’. The effect on public towns and cities, reducing the extent to which an policy was probably greatest in the field of planning area—particularly a central area—could have and urban development. There is more continuity multiple uses. Physical manifestations of this than is generally realized between the policies of included urban motorways, such as the Westway the postwar period and the policies of the post-1979 in London, or the Mancunian Way in Manchester, governments, but there is no doubt that the riots and enclosed shopping malls. By the middle 1960s provoked a major reassessment at many levels. most urban working-class populations had been A history of the field could be divided into three removed to outlying estates, and the centres of most phases: a period in which the state assumed a key British cities had been given over to commercial, role, associated with postwar reconstruction; a period not residential, uses. As a result, they tend to under the Thatcher administration in which the resemble more North American cities than state’s role was much reduced, in favour of a laissez- continental European ones. 104 city redevelopment

These vast changes took place against an development which at the time was Europe’s tallest economic background of steady relative decline and, building, the construction of a huge amount of new in the 1970s, crisis. Although planning had been housing, much of it attractive, and the building of the strengthened during this time (with a new regional London Arena. There is no doubt that London’s emphasis accompanying the establishment of the six centre of gravity has been shifted eastward, and it is big metropolitan counties in 1972), the cities significant that a large number of newspapers and continued to decline in terms of employment, and magazines have chosen to relocate to Canary Wharf consequently in population. In some cases this was from their traditional home at Fleet Street. But extremely striking: Greater London has lost 1.5 Docklands is poorly integrated with the rest of million people since its peak, Liverpool is down to London. It has, for example, provoked the resentment 450,000 from a peak of more than a million, and of the original residents of the area, who have seen Glasgow and Manchester have suffered comparable the quality of their public infrastructure decline, while losses. Economic decline has been accompanied by at the same time they have often been excluded from social unrest, most strikingly in 1981. the new forms of employment that have appeared in It is at this point that British urban policy was the area. Also, with so much reliance on private marked by a dramatic change. Generally speaking finance, the development has been especially this meant reducing the role of the state in urban vulnerable to fluctuations in the economy. policy (in practical terms this involved cutting funds There have also been criticisms of the for local planning departments), and the creation architectural quality of the developments. An of ‘enterprise zones’ based on an American model, architectural development guide was produced in in which local taxation was reduced or deferred the early days of the project, but there were and planning restrictions all but abolished. In difficulties in adhering to this when there were no retrospect, this policy seems to have much in structures to enable it to be enforced. The common with the ‘non-plan’ concept, proposed in appearance of the development is very mixed a 1969 New Society article by, amongst others, Reyner indeed, and the speed with which it was built has Banham (1922–88), architectural critic and chief arguably led to buildings with a limited life. British apologist for Los Angeles. The problems associated with Docklands were The most spectacular work of the enterprise repeated in developments elsewhere, whether at zone concept was the redevelopment of the Salford Quays, Manchester (much the largest Docklands area of London, managed by the outside Docklands), or the Albert Dock at London Docklands Development Corporation Liverpool. A common problem has been the fact (LDDC) in the 1980s. Despite its proximity to the that the provision of an attractive, water-based City of London, the area had profound environment does not in itself lead to the creation employment problems, and attempts by the Greater of a community. All the developments have been London Council to revive it had stalled. The area in some way successful—and more so than is of redevelopment was vast—some 2,050 hectares— generally agreed—but they have remained isolated making it at the time the largest redevelopment site from their surrounding communities, and the in Europe. The LDDC, appointed by the economic benefits have not generally affected their government, was to oversee the development, but surroundings. unlike the individual authorities for the creation of If vast waterside developments managed by the New Towns, its powers were fundamentally Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) were an limited. Primed by a government grant, it could attempt to regenerate declining areas, the strong acquire, own and assemble land for sale, but it was economic growth of the mid-1980s was better not responsible either for planning or for the characterized by a different urban form. Out-of-town provision of infrastructure. retail and business parks proliferated; hypermarkets The material achievements of the LDDC are appeared at major road junctions, while areas of the impressive, and include the building of an airport, country such as the M4 motorway became in effect the development of Canary Wharf, a vast office linear business parks. Such suburban growth was city redevelopment 105 encouraged by successive Conservative was the city’s most densely populated area in the governments. Along with out-of-town commercial 1930s, and counted a population of some 130,000. development, there was residential suburban At this time it was designated a clearance area on development on a scale not seen since the 1960s, account of the poor quality of the housing, and the and it is this that gives the more accurate overall area was comprehensively redeveloped in the 1960s. picture of urban policy during the 1980s. In spite of The dense grid of terraced housing was replaced the high profile inner-city regeneration programmes with a mixture of point- and deck-access blocks, managed by the UDCs, most British cities continued mainly prefabricated, and surrounded with plenty to register substantial population decline. of open space; the original street pattern was largely For all the benefits that 1980s-style obliterated. The population of the new Hulme was developments brought, it became clear to the just 12,000, a tenth of what it had been in the 1930s. various groups involved that they were not Although designed to high standards, problems sustainable. Land was not infinitely available for with the new buildings quickly became apparent, suburban development, especially in the densely the external environment became degraded, and populated southeast of the country where demand many of the properties became unlettable. By the was greatest, and a consensus emerged that it was mid-1980s it was clear that comprehensive in nobody’s interest that the cities should shrink redevelopment was necessary. Development of the further. Alternative developmental models began area began again in 1994, and involved the to be sought, and these tended to come from reinstatement of some of the principal streets of continental Europe. Much interest was shown in the old Hulme, the replacement of the deck-access Spain, a country engaged in major urban housing with more traditional forms, the reconstruction throughout the 1980s, culminating development of mixed uses for each area of Hulme, in a series of events in 1992 including the Barcelona the development of a variety of housing for Olympic Games. The reconstructed Spanish cities different income groups, and finally, the seemed to offer a model for successful urban living reinstatement of physical links with the city centre. that could be translated to Britain. The main The overall framework for development draws on characteristics of the new model were the repopu- the positive aspects of the old community, but it lation of the urban cores of cities, the fostering of also is explicitly an attempt to establish a continental development at a high population density, the European-style city quarter. encouraging of a mix of commercial, entertainment At the same time, there has been a striking and residential uses, the retention of existing street amount of city-centre housing development in plans, and the retention and reuse of older buildings Glasgow, Manchester and London. Very often, this where possible. has involved the reuse of commercial buildings, By 1996, government policy had only partially particularly Victorian ones, and the process has in recognized these aims, so we cannot yet begin to many cases been encouraged with public funding. speak of an official policy as is possible with the While support for such schemes remains high— and policies of the 1980s, and previously. However, the urban councils are increasingly promoting their so- planning rules have changed nationally to prevent called ‘night-time economies’ —most city-centre further out-of-town shopping malls (the guidance housing has so far been built for urban came too late to prevent the construction of five professionals. It remains to be seen whether such vast regional malls, which pose a threat to the retail policies can encourage the development of diverse cores of Bristol, Manchester and Glasgow, amongst communities, including families. While the other cities). However, public money has helped populations of most major cities have now to fund a number of high-profile schemes which stabilized, the overall trend is still downwards, and evidence the new thinking in practice. despite recent planning efforts, the future looks The largest such scheme has probably been the suburban, not urban. redevelopment of Hulme, Manchester. Hulme, within walking distance of the centre of Manchester, See also: town planning 106 civil service

Further reading taken place. Notable examples are taxation bodies Esher, L. (1980) A Broken Wave: The Rebuilding of and driver’s licensing bodies. There have been England 1940–1980, London: Allen Lane. numerous initiatives aimed at reducing the number Middleton, M. (1991) Cities in Transition, London: of civil servants. These are almost always successful Michael Joseph. only by virtue of structural reorganization. Most Rees, G. (1985) Cities in Crisis, London: Edward significant in this and other respects, perhaps, has Arnold. been the extraordinary growth of ‘quangos’ (quasi- autonomous governmental bodies) such as the RICHARD J.WILLIAMS Highways Authorities. These bodies, now numbering some 5,000, are responsible for a civil service considerable amount of public expenditure and are largely unaccountable. Many of these are staffed The origin of the civil service goes back to by civil servants who are no longer bound by Napoleon in practice, and to the works of Max relations of trust. This generates a huge industry Weber in principle. In Weber’s ideal type, the civil of checking on the activities of what would service should be a rational model of decision otherwise be perfectly trustworthy public servants. making in which information flows up to the It is hard to overestimate the damage done by relevant level and decisions flow down. As not the reduction of the culture of trust, and the every decision can be made on a rational-legal basis, incoming Labour government has, not surprisingly, a political head would then make some decisions. politicized some areas of public service by making In principle, the civil service is a politically neutral political rather than career appointments to crucial body of people who, in true Weberian fashion, are areas of policy and policy development. This politically neutral and committed to dealing with politicization of the civil service may prove to be of and implementing the instructions of the government the greatest moment in that it breaks both with of the day. Each country deals with this in a different Napoleonic and Weberian principles in favour of a way. In British culture, the service is hierarchically presidential style of leadership that has, hitherto, divided into a number of classes ranging from clerical been practised in Britain. to executive and administrative. Entry to each grade is by competition and while, in theory, it is possible See also: Establishment, the to move upwards from one grade to another, in practice this is difficult. On the whole, recruitment Further reading tends to be directly into a particular class and, like British life in general, movement from one class to Dowding, K. (1995) The Civil Service, London: another is infrequent. Routledge. The most significant part of the civil service is PAUL BARRY CLARKE the administrative grade. Entry to that grade is highly competitive and tends to be self-replicating in that the features already deemed successful from Clarke, Arthur C. current post-holders are the characteristics sought in selection competitions. This makes the structure b. 1917, Minehead somewhat conservative. The conservatism is increased by a strong tendency to restrict entry to Writer the administrative grade to candidates from With a background in physics (having taken a Oxbridge. The end result is a high degree of degree from King’s College, London), Clarke is ossification that reflects the still ossified class system best known as a science fiction writer. He has of British culture and society. written more than seventy books, including 2001: The civil service is largely centred on London, A Space Odyssey (for whose screenplay he was but some deliberate movement out of London has nominated for an Academy Award) and Rendezvous classical music 107 with Rama. He has lived in Sri Lanka for the past Class divisions have typically centred around thirty years, where he is Chancellor of the the boundary between non-manual and manual University of Moratuwa, but he has retained his work, but such dividing lines have blurred as the links with Britain (for example, as master of his C1 group is said to have become proletarianized old school, Richard Huish College in Taunton). as much non-manual work is low paid, humdrum He has made many appearances on radio and and repetitive compared to skilled manual work. television, most notably with Walter Cronkite Ivor Crewe entertains the idea of a divided working during the Apollo missions. His thirteen-part class: the traditional working class, whose numbers Mysterious World and Strange Powers television are shrinking, and a new working class who are programmes have been seen worldwide. more likely to live in the south, are homeowners, work in private industry and are less likely to vote See also: fantasy and science fiction; science; for Labour on the basis of class. He believes there science fiction is a process of embourgeoisement, whereby manual workers are entering the middle classes and MIKE STORRY becoming less class-conscious and more individualistic. Others contend that there are no class system longer rigid class divisions, but that an underprivileged underclass exists comprising ethnic Social class has been seen as the main divide in British minorities, the unemployed, homeless and the politics. The characteristics which determine class mentally ill. This group lives beneath the poverty include occupation, income, material possessions, line and its numbers are growing with the welfare family position, breeding, accent, education, cuts of the 1980s and 1990s. The underclass may appearance, lifestyle and power. Traditionally the take a new form when the technology divide British population has been separated into social between haves and have-nots in British society classes which were assumed to have a common grows greater. identity, and class consciousness and solidarity. Stratification in the capitalist system implies a See also: homelessness; poverty, families and; hierarchical distribution of classes in ranked order. social welfare The Registrar General divides Britain into six classes on the basis of occupation: A, the established elite; B, Further reading the professions and lower management; C1, the skilled non-manual class; C2, the skilled manual class; D, Crewe, I., Gosschalk, B. and Bartle, J. (eds) (1998) semiskilled manual workers and E, unskilled. Political Communications: Why Labour Won the General However, many sociologists consider this to be a Election of 1997, London: Frank Cass. rather dated approach. Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (1990) Sociology: Marxists believe there are two basic classes; the Themes and Perspectives, London: HarperCollins bourgeoisie and the proletariat, whose numbers (provides a detailed, modern view of the subject). increase with the development of industry but who COLIN WILLIAMS can only bring about equality through revolution. Conservatives do not deny the existence of class divisions, but argue that this is inevitable and there classical music is considerable mobility between classes which provides an incentive for effort. Socialists argue that Classical music is one of the most important art social stratification is divisive and acts as a barrier to forms in Britain, as it influences many other the motivation and recruitment of talent. They wish activities in addition to being a major industry and to reduce differences through direct taxation, welfare employer in its own right. The arts as a whole benefits, minimum wages and redistribution of contribute a turnover of £5.5 billion to London’s wealth. economy every year, employing 5 percent of the 108 classical music capital’s workforce. Classical music is widely used to withdraw funding from them. Throughout the for films, television and advertisements, and sells 1990s British musicians endured, along with other many soundtrack and theme tune recordings. The professions, their fair share of wage freezes, contract mass media have enabled more people to come into renegotiations and even pay cuts. Most arts contact with music and also to discover more about organizations in Britain were extremely those who make it. Interest in concerts increased underfunded as the political climate was so from 1986–7 until 1995–6, when an estimated 12.7 unsupportive. Local councils, themselves under percent of the adult population attended a classical pressure through rate-capping and new demands music event. on expenditure, were no longer able to contribute The mass media have become the principal towards music funding as they once did. The Arts means by which most people encounter classical Council provided a certain amount, despite its own music. The popular, easygoing style of Classic FM, funding being cut (by about £17 million between a national commercial radio station (see commercial 1994–6), and attempted to target more exciting and radio, national) begun in 1992 which for much of innovative projects. Extra funding which may have its output plays shorter pieces or ‘edited highlights’, been expected from the National Lottery was attracted many who may have considered Radio 3 initially subject to the rule that it could only be too highbrow. Radio 3 attempted to counter any such used for capital items such as building feasibility supposition by introducing lighter programming, for studies or instruments. Such grants, while instance that of Brian Kay’s Sunday morning welcomed, still left a shortfall to be made up. During programme, while maintaining its commitment to the 1990s orchestras and opera companies had to the more ‘serious’ end of the spectrum such as devote resources to finding sponsorship in a very organizing and broadcasting the Proms season from competitive market, with many establishing a staff the Royal Albert Hall, offering live opera, and department specifically for this task. There was supporting new music in commissions and broadcast necessarily a shift in management ethos towards concerts. Classic FM also sponsors many concerts dealing with these tight financial constraints, and and has adopted the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra budgets often became the first consideration in arts (see orchestras) as its resident ensemble which, organizations when planning programmes, while through a residency at the Royal Concert Hall in a close eye was kept on the number of freelance Nottingham, escapes some of London’s orchestral personnel employed and the costs of projects. squeeze. As their employment situation is precarious, Classical recordings are marketed, and their many classical musicians, and freelance performers sales monitored, by similar methods to those of in particular, develop their outside interests with a the pop music industry, with classical music having view to making earnings in addition to their its own sales chart in addition to a ‘classical performing and teaching activities. Professional crossover’ chart (this title has caused debate over associations supporting musicians include the the pigeonholing of music and whether works have Musicians’ Union, Incorporated Society of been placed in the ‘right’ chart). Certain classical Musicians, Musicians’ Benevolent Fund, Royal pieces have become immensely popular as a result Society of Musicians and British Performing Arts of links with sporting events, film, television and Medicine Trust. (On the one hand, an apparently advertising, and such media have often introduced slight injury can have a devastating effect on a huge new audiences to classical music. musician’s career. On the other hand, musicians are The 1990s saw heavy financial pressures put not highly regarded by the insurance industry; many on the classical industry. The effect has been felt companies will not offer them motor insurance). most by those earning least, but larger organizations Market research techniques are employed by are still feeling the pinch. An example of this was most music organizations to determine the the 1993 enquiry into the future of the largest of composition of audiences. There is concern over London’s orchestras headed by Lord Justice the perceived rise in average age of the audience Hoffmann, in light of the threat by the Arts Council for live classical music, and as a result moves are classical music 109 being made to attract younger people into concert choreographed to Tchaikovsky’s 1812 Overture. Such halls. Most ensembles promote a series of childrens’ orchestral concerts are extremely popular. In the concerts in addition to schools and other summer of 1996, a programme of popular classics educational work. There is a feeling in many given by Carl Davis with the RLPO and the Royal musical quarters that arts organizations should be Artillery Band at Leeds Castle played to 16,000 a resource for the whole community and not just people twice over. While concerts such as this cost a for those able to attend live performances. Most great deal to put on, with conductor, soloists, ensembles have outreach/education departments orchestra, band, stage and sound crew, fireworks and which provide opportunities for closer encounters cannons to pay for, there is a good profit to be made with the workings of a professional music if so many people can be enticed through the gates; organization. Work in this field has been expanded the audience for one concert would fill most halls through the 1980s and 1990s beyond school visits, ten times over. It is suspected that many people come and now typically spans a very broad audience to such events but not to concerts through the year, including centres for the elderly and disabled, and there is much speculation as to how they could hospitals and prisons in addition to work with be attracted to the concert halls. children, youth orchestras (several symphony Perhaps one such attraction could be the orchestras run their own) and courses for teachers. rumours of activities outlined in Jilly Cooper’s racy Throughout the industry, horizons have been novel Appassionata (1996), which has raised the necessarily widened: by concert hall managements profile of the music profession, albeit in light- expanding their brief to encourage outside lets from hearted vein. It is set against the backdrop of a promoters of non-classical and non-musical events, fictional regional orchestra, and while researching and by artistic directors looking for ways to entice the book Cooper went on tour with the Royal the public through their doors to enjoy more Scottish National Orchestra. innovative events by established ensembles. Lon- The larger festivals, such as Edinburgh, the don’s Royal Albert Hall has for many years played BBC Proms, the Three Choirs and Aldeburgh, are host not only to the BBC’s Proms concerts but also centred on events in concert halls and cathedrals to pop concerts and wrestling matches, and but spill out into smaller venues and often onto Liverpool’s Philharmonic Hall is now an the streets; Edinburgh’s Fringe Festival (see established venue on pop and light music circuits Edinburgh Festival and Fringe) is as famous as in addition to the orchestral concerts and films it the ‘main event’. Smaller festivals can be more has always promoted. Carl Davis’s performances specialized in the events they offer, as in the of his scores to classic films by Chaplin and Lloyd, examples of the York Early Music Festival, played live by the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival, Chard Orchestra (RLPO), were a particular success. Festival of Women in Music, and Birkenhead Organizers of music events have discovered new Guitar Festival. audiences away from the concert hall and there are Chamber music is a vital part of Britain’s musical many alternative venues being used for life, with many ‘homegrown’ ensembles having performances in festivals, particularly in summer played together for many years, such as the when the marquees go up and the picnics come out. Chilingirian and Brodsky String Quartets. Chamber Many orchestras now offer ‘pops’ concerts, such as ensembles can perform in more intimate venues the RLPO’s summer season by the River Mersey, which are impractical for larger groups, and many and there are many summer outdoor concerts given are in residence at universities and other venues. all over the country, often at grand country Britain has a strong and growing authentic music mansions. These outdoor concerts often take their movement which has inspired much research and programming from the ‘Last Night of the Proms’ debate into period performance styles. The soloists, formula, including popular pieces such as Puccini’s chamber groups and orchestras involved play music ‘Nessun Dorma’ (made famous by the 1990 football from medieval times up to the early twentieth World Cup) and fireworks and cannons century on period instruments or close copies, using 110 classical music, contemporary performance techniques researched from the relevant ‘doomsday’ scenario which may not exist, and of period. Additionally, a thriving part of Britain’s focusing merely on the economics of the profession. classical music scene is the tremendous amount of This is the first book to examine the links between activity on the part of amateur musicians. The major music and business in such detail, and despite catalyst for such activity is the National Federation reservations held by some about its content, it has of Music Societies (NFMS), which celebrated its at least brought about debate on the future of the diamond jubilee in 1996. Most towns and cities, classical music industry. whether or not they have a professional ensemble, can boast an amateur symphony orchestra, operatic See also: classical music, contemporary; classical society, chamber musicians and many other people soloists who prefer to play or sing for their own pleasure. The NFMS also arranges concerts by professional Further reading players for music societies, and this enables a high standard of performance to be presented to audiences Carpenter, H. (1996) The Envy of the World: 50 Years who may not easily gain access to live music. of the BBC Third Programme and Radio 3, London: Summer schools are an important focus for Weidenfeld & Nicholson. amateur and student musicians. Often linked to Lebrecht, N. (1996) When the Music Stops… Managers, festivals, these typically provide opportunities for Maestros and the Corporate Murder of Classical Music, choral singers and orchestral players, with coaching London: Simon & Schuster (controversial and available on an individual basis. One of the busiest journalistic in style, the book divided opinion is Dartington International Summer School, which as to how gloomy the outlook really is). offers a very diverse range of courses (Advanced ANDREA MARTIN Sonic Art, Madrigals and Lute Songs, Balinese Gamelan, and Week at the Knees on creating a music theatre piece) in addition to masterclasses classical music, contemporary and ensembles. Such events are in addition to the many During the 1980s and 1990s there appeared to be opportunities for childrens’ music-making across much diversification in the styles of music being Britain such as Saturday schools (where many produced by classical composers. Many who might professionals began their studies) and youth previously have been identified as working in the orchestra courses. Sadly, the political climate of the western tradition explored different idioms, 1990s adversely affected music education; budgets including jazz, rock and folk music, to a greater were cut and instrumental teachers were either put extent than before. Boundaries became blurred, on to reduced contracts or deprived of their jobs leading to the identification of ‘crossover’ styles (a altogether. The ideal of access for all to instrumental title not all were happy with), typified by the work teaching was lost through the introduction of of Django Bates, Frank Zappa and Elvis Costello charges. with the Brodsky Quartet. Record labels such as There was controversy in the music press on ECM typified an across-the-board approach by the publication of Norman Lebrecht’s book When recording meditative music by Arvo Pärt and Steve The Music Stops…Managers, Maestros and the Corporate Reich through to jazz-influenced Pat Metheny. The Murder of Classical Music. Lebrecht argues that the rhythmic ideas generated by such as Americans music industry has been sold into the hands of Steve Reich and Philip Glass and the Dutch multinational corporations and agents and that it composer Louis Andriessen are mirrored by the is beholden to them rather than to artistic concerns. work of British composers such as Graham Fitkin He outlines the history of the music business as and Michael Nyman, whose film music attracts opposed to the history of music as art, pointing the attention of a wide public. Other successful film/ out that this financial side of music has always been television composers include George Fenton, Carl taboo. This book has been accused of citing a Davis, Geoffrey Burgon and Barrington Pheloung. classical soloists 111

Established composers who are still producing classical soloists challenging works include Sir Peter Maxwell- Davies and Sir Harrison Birtwistle (of the Certain soloists famous before 1960 endure in their ‘Manchester School’); there was much media popularity, inspiring reverence for the quality of debate on the inclusion of Birtwistle’s piece ‘Panic’ their performances from fellow performers in in the traditional Last Night of the Proms line-up particular; for example, violinists Yehudi Menuhin in 1995. and Ida Haendel and cellist and conductor Msitslav Many composers of similar standing are not well Rostropovich attained legendary status worldwide. publicized. The Society for the Promotion of New Similarly, Jean-Paul Tortelier (cello) and Glenn Music (SPNM) and the Huddersfield Festival of Gould (piano) inspired many players, while the Contemporary Music ensure that they are heard early deaths of Dennis Brain (French horn) and and supported. Historically, composition was male- Jacqueline du Pré (cello) were viewed as tragic losses dominated, with women, including Judith Weir, to music. Du Pré’s recordings continue to be Sally Beamish and Diana Burrell, only gaining popular long after her death in 1987. wider recognition during the 1980s and 1990s. A soloist’s debut continues to be seen as a, if Many composers are ‘in residence’ with orchestras not the, crucial point in their career. Prestige is or education establishments, mutually beneficial attached to a debut recital at London’s Wigmore schemes enabling the composition of new pieces. Hall, or a first appearance at the BBC’s Proms, Certain soloists and ensembles work especially while successful performances and good reviews hard to ensure a platform for new works. The in the press generate interest and give performers London Sinfonietta and BBC Symphony Orchestra useful publicity material. have for many years been performing and Certain players gain a higher profile in the USA commissioning new pieces, as has soprano Jane than Europe, and vice versa. Marketing has much Manning, whose ensemble Jane’s Minstrels to do with this, linking into record sales, though promotes contemporary British music. publicity varies between artists. While players such Contemporary Music Network (CMN) tours as Nigel Kennedy have been strongly advertised enable those further from London’s ‘hub’ to in Britain, more established figures such as pianists experience new music. Murray Perahia and Maurizio Pollini continue to Music improvised live and music generated maintain their popularity and sell many recordings from improvisations has had increased influence while keeping out of the limelight. over many performers, mainly those working in The amount of repertoire available for an cham-ber-sized groups. Bass player Barry Guy instrument generally dictates how much solo epitomizes a growing ‘holistic’ approach, having exposure it receives, with violinists and pianists in worked with performers as diverse as the the strongest positions. Certain players have Academy of Ancient Music and free improviser expanded their instrument’s repertoire by Evan Parker. commissioning composers to write for them; for example, the flautist James Galway commissioned See also: classical music Rodrigo’s Flute Concerto and orchestrated Poulenc’s Flute Sonata. Performers playing instruments not generally regarded as soloistic have Further reading to be more enterprising, and many have Morton, B. and Collins, P. (1992) Contemporary consequently raised their instrument’s profile. Composers, Chicago and London: St. James Press Evelyn Glennie has been a particular champion of (biographies/works of 500 composers). new music for percussion, hitherto relatively unknown in a solo capacity, while Christian ANDREA MARTIN Lindberg, who became the world’s first full-time classical trombonist in the 1980s, has premiered many new pieces including Jan San-ström’s 112 Clause 28

Motorbike Concerto (performed wearing full leathers) industry. The show also featured extremely popular and created much interest in the instrument’s solo audience-participation slots such as ‘Bride of the potential. Pianist Joanna McGregor and Year’, ‘make-overs’ for members of the public and saxophonist John Harle exemplify a growing competitions to find new models and designers. movement towards embracing elements of music The annual Clothes Show Live held in Birmingham away from classical traditions, both performers also is probably the most popular British fashion event working with jazz musicians. Projects such as theirs, open to the general public, and in the spring of along with the Brodsky Quartet’s collaboration 1988 the Clothes Show Magazine was launched for with Elvis Costello, The Juliet Letters, have been the programme’s eight million viewers. given a much-resisted ‘crossover’ tag. TAM S I N S PARG O

See also: classical music; classical music, contemporary; orchestras clubs ANDREA MARTIN The main precursor to the contemporary club was the 1950s coffee bar. Invariably containing a Clause 28 jukebox full of rock ’n’ roll records, the coffee bar became a meeting place for young people in the Clause 28 is the short name for a section in the Local evenings and at weekends. The first ‘proper’ clubs Government Act of 1988 which made it illegal for drew upon a similar clientele. Containing little more local authorities to ‘promote homosexuality’. The than a simple record player, these clubs became clause was widely opposed on marches, vigils and the focus point for emergent youth subcultures such protests, and opponents developed a high-profile as mods and teds. media support campaign from such figures as the As the ‘R&B’ boom of the early 1960s gathered actor Ian McKellen. The Clause appeared to be an pace, the ballrooms of the previous generation attack on gay rights and civil liberties while also became venues for dancing to pop and rock music. threatening subsidies for a huge range of cultural Of particular importance were those venues in the and educational activities. Aside from the backward North of England that played the latest soul music step that the Clause in many ways represented, it imported from the USA. Northern Soul clubs such also met with much opposition because its strictures as The Wigan Casino and The Twisted Wheel in were so loosely phrased and so could be tenuously Manchester attracted a clientele who took their applied to almost any event with which a gay or dancing very seriously. Often arriving with several lesbian person or image was associated. changes of clothes, the dancers remained throughout the night until as late as 8 am. Legend See also: gay liberation has it that the air at The Wigan Casino was thick

PETER CHILDS with the smell of liniment and talcum powder, the former used to prevent muscle-strain, and the latter used to prevent the floor from becoming sticky, Clothes Show, The enabling dancers to spin around at rapid speeds. Some establishment figures expressed concern at The BBC launched The Clothes Show, the first the burgeoning drug culture of the club scene in mainstream television fashion show, in the 1988s, general, and there is certainly evidence to suggest later allocating it a regular Sunday afternoon slot that amphetamines and other stimulants were used alongside the Antiques Roadshow. Presented by, to facilitate all-night dancing. amongst others, British designer and entrepreneur As pop and rock music became increasingly Jeff Banks and Caryn Franklin, the show included popular throughout the 1960s, so more clubs were features on new fashion directions, both designer developed. Of particular importance was the rise of and high-street, and on aspects of the fashion the Tamla Motown label whose roster included The clubs 113

Supremes, The Temptations and The Four Tops. It of working-class holiday-makers who had been was during this period that a split developed between clubbing in Ibiza and decided to attempt to those venues that employed a band to provide a replicate the experience during the winter of 1987– musical accompaniment to dancing, and those 8. ‘Balearic’ clubs such as Shoom in London venues that merely played records. The former type became increasingly popular. It was around this of venue has developed into the modern rock venue time that the drug ecstasy was first widely used of today, while the latter has developed into what in Britain. we now generally consider to be a club: a place that Although initially centred on London, the plays records and is licensed for dancing. This split acid house scene soon developed elsewhere in has developed into the divide between dance music the country. Of pivotal importance was The and rock music that continues to this day. Hacienda club in Manchester, with its resident The early 1970s saw the development of a DJs Mike Pickering and Graeme Park playing specific style of club known as the disco. Discos American house records to an enthusiastic crowd. subsequently became the dominant form of As the acid house scene grew, it became apparent nightclub in Britain, although specialist clubs that that a new type of nightclub was needed. The played music drawn from rock genres remained old discos were perceived to have lost their popular. Discos emphasized the other-worldly vitality, and the atmosphere in discos was often nature of the club experience, with their spoiled by alcohol-fuelled violence. In the search disorientating lights, elegant surroundings and a for new venues, acid house promoters began to glamorous clientele. These clubs played soul and use greenfield sites, disused warehouses and the emergent musical form of disco, a style of industrial buildings. This is the origin of electronic dance music that emphasized its ‘artificial’ contemporary rave culture. nature. It was during this period that the role of As legislation was introduced to outlaw the club DJ became particularly important, with unlicensed raves, more and more venues were built some DJs commanding considerable fees for their to accommodate house culture’s move back ability to transform recorded music through the indoors. The important clubs of the early 1990s usage of technology and through mixing two or were Quadrant Park in Liverpool, Eclipse in three records together. Coventry (the first house club to obtain an all-night While the disco was the dominant form of club dancing licence), and Shelly’s in Stoke-on-Trent. until the mid-1980s, there were exceptions to this The early 1990s explosion in clubs has been fuelled rule. The punk rock explosion of the mid-1970s by an explosion in dance music itself, with a led to the opening of punk clubs in London such bewildering array of sub-genres entering into the as The Roxy and The 100 Club. Spurred on by lexicon of contemporary youth culture. these developments, punk fans from other cities Modern clubs are more popular than ever developed their own scenes. Clubs such as Eric’s before. Containing a startling battery of sound and in Liverpool were the meeting point for the new lighting technologies, they are perceived to be places generation of musicians who were to become the where young people can escape from the harsh famous stars of the 1980s. As punk developed into realities of contemporary life and spend a few hours new wave, the distinction between dance music dancing. Most modern clubs are connected to a and rock music was temporarily blurred by the specific style of dance music such as techno or experimental dance music of British bands such as jungle, and employ ‘guest DJs’, valued for their The Human League, Depeche Mode and New musical knowledge and technical skills, who can Order. command thousands of pounds for a few hours The arrival of house music in Britain in 1987 work. Also central to the modern club is the resident led to the birth of the British club culture that we DJ who can attract a regular clientele who will visit see today. In particular, the birth of acid house is the club every week. seen as a defining moment. Legend has it that the British house club boom was started by a handful STUART BORTHWICK 114 Coates, Nigel

Coates, Nigel Professor Higgins. Michael Caine (followed by others such as Bob Hoskins) has conversely made b. 1949 Cockney ‘legitimate’. Its more general current use signifies a wish to blur class boundaries and replace Architect previous models where abandonment of Cockney Born in 1949, Coates’s extravagant humorous was a stage in upward social mobility. architecture first took off in Japan in the late 1980s, where he became the guru of club owners, retailers See also: dialect; Geordies; scouse and restaurateurs. More British clients followed in MIKE STORRY the 1990s. Partnered since 1985 by Doug Branson in their Clerkenwell practice, Coates later seemed to become the architect of New Labour in 1997: he was comedies invited to 10 Downing Street, asked to work on the Body Zone human figures in the Greenwich British film comedy in the 1960s and early 1970s Millennium dome, and commissioned to design was dominated by sex comedies, such as Percy (1971) Britain’s national exhibition at Expo 1998 in Lisbon. and The Love Pill (1971), inspired by farce and music Known for his offbeat, largely anti-establishment hall and laden with double entendres and smutty ‘narrative architecture’ in the 1980s (for example, jokes. The most famous of these are the Carry On Jasper Conran’s (1985) and Katherine Ham-nett’s films, produced by Peter Rogers and, beginning (1987) shops in London), Coates was appointed with the release of Carry On Sergeant in 1958, released Professor of Architecture at the Royal College of Art. at a rate of around two a year until the mid-1970s In 1998 he has commissioned to design a temporary when the number slowed. Carry On Columbus (1992) building to accommodate ‘Powerhouse: UK’, an revived the series with a cast drawn from exhibition of British creativity organized by the ‘alternative’ comedy. Sex comedies, such as Personal Department of Trade and Industry. A maverick of Services (1987) and Rita and Sue and Bob Too (1987), the ephemeral and inflatable, Coates’s other projects continued to be produced. include the organic, glass-clad domesticity of his Many of the British comedies of the 1970s and Oyster House, presented at the Ideal Home 1980s were connected to television sketch shows Exhibition in 1998, and exhibitions at the Royal and sitcoms (see situation comedy). In the early Academy’s Living Bridges show, the Design 1970s, successful sitcoms spawned films like Steptoe Museum’s Erotic Design, and the Sheffield pop centre. and Son (1972), Love Thy Neighbour (1973) and Porridge (1979). More notable films have been produced by See also: restaurants and bars the comedians involved with sketch comedy. The comics of Monty Python’s Flying Circus PETER CHILDS employed a similar sketch-based, surrealistic style of humour in And Now for Something Completely Cockney Different (1973), Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975), and The Meaning of Life (1983) while Life of Brian Theoretically the dialect of English spoken by those (1979) placed attacks on organized religion as well born within the sound of Bow Bells, Cockney is as left-wing cliquism in the context of a tighter plot. spoken much more widely. It is now known less for Members of the Python team, especially Terry its rhyming slang (‘apples and pears’ for stairs) than Gilliam and John Cleese, have been involved in for its links with ‘Estuary English’ (‘hospi’ul’ and other successful comedies such as Time Bandits ‘wevva’ for hospital and weather). The idea of the (1981), Brazil (1985), Clockwise (1985) and A Fish honest Cockney crippled by her accent was widely Called Wanda (1988). Eric Idle appeared along with mythologized by Shaw’s Pygmalion (1912, filmed as Robbie Coltrane in the commercially successfully My Fair Lady in 1964). There, a Cockney flower girl farce Nuns on the Run (1990). Similarly, The Comic is transformed into a ‘lady’ by the phonetician Strip, in conjunction with director Peter Richardson, comedy on television 115 have been involved with the production of films programmes like That Was the Week That Was and like The Bullshitters (1984), The Supergrass (1985) and The Frost Report. Satire has continued to appear on Eat the Rich (1988). Television comics Mel Smith British comedy through the 1980s and 1990s with and Griff Rhys-Jones also appeared in, amongst the political puppetry of Spitting Image, the politico- others, Morons from Outer Space (1985) and Smith satirical impressions of Roy Bremner—Who Else? and has gone on to be a successful comedy director. the current affairs game show Have I Got News for Many of the comedies of the 1980s and 1990s Yo u . Influential ‘alternative’ television sketch shows have character-based stories, employing drama as in the late 1960s and early 1970s included Dudley well as humour and addressing issues of racism, Moore and Peter Cook’s Not Only…But Also, Monty homophobia, poverty and political disillusionment. Python’s Flying Circus and Spike Milligan’s numbered This is true of Stephen Frears and Hanif Kureishi’s series of Q. These last two shows experimented with films My Beautiful Laundrette (1985) and Sammy and the form of the sketch show, abandoning punchlines Rosie Get Laid (1988), Bruce Robinson’s Withnail in favour of surrealistic linking devices. and I (1986), Robert Smith’s The Love Child (1987) While play with the conventions of television and Gurinda Chadha’s Bhaji on the Beach (1993) as could be found in the 1980s in Alexei Sayle’s Stuff, well as the films of Mike Leigh, including Bleak French and Saunders and A Bit of Fry and Laurie, from Moments (1971), High Hopes (1988), Life is Sweet (1990) this period ‘alternative’ comedy tended to focus more and Secrets and Lies (1996). Character-based comedy on anti-Tory, anti-racist and anti-sexist sentiments also characterizes the films of Bill Forsyth, including than experiments with the sketch form. This can be Gregory’s Girl (1981), Local Hero (1983) and Comfort seen in programmes like Saturday Live with Ben Elton, and Joy (1984). Forsyth’s Housekeeping (1987) was The Lenny Henry Show, The Real McCoy and The Mark funded by Hollywood, as are many other Thomas Show. Nonetheless, there has been resistance prominent British films such as Educating Rita from many comedians to both the label of (1983). Recently, animated comedy films have come ‘alternative’ and the expectation of ‘right-on’ politics, to prominence, mainly due to the Oscar-winning despite, or perhaps because of, the under- success of Nick Park’s Wallace and Grommit films. representation of women and non-white performers in television sketch programmes. While the See also: comedy on television appearance of comics like Bob Monkhouse and Roy Castle as comperes has given British game-shows a comic flavour, more recently the hybrid genre of the Further reading comedy game show has become popular. Examples Walker, J. (1985) The Once and Future Film, London: include the improvisation show Whose Line is it Methuen. Anyway? and celebrity game shows like Shooting Stars and They Think It’s All Over. Sticky Moments with Julian NICOLE MATTHEWS Clary showed the way that these shows can combine quite traditional kinds of British humour—in this comedy on television case, Benny Hill-esque smutty double entendres— with a glamorous gay host, who disrupts the game Comedy sketch shows are still one of the most show norms of heterosexuality and fair play. In the popular forms of British television comedy. Earlier late 1990s, the sketches in sketch shows seemed to sketch shows, like those of Morecombe and Wise, become ever shorter, to the extent that The Fast Show Tommy Cooper, Benny Hill, Ronnie Barker and based itself upon a stream of thirty-second turns Ronnie Corbett drew on traditions of music hall which, shorter than many television commercials, and variety. Victoria Wood, one of the few women seemed ideally designed for an audience with a short to break into this kind of comedy, similarly includes attention span. musical numbers along with sketches and mono- logues in her shows. Another tradition of comedy See also: Carry On films; comedies; situation employed satire and the revue format in comedy 116 Comedy Store, The

Further reading The latter borrowed their anti-authoritarianism, added a punk note of confrontation and aimed at Wilmut, R. (1982) From Fringe to Flying Circus: an older audience. Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960– In terms of quality, the industry produced three 1980, London: Methuen. outstanding newsstand comics in the post-1960s Wilmut, R. and Rosengard, P. (1989), Didn’t You period: 2000AD (IPC/Fleetway, 1977), Deadline (Tom Kill My Mother-in-law? The Story of Alternative Astor, 1988) and Viz (House of Viz, 1979). Each of Comedy in Britain from The Comedy Store to Saturday these comics was designed for a readership older Live, London: Methuen. than that for children’s comics like the Dandy and NICOLE MATTHEWS Beano. Readers related to the punk movement with its distrust of authority, stress on working-class street credibility and fetishization of violence for its own Comedy Store, The sake. 2000AD was science-fiction based and designed The Comedy Store, based on a Los Angeles to replace Action, which had fallen foul of censors original, was founded by Peter Rosengard in 1979 nominally because of its violent bent, but also in the Nell Gwynne strip club in Soho. It was because of its anti-authoritarain stance borrowed compered first by Alexei Sayle (and later by Ben from underground comics. 2000AD’s best known Elton), and twenty-five amateur comedians did character was Judge Dredd, an updated Dan Dare stand-up routines. Bad performances were ‘gonged’ figure from the Eagle of the 1950s. Judge Dredd off. It was only on at midnight on Saturday and Magazine appeared in 1990, based on this character. Sunday nights, and was one of the first ‘one-nighter’ The comic’s layout was innovative— borrowing clubs to revitalize London’s nightlife. The ethos large eye-catching splash panels from US models— was anti-racist and anti-sexist. Double acts like and its contributors particularly admired American Twentieth Century (Rik Mayall and Ade Marvel comics. Deadline, with its emphasis on Edmondson) and The Outer Limits (Peter humour over adventure and its pop music features, Richardson and Nigel Planer) got their start there. was a cross between an adult humour comic and a Audiences were diverse and members of the public music/style magazine. Its most successful character could perform after the main acts. was Tank Girl, by Alan Martin and Jamie Hewlett. She was a shaven-headed outlaw in biker boots who See also: Carry On films; comedies; comedy on became a mascot for feminist groups and later ‘riot television; situation comedy grrl’ bands. A film based on Tank Girl did not do

MIKE STORRY as well as was hoped. Viz has been the most successful of all. Founded in Newcastle upon Tyne by brothers Chris and comics Simon Donald, its numerous controversial characters—Sid the Sexist, Fat Slags, Millie Tant—and Comics have gone through a period of its schoolboy humour were just what its target transformation in Britain in recent years. audience wanted. Its circulation at 3.3 million Circulation of mainstream titles fell after the 1960s (1995) dwarfed that of its rivals. and many folded altogether or merged with others. Despite the new fan-shop market, there See also: comics culture was a steady decline in newsagent comic sales. Under hippie counterculture (see hippies), there Further reading were underground comics or ‘comix’, which remained so because of their anarchism and drug Sabin, R. (1993) Adult Comics, London: Routledge. associations. However, they influenced and DAVE JACKSON eventually were superseded by the mainstream. commercial radio 117 comics culture store is the biggest of its kind in the world. They stock science fiction and fantasy books, videos, film By 1996 there were as many as 250 comics stores in and television-related material, and trading cards; the UK, compared with about 10 in 1977. Though in fact, anything to do with ‘trash culture’. this would seem to indicate a marked increase in the comic-buying public, it merely reflects a shift See also: comics away from the traditional mainstream newsstand to DAVE JACKSON the specialist shop. Actual comic sales have declined. Comics, traditionally thought of as children’s literature, have gained a sort of adult respectability commercial radio through the advent of graphic novels (long comics) and the 1980s boom in comic buying as financial Since its inception in 1973, when the first two speculation. Rare comics could be worth outrageous independent services (Capital and LBC) began sums of money. Celebrity comic collectors included broadcasting in London, commercial radio now Jonathan Ross and Lenny Henry (who collaborated accounts for nearly 50 percent of all listening in on Neverwhere, a television fantasy series with comic the UK. Apart from a period in the late 1970s, when book creator Neil Gaiman). There are regular comic the Labour administration restricted the numbers marts and conventions held in most major cities in of new licences issued, there has been a steady and the UK, the biggest being UKAC, which is held in continuing growth, with over 200 stations on air London. The type of comics included in this in 1998. While the vast majority of these are phenomenon still tend to follow stereotypical science regional or local services, the 1990 Broadcasting fiction or costumed superhero lines, although there Act made provisions for national independent are many exceptions. commercial radio stations. There are now three of Comics culture in the UK is dominated by US these: Classic FM was the first to go on air in products, imported or reprinted under licence from September 1992, followed by the rock station American companies such as DC and Marvel. Virgin 1215 in 1993 and Talk Radio in 1995. There have been several attempts to launch home Many regional stations are also now broadcasting grown comics in the UK, notably 2000AD, Warrior, two distinct outputs, or ‘split frequencies’. In addition Deadline, Blast, Toxic and Revolver. Of these, only to the main FM transmissions (with contemporary 2000AD, launched in 1977, still exists and although hit formats targeted at a young audience) these ‘Gold’ it has been Britain’s most successful science fiction/ AM stations usually specialize in ‘classic hits’ from superhero related title Judge Dredd was recently the 1960s to 1980s, and are used to increase their made into a Hollywood movie) its popularity is appeal for middle-aged listeners. However, despite dwindling. Most of Britain’s more talented writers these AM stations, older listeners seem to remain and artists have gone to work for American loyal to BBC radio. companies where the financial rewards are greater. From the late 1980s, large numbers of illegal Ironically, despite the higher profile of the adult pirate radio stations began broadcasting in and to comic-buying public, the UK market is still too major cities. A phenomenon of the growing rave small to support a home-grown comics industry. scene (see rave culture), these focused almost The comics fan, as opposed to the casual reader, exclusively on dance music. They rarely featured buys his/her comics from specialist shops such as commercials for mainstream companies, with any The Forbidden Planet rather than the traditional advertising limited to the promotion of dance venues newsstand or newsagent. The Forbidden Planet and club nights. However, the introduction of so- chain of comic stores, owned by Nick Landau (also called ‘incremental’ licences allowed for specialized owner of Titan Books, Britain’s biggest comic stations to broadcast legally in areas already covered publisher) now have fifteen stores throughout the by existing commercial services. London pirate UK, having started off in 1977 with one shop in stations such as Kiss FM and Choice FM successfully London’s Denmark Street. Their newer London applied for licences, and began broadcasting legally 118 commercial radio, national in 1990. While their programming remains dance- broadcasting 24 hours a day, seven days a week. oriented, they are now included in mainstream Its aim is to ‘bring classical music to the widest commercial media schedules. The increase in the possible audience, reducing the aura of intimidation numbers of stations on air, and the specific nature surrounding classical music’. It has a more populist of their programming, provides advertisers with approach than its seeming rival BBC Radio 3, but targeting opportunities not offered by terrestrial it has also attracted a fair portion of its listeners television. There are many specialist broadcasters, from middling Radio 2. National listening share is such as London Greek Radio and the Bradford- 3.1 percent (Radio 3, 1.0 percent), with an average based Asian station Sunrise Radio, that cater for weekly audience of 4.6m (Radio 3, 2.4m) specific ethnic groups and languages. While Virgin Radio started out in 1994 with the commercials for local products and services are disadvantage of only being allowed to broadcast frequently produced at the radio stations from which nationally on AM, though its London-only they will be transmitted, national or larger budget extension does have an FM slot. The station policy campaigns are usually written and produced by the of adult rock attracts a sizeable weekly audience of major (London-based) advertising agencies. around 3.2m (3 percent of the national figure). In The impending introduction of the DAB 1998, control passed from Richard Branson to ex- (Digital Audio Broadcasting), in addition to Big Breakfast and Radio 1 presenter Chris Evans. improving audio and reception quality, will also Launched as a national non-music station in radically increase the number of possible February 1995 on a policy of ‘shock jocks’, Talk broadcasters, and revolutionize radio advertising Radio UK did not have an easy ride in its first in the next millennium. eighteen months of broadcasting life, owing to public protests, rapid management turnover and financial See also: advertising, influence of; commercial difficulties. The more outrageous of the presenting radio, national jocks having been ousted, and there were signs of an increase in its national listening share in the late DAVID CROFT 1990s. This may well continue as the station finds the right commercial policy that will attract both commercial radio, national listeners and advertisers in buoyant numbers (it currently attracts a 1.8 percent share of listeners). National commercial radio stations were established Though not strictly a ‘British’ national radio in the UK in the early 1990s. Apart from the chance station, since it broadcasts from Dublin, Atlantic to cater for a sizeable youngish (18–35) leisured class, 252 firmly targets the UK as its intended market, these stations were driven by a sympathetic reaching the country north of a line from the Wash commercial and competitive environment set in place to Dorset. Its music policy is ‘hot adult by Conservative governments in the 1980s. Their contemporary’, playing top 40 hits to a youngish success can be gauged by noting that, in early 1995, (15–30) audience. It has been particularly adroit at listeners to commercial radio exceeded BBC Radio’s keeping its listeners happy by the use of very careful national audience for the first time (50.1 percent to market research that determines which songs—using 47.9 percent). Adding to the wide variety of radio short snatches of current numbers—listeners want experience now available in the UK, commercial to hear more of. Thus by giving consumers what radio contributes significantly to a generally buoyant they really want, Atlantic has created a highly market in this particularly intimate medium, a high successful media product broadcasting on long profile which looks set to continue at least into the wave only, so that listeners on the move never need foreseeable future. Depending how one defines to retune. Its average weekly reach is 2.2m (2.9 ‘national’, there are three or four stations, funded percent of share). by advertising, which cover most of the UK. Launched in September 1992, Classic FM was Note: All listening figures are from the second quarter of Britain’s first national commercial station 1996 (source: RAJAR/RSL). community politics 119

See also: commercial radio which provided a substantial secret subsidy between 1958 and 1979. The party leadership moved towards a more reformist, Eurocommunist Further reading position in the 1970s causing a split with a hardline Scannell, P. (1991) Broadcast Talk, London: Sage. faction centred around the Morning Star newspaper. Wilby, P. and Conroy, A. (1994) The Radio In 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Handbook, London: Routledge. Union, the Communist Party voted to become the Democratic Left. In the 1990s they gained GEORGE HASTINGS publicity with instances of direct action to support striking workers and protest against local Commission for Racial Equality government cuts. The Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) is the See also: Marxism; Militant; National Front; product of three Acts passed in the 1960s and 1970s. trade unions The Race Relations Act of 1965 established the Race COLIN WILLIAMS Relations Board to receive complaints of unlawful discrimination and to have them investigated. The 1968 Race Relations Act enlarged the Board and its community politics scope, while the Community Relations Commission was also established to promote good race relations. In the UK, community politics may be formal or A third Act in 1976 outlawed victimization and informal. The formal level provides a number of discrimination in employment, industry and opportunities in which community politics may education, making it an offence to incite racial hatred. take place. These range from neighbourhood watch The Act replaced the Race Relations and schemes to parish councils and town councils, Community Relations Commission with the district councils and county councils. In the first Commission for Racial Equality, funded by the case arrangements are informal but with official Home Office. The Commission is credited with back-up and training. In the second case they have successfully fulfilling its remit, particularly in its constitutional status and varying degrees of power assistance of individuals in unfair dismissal cases, and budgetary control. where it has also undoubtedly had a deterrent effect. Constitutional changes resulting in formally Predictably, tabloid newspapers and occasionally recognized devolved politics, in Wales and broadsheets have attempted to pour ridicule on its Scotland, are likely to result in an increase in attempts to get to the heart of racism by policing regional assemblies. It is also possible that this will language which it sees as racist (such as ‘black sheep’ result in an increase in political interest at a lower or ‘black mark’). level, including informal political groupings. Informal forms of community politics are often See also: Race Relations Acts generated by local objections to nationally proposed actions or to single-issue politics (often instigated MIKE STORRY by new social movements). These ‘grassroots’ activities may be both parliamentary and extra- Communist Party parliamentary. Objections may be raised by groups such as Greenpeace at inquiries to build nuclear The Communist Party of Great Britain was power stations, while direct action may be mounted formed in 1920 in response to an appeal by Lenin. by others to prevent roads or runways being built It was influential in the labour movement until through special areas of natural or scientific interest. the onset of the Cold War, which prompted long- If the formal objection fails, extra-parliamentary term decline. The party was hampered by its activity may be invoked. This usually takes the association with the Soviet Communist Party, form of human obstruction to the proposed 120 community theatre construction, thus raising the political and financial International developed the concept of ‘celebratory cost. protest’ with their carnivalesque style of ‘theatre- The history of such communal objections has as-event’, where audiences are in the thousands; been increasingly successful. There are now several Ann Jellicoe founded a new genre with the central government-sponsored projects (from train ‘community play’, involving hundreds of local lines to bypasses) that have been thwarted by people. Both have worked on the principle that art communal action. In the process, the value of is a bonding agent for communities which have community politics has been exhibited. By contrast, become fragmented. Direct participation has formal community politics has been increasingly become the key element of community theatre, with devalued by declining powers, the growth of professionals working as ‘animateurs’ to facilitate quangos (quasi non-governmental organizations) people in finding a voice and using theatre as a and centralization. In principle, membership of the means of agitating for improvement, or as a way of European Union opens up a range of possibilities animating (hidden) histories. for community politics that have not yet been met Whereas ‘amateur’ theatre groups still flourish in practice. as a hobby for the middle classes, who replicate the hierarchies of West End theatre, community See also: democracy; pressure groups theatre groups operate on democratic principles and are rooted in the concepts of accessibility, involvement and identification. There is cross- Further reading fertilization with other arts, as frequently Smith, M.P. and Feagin, J. (eds) (1987) The Capitalist community drama is allied with dance and music City: Global Restructuring and Community Politics, under the umbrella term ‘community arts’. Oxford: Blackwell. Continued expansion of community theatre companies/groups in the 1960s testifies to the PAUL BARRY CLARKE efficacy of this new branch of theatre practice. SVANBORG SIGMARSDOTTIR International theorists (Barba, Boal) have been influential in the move towards valorizing the community theatre ‘process’ of making community theatre, and of using drama as a cultural ‘healing agent’, as In the 1960s fringe companies, formed around opposed to its product. The politics of those political and cultural issues, began taking theatre involved in the movement have diluted somewhat into non-theatre venues. The most notable example in the 1990s as the focus has shifted from the macro was John McGrath’s 7:84 company, whose tour level of radical cultural intervention to the micro to the Scottish Highlands of The Cheviot, The Stag level of individual ‘empowerment’. and The Black, Black Oil epitomized the notion of making live theatre available while promoting the See also: fringe theatre; improvisation; McGrath, ideology of a ‘counterculture’. The community John; theatre, regional theatre movement grew out of the recognition of the needs of communities without theatre. It was Further reading generally populist in appeal, offering an aesthetic challenge to the style of establishment theatre and Kershaw, B. (1992) The Politics of Performance, Radical creating new venues and audiences; it also, by and Theatre as Cultural Intervention, London: large, retained an ‘oppositional’ stance grounded Routledge. in a political idealism associated with ecological DYMPHNA CALLERY concerns and an acknowledgement of the oppressions of those outside the dominant class. The idea that theatre could be made with communities began to take root. Welfare State conductors 121 computer graphics and widely discussed: two exemplary works are Jane multimedia Prophet’s Technosphere and Heath Bunting’s irrational.org. Major design practices like Amaze and Although artist-run organizations like London Obsolete have grown swiftly in this climate, and an Video Access (now London Electronic Arts) had increasing number of art schools offer specialist installed expensive paint systems by the mid-1980s, degrees. An important new development is heralded the advent of the Apple Macintosh was the key to by the work of Dispersed Data, a loose affiliation of the development of an artists’ scene for multimedia black British multimedia artists and curators. in the UK. The DIY aesthetic of punk design, and the typographic revolt associated with Neville Further reading Brody, could both now be simulated on relatively cheap software packages, and the impact can be Watt, A. (1993) 3D Computer Graphics, 2nd edn, seen in the growth both of desktop published Wokingham: Addison-Wesley. fanzines and the increasingly sophisticated use of SEAN CUBITT photographic retouching programmes. Even the high-end video systems of the 1980s, like Harry and Paintbox, could now be reproduced on concert promoters accessible machines. The first artists to take advantage of this came out Concert promoters are responsible for hiring the of the video art scene, notably artists with associations venue, arranging the stages, the personal address to the art schools of Sheffield and Dundee like Judith systems, lighting, caterers, security and advertising, Goddard and Clive Gillman. Composited animations and coordinating ticket sales. The most influential and finely honed moving graphics became a hallmark and successful concert promoter in the UK is of a period of British electronic arts around 1990, Harvey Goldsmith, who started out organizing when seminal works like Goddard’s Luminous Portrait, university concerts. The Concert Promoters Gillman’s NLV6 (Sublime), Keith Piper’s The Nation’s Association was formed in 1980, chaired by Finest and Steve Hawley’s Trout Descending a Staircase Goldsmith, to counteract the negative image of began to circulate. However, video art faced a wheeler-dealer surrounding promoters. Many desperate struggle both with an entrenched promoters also work the festival circuits, as well as conservatism in the gallery world and an almost closed the main rock venues. SJM are a massive distribution system in cinemas. The Liverpool-based organization, based in the north of England, but Video Positive festival and the Arts Council-funded operating on a nationwide basis. Mean Fiddler Film and Video Umbrella began to promote such promote the Phoenix and Reading festivals, as well work, and associated interactive installations by artists as running their own venues and nationwide tours. like Goddard, Piper and Simon Robertshaw, to a Other main promoters are Metropolis, MCP and slowly widening public of afficionados and interested Riverman. and active computer buffs. ALICE BENNETT William Latham’s tenure of an IBM Fellowship between 1988 and 1993 introduced genetic algo- rithm or artificial life programming to the UK scene, conductors and although critics like Cate Elwes deplored a certain ‘toys for the boys’ tendency, increasingly The conductor is the central figure in most orchestral women artists, including Elwes, have been making performances and is the person with whom exemplary and subtle use of the available audiences generally identify. Certain conductors technologies. New digital media have brought attain ‘cult status’ which even endures important works into publication: Gillman, Simon posthumously; examples include Herbert von Biggs, Graham Harwood and Audio-ROM have Karajan and Leonard Bernstein, both powerful made important CD-ROMs. Internet art is now musical personalities. Norman Lebrecht scruti-nized 122 Connery, Sean the personality cult of the conductor in his book See also: classical music; classical soloists The Maestro Myth, and there is debate as to the extent to which a performance ‘belongs’ to the conductor Further reading or to the orchestra. British conductors rising to prominence during the 1980s and 1990s included Lebrecht, N. (1992) The Maestro Myth, London: Sir Simon Rattle, who became synonymous with Simon & Schuster. the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, and ANDREA MARTIN Richard Hickox, founder and close associate of the City of London Sinfonia. There is speculation as to why there appear to be so few up-and-coming British conductors. Connery, Sean Conducting opportunities are scarce for students, so for the most part they must study by observation b. 1929, Edinburgh rather than practice. Many aim to work as Actor repetiteurs as a first step in a conducting career, or One of the few British actors who can sell a film set up groups of their own. Many British orchestras on name alone, Sean Connery was born Thomas and opera companies operate assistant Connery in Fountainbridge, a working-class suburb conductorships, usually aided by sponsorship. of Edinburgh. Always identified with the role of There is also speculation about the lack of James Bond, his career began in British B-Movies women active in conducting—in the British and in the 1950s, and it was not until David Niven International Music Yearbook there are fewer than refused the role of Bond in Dr No (1962) that twenty female names in a total of 400—though, as Connery, who took the role, became a household in other professions, the balance is slowly tipping name. His work in Hollywood includes Marnie towards equality, with the emergence of such (1964), Robin and Marlon (1976), The Name of the Rose conductors as Jane Glover, Sian Edwards, Odaline (1986) and The Untouchables (1987), for which he de la Martinez and Wasfi Kani. won an Academy Award. Though living in Spain, Most holders of conducting posts with British Connery remains passionate about Scotland, once orchestras were born abroad. Many of these donating his fee from a Bond film to finance an simultaneously continue their international careers, educational trust in the country. typically holding more than one orchestral post and making guest appearances. For example, newcomers SAM JOHNSTONE in 1996 to British conducting posts included the Royal Philharmonic’s music director, Daniele Gatti, born in Milan; Frenchman Jean-Bernard Pommier Conran, Jasper at the Northern Sinfonia; and American Joseph Swensen, principal conductor of the Scottish b. 1959, London Chamber Orchestra. Many conductors from abroad Fashion designer develop strong relationships with British orchestras; for example, there is the close connection which has Son of Terence Conran, whose impact on British spanned a decade between Libor Pešek, awarded design and taste made him a household name, and the KBE for his services to British interests, and the of writer Shirley Conran, Jasper Conran has Royal Liverpool Philharmonic. worked hard to carve his own niche in the world Conductors have also risen to especial of fashion and design. Born in 1960 and trained in prominence in the performance of authentic/period New York, he has a reputation for precision music. Many, such as Roger Norrington and John tailoring and attention to detail. His first collection Eliot Gardiner, undertake careful study to ensure was produced by Wallis in 1979, and he was named performances are as close as possible to those of British Designer of the Year in 1986. Although his the composer’s time. restrained, wearable classics make him a favourite conservation groups 123 with the professional woman, he has recently As with Habitat’s influence on shopping, branched out into the more dramatic fields of ballet Conran has also transformed and developed the and theatre costume design. landscape of eating out, with restaurants like Quaglino’s, Bibendum and Pont de la Tour. It is TAM S I N S PARG O important to stress that Conran has helped to transform society and its values, and he has made Conran, Terence spending money a legitimate cultural practice. His diversity of interests as designer, restaurateur, b. 1931, Esher retailer and writer have ensured him a permanent residency as arbiter of British taste. Designer Sir Terence Orby Conran has had an enormous See also: Conran, Jasper influence on defining and indeed determining the design of shop and house interiors within Britain Further reading and Europe. His store Habitat, first opened in London in 1964, completely revolutionized notions Ind, N. (1995) Terence Conran: The Authorized of taste. Before Habitat, notions of good taste were Biography, London: Sidgwick & Jackson. almost exclusively conservative and elitist. Conran, FATIMA FERNANDES having struggled for ten years to establish himself as a furniture designer and maker, redefined the world of retail and arguably transformed the idea conservation groups of shopping into an enjoyable occasion rather than a necessary task. The cultural historian Christopher Britain’s major official national conservation agencies Frayling suggests that Conran has had more impact are English Heritage, Cadw (for Wales), Historic on design than the Design Council and the Scotland, and the Department of the Environment government put together. for Northern Ireland. The National Trust and The Nicholas Ind’s biography explains that part of Landmark Trust are the highest profile national the power of Habitat was its sensuality: charities involved with conservation of buildings, but there are many lesser known bodies which the combination of touch, sight, sound and identify historic buildings most at risk. They then smell. In addition to the tactile displays, there lobby the official agencies responsible for listing were the pervasive odour of herbs and spices and funding, and get them to supply the money. as well as the sound of modern jazz. Conran Examples of such organizations are The Georgian offered modern, affordable products in an Group, the Victorian Society, the Ancient uncluttered and elegant environment. Monuments Society, the Society for the Protection (Ind 1995:65) of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) (founded by William Morris in 1877), and the newest amenity society, His designs were an enormous success with the the Twentieth Century Society, which takes up the new affluent middle classes, and by 1980 there were cause of buildings from 1914 to the present. More forty-seven Habitat stores. Conran’s ‘grassroots’ organizations also contribute, such as entrepreneurial expertise gave rise to the merger the Campaign for the Preservation of Rural of Habitat with other retailers such as Mothercare, England and The Friends of Friendless Churches Heal’s and British Home Stores, forming the multi- (set up to protect redundant Anglican churches in million pound Storehouse Group; however, this Wales). failed to achieve the heights anticipated by Conran, Besides the above, there are numerous local predominantly because BHS was imbued with a voluntary organizations working to restore local culture that was resistant to his plans of bringing landmarks or create wildlife refuges or city farms. well-designed goods to the mass market. These have the opportunity to apply for National 124 Conservative governments

Lottery funding, but this has become less easy since argued that the Thatcher government represented a 1997. discontinuity within Conservative party history, that The existence of these bodies and their far from eschewing ideology Thatcher and her distribution throughout Britain indicates a colleagues embraced it, even in the face of negative widespread interest in preserving and visiting public opinion. Yet there is evidence of continuity Britain’s historic buildings. For example in 1997, within the Thatcher administrations, if not obviously 2.9m people visited Historic Scotland’s listed within the economic sphere then certainly in the social buildings, up 400,000 from the year before. policy of her governments. Listing of buildings contains a presumption The transfiguration within the Conservative against demolition, but it does not rule it out. In party began in 1965 with the election of Edward 1996 there were applications to demolish 266 listed Heath as leader. Heath’s election was notable for buildings in England and Wales. Most were turned two reasons. First, there was the manner in which down or withdrawn, often in response to public he became leader. In late 1946 the selection process feeling. Certainly in cities, people are now more had been reformed at the instigation of Sir Alec aware of the depredations of previous redevelopers. Douglas Home into the now familiar three-stage Thus when the Church proposed restoring St voting process, allowing MPs to select their own Ethelburgha’s Bishopsgate, destroyed by the 1993 leader from among their peers. Second, Heath was IRA bomb, ‘with a glazed facade’, public opposition not of the same ilk as previous Conservative was voiced and a ‘traditional’ facing was chosen. leaders. He was not an aristocrat, coming instead The change of government from Conservative from a lower-middle class background. to Labour in 1997 has meant less emphasis on Significantly, Heath was elected rather than his conservation of buildings. There has been a shift opponent Enoch Powell, who demonstrated a in Lottery funds to education and ‘community’ commitment to the laissez-faire ideals that were to projects and the amount going to historic buildings grip the party within a decade. That is not to say has been drastically reduced to £30m a year, when that Heath rejected these ideals, but rather that he it was nearly double this a few years ago. was more moderate in choosing a policy line that challenged Labour Party policy yet remained See also: heritage within the boundaries of the postwar consensus. This attitude can be attributed to Heath’s distinctly Further reading conservative nature. He did not consider reducing state intervention out of a deep-seated ideological Isaacs, A. and Monk, J. (1993) The Illustrated conviction, but because he felt it a practical Dictionary of British Heritage, Cambridge: approach to the problems of the time. Cambridge University Press. Under Heath, the Conservatives were defeated

MIKE STORRY in the 1966 election. In the 1966 election manifesto, Heath sought to distance the Conservative Party from Labour. Heath chose to commit the Conservative governments Conservative party to the European community (in itself a commitment to free market principles), The Conservative Party traditionally shuns the and promised reform of the welfare state and trade notions of ideology and abstract thought, and has unions. These measures amounted to an attempt established a practice of responding to particular to forge public opinion rather than respond to it, circumstances in a manner which will preserve those which was a notably atypical line for a Conservative institutions beneficial to the existing social and leader to adopt. It failed, and the Labour Party economic status quo. This approach has been retained government. tempered with a paternalistic concern for the less well- The tone of the manifesto for the 1970 election, off, but only in so far as this facilitates the maintenance which the Conservatives won, was distinctly neo- of established hierarchies. Some commentators have liberal, tempered with Heath’s pervading caution. Conservative governments 125

Thus, although it talked of ending wage control very quickly, and, following her victory in the 1979 policies and stressed a ‘hands-off’ approach to the election, it was immediately used with the objective economy, it did not specifically talk in monetarist of reducing inflation. The government published the terms or include privatization plans. The subsequent Medium-Term Financial Strategy, detailing administration was marked by two distinct periods. parameters of growth for the money supply up to In the first, immediately following the election, Heath 1984. The MTFS also contained plans for the Public threw off the Keynesian assumptions prevalent in Sector Borrowing Require-ment (PSBR), the politics at the time and pursued a deflationary non- difference between government revenue and statist approach to the economy. In the second, he expenditure. The planned reduction in the PSBR renounced these ideas and went back to a Keynesian was an idea antithetical to Keynesianism when there approach in 1971, a move known as the Heath U- were already such high levels of unemployment. The turn. In the face of growing business failures and result was clear: as inflation fell, unemployment rose rising unemployment, Heath adopted a reflationary drastically. However, contrary to monetarist theory budget, instigated government support for ailing the money supply (M3) actually grew as inflation industries and businesses (such as Rolls-Royce) and fell. Strict control was not working. In 1982 with created the interventionist Industrial Development the revision of the MTFS, discretionary monetary Executive. Unfortunately, these measures coupled policy was adopted. Aware of an upcoming election with a strict incomes policy were to bring about the the government cut interest rates, in effect relaxing demise of the Heath government. A large increase monetary policy. In 1984, economic circumstances in the balance of payments deficit, rising inflation forced Chancellor Nigel Lawson to suspend the and strikes (leading to ‘the Winter of Discontent’) monetary target range. Monetarist policy ceased to cost the Conservatives the next election. dictate Conservative economic policy. In a move Such failure indicated that it was time for a which illustrates inconsistency within the Thatcher change of leadership. In the ensuing contest, era, a period of reverse monetarism followed, during Margaret Thatcher secured the leadership in the which time the principles of monetarism were second ballot. From the outset it was clear that abandoned. Thatcher did not share the common Conservative The Thatcher government’s radicalization of the aversion to ideology, and it is arguably in this economy was not limited to monetarism. There respect that it is most valid to view her was also a strong commitment to altering the administration as a watershed. Previously, the party balance of the postwar mixed economy in favour had adopted the policy most appropriate to the of private ownership. A widespread programme time. Heath adopted anti-interventionist, of privatization was set in motion, a programme monetarist ideals only as a response to the problems in line with the Thatcherite belief in the primacy of the economy as he perceived them. Thatcher, of the market. Thatcher believed that state however, adopted an individualistic, laissez-faire intervention caused inefficiency, that markets approach with passionate fervour. Monetarist became distorted, and that industry became economic policy was one such ideal. wasteful and lacklustre. The privatization of British Monetarist theory experienced a revival in the Telecom (BT) was a signal event as the company 1970s. Britain experienced the phenomenon of maintained a (virtual) monopoly and as such was ‘stagflation’, increasing inflation and increasing able to exploit the telecommunications market. Ever unemployment. The Keynesian orthodoxy could the champion of the consumer, the Conservative not explain this, but monetarism could. The theory government drew up legislation and established a stated that the money supply needed to be watchdog to monitor the industry, following a controlled, because if the money supply exceeds the sequence of events which became common in level of real output then inflation ensues. (The subsequent privatizations. The programme of Labour Prime Minister, James Callaghan, had been privatization was felt by some commentators to forced to set financial targets as a condition of an extend beyond sound economics into the grounds IMF loan.) Thatcher warmed to monetarist theory of an ideological obsession. 126 Conservative governments

Nationalized industries were not the only barrier taxation to a strong emphasis upon indirect to the free market identified by the Thatcher taxation. The rhetoric of the time was radical, but government. The trade unions also stood in the way the policy outcomes were not always equally so. of an efficient capitalist economy, by seeking wage The size of the state did not shrink, nor did the and productivity agreements. Through these actions, money supply. Public expenditure levels have been British industry lost competitiveness and the British maintained. With the decline of the traditional economy suffered inflation and low growth. working class and increasing consumer affluence, Widespread legislation was introduced to curb the the Conservative Party found that its ideals were power of the unions. Secondary picketing was banned, not as unpopular as once they might have been. ballots prior to strike action became compulsory, and, The Thatcher administration simply exploited this most significantly, unions had to follow certain in setting the political agenda. In her pragmatic procedures before striking (if they did not they could responses and authoritarian nature Thatcher be sued). Union membership dropped, and by 1993 reflected old Tory style, but in her ideological stood at its lowest level since 1946. convictions she did not. The Thatcher administration was unique in the John Major was left with a set of difficult Conservative tradition for disregarding public circumstances following his election as leader in opinion. Reforms of the National Health Service November 1990. The economy was in the grip of and social security system are good instances, but recession, while Thatcher’s dominant leadership style the most outstanding example was the community left Major looking weak rather than con-ciliatory or a charge. Introduced in the Local Government unifying force. The internal tensions over Europe Finance Act of 1988, it quickly became known as which contributed to Thatcher’s ousting remained the poll tax. The level of popular opposition to unresolved, an election loomed, and the Labour party the poll tax, thanks largely to the regressive nature were experiencing an upturn in fortunes compared of the tax, was overwhelming and, in addition to to the barren days of the early 1980s. The intra-party divisions over Europe, was to lead to Conservative Party rallied round their new leader in Thatcher’s political demise. order to secure victory at the 1992 election. The party The liberal attitude towards the economy did appealed to the public with reduced taxation and not however extend into other areas of policy increased spending, resulting inevitably in an making. Thatcher’s social policy was authoritarian increasing PSBR. Major did well out of the Gulf War in nature. Emphasis was given to the traditionally in 1991, experiencing a boost in personal ratings as a Conservative ideals of order and authority. Corre- consequence. It was important for Major that he spondingly, there was an extension in police powers portrayed himself as different to Thatcher, but not and stiffer penalties for offenders. Far from too different. At the party conference in 1991 he gave encouraging liberal attitudes in society, as the a speech intended to illustrate this. He presented a government did in the economy, the Conservatives more moderate path than Thatcher, yet still tried to reverse them. emphasized themes such as the right to choose and The Thatcher era was of great political and wealth creation. He aimed for compromise over economic significance. It altered the balance of the Europe by securing opt-out clauses, and with the party mixed economy through extensive privatization, behind him, led it to the 1992 election. while liberalization and deregulation opened up the After winning the 1992 election, Major and the British economy (for example, there was the Party had mixed fortunes. The economy took a removal of exchange controls in November 1979). long time to recover from recession. The party were The importance of the market became universally dogged by allegations of improper behaviour on accepted. The trade unions and their influence was the part of individual MPs, such as David Mellor, weakened (particularly the coal miners’ union, the Michael Mates, Steven Norris, Graham Riddick NUM, which was weakened by its defeat in the and David Treddinick (over ‘cash for questions’). 1984–5 miners’ strike). The structure of the British The behaviour of the government was questioned tax base was altered from domination by direct by the Scott Inquiry and the Nolan Commission Conservative Party 127 set up to investigate ‘sleaze’. Major also suffered Michael Heseltine and accrued 55 percent of the attacks from within his party, which remained votes, just failing to attain the 15 percent lead. She fiercely divided over Europe, and he failed to satisfy stood down and Heseltine, Douglas Hurd and John the more right-wing elements within his party, who Major contested the second ballot. Major just failed called for a return to the Thatcher era. to gain half the votes, but the other two candidates Major did not break with the ideas of the withdrew and Major became Prime Minister. Thatcher administration; indeed, some of the most Outside of parliament, the Conservative Party illiberal legislation on crime and punishment was is divided between Central Office and the National passed under Major. In true Conservative tradition, Association. The former is the professional, he adapted Thatcherism to circumstances and his administrative wing of the party, responsible for leadership style. He attempted to unify a divided the coordination and supervision of local party with a view to electoral success by subsuming organizations and the dissemination of policy ideology, but ultimately failed in the face of New initiatives. The Chairman and senior officials at Labour’s promises of change and modernization. Central Office are appointed by the party leader. The National Association is the federation of See also: black Conservatives; fringe groups Conservative constituency associations and represents the mass membership of the party. Its officers are elected by the governing body, the Further reading Central Council, which consists of around 3,000 Evans, B. and Taylor, A. (1996) From Salisbury To members and meets annually to discuss policy and Major, Manchester: Manchester University internal matters. It is comprised of MPs and Press. prospective candidates, constituency Gamble, A. (1991) ‘The Thatcher Decade in representatives, senior officials of Central Office Perspective’ in G.Peele, A.Gamble and P. and members of the Executive Committee of the Dunleavy (eds), Developments in British Politics 3, National Association. The latter body meets every London: Macmillan. two months and its membership includes the party Hutton, W. (1996) The State We’re In, London: leader, officials and local representatives. It is Vintage. advised by various policy committees from the Young Conservatives, local government and the ALASTAIR LINDSLEY parliamentary party. Unlike its Labour Party counterpart, the annual Conservative Party Conservative Party conference is regarded as little more than a cosmetic exercise mounted to The Conservative Party has been the most demonstrate party unity and support for the leader. successful political force in Britain in the twentieth There was, however, more genuine debate at century. It has dominated government in the conferences in the mid-1990s as party divisions on postwar period and their spell in office from 1979– Europe became more apparent. Nevertheless, the 97 was the longest of any party for almost two conference has no policy-making functions, so party centuries. The Conservative Party is a hierarchical control remains decisively in the hands of the leader. organization dominated by the party leader, who Some Tory factions, specifically the Set the Party Free in turn have up until now been elected solely by Group and the Charter Group, have criticized the Tory MPs. In the first ballot to decide a leader, the undemocratic structure of the Conservative Party. winner needs an overall majority and 15 percent The membership of the party consists more than the runner up. The second ballot overwhelmingly of white, middle-class homeowners. requires a simple majority, and in a third contest In 1995, over half of the Conservative membership only the two leading candidates participate in a of half a million people was aged over sixty-five, but head to head. In practice, the three stages are rarely this was falling by 64,000 members a year. The party needed. In 1990, Mrs Thatcher was opposed by attracts most of its votes from the A, B and C1 social 128 Conservative Party categories, but until 1997 also received a significant ‘Stagflation’ in the late 1960s caused proportion of the working-class vote, attributed to the disillusionment with the achievements of the embourgeoisement of the working classes and populist postwar consensus and gave renewed impetus to Conservative policies on law and order, immigration the party’s libertarian wing. Margaret Thatcher’s and reducing direct taxation. The working-class vote ideology was essentially libertarian, influenced by reverted to Labour in 1997. Conservative Party New Right writers such as Hayek and Friedman candidates have predominantly upper or middle-class and by thinktanks. She believed that the state role occupational backgrounds, many have attended in the economy should be limited to providing the public schools and most are graduates, usually from conditions for a free market, and public expenditure Oxbridge. This social exclusiveness is even more should be cut. Welfare would ideally be provided apparent in the Cabinet, where in 1992 only Major by the family or the private sector, but not the and Lord Wakeham had not been educated at a ‘nanny’ state which created a dependency culture. university. In the 1992 Parliament, the Conservatives Privatization would provide competition to bring had a lower proportion of women MPs than the two about efficiency and consumer choice, the notion other major parties. behind the internal market in the NHS. Thatcher The Conservative Party has successfully advocated conviction politics, as opposed to the evolved over time from the party of the landowning pluralist approach of one-nation Conservatism. classes to the party of industry and big business. It This explains her attacks on the trade unions, local has been able to move with change in order to win government and pressure groups whose vested wider support, as witnessed by its attempts to attract interests she decided threatened the will of the working-class votes. Conservatives emphasize the people as expressed by their election of her as Prime concept of authority and the need for strong Minister. Thatcher solved the ideological conflict institutions of government. They are con-vinced in her party by systematically removing the ‘wets’ of the merits of private ownership, as the sale of from her Cabinet and replacing them with ministers council houses and the privatization programme who shared her opinions. Vociferous appeals to demonstrate. This also represents a political aim nationalism, emphasis on the need for law and to attract voters, as council houses and public order, and a tough stance on crime and immigration utilities were sold below their market value. were also elements of Thatcherism. These policies Conservatives believe in equal opportunities, but were attractive to much of the electorate, and have argue against measures such as redistributing been termed ‘authoritarian populism’. wealth as equality of outcome is inevitable, and John Major followed a similar agenda, despite indeed desirable to provide an incentive for effort. policy initiatives like the Citizen’s Charter, which This explains their support for selective education, were designed to improve public services by with Prime Minister Major proclaiming in 1996 introducing more competition and choice, his desire for a grammar school in every town. complaints procedures and better quality service The Conservative Party has been dominated by to the citizen. His personal style was very different two ideologies throughout its history; the collectivist to his predecessor, however, amounting to tradition and the libertarian tradition. The collectivist ‘Thatcherism with a human face’ (according to policy was prevalent in the twentieth century until Clarke). Reforms of government, the NHS and Edward Heath’s adoption of the neo-liberal Selsdon education continued under his premiership, as did Programme in 1970, and continued in the 1980s in privatizations and legislation against the unions. the ideology of one-nation Conservatives, whom Major suffered due to the smallness of his majority Thatcher labelled ‘wets’. Major’s Chancellor from in his second term, which was eventually eroded 1993, Kenneth Clarke, is identified with this position. and he was forced to depend on the Ulster Collectivists accept the need for full employment Unionists to support his minority government from and welfare provisions and for corporate decision 1996. This meant that rebellions over Europe could making and state intervention in the economy to cause the government to lose crucial votes. Major’s achieve growth and prosperity. attempts to assert his authority included a Conservative Party 129 confidence vote on the Social Chapter in 1993 and In the event Major achieved a majority of withdrawing the whip from eight ‘Euro rebels’ in twenty-two seats in 1992, a victory attributed to 1994, only to reinstate it unconditionally after his the strong media bias towards the Conservatives defeat on a budget measure and resignation as and the public’s distrust of Labour to run the Prime Minister in June 1995. He stood for re- economy, in spite of the 1990s recession under the election against the Eurosceptic John Redwood, on Conservatives. The party’s divisions over Europe a European platform of ‘no change’, an election he became more intractible from 1992, as witnessed won by 218 to 89 votes (with 20 abstentions). by the appearance of Euro rebels over Exchange The general election of 1979 was a watershed Rate Mechanism (ERM) membership, the for the Conservative Party, which capitalized on Maastricht Treaty and the single currency. Sir James Labour’s failures in the Winter of Discontent and Goldsmith’s creation of the Referendum Party also offered a clear alternative based on freedom from received the tacit support of some right-wing wage controls and lower taxation. They re- Eurosceptics. Major was derided in the press as a established themselves as the ‘natural party of weak leader unable to control his party’s warring government’ and were in office for eighteen factions. He suffered further due to Britain’s consecutive years. undignified retreat from the ERM on Black Margaret Thatcher was prime minister for eleven Wednesday, and the consequent devaluation of the years, but in 1982 she was the most unpopular prime pound. Major as Chancellor had persuaded minister in history according to opinion polls, largely Thatcher to join the ERM just prior to her due to a rapid rise in unemployment. The turning downfall, and the public identified him with this point in her administration was the Falklands policy. This tarnished the Conservatives’ reputation conflict, which restored her prestige in the eyes of for astute running of the economy. Criticism was the electorate. She gained successive victories in 1983 also directed at the largest increases in taxation since and 1987 with formidable Conservative majorities. the Second World War, the state of the public Thatcher benefited in 1983 from a divided services and ‘sleaze’. The latter phenomenon opposition with the emergence of the SDP/Liberal destroyed Major’s ‘back to basics’ campaign, Party alliance and by the disarray of the Labour intended to reduce crime and anti-social behaviour Party. In 1987, Conservative economic policies were but associated in the press with the string of sexual seen to be working, the opposition remained divided, and financial scandals concerning Conservative and a majority of white-collar workers and the MPs in Major’s second term. changing geography of the vote resulted in more The Labour Party’s move to the right attracted Conservative voters. many voters and some of the previously hostile In her third term in office, criticism was levelled tabloid press, notably the Sun, which claimed to at Thatcher’s leadership style as conviction politics have won the 1992 election for Major but backed came to appear like overbearing bossiness, a charge Labour and Tony Blair in 1997. Eighteen years in previously aimed at her during the Westland opposition had forced Labour to review their Affair. The introduction of the poll tax and her policies and to impose tight discipline on the party increasing intransigence in Europe made her and marginalize the radical left. Most privatized unpopular with the public and amongst some of industries would remain in the private sector, trade her own government. This resulted in the 1990 unions would not regain their pre-1979 powers, and leadership contest, which ultimately brought her the free market would be accepted alongside social resignation. Although Thatcher’s chosen successor justice. In 1996, Blair committed a future Labour was John Major, she soon publicly disagreed with government to the Conservatives’ spending targets him on certain policies, along with her Bruges in his attempt to woo the voters of middle England. Group and No Turning Back Group allies. This Despite evidence of economic recovery, the 1997 damaged Major’s credibility as prime minister general election was a disaster for the Conservative going into the 1992 election, when opinion polls Party, which received its lowest share of the vote predicted a narrow Labour victory. since 1832. No Conservative seats were left in 130 consumer language

Scotland or Wales, seven Cabinet members lost their sectors as diverse as higher education, where students seats and Conservative representation in the House have became consumers (a move likely to be of Commons slumped to 165. There was exacerbated by the imposition of tuition fees in 1998), considerable evidence of tactical voting to oust the and the railways, where passengers have been Conservatives, and Labour came to power with their redefined as clients or consumers of each rail service best-ever majority of 179. The average swing against provider. This phenomenon is, however, not only the Conservatives was 10.5 percent, though it was predicated on the privatization policies of the substantially greater in marginal constituencies. Thatcher government. In areas such as football, Amidst recriminations about who was to blame for spectators have changed from being ‘fans’ or the defeat, Major stood down and campaigning for supporters into a more ephemeral description of the party leadership began, leading eventually to ‘customers’, with traditional values of fan loyalty the accession of William Hague. being replaced by a more distinct emphasis on consumerism. This has been fuelled by a marketing See also: black Conservatives; Conservative boom which has sought to develop off-field sales governments; fringe groups (for example, Manchester United plc makes as much money from shop merchandise sales as from gate receipts). Further reading The change in language has been most starkly Cole, J. (1987) The Thatcher Years: A Decade of seen with the election of the Labour government Revolution in British Politics, London: BBC Books. in 1997, where economic and social ‘stakeholding’ Kavanagh, D. and Seldon, A. (eds) (1994) The Major has emerged as a concept which may be applied Effect, London: Macmillan. through the private and public sectors and beyond. Ludlam, S. and Smith, M.J. (eds) (1996) Consumers have a ‘stake’ in those businesses from Contemporary British Conservatism, London: which they buy goods and services, in tandem with Macmillan. the employees who work for the organization. However, in addition to this, the wider community COLIN WILLIAMS is deemed to have a stake in the organization, thus emphasizing the tripartite nature of the economy. consumer language There is a cynical temptation to see this linguistic repackaging as being part of a tendency to ‘put old The crucial element of consumer language is the wines in new bottles’. relationship between the providers of goods and services and the users of such products, and how See also: corporate identity; corporatism this relationship is described by the providers and GUY OSBORN others. Basically, new views of the producer- STEVE GREENFIELD consumer relationship have led to a number of terms and ideas being created. These have taken a number of forms, but essentially these shifts in terminology convenience stores with respect to consumers of goods and services have been part of a wider political realignment of the status In the early 1960s, service was the key to successful of the providers of such goods. Whereas there was selling. Therefore, unless the customer was in a previously a sharp distinction between the private position to make an expedition to department and public sectors, such lines have now become more stores, local shops were still more convenient and blurred as the effects of privatization upon parts of were all that most people could afford. Independent the public sector has become more apparent. This retailers also reinforced their advantage by has led to an altered view of the consumers of delivering goods to the customer. As time went on, services, at least with respect to the terminology. however, the local convenience stores found it Prime examples of such practices can be found within increasingly difficult to overcome the competitive corruption in the City 131 prices and stock variety of the department stores hoardings, television ads, company reports, staff and multiple chains. uniforms and so on. Assistants turn customers into In the 1970s, convenience stores enjoyed great mobile advertisements by giving them their success and quickly took over the high street, purchases in distinctive carrier bags. On the positive abandoned by department and chain stores due to side, homogeneity can lead to quality standards lack of space. At the same time, President Idi Amin being set. Marks & Spencer and Sainsbury have of Uganda expelled thousands of Ugandan Asians, been particularly successful in getting their names many of whom came to England with nothing but known in this way, and hence building brand their skills as shopkeepers and their willingness to loyalty which can be further developed by various stay open as long as there were customers. These store cards and supermarket banking. arrivals had a marked effect on the British shopping scene. Furthermore, magazine publishers like IPC, See also: consumer language; corporatism in an attempt to revive flagging sales, offered to MIKE STORRY help in redesigning the traditional confectionery, tobacconist and newsagent shops, producing shops with floor-to-ceiling rows of magazines and tempting racks of sweets near the till. corporatism The new-style corner shop once again provided Corporatism describes the arrangement whereby the customer with the convenience of being able government consults widely with relevant interest to call in at any hour of the night or day. Moreover, groups in order to formulate policies, especially in retailers quickly realized that consumers were less relation to economic planning. Corporatism was price-conscious when they shopped early or late. prevalent in the 1960s and 1970s after the They appeared to accept that convenience stores establishment of the National Economic Development were entitled to charge for the extra service they Council (NEDC) in 1962. This facilitated tripartite were providing. It was only in the 1990s that decision making between the British government, the convenience stores began to face stiff competition TUC and the CBI. The New Right criticized from supermarkets with extended opening hours corporatism for contributing to the nation’s economic and cheaper goods. decline by hampering market forces and giving too much power to pressure groups and trade unions. See also: cash and carry; discount stores; street Since 1979 the Conservative Party has been selling; supermarkets and malls antagonistic towards corporatism, as exemplified by the adoption of conviction politics, hostility to the Further reading European Social Chapter with its emphasis on social partnership and worker consultation, and John Kay, W. (1987) Battle For The High Street, London: Major’s dis-banding of the NEDC. Piatkus Publishers.

FATIMA FERNANDES See also: consumer language; corporate identity

COLIN WILLIAMS corporate identity corruption in the City It is only in the last fifteen years that multiple stores have established corporate identities which the In the late 1980s, a climate of greed encouraged a public recognize. They have commissioned logos number of bank frauds including Bank of Credit with distinctive colours and scripts, designed to and Commerce (BCCI), where thousands of Asian encapsulate the values inherent in the company. investors lost money. In other famous scandals, Nick These have become a form of shorthand which Leeson is credited with bringing down the merchant produces instant recognition on advertising bank Barings through unauthorized currency 132 cosmetics trading. Peter Young at Morgan Grenfell allowed specifically Revlons Eterna 27 for the over-thirties conflicts of interest to lose money for unit trust market. holders. Many of the leaders of privatized former After the idealistic and ebullient 1960s came the public utility companies were accused of enriching limping and cynical 1970s. Make-up was often themselves by voting themselves hugely increased natural, but more frequently it was very colourful salaries to ‘bring them into line with the private with heavily emphasized features and pencil-thin sector’; Cedric Brown, chairman of British Gas, eyebrows. The face painting of the 1960s continued became particularly notorious for this. Share-holders to some degree, heavily influenced by David Bowie. who believed they owned public utilities, both before Cosmetic products went ‘back to nature’, seemingly and after they were sold, became disgruntled. including lemons, avocados or apples in every cosmetic recipe. There was also the aggressive war See also: CBI; financial crises paint of the punk rocker (see punk rock). Advertisers relied heavily on the Belle Epoque for MIKE STORRY inspiration and many companies, like Yardley, often used reproductions of work by artists such as Klimt cosmetics to enhance packaging. The soft focus of the 1970s contrasted sharply In stark contrast to the ultra-sophisticated faces of with the vibrancy of 1980s make-up. There was the 1950s, the so-called ‘dollybird’ look of the 1960s also renewed interest in anti-ageing skin products, placed the emphasis on looking young, even and many companies joined the race to develop childlike, with eyes made up to be permanently the most beneficial anti-wrinkle cream. The 1980s agog. The 1960s also saw the development of was the era of power breakfasts, power walking customer beauty counters, where people could and power dressing, and make-up had to be equally experiment. Furthermore, the marketing of ostentatious. However, Anita Roddick, founder of cosmetics completely changed in the 1960s. The Body Shop, provided a welcome alternative Previously advertising had been earnest and dull, to women who found the boom era make-up a trifle with lengthy descriptions of the quality of the fussy. She was responsible for developing natural product, very similar to the scientific information skin products and cosmetics, and has made a given in the mid- to late 1990s, however; in the substantial difference to the production and 1960s cosmetics were publicized as sexual marketing of cosmetics. enhancers. Innuendoes flowed freely and explicit After the standardization of the groomed look erotic images were employed to sell the apparent in the 1980s, came the relief of experimentation sexual advantages of make-up and perfume. The and individuality in the 1990s. The 1990s most important cosmetic item was eyeshadow, consumer was far more sophisticated and educated aimed at the younger consumer who had gained in the techniques of cosmetics application. Products financial power in the 1960s. The Saturday morning were expected to be environment and animal shopper was a teenager, and department stores friendly, and the agenda was to enhance the were concerned with gaining their custom, which individual’s natural look without masking her own was easily achieved with every new shade and beauty or her personality. fabulous packaging. Mary Quant was the key figure in revolutionizing cosmetics in the 1960s. See also: accessories; lesbian chic False eyelashes and neon-frosted colours were a necessary part of the contemporary image. Quant Further reading continued to hold a dominant position, and in the Mulvey, K. and Richards, M. (1998) Decades of late 1990s she headed a thriving make-up business Beauty: The Changing Face of Women 1890s–1990s, and a string of retail outlets in Japan, where the London: Hamlyn. young gave her cosmetics cult status. The 1960s also the emergence of age-oriented skin creams, FATIMA FERNANDES country music 133 country music But with the appearance of k.d. lang there emerged a whole new appreciation of the country Originally known as folk music, old time music, music scene. In the United Kingdom, a lesbian hillbilly or country and western, country music country and western scene was fast developing, of developed in the USA in the early 1920s. The folk which k.d. lang’s music was a central part. Country music traditions of the UK were among the early music was being appropriated by this new British influences of country music in the United States. scene in a number of recently formed women-only The first country catalogue was issued in 1924 by clubs. In the Nashville version of country fashion, Okeh in the USA. The music continued to follow female performers dressed as feminine counterparts two general strains. First, there was the traditional to their men, in the traditional cowboy/ cowgirl mountain music variety, which was responsible for uniforms, but here, women were making a direct the success of performers such as The Carter Family; imitation of the male image in country music. in particular Maybelline Carter, whose influential Prior to the popular chicness of k.d. lang, there guitar playing guaranteed her a regular spot at the had emerged another new strain of country in Great Grand Ole Oprey for nearly two decades (1950– Britain in the late 1970s. It involved a gynaecologist 67). Maybelline’s daughter eventually married from London called Hank Wangford and Wes Johnny Cash, after the family ‘adopted’ him when McGee, a veteran pub rocker from the 1960s. he was at a low point, just before the start of his Wangford was first introduced to country music after successful career. The second strain of country music a meeting with Gram Parsons, who had been could be found in the more innovative style of instrumental in turning American folk-rock group Jimmie Rodgers, who popularized the combination The Byrds into a very country-oriented band in the of 12-bar blues with yodelling (a technique originally late 1960s. Parsons himself was considered too weird used by the blind guitarist Riley Puckett. Many see for the Nashville scene, but had made a huge impact Puckett as the first major country singing star, having on The Rolling Stones after he befriended Keith been the first to record a yodel at his first recording Richards, and the country influence is evident on session in 1924). the Rolling Stones albums Sticky Fingers and Exile On Country music was adopted on a large scale by Main Street. Wangford’s debut album for the Cow a Nashville radio station in the mid-1920s, and barn Pie label featured a host of top session musicians, dances were held, first locally, then nationally. notably Albert Lee, one of Britain’s foremost country These events proved so successful that the barn guitarists. Lee had previously played with Chet dance evolved into what is known today as The Atkins, a leading American country musician, and Grand Ole Oprey. Nashville became the had been a member of Emmylou Harris’s Hot Band. international centre of country music publishing He had also played with Eric Clapton and the in the 1940s, and then for recording in the 1950s. Everley Brothers. Albert Lee was also famous for The success of Hank Williams as a recording artist writing the song Country Boy, which became a British established the Grand Ole Oprey for good. country classic and was a hit for the American Country music has always carried the burden of country star Ricky Skaggs. Wes McGee was a well- being portrayed as having a tendency towards right- respected country player, both in Britain and wing or ‘redneck’ beliefs, so the arrival of k.d. lang America. He was the first British performer to be onto the American country music scene in the signed to a Nashville publishing company. 1980s apparently caused a great upset among the A surprise instalment in the history of British regular Nashville set, who were uncomfortable with country music is that provided by Elvis Costello. her androgynous appearance and her active Originally Costello, from Liverpool, was among promotion of vegetarianism and non-Christian the late 1970s new wave punks, with hits such as beliefs. Her records were played on various radio ‘Oliver’s Army’ and ‘I Can’t Stand Up For Falling stations, but only with a certain amount of Down’, but in the late 1980s he emerged with a reluctance on the part of disc jockeys, who would cool country album called Almost Blue, which inevitably comment upon her appearance. consisted of classic country covers and was recorded 134 Courtauld Institute in Nashville. To promote the album, he held a was joined in the enterprise by Viscount Lee of concert at The Royal Albert Hall and hired The Fareham (1868–1947), who had served as Director Royal Philharmonic Orchestra to perform, to wide of Food Production in Lloyd George’s acclaim. The Irish band U2 have also administration during the First World War, and acknowledged the appeal of country music, inviting by the lawyer Sir Robert Witt, who in 1903 had Wynona Judd of the American country duo The played an important part in the foundation of the Judds to perform live on stage with them during National Art Collections Fund. their 1987 American tour of their Joshua Tree album. The mission of the Courtauld Institute is the A mixing of various musical genres with country provision, at undergraduate, graduate diploma, MA music has resulted in its popularity being carried and research degree levels, of training and education through from 1920s America to 1990s Britain, with in the history of Western European art. It also runs the emergence of styles such as cowpunk, courses in museum studies and the preservation and alternative country, dark country and Irish country- restoration of works of art. The Courtauld Institute folk-rock. The old timers co-exist alongside the new, has a close relationship with the Warburg Institute, bringing country music to the attention of the youth which after being founded in Hamburg by Aby market and generating a whole new audience. Warburg, moved to London in 1933 and is devoted particularly to studying the survival and evolution See also: jazz of the classical tradition in art and thought. The Journal of the Courtauld and Warburg Institute is published annually. Granted the status of an institution within Further reading London University in 1944, the Courtauld Institute Vaughan, A. (1987) Who’s Who in New Country Music, moved in 1989 into Somerset House, one of London: Omnibus (with a foreword by Ricky London’s most impressive eighteenth-century Skaggs, a clear guide to the country music scene, buildings. There it has been possible to realize both in Britain and America). Courtauld’s dream of ensuring that students studying art history do so in the proximity of his ALICE BENNETT munificent bequest of pictures. The paintings, complemented not only by rich holdings of Old Courtauld Institute Master drawings but by a comprehensive library of books and an extensive collection of slides and other The Courtauld Institute takes its name from reproductions, make the Courtauld Institute with Samuel Courtauld. Born into a Huguenot family its four professors and many other specialists an that had fled from France to England shortly after exceptionally well-endowed centre for art history the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) and studies, and the public is admitted to the gallery. prospered, like many similar families, first as silversmiths and then as silk weavers, Courtauld See also: painting; Tate(s) became head of the textile firm bearing his name. CHRISTOPHER SMITH His artistic interests were fostered by his wife, Elizabeth Kelsey, and he formed a considerable collection of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist Covent Garden works of art, a sympathy for things French perhaps helping him to recognize their merits earlier than In 1946 the present theatre, the third on this central others did. A gift of £50,000 to London’s Tate London site, became home to the Covent Garden Gallery in 1923 to help repair deficiencies in its Opera (Royal Opera since 1968) and to the Royal holdings of French nineteenth-century paintings Ballet (Sadler’s Wells Ballet until 1956). Under was followed eight years later by an even more musical directors like George Solti and Bernard significant act of patronage when, on the death of Haitinck, Covent Garden became a major his wife, he endowed the Courtauld Institute. He international opera house, and its ballet is also Crafts Council 135 highly rated. However, criticism has been levelled Arts Council on the one hand and the Design at large subsidies, inconsistent standards, high ticket Council, with its remit to improve commercial prices and, despite efforts to widen audience appeal, design, on the other. The Arts and Crafts elitism. Winning substantial National Lottery Movement had emerged as a force in British funding, the Royal Opera House closed Covent cultural life in the late nineteenth century, and Garden in 1997 for two years of redevelopment, voluntary efforts, both in London and in the planning to perform in the meantime at other provinces, to provide encouragement and attract venues in London. official recognition through coordination in a sphere where individualism is always at a premium began See also: opera; opera singers before the Second World War, in the course of which some central organization developed. CHRISTOPHER SMITH Progress for the Crafts Centre of Great Britain proved slow, however, grant aid was meagre, and frustration appears to have fuelled disputes over Cox, Alex policy. Changing the name to the Crafts Council of Great Britain in 1964 was a bid for enhanced b. 1954 status. Film director Fortunes improved with the return of the Conservative government in 1970 when the Pay- LA-based film-maker Cox achieved cult status with master General, Lord Eccles, set up the Crafts his debut Repo Man (1984), interspersing elements Advisory Committee to make recommendations of bizarre Americana, punk subculture and popular for meeting the needs of ‘artistic craftsmen’ and music in a thriller fuelled by a vigorous imagination promote ‘a nationwide interest’ in their work. In with a satirical edge. Sid and Nancy (1985) denoted 1979 the Crafts Advisory Council became the his brief return to Britain, exem-plifying in the Crafts Council. A Royal Charter was granted in extreme Cox’s own fascination for protagonists 1982, with revisions in 1993 to reflect the trapped in environments of engulfing moral or extension of the Council’s responsibilities to physical degradation, corruption providing a Scotland. The Council fulfils its dual role of thematic core of his attack on American imperialism educating the public and supporting artist in Walker (1987) and the naturalistic cult classic craftspersons by offering advice and commissions, Highway Patrolman (1991). The seedy lowlife Las collecting particularly fine examples of new work, Vegas of The Winner (1998) underscores Cox’s mounting exhibitions, arranging lecture penchant for humorous, offbeat narratives, while the programmes, and publishing specialist catalogues indulgent Straight to Hell (1986) typifies his excesses and periodicals. Having first moved from rather in a career noted for its glaring incon-sistencies. unsatisfactory premises on Hay Hill (off SATINDER CHOHAN Piccadilly) to Waterloo Place, the Craft Council’s London base is now at 44a Pentonville Road, Islington, where the public can enjoy a succession Crafts Council of imaginative exhibitions. Promoting not handicraft pastimes, but the high- grade skills, artistry and innovation of such ‘hands- Further reading on’ craftspersons as potters, metal workers, jew- Harrod, T. (1994) Factfile 3: The History of the Crafts ellers, bookbinders, weavers, knitters, quilters, Council, London: Crafts Council. embroiderers, stone masons, calligraphers, wood turners and furniture makers (rather than semi- CHRISTOPHER SMITH industrial traditional specialized tradesmanship), the Crafts Council occupies a niche between the 136 crazes crazes Spice Girls. A manufactured all-girl band with six consecutive number one singles, the ‘spice girl’ brand British culture has witnessed a number of youth quickly proliferated into many areas of product crazes such as the hula hoop in the 1950s and the endorsement. Clothing and dolls were also produced Rubik’s cube in the 1970s. The Rubik’s cube (to and a successful film, Spice World, was released. take an example) was based around the solving of a cuboid puzzle with six different coloured sides See also: bungee jumping with each side made up of nine separate coloured STEVE GREENFIELD squares. These were jumbled and the puzzle GUY OSBORN involved reconstructing the cube to recreate the six sides of original colour. The puzzle spawned a playground culture of ‘moves’ and ‘strategies’ that was exacerbated by time considerations. Manufac- credit cards turers built upon this fascination and adapted the Though regarded as temptations to extravagance concept to include different shapes and designs when introduced into the UK in the 1960s, credit (such as spheres). Similar crazes arose around other cards soon became, at home or abroad (and for desirable playground ‘must haves’ such as slime telephone orders as well as face-to-face purchases) and silly putty. an acceptable alternative to cash for all but the In recent years crazes have tended to develop smallest payments for goods and services, and as multimedia events. Perhaps the best example of displaced cheques for many moderate-sized ones. the early 1990s was the Teenage Mutant Ninja By 1997, over one-quarter of shop and garage Turtle craze, where not only were the figures transactions were paid by credit card. Credit cards desirable artefacts but a whole merchandising first emerged in the USA, where Diners Card and machine was brought into play with a number of American Express began as a convenient means of products built around the same theme. Many paying travel and entertainment expenses. Banks Disney films have produced merchandising spin- and, more recently, building societies act as agents offs, and there has been a shift from the general for such card providers as Visa and MasterCard, craze towards specific marked designer goods. recruiting their customers as credit card holders. The craze becomes more pronounced when the On paying a small annual fee and after a check on availability of the product is limited due to an their creditworthiness, they receive a small plastic unpredictability of demand. This is further fuelled card personalized by both identification numbers when such (non) availability is immediately prior to and a magnetic strip or microchip. Instead of times of conspicuous consumption, such as tendering cash or a cheque, purchasers present their Christmas. Christmas 1997 was notable for example card and sign a voucher on which details are by the rush to obtain Teletubbies, small furry android recorded manually or electronically. The credit card creatures known by the individual names of Tinky- provider then bills them monthly for all their credit Winky, Dipsy, Laa-Laa and Po. The success of the card expenditure. Provided holders respect a television programme was not originally anticipated, previously agreed upper limit and clear their debt and demand far outstripped supply with numerous within the quite short period stipulated, no newspaper reports of Telletubby auctions and violent surcharge is levied for what is technically a parental encounters in the quest to obtain one. At revolving credit facility. Holders need not, however, the same time videos, books and children’s cutlery pay off more than a relatively low percentage of were produced to fuel the demand for all things their debt each month; this may ease temporary related to the Teletubbies. Some two months later, cash flow problems, but interest is charged at quite stocks were high and shops were overburdened an expensive rate on any outstanding debt. illustrating once more the temporal nature of such Retailers and service providers, whose profits crazes. A further prime example of the multimedia probably rise with higher turnover without delays dimension to crazes is provided by the phenomenal for cashing cheques, some of which may never be cricket 137 honoured, receive from the credit card provider millennium. The project has raised questions as to prompt payment for all transactions, but a small whether knowledge about the basis of human life percentage is deducted. This deduction, together is patentable, and has reawakened the nature- with interest on uncleared debts, makes the nurture debate. Crick, in particular, has recently enterprise profitable for credit card providers been reported as emphasizing genetic determinism, despite the cost of computers and administration. but it is far from clear that this is his final position. Marketed to more affluent members of the public, ‘Gold’ cards generally charge higher annual fees, See also: science but offer cheaper and longer credit for larger sums. PAUL BARRY CLARKE Store cards do not seem very different to users; the disadvantage of their being acceptable only in a single store or chain is often offset by discounts on cricket purchases that are justifiable because customer loyalty is maintained. Debit cards (such as Switch) Cricket is a bat-and-ball summer game with elaborate operate virtually as electronic cheques. ‘laws’ and terminology baffling to outsiders but very clear to initiates. It is played, under two ‘umpires’, See also: hire purchase; promotions; sales by two teams of eleven on a level ‘pitch’ of closely mown turf twenty-two yards in length, in the middle of a grassed ‘ground’. Ideally elliptical with a seventy- Further reading yard radius, grounds vary considerably in size and Sayer, P.E. (1988) Credit Cards and the Law: An shape, which casts doubts on statistics of team and Introduction, London: Fourmat (presents issues individual performances in reference books like generally before discussing legal aspects). Wisden’s Cricketers’ Almanack (annual since 1864). At the two ends of the pitch are ‘wickets’, three twenty- CHRISTOPHER SMITH eight-inch wooden ‘stumps’ set to give an overall width of nine inches, with two wooden ‘bails’ resting Crick, Francis and Maurice in grooves across them. ‘Creases’ are marked out four feet in front of each wicket. Wilkins The captain winning the toss of a coin opts to Crick b. 1916, Northampton; Wilkins b. ‘bat’ or ‘field’ first. In white trousers, shirt and 1916, Pongeroa (New Zealand) pullover, wearing a cap (or visored helmet), padded gloves, leg-pads and other protection, and equipped Scientists with a willow bat four and one-half inches wide Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, together with and thirty-eight inches long, including handle, the James Watson, can be said to have fundamentally batsman ‘opening the innings’ takes his stance advanced knowledge of the way in which heredity sideways on at the crease before one wicket; and biology affect the human body. In the early another batsmen, momentarily a virtual spectator, 1950s, Wilkins and Crick discovered that the basic stands by the other. The batsman endeavours to building block of human life was to be found in score ‘runs’ by striking the ball at least far enough deoxyribonucleic acid, a molecule taking the form to allow him to run to the opposite wicket, as his of a double helix which underpins the protein partner runs to take his place. If time permits, more structure necessary for life. This insight led to a than one run can be scored from a single hit. Should basic understanding of human life. Combined with the ball be hit over the boundary, six runs accrue; computerized methods of analysing each part of four are scored if the ball touches the ground on the human gene, it has led to the internationally the way before going over the boundary. supported human genome project. The aim of that The bowler, rotating his arm through an arc project is to have a complete map of the genetic above his head, casts the hard leather-covered ball make-up of human life by the end of the (three and one-half inches in diameter) down the 138 cricket pitch towards the wicket guarded by the batsman. tension mounts up surprisingly, often to the very The bowler does not throw the ball: ‘throwing’, or last moment. jerking the arm while bowling, is outlawed. By Cricket, an ancient game which underwent delivering the ball at varying speeds (up to ninety development in the eighteenth century, took its miles per hour), and making it swerve in the air or present form in the nineteenth century within the turn to either side when landing on the pitch in general evolution of sport for both spectators and front of the crease, bowlers aim to dismiss batsmen participants, with the public schools playing a major and prevent them scoring runs. On completion of role. Sometimes seen as character-forming— for an ‘over’ of six deliveries, the first bowler is replaced example, ‘that’s just not cricket’ became a byword by another, who bowls from the opposite wicket at for underhand conduct—cricket is played and whichever batsman is then facing him. The discussed with great earnestness and rumours of alternation of ends is maintained throughout the cheating are taken very seriously. innings. Selecting a suitable bowler at any particular In Test matches, England’s recent record has juncture is a major responsibility for the captain. been disappointing. The County Championship, A batsman is ‘out’ (and replaced by the next) if for the eighteen English counties that have over the ball penetrates his defence and topples the the last century acquired ‘first-class’ status and play wicket (or strikes his leg-pad in front of it), or if, four-day matches, has not much public support; while trying to defend his wicket or hit a run, he the lower-level Minor Counties Championship, strikes the ball into the air and it is caught before with two-day matches, has even less. To revive touching the ground by the wicket-keeper (who interest, gain television coverage and make money, stands behind the wicket wearing pads and gloves) various sponsored one-innings championships have or any of the fielders, whom the captain has been introduced since 1963; only a limited number positioned, at his discretion, to prevent runs being of overs are allowed for each innings, and the result scored and to hold catches. The batsman is also depends simply on scores without the possibility out ‘stumped’ or ‘run out’ if in trying to strike the of a draw. Crowds at grounds and high viewing ball or attempting a run, he quits the crease and figures prove there is a following for this rather any member of the fielding side breaks the wicket more exciting form of cricket, though purists with the ball before the batsman runs back. disapprove. The batting side’s innings continues until ten Traditional distinctions between ‘gentlemen and of its members are out or the captain, judging the players’ (amateurs and professionals) were jet- score high enough, ‘declares the innings closed’. tisoned in 1963, and though attempts by Australian Now the other side must try to score more runs. media tycoon Kerry Packer to put the game on a The new side wins the match provided it does. But, different financial basis in the 1970s failed after should it fail to do so, and if the side bowling second causing disruption, pay has now improved. The cannot dismiss all the other team’s batsmen, then Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), founded in 1787, the match is not a win for the first side, but a ‘draw’. retains, like its famous Lord’s Ground in London, A ‘tie’ results when scores are even. Ties are rare, something of its mystique, but has had to yield but many matches end as draws, to the irritation authority to the Cricket Council and the Test and of unsophisticated spectators. County Cricket Board, and may have to cede Most matches are decided, often in a lengthy further ground to the England and Wales Cricket afternoon, on a single innings by each side. Matches Board. Reforms are regularly mooted, but often at higher levels involve two innings by each side opposed. Local leagues of every variety flourish at and last from two to five days. ‘Tests’ — lower levels, particularly in Yorkshire and internationals between countries like Australia and Lancashire, but school cricket has declined, with India, whose cricket dates back to imperial times— implications for the future of the game. Cricket is, are generally held across a summer in ‘series’ of however, gaining popularity in countries outside from three to six matches. This is a long time, and the Test match ambit, such as Holland; and the tempo can occasionally appear leisurely, but women’s cricket, boasting a long history, has been cricket 139 steadily developing from a small base to impressive the mid-1990s provoked a barrage of protest). standards. Famous for its late presenter, Brian Johnston, The quintessential English game, cricket has typically eccentric commentators, genteel remained much the same for 200 years. However, commentary and chocolate cakes sent in by this sense of stability and tradition has come under listeners, Test Match Special (and by extension cricket increasing threat from broadcasters, and their desire in general) forms part of the core of Englishness to secure and guarantee ratings, over the last twenty and evokes images of a rural, pre-industrial England years. This is most clear in the growth of the one- that for most people is no more. day game, especially since the 1970s; county fixtures The county championship is contested by last four days, with drawn games common, but this counties from all over England, plus Glamorgan in is very much cricket for the purist, with the emphasis Wales. Cricket is played in Scotland and Ireland but on classic technique and tactical thinking. One-day only at a very low level, and in Britain it is essentially cricket is television-driven and has coloured kits. But an English sport. The most recent addition to the while it has damaged levels of technique (except county scene, Durham, arrived with much fanfare fielding), it is undeniably popular, since it only lasts in the early 1990s, but the team has struggled badly. one day, nearly always generates a result and brings Indeed the absence of a relegation system that saves considerable revenue into the game. It has long been Durham is cited as one reason for cricket’s decline a favourite of the television stations, and these games since the halcyon decades of the 1950s, in terms of regularly sell out. attendances and playing standards. By the midway England’s five-day Test matches against other point in the season most counties have nothing to countries have largely retained their popularity over play for, and the lack of relegation means there is no the postwar period, with the Lord’s Test always reason to keep playing hard. Journalists have claimed one of the great social and sporting occasions of for years that most players have no incentive to the summer. Although still essentially an upper and improve or entertain, to the detriment of the Test middle-class sport, cricket successfully spread its side and the sport overall. appeal to all classes (particularly via one-day However, after various experiments with matches), though some critics consider this more a different administrative systems, it was decided in problem than an achievement. It also has a strong 1996 to change the game’s structure, with the cultural significance, reinforcing traditional images creation of an England and Wales Cricket Board, of England, like the old elites, the village green and though talk of introducing divisions into the church, fair play and other concepts of what it championship (to sustain interest through the means to be English, a case argued by Prime season) proved premature. There has never been Minister John Major, amongst others. It is no an organized transfer market, but the strict rules accident that Oxford and Cambridge Universities on the hiring of new players were clearly not still play first class fixtures against the counties. working by the 1990s, and some counties want a The modern game comprises three one-day formalized system of compensation when players knockout competitions and the County change counties. Championship, with the season lasting from April Kit sponsorship was only introduced in the early to September. Crowds are often low, especially in 1990s (usually attracting brewing companies), and the dark and damp of April, because each day’s cricket’s ethos remains rather ‘amateur’, even play lasts until evening, and there are frequent lulls though professionalism was introduced decades between periods of play. However, this just ago. But the pay structure has become increasingly reinforces other cultural aspects of the game, with unbalanced, with Test players earning very hampers and bottles of champagne common among considerable sums, and the rest far below them (in spectators. BBC Radio 4’s Test Match Special is one 1995, the minimum wage for a capped county of Britain’s longest running radio programmes, and player was just £14,500). ‘Benefit years’ were has carved out a place all of its own in the traditional introduced to reward the long-serving ‘journey- cultural imagery of ‘England’ (plans to drop it in man’ professional who never makes a fortune from 140 crime drama cricket, but increasingly in practice, benefits have by viewers ‘assisting’ detectives in the crime only come to help established stars; some lesser investigation and putting the world to rights has names actually lost money. been viewed by critics as inherently ideological and But while football’s commercial ethos has been supporting the processes of cultural hegemony. In absent, winning in cricket has always been very the 1960s, the realism of the BBC’s influential Z- important, especially at Test level, where success Cars series, characteristically featuring police officers and failure have regularly become common (if tackling juvenile and community crime in a rather debatable) metaphors for the state and mood northern town, was underpinned by the postwar of the nation. The 1980s and 1990s saw England democratic urge for social reform. By the 1970s such generally perform poorly, or not as well as expected, consensus views had broken down, and Euston and more significantly, saw allegations of bowlers Films’ The Sweeney, which featured a maverick illegally doctoring the ball, on-field rows between Flying Squad Inspector’s tough, all-action response captains and umpires, and a drugs episode (a Sussex to armed robbery, acted out the populist player was banned in 1996 for nineteen months authoritarian urge to hit back at crime, stirred up for taking cocaine). There have also been by the moral panic about ‘mugging’ in the right- allegations of racism by top English players, and wing press. racist arguments about the ‘loyalty’ of non-English The search for up-market viewers in born players (England have picked naturalized contemporary crime drama has led to an increasing players from South Africa, Zimbabwe, West Indies emphasis on the detective’s individualism—to focus and New Zealand since the early 1980s). on protagonists who stand apart from the rest of the Cricket is undoubtedly the English national team—and also to turn to characters already summer sport, but it now has to face challenges established in print. Both of these tendencies are from other sports (the football season encroaches exemplified in Central TV’s prestigious Inspector a bit more on the cricket season every year), and Morse series. An ongoing trend in quality crime from the demands of television. However, its very programmes such as Taggart (Border TV), Morse, A continuity and slow pace of change forms much of Touch of Frost (Yorkshire) and Silent Witness (BBC) is its appeal (the chairman of Glamorgan estimates to use their greater narrative length to explore ‘dark’ that 1.4 million children play cricket each year, and crimes and to key into popular anxieties surrounding 10.6 million people follow it), which represents an serial killers, sexual abuse and the occult. In interesting problem for the authorities for the particular, Granada’s controversial Cracker series future. (acclaimed by critics but criticized by watchdog bodies) carries over something of the challenge formerly associated with serious television drama Further reading (see drama on television) in its uncompromising Green, B. (1988) A History of Cricket, London: Barrie application of forensic psychology to violent crime. & Jenkins. In no area has crime drama been more visibly Wynne-Thomas, P. (1987) The History of Cricket, responsive to shifts in culture over the course of Norwich: HMSO. time than in its choice of police and detective protagonists. Following the pioneering success of REX NASH Juliet Bravo (BBC) and The Gentle Touch (LWT) in CHRISTOPHER SMITH the early 1980s, women detectives now head contemporary quality series such as Silent Witness, crime drama Hetty Wainthrop Investigates (BBC) and the excellent Prime Suspect series (Granada), which has continued Crime drama forms an important part of adult to engage the institutionalized sexism of the police. television viewing in Britain, and in the mid-1990s The representation of ethnic minority groups is not police and detective series dominated the mid- yet so fully developed, but in series such as The Bill evening schedules. The vicarious pleasure enjoyed (Thames), Thief Takers (Central) and Out of the Blue Cullinan, Edward 141

(BBC), black officers are regular members of the encourage shoppers to take advantage of police team. differential prices, particularly in relation to wines, spirits and tobacco, which have become much See also: thrillers, detective and spy writing cheaper on the Continent than in the UK. Many shoppers only took advantage of the duty-free allowances available on cross-Channel ferries, but Further reading others drove vans to France to stock up in the Clarke, A. (1992) ‘“You’re nicked!”: Television hypermarkets. Purchases are ostensibly for private Police Series and the Fictional Representation consumption, but in reality many are for resale. of Law and Order’, in D.Strinati and S.Wagg The EU has tried to homogenize tax rates and (eds), Come on Down: Popular Media Culture in Post- remove duty-free allowances on sales on airplanes War Britain, London: Routledge, pp. 232–53. and ferries between European countries, but has so far failed. BOB MILLINGTON

See also: cash and carry; discount stores; supermarkets and malls Crosby, Theo MIKE STORRY b. 1925, Johannesburg (South Africa); d. 1994, London crusties Architect and designer The term is applied predominantly to males, but Born in South Africa, Crosby arrived in England in also includes females. Crusties are young drop-outs 1947. He worked on the influential Architectural who wear ‘encrusted’ dreadlocks or long matted Design and then went on to found Pentagram, a hair and unfashionable nondescript baggy clothes group which provides an extensive range of design (parkas, army trousers, fishermen’s jumpers), services in many fields. Examples of their usually of dark colours. Females wear long black environmental design are Lewisham shopping centre ‘granny’ dresses and home-made bangles or and the Arts Council shop in London. Crosby is a possibly beaded hair. Crusties often have dogs great believer in visual complexity and compound (cross-bred Alsatians are popular) which they keep symbolism. He considers the built environment the on leads made from a piece of string. Their product of many complementary skills, not just or bohemian lifestyle often involves living commun- even primarily those of architects. Working with a ally and the use of soft drugs. Crusties are evident team of designers at Pentagram, his remodelling of in the high streets of many of Britain’s towns, and a section of Nash’s Ulster Terrace in Regent’s Park are especially in evidence in Winchester, demonstrates Crosby’s emphasis on fine detail and Glastonbury and other towns with a reputation for patterning. Pentagram have produced the signage being havens for hippies. for many notable buildings, from the British Library, the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Tate MIKE STORRY Galleries to the Barbican and Lloyd’s. PETER CHILDS Cullinan, Edward

b. 1931, London cross-Channel shopping Architect Cross-Channel shopping trips have become a Educated at Cambridge and Berkeley, Cullinan British phenomenon since the UK joined the established his own architectural practice, Edward European Union. Coach and ferry companies Cullinan Architects, in 1965 after an eight-year 142 current affairs period with Denys Lasdun. He has been a professor issues of politics, arts, science and sport. The debate at London, Sheffield and Edinburgh Universities, is conducted through the cross-examination of and has won many prizes including the 1991 experts, usually by regular presenters who can be Financial Times Architecture Award for the RMC determining in any conclusion that is reached or International Headquarters work which he carried how the debate is closed. The programme is out in 1985–9. Significant building projects are anchored to the voices and personalities of the Horder House, Hampshire (1960), Minster Lovell presenters, and its distinctive character is further Mill, Oxfordshire (1972), Parish Church of St Mary, stamped by the insertion of features, a quiz and Barnes (1984), and the Visitor Centre at Fountains listeners’ views. Abbey and Studley Royal (1992). Noted for what Television current affairs tends to locate the the Architectural Review christened ‘romantic presenter behind a desk with occasional forays to pragmatism’, Cullinan’s bor-rowings from the a less formal area. While the desk infuses authority, logical approach of modernism reconciled the armchairs, while remaining resolutely traditional materials, highly skilled craftwork and unnatural, indicate an approach that is more a sense of propriety. leisured and discursive than the news. One of the walls of the studio will function as a screen for the PETER CHILDS back projection (chromokey) of reports and interviews with experts or correspondents who are current affairs not in the studio. The effect is to suppress any appearance of the means of production which might Current affairs, news bulletins and documentary allow the premise or the authority of current affairs all employ actuality. While news can be seen as to be called into question. communicating daily events of note, or at least those events which are construed as properly See also: news, television; teletext belonging to the discourses of news, current affairs explores the issues that ground those events, the Further reading context of those issues and explanations for them. It rarely initiates public debate, usually responding Eldridge, J. (ed.) (1995) Glasgow Media Group Reader, to issues that have been brought into the public vol. 1, News, Content, Language and Visuals, sphere through other discourses such as politics, London: Routledge. scandal or economics. Accordingly, current affairs JIM HALL programming tends to comprise either a mixture of report, structured discussion and debate usually involving experts or extended reports unsupported cycling by discussion. Where there is discussion, especially where that Cycling is not a huge professional sport in the UK, takes the form of debate, it is led by a presenter. despite high participation rates and the fact two The role of the presenter is crucial in that he or she million bicycles are sold in Britain annually, and interprets or mediates both a range of facts around the days when British teams could seriously the issue and the way in which the experts present challenge for top honours are just a memory. But them, on behalf of the viewer or listener. The individually, British cyclists have much to celebrate convention of the presenter or anchor-person as in the 1990s, and it is hoped that new facilities will the linchpin around which the debate flows is raise the profile of cycling and performances. compromised by the fact that the presenter The 1960s saw a strong British challenge for negotiates both facts and defining questions, and top honours, notably the Tour de France and the orders or even selects the assembled experts. Tours of Italy and Spain, led by Tommy Simpson, The BBC World Service daily radio programme but performances have since declined. In 1985 a The World, for instance, structures discussion around British team did enter and complete the Tour de cycling 143

France (ANC-Halfords), but by the mid-1990s the Olympic games; it was built despite the failure of chances of such a challenge happening again had that bid, going on to host national and international become remote. However, this should not detract events. By 1996 the Velodrome had a six-month from the individual performances of Chris queue for bookings, and is considered a success. Boardman, Max Schiandri and Graeme Obree, However, cycling is short of money, a situation who have won many important events during the not helped by the cancellation of top races: the 1990s. Boardman is the best-known British cyclist, prestigious Milk Race was last held in 1993, and with medals at the 1992 Olympics, a 1996 time in 1995 sponsors declined to support the Tour of trial and prestigious world pursuit victories to his Britain, which was likewise cancelled. The British name. Obree is best known for his technological Cycling Federation (BCF) has itself faced internal advances. The design of bicycles and of cycling and media criticisms, struggling in 1996 to retain positions can be crucial, but Obree’s innovations its Sports Council grant of £400,000, and accused have caused controversy, with some of his saddle of poor management, conflicts of interests and designs and cycling positions banned at inefficiency. An eleven-strong emergency international competition. Schiandri won the committee was set up in late 1996 to address these bronze medal in the 1996 Olympic road race. issues. There are fears that the future of cycling in Boardman has argued that cycling must the UK rests on the BCF’s ability to deal with these establish characters that people can relate to and questions. facilities to attract crowds, such as the £9m National Cycling Centre, if it is to develop. Opened in See also: bicycles September 1994, the National Cycling Centre was REX NASH originally part of Manchester’s bid to host the D

industry. Studios did not now need to dance music accommodate musicians, just samplers, sequencers, turntables, tape machines, drum Dance music evolved from the remnants of disco machines and synthesizers. An individual could in the mid-1980s. Like disco music, its characteristic now work from their own studio and produce a sound was that of repetition and was mainly studio successful hit. Dance became the music of produced. This heralded the changing nature of alienation and signified pop music’s conversion live performance, it being a rarity for live musicians to postmodernism, with its distance from the to be involved in the actual recordings of a dance actual artist or musician; hence the crossover from track due to the introduction of the digital sampler ‘song’ to ‘track’. The dance scene renounced its which could distort, edit or convert any pre- connection with disco as DJs started playing recorded sound. The mid-late 1980s saw the underground black American dance music, giving emergence of acts such as M/A/R/R/S with its it more credibility and status. Clubs like the seminal ‘Pump up the Volume’, Bomb The Bass Hacienda in Manchester, Cream in Liverpool and with ‘Beat Dis’, S Express’s ‘Theme From S- London’s Ministry of Sound emerged as main Express’ and Deelight’s ‘Groove Is In The Heart’, showcases for committed DJs. Dance became along with the harder American styles of Eric B & more innovative and experimental, and the skill Rakim’s ‘Paid In Full’, and Public Enemy’s to produce tracks using the latest equipment ‘Terminator X’. Like disco, dance has a distinct became an art in itself, but it also became too gay following. It addresses the listeners as dancers deanimated in reproduction, often burdening a rather than thinkers, the emphasis being on bodily track with its own accomplishments. expression and movement without thought, its rhythm plugged straight into the body. The dancer See also: clubs; hip hop; house; rave culture experiences the comfort of repetition, abandoning personal power and becoming subject to the track’s beats. This had large-scale appeal, including the Further reading rising notion of Gay Pride and the biggest re- Potter, R.A. (1998) ‘Not the Same: Race, Repeti- emergence of youth drug culture since the 1960s. tion and Difference in Hip-Hop and Dance It also brought about the promotion of DJs on a Music’, in T.Swiss, J.Sloop and A.Herman (eds), large scale, with club mixes, twelve-inch mixes and Mapping The Beat: Popular Music and Contemporary dance mixes of original songs. DJs had their own Theory, London: Blackwell. in-house systems by now, and were producing specialized mixes from their respective clubs. ALICE BENNETT The evolution of dance music could be looked upon as a protest against the established music daytime television 145

Davies, Terence See also: Hawking, Stephen; neo-Darwinism; science b. 1945, Liverpool PETE SHETERLINE Film-maker Davies is a film-maker whose two themes are the Day-Lewis, Daniel violent foundations of a sense of place captured through a heightened nostalgia, and the relation of b. 1958, London homosexuality to working-class culture and Actor institutionalized Catholicism. In his trilogy (Children (1974), Madonna and Child (1980) and Death and The nephew of former poet laureate Cecil Day- Transfiguration (1983)) Davies, charting the central Lewis and grandson of British film producer Sir character from life to death, captured physical Michael Balcon, Day-Lewis first came to endurance and spiritual ferment through domestic prominence in the lauded Stephen Frears film My hardship, sexual guilt and emotional repression. Beautiful Laundrette (1985). This was swiftly followed Distant Voices, Still Lives (1988) and The Long Day by the adaptation of E.M.Forster’s novel A Room Closes (1992) evoke Davies’s postwar childhood in with a View (1985). In My Left Foot (1989), Day-Lewis Liverpool and, while still marked with a troubled played the Irish writer Christy Brown, gaining haunting nostalgia for place and kinship, many critical plaudits for the manner in which he demonstrate a shift towards a more mainstream immersed himself in the role, spending time in a vision. Both films pointedly reflect the popular wheelchair to prepare himself. Never one to shy culture of the period. from contentious roles, he took the part of Gerry Conlon, wrongly convicted for IRA terrorism, in GUY OSBORN Jim Sheridan’s In the Name of the Father (1993). STEVE GREENFIELD GUY OSBORN STEVE GREENFIELD Dawkins, Richard daytime television b. 1941, Nairobi (Kenya) In the Radio Times in 1996, Polly Toynbee, the Biologist and writer former social affairs editor of the BBC, derided Dawkins is a biologist who has written on the the content of daytime television as ‘stupidvision’. scientific, religious and social implications of She called programmes on both BBC and ITV Darwinian evolution. He adopts an unconventional patronizing, and said that ‘most of the presenters perspective in which genes are the fundamental look like they have to pretend to be stupid because targets of natural selection which may individually they think their audience is’. The stations claimed survive, mutate or become lost from the pool of that their schedules were under review, but genes depending upon their ability to make a Toynbee’s view was widely reported. This reflected successful organism. In The Selfish Gene, he considers a crisis in programming, as stations vied for the social behaviour from this point of view, while in daytime audience consisting mainly of housewives, The Blind Watchmaker he details arguments that the the unemployed, students, shift workers, the retired evolution of complex living organisms requires only and the housebound. An index of the concern was the cumulative selection (by the prevailing that the Pebble Mill lunchtime chat show, presented environment) of useful errors, or mutations, in genes by Alan Titchmarsh and Sarah Greene, was and the laws of chemistry, but not the intervention scrapped after twenty-three years on air. of a deity. His lucid and compelling style has made The formats of programmes on different evolution interesting to a wide audience. channels are often the same. Many, such as BBC’s 146 Deardon, Basil

Good Morning and ITV’s This Morning, have a male designer and co-producer on several films. For many and female host who try to create a cosy, friendly critics, Deardon captured the competent, restrained atmosphere in which items of news and general British quintessence of the Ealing films, but his interest are presented for general discussion. commitment to the social problem film demonstrated Celebrities are often introduced and presenters try a resolute engagement with controversial issues to recreate a chatty low-key ‘elevenses’-style including the IRA in The Gentle Gunman (1952), gathering that theoretically could be taking place British cinema’s first interracial relationship in Pool around the kitchen table of any member of the of London (1952) and homosexuality in Victim (1961). home audience. That is, they are making up for The Man Who Haunted Himself (1970) was Deardon’s the family and friends who are being missed by last film before his death in 1971. the viewer. This feeling of immediacy and close friendship from television (which for teenagers is Further reading deemed dangerously anonymous and alienating) is promoted by the use of coyly named presenters Barr, C. (1993) Ealing Studios, London: Verso. like ‘Anne and Nick’ or ‘Richard and Judy’, to SATINDER CHOHAN suggest the boy and girl next door. It is a cynical formula which evidently works. Other daytime programmes include discussion delicatessens programmes involving studio audiences, such as The Time, The Place on ITV, and Kilroy on BBC1. Britain’s internationalism increased throughout the Despite their presenters’ bedside manners, they are 1990s as people from all over the world have settled cruder versions of the format perfected by Oprah here. Foods which were unavailable in the 1950s, Winfrey, whose show goes out later on Channel 4. such as dry spaghetti and rice, are now Can’t Cook Won’t Cook is a popular programme on commonplace. Supermarkets routinely stock BBC1 which uses canned studio laughter while hummus, halva, olives, nan bread and so on. cooks, sometimes in a state of undress, prepare food Caught between a new cosmopolitan atmosphere and tell anecdotes. BBC2’s Ready, Steady Cook differs and the fact that their cars are permanently stuck only slightly. The other main staples of daytime in traffic jams, urban dwellers, particularly television are endlessly recycled old films and quiz Londoners, have turned to visiting delicatessens and game shows, such as Fifteen to One or as a travel substitute; a sort of urban escapism Supermarket Sweep. ‘Stupidvision’ seems harsh, but focused on expensive ‘exotic’ food. Emphasis on arguably programming has become more populist the development of chic restaurants by owners like due to pressure for ratings. the Roux brothers and Terence Conran has also increased this focus on gastronomy, as have the See also: breakfast television numerous cuisines represented by street vendors selling kebabs, pizzas, shawermas and gyros. MIKE STORRY

See also: homeopathy; NHS

JAN EVANS Hopkins, Michael

b. 1935 homelessness Architect Three factors made homelessness a more visible Michael Hopkins is one of Britain’s most feature of British society and culture in the 1990s. prominent architects. Along with other award- First, as a result of economic recession, family winning architects such as Norman Foster (see breakdown and poverty, increasing numbers of Foster Associates) and Chris Wilkinson, young people were found living on the streets of Hopkins has been given a station on the new major cities for the first time. Second, under the Jubilee Line extension to design. His style is Conservatives’ ‘Care in the Community’ often called ‘friendly high-tech’, as opposed to programme, people released from mental the uniquely British phenomenon of high-tech institutions ended up on the streets. Third, John where buildings wear their insides on the Bird founded the magazine The Big Issue (based outside, combining structure and function, a on a similar idea in New York), which is sold by style owing more to the aircraft and space homeless people who keep 60 percent of the industries than to the organic or to human scale. proceeds. This brought homelessness into national His Lords Cricket Ground stand, designed with focus. The Labour Party set up a Social Exclusion his wife Patty, and his new, enlarged Unit, and in 1998 proposed that homeless people Glyndebourne Festival Theatre, which preserved should be forced to accept places in hostels. the countryside feel of its rural location, have both been well received. See also: poverty, families and MIKE STORRY MIKE STORRY homeopathy Horden, Richard Homeopathy is a system of medicine that aims to b. 1944 relieve suffering, to heal and to cure. It is based on Architect a very simple natural principle: ‘like cures like’. Hippocrates first referred to its principles in the Richard Horden trained at the Architectural fourth century BC, and the German physician Association from 1964 to 1969 and worked for Samuel Hahnemann rediscovered and made the Farrell Grimshaw Partnership (1971–2) and practical use of homeopathy in the nineteenth Foster Associates (1974–84), among others, century. Since Hahnemann, it has waxed and before establishing Richard Horden Associates in waned in popularity. In the 1990s, following an 1985. Devoted to principles of logic and clarity, extremely aggressive and stressful decade, holistic Horden has built distinctive houses by drawing approaches became very popular and commercially on modern boat technology, and he has also sophisticated. Consequently, homeopathy was very designed dwellings for Dorset craft workers, much in vogue and gained credibility through the yacht club-houses and a marina control tower. patronage of Prince Charles, filling the gap left by From 1989 he worked on a major new office the growing disillusionment with modern-day tower in Victoria, London. In the 1970s and conventional medicine. 1980s he developed high-tech projects such as hostages 259 the prestigious Sainsbury Centre for the Visual hang their boards over the rails (a coveted position Arts (1978). giving rise to the distinction between rails bookmakers and bookmakers in the ring or areas PETER CHILDS where any bookmaker may buy a pitch) between the members’ enclosure and Tattersalls, a less horse racing expensive enclosure housing the bookmakers themselves. The Silver Ring is the cheapest Horse racing in Britain takes place six days a week, enclosure with the worst view, and is often at the fifty-two weeks a year, and is in fact increasing with centre of the course. all-weather flat racing throughout the winter Modern racing is far less rigid and class- months and summer steeplechase meetings. In conscious than in the past, and efforts have been addition, recent changes to betting laws (revenue made towards a customer friendly approach. The from which funds the prize money for races) has night meetings under floodlights at allowed racing to take place on Sundays. Wolverhampton in particular are aimed towards Horse racing enthusiasts are divided into two a young audience. categories: those who follow flat racing, which takes place primarily during the summer, and those who See also: betting shops support steeplechasing, most of which occurs during the winter months. The traditional seasons Further reading are arranged in this way as softer winter ground is less damaging for the steeplechase horses. Blunt, N. (1977) Horse Racing: An Inside Story, Major meetings in the steeplechase calendar London: Hamlyn. include the Newbury Autumn Meeting, at JOHN E.CORNWELL which time the Hennessey Gold Cup is run. This meeting is generally accepted as the starting point for top-class steeplechasers, whose hostages calendar will include the Kempton Christmas Meeting for the King George, in preparation for In the mid-1980s, after the collapse of law and order, the Cheltenham Festival Meeting and the extremist Shi‘ite Muslims in Lebanon began taking Champion Hurdle and Cheltenham Gold Cup, Westerners prisoner in Beirut, including the Britons the winners of which are crowned as the leading John McCarthy and Brian Keenan. As many as steeplechase horses of the year. The three-day twenty-six were at one time held hostage by the Grand National Meeting stages the most Iranian-backed extremists, and though most were famous race in the calendar. This gruelling four released after several years, three Britons died. The and one-half mile marathon is the most watched forced detention of these alleged ‘spies’ and annual sporting event in the world. ‘subversives’ led to a Syrian invasion, which The major flat racing meetings echo the days attempted to restore authority but did not succeed when horse racing was a pursuit of the idle rich, in releasing the hostages. In the USA, the taking place as they do over four days during consequences were the Iran-Contra affair and its midweek. The Chester May Meeting with the offshoot, the ‘Arms for Hostages’ scandal. In the Epsom Derby trial, and indeed the Epsom Derby UK, Terry Waite, the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Meeting in early June, play second fiddle to the envoy, was despatched to Beirut to negotiate with splendour of Royal Ascot, Glorious Goodwood and the kidnappers but was himself taken hostage. By York in August. the late 1990s, all the surviving hostages had been The British racecourse is divided along released. traditional class lines, with the members’ enclosure MIKE STORRY being the most expensive to enter. Bookmakers are not allowed into the members’ area and instead 260 house house some hard house of the mid-1990s is virtually indistinguishable from techno. Other subgenres House music was originally developed in the early popular on British dancefloors include the grand 1980s by American musicians and DJs such as orchestral arrangements of ‘epic house’, the Latin Frankie Knuckles, Farley Keith, DJ Pierre and Chip- rhythms of Italian house, and the vocal emphasis E. Initially, house drew influence from up-tempo of ‘garage house’, named after the Paradise Garage R&B and Salsoul. In particular, house DJs took club in New York. records from these genres and ‘remixed’ them, re- Within dance culture, the DJs frequently editing them for the dancefloor and adding become more famous than the musicians percussion from newly developed drum machines. themselves. It has been suggested that British house In particular, the American gay scene championed DJs such as Sasha, Danny Rampling and Jeremy house as ‘its music’, and clubs such as The Sound Healy are the 1990s equivalent to the rock star. Factory in New York, and The Power Plant and The House music fans also have affinities with particular Gallery 21 in Chicago became focal points. The term clubs, and often travel hundreds of miles to visit ‘house’ is an abbreviation of the name of The their favourite club. Popular house clubs in Britain Warehouse club in Chicago, and was used by local at the moment include The Ministry of Sound in record shops to describe the music played there. London, Wobble in Birmingham, Cream in British dance culture imported house music in Liverpool, Rise in Sheffield and Slam in Glasgow. the late 1980s. Influenced by the style of house music played in Ibizan clubs during the summer of See also: clubs; hip hop 1987, a generation of new DJs and musicians STUART BORTHWICK returned from their holidays and set about attempting to recreate the Ibiza club experience back in the United Kingdom. The clubs of the late housing 1980s that were playing house music included The Hacienda in Manchester, and Spectrum and Shoom Housing in Britain has increasingly been dominated in London. by one type, the owner-occupied, single-family As the influence of house music has spread, it dwelling in a suburb, in marked contrast to practice has taken over from disco as the dominant form of elsewhere in Europe. It is not however the only form British dance music. In musical terms, house can of British housing, and emphasizing it masks the fact be described as an electronic dance music based that housing has, for most of the twentieth century, on a strict 4/4 time signature, with a sequenced been an extremely contentious issue and has been ‘kick’ drum on all four crotchets of each bar, at subject to huge and frequent shifts of taste and public speeds of around 120–130 beats per minute. policy. For example, between 1945 and 1969, 59 Melody and vocals are used to break up repetition. percent of housing construction in Britain was public, Like contemporary techno, there are now a a figure rarely matched in the then communist myriad of different styles of house. The subgenre countries of Eastern Europe. The picture has changed of ‘handbag house’ appears to be particularly radically since 1979, but the story of housing since popular on British dancefloors. Dance culture’s the Second World War is in many ways the story of usage of the word ‘handbag’ started life as a public housing, and responses to it. derogatory term for clubs where women danced Although the bulk of public housing (nearly two- round their handbags. However, since 1993 it has thirds) built since the war was of a traditional form, been used to describe house music that has that is a type of cottage, either terraced or semi- prominent female vocals, ‘break downs’ (where the detached, the building form that has come to kick drum stops, and the track ‘breaks down’, to symbolize the reconstruction most is the modern be built up again), and a proliferation of piano tower block. It is also the form that had the greatest ‘stabs’. ‘Hard house’ is the term used to describe impact on existing street patterns, and the visual house music with a more aggressive feel to it, and appearance of British towns and cities. Among the housing 261 first examples built by the state were the Roe- and early 1970s, Manchester built massive hampton estate, designed by the then London developments on the deck-access theme, most of County Council (LCC) in 1951, and the form of which have since been demolished. In London this estate established a pattern that would be there were various 1970s experiments on the theme followed elsewhere. The site was wooded, with some of low-rise high density, in which features of more variation of level; the slim twelve-storey point blocks traditional forms of housing, such as individual were arranged in groups, in a picturesque manner. enclosed gardens, made a return. They had balconies, and maximized the use of light Since the 1960s, the major changes in housing and space; the land they occupied was open and have been political rather than formal. The available for public use. The pattern of multi-storey Conservative government elected in 1979 carried out blocks in parkland was established here. its promise of allowing council tenants to buy their By the mid-1950s however, mainstream Modern own homes; shortly after, local government was Movement thinking, which had informed the forbidden from building any more public housing. production of LCC architects, was under pressure The provision of low-cost accommodation has from a tendency generally known as the new increasingly become the business of private housing brutalism. Its best-known adherents, Alison and associations such as the Guinness Trust or the North Peter Smithson, argued for a re-evaluation of earlier British Housing Association. Such organizations, built forms, and in particular they showed an interest using a mixture of private and public funding, have in established forms of working-class housing. Their come to be the major institutional presence in many research resulted in designs for ‘deck-access’ blocks, British inner cities, taking over the roles previously in which layered ‘streets in the sky’ would aim to assumed by local government. With a few recreate in a modern form the sense of community exceptions, however, the form of their building found in working-class terraced housing. The pattern projects has been conventional, in marked contrast was evidenced in the Smithsons’ own work at (for with the state housing projects they replaced. example) Robin Hood Lane, Tower Hamlets (begun Elsewhere in the inner cities, there have been 1968); the gigantic Park Hill complex in Sheffield many developments of high-income private also followed their example. housing since the late 1980s. The trend has been But if the new brutalism had led to a particularly marked in London, with areas close reassessment of LCC practice, outside of London to the City most subject to redevelopment; the high point block was the most characteristic elsewhere, there has been comparable development symbol of reconstruction, and designs from the in areas such as Glasgow’s Merchant City, early 1950s were the most common form in the Manchester’s Whitworth Street corridor, larger cities such as Birmingham, Salford, and Liverpool’s Concert Square and Birmingham’s (spectacularly) Glasgow. In these cities, housing Brindleyplace. In many cases, former warehouse production was led by local politicians, such as or office buildings have been converted, sometimes David Gibson, and the quality of the buildings to New York-style ‘lofts’, and where new building themselves was of secondary importance compared has taken place, it has often aped the style of these to their speed of production. The extraordinary older buildings. Retail and leisure developments cityscape on the outskirts of Glasgow is testament have frequently been a part of such schemes. to the drive of local politicians. The visibility, and commercial success, of inner If high point blocks were the most prominent city private developments does not however housing type in the major provincial cities, a 1968 indicate a decline in the popularity of traditional gas explosion at Ronan Point in the East End of forms of suburban housing. The overall numbers London, causing its partial collapse and four deaths, of professional people living in city centres remains was in many respects the downfall of the type, and small, and the vast majority of the new housing the building of multi-storey blocks—of whichever has been built for single people, not families. While type—declined sharply thereafter. In their place the inner cities might have been the site of major came a variety of alternatives. In the late 1960s change, the overall pattern since the 1960s has been 262 Hoyle, Fred one of continuing suburbanization, with resultant Hudson, Hugh pressures on areas designated as green belt. Whatever new developments, both private and b. 1936 public, there have been in the 1990s, ‘housing’ for Film-maker most of the population continues to signify a single family dwelling in a suburb. Hugh Hudson is a British film director who has become successful on both sides of the Atlantic. In See also: city redevelopment; town planning 1975 he set up his own production company and directed Chariots of Fire (1981), a drama set against the background of the 1924 Summer Olympics. Further reading Partly funded by Dodi Fayed, it won an Academy Glendinning, M. and Muthesius, S. (1994) To w e r Award as Best Picture of the year. The actress Andie Block: Modern Public Housing in England, Scotland, McDowell made her debut in Greystoke: The Legend Wales and Northern Ireland, New Haven, CT, and of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes (1984). In 1987 Hudson London: Yale University Press. raised Labour’s political vote through a personal profile dubbed ‘Kinnock: The Movie’. Lumière et RICHARD J.WILLIAMS Compagnie (1995) entailed inviting other film makers to use a restored Lumiere camera. His latest movie, Hoyle, Fred World of Moss (1998), directed for producer David Puttnam, was well received in America. b. 1915, Bingley MIKE STORRY Astronomer Fred Hoyle held a number of academic posts at hunt saboteurs Cambridge and was professor of astronomy at the Royal Institution from 1969–72. His work The Hunt Saboteurs Association (formed in 1963) on steady-state theory (the continuous creation is one of a number of groups spawned by the of matter) was superseded by the discovery of animal rights movement. The hunt saboteurs aim background radiation, but his work on stars to disrupt (‘sabb’) hunting of stags and foxes with confirmed that hydrogen is there converted to packs of hounds. They use ‘direct action’ (aniseed helium. He is known by the general public for trails, misleading hunting horns) and are officially books aimed at popularizing science, including pledged to non-violent methods, although two Highlights in Astronomy (1975), and for the fact saboteurs have been killed in recent years and many that he also wrote science-fiction, notably The have been hospitalized. Members have been Black Cloud (1957). His autobiography, The prosecuted for aggravated trespass under Section Small World of Fred Hoyle appeared in 1986. 68 of the Criminal Justice Act 1994. The HSA has Among his controversial hypotheses were the numerous local branches throughout the UK, and suggestions that life originated in interstellar popular support from a disparate range of people dust and that flu epidemics are linked to from hippies to professionals. Their principal sunspot outbreaks. opponents are the British Field Sports Society.

MIKE STORRY See also: science MIKE STORRY hyperreality Made famous by Umberto Eco’s book Travels in Hyperreality, this term refers to the condition of modern living as theorized by the French hyperreality 263 postmodernist philosopher Jean Baudrillard. In Increasingly, Euroamericans live in a world brief, the hyperreal exists when imitations or suffused with copies: simulations, recordings, representations become more ‘real’ than their prints, videos and so on. This is to the extent that originals, as when we prefer a sound recording to we sometimes confuse the ‘live’ with the ‘pre- the original, or would rather see a film of the Grand recorded’ (and so try to rewind a television Canyon than the Canyon itself. Disneyland is the programme we mistakenly think we are watching most-discussed example of the hyperreal as it on video) or prefer the artificial to the natural represents a perfect America (or jungle cruise, (phone someone in the hope that their answer- haunted house, or waterboat tour through scenes phone will take the call). Ultimately, the hyperreal of Caribbean piracy) which is ‘better’ than the real will have triumphed when we all prefer artificial life it supposedly copies. In Britain, the simulation human beings to real people (remember that environments of theme parks such as Camelot, or Disneyland attractions use automatons and not indeed the whole representation and marketing of actors). Shakespeare in the tourist industry at Stratford, represents this production, acceleration and See also: postmodernist theory circulation of idealized signs and kitsch products PETER CHILDS for consumers to purchase in mock-real but distinctly authentic surroundings. I

ICA been made to broaden its educative function. ICA Education was created in 1991 (now ICA The Institute of Contemporary Arts (ICA) was Interaction), with student placements and founded in 1948 to provide a conduit for the avant- internships and a series of discussions to develop garde within culture, and now is the foremost forum new audiences and foster more audience of its kind in the UK, promoting presentations, participation. One of its great strengths is its discourse and debate within contemporary art and constant self re-evaluation and a critical approach culture. Prime movers in the formation of the ICA to its work; the ICA is constantly looking for were the surrealist painter Sir Roland Penrose and different arenas and methods by which the aims of the poet and critic Sir Herbert Read, who became the ICA might be better served. Additional private the first President. The agenda was made clear funding through sponsorship is being secured and when the first exhibition on ‘40 Years of Modern new areas and ideas are constantly being utilized. Art’ opened in 1948, Herbert Read noting that Confines of space have meant that a move from ‘such is our ideal—not another museum, another the Mall is being considered and new sites are being bleak exhibition gallery, another classical building courted in order that the ICA can continue to fulfil in which insulated and classified speci-mens of a its mission statement and maintain its reputation culture are displayed for instruction, but an adult for originality, vitality and a ‘spirit of discovery’. play-centre, a workshop where work is a joy, a source of vitality and daring experiment’. See also: Arts Council; painting The ICA embraces a number of media including exhibitions, performance, experimental GUY OSBORN music, new bands, independent film and video, STEVE GREENFIELD literary events and conferences on cultural and scientific issues. Located in an imposing John Nash ice skating designed Regency terrace on the Mall, the complex comprises two art galleries, a cinema, cinemathe- There is prehistoric evidence for skating (with long que and seminar rooms. The mission statement bones for runners), and it is also known that the today is decidedly cutting edge and pluralistic, with Vikings used iron skates. Known as a mode of the avowed aim of involving all people from all winter travel in Britain since the early middle ages, backgrounds in the exploration of new ideas skating started gaining social prestige in the late (attempting to rebut claims of elitism); it also seeks seventeenth century after being adopted by to challenge orthodoxy in the arts, be a place of aristocratic refugees in the Low Countries, and interaction, and above all provoke debate. Deter- skating races were attracting attention in the Fens mined to increase its penetration, an attempt has by the 1760s. The modern sport, for both amateurs imported television 265 and professionals, emerged with the discovery in Illuminations the 1870s of techniques for freezing water to create more or less permanent ice rinks indoors and out. Illuminations is a multimedia company co-founded In speed skating, the competitors, whether men by John Wyver in 1983. It made its name in the or women, race counter-clockwise around oval tracks arts area with such programmes as K: Kenneth Clark over distances from 500 to 10,000 metres or, in ‘short 1903–1983, and live coverage of the Turner Prize track’ skating, on smaller tracks over distances up in 1993 and 1994. It addressed a new audience to 5,000 metres. In 1924 men’s speed skating was with The Net, which takes as its subject matter the included in the Winter Olympics; women’s speed new wave of digital communications, and has skating was admitted only in 1960. In figure skating, produced The Mirror, an online world that runs competitors, alone or in male-female pairs, must parallel with the series. In 1998, Illuminations won within a time limit perform a series of precisely the Times Educational Supplement Resources defined compulsory exercises, and also show a range Award for Mixed Media for The Music Shaw, a ten- of prescribed skills in a ‘free’ programme of their part television series for Channel 4 accompanied own devising. Similar rules apply to ice dancing, for by a CD-ROM, teachers notes and music activity male—female pairs. Scoring, in terms of both book for the classroom. technique and artistry, is carried out by a panel of MIKE STORRY judges whose individual marks are combined by complex formulae. The first world figure skating championship dates from 1896, and the sport was imported television admitted to the Olympic Games in 1908. After the first ice dancing world championships in 1952, the Imported television refers to the flow of discipline became an Olympic sport in 1976. programmes into a nation’s broadcasting system Ice-hockey, similar to hockey on grass or astro- from other national systems. While this has turf, is played on an ice rink (maximum 60m× 30m) traditionally meant the inward flow of individual between two teams of six, including a particularly programmes, the term can now be applied, with well-padded goalkeeper. A ‘puck’ —a composition the advent of cable and satellite technologies, to disc three inches in diameter—is used instead of a the importation of complete television channels (for ball. Fast and rough, the game, which is very example, CNN). The importation of programmes popular at both amateur and professional level in by British broadcasters started in a small way before Canada and is steadily gaining a following in the the Second World War, with short films and UK, has been an Olympic sport since 1920. cartoons, but it was only with the arrival of ITV in Thanks to Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, 1955 that imported material, especially American World and Olympic champions in 1984, ice programmes, found a major place on British dancing became popular on British television, and television screens (for example, Bonanza, Raw Hide the couple, turning professional, also contributed and I Love Lucy). Such well-made popular to the already considerable popularity of programmes, which could be sold cheaply as they spectacular shows on ice. At a recreational level, had already covered production costs in the home skating is still quite widely enjoyed in the UK all market, were used both by BBC and ITV to attract year round on indoor rinks in towns and on natural and keep new audiences. Since the 1960s, ITV and ice in the country in cold winters. the BBC have kept to a limit of 14 percent of foreign programming. Those arguing in favour of importation point Further reading out that broadcasters and audiences in Britain Heller, M. (ed.) (1979) The Illustrated Encyclopedia of benefit from the new forms of programming and Ice Skating, New York: Paddington. different cultural outlooks, which also keep down the costs of providing a full schedule. For example, CHRISTOPHER SMITH Channel 4 has become infamous for using 266 improvisation successful and popular American series to attract considered an essential component of drama in audiences and therefore advertisers, a strategy that education at all levels. Two manuals which have has freed money up for domestic production. had a huge impact on the teaching and practice of Others argue, in reference to the dominance of the drama are Keith Johnstone’s Impro and Clive commercial American product, that this ‘Wall-to- Barker’s Theatre Games. Wall Dallas’ is eroding and Americanizing the Following Theatre Workshop’s Oh What a indigenous culture and identity. Lovely War, improvising around research materials As broadcasting enters the third age (the first has become the staple method of TIE (theatre in was radio, the second was terrestrial television) with education) companies and those producing the appearance of satellite, cable and digital ‘documentary drama’ and ‘heritage drama’, where television, so the flow of programmes, both as the play is evolved and is structured through the discrete packages and in terms of television services, rehearsal process. In alternative theatre, is becoming more international. With more Monstrous Regiment and Joint Stock developed channels coming on-stream, many without the influential methods of working with actors and resources or revenue of the established channels, playwrights together, where the issues and ideas there is an increased reliance on the cheaply sold of a play were explored first through improvisation popular American product (though other sources before the writer shaped and structured a play- of supply do exist, such as Australia for soaps and text (for example, Churchill’s Vinegar Tom and Japan for cartoons). Likewise, the existing terrestrial Cloud 9, which are both remarkably broadcasters, trying to cut costs and compete with unconventional in form). the new channels, also see imports as an important Mike Leigh has refined a method of working part of their strategy for survival. However, research in private improvisation with actors on his suggests that domestically produced material is characters, before allowing them to meet and more popular than imports; for example, improvise situations which he eventually structures domestically made soaps constantly top the rating into a play. His work owes much to the ‘naturalistic’ tables of most nations. tradition and the results are recognizable ‘plays’, which may be why his work transfers so well to the screen. Further reading The ‘collective commitment’ that informs Collins, R. (1990) Television: Policy and Culture, theatre produced through improvisation is London: Unwin Hyman. indicative of the way the anti-star and anti-director system has evolved in alternative theatre, where PAU L RIXON ensemble practice in the cornerstone. A large number of companies work through collaborative improvisation methods rooted in improvisation to make their work, sometimes using a text as a springboard or Improvisation has become an indispensable tool starting point (Volcano’s Ibsenities), incorporating in postwar theatre. It is accepted as a valuable autobiographical material (Forced Entertainment), method for actors to explore both the ‘inner truth’ or employing visual or design motifs (The People of a character and the world of the play when Show). This is not merely evidence of interpreting text-based drama. It is also increasingly postmodernism in theatre but a move towards recognized, and used, as a technique which actively acknowledging the power of the actor as a creative produces innovative dramatic material. The initiator, and demonstrates a late twentieth-century concept of the rehearsal room as a creatively shift in emphasis from the ‘actor as interpreter’ to productive play-room has been legitimized during the ‘actor as creator’. the postwar period. Improvisation workshops and devising are the basis of work in community See also: community theatre; devising; physical theatre and physical theatre, and are also theatre Indian communities 267

Further reading government of the time. The Broadcasting Act of 1990 introduced a requirement for 25 percent of Frost, A. and Yarrow, R. (1990) Improvisation in the BBC and ITV programme output to be Drama, London: Macmillan. independent productions. In response, the BBC DYMPHNA CALLERY and ITV have introduced structural changes to allow access for independent producers to compete for commissions. Also with the ITV franchise INDEPENDENT, THE see Mirror Group round of 1992, four new broadcasters came into existence, all of which were publisher/commis- independent production sioner broadcasters not unlike Channel 4. Arguments have been put for and against more Until the early 1980s, the British broadcasting independent production. On one hand, it allows system was dominated by integrated broadcasting more voices into the system than previously, it companies, the BBC and the ITV companies. allows greater autonomy and encourages creativity, Within these companies, all the functions of and it is more competitive and therefore is efficient. production, commissioning and scheduling were Detractors argue that it has led to a casualization undertaken. However, with the creation of of labour and that the critical creative mass that Channel 4 in 1982, with no production base of its underpinned the excellence of the old system is own and with a remit to encourage new voices, an being dissipated. independent production sector was born. This development was later reinforced with the See also: Channel 5; Channel X; IPPA, AIP and requirement of the Broadcasting Act of 1990 for PACT ITV and the BBC to use independent productions for 25 percent of their programmes. In the 1990s, Further reading a multifarious industrial structure appeared that included traditional broadcasters with their own Hood, S. (ed.) (1994) Behind the Screens: The Structure in-house production facilities and independent of British Television in the Nineties, London: production houses. Lawrence & Wishart. The appearance of Channel 4 signalled the arrival PAU L RIXON of the publisher-commissioner broadcaster, a broadcaster without any production base of its own. Instead, it commissions original programmes from either independent producers or production units Indian communities of other broadcasters, with commissions including Like other migrant and diaspora communities, single programmes, series, serials or films. Internally, Indian communities have substantially redefined Channel 4 employs a number of editors responsible the cultural landscape of a post-imperial, post- for commissioning programmes for different areas, colonial Britain of new ethnicities. Indian such as documentary, drama and entertainment. communities have undergone varying processes of Once programmes are commissioned, the hybridization, syncretization and transculturation, independent producer hires the required personnel reconstructing parallel Indian social, economic, and equipment to undertake the production. While religious and linguistic structures in a British the commissioning director might oversee some context without relinquishing their distinctive aspects of the production, the production company cultural heritages, individual and group identities has a high degree of autonomy. and links to the homeland. In 1986, the Peacock Committee recommended In the 1991 census of Great Britain, the 840,255 that some competition should be introduced into Indians comprised the largest single ethnic BBC and ITV systems. This idea found political grouping, forming 27.7 percent of the ethnic and ideological acceptance within the Conservative minority population and approximately 1.5 percent 268 Indian communities of the British population. Originating from the identities by maintaining cultural and value systems Indian subcontinent, Britain and as ‘twice migrants’ and to psychologically resist assimilation and from East Africa, the intradiversity of identity and ‘cultural contamination’ so as to facilitate their descent within Indian communities is further eventual reintegration into India’s rural marked by axes of differentiation and cross- communities; processes rendered easier by their fertilization based on linguistic-regional, religious, negative reception in an often alien, prejudiced and caste, sectarian and kinship divisions. The Punjabi racially exclusive British host culture. Gradually and East African Sikhs, East African, Gujarati and however, the ‘temporary sojourners’ became other Indian Hindus and Muslims have established permanent settlers, the parallel community British-inflected extensions of their Indian and East networks, material prosperity, employment and African linguistic—regional communities in Britain; educational opportunities for future generations for example, Punjabi Sikhs identify more easily with outweighing the advantages of return. Punjabi Muslims than with East African Sikhs. Far During the 1950s, active community from an homogenous grouping, loosely organizations like the Indo-Pakistan Cultural Society corresponding histories of migration, settlement (IPCS) and the nationwide Indian Workers and transculturation nevertheless conceal the Association (IWA) were established and, along with variegation of Indian communities. local gurdwaras (temples), began offering invaluable Despite a significant Indian presence in Britain advice, practical and legal assistance (for example, from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries on immigration, housing and employment), social onwards, the predominantly male pioneer migrants and cultural activities to Indian members of the (ex-seamen, professionals, politicians and peddlars) community. Early Indian communities settled of the pre-Second World War period established primarily in Britain’s metropolitan centres and the foundations for Indian communities. The industrial conurbations from the agriculturally numbers of Indian migrants accelerated rapidly in prosperous, traditionally migratory regions of the the aftermath of the war. The permanent settlement Punjab and Gujarat in India and later from the of Indian communities was followed by the large- urbanized, Westernized and professional milieus of scale international migration of the 1950s and East Africa. Among British Sikh communities, the 1960s, partly triggered by the acute labour majority descend from villages around the Punjabi shortages of the postwar British economy. Failed Jullundhur Doaba and Hoshiapur regions, while the British attempts to employ domestic and then Gujarati migrants both from Gujarat and from East European labour for mainly low-paid, unskilled Africa comprise a Hindu majority and a Muslim and semi-skilled employment in the manufacturing, minority. Punjabi (with written Gurmukhi as textile and engineering industries led to postwar opposed to Urdu) is the most common language labour recruitment drives in colonial and ex- spoken among Sikhs, with Hindi, Gujarati and Urdu colonial overseas territories. Localized forming the other primary linguistic communities. considerations including the 1947 Partition of India More Hindus than Sikhs, however, originate as and Pakistan, resultant land pressures, fragmented ‘involuntary’ or ‘twice’ East African migrants. landholdings, migratory traditions within densely Having migrated to East Africa from India during populated rural regions and affordable air travel the earlier half of the century, they were expelled coalesced with employment prospects and under systematic Africanization policies in Kenya immediate social and economic amelioration for in 1968 and in Uganda in 1972. While Indian the joint family household to encourage mass migrants arrived as potential workers, East African voluntary Indian migration to Britain. Asians arrived in Britain as political refugees but as Arriving as ‘temporary sojourners’, Indian ‘twice migrants’ were better prepared for settlement. migrants sought to accumulate sufficient finance Indian communities have settled in areas of before returning to their homelands. The specific industry-related labour and areas with strong temporary framework suggested by a ‘myth of localized migrant support networks, while socio- return’ enabled migrants both to assert their economic limitations including prejudice and racial Indian communities 269 discrimination in housing and employment have professional, educated middle-class echelons, having precluded settlement in other areas. The majority worked within administrative, bureaucratic and of Indians reside in the South East, London, the commercial systems in urban East Africa. Dispa-rities Midlands and Yorkshire, with clusters of Punjabi of wealth nevertheless manifest themselves among communities located in areas such as stratified Indian communities, low wages and high Wolverhampton, Leicester and Southall and Gujarati unemployment contrasting with thriving private communities in Leicester and North London. economies. From low-paid, manual work in foundries, The chain migration of male members of Indian factories, bakeries, catering and textiles on their families and village clans created initially male- arrival, Indians have diversified into other fields dominated community clusters and migrant of employment. Following an initial period of support networks. The 1962 Commonwealth migration and settlement, politicized left-wing Immigration Act and subsequent immigration laws Indian communities confronted workplace and ushered in a ‘beat the ban’ stream of female, institutionalized racism in a number of high-profile younger filial and older parental dependants to industrial disputes. Community solidarity and reconstitute family and community structures in significant political mobilization among Asian Britain. Effectively considered the preservers of women have manifested themselves in disputes social tradition and as the maintainers of extended such as Woolf’s (1965), Mansfield Hosiery (1972), familial relationships, Indian female migrants have Imperial Typewriters (1974) and Grunswick (1976), enforced a domestic authority compounded by their as Indian workers sought equal pay, equal treatment growing economic independence as workers to with white workers and union representation. redefine traditional roles. Continuing disputes at Hillingdon Hospital during The (agrarian-based) patrifocal joint household the 1990s illustrate the racial inequities suffered by and extended family is paradigmatic among Indian Indian communities within the workplace. communities, also functioning as a microcosm of the Having initially confronted exploitative, low-paid community itself. However, increasing manual employment, the burgeoning confidence of Westernization, economic prosperity, moral, social Indian communities is illustrated by the traditional and political factors have witnessed the status professions such as accountancy, law, individualization of kinship networks into nuclear medicine, dentistry and science-based occupations. and varied models of the joint/extended structure. Younger descendants have entered non-traditional Determi-nant factors of age and sex accord relative professions such as the film, media and authority and respect, elder and male members entertainment industries. An ethnic market sector traditionally wielding greater power within the was rapidly established as self-employed businesses family unit. While many generations cohabit, newly and services catered for an Indian demographic, married couples continue to live in the husband’s circumventing the racial discrimination experienced parents household both to inculcate the daughter- in standard employment, and now enjoys success in in-law with the family traditions and to transfer catering for a wider British market. Flourishing Asian familial responsibilities to the son, both eventually restaurants, specialist shops, and Indian film industry caring for the elderly parents in a multi-generational and Asian press newspapers and weekly publications household. Specific family roles accord certain like Des Pardes and Punjabi Times enable first generation values, expectations and responsibilities. Each family Indians to maintain communications with the member is defined by their matrilineal and patrilineal subcontinent. Gujarati and East African Asians relations through a complex use of kinship particularly demonstrated versatile entrepreneurial terminology which distinguishes their role and skills consistent with the merchant caste/commercial attendant responsibilities within the extended family: traditions of the Gujarat state and East African Asian for example, while masi is the respectful appellation involvement in African trade and industry affairs. for a maternal aunt, puah is a paternal aunt. Compared to Indian subcontinent rural migrants, Liberalized variations of the traditional arranged East African Asians principally occupied the marriage, whereby parents undertook the selection 270 Indian communities of prospective marriage partners for their children (kings, aristocrats, warriors), Vaisya (merchants, have been gradually superseded by children traders), Sudra (servants) and Untouchables or exercising greater choice in the selection. The basic people of the lowest castes still exacting some premise of marriage nevertheless remains the resonance, but this is subject to regional interchange. marriage of individuals synonymous with the Despite scriptural doctrines which emphatically marriage of families. Although ‘love’ marriages reject the Hindu caste system, Sikhs maintain their have increased, separation and divorce, once own endogamous caste system with hierarchical extreme taboos within the Indian community, are and occupationally-based divisions of agrarian also rising as a consequence of the discordance descent. The Jats (farmers, landowners) are the between strictly traditional arrangements and highest caste followed by the Ramgharias correspondingly incompatible Western sensibilities (craftsmen) which also includes the Tarkhan and and loosely fitting traditional roles. Lohar sub-castes. East African Asians constitute a Indian kinship structures are based upon the large proportion of this group, their significant unspoken but inculcated code of izzat (honour, economic and social power elevating this middle- prestige) according to which the individual and class group above traditionally lower caste confines. family conduct themselves morally, socially and (Sanskri-tization describes this upward mobility of professionally and consolidate their position within lower castes in Britain, economically or socially family and community networks. A fluid term, izzat usurping higher castes in spite of the traditional functions as the source of personal and familial caste hierarchies). Following the Ramgharias, the honour which upholds the integrity of cultural Ravi-das or Valmik castes of Chuhre (sweepers) systems, obviating moral dissolution and enforcing and Chumar (landless workers) hybridize elements continued cultural conformity. It can also be of Sikhism and Hinduism but still suffer from considered as motivational factors for example, in existing intra-caste prejudices as exemplified by migration, the pursuit of status-enhancing caste-segregated gurdwaras and religious committees. professions, ensuring a girl’s chastity, selection of Although caste differences are subsumed beneath marriage partners or encouraging competition an encompassing Indian or Asian identity, closer between individuals and families. While sometimes analysis reveals caste as a continued source of perceived as a restrictive code by girls and women affinity and exclusion among first-generation particularly, Westernization and individualization Indians in particular. Rather than a homogenous are seen as threatening forces by older Indians, religious grouping which cultivates the notion of diminishing the tempering and respectful aspects the Sikh panth (brotherhood), Sikhism exhibits caste of izzat by breeding a self-interested disregard for and sectarian divisions, the latter characterized by familial and broader structures through the primacy pro- and anti-Khalistan (independent Sikh of individual wants and desires. homeland) movements which surfaced during the Indian communities cultivate strong notions of turbulent Indira Gandhi years of the 1980s. kinship, religious and caste (jati) identification and The Gujarati and East African Asians are belonging among themselves. Hinduism and comprised of an array of caste sub-divisions further Sikhism, the majority religious groups, coexist compounded by Hindu sects such as the Vaishnava alongside smaller Indian Muslim, Christian and Parsi movements of Pushtimarg, Swaminarayan and communities. Similarly, caste endogamy is a Shaivites alongside myriad smaller sects and gurus, prevalent consideration, particularly among first- individually worshipped. Among the strongly generation Indians who strictly adhere to caste mercantile Gujaratis in Britain, the Patidars groupings in kinship and community networks and (equitable descent from India and East Africa) and in cultural practices such as marriage and religious Lohanas (mainly East African migrants) are worship. The Hindu caste system provides a predominant alongside other Bani groups and representative model for other complex and smaller castes like Kanbis (labourers/farmers), numerous caste systems, with the system of Darjis (tailors), Suthars (carpenters), Prajapatis Brahmins (priests, religious teachers), Kshatriya (potters) or Mochis (shoemakers). The Gujaratis Indian languages 271 also include Muslim, Jain and Parsi Zoroastrian Modood, T. and Berthoud, R. (eds) (1997) Ethnic minorities, the Parsis significantly constituting the Minorities in Britain: Diversity and Disadvantage, first and oldest of Britain’s Indian communities. London: Policy Studies Institute. Like the gurdwara committees of the Sikhs and other Robinson, V. (1986) Transients, Settlers and Refugees: regional Hindu groups, the Gujaratis have Asians in Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press. established caste, sectarian and politico-religious SATINDER CHOHAN organizations such as the Swaminarayan Hindu Mission. Indian religious and sectarian diversity is exhaustive, the visible celebration of festivals like Indian languages Holi, Diwali, Navratri, Eid and Vaisakhi illustrating their continuing importance for Britain’s numerous Britain now has speakers of over a hundred Indian sub-communities. different languages. Several of these languages are Where a ‘myth of return’ has largely prevailed Indian, most notably Bengali, Hindi, Gujarati, for first generation migrants, their Indian and Urdu and Panjabi, and are spoken especially in British-born descendants lay claim to multiple major cities such as London, Birmingham, Glasgow identities and both Indian/East African and British and Cardiff. heritages. While cultural conflicts between the first Bengali is one of the fifteen major languages of generation and their descendants exist, the former India and the official language of Bangladesh, with perceiving the latter as diluting integral cultural over 160 million speakers (the most famous Bengali precepts and principles, the younger generation writer was Rabindranath Tagore, winner of the seek to negotiate a dialogue between Indian and Nobel Prize for Literature). Bengali and English have Western cultures. However, the conflict ‘between had links since the East India Company founded cultures’ analysis of Asian youth (rather than Calcutta in 1690. Gujarati is spoken by about twenty specifically Indian; this generation is not as million people in Gujarat, Bombay and elsewhere meticulous in highlighting internal cultural clea- in India, plus in East and South Africa, and Britain vages as their parents) is rejected in favour of (many Gujurati-speaking people came to Britain in highlighting the advantages of cross-cultural 1974, following General Idi Amin’s order to all South exchange. A fluid locationality between their own Asian British passport holders to quit Uganda). native, black and Western British culture is manifest Hindi has the fourth most common mother tongue in the developing dialogues of music, fashion, art, with around 250 million, and is the most widely youth styles and cultural practices of an ascendant spoken Indian language. Panjabi is spoken by 12 generation labelled as ‘British Asian’. From the million people in India and 40 million in Pakistan, politicized 1970s, a decade of volatile race relations, and is the language of Sikhs. Urdu is associated with the racist murder of Gurdip Singh Chaggar, the Mughal Empire in India and is clearly related to localized riots and the subsequent formation of Hindi. It is the national language of Pakistan, a first organizations like Southall Youth Movement, language of 30 million people and a second language during the 1990s Indian youth are contributing to of a further 100 million. altered cultural landscapes as significantly as their Indian languages have also contributed many parents in permanently settled Indian (British familiar words to the English language, such as Asian) communities. ‘verandah’ and ‘juggernaut’, as well as ‘curry’, ‘pukka’ and ‘tiffin’. The well-known Victorian dictionary of Indian-English, entitled Hobson-Jobson, Further reading is still available today. Indian English is a hybrid Ballard, R. (ed.) (1994) Desh Pardesh: The South Asian language found all across India and also in Britain. Presence in Britain, London: Hurst and Company. It tends to be formal, lilting, sing-song and poetical. Britain’s Black Population (1997) Britain’s Black Writers such as G.V.Desani and Salman Rushdie Population: Social Change, Public Policy and Agenda, have exploited its idiosyncracies to highly praised Aldershot: Arena. literary ends. 272 indie pop

See also: Indian communities Towards the end of the 1980s, as indie labels began to expand, many developed formal links with PETER CHILDS ‘majors’, multinational record companies such as Polygram and CBS. This sparked much debate indie pop within the indie scene as to the ethics of breaking away from the original DIY ethos. In particular many Although independent record labels have a long indie labels maintained control of the signing of new history, the origins of indie music are to be found bands and the production of records, while forming in the development of punk rock in the late 1970s. distribution deals with major labels. This was Part of the punk ethos was a reaction against control compounded by the collapse of the Rough Trade of the music industry by a handful of large and Factory labels. Since then the phrase indie is multinational record companies. Punk bands, generally considered to refer to a musical genre. motivated by a ‘DIY’ approach to music Bands such as Oasis, signed to Creation, who now production, began to produce and distribute their have financial links with Sony, are considered to be own records; hence the name ‘indie’, an indie bands despite their lack of ‘independence’. abbreviation of ‘independent’. As Punk gave way Perhaps therefore the true indie bands of the 1990s to new wave, a new generation of record labels are not the guitar-based groups with an indie ‘sound’, were formed to promote new music, the pioneers but those techno, house and jungle acts who being Rough Trade and Stiff in London, Postcard continue to release and distribute their own records, in Glasgow, Zoo in Liverpool, two-tone in without help from multinational companies. Coventry and Factory in Manchester. Indie scenes began to spring up around these See also: alternative music particular labels. The Teardrop Explodes and Echo and the Bunnymen from Zoo Records produced Further reading music that was influenced by the psychedelic rock of The Doors and The Byrds from the 1960s. Artists Savage, J. (1991) England’s Dreaming: Anarchy, Sex on the Factory label such as Joy Division developed Pistols, Punk Rock and Beyond, London: Faber & a dour industrial sound. Bands signed to Rough Faber. Trade and Postcard were distinctive in their search STUART BORTHWICK for a ‘pure pop’ form, while Madness, The Specials and The Selecter, all bands signed to the Two-Tone label, were particularly influenced by ska and were industrial buildings characterized by their multi-ethnic origins. Many bands on indie labels shared a similar The understanding that high-tech buildings were aesthetic, and as a result the phrase ‘indie’ began unsuitable (because of weather conditions and to be used to describe a particular generic sound, industrial wear and tear) for industry has resulted rather than merely the method of producing and in a return to traditional cladding and construction. distributing records. This aesthetic was based Jonathan Glancey writes that it is ironic ‘that the around a rejection of the excesses of progressive components usually reflect the world of prewar rock, with the preferred vinyl medium being the engineering: split pins and tie-rods, drilled steel seven-inch single rather than the LP. As the 1980s struts and crossbars’ (1989:148). Architects have continued, a whole array of indie bands and labels also employed the past in predictable ways using were formed. Bands on indie labels would release bright, strikingly coloured doors and cladding, plus one or two singles that attracted the attention of yards of glass. Some buildings reflect the products the music media, and would then sign to a major they house (for example, nuclear power stations label. Indie labels began to be seen as a breeding are uniformly severe), while others embrace and ground for new talent. Many internationally express their owners’ corporate image or ethos (for successful artists started their careers in this way. example, Richard Rogers’s costly but very stylish installation art 273

Linn Products building in Glasgow). Many still intellectual rigour in material deliberately aimed require regular repainting, materials replacement at catching the eye of the MTV generation, but (for example, of fabric), and maintenance while many teachers defend it as ‘appropriate packaging’. others have been made out of traditional materials The term has also been applied disparagingly to (such as the return to brick for warehouses) because material which purports to be authentic but is not. new materials such as plastic and aluminium are Stephen Spielberg’s Amistad (1997) was accused of not tough or durable enough. masquerading as ‘the truth’ when it was in reality both a sanitized and politicized version of history. See also: agricultural buildings Accompanying ‘study packs’ distributed free to schools were treated with scepticism because of their potential commercial agenda. However, many Further reading welcome infotainment as a means of rescuing a Glancey, J. (1989) New British Architecture, London: generation ‘lost’ to television. Thames and Hudson. See also: product placement; teletext PETER CHILDS MIKE STORRY industrial design installation art The primary catalyst to change in industrial design has been technology, which has allowed most The term ‘installation art’ has been in common use mechanisms to become smaller, lighter and more since at least the mid-1980s, and ‘installations’ have stylish. Microchip technology, polymer science, become familiar sights in British museums and foam plastics, composite materials and computer- galleries in the 1990s. The Turner Prize shortlists aided design have all greatly affected design styles have increasingly included such work by British or as well as production processes. Automated British-based artists including Vong Phaophanit, manufacturing has become commonplace, and Douglas Gordon and Rachel Whiteread. ‘expert systems’ driven by computers can perfect The works to which the term ‘installation art’ production processes. Mass production has also refers are extremely diverse. If it is consistent at changed to allow small modifications (often by all, installation art is a hybrid form making use of reprogramming computer-driven tools) to products techniques from sculpture, architecture, for a range of different consumers. Dominant photography, film and video, and its artists are not postwar design features have been the penchant identifiably ‘installation artists’ but sculptors or for ‘clean lines’, neat fixings and tidy casings, easy- video artists who sometimes make installations. to-use knobs and switches (functionalism as such The work can often be physically entered by the has gone in and out of fashion), and ever smaller, viewer; it may be made for a specific site, whether more compact products. a gallery or an outdoor site; it may damage or otherwise intervene in the space it occupies; it may See also: furniture design be temporary; it may be apprehended in ways other than the visual. Precedents for the work can be PETER CHILDS found in some American art of the 1960s (for example Robert Smithson and Richard Serra) and infotainment the work of the British sculptor Richard Long. Some better-known examples of installation art Infotainment is a mixture of instructional and include Neon Rice Field (1993) by the British-based entertainment material. Multimedia encyclopedias Vietnamese artist Vong Phaophanit. Varying in or interactive CD-ROMs are sold as educational dimensions according to its site, the piece comprises material for children. Adults question the a field of rice with peaks and troughs as if ploughed; 274 International Broadcasting Trust the peaks are accentuated by a buried neon light more than a hundred programmes in the last decade running their whole length. The piece attracted (such as Bitter Harvest, Battle for the Planet, and Young, considerable media attention on being shortlisted British and Muslim). The IBT is devoted to promoting for the Turner Prize in 1993. Richard Wilson’s work international understanding through the media. has made more extreme interventions: Jamming Gears They contend, for example, that there are only half (1996) made a variety of incisions and holes on the as many documentaries about the rest of the world interior of the Serpentine Gallery, London, being shown in prime time at the end of the 1990s artistically vandalizing the space (fortunately before as there were at the beginning of the decade. If the gallery closed for renova-tion). Anya Gallacio international coverage is left to news programmes, has become known for filling galleries full of it will consist only of disasters and wars. Positive sensuous materials, sometimes flowers; in one case international cultural programming such as Madhur the walls of a Manchester gallery were smeared with Jaffrey’s Taste of India is the kind of thing the Trust chocolate. Mona Hatoum’s work, based on the prefers to see promoted, partly to counter latent filming of her own body, has involved the creation British xenophobia. It also advocates the use of ethnic of special spaces in which to view the footage, as minority presenters for programmes about abroad, has, in a different way the video artist Douglas something distinctly lacking at present on British Gordon. Other artists who have made installation television. art of note are Helen Chadwick, Nat Goodden and MIKE STORRY Gladstone Thompson. More sensuous than its 1960s antecedents, installation art has sometimes met with surprising popular success. Internet See also: organic art; sculpture The Internet has taken time to become established as an integral aspect of British culture. The universities have been using ‘the Net’ as a source of information Further reading since it started. Academics are fascinated by the de Oliveira, N. (1994) Installation Art, London: potential of the system and, for example, trivial things Thames & Hudson. such as the website with the video camera trained on a coffee pot at Cambridge University is visited daily RICHARD J.WILLIAMS by thousands of ‘surfers’ from all over the world. Business users, on the other hand, have been slower International Broadcasting to take up the opportunities supplied by the system. Trust Thus, many large companies’ websites are often crude ‘front doors’, with very little behind them. An independent, non-profit-making television Private subscribers tend to be the educated and production company, the International Broadcasting financially secure middle class. Traditional service Trust (IBT) was established in 1982 as an providers are Demon, Pipex, CompuServe and educational charity to work with broadcasters, America Online, but now, in order to build up a educationalists and film-makers worldwide. Its aim valuable database of customers, companies such is to communicate global issues through television as Virgin and Tesco and organizations such as the programmes about development, environmental and Consumer Association (publishers of Which?) and human rights issues for broadcast in the UK and Amnesty International are competing for also abroad. It was founded by seventy international subscribers. A conservatively estimated 350,000 organizations, including Oxfam, Amnesty people, excluding those who use cable, were International, Christian Aid and Friends of the Earth. connected in this way in 1998. IBT has been commissioned to make programmes, The Internet has had much social impact. After ranging from adult drama to schools programming, high-profile court cases, people have been jailed for by all the major television companies and has made downloading hardcore pornography. It is now IPPA, AIP and PACT 275 common policy for companies to place time known as NME. This broadsheet provided a constraints on employees’ surfing or accessing e- formative influence in young people’s lives right mail at work. Issues around the privacy of e-mails from the 1950s and gained respect as an received there are hotly debated. authoritative commentary on popular music. It Commentators are divided about the long-term covered rock ‘n’ roll imports from America and significance of the Internet. Some suggest that it is other influences on the contemporary British scene. a truly ‘democratic’ phenomenon, where everyone Its emphasis was regional and local, as well as has equal access to knowledge. Others suggest that national, and both it and Melody Maker wrote about it is a fad, rather like the glass and chromium Horn people on the edge of the cult rock mainstream and Hardhart automated food dispensers popular and tended to ignore established figures with more in New York in the 1960s. One put coins in a slot of a history. This allowed space for Smash Hits and and opened a flap to take a sandwich. They are the glossy EMAP Metro magazine Q (see EMAP now nowhere to be found. Maclaren) to steal some of its readership. (Nick For the Internet to be more fully integrated into Logan, founder of Smash Hits and The Face, spent grassroots culture and to involve more of the older five years as editor of NME). In response, NME generation, its technology will have to be made changed itself and introduced a regular rock simpler. For example, it will have to be available column, and regained some of its readership. through a television screen, using a remote control As well as music, NME has supported general rather than a keyboard. Also the speed of aspects of youth culture. For example it was transmission will have to increase beyond the enthusiastic about the comic 2000AD and capacity of existing ISDN cables. With the advent recommended it to readers. NME had itself been of digital television, Cable & Wireless greatly influenced by the underground presses of Communications, Britain’s biggest cable television the 1960s and early 1970s. It has always been and telecommunications group, intends to supply regarded as a quality magazine and has taken its its 750,000 customers with the Internet, as well as contributors from both ‘low’ and ‘high’ culture. So up to 200 television channels. for example, cartoonist Ray Lowry came from the underground (Cyclops) and his work appeared in See also: cable and satellite; electronic shopping NME and Private Eye. Journalist Charles Shaar Murray’s work appeared in NME, the Observer and Further reading the Daily Telegraph, and Julie Burchill has written Shields, R. (1996) Cultures of Internet, London: Sage. for both the NME and the Sunday Times. In 1995 the circulation of NME was a weekly MIKE STORRY 106,903. It is estimated that the magazine is read by 607,000 people per issue. IPC Music Publishers See also: music press Derived from ‘International Publishing Corporation’, IPC Magazines is the UK’s major Further reading publisher of consumer magazines. It is a division of Reed International PLC. Among others, it Riley, S.G. (ed.) (1993) Consumer Magazines of the publishes Classic Cars, Country Life, Golf Monthly, Horse British Isles, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. and Hound, Ideal Home, Living, New Scientist, Shoot, MIKE STORRY Woman’s Journal and Woman’s Own. The company has four divisions, including Southbank Publishing Group and Prospect Magazines. IPPA, AIP and PACT In 1983, IPC launched Number1 a weekly pop magazine, but its most important magazine in terms The creation of a unified film and television trade of popular culture is New Musical Express, universally body for independent producers, the Producers 276 Ireland

Alliance for Cinema and Television (PACT), can be revival of Irish culture in the 1890s. An example of viewed as the result of the increasing closeness of the deep impact of Britain’s ‘Irish problem’ is that film and television production and the increase in Irish nationalism was perceived to be such a threat use of independent television producers. PACT was that the London Metropolitan police force was formed in 1991 when the Independent Programme created primarily to combat it. Producers Association (IPPA) and The Producers’ The ‘defining moment’ of the Irish Association (TPA) merged. The IPPA formed in independence movement was the failed Easter 1981 to fight initially for independent producers’ Rising in 1916, when a small group of ill-equipped rights in regard to Channel 4 and later for more and badly-trained Irish nationalists led by Padraig access to the BBC and ITV. The TPA itself was the Pearse took over by force of arms major key result of a merger in 1990 of the Association of installations in Dublin and declared an independent Independent Producers (AIP) and the British Film Irish Republic. As Britain was at war, this rising and Television Producers’ Association (BFTA). was viewed as treason and British forces quickly and brutally suppressed the rebellion. While at first See also: independent production the rebellion did not have great public support in Ireland, public opinion quickly changed in favour PAU L RIXON of the rebels as a result of the decision to execute the leaders of the rebellion. As a result, in the next Ireland elections in 1918 Sinn Féin (the leading Irish nationalist party) won the overwhelming majority ‘The Irish Question’, first used in the latter part of of Irish Westminster seats. However, in keeping the last century to refer to the long, difficult and with the practice of the contemporary Sinn Féin often violent relationship between Ireland and party, these Irish MPs refused to recognize the Britain, has continued to be a permanent feature British Parliament and set up their own shadow of British political and cultural life. Up until the Parliament (The Dáil). Efforts by the British creation of Saorstat Eireann (the Irish Free State) government to quell this illegal parliament in in 1922, made up of 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland Ireland and the movement for Irish independence (with six counties in what became Northern Ireland led to the War of Independence (1919–21). remaining part of the United Kingdom), Britain’s Following a ceasefire in 1921, the British answer to the Irish Question was some sort of government agreed to talks and the result was the Home Rule. In many respects, the ‘unfinished creation of the Irish Free State, which required the business’ of Britain’s relationship with Ireland is at partition of Ireland and the creation of Northern the heart of the problems of Northern Ireland, for Ireland. Northern Ireland, unlike the rest of Ireland, while Home Rule was eventually seen as too little contained a majority of Protestants who did not too late for the majority in Ireland, for the Unionist/ wish to become part of an independent united Protestant minority in the northeast, ‘home rule Ireland which was seen as an exclusively was Rome rule’. authoritarian, Catholic and Gaelic entity. However, Throughout its history as a British colony, Ireland the new entity of Northern Ireland also contained had periodically revolted or rebelled against Britain, a sizeable minority of Catholic Irish nationalists. such as in the failed risings of 1798, 1848 and, most The creation of Northern Ireland led to the significantly, in the Easter Rising of 1916. Irish Stormont regime, which lasted from 1922 to 1972. nationalist politics has always (like other nationalist Effectively, Northern Ireland became a statelet, with politics) had both constitu-tional/democratic/non- all the trappings of a state, and until the eruption violent and violent/terror-istic aspects. Particularly of the ‘troubles’ in 1968, successive British in the latter half of the nineteenth century, the governments simply ignored it and let the movement for Irish independence gained strength, Protestant majority rule. In the words of one-time especially when the political impetus for Prime Minster of Northern Ireland, William Craig, independence joined with the movement for the ‘Northern Ireland is a Protestant state for a Ireland 277

Protestant people’, a statement which graphically become one of the most feared and successful highlights the status of non-Protestants from the terrorist organizations in the world, and synonymous regime’s point of view. While the amount, severity with the ‘troubles’. In the mid-1970s, the IRA began and degree of discrimination against Catholics in a series of terrorist campaigns both within Northern Northern Ireland is a fiercely disputed issue, it is Ireland and on the mainland to try and force Britain fair to say that they were effectively second-class to leave Northern Ireland. As a result of these citizens. Catholics were denied job opportunities, bombing campaigns, the Prevention of Terrorism were treated unequally in terms of housing and Act was hastily passed. Anti-Irish feeling in the wake welfare and suffered discrimination in work, while, of IRA atrocities such as the Birmingham and since most of them were also Irish nationalists, they Guildford pub bombings of 1974 led to the wrongful were also viewed by the Stormont regime as ‘the convictions of the ‘Birmingham Six’ and the enemy within’, seeking to destroy Northern Ireland ‘Guildford Four’, both groups being eventually and create a united Ireland. released from prison in the early 1990s. Other IRA In 1967 the Northern Ireland Civil Rights atrocities included the murder of Earl Mountbatten Association (NICRA) was formed to demand: and the car bomb in the Palace of Westminster which equal citizenship for Catholics, the vote for killed Conservative MP Airey Neave, both in 1979; everyone (and not just ratepayers in local elections), the failed bombing of the Conservative party an end to gerrymandering (the practice of artificially conference in Brighton in 1983; and a mortar attack drawing electoral boundaries to ensure a Unionist on 10 Downing Street in 1991. Non-IRA atrocities majority), fair allocation of public housing, and the include ‘Bloody Sunday’, when members of the scrapping of the hated ‘B-Specials’ security force. British Parachute Regiment opened fire on innocent The Civil Rights movement led to a Protestant nationalist civilians in Derry in 1972, killing twelve, backlash, and throughout 1967 and 1968 Northern and the notorious ‘Shankhill Butchers’, a loyalist Ireland erupted into violence as loyalist extremists sectarian death squad which brutally tortured and (including Ian Paisley) and the police attacked civil murdered thirty Catholics in the mid-1970s. rights marches, leading to rioting in Belfast, Derry Since the abolition of Stormont and the and other urban centres. Northern Ireland imposition of ‘direct rule’ in 1972, Northern Ireland witnessed what we now call ‘ethnic cleansing’ as has been governed from Westminster by the thousands of Catholics and Protestants were forced Northern Ireland Office. Millions of pounds have from their homes by violence or the threat of been spent in trying to reform, police and support violence. In August 1969 the British government Northern Ireland. Over 3,200 people have been decided to send in British troops to restore law and killed in Northern Ireland as a result of the troubles. order, and the ‘troubles’ were born. In reality, the ‘troubles’ in Northern Ireland The IRA (Irish Republican Army), which had amounted to an undeclared war which, while long been a spent force, found a new lease of life strenuously denied by the British government, as it defended Catholic ghettos in Belfast and Derry characterized its military strategy in trying to defeat from attacks by Protestant mobs and the and contain republican and loyalist warring paramilitary B-Specials. At this stage, equal British paramilitaries. For some, evidence that the troubles citizenship within a reformed Northern Ireland, the were viewed as a war can be seen in the British original aims of the NICRA, was too little too late Army’s ‘shoot to kill’ policy in the 1980s, and the for many Catholics, who flocked to support or join alleged collusion between elements of the security the IRA and its political wing Sinn Féin. For the forces in Northern Ireland and loyalist IRA, Northern Ireland was unreformable, a ‘failed paramilitaries. entity’, and nothing short of British withdrawal However, the devastating effects of the troubles from Northern Ireland and the creation of a united go beyond those killed or injured and the millions Ireland would do. of pounds worth of property destroyed, for they The ‘Provos’, or Provisional IRA (which spilt in have affected political and everyday life in the 1970 from the more socialist ‘Official IRA), have Republic of Ireland, Britain and Northern Ireland. 278 Ireland

On the whole, with the exception of Scotland, for between Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales, most of those on mainland Britain, Northern Westminster and Dublin. Elections to the new Ireland has always been a ‘place apart’ and radically assembly took place in June 1998. different from the rest of Britain. A stark example Oscar Wilde once said: ‘The problem between of this is the statement in November 1990 by the England and Ireland is that the English cannot then Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Peter remember history while the Irish cannot forget it.’ Brooke, who claimed that: ‘The British government There is some truth in this claim, particularly when has no selfish strategic or economic interest in one looks at the reliving of history in the annual Northern Ireland: our role is to help, enable and Orange marches celebrating the defeat of Catholic encourage.’ This admission of the conditional status King James by Protestant William of Orange in of Northern Ireland as a part of the United 1690. Such traditions and the passion (and Kingdom is something which would be unthinkable sometimes dogmatism) with which they are if the same were to be said of Cornwall or Cheshire. asserted strike many on the British mainland as This is perhaps the paradox, irony and tragedy of singularly odd in their reliving of religious wars Northern Ireland: while Unionists loudly proclaim from over 300 years ago at the end of the twentieth their ‘Britishness’ and loyalty to the Crown, the century. Equally, the Irish republican perspective, overwhelming majority of Britons do not see them which often sees the problems in Northern Ireland as ‘fellow Britons’, but as ‘Irish’ and having more as stemming from the Ulster plantations of the early in common with the nationalist community than seventeenth century by Britain and sees Irish with the mainstream of British society. A similar history as a series of glorious defeats at the hands view can be said to characterize the attitude of those of ‘perfidious Albion’, seems equally caught in in the Republic of Ireland towards the Northern letting the past guide the present and future. Ireland nationalists, and it is important to note that However, it also needs to be pointed out that support for a United Ireland has been falling in the relationship between Ireland (both North and the Republic over the last decade or so. South) and Britain has not been completely Nevertheless, a majority support the aspiration to negative. Many of the greatest English-speaking a United Ireland. writers of the twentieth century have been Irish, The ceasefire declared by the IRA in August from W.B.Yeats, James Joyce, George Bernard Shaw 1994 (followed by a Loyalist cashier in October), and Samuel Beckett to the Nobel Prize-winning and restored in May 1997, was the starting point of poet Seamus Heaney. Additionally, Irish culture has the ‘peace process’ which culminated in the ‘Good become increasingly popular in Britain and Friday Agreement’ of 10 April 1998. This multi- elsewhere. At the same time, what Britain and party agreement, the result of months of negotia- Ireland share is as (some would say more) important tion between all the major parties in Northern than what divides them, such as common cultural Ireland (with the exception of the Democratic origins, a joint if tragic history, a common language, Unionist Party), sets forth a new political settlement a long tradition of settling and living in both islands, in Northern Ireland, and is an attempt at power- and similar political cultures and institutions. sharing. A similar attempt at a power-sharing While it is always dangerous to predict events arrangement in 1974, the Sunningdale Assembly, in Northern Ireland, it seems that the current peace lasted from January to May until it was brought process (which does not of course mean peace) has down by loyalist extremists, who called a general resulted in a truly historic opportunity of ending strike organized by the Ulster Worker’s Council. the troubles and marking a new, more positive According to the Good Friday Agreement, relation between Britain and Ireland, one that is Northern Ireland is to have its own assembly, with oriented towards the future rather than continually proportional representation for the two reliving the past. communities. There is also provision for ‘North- South’ bodies between Northern Ireland and the See also: Irish communities; Sinn Féin; Ulster Republic of Ireland, as well as ‘East-West’ bodies Unionists IRN 279

Further reading Historically, the Irish community has been concentrated in a number of cities such as London, Aughey, A. and Morrow, D. (eds) (1996) Northern Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham and Glasgow. Ireland Politics, Harlow: Longman. Victorian anti-Irish prejudice saw the Irish as Catterall, P. and MacDougall, S. (eds) (1996) The feckless, untrustworthy, workshy drunkards and/ Northern Ireland Question in British Politics, or as amusing, entertaining but ultimately ‘inferior’ Basingstoke: Macmillan. people. The attitude persists in various caricatures O’Leary, B. and McGarry, J. (1996) The Politics of and shapes perceptions of the Irish in Britain in Antagonism: Understanding Northern Ireland, 2nd conjunction with the continuing ‘troubles’ in edn, London: Athlone Press. Northern Ireland. However, in recent years there JOHN BARRY has been a new confidence and vitality within the Irish community in Britain. ‘Irishness’ now has a new fashionable status, stemming from the current Irish communities international appeal of everything Irish from traditional music and dance, such as the success of The Irish community is the largest ethnic group in ‘Riverdance’, to the rock group U2 (one of the Britain. In the last population census, over 800,000 world’s foremost bands). In contrast to the majority people described themselves as ‘Irish’. Irish people of its history and experience in Britain, the Irish and Irish affairs have a long and not always positive community now is proud of its identity, traditions place in Britain and British history. Crucial to and culture. Evidence of this newfound confidence understanding the status of the Irish in Britain is is its demands for inclusion on the population the historical and current relationship between the census and its increasing political organization in two islands, especially the fact that Ireland was a calling attention to the continuing problems faced colony of Britain until the creation of an by many within the Irish community, such as independent Irish state in 1922. disproportionately high levels of mental illness, Irish people have been coming to work and live homelessness and ill health. in mainland Britain for over three hundred years, and their experience in many respects prefigured the See also: Ireland experiences of other immigrants to Britain, in terms of discrimination, hostility and inferior treatment. Further reading A graphic illustration of this is the notices displayed in windows of some lodging houses in the 1950s Holohan, A. (1995) Working Lives: The Irish in Britain, which declared ‘No Blacks, No Irish, No Dogs’. Reading: Eastern Press. While there has always been an Irish Kearney, R. (ed.) (1990) Migrations: The Irish at Home community in Britain, with the Great Irish Famine and Abroad, Dublin: Wolfhound Press. of 1845–8, a steady wave of emigration from JOHN BARRY Ireland to Britain began and continues to this day. Up until recently, those who came from Ireland worked in and were associated with particular IRN professions such as the construction industry (Irish ‘navvies’ helping to build the infrastructure of Independent Radio News, a twenty-four-hour Britain in the last century), nursing, domestic national and international news service, began service, mining and agriculture. Recently this has broadcasting (first on LBC) when commercial radio changed, with Irish immigrants increasingly being was officially sanctioned in Britain in 1973. It was young, educated professionals who have tended to at first funded by the radio stations themselves, to find employment in the financial services sector, whom information was transmitted by landline or banking, management positions in British and teleprinter. Computer technology was installed in foreign corporations and the education sector. 1985, advertising became the source of funding in 280 Isaacs, Jeremy

1987, and distribution was changed to satellite in principles of prayer, charity and pilgrimage for its 1989. Unlike any other news broadcast adherents, and emphasizes study of the Men and organization in the world, IRN now pays its clients women are given different roles within the religion, to take its services, giving it a market share and and there is often segregation during prayer and influence which is unrivalled in the UK. socially. There are, at the end of the twentieth century, PETER CHILDS about two million Muslims in Britain. Around two- thirds come from South Asia, with the others from Isaacs, Jeremy the Middle East, Cyprus and Iran. They are a very rapidly growing religious group, since the age b. 1932, Glasgow structure of the population is comparatively young and Muslim families tend to have more children than the average. Although Muslims share a core of religious beliefs, there is not much unity among the Sir Jeremy Isaacs has had a long and broadly Muslims in Britain. There has been a longstanding successful career in various media positions, Muslim presence in Britain, but it is the recent large including head of Channel 4. However, his legacy immigration from South Asia and East Africa which will be overshadowed by Gerald Kaufman’s highly has led to the rapid growth of the Muslim population. critical Select Committee report on the running of Many Muslims came to work in the manufacturing the Royal Opera House where Isaacs was director industries of the North and Midlands, and the from 1988–96. He allowed the company to become majority of the Pakistani community are based homeless during the refurbishment of its main outside the Southeast and London. Given the change premises, and his work came under scrutiny in the in economic structure from manufacturing to six-episode documentary The House, aired in 1996. services, those Muslims have experienced high rates The first fly-on-the-wall programme attracted a of unemployment, while other Muslim groups have television audience of more than two million. The managed to become successful in the self-employed institution was shown as a shambles, and Isaacs sectors and the professions. This often has far more was blamed by his successor for mismanaging to do with their ethnic background than their financial and other aspects of the business. religion, and there do seem to be different rates of MIKE STORRY success in education, employment and income between different ethnic groups, which often include Muslims. Islam is a religion and not the name of an Islam ethnic group, so Muslims often cut across ethnic groups. Islam is the religion of the Muslims, a monotheistic The Muslim community is largely based in the faith which regards itself as incorporating the final major British cities, especially London, Birmingham, revelation in the message of the Qur’an from God Manchester, Bradford and Glasgow. As a fairly to the Prophet Muhammad. This message ends the recent immigrant community, they have not enjoyed process of prophecy and completes the revelations much success in British politics and culture, having of the Old and New Testaments. There are two managed to produce just one Muslim MP in the main categories of Islam. The majority of believers 1997 election, and without a major influence on adhere to Sunni Islam, which emphasizes cultural and commercial activities. Perhaps the most dependence on the interpretation of religious texts important group has been one of the smallest: the by agreement between appropriate scholars. In the Arab community centred in London. London has minority are followers of Shi‘i Islam, which sees become the centre of the Arabic press, and also a authority as residing more in particular individuals major financial centre for the oil economies of the who serve as authorities themselves. The majority Middle East, and the skill and learning of the Arab of British Muslims are Sunnis. Islam sets out community has combined with their comparative Islam 281 wealth to dominate the intellectual life of the Islamic challenged the traditional community and religious community. The notion of such a community should leadership. All this has taken place within a general not be overstressed, however, since Muslims tend cultural background which has replaced communism to divide up on ethnic grounds, and the attempts to with Islam as the central threat internationally to link all facets of the community, such as the Muslim the Western democracies, and it is hardly surprising Parliament, are not widely supported. The that as a result British Muslims should feel under community has had difficulties in representing itself attack, and sometimes react vigorously. However, with a common voice politically, and even in all the evidence suggests that very few British ensuring that the rules of halal (permitted) slaughter Muslims are attracted to fundamentalist ideas, which correctly apply to all such labelled meat. There has imply the necessity of a very distinct lifestyle for also been only limited support for the idea of Muslim Muslims, and most Muslims continue to blend their schools, which so far have been rejected by the religious principles with ordinary life in British Department for Education as candidates for state society. An interesting question concerns the extent support since they are invariably in areas of cities to which Muslims in Britain will be able to resist the with too many school places already. Such rejection forces of secularism, which have played such an has led to suspicions about its precise motivation, of important role in diminishing the role of religion in course, and has only served to increase the the lives of its nominal adherents. It is too early to antagonism which some Muslims feel for the official answer this question, and it is worth emphasizing institutions of the United Kingdom. that the contemporary experience of Muslims in Islam is often regarded as a threatening and Britain is more affected by their ethnic background antagonistic force in Britain, especially given the than by their religion. activities of the anti-Rushdie book burnings in response to the publication of The Satanic Verses. The See also: Indian communities; Pakistani notion of Islamic fundamentalists who are communities determined to assert themselves has been perceived as a threat to liberal British culture, and there have Further reading certainly been a number of groups of Muslims who have insisted on their rights to a separate Islamic Lewis, B. and Schnapper, D. (eds) (1994) Muslims education and who have opposed the ethos of a in Europe, London: Pinter (an account of the multicultural approach to religion in the National British community compared with the situation Curriculum. There has also been a struggle between in other European countries). different organizations backed by Saudi and Iranian Lewis, P. (1994) Islamic Britain: Religion, Politics and money to orientate the community in particular Identity among British Muslims, London: I.B.Tauris directions. Even those committed to a multicultural (a very interesting account of a particular society have been disturbed by what seems to be a community, that in Bradford). growth in Islamic exclusivism, especially among OLIVER LEAMAN young British Muslims who have increasingly distanced themselves from their parents and J

Jackson, Glenda crushing insects and to wear masks and strain drinking water. A minority religion in India, it never b. 1936, Birkenhead became a missionary religion like Buddhism. Jainism found its way to Britain with members of Actress and politician the Indian merchant class who were, and remain, As an actress, Glenda Jackson was noted for her its chief adherents. powerful stage and screen performances. Following success in the theatre, emphatic interpretation of See also: Buddhism; Hinduism; Islam her roles gained widespread attention on screen in JAN EVANS the acclaimed adaptation of D.H.Lawrence’s Women in Love (1969), directed by Ken Russell, for which she won an Oscar. In the 1970s she offered a forceful Japanese communities portrayal of Elizabeth I in Mary, Queen of Scots and showed an aptitude for comedy in A Touch of Class, The modern relationship between Britain and for which she was awarded her second Oscar. Japan dates back to the nineteenth century. As the Varied theatre and film appearances of the 1980s richest and most advanced industrial power, Britain included involvement in further Ken Russell was the obvious model for Japan’s modernization projects, including Salomé’s Last Dance and The programme following the Meiji Restoration of Rainbow. Jackson retired from acting in the 1990s 1868; thousands of students and scholars were to become a Labour Member of Parliament. despatched by Japan’s dirigiste government to learn from Britain’s industrial, scientific, engineering and ALICE E.SANGER maritime successes. Many members of the future Japanese ruling class spent time mixing with and Jainism mimicking their British counterparts at universities in Britain; two of the current emperor’s children According to tradition, Mahavira, the founder of studied at Oxford University. The Japanese novelist the Jain religion, was born in the state of Bihar in Natsume Soseki, who came to Britain in 1912 and India in 599 BC. Jainism therefore has as great a spent most of that time holed up in his room, claim to antiquity as Buddhism and there are famously hated the place. Afterwards he wrote, similarities between the two religions. Jainism is ‘The two years I spent in London were the most an austere, non-theistic religion, its central tenet unpleasant years of my life. Among English being non-violence, practised in an extremely gentlemen I lived in misery, like a poor dog that comprehensive way by its monastic followers who had strayed among a pack of wolves. I understand are required to walk with extreme caution to avoid the population of London is about five million. Japanese communities 283

Frankly speaking, I felt as if I were a drop of water Japanese cuisine including sushi, tempura and amid five million drops of oil.’ noodles to a generation of British people. The short-lived Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902– Japanese pop culture too has arrived in Britain; 23) was interrupted by the clash of imperial manga comics, anime, karaoke, walkmans, video ambitions which led ultimately to the Second World games and tamagochi have become ubiquitous War; normal relations were restored again in the cultural commodities during the 1980s and late 1940s. Despite this, however, the Japanese 1990s. Japanese generic design, with its eye for community in Britain was small throughout most detail and its minimalist, superficial aesthetic in of the postwar period (barely 1,000 people for most industry (cars and electronics) and fashion (Issey of the 1960s), and it is only really since the Japanese Miyake, Muji) has become a major influence on capital influx into Britain in the 1980s that the British culture. Popular music from Japan has a Japanese have become a significant economic and certain kitsch (shonen knife) or cult (Yellow cultural force in this country. There are now over Magic Orchestra) following in Britain but has 50,000 students, company workers, government never achieved mainstream success. There are employees and their families registered as being some indications that a new generation of resident in Britain, with almost half of these living Japanese DJs and artists like Ken Ishii and Boom in London and only 2,000 outside England. Many Boom Satellite, bringing with them so-called of these are attached to the UK arms of the banks, ‘intelligent dance music’ may be about to change brokerage houses and electronics and automobile this. Perhaps more significant than the influence companies which have been established here from of Japanese pop culture, however, are Japanese the late 1970s. ‘post-Fordist’ management techniques and In addition there are thousands of tourists who industrial strategies which have been imported come to visit the land of kings and queens, country and copied by British companies; ‘just-in-time estates, twee English villages, Wordsworth, Austen, manufacturing’, ‘team-working’ and ‘total quality Sherlock Holmes, Burns, Shakespeare and Beatrix networks’ have become part of the mainstream Potter that they have read about in comics and language of British management. books. A cultural map of Britain for many Japanese Despite the collapse of the bubble economy tourists would look like a jagged line running up in Japan in the early 1990s and the longest the spine of the country and would include the major recession in its postwar history, Japanese people sights of London, Stratford, Wedgwood, the Lake still come to visit and live in the UK in large District and Edinburgh. Brave souls who divert west numbers. Indeed, notwithstanding the bitter to visit Beatle City in Liverpool are often shocked legacy of the Second World War, there is every to find a scarred, de-industrialized landscape radically indication that the economic and cultural at odds with their misty-eyed cultural memories. relationship between the two countries will When not sightseeing, Japanese visitors crowd deepen. Japanese capital has laid down firm roots London’s Regent Street and Camden Lock, and here as a base for much of its European most British universities have many Japanese operations, and the many banks, car and students studying English and other subjects. The electronic plants dotted around the country will relationship between Japanese and British not easily be uprooted. universities is increasingly a reciprocal one. Japanese language and culture has become an important area See also: Chinese communities of study, and about 500 young British undergraduates enrol in Japan’s various public and Further reading private schemes every year to teach English. Servicing the famously fussy and dedicated Insight Japan 5(4), February 1997, special issue The Japanese consumer in Britain are the many Japanese in Britain. restaurants, shops and bars which have sprung DAVID McNEILL up in the major cities and which have introduced 284 Jarman, Derek

Jarman, Derek musicians Kenny Ball (b. 1930), and Acker Bilk (b. 1929). Kenny Ball became a professional trumpeter b. 1942, Northwood; d. 1994, Dungeness in the mid-1950s and made his mark as an outstanding trad jazz performer. (Trad, an Painter and film-maker abbreviation of traditional jazz, was a peculiarly Derek Jarman’s protean career as artist, designer, European form of deviant Dixieland, film and video maker, writer, gardener, media predominantly influenced and developed by British celebrity and AIDS activist began with his first bands). His success continued in the 1960s but, major painting exhibition at London’s Liston due to the speedy invasion of pop and rock music Gallery in 1969. Jarman designed visually he was forced to move into the cabaret scene and striking sets and costumes for theatre and touring abroad. However, in 1968 he was back in cinema, notably for Ken Russell’s films The London supporting Louis Armstrong, and during Devils and The Savage Messiah. While the 1970s he continued to tour jazz clubs and experimenting with Super 8 film-making theatres in Europe and Britain. Due to his techniques, Jarman completed his first feature remarkable all-round talents and peak spots on film, Sebastiane (1975). He went on to direct an television shows such as Morecambe and Wise and innovative and controversial oeuvre of gay Saturday Night at the Mill, as well as regular cinema including Jubilee, Caravaggio, The Last of appearances on Royal Variety Shows, he became a England, The Garden, Edward II, Wittgenstein and much loved and admired household name. In 1985, Blue. Jarman died of AIDS in 1994. his band was the first to tour in the Soviet Union, where he was received with rapturous applause. Acker Bilk, also a significant protagonist in Further reading Britain’s trad boom, followed a similar career path and he too recorded commercial material. The key O’Pray, M. (1995) Derek Jarman: Dreams of England, woman figure of this time was Cleo Laine (b. 1927), London: British Film Institute. who made her first band appearance with Johnny MARK DOUGLAS Dankworth in the 1950s. Laine and Dankworth married and both enjoyed very successful careers. Laine’s distinct delivery opened up opportunities jazz in musical, theatre and acting. The most significant development in the period London was considered a jazz city in the 1950s 1950 to 1970 was the immense improvement in the and 1960s. Gerrard Street, now Chinatown in standard of British jazz. Jim Godbolt argues that ‘the London, saw the opening of countless jazz clubs, history of jazz in Britain is a remarkable story of perhaps the most influential of which was Ronnie missionary zeal’ (1989:299). Numerous jazz Scott’s, founded in 1959. Ronnie Scott (b. 1927), a jamborees and festivals were regularly held in world-renowned tenor saxophonist, was the driving London; many of these had been established in the force behind securing a permanent home for jazz 1930s, but were generally notable for having only a in Britain. Chris Barber (b. 1930) is recognized as minimum of jazz content. However, by the late 1950s one of the great pioneers of British jazz. He is best the Musicians Benevolent Fund, organizer of the known for being a fine trombone player and jazz jamborees, belatedly realized that the musical bandleader, but started his musical studies as a content should be consistent with the title. Therefore violinist and soprano saxophonist. His biggest hit in 1958, the bill included Johnny Dankworth and record was ‘Petit Fleur’ in 1959, which reached his Orchestra, Humphrey Lyttelton and his Band, number three in the British chart and number five the Jazz Couriers and Chris Barber. A unique feature in the United States. ‘Petit Fleur’ made a significant of the British jazz scene was the number of musicians impact on the trad jazz boom in Britain, and who were also writers, including Humphrey undoubtedly helped pave the way for trad Lyttelton, George Melly, Sandy Brown, Ian Carr, jazz funk 285

Benny Green and John Chilton, amongst others. In the first British musician to be signed up as a leader 1972 John Chilton, through his own company by the American-based Blue Note jazz label. Bloomsbury Books, published his Who’s Who of Jazz, a book that became a standard reference book. Shops See also: funk; jazz funk; jazz soloists devoted entirely to jazz and blues were mainly a postwar phenomenon. The first and most important Further reading was Dobells in London in the 1950s, which became a collectors’ mecca and a dropping-in point for Carr, C. (1973) Modern Jazz in Britain, London: visiting musicians. Doug Dobell, the proprietor, Latimer New Dimensions. continued to run the club until 31 December 1980, Cracker, C. (1994) Get Into Jazz: A Comprehensive when representatives of Westminster City Council Beginners Guide, New York: Bantam Books. came to put padlocks on the door—the sounds of Godbolt, J. (1989) A History of Jazz in Britain 1950– jazz were still defiantly issuing from inside, marking 1970, London: Quartet Books. the sad end of an era. FATIMA FERNANDES Jazz within Britain has developed from the simple structures and harmonies of its beginnings to the sophistication and subtleties of the 1920s and 1930s, jazz funk into the complexities of bebop and postbop music in the 1940s and 1950s. On entering the 1960s there Jazz funk originated out of the process of mixing was a proliferation of diverse jazz schools, with together sounds and rhythms from different sources, abstraction being very popular, and the term specifically the contemporary swing style of jazz in ‘mainstream’ was no longer applicable. The 1970s the 1950s and funk, a sort of high-energy black rock brought jazzrock fusion, influenced by Miles Davis, ’n’ roll, which had emerged out of soul and rhythm Charlie Mingus and John Coltrane. Also, the use of and blues. Both jazz and funk can be considered to electric instruments and contemporary production be meta-genres; they are each broader terms for a techniques, including multitrack recording, became wider variety of associated musical styles. Jazz funk increasingly popular in the production of jazz music. is often called fusion, because of the way it successfully With each successive decade the scope of the music blends the two styles. The jazz funk movement served expanded to such a degree that the term ‘jazz’ to reinvi-gorate and heighten the jazz influence in pop required regular reappraisals and redefinitions. music (see pop and rock). One of the most original Although jazz in the 1980s and 1990s continued to exponents of jazz funk was George Clinton in the be considered a specialist music, it is important to late 1960s, with his groups Parliament and Funkadelic. recognize the enormous impact that it has had on By the mid-1970s they had become an important force twentieth century music in general. Also, the in black American music. Other American acts such proliferation of jazz-dedicated radio stations, as James Brown, Kool and the Gang and Earth Wind television shows and magazines helped it to reach a and Fire displayed considerable jazz funk tendencies. much wider audience, comparable with its Jazz funk classics in the 1980s were Tom Browne’s popularity during the trad boom of the 1950s. ‘Funkin’ For Jamaica’ and Herbie Hancock’s ‘Rockit’, Courtney Pine, an outstanding saxophonist, was in the same tradition as his ‘Headhunters’ album in the first British-born black musician firmly to make the 1970s. In Great Britain in the early 1980s there his mark on the jazz scene in the 1980s, and his was a revival of the jazz funk style, with bands such success led to unprecedented attention to jazz within as Linx, Imagination and Shakatak bringing a slightly Britain. Julian Joseph, Gay Crosby, Mark Mondesir, more disco feel to the music. Aiming to inspire in Orphy Robinson, Cheryl Alleyne, Steve Williamson, their listeners the notion of James Brown meets Kathy Stobart, Norma Winstone, Andy Sheppard Charlie Parker, they took the theme of jazz funk fusion and Tommy Smith were all significant figures in the as a basis, and incorporated the New York avant-garde emerging innovative jazz of the late 1980s and 1990s. styles of James Chance and the Contortions, and The Smith, perhaps the most diverse in approach, was Lounge Lizards, with the odd interspersions of African 286 jazz soloists polyrhythms. The British revival was not altogether will be theocratically governed and consist only of successful, lasting for perhaps a year, mainly due to the 144,000 of the faithful; however, the elect will the fact that it was considered to be a mere inventive be chosen to reign with Christ in heaven. version of disco pop. Jehovah’s Witnesses take a proselytizing view with More palatable bands followed, such as Rip, Rig regard to the faith and are active in door-to-door ‘calls’, and Panic, Maximum Joy, The Higsons and Pigbag, but take a primarily fatalistic view about life and with their chart success ‘Papa’s Got a Brand New eschew interference with what God has decreed. Most Pig Bag’, a title borrowed from an earlier James spectacularly, this has resulted in the refusal to accept Brown hit. Jazz funk was typified by its mixture of medical treatment that utilizes the blood of others. laid-back mellowness, the slapping technique Such autonomous wishes are always respected, even employed by its bass players, and its groove factor, if death is the outcome. Such wishes are not, however, often backed by complicated percussion. Modern- extended to minors or to the guardians of minors; day exponents of jazz funk in the UK are bands where guardians of minors refuse life-saving to those such as Level 42, Jamiroquai, Galliano and The minors, the courts always overrule the refusal. Brand New Heavies. See also: Christian Science; evangelism See also: disco; jazz soloists PAUL BARRY CLARKE ALICE BENNETT Jewish communities jazz soloists Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people. It is a Jazz, though cosmopolitan, is thoroughly integrated religion which prescribes rules for its followers, into British culture. Several overseas musicians work rules which are founded on interpretations of here, including Argentinian-born Lalo Schifrin and scripture and on universal moral principles. In saxophonist Julian Arguelles. Colin Towns, who is modern times, the small Jewish population in best known for his scores for television dramas such Britain was swollen by large numbers of immigrants as Our Friends in the North, has orchestrated many from Eastern Europe at the start of the century, talented indigenous jazz soloists in his attempts to and then by a more limited immigration from Nazi- produce a synthesis of postwar orchestral jazz. He occupied Europe before the start of the Second has devised concerts based on the work of musicians World War. The majority of British Jews follow known for their work in Loose Tubes. Among Ashkenazi (European) rather than Sefardi soloists he has used are Nigel Hitchcock (flute), Pete (Oriental) rites and liturgies. King (saxophone), Mark Nightingale (trombone), On the whole, the experience of the Jewish Gerard Presencer (flugel-horn and trumpet) and Alan community in Britain has been a positive one, with Skidmore (tenor sax). Other names well-known many Jews reaching high positions in British nationally are Winton Marsalis, Courtney Pine and political and cultural life and becoming successful Guy Barker. in the commercial and professional spheres. This has enabled the community to move out of the See also: jazz funk poorer inner city areas which they first inhabited to the more prosperous suburbs, and to assimilate MIKE STORRY closely with the indigenous British population. Judaism as a faith is based on the Torah, which Jehovah’s Witnesses can either refer to the first five books of the Bible, or to the whole of the Hebrew Bible, or even the The Jehovah’s Witnesses are a religious sect that body of Jewish law and practice. The Torah is based originated in the USA in 1872. They regard the on the covenant which was established between return of Christ as imminent, after which the world God and Israel, and in its widest sense it has Jewish communities 287 developed into an all-enveloping way of life. Jews end of the last war, from around 450,000 to 300,000. take a variety of attitudes to their traditions. Almost This is largely due to intermarriage, and ever- half of the Jewish population in Britain are members increasing numbers of Jews are marrying Gentiles. of an orthodox community, which means that they According to Jewish law, the child of a Jewish mother generally adhere to a traditionalist ethos with remains Jewish, but this is not the case if only the respect to religion. They accept that the Torah is father is Jewish. In both cases, the children of such the direct revelation of the word of God and the marriages are often not brought up within Judaism, divine will, and all the laws and regulations which and the parents may abandon such links as they have developed are representations of the way of have with their religion. In addition there are many life which God wants Jews to follow. This involves Jews who are so assimilated into the local Gentile a strict set of rules concerning prayer, religious community that they follow few if any distinctive holidays and the sabbath, including rules about religious practices, and do not identify with the what sorts of food are kosher (holy or acceptable) Jewish community or religion at all. and even what combinations of cloth are While in overall numbers the size of the permissible for a Jew to wear. Within orthodoxy community is shrinking rapidly, in wealth and power there is considerable variety of practice, extending it remains very successful. Educational achievement to the Hasidim who wear clothes reminiscent of and income levels remain above the average, and the eighteenth-century Poland and live in self-con- proportion of Jewish parliamen-tarians and ministers tained communities, to the more modern orthodox far exceeds their share of the population as a whole. Jew who is in appearance indistinguishable from Anti-semitism has been a persistent strain in British anyone else in Britain, yet who nonetheless obeys culture, but it has not succeeded in restraining the a strict set of rules in his or her behaviour. The advance of the Jewish community in society. During centre of religious life is both the home and the the Conservative government of Mrs Thatcher it was synagogue; as orthodox Jews are not supposed to said that there were more Estonians in the Cabinet take transport on Sabbath and festivals, so they than Etonians, a reference to the high proportion of need to live within walking distance of a synagogue. Jewish cabinet ministers. There are many influential This has led to areas of some British cities becoming Jewish politicians in all major political parties, in the strongly Jewish, with several synagogues and media, in academic life and commerce. Although the families living in close proximity and with kosher Jewish community tends to identity itself with Israel butchers and other shops catering for the specific and is solidly Zionist, there has only been limited requirements of the Jewish community. migration to Israel. As the community has become About 17 percent of the Jewish population are wealthier and more established, there is evidence that members of the Reform or Progressive movements, its voting patterns have moved to the right. This was which regard divine revelation as changing and not sometimes also a response to growing antagonism on something which can be captured perfectly within the Left towards Israel. a system of legislation. The followers of these The state of Israel is perhaps the strongest movements are less committed to traditional law unifying factor in a very diverse community, but and practice, and they pray not only in Hebrew at other times there is often a great deal of but also in English. They tend to link their religion internecine dispute, especially between the different to the teachings of the prophets, which they religious organizations. The Chief Rabbi, for interpret as coming close to modern forms of example, is only the head of the United Synagogue, liberalism, and they do not discriminate between not of the whole of the British Jewish community, men and women with respect to religious roles. and not even of the whole orthodox movement. Thirty-six percent of the Jewish population is not Nonetheless, there is also often a strong feeling of a member of any synagogue at all. If there is one belonging to a community, and as with many issue which can be said to worry the whole groups based on fairly recent immigration, community, it is that of assimilation. The Jewish considerable pride at the notable achievements of population has shrunk quite dramatically since the members of that community. 288 Joffe, Roland

Further reading directly political lyrics. He is principally known for tackling subjects such as the 1981 race riots, the Alderman, G. (1992) Modern British Jewry, Oxford: arrest on suspicion laws, and white violence on Oxford University Press (the standard blacks, particularly on Forces of Victory (1979), Making discussion of the topic). History (1984) and Tings and Times (1990). Rubinstein, W. (1996) A History of the Jews in the Eng-lish-Speaking World: Great Britain, London: See also: black performance poets; dub Macmillan (the best modern treatment of the topic). PETER CHILDS

OLIVER LEAMAN Jordan, Neil

Joffe, Roland b. 1950, County Sligo (Ireland) b. 1945, London Film-maker Film-maker Born in 1950, Jordan started as a writer moving on to script consultant on Excalibur (1981) before After working on television, Joffe went on to direct his directing debut, the impressive Angel (1982), a two unlikely 1980s blockbusters, The Killing Fields thriller set within the context of the troubles in (1984) and The Mission (1985), for which he won Northern Ireland. Other films include Company of Academy Award nominations and was hailed as Wolves (1984) with its contemporary and adult the crest of the latest British wave to hit Hollywood. treatment of a fairy tale, Mona Lisa (1986) and We’re Up to, and arguably including, the egregious The No Angels (1989). He returned to Irish-related issues Scarlet Letter (1995), Joffe had primarily made social in 1988 with High Spirits, The Crying Game (1992), a conscience films (including City of Joy (1992), set in romantic thriller and the drama The Miracle (1991) Calcutta) which had managed generally to combine although their treatment of his native Ireland was sensitive subjects with box office success. His far less serious and more whimsical than either Angel Spongers (1978), a television film about poverty in or the controversial and critically acclaimed Michael contemporary Britain, won the Prix Italia. Collins (1996) the romantic cinebiography of the MIKE STORRY legendary Irish leader.

GUY OSBORN Johnson, Linton Kwesi STEVE GREENFIELD b. 1952, Chapeltown (Jamaica) joyriding Dub poet The use of cars in criminal activity took on a new After coming to Britain in 1963, Johnson took a phase in the 1980s and 1990s as cars themselves sociology degree at Goldsmith’s College in became the focus of deviancy. Aside from London. He has continued an early interest in conventional car theft, vehicles were stolen to be music, literature, and politics through poetry used by joyriders. Joyriding often involved the performances, verse publications, writing for the deliberate baiting of police patrols who would then New Musical Express and Melody Maker, and his be engaged in high-speed car chases through mainly involvement with the Race Today collective. His urban areas. Prevalent activities amongst the youth 1977 album Dread Beat an’ Blood has been seen as of both neglected housing estates and the market the blueprint and catalyst for dub poetry with its town, they are considered as moments of combination of reggae rhythms (provided by dispossession and disenfranchisement from a Dennis Bovell) and Johnson’s slow, careful and fragmenting social order representing a form of junk mail 289 escape. The subsequent ‘moral panic’ surrounding Jungle (sometimes also known as ‘drum ’n’ bass’) such activ-ities was fuelled by television depiction developed from the hardcore rave scene when DJs and resulted in a number of legislative provisions realized that the breakbeats they were playing were to deal with the problem. approximately twice the speed of 1970s dub records, and that the bass lines from these tunes could be GUY OSBORN played over the drums. In these formative years, a STEVE GREENFIELD major factor was the exclusivity of records, with tunes frequently being pressed only on a few ‘dub Julien, Isaac plates’ —white labelled twelve-inch singles— over which DJs would vie with each other, much as had b. 1961 happened in the early years of the ska scene. A development of this was a plethora of small, Film-maker independent record labels, which often released only Isaac Julien lives in London where he works as a records made by one artist, as in the case of Photek’s film director. He is one of the founding members of identically named imprint, or by a small, close-knit Sankofa Black Film Workshop, and the foremost of group of artists, as in, for example, the Good the new wave of black British independent film Looking/Looking Good label run by LTJ Bukem. makers. He co-directed The Passion of Remembrance with Another facet of the jungle scene is a widespread Maureen Blackwood in 1986, and directed This is use of aliases, with artists changing their identity Not an Aids Ad in 1987. In 1989, he directed the prize- with each genre they cover. A prime example would winning short film Looking for Langston (about US have to be 4 Hero, who also record as Tek 9, Tom poet Langston Hughes). His full-length feature film, & Jerry, Nu Era and Jacob’s Optical Stairway. As Young Soul Rebels (1991), made through the BFI well as enabling more musical freedom, this tactic Production Board with a budget of £1.2 million also allows artists to avoid being tied to any single gained the International Critics Award at the Cannes record label, which means that jungle, perhaps Film Festival. His 1992 two-part documentary series more than any other style of music, is controlled Black & White in Colour for BBC television was shown by those who make it rather than being in the hands in the New York Film Festival. In 1993 he made The of the larger recording industry. Attendant for Channel 4 television. Sometimes called the British answer to hip hop, jungle was primarily associated with urban, See also: Black Audio Film Collective; diasporan predominantly black youth from its beginnings film-makers around 1992–3, until artists such as Goldie and Alex Reece achieved wider success in 1995. This EUGENE LANGE led to some artists, including Reece and Photek, signing to major labels, with jungle subsequently jungle moving towards mainstream acceptance. 1995 also saw the distinctive rhythms of the music beginning Jungle is a form of dance music characterized by to appear on techno records, and by 1996 jungle the use of high-speed (usually around 160 beats backings could be heard in television advertising. per minute), highly syncopated drums and simple looped bass lines. Early jungle records often used See also: clubs a reggae/ragga ‘toasting’ style lead vocal, while SIMON BOTTOM the newer ‘intelligent’ style (a term invented by the dance music press which many jungle artists disown as being too elitist) is usually junk mail accompanied by ethereal strings and female vocals, often incorporating elements borrowed Junk mail (alternatively known as direct mail) is from jazz. sent unsolicited through the post. The availability 290 junk mail of huge computer databases has enabled the direct motoring organizations and so on. In the year to mailing of millions of people. From the March 1997, complaints from the public rose 32 merchandisers’ point of view, this is a cheap way percent to 3,897. Junk mail is also becoming a of targeting customers. It can often pay its way with problem on fax machines, and in the late 1990s a response rate of less than 5 percent. Large the Internet version of junk mail became known privatized companies such as Southern Electric and as ‘spamming’. United Utilities have come under fire from the Data MIKE STORRY Protection Registry for including with their bills promotional literature for insurance companies, K

Kapoor, Anish Not the Only Fruit (1989), plus the films Antonia and Jane (1991), Used People (1992) and To Wong Foo, b. 1954 Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar (1995). The last named is the story (written by Douglas Carter Sculptor Beane) of three drag queens en route to the Los Winner of the Turner Prize in 1991, Anish Kapoor Angeles gay pageant. They are marooned, and is best known for his biomorphic and geometric, enliven a Mid-Western town with their ‘theatri- sculpted shapes which he covers in brightly coloured cality—gay men celebrating their feminine side’ pigments and displays in groups, developing (Kidron). Her period romance Swept From The Sea relationships between each object which often (1997) is based on Joseph Conrad’s novella Any suggest landscapes. Inspired by the mounds of Foster, and stars Vincent Perez, Rachel Weisz, Ian intensely coloured powders which he saw on display McKellen, Joss Ackland and Kathy Bates. in India, the artist tries to evoke something of his cultural heritage. The primary colours which he uses See also: film, feminist are often imbued with a symbolism which relates to MIKE STORRY Indian art and religion, while the shapes often imply fertility. He exhibited in the British Pavilion at the 1990 Venice Biennale, and an exhibition at the Hayward Gallery in 1998 saw Kapoor Knightsbridge experimenting with the representation of absence. Knightsbridge is the fashionable area in London, between Chelsea and Kensington, where Harrods See also: painting; sculpture department store, designer shops and a very few LUCINDA TOWLER expensive homes are located. Part of its mystique comes from the fact that the wealthy and powerful from all over the world are drawn to shop there; Kidron, Beeban newspapers referred to the ‘Knightsbridge trap’ in the recent case of General Pinochet. Knightsbrid- b. 1961 ge’s epicentre is Sloane Square, an area inhabited by Sloane Rangers (well-to-do young women Film-maker fashionably dressed with chic headscarves tied at Beeban Kidron is a versatile director who has the chin). Property developers, including The filmed both traditional and avant-garde stories. Her Prudential insurance company, have faced great oeuvre includes a television adaptation of Jeannette opposition to their plans, particularly those for Winterson’s lesbian coming-of-age novel Oranges Are Knightsbridge Green opposite Harrods, because 292 Kubrick, Stanley existing residents have strong support from classic anti-war satire, Dr Strangelove (1964). The Westminster Council. success of these films led to Kubrick being the first director to take full artistic control over his See also: department stores work. 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and A Clockwork Orange (1971) are testaments to his overall vision MIKE STORRY of film making, both visually intense and narratively confusing. Reaction to A Clockwork Kubrick, Stanley Orange made Kubrick rethink his artistic direction, and since 1971 he has made only three films: Barry b. 1928, New York (USA) Lyndon (1975), The Shining (1980) and Full Metal Jacket (1987). His first film for twelve years, Eyes Film-maker Wide Shut, with Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman, Though his early films were produced in is due to be released in 1999. Hollywood, Kubrick’s finest and most innovative SAM JOHNSTONE work is British. He emigrated to the UK in 1961 and his first British film was an adaptation of Nabokov’s Lolita (1962). This was followed by the L

labels resistance to this attempt to bring designer clothing into the mass market. The use of labelling on clothes has historically The concept of consumer goods identified with served a number of purposes. Essentially a badge a particular designer extends beyond clothing and of assured quality, the labels became for a time more into other products such as spectacles and a sign of conspicuous consumption. The switch cosmetics. While some trendy designers have still towards more ostentatious advertising of names has embraced the idea of ‘clothes as adverts’ (notably been accompanied by the development of the cult Duffer of St George, which has evolved from a of the individual designer. For a time, the fashion Camden market stall to a big-label business in little world dictated that t-shirts, belts, and clothes over ten years) and preppie designer Tommy emblazoned with the name of the designer or Hilfiger still finds takers for clothes emblazoned in producer were de rigueur, a trend developed by top this way, there has been something of a backlash designers such as Calvin Klein. This was a boon against this concept; more recently, the emphasis for counterfeiters, who were easily able to has been less on the conspicuous and more on the incorporate the fashionable look at little extra cost; understated. it is the names and logos that identify the copied items for the pirate market. This was made even See also: designer labels easier by the move towards more casual and sports clothing, which utilized materials that were more GUY OSBORN readily available to counterfeiters and STEVE GREENFIELD correspondingly cheaper. A series of trade mark and intellectual property infringement cases were labour migration brought against offenders, but the problem is not easy to contain in a global market. While designers Since the recession of the early 1990s, labour has may not find much comfort in the notion that had to become more mobile. The Conservative ‘copying is the highest form of flattery’, it is cabinet minister Norman (later Lord) Tebbitt certainly true that a designer can be said to have became notorious for his advice to the unemployed arrived in the mass market when pirated versions to ‘get on your bike’ (meaning to move house in of his or her designs begin to appear. As well as the search of work). Many unemployed gravitated from issue of counterfeiting, a further attack on the the north to the southeast of England, where the exclusivity of designer clothing has been made by statistical rate of unemployment was lower by as one of the giant supermarket retailers, Tesco. The much as 25 percent. In some cases these migrants company has sought to buy large quantities of were unable to find work, and were thus worse off designer products and sell them at greatly reduced than if they had stayed at home where they had prices. It became apparent that there was some the support of friends and family. Television reports 294 Labour Party of homelessness on the streets of London and other agenda could not be addressed if the leadership’s major urban centres attributed blame for the hands were tied by Brussels, they also called for problem to this advice. withdrawal from Europe. During this period, Tony Benn began to emerge See also: Big Issue, The; North of England as a leading light among the fundamentalist factions within the party. Popular amongst the ordinary MIKE STORRY party members, he was with, but not of, the leadership; despite his participation in the Labour Party governments of Wilson (1964–70 and 1974–6) and Callaghan (1976–9), he rejected their social Despite being one of the only two major parties in democratic agenda. Benn believed in class-based British politics, the Labour Party has suffered from a action and the need for the Labour party to move lack of electoral success, having won a clear governing to the left. majority only three times (1945, 1966 and 1997). It As the economic situation worsened during the has long suffered from factional infighting, whether 1970s, so the Left continued their drive for influence by committed Labour Party members who are of the leadership. The 1973 party conference adopted divided along ideological lines, or by far-left groups Labour’s programme, which called for the creation who, through a process of entryism, have hijacked of the aforementioned National Enterprise Board. the party’s popular support for their own ends (for The 1974 election manifesto was a compromise. example, the Revolutionary Socialist League). The Wilson, at odds with the Left and their programme, moderate centrist factions of the Labour Party have sought a social democratic path, and the tone of the had to contend with the challenges of the Left, to the manifesto was diluted, although it remained in apparent detriment of electoral success. This once self- keeping with the policies approved by conference. professed socialist party has, since the 1980s, moved The Labour Party was elected in February 1974 towards social democratic policies acknowledging the (with a minority administration until the October importance of the market. In the post-Thatcher era, general election consolidated their position with a the party has turned from what many saw as its small majority). Once in power, the leadership founding tenets (such as a commitment to nationalized sought to minimalize the Left’s influence. Initially industries, or strong links with the trade unions) to Wilson placated the Left; Tony Benn and Michael present a pragmatic challenge to the longstanding Foot, both doyens of the Left, received prominent incumbents. government positions, Benn in Industry and Foot During the 1970s the Labour Party swung to the in Education. The 1975 Industry Act created the left. The 1960s had seen the government of Harold National Enterprise Board, but it was a pale Wilson (elected leader in 1963) fail both to run the imitation of what the Left had intended, having economy successfully and to unite the party. Despite neither the scope nor funds to achieve the original efforts to remedy the balance of payments deficit by aims. Benn was soon removed from the reducing overseas expenditure and devaluing the Department of Industry and sent to the much less pound in 1967, Wilson’s economic success was important Department of Energy. limited. Labour lost the 1970 election and were in By the middle of the 1970s, events had opposition again. The Left within the party overtaken the ideological battle within the Labour formulated their own ideas, one of the best-known Party. Britain was experiencing a phenomenon of which was the Alternative Economic Strategy known as stagflation, with high unemployment and (AES), as it became known. State intervention and high inflation. Keynesianism could not explain this, control were central themes of the AES. In order to but monetarism could. The circumstances achieve their aims, the Left called for the creation of required action, and accordingly control of the National Enterprise Board which was to oversee economic policy was wrested from the ideologues. this programme of widespread nationalization and The government was forced to adopt monetary planning. Recognizing that the radical domestic discipline as a condition of an International Labour Party 295

Monetary Fund loan (necessitated by a run on launching an attack at party conference (1985) and sterling in 1976). A series of strikes in what was to expelling members. He also condemned the tactics become known as the Winter of Discontent of Scargill during the 1984–5 miners’ strike. Both finished any chance of a revival for Labour and, actions illustrated Kinnock’s commitment to a more following a vote of no confidence, they were moderate social democratic direction; but he moved defeated at the 1979 election. slowly at first, aware that any radical change forced The 1980s were a turbulent time for the Labour through in an expedite manner could further divide Party, during which they were divided and the party. electorally unsuccessful. The decade started well However, by the time of the 1987 election the for the Left. When Callaghan stood down, Michael manifesto was devoid of many of the Left’s earlier Foot replaced him as party leader (1980). In promises. The radical agenda was diluted, as in addition, constituency changes had favoured the the case of nationalization, or expunged, as in the Left. The party started to develop and adopt more case of the promise to leave the European overtly left-wing policies. By 1980, party conference Community. Kinnock stuck with the commitment support had been secured for unilateral nuclear to unilateral disarmament, but agreed to increased disarmament, unconditional withdrawal from the commitment to NATO. Further, Kinnock moved European Community and the Alternative with the spirit of the time with regard to the Economic Strategy, which involved increased economy, accepting the market and limiting his nationalization. Labour’s programme was commitment to nationalization to key public areas. revamped again in 1982. This time, however, the He talked of the social control of the economy, election manifesto of the following year (A New trying to coalesce social democracy with market- Hope For Britain) stuck closely to the policy dominated economics. The process of change document, much more closely than Wilson had proceeded slowly during the period 1983–7 with done. The apparent failure of the Wilson/Call- Kinnock carefully laying important foundations aghan government left social democracy open to period on which he was to build subsequently. its most fervent attack from the Left so far, and the Thus it was that Labour entered the 1987 election result was a party split; in 1981 Roy Jenkins, David with a less radical agenda—and lost. Owen, Shirley Williams and Bill Rodgers left Following the 1987 election defeat, the pace of Labour to form the Social Democratic Party (SDP), revisionist reform increased. A comprehensive taking a number of Labour MPs with them. All policy review was instigated, which took two years four were revisionists and opposed the direction in to complete and culminated in the publication of which the fundamentalist Left wing was taking the the 70,000-word report, Meet the Challenge, Make party. The social democrats who remained within the Change. The policy review set the trend for the the party regrouped under the Labour Solidarity Labour Party for the coming years. It was a group banner and faced the 1983 election. practical response to Labour’s lack of electoral Labour suffered a crushing defeat, its worst since success. It sought to increase the popularity of the 1918. Foot stepped down immediately and was party by moving away from unpopular policies replaced by Neil Kinnock, who chose Roy such as nationalization and high taxation. In May Hattersley as his deputy. The Left were reeling. 1990, a revised and slimmer version of the report, They finally had their chance to put their policies Looking to the Future, was published and formed to the nation and had been rejected. They now the basis of Labour’s 1992 election manifesto. The became more isolated as new socialist thinkers document had to contend with the fall of found their voices within the party, men such as Keynesianism and move away from left-wing Bryan Gould, Robin Cook and Gordon Brown. statist policies. Kinnock maintained that the Kinnock was not able to proceed with a review did not contradict the essence of the Party, revisionist plan at any pace, not least for the reasons although the commitment to the unions was that he had the miners’ strike and Militant tendency weakened with an acceptance of many of to deal with. Kinnock rid the party of Militant, Thatcher’s restrictive reforms. 296 Labour Party black sections

Kinnock managed to unite the party, and he economy and the importance of both public and altered the tone and direction of Labour policy. private ownership, thus giving up the commitment He offered a practical approach to making the party to common ownership and openly advocating a electable and led them to the 1992 election—only mixed economy. It also spoke of ensuring a just to suffer Labour’s fourth consecutive defeat. He society and a caring community, in which the rights resigned, and John Smith, Kinnock’s former and interests of all are fairly represented. On 29 shadow chancellor, succeeded him as leader of the April 1995 Blair secured approval for the new Labour Party three months after the election. Smith proposal. In a short time, he had redefined the was Labour Party leader until his untimely death Party’s aims as set out in its own constitution, in May 1994. He continued in the spirit of change creating what has become known as New Labour. if with his own style. Less antagonistic than As a consequence, the party secured a massive Kinnock, he did not force the revisionist case so majority at the general election in May 1997. openly; yet he achieved monumental change. Blair remains committed to change. His Significantly, he reformed the selection process for charismatic, almost presidential, leadership style parliamentary candidates under the slogan ‘One stands as testament to this. He appears to have the Member One Vote’, weakening the power of the support of his party in modernizing their trade unions. Smith also came under pressure to organization and aims. Labour party policy reform Clause IV Part Four (viewed as Labour’s continues to distance itself from previous left-wing commitment to nationalization and in essence the ideals, leading some commentators to question expression of the party’s socialist commitment), where the process will end. Regardless of this, the most notably from Jack Straw, the shadow Labour Party has undergone an extensive environment secretary. Clause IV had formed the programme of modernization and reform. This essence of Labour Party policy for many years and change can be viewed partly as a response to although Smith was a modernizer he did not force changing social values, partly because of changing the pace of change over this contentious issue. economic thought and partly due to a lack of Cautiously and cleverly, he worked to further unite electoral success. his party while continuing a programme of change. Following John Smith’s death, Tony Blair was See also: fringe groups; Labour Party black elected leader. All early indications were that Blair sections; Militant would continue the work begun by his predecessors. Blair was clearly committed to a Further reading market economy and not afraid of making changes quickly. To Blair, socialism was not about a strong Jones, T. (1996) Remaking The Labour Party, London: state controlling society but about society Routledge. cooperating to the benefit of all; likewise in the Shaw, E. (1996) The Labour Party Since 1945, economic sphere, he believed that government and London: Blackwell. industry should work in partnership. Soon after ALASTAIR LINDSLEY his election, Blair moved to alter the nature of the Labour Party and began by addressing the issue of Clause IV In October 1994 he put forward a Labour Party black sections proposal to reform the constitution of the party, in his first platform speech as leader. This move Although more than 13 percent of the total Labour received much press coverage and affirmed Blair’s vote in 1983 came from ethnic minorities, there commitment to change. The new text of Clause were no black MPs. Diane Abbott, Paul Boateng IV was finally published in March 1995. Written and Sharon Atkin promoted the idea of black principally by Blair, it set out Labour’s commitment sections within Labour to further minority to the community and radically altered Labour’s representation and exercise some power within the economic goals by detailing a belief in the market party. The Labour leadership team of Neil Kinnock Lean, David 297 and Roy Hattersley, however, decided to stamp out viewing the patient as a human being to be listened black sections because they thought they were to remains influential, and represents a ‘paradigm- divisive and would prevent Labour from getting shift’ in thinking with regard to severe mental elected. Hence they deselected Atkin from a safe illness. seat in Nottingham in 1987 when she said: ‘I do NEIL ANKERS not give a damn about Neil Kinnock and a racist Labour Party’. The idea of black sections then died. law courts See also: black Conservatives; black politics; fringe groups; New Labour The historic public fascination with the proceedings of the criminal justice system remains undiminished, MIKE STORRY and is often fuelled by intense media activity. The courts, and specifically the image of the Central Criminal Court, The Old Bailey, remains a central ‘lads’ and ‘lager louts’ dramatic forum in the narratives of everyday life. The terms ‘lads’ and ‘lager louts’ describe two Recently, tensions between law and justice have different cultural phenomena. The lager lout first appeared as the image of (in)justice has cast a shadow appeared as a conservative media target in the mid- over a number of high profile miscarriage of justice 1980s, the label encapsulating the leisure habits of cases (such as the Birmingham Six and the nouveau riche working-class males who worked Bridgewater Four). To date, the English courts have in City financial institutions, and their propensity resisted the intrusion of live television coverage that for drinking imported bottled lager to excess and proved so controversial in the trials of O.J.Simpson indulging in acts of violence. The ‘lad’ emerged in and the Menendez brothers in the USA. the early 1990s and was another media contrivance, set up in direct opposition to the politically correct See also: government inquiries male imagery that appeared at this time. The lad is GUY OSBORN seen as a beer-swilling, football-loving, girl-chasing STEVE GREENFIELD caricature. Society was quick to acknowledge the lad: television shows, magazines, books and music all appeared to cater for the unreconstructed man. Lean, David

See also: new man; tribalism b. 1908, Croydon; d. 1991 SAM JOHNSTONE Film-maker Lean’s career as a director was preceded by a long Laing, R.D. apprenticeship in film-making which ingrained in him a commitment to detail and quality. Despite b. 1927, Glasgow the simplicity of Brief Encounter (1945), Lean established his ability to charge a narrative with Psychiatrist powerful dramatic emphases. Versions of Charles Laing first came to public attention with the Dickens’s Great Expectations (1946) and Oliver Twist publication of his existentialist-inspired The Divided (1948), and later period dramas Madeleine (1950) Self (1960) which challenged the orthodoxies of and Hobson’s Choice (1954), show an interest in treatment. His influence declined steadily conflicting social and moral codes more evident in throughout the 1970s as clinical practice turned to his later films. The late 1950s and 1960s brought new developments in drug therapy and away from the larger scale projects for which Lean is best the psycho-social nexus that Laing proffered. Now known, including The Bridge on the River Kwai, largely dismissed as an idealist, his emphasis on Lawrence of Arabia and Doctor Zhivago. While A Passage 298 LEAs to India (1984) retained this sense of spectacle, his sponsiveness and ineffectiveness at tackling under- earliest works are arguably more assertive. achievement. In recent years there have been major changes ALICE E.SANGER in the way LEAs operate and, in a period of post- election consensus building, their position seems LEAs secure provided they can demonstrate effectiveness in delivering the government’s agenda of raising The golden era for Local Education Authorities achievement in schools. The inspection of LEAs (LEAs) in England and Wales was between the end will be an influence in this, but over the past ten of the Second World War and the 1974 years LEAs have become more diverse and it is reorganization of local government, when their not clear that they will have the resources with position in a national system of education locally which to monitor, evaluate, advise and intervene administered seemed assured. Reorganization effectively. While the cosy corporatism that once ushered in a more corporate style of management existed between officers, elected members and and curbed the autonomy of Education teacher unions has largely disappeared, amongst Committees. LEAs now occupy a more ambiguous the challenges LEAs will face in the future is how position in the education system, and are sometimes to communicate their purpose to a wider public perceived within local government as a cuckoo in and how to become an effective advocate on behalf the nest, arousing envy and suspicion alike over of parents while at the same time maintaining an the size of their budgets and their apparent need to overview of the needs of the whole local system. It do things differently from the rest of local is these kinds of pragmatic issues that will decide government because of the nature of their clientele. their fate, rather than an appeal for survival based Much of the ambiguity about their role and purpose on the preservation of local democracy. stems from a stream of legislation that devolved a In Scotland, the culture of governance has been number of their responsibilities to schools, and also different from England and Wales and the principle transferred greater powers to central government. of Scottish Local Authorities (SLAs) working in Government policy has veered between a partnership with the Scottish Office is one of the preference for abolition and a recognition that LEAs cornerstones of the education system that has been were needed at least to carry out those responsibilities preserved. Many of the changes that have been that private providers would find unattractive, most introduced in England and Wales have been notably provision for children with special education introduced in only a diluted form in Scotland needs. In the past ten years, LEAs have lost a number without a substantial impact on the role of the of responsibilities; for example, their role in both SLAs. There was little or no interest in schools further and higher education and their pre-eminent opting out of the SLA system, and devolved school position as a provider of adult education have been management has been a much more limited steadily eroded. initiative compared with the local management of LEAs have also had to adjust to the reality of schools in England and Wales. School boards in working with other organizations, including a variety Scotland have few of the managerial responsibilities of quangos, and to bidding for funds in order to of their counterpart governing bodies south of the secure services for their local population. The border. Much more significant has been the creation of grant-maintained schools (see schools reorganization of local government, which broke system) was a halfway measure that was intended up some very large authorities to create thirty-two to lead to their demise; much other legislation has smaller unitary authorities that have and will find been destabilizing as it has left LEAs with difficulty in maintaining the level of service that responsibilities but with limited power to act. schools have become used to. However, antipathy towards LEAs transcends party The reforms in Northern Ireland have more political lines and there is a perception, at least closely followed those in England and Wales, amongst some MPs, of bureaucracy, unre- including a similar approach to local management left-wing theatre 299 with devolved responsibilities given to school nineteenth century, the pioneering work of the boards and a Northern Ireland national curriculum. Royal Court theatre and Theatre Workshop in the The five Education and Libraries Boards (ELBs) 1950s provided a springboard for a remarkable are wholly responsible for the schools under their flowering of politically committed theatre in the management, including the provision of a 1960s and 1970s. In the 1960s, socio-economic curriculum and advice service, but they have no circumstances favoured the growth of a politically powers to inspect the quality of education in their engaged theatre: central and local government schools. Until the 1997 general election intervened, support for theatre increased, and as the number there were proposals to completely reorganize the of students in higher education rose, there was a ELBs and greatly reduce their responsibilities. growth in audiences prepared for a theatrical diet that encouraged a critical debate about political See also: schools system issues. In 1968, the abolition of the Lord Chamberlain’s powers of stage censorship removed Further reading a powerful obstacle to attempts to stage political, religious and sexual issues. Touring companies MacMahon, A. (1990) A Handbook for LEAs, devoted to raising political issues found support London: Chapman. both from established theatrical venues and from JOHN WILLIAMS groups of workers engaged in political action. Much of this new work was agitprop, aimed at issues of the day and utilizing stereotypes and cartoon-like Leavis, F.R. action to make direct political points. The success of what had been a very eclectic left- b. 1895, Cambridge; d. 1978 wing theatrical movement sparked off a series of new, Academic and critic more closely defined ventures for groups whose voices had been marginalized, focusing on issues of Frank Raymond Leavis was a teacher of English race, gender, sexual orientation and disability. at Cambridge, whose mid-century authority However, after 1979 the Thatcher government derived from his co-editorship of the journal Scrutiny initiated a slow process of pushing back the frontiers (1932– 53) and numerous works of humanist of political debate in the theatre, both directly, with literary and cultural criticism. A cultural legislation to abolish the Greater London Council conservative, Leavis valorized the ‘great tradition’ (a staunch supporter of left-wing theatre) (see GLC) of English literature as the most organic, vital and and to cut back funding of gay and lesbian theatre morally serious use of the national language. He groups, and indirectly through reductions in subsidy saw the task of criticism as the preservation and that made it difficult to fund enough actors to tour affirmation of the national language, literature and large cast plays and for local government to support culture, against the disin-tegrating effects of venues and companies alike. The Arts Council also capitalist modernity and mass media. Leavis’s chose to remove funding from theatre groups that important works include Revaluation (1936) and The might be seen as politically committed, such as 7:84 Great Tradition (1948). England, Foco Novo and Joint Stock (whose 1977 staging of David Hare’s Fanshen about the Chinese See also: literary theory revolution was highly influential), favouring instead dance and companies committed to exploring the MARK DOUGLAS classics. Although alternative comedy has sometimes offered a cheaper and less technically left-wing theatre demanding medium for raising left wing issues and some Asian, black, community, feminist, gay and Although there has been a tradition of broadly left- lesbian ventures survive, the broader umbrella has wing theatrical ventures in Britain since the late virtually disappeared. 300 Leigh, Mike

See also: Asian theatre; avant-garde theatre; black (1987), Leland continued his study of repressed theatre; community theatre; gay theatre sexual attitudes in the 1950s in his well-received first feature Wish You Were Here (1987). The hypochondria ridden Checking Out (1988) and the Further reading William McIlvanney adaptation The Big Man Rees, R. (1992) Fringe First, London: Methuen (an (1990) were followed by the Second World War important collection of interviews and recollec- sexualities of The Land Girls (1988). Leland’s work tions). exposes the insecurities and hypocrisies of sex and class inflected Britishness, his humour and incisive TREVOR R.GRIFFITHS social realism occasionally susceptible to cliched sentimentality.

LEICESTER UNIVERSITY ENGINEERING SATINDER CHOHAN BUILDING see Stirling, James

Leigh, Mike lesbian chic The term ‘lesbian chic’ (often interchangeable with b. 1943 ‘lipstick lesbianism’ and ‘new lesbianism’), used Film-maker since at least the early 1990s, refers to a new fashion or style for lesbians which invariably involves the Born in 1943, Leigh has been a writer and director adoption of feminine accoutrements. The use of for television, theatre and film. He trained at ‘chic’ implies ‘high-class’ rather than ‘high-street’ RADA and worked for a year as an assistant fashion, but from within lesbian culture, lesbian director at the Royal Shakespeare Company. He chic has come to denote the use of feminine fashion is noted for curiously light and bitter comedies of and styles as opposed to a more ‘butch’ look, and lower-middle and working-class manners and is thus not so class-specific. Elizabeth Wilson (1990) aspirations, in films such as High Hopes (1989), Life pinpoints a change to ‘glamour’ in British lesbian is Sweet (1990), Naked (1993), Secrets and Lies (1996) fashion in 1988. and Career Girls (1997). Leigh achieved celebrity in Much like the lesbian sadomasochist the 1970s with a series of television dramas, most movement which began some years earlier famous of which was Abigail’s Party, an excruciating (though with less ‘take-up’ by the British media), and excoriating satire on upwardly mobile class the popularity of lesbian chic for lesbians is often pretensions, starring his then wife Alison Steadman. connected to a rejection of anti-materialist and anti- PETER CHILDS patriarchal politics usually associated with lesbian feminism— itself often misrepresented as unitary and restrictive. Lesbian chic is not a rejuvenation Leland, David of the lesbian butch/femme dyad popular in 1940s and 1950s cities; rather, masculine lesbian b. 1947 identities are seen to be decidedly unfashionable Playwright and film director in the ‘queer’ 1990s, often by straights and ‘queers’ alike. An occasional actor and playwright, Leland rose Perhaps the unfashionability of butch lesbian to prominence with a quartet of television plays styles has been the impetus for the popularization examining the deficiencies of the British of lesbian femininity in more mainstream media educational system. Birth of a Nation, Flying in the sites. Long-haired and lipsticked lesbian characters Wind and RHINO concluded with the powerful have appeared in British soap opera in the 1990s. Made in Britain (1983). After co-writing the thriller The mainstream media also often represents lesbian Mona Lisa (1986) and scripting Personal Services chic through iconography which presents a white libel, defamation and privacy 301 upper-class and often temporary lesbian identity, libel, defamation and privacy as a recent article in Harpers and Queen (June 1994) illustrates: here, straight women are reported Defamation (collectively, libel and slander) actions playfully experimenting with lesbian sex. The to protect reputations often provoke incessant tabloid instability of lesbian identity often intimated by newspaper interest, despite the fact that it is often such articles also connects lesbian chic to queer these newspapers who are the defendants in such identity. actions. In a demonstration of the increasingly Criticisms of lesbian chic often concentrate on litigious nature of the British, such actions are the way that the impetus for this style turns on an indicative of the continual struggle to erect barriers unfair dismissal of the political gains of the lesbian between the ‘public’ and the ‘private’ personality, feminist movement in the 1970s and the 1980s, the and question the limits of concepts such as ‘celebrity’ demonization of masculine lesbian identities, and status. In an era where there appears to be an the way that the British media seem to have insatiable desire to discover minutiae of detail trivialized lesbian identity and culture in this concerning people in the public eye, there has been representational context. widespread debate concerning how far a person’s private life can be interrogated. With no recognizable See also: accessories; bisexuality; gay liberation; legal concept of a right to privacy, those suffering ‘gender benders’; sadomasochism such an interrogation have little recourse to control the actions of writers and photographers. The problem has become even more pronounced as the Further reading tabloid press, in their worst excesses, try to achieve Wilson, E. (1990) ‘Deviant Dress’, Feminist Review scoops at any cost; and their jobs are often made 35 (Summer): 67–74(an excellent short history easier by the ready availability of ‘high-tech’ means of lesbian fashion and quite specific to Britain). of obtaining information. It is unsurprising that when serious mistakes are made in stories, the response of LOUISE ALLEN victims is often to sue for damage to their reputations. High-profile defamation cases have been brought by Lester, Richard a number of television and sporting personalities such as Elton John and Ian Botham. Ironically, John’s b. 1932, Philadelphia (USA) success against the Sun newspaper allowed it to create a front-page story featuring its apology to the singer. Film-maker Alongside this legal and media ‘circus’, there Though born in America, Lester made his name has been a long-standing debate regarding the directing quintessentially British 1960s films such extent of damages awarded by juries; unlike most as A Hard Day’s Night (1964) and The Knack (1965). civil actions, libel trials are generally still heard by Along with the first, his second ‘zany’ Beatles juries. Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, movie, Help (1965), has become the model for pop initial large awards such as one million pounds to movies right up to the Spice Girls’ Spiceworld: the Elton John contributed to the Court of Appeal Movie in 1997. Always best when working on a small indicating that judges ought to advise juries on the budget, Lester’s early ‘swinging London’ films appropriate level of compensation. The tightening mixed the style of the Goons (with whom Lester of control was extended when the Court of Appeal had worked) with the attitudes of 1960s realist films was itself given power to substitute its own award and teenage culture. when the original is deemed excessive. The debate over the right to personal privacy MIKE STORRY has largely been in response to revelations concerning the personal lives of the Royal family, particularly the Duchess of York. This has led to a number of calls for legislation in this area, and has 302 Liberal Party brought into sharp focus the divergence of the UK The Liberal Party was soon linked in the centre from other jurisdictions such as France. of British politics with the SDP, Steel having negotiated with and encouraged the Gang of Four See also: democracy; privacy in their founding of a new party on the understanding that it would align itself with the Liberals at election times. The Liberal Party Further reading conference enthusiastically endorsed this Duncan, C. (1978) Defamation, London: proposition. In general the SDP/Liberal Alliance Butterworth. worked well, dominating the centre ground of British politics and enjoying the image of two parties GUY OSBORN working in harmony with each other, an impression STEVE GREENFIELD which gave them the highest third party vote in the 1983 General Election for sixty years. Liberal Party Despite the carefully nurtured image of unity, there was disagreement amongst members of both In the years following the Second World War, the parties over policy and personality clashes between Liberal Party went into a long-term decline. The senior figures, particularly after David Owen Conservatives and Labour were firmly established replaced Roy Jenkins as SDP leader. Many Liberals as the two main parties of Britain, a position which and even prominent SDP politicians felt steamrol- was strengthened by the bipartisan nature of the lered into accepting the SDP leader’s vision of the House of Commons and the ‘first past the post’ Alliance’s future. The discord behind the united electoral system. From the late 1950s, the Liberals front of the Alliance became apparent in the highly have consistently achieved many by-election charged post-election atmosphere following the victories but have experienced little success at decline of Alliance fortunes in 1987. general elections. Owen and fellow SDP MPs Rosie Barnes and In 1967, Jeremy Thorpe succeeded Joe Grim- John Cartwright made it clear they would not join mond as party leader, rejuvenating the Liberal Party. a merged party. Liberals Michael Meadowcroft and The party managed to attract many young members Tony Greaves declared their antagonism towards who had radical views on international issues of the merger, the former even trying to continue the day. They developed organizations at grassroots level Liberal Party single-handedly. However, 88 percent and performed well at local elections, benefiting from of Liberals voted for merger along with 65 percent the widespread disillusionment with the bureaucracy of SDP members. SDP MPs Robert MacLennan and the corporatism of the 1960s and 1970s. In the and Charles Kennedy joined the new party. February 1974 election, the Liberals obtained six The choice of name and the constitution of the million votes and returned fourteen MPs. Thorpe new party were the first obstacles to be overcome. subsequently held what proved to be fruitless talks The name Social and Liberal Democrats was with Edward Heath about forming a coalition eventually decided on, and this became the Liberal government. Democrats (often shortened to ‘Lib Dems’) David Steel became leader in 1976 after following a membership ballot in October 1989. Thorpe’s resignation in the wake of a sex scandal. Steel and Maclennan were unsuccessful in their Nevertheless, the Liberals were able to gain a attempts to produce a constitution and policy consultative role in government from 1977–8 in the document acceptable to Liberal MPs. A new policy Lib-Lab pact, after Labour had lost its majority. document, evolved from policies already agreed With the government facing growing difficulties between the two parties, and a constitution were with the economy and the trade unions, the ultimately hammered out; the latter had the Liberals decided to leave the pact, but their election concession to the SDP of an explicit commitment performance in 1979 was unimpressive and Mrs to NATO, in spite of opposition from Liberal Thatcher’s Conservatives swept to power. unilateralists. Liberty 303

A leadership election for the new party was has continued to move to the right, adopting many contested between two former Liberals, Paddy of the policies of the former SDP. Ashdown and Alan Beith, in July 1988. Ashdown Internally the Lib Dems have a constitutional won with 70 percent of the vote. The new leader structure which is largely a legacy of the SDP’s faced the difficult task of regaining public centralized structure with its checks and balances confidence and support and a drop of 50 percent to prevent too much power being concentrated in in membership. Nevertheless Ashdown’s the hands of small cliques. This is combined with popularity pushed up support for his party and the Liberal’s local party organization, which is under his leadership the Liberal Democrats reinforced by the Liberal Democrat federal gradually recovered and made three by-election structure with its state parties for England, Scotland gains from the Conservatives in 1990 and 1991. and Wales, and England’s twelve regional parties. Since taking charge, Ashdown has consistently been The Liberal Democrats continue to advocate the most popular leader with the public. the traditional Liberal Party positions supporting The revitalization of the Liberal Democrats constitutional and electoral reform, close ties with fuelled media speculation that their support would Europe, environmental issues and individual rights be sufficient to force a hung parliament after the and liberties. They now have a firmer commitment 1992 General Election. The Liberal Democrats to the free market and support multilateral nuclear offered a radical solution to Britain’s economic ills disarmament. by promising to create 600,000 extra jobs through government borrowing and to put a penny on See also: fringe parties; sex scandals income tax, to be spent on education. The possibility of a hung parliament meant that Further reading constitutional reform became a major election issue. Lib Dem leaders stipulated that their primary (1988) Constitution of the Social and Liberal Democrats, condition to guarantee Lib Dem support for a Hebden Bridge: Liberal Party Publications. minority government would be the introduction Cook, C. (1993) A Short History of the Liberal Party, of proportional representation. In the last week of 1900–1988, 3rd edn, Basingstoke: Macmillan. campaigning Labour debated the merits of PR. COLIN WILLIAMS Many Labour members regarded this as an error that cost Labour victory, given that it was a comparatively obscure issue compared with La- bour’s strongest campaign themes such as the state Liberty of the NHS. In the event the Conservatives won Liberty is one of London’s most famous stores, with a reduced majority and the Lib Dems picked founded in 1875 to sell clothing, fabrics, jewellery, up only 18 percent of the vote and twenty seats. ceramics and furniture. As well as importing goods Since 1992, Liberal Democrat support has like silk from the Empire, Liberty established links remained constant in the opinion polls at around with designers from the Art Nouveau movement, the 20 percent mark. The party won four by- including William Morris, Arthur Silver and elections between 1993 and 1995. In the 1994 Archibald Knox, who produced designs for the European elections the party obtained its first two company. The company specialized in block- MEPs, and in the local elections of May 1995 the printed fabrics—lawns, woollens and linens—with Liberal Democrats became the second party of local distinctive designs which are known as ‘Liberty government. In December 1995, the Lib Dems prints’. The fabrics have featured in fashions by achieved a notable coup in attracting Conservative well-known designers, including Mary Quant in Emma Nicholson to cross the floor of the House the 1960s, Zandra Rhodes in the 1970s and Joe of Commons and sit on the opposition benches as Casely-Hayford in the 1990s. a Liberal Democrat MP. However the Lib Dems have found themselves squeezed as New Labour TAM S I N S PARG O 304 licensing laws licensing laws can be granted to certain premises which only desire to sell alcohol at specific times of years, such as British licensing laws cover areas as diverse as establishments connected with the tourist trade. gaming, hygiene and landlord responsibility for behaviour on his/her premises. However there are See also: drink essentially two central themes: the minimum age MICK TURNER at which a person may buy alcohol, and hours during which they may do so on licensed premises. Alcohol may not be purchased by anyone under the age of eighteen, nor may persons under eighteen lingerie consume alcohol on licensed premises. There is one The shapes and styles of lingerie and underwear exception; beer, porter, cider or perry can be served have always been determined by the silhouettes to someone between the ages of 16– 18 if it is with dictated by outer fashion, but equally significant a meal and if they are in a part of the building has been the revolution in the manufacture of reserved for the service of meals, not a bar. Persons fabrics. Nylon, the most important innovation in under fourteen must be accompanied on licensed the history of underwear and lingerie, was widely premises, and are not allowed in any part of the used up until the 1970s. Lycra, introduced in 1959, establishment exclusively or mainly used for the together with stretch lace, knitted simplex, cotton sale of alcohol. Basic British opening hours for the polyester and other elastic fabrics, have encouraged sale of alcohol on licensed premises are 11am to new possibilities in design. 11pm weekdays and 12 noon to 10.30pm on Lingerie and underwear enjoyed a complete Sundays and bank holidays. In Scotland these times revolution in the 1960s. Tights were being are extended to 12 midnight on weekdays and manufactured from 1960 onwards. Originally Sundays, and to 1 am on Saturdays. There is a available for ballet dancers and sports people, the drinking-up period of twenty minutes allowed at modern versions were much thinner, and Mary closing time, or thirty minutes if the alcohol is being Quant also introduced tights in a variety of colours. consumed with a meal. However, older women continued to wear Off licenses may sell alcohol from Sam up until stockings, and it was only in 1976 that the terminal hour. There are a variety of manufacturers finally stopped making removable circumstances under which extensions to these suspenders for panty corselettes. Janet Reger, a hours may be granted. One-off extensions can be major innovator in lingerie and underwear, obtained from the local licensing justices, provided established her company in 1967 and was successful the police are given fourteen days notice of the into the mid-1980s. The general trend of event. Special Hours Certificates may be granted foundations from the 1960s to the 1990s has been to an establishment as long as licensing justices are progressively towards increasingly natural shaping. satisfied that an entertainment’s licence is in force, Also, as feminism continued its onslaught on and that the relevant section of the premises is bounds of acceptability, underwear became adapted adequately for the purpose of music, outerwear; Jean-Paul Gaultier has been a key dancing and the sale of refreshments to which exponent of this new trend. alcohol is ancillary. Licensees may apply for permission to open earlier (generally this would See also: body adornment; cosmetics mean 10am). However, special dispensation can be made under certain conditions. The establishment might be close to a market, for example, or it might Further reading serve a fishing fleet. A licensee may also apply for McKenzie, J. (1997) The Best in Lingerie Design, an occasional license: this permits him or her to London: Batsford. serve alcohol at a different venue, such as a cricket ground or a public hall. Finally, seasonal licenses FATIMA FERNANDES literature, Caribbean 305 literature, African should be made of Diran Adebayo (whose parents and older siblings are from Nigeria), whose Some Africa has figured in English literature for several Kind of Black about Africans living in London won centuries. On the one hand, there are the well- the Saga prize for new black writing in 1995. The known ‘boys’ own’ stories of British adventure most famous recent novelist is the Nigerian Ben fiction, such as H.Rider Haggard’s King Solomon’s Okri, who studied at the University of Essex. Okri Mines (1885) and John Buchan’s Prester John (1910). has written several novels and is also a short story On the other hand, there are the few surviving writer, but is best known for the social and magic accounts by Africans who travelled to Britain, such realist novel The Famished Road (1991), which won as the best-selling slave narrative The Interesting the Booker Prize. Narrative of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, written by Himself (1789). Other African See also: literature, Caribbean; literature, Indian; writers of previous centuries were Ukawsaw post-colonial writing Gronniosaw (an African prince christened James Albert), James Africanus Horton (the first African Further reading to graduate in medicine from Edinburgh University), Ignatius Sancho (born on a slave ship) Edwards, P. and Dabydeen, D. (eds) (1991) Black and Mary Prince (from Bermuda), who gave the Writers in Britain 1760–1890, Edinburgh: first female Afro-British account of Christian Edinburgh University Press. England in 1831. These and others are discussed PETER CHILDS in more detail by Edwards and Dabydeen (1991). In terms of white African writing, canonical texts are Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm literature, Caribbean (1883) and Doris Lessing’s The Grass is Singing (1950), two stories of white alienation, female Many Caribbean writers have moved to Britain, entrapment and black inequality (in these contexts, especially in the 1950s. V.S.Naipaul and Sam mention should also be made of Karen Blixen, Selvon came from Trinidad, Wilson Harris from Laurens van der Post, Nadine Gordimer and Guyana and George Lamming from Barbados. Elspeth Huxley). Key African novelists who have Others moved in the 1960s and 1970s such as Joan studied or lectured in Britain are Chinua Achebe Riley (Jamaica), Caryl Phillips (St Kitts), and Grace and Ngugi wa Thiong’o (previously James Ngugi). Nichols (Guyana). Many of these writers show an Achebe engages with the disruption caused by acute abiding concern with the journey from the British colonialism in his best-known books, Things Caribbean to England and the differences between Fall Apart (1958) and its sequel No Longer at Ease the two cultures, for example in Naipaul’s The (1960), the latter focusing on political corruption. Enigma of Arrival (1987), Lamming’s The Emigrants Ngugi, after writing several highly praised novels (1954), Riley’s The Unbelonging (1985) and Phillips’ in English, such as A Grain of Wheat (1967) and Weep The Final Passage (1985). In one of the early seminal Not, Child (1964), turned against the ‘language of texts of the period, The Lonely Londoners (1956), Sam the colonizers’ in favour of his local language, Selvon uses the character and friends of Moses to Kikuyu. Achebe, however, has recommended explore the experience of alienation, racism and English as a language in which the writer can speak poverty that greeted Caribbean settlers in the 1950s. to the world. Achebe, like Wole Soyinka, sees the Moving from fiction to poetry, other writers have writer as having an important role in forging a focused on the West Indian legacy of slavery, as in repository for the nation’s history, figuring not as Grace Nichols is a long memoried woman and Edward an individual voice (as in the West) but as a voice Kamau Brathwaite’s Rights of Passage (1967), Masks of the community. (1968) and Islands (1969). Such work is concerned There have not been many prominent African to mesh past history with the present reality of British writers in recent years, but special mention Caribbean identity in relation to Europe. 306 literature, children’s and teenage

In its reclamation of black history to rework with the interaction of past and present. An present cultural identities, the Guyanese-born outstanding example is The Owl Service by Alan David Dabydeen’s poetry provides a good example. Garner. More generally, children’s fiction flourished Respectively his three volumes, Slave Song (1984), as publishers began to attract writers of literary Coolie Odyssey (1988) and Turner (1994), chronicle merit. Historical novels by Rosemary Sutcliffe and the domination and sadomasochism inherent in Jill Paton Walsh coexisted alongside the historical plantation life, rework the journey to the Caribbean fantasy of Joan Aiken and Penelope Lively. of indentured Indians (who were ‘employed’ to Fantasy continued to be written throughout the replace slaves after emancipation in 1834) in a story 1970s, including Susan Cooper’s epic battles of his mother’s more recent journey to a cold, between good and evil, and the ‘psycho fantasy’ of unwelcoming England looking for work, and the Penelope Farmer. However the main trend was the role of black experience in English art, particularly realistic ‘teen’ novel. This was influenced by Turner’s 1840 painting Slavers Throwing Overboard American writers such as Robert Cormier and Judy the Dead and Dying. Blume, but there was also an indigenous demand A further common theme is the role of women for authentic ‘working-class’ literature, showing in Caribbean life, from Fred D’Aguiar’s poetry urban children in realistic surroundings. These collection Mama Dot (1985) about the pervasive books (such as Gumble’s Yard by John Rowe matriarchal presence of his grandmother to Jamaica Townsend and The Machine Gunners by Robert Kincaid’s assertion of the unparalleled strength of Westall) developed into the so-called ‘teen’ novel motherhood in Annie John (1983). A final writer which focused on issues affecting contemporary who should be mentioned is Jean Rhys, a novelist teenagers, including their struggle for cultural and who resurfaced in 1966 after over thirty years of sexual identity. No subject seemed taboo, including literary obscurity to publish Wide Sargasso Sea, a teenage sex, pregnancy, domestic violence or West Indian creole’s response to reading the pro- homosexuality. Many books tackled the problems colonial and patriarchal Jane Eyre. Wide Sargasso Sea, of ethnic minorities, such as Jan Needle’s My Mate like many of the other books discussed here, has Shofiq and the novels of Farrukh Dhondy. While become a key text in post-colonial writing. the Children’s Rights Workshop led the attack on racism and sexism in children’s books and See also: literature, African; literature, Indian encouraged multi-ethnic literature, critics worried about political correctness, condemning ‘case study’ novels in which social realism seemed to take Further reading precedence over literary quality. Some of the most Dabydeen, D. and Wilson-Tagoe, N. (1988) A successful authors of the period concentrated on Reader’s Guide to West Indian and Black British motivation and character rather than fashionable Literature, London: Hansib. social problems, for example, Nina Bawden in Carrie’s War, and Jill Paton Walsh in Goldengrove PETER CHILDS (1972) and Unleaving (1976). Also in the 1970s children’s literature became an object of study in literature, children’s and British universities, and in 1980 the Whitbread and teenage Guardian prizes were set up, reflecting a desire to seek and reward quality writing for children. The 1950s and 1960s are often described as a The best-selling children’s author of the 1970s golden age of children’s literature in Britain. This and 1980s was Roald Dahl (1916–90). He has gained is ascribed to the breakdown of prewar ideologies a dubious critical reputation, standing accused of and the absence of post-1970 political correctness. oversimplification and sheer unplea-santness, but his Fiction of this period fused the exciting narrative grotesque and virtually amoral stories (such as The of adventure stories with the introspec-tion, B.F.G., The Witches and Matilda) are immensely morality and magic of fantasy, showing a concern popular with children all over the world. During literature, Indian 307 the 1980s a number of children’s books responded different media, and quality picture books became to Cold War fears with depictions of nuclear disaster more common. This period saw the emergence of (such as Children of the Dust by Louise Lawrence). many artists who were to rise to prominence in the Meanwhile Aidan Chambers throughout the 1980s following decades, such as John Burningham and and 1990s began to widen the boundaries of Raymond Briggs. In the late 1970s and 1980s the children’s literature with such books as the sexually development of paper engineering led to an explicit and postmodernist Breaktime. explosion in ‘gimmicky’ —or richly experimental, During the 1990s, Anne Finehas emerged as a depending on your point of view—picture books. major figure in children’s literature, her humorous Led by Jan Pienkowski’s Haunted House, these discussion of topics such as gender stereotyping included pop-up and ‘scratch and sniff’ books. and ecological worries twice winning her the Standing out among the pile were Janet and Allan Carnegie medal (for Flour Babies and Goggle-eyes). Ahlberg’s Postman, books which contained Children’s authors have been influenced by removable letters in envelopes. The Ahlbergs’ contemporary events; Gulf by Robert Westall, links earlier work, Each Peach Pear Plum perfectly married a young Iraqi soldier and a British boy, and Wolf word and picture, to the delight of critics who feared by Gillian Cross combines an IRA thriller with technological improvements privileged the psychological exploration. The struggle for cultural illustration over the word. Picture books were put identity in a post-colonial world is charted in the to the same service as teen novels during the 1980s, works of Jamila Gavin, in books such as Wheel of dealing with problems from potty training to the Surya. Anthropomorphism survives into the 1990s death of a parent. Gender roles were subverted in in the popular animal stories of Brian Jacques and books like Robert Munsch’s The Paperbag Princess. Robin Jarvis. The 1990s have seen a postmodern trend amongst Concerns about children’s literature in the picture books, playing games with fiction and 1990s focus on the fear that interactive electronic reality (for example, The Book Mice by Tony media may come to replace traditional books. Other Knowles). There has also been a move towards worries include the increasing popularity of more sumptuous illustration, particularly in retold American formulaic ‘series’ books such as Point fairy tale and legend, as can be seen in the jewel- Honor, and fears that a National Curriculum in like Three Indian Princesses (Jamila Gavin). schools will result in a ‘canon’ of children’s fiction, excluding new writers. See also: film, children’s; television, children’s Ted Hughes and Charles Causley were the major figures of postwar children’s poetry. The 1970s and Further reading 1980s saw the development of a colloquial tone, as poets began to focus on the everyday details of urban Berger, L.S. (ed.) (1995) Twentieth-Century Children’s childhood. Please Mrs Butler, by Allan Ahlberg is a Writers, London: St. James’s Press. light and well-observed account of primary school Hunt, P. (ed.) (1995) Children’s Literature, An Illustrated life, but other comic poets such as Kit Wright and History, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Michael Rosen reveal dark undercurrents beneath CHARLOTTE GODDARD the everyday world. The poetry of the 1980s and 1990s tends to be demotic and best read aloud, such as the work of Brian Patten and Roger McGough. literature, Indian The rhythms of Anglo-Caribbean speech provide a rich source of contemporary children’s poetry, for The somewhat reluctant granting of independence example in John Agard’s Laughter is an Egg, Grace to India and Pakistan in 1947, and similar measures Nichol’s Come into my Tropical Garden and James Berry’s legally according national recognition and When I Dance. sovereignty to British Asian, Caribbean, and East By the 1960s, improvements in lithography African communities approximately a decade later, allowed artists to work in full colour in many produced, if only through its very protracted 308 literature, Indian clumsiness, a more complex and tortured sense of liberated sensuality, to the extent of endangering identity. Subsequently, maturing British Asian his own personal safety. His earlier novels (written writers of the post-colonial period had the task of after being told at his English public school that he clarifying the complexity of their own identity, a would never make ‘writer’ status) were criticized, task which was not straightforwardly apparent to especially in Pakistan, for alleged betrayal and a generation of readers who expected and desired condescension towards genuine Asian values, from their fiction the affirmation of territorial although Rushdie himself (a respectful agnostic) has loyalty and nationalism. always denied any intention or desire to Sheer market pressure has since ensured a ‘blaspheme’. flourishing identity for British Asian fiction. Born in Trinidad of Indian parents and now Consequently, the London scene has tended to be based in London, the novelist V.S.Naipaul has had dominated by a few great literary names. Arguably, an output as famous and widely appealing as even these figures continue to wrestle with the Rushdie. However, his novels and occasional problem of what is entailed in adopting a ‘brown’ interviews reflect more confidence in the wider perspective or ‘Eastern eye’ in a Britain still Asian diaspora, and a disgruntled affection for the resistantly occidental in the self-perception of its bourgeoisie of all races. Also his characters show a white majority. These writers are also preoccupied profound irritation with ‘Christian’ or ‘Western’ by familiar long-term problems in relation to their secular criticism of a confident, modern Moslem home countries, where race, caste, gender and perspective on life. religion are matters still painfully shaped by Similar optimism, even in the midst of some of neocolonialist-bred clashes of privilege, city and rural the most appalling homophobic, racist and sexist economic poverty, and an unbowed human spirit. Western inner-city environmental dereliction, is From the start of the 1960s, the writings of the shown by two more tentatively established Asian former Indian soldier Paul Scott (including The Jewel British writers, whose London bases and left-wing in the Crown) perpetuated a great deal of the enduring views clearly shape their metropolitan sophisticated hold of the older Commonwealth ‘neo-imperial’ fiction. Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, who now lives in view of ‘British’ Asia and of Asian Britons, including the USA, has written several key novels (as well as long-time residents in Britain. Scott’s work was film scripts for Merchant-Ivory Productions) further extended by a television version of Scott’s about the British experience and Raj Quartet in the 1980s, which helped to launch the (mis)understanding of India, particularly Esmond in career of the British Asian actor Art Malik. Scott’s India and the Booker prize winner Heat and Dust. A writings and back-up interviews given before the similar perceptiveness about landscapes and end of his life are full of conviction, especially on prejudice, as well as ‘time’ and ‘history’ in more religious differences, and they demonstrate a glorious contemporary eras than those attempted by Scott, eye for both class and caste hypocrisies. However, has been shown by Hanif Kureishi. His televised they tend to focus on the perspective of whites and filmed scripts (such as My Beautiful Launderette) exhibiting English mores in the sub-continent. have ensured that Asian gays/bisexuals, and anti- Salman Rushdie, of wealthy Bombay Indian Thatcherite Asians, often in poverty-stricken South parents but British-educated and based now in London, have voices and characters. London, has managed in one of his novels (The The myriad other Indian writers in English who Satanic Verses) to move away from such ‘English’ have reached front ranks of literary status include parochialism. He has done this by showing readers Anita Desai, Arundhati Roy and Vikram Seth. how the secular and materialistic Asian middle English literature today would be as poor without classes, both in Britain and in the subcontinent, Indian writing as it would have been in the first confront identity and cross-cultural alienation decades of the century without Irish writing. problems in their own right. However, he failed in another area, the attempt to reconcile Islam with See also: literature, African; literature, Caribbean; the modern capitalist spirit of opportunism and post-colonial writing; Rushdie Affair, the literature, Northern Irish 309

Further reading numerous identities has been influential, and since his death he has become a figurehead for a pluralist Nelson, E. (ed.) (1993) Writers of the Indian Diaspora: approach to Northern Ireland. Though not a part A Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook, Westport, of this loose grouping, Janet McNeill can be CT: Greenwood Press (a collection of essays, mentioned alongside them, since her novels depict excellent in overall sweep and very good on the women who are defiant misfits in a stultified society. new younger writers in London). The poet John Montague (who collaborated Paniker, A.K. (ed.) (1991) Indian English Literature with Hewitt on The Planter and the Gael in 1970) Since Independence, New Delhi: Indian Association and the novelists Benedict Kiely and Brian Moore for English Studies (a collection of critiques are from Catholic backgrounds. Their treatment favouring multicultural ‘inheritance’). of repressive Catholicism and the theme of loss Williams, H.M. (1977) Indo-Anglican Literature 1800– and dispossession leads to an interest in the 1970, Bombay: Orient-Longman (clear and relationship of the individual to communal and trenchant, providing the longer historical traditional structures. All three have produced work perspective without which even post-1960 in which sexual liberation figures as an emblem of fiction in Britain is incomprehensible). rebellion against puritanical Irish attitudes. Where

LAWRENCE IRVINE ILES Kiely’s work turns nostalgically inward, Moore and Montague’s work is increasingly internationalist, whether as a way of contextualizing Northern literature, Northern Irish Ireland, dealing with exile from it or finding analogies for it. While the identity politics central to the ‘Troubles’ The writers who emerged in the 1960s and after which have dominated Northern Ireland since the benefited from postwar expansionism, notably in mid-1960s are a major factor in the works of many educational opportunities. Of these, the most writers, it should be remembered that the Troubles famous is Seamus Heaney (winner of the 1995 themselves are a response to broader changes, both Nobel Prize for Literature). Heaney’s work treats inside and outside Northern Ireland. It is therefore of the opposition between his rural childhood and better to see Northern Ireland as a place in which the world opened to him by education. Under tradition and modernity, figured in locally nuanced pressure to respond to the political situation, he ways, are in conflict. turned to mythological and archaeological As the 1960s opened, a generation of writers, frameworks; accusations of essentialism are already alert to change, was passing. These broadly balanced by his sense of wonder in the everyday. leftist writers were born and raised before the Michael Longley’s poetry works within coordinates Second World War, and brought an internationalist formed by his botanical and increasingly outlook to bear on Northern Ireland. Louis ecologically sensitive awareness of the fragility of MacNeice’s scepticism and emphasis on flux were the natural world, and his allusions to war poetry a reaction against the bigoted certainties of from The Odyssey to Keith Douglas, and this has Northern Ireland’s enclosed political mindsets. enabled him to write some of the most moving W.R.Rodgers, an ex-Presbyterian clergyman whose elegies of recent years. Derek Mahon’s desire to poetry is marked by idiosyncracy and escape from history into the aesthetic is undercut extravagance, though closer to official Unionism by an apocalyptic consciousness that order can be (see Ulster Unionists), shared MacNeice’s stifling. James Simmons’s poetry is marked by the openness about the divisions in Northern Irish sexual liberationist attitude of the late 1960s and society. Sam Hanna Bell’s novels, a fictional history negotiates with popular cultural forms. from below, engage with the radical politics Among established novelists, Maurice Leitch (a associated with the dissenting Presbyterian counterpart to Brian Moore) details, in novels of tradition, an interest shared by the poet John great variety of style and setting, the experiences Hewitt. Hewitt’s treatment of Northern Ireland’s of Northern Irish Protestant life. John Morrow’s 310 literature, Scottish robustly humorous approach to the Troubles novelists for whom the Troubles are, again, only represents an important aspect of Northern Irish one part of the backdrop. Patterson has written about culture absent from the more usual pietistic public Belfast and about EuroDisney as a fantastical commentary; Colin Bateman’s comedy thrillers European city, while in Eureka Street Wilson sets the (many of which have been filmed) take their lead bomb-blasted Belfast of stereotype against a more from Morrow. Jennifer Johnston’s early novels dealt luminous version of it as a paradisal place. subtly with often destructive friendships across barriers of religion, class, gender and age, and while See also: literature, Scottish; literature, Welsh she has turned to considerations of the status of the female writer, her work is unified by a consistent Further reading attack on the traditional idea of the family. Bernard MacLaverty’s fiction also centres on troubled Corcoran, N. (ed.) (1992) The Chosen Ground: Essays on the Contemporary Poetry of Northern Ireland, relationships, but his variety of styles and settings Bridgend: Seren Books. ensures that each is troubled in a specific way. Kirkland, R. (1996) Literature and Culture in Northern A younger generation of poets has often been Ireland since 1965: Moments of Danger, London: in reaction to Heaney. Ciaran Carson treats Belfast Longman. as both the place of the Troubles and as the ur- city— shape-shifting, restless, alienating—in a EAMONN HUGHES celebratory poetry influenced by contemporary American writing (notably C.K.Williams) and by literature, Scottish traditional Irish music and storytelling; the improvisatory and digressive styles of the latter For many, James Kelman’s Booker Prize victory in become a formal analogue of urban life. Medbh 1994 with How Late It Was, How Late and the McGuckian’s work combines ecriture feminine, in its popularity of Irvine Welsh’s Trainspotting (published disordered and intimate (never simply private) in 1993 and becoming a household name with the language, with pointedly political comments despite 1996 release of a film version) announced the its gnomic appearance. Paul Muldoon, whose arrival of Scottish literature. Their impact in the playfully cosmopolitan work is often a response to mid-1990s was in part due to the directness of their Heaney, combines references to both Irish and novels, frankly depicting disenfranchised urban North American traditional tales and legends with Scottish communities at a time of political torpor influences from writers as diverse as Raymond at the end of a long period of Conservative rule in Chandler and Bob Dylan, while being alert (some Britain. The use of urban vernacular gave their would say too alert) to contemporary theoretical novels a raw authenticity, but this masked Kelman writing. In Tom Paulin’s, work the power and and Welsh’s formal inventiveness; such as the possibility of the dissenting tradition is thornily unremitting precision of Kelman’s 150-word ‘Acid’ engaged, as he establishes a sense of the global reach (1983) or Welsh’s typographical games in ‘The Acid of Protestant culture at odds with the siege House’ (1994) and Marabou Stork Night-mares (1995). mentality of Northern Irish Protestantism. By the mid-1990s, the Scottish novel was recognized Novelists make up the most recent generation to for its combination of unsentimen-tal working-class come to prominence. Deirdre Madden’s career politics, accounts of urban degradation and started with a Troubles novel, but like many of her violence, and black humour. contemporaries, she is interested in the Troubles as The recent history of Scottish literature is one simply one aspect of the socio-cultural context within of politically conscious innovation. The publication which her characters move. Eoin McNa-mee’s of Hugh MacDiarmid’s modernist classic A Drunk Resurrection Man (now filmed) is an exception to this Man Looks at the Thistle in 1926 had set the tone for rule in its attempt to find a language appropriate to much that followed. Writing in ‘Lallans’ (a literary the horrors of sectarian butchery. Glenn Patterson language formed through careful and eclectic and Robert MacLiam Wilson are very much urban reappropriation of Scottish dialect words and literature, Scottish 311 archaisms as a self-conscious rejection of the since the early 1970s, sustaining a subtle and linguistic dominance of English literature), relentless critique of class-based prejudices against MacDiarmid gave those who followed both a non-standard English. Attacks on the hegemony method and a political stance: he was at once a of English were also made through satirical Scottish nationalist, Communist and modernist linguistic reversals, exemplified by Gray and elitist. The use of Lallans (still viewed by some as Welsh’s tran-scriptions of upper-class Oxbridge the ‘proper’ language for Scottish literature) fell out English or Cockney accents (pointing up the tacit of favour, though the lexical ingenuity and range assumption that the written word has a southern of poets like W.N.Herbert and Robert Crawford English accent) or Leonard’s pointed poster-poem, in the 1980s can be seen a continuation of the ‘An Oxford English Dictionary of an English tradition. From the 1960s, a keen sense of linguistic Language’ (1996, quoted here in full). difference was demonstrated in a growing variety That the self-conscious privileging of specifically of experimental and vernacular modes of writing: Scottish (rather than merely non-English) voices Edwin Morgan’s ‘Instamatic’ and sound poetry, Ian has not led to a stultifying parochialism is a Hamilton Finlay’s concrete poems, W.S.Graham testament to the internationalism of Scottish and Norman MacCaig’s development of Dylan literature. Significantly, Gray’s Lanark (the principal Thomas’s lyrical ‘wordfloods’, the explorations of device of which is the pairing of a ‘realist’ working- their native Gaelic by Iain Crichton Smith, Sorley class Glasgow with its fantastical mirror-image MacLean and Derick Thomson, and George Unthank) includes a playful ‘index of diffuse and Mackay Brown’s evocations of his Orkney island imbedded Plagiarisms by Sidney Workman’ which community. Scottish writers also used ‘standard’ not only includes Hobsbaum, Kelman, Leonard English to their own ends: a sense of the breadth and Lochhead, but cites a whole network of of Scottish writing in English can be felt in the previous writers and thinkers (with Scots like contrast between Muriel Spark’s novel about a Burns, Hume and Adam Smith listed alongside genteel Edinburgh girls’ school (The Prime of Miss Ibsen, Freud, Blake and Kafka), effectively placing Jean Brodie, 1961) and the gothic violence of Iain contemporary Scottish writing in a simultaneously Banks’ The Wasp Factory (1984), or between Douglas Scottish and international context. Tom Scott’s Dunn’s 1985 Elegies to his dead wife and Banks’ dialect versions of the French medieval poet science fiction (including Consider Phlebas, 1987). In François Villon, W.L.Lorimer’s translation of the effect, Scottish writers created a single literature of New Testament into Scots and Morgan’s prolific many languages: English, Gaelic, Lallans and, translations from Italian, Russian, Spanish, increasingly, ‘urban phonetic dialect’. German, Hungarian, French and Anglo-Saxon are The urban focus can be seen as early as 1962 examples of the wide-ranging literary influences in Edwin Morgan’s The Second Life, but gained that were brought into Scotland from abroad. significant impetus from the weekly reading group Morgan also joined Finlay in introducing concrete set up by Philip Hobsbaum in Glasgow from 1971. poetry to the English-speaking world from Latin There, writers like Alisdair Gray, Kelman, Tom America in the 1960s, underlining a receptiveness Leonard and Liz Lochhead were able to meet and to avant-garde and experimental approaches at that discuss their work; in the wake of the failed 1979 is at odds with the formal conservatism of devolution referendum, Gray’s postmodern epic mainstream English literature. novel Lanark (written and rewritten over some three This openness to influence is helped by the decades) was finally published in 1981, Polygon proximity of many Scottish writers to their audience, produced Kelman’s short-story collection Not Not partly through the maintenance of linguistic While the Giro (1983), and in 1984 Leonard and communities (notably for the Gaelic poets) but also Lochhead both published collected editions of their through a commitment to performance, in many poetry (Intimate Voices and Dreaming Frankenstein). cases involving authors in writing for theatre (such Leonard’s work had promoted the suppressed voice as Liz Lochhead with Mary Queen of Scots Got Her of the urban working-classes as a literary language Head Chopped Off, 1989). Social changes have also 312 literature, Welsh had an effect on the literary scene, once depicted as poetry is a vehicle for a kind of national gathering of old men in an Edinburgh pub; remembrance, both a responsibility and a political increasing numbers of women writers have come to act. The poetry of Danny Base epitomizes the the fore since the 1960s. The poets Lochhead, Carol dichotomy of national and personal identity. It Ann Duffy, Kathleen Jamie and Jackie Kay, and prose displays a multi-dimensional vision, incorporating writers Janice Galloway, A.L.Kennedy and Candia the topographies of the metropolis and the pastoral, McWilliam are among the most prominent. Kay— the mystical and the physical, and the dilemmas of daughter of a Nigerian father and Scottish mother, being Welsh/English, British/Jewish, poet/doctor. adopted by white Glaswegian parents—has also The younger Welsh poets writing today, for demonstrated the scope of contemporary Scottish example, Gillian Clark and Tony Curtis, continue literature, exploring notions of self- and gender- to be acutely aware of the need to confront their identity through the poems of Adoption Papers (1991) essential Welshness through their writing, and their and the novel Trumpet (1997). role as Welsh poets in creating and invoking Wales. In fiction, the short story has been a popular medium for the representation and expression of Further reading the Welsh way of life, with modern works taking Crawford, R. (1992) Devolving English Literature, their impetus from Glyn Jones’s The Blue Bed and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Other Stories (1937), a startling and poetic tale from Dunn, D. (ed.) (1992) The Faber Book of Twentieth- the Wales of the Great Depression. Writers such as Century Scottish Poetry, London: Faber & Faber. Kate Roberts recreated small corners of locality and Kravitz, P. (ed.) (1997) The Picador Book of lived experience, in stories and novels that dwelt on Contemporary Scottish Fiction, Basingstoke: the lives of the people of the small communities, Macmillan. affected not only by internal economic decline but by the intrusion of wider concerns, for example in SIMON COPPOCK Traed Mewn Cyffion (Feet in Chains) (1936). More contemporary Welsh fiction has continued to explore literature, Welsh the collapse of the traditional foundation of modern Wales, especially the mining industry, for example The characteristics of Welsh literature of the in Gwyn Jones’s Times Like These (1979) and Gwyn twentieth century are its concern with place and Thomas’s Sorrow for My Sons (1986), which remain landscape, language and nationhood, the individual resonant for our times. within the community, industrial and economic decline, and the politics of identity: what it means See also: literature, Northern Irish; literature, to be Welsh and, more specifically, what it means Scottish; Welsh language; Welsh press to be a Welsh writer writing in English. Welsh writers see themselves as working from within a Further reading tradition which stretches back to Taliesin and the ancient bardic poets, and The Mabinogion, through Jarman, A.O.H. and Hughes, G.R. (eds) (1976) A to the writings of the present day. Guide to Welsh Literature, Swansea: Davies. Welsh poetry of the postwar period sweeps from SARAH CORBETT the lyrical neo-romanticism of Dylan Thomas and Vernon Watkins, through the work of such poets as Idris Davis, Roland Mathias and David Jones, literary magazines to Wales’ second best-known poet, R.S.Thomas. Thomas’s poetry speaks directly to the people and The literary magazine has a British history that the landscape in his sparse and measured language, reaches back to the eighteenth century, and these creating a moral universe shot through with the early magazines prescribed a format which many concerns of the modern Welsh nation. For Thomas, of the magazines of the late twentieth century in literary magazines 313

Britain have largely held to: polemic critique, few thousand and yet each wants to claim for itself reviews of books and other cultural forms a kind of pre-eminence in its own part of the forest (embracing cinema by the 1930s and television by of letters. However, there is also much following of the 1960s), opinion pieces and original writing in fashions which change with the season: the analyses different measures. Relative emphases and the of the cultural impact of the life and death of the qualities of writing have shifted: the London Review Princess of Wales are an example of this. of Books’ reportage pieces from, for example, Stephen It is in the magazines that publish less frequently Sackur on the Gulf War and reporting on the that culturally significant stances are more usually Balkans crises in the 1990s have been amongst the taken. These ‘infrequent’ publications have often magazine’s best writings in the last decade. had a relatively ephemeral life, but amongst The frequency of publication of literary significant names have been Encounter, Stand, the magazines has ranged from weekly, to twenty-four Review, the New Review and the London Review of times a year, to monthly, to quarterly, to Books. This last is distinguished by being, in form, ‘infrequently’. Some of the weekly magazines a broadsheet newspaper that has clearly taken its confine their literary and cultural writing to the design from the New York Review of Books. second half of the magazine, as in the New Statesman Encounter, half political/cultural critique and half and the Spectator. In these two cases there has been a literary review, publishing original prose and more or less clearly signalled allegiance to the poetry, reflected this dichotomy in its joint editor- moderate left and to the libertarian right, respectively, ship—for example, that of Irving Kristol and which does not always survive in the literary ghetto Stephen Spender—with each editor having a cognate of the back pages; although the 1980s saw a more background. Its reputation was shaken by the rigid and uniform politico-literary regimentation, the revelation that it was in part financed by the CIA, Spectator/Daily Telegraph ‘young fogey’ nexus being a as part of the US government’s attempt to sustain case in point. The weekly Times Literary Supplement’s a political and cultural climate of opinion supportive position as the house journal of humanities academia of Western democracies in the era of the Cold War. was compromised when it became part of Rupert The Review and the New Review, produced thanks Murdoch’s News International Corporation, and to a relatively generous cultural largesse courtesy changes in the editorship seemed to signal a wish to of the Arts Council, celebrated what they perceived conform to the right-wing hegemony of 1980s as the centrality of Britain in the brightness and Britain. Nevertheless, it continues to stand at the sharpness of the optimism of the third quarter of centre of high literary cultural life in Britain. Odd as the century. There was a conscious ‘smartness’ it may seem today, it was not until the late 1960s about the New Review, edited with a dogmatic that the review articles—or any of the pieces certainty and arrogantly aware of its cosmopolitan published—were signed. What redirections in the centrality, exploratory and innovative in its editorial policy of the TLS have shown is how the presentation of new forms of writing. However, it breadth of interests has been extended by the changes might be argued that its lasting achievement, in the formations of British cultural life. The literary inherited and maintained by Granta, was the magazine of the late 1990s is likely to give space in rehabilitation of travel writing as a serious literary the same issue to reviewing a new biography of the genre. This sense of centrality lasted little longer young Wordsworth and to the drum ’n’ bass than the magazines themselves. The cultural and compact disc by Roni Size. political landscape of the early 1980s caused them Almost all of these journals have had long to cease publication. Their replacements, if the histories, with the Spectator tracing its origins back to plural is accurate, have been marginal, trivially the eighteenth century. Today, these are the venues partisan and the culturally correct adornments of where, along with the broadsheet daily and Sunday rich but capricious patrons. newspapers, ‘the chattering classes’ meet. While Throughout its life, Stand has been a marked some of these publications might aspire to be mass departure from these stereotypes in several circulation journals, none is read by more than a important ways: it was the product of the 314 literary prizes determination of one person, the late Jon Silkin, nance has increased in recent years as the prize and it was edited from the provinces, originally in ceremony has been televised annually, with a Newcastle upon Tyne. It contained short prose discussion of the shortlisted novels preceding the fictions, poetry and reviews; it was healthily announcement of the winner. The Whitbread Book internationalist in the range of its contributors. of the Year, originating in 1971 as the Whitbread Happily, it remains a model for beautifully Literary Awards and boasting a total prize of produced, designed and edited literary magazines, £21,000, is second to the Booker in influence. always making a virtue of its eclecticism. Although there are a number of other up and The London Review of Books is the most powerful coming prizes open to British authors—such as the cosmopolitan publication: it is adventurous in Guardian Prize for Fiction, the Irish Times mixing reviews, reportage, diaries and poetry. It International Fiction Prize and the David Cohen allows its writers space for long pieces, and attracts British Literature Prize—at the moment only the a readership that causes anyone becoming part of Booker and the Whitbread can seriously affect that group to question the meaning of the term sales. The 1993 Booker winner, Roddy Doyle, had ‘literary’. It seems to espouse the renaissance idea achieved total sales of £6m for Paddy Clarke Ha Ha that nothing should be beyond the interest of the Ha by the end of the following year. The Booker person who wants to be a full participant in a world can even make the reputations of relatively that sees ‘culture’ as wholly inclusive, and believes unknown authors, as happened with Salman that good writing can encourage such participation. Rushdie, who won for Midnight’s Children in 1981, and A.S.Byatt, who won for Possession in 1990. See also: book marketing; publishing trends However, the major literary prizes are certainly not essential to critical and commercial success, as the JIM MALONEY careers of authors like Martin Amis, Ian McEwan and Angela Carter testify. In turn, the experiences literary prizes of Keri Hulme in 1985 and James Kelman in 1994 show that Booker wins cannot necessarily Although relatively small-scale awards such as the guarantee bigger sales or wider exposure. In some James Tait Black Memorial Prize and the cases, as with Amis, authors can even achieve a Hawthornden Prize have existed since the end of certain notoriety for continually being omitted from the First World War, it is only in the 1980s and 1990s shortlists. (The plot of Amis’s novel The Information that literary prizes have become a significant part of turns on the attempts of the central character, an British cultural life. This is partly because they are unsuccessful author, to scupper the chances of a increasingly lucrative: there are now several prizes rival winning a lucrative international literary prize for which British authors are eligible with prize by accusing him of plagiarism). money in excess of £10,000. However, this money Critics of the prizes maintain that they give the (usually provided by corporate sponsors) is still promotional hype of publishers and booksellers a relatively small compared to international prizes like veneer of cultural authority. Since most of the prizes the Nobel Prize for Literature, and the real are for ‘literary’ fiction—although some, like the importance of the prizes lies in their potential for Sunday Express Award and the W.H.Smith Literary generating further promotion and book sales. Prize, make a point of being less ‘elitist’, and the Publishers are becoming increasingly astute at Betty Trask awards explicitly exclude works of an generating press coverage and bookshop displays ‘experimental’ nature—it can be argued that the prizes for shortlisted and winning authors. help to create a kind of major league of bankable The most important of these accolades is the literary names, contributing to a process of what Booker Prize, established in 1968, which is open Richard Todd calls ‘contemporary literary canon- to full-length novels from Britain, the formation’ (Todd 1996:9). The prizes are therefore Commonwealth, Ireland, Pakistan and Bangladesh, frequently accused of marginalizing particular and which carries an award of £20,000. Its predomi- writing and reading constituencies. The new literary theory 315

£30,000 Orange Prize, which is only open to women Further reading authors, and the Saga Prize, for black authors born Todd, R. (1996) Consuming Fictions: The Booker Prize in Britain, for example, are both partly a response and Fiction in Britain Today, London: Bloomsbury to the under-representation of these groups on other (the only full-length study of the new literary shortlists. The fact that the Booker Prize is often the ‘prize culture’, this is a readable and largely subject of judging controversies (some Booker positive account of the effects of the prizes on judges, like Nicholas Mosley in 1991 and Julia the consumption of literary fiction in the UK). Neuberger in 1994, have resigned or openly expressed their displeasure at the choices of the rest JOE MORAN of the jury) points to both the cultural significance of the prize and the subjectivity of its judgements. Since the majority of the new prizes are for novels, literary theory many claim that they take attention away from other genres like short story collections and poetry. This Literary theory since the 1960s has sustained far stipulation also creates problems of definition; for more change than in the previous thirty years. After example, there was some controversy over the award several decades of dominance by the New Critics of the Booker to Thomas Keneally’s work of and the close textual, practical readings ‘faction’, Schindler’s Ark, in 1982. The NCR Book recommended by the likes of F.R.Leavis, the 1960s Award is a highly lucrative prize for non-fiction, but saw a multiplying of critical approaches that has the press attention it receives is significantly less than continued to the present, encompassing the the fiction prizes. Some critics complain that, since following theoretical branches: formalist, the initial selection process for the prizes usually structuralist, Marxist, feminist, post-structuralist, involves publishers nominating a set number of psycho-analytical, cultural materialist, books from their lists to be considered by the juries, phenomenological, reader-response, post-colonial and the publishers tend to pick works by their and queer. Literary theory has therefore been established successful authors, it is hard for first overhauled by the influence of other disciplines, novelists or less well-known authors to be shortlisted. particularly history, linguistics, philosophy, Other observers have criticized the ageism of several anthropology, psychology, sociology and cultural of the prizes; the Somerset Maugham and Eric studies. The shift can itself be described as a Gregory awards and the Mail on Sunday/ John development from a modernist critical practice to Llewellyn Rhys Prize, for instance, are only open to a postmodernist plurality of theoretical reading. writers under thirty-five. Russian formalism developed around the time Supporters of the prizes maintain that they of the Russian Revolution in 1917. The detailed, promote ‘literary’ fiction and other forms of ‘serious’ technical, linguistic analysis of the formalists (for literature in an era when they are in danger of being example, Shklovsky and Roman Jakobson) was squeezed out by the commercial imperatives of large based on the belief that literary language differed publishers. They argue that the public arguments in key ways from other uses of language. The over the merits of the respective shortlists are both principal difference, they concluded, was that inevitable and healthy, and that these shortlists literary style hinged on ‘defamiliarization’ or generally seek to represent English-language fiction ‘making strange’, the re-imagining of the world in in all its diversity. The Booker Prize in particular unfamiliar terms in texts which are simultaneously can certainly not be accused of little Englandism, aware of their own status as art (the quintessential since it has brought post-colonial fiction to a British novel was thus perhaps Sterne’s Tristram Shandy). readership through recent wins for authors such as Russian formalism had a great impact on Salman Rushdie (1981), J.M. Coetzee (1983), Peter structuralism, an approach less interested in Carey (1988) and Ben Okri (1991). individual works of literature than in systems or structures (linguistic, social, cultural, symbolic) that See also: novel; poetry; popular fiction underlie a range of texts. Most important is the 316 literary theory understanding that language is a self-sufficient in which the literary work embodies the author’s system: it is not a mirror on the world but a plethora consciousness. Reader-response criticism (for of signifiers (sounds or marks, or, loosely, words) example, that of Stanley Fish, Wolfgang Iser or which refer to signifieds (which are concepts not Hans Robert Jauss), by contrast, is more concerned things). The literary critic is then concerned not with the activity and subject of reading than the with how the text refers to life but how it functions, author. It argues that meaning is generated in the how the signifiers (the words, textual components, act of reading and therefore criticism should focus or parole) relate to each other within the ‘grammar’ on the process through which the reader, in a of the text and within the general system of particular time and place, responds to the text, in language (langue). dialogue with the words on the page. Influenced by structuralist and then post- Far closer to Marxism and feminism, other structuralist theories, Marxist criticism has changed theories insist upon a ‘return to history’. Cultural greatly over the last few decades, but is still materialist (new historicist criticism is the US concerned to see the text in terms of an analysis of equivalent) approaches are most indebted to the society and history. Since the advent of work of the post-structuralist Michel Foucault (but structuralism, Marxists (like Terry Eagleton) pay the Marxist Raymond Williams is also key), and more attention to the ideology of the text, its gaps attempt to analyse culture through texts and vice or repressions, and its contradictions. This ties up versa. Grounding their analyses in historical with feminist criticism (such as that of Kate Millet sources, cultural materialists (like Jonathan and Germaine Greer) because both are concerned Dollimore, Alan Sinfield or the American Stephen with the political or social issues (the one with class Greenblatt) often start outside the literary work and the other with gender) at stake in reading with a discussion of contemporary non-literary literature as well as in the texts themselves. For both texts and then use those intertextual reference theoretical positions, the main point is to reinterpret points to analyse and often undermine (more and change social understanding through analysis conventional readings of) the play, poem or novel, of the content (and sometimes the form) of the text. paying close attention to marginalized figures and Post-structuralist criticism encompasses and in looking for signs of social change. Post-colonial particular develops from the work of the French criticism understands the literary canon in terms theorists Jacques Derrida, Jacques Lacan and Michel of the effects and legacies of (particularly the British) Foucault who, from the perspectives of philosophy, empire. It is also concerned to include in the literary psychoanalysis and social history respectively, have curriculum writing from colonized cultures, aiming critiqued the systematic approach of structuralism to study ‘lost’ texts by non-white writers just as and, while continuing structura-lism’s fascination feminism aims to recuperate neglected women’s with language, have focused on the ways in which writing. Lastly, queer theory is concerned with the discourse conditions all human relations of power analysis of gender roles and sexuality. Greatly or knowledge; that is, how everything is ultimately influenced by the work of Judith Butler, queer ‘textual’, made up of language. theory aims to destabilize conventional views of Other theories are far more concerned with the gender and sexual identity, particularly the binary internal workings of the text and the relation system of sex differences that underpins patriarchal between language and mind. Psychoanalytical society and sustains a norm of heterosexism. approaches employ the theories of Sigmund Freud, Literary studies appears always to be in crisis, Carl Jung, Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva and others concerned to contemplate its own future directions to go beneath the surface of the text to analyse its and possible demise. However, the analysis of systems, repressions, contradictions or (visual and written) texts will continue to generate disturbances. Phenomenological criticism new approaches and theories and will undoubtedly (stemming from the theories of Husserl) attempts continue in one (post/inter)disciplinary form or to comprehend the author through the text: the another, reinvigorating and reinvigorated by other critic should pay attention to nothing but the way academic areas. Loach, Ken 317

See also: feminist theory; Marxism; post-colonial Live art has featured in work by renowned artists writing; postmodernist theory; post-structuralism; like Gillian Wearing, Mark Wallinger, Heather structuralism Ackroyd and Daniel Harvey. Its free-flowing format has enabled black artists like David Medalla during the 1960s and 1970s and, later, Keith Khan, Lubaina Further reading Himid, Susan Lewis, SuAndi and Ronald Fraser Bradford, R. (ed.) (1996) Studying Literature, Hemel Munro to produce culturally inflected manifestations Hempstead: Harvester. of its personal, creative and political possibilities. For instance, Palestinian-born and cultural exile Mona PETER CHILDS Hatoum has engaged with universals of displacement, oppression, resistance and freedom live art through striking metamorphic processes involving the subjection and release of her physical self, in An elusive and uncircumscribed art form and performance and video installation work. practice, live art cross-fertilizes communicative and Live art has conclusively entered the expressive elements from the visual arts, mainstream gallery space. Detractors emphasize its performance (theatre, dance, music), mass and fleeting superficiality and pretension, but mixed media, traditional, modern and nevertheless, its urban deployment of vital, non- technological cultures. Avant-gardist in approach hier-archized cultural tools and its transgressive and postmodern in nature, live art creates a drive appear to inadvertently anticipate the artistic culturally discursive space to disrupt, subvert and practices of a decolonized and postmodern redefine existing relationships between art, the immediate future. individual and the contemporary world in a perpetually transformatory process. See also: avant-garde theatre Live art derives from 1960s happenings and shares close affinities with performance art, with Further reading which it often overlaps. Like happenings, which also reject the permanence of art forms, live art is Childs, N. and Walwin, J. (eds) (1998) A Split Second characterized by its impermanence and actuality of Paradise, London: Rivers Oram Press within a temporally autonomous present, its (fascinating articles about selected artists, transience rendering its inclusion in any art history capturing the essence of live, performance and repository problematic. Live art negates the past installation art). with no expectations of the future, and exists only SATINDER CHOHAN as the lived memory of a unique personal and collective event exclusively shared by artist and ‘audience’ alike. LLOYDS’ BUILDING see Rogers, Richard While performance art maintains boundaries between artist and audience, live art redefines its audience as participants, viewers or witnesses to Loach, Ken the live event or spectacle. Their physical presence completes the transitory experience of the work, b. 1936, Nuneaton while its physical surroundings contextualize it Film-maker within an acute social, political or cultural setting. Such transgressions lead, for example, from live Ken Loach is a left-wing film-maker who specializes art installations in organized artistic spaces to site- in working-class realism and forms of resistance. specific work, from abandoned or public areas to In directing television drama (see drama on urban locations of thriving and underground club television), he pioneered the use of documentary and music scenes. film techniques and created a major social stir with 318 lobby groups

Cathy Come Home (1966), the famous drama- For some, lobbying is not a problem for documentary on homelessness. His controversial democracies since all interests, groups and series on socialism, Days of Hope (1975), stimulated individuals can lobby or seek to lobby and influence an influential theoretical debate on realism in Screen. public policy. On this pluralist account of politics, Increasingly censored by the television lobbying is simply another way to represent one’s establishment, Loach returned to low-budget film interests alongside the formal voting mechanism. features and Hidden Agenda (1990), alleging ‘shoot For others, lobbying is inherently problematic, since to kill’ activities by the British Army in Ireland, it is an attempt undemocratically to influence was acclaimed at the Cannes Festival. More recent democratically elected politicians, ministers and films such as Riff-Raff and Land and Freedom, though governments, and lobbying is mostly used by critically highly regarded, are regrettably screened powerful interests and groups to amend more frequently in Europe than Britain. government policy to suit themselves. Those that lobby government are not usually the unemployed See also: Screen and screen theory or single mothers, but large corporations or well- organized special interest groups such as farmers. With the professionalization of lobbying in recent Further reading years and its character as a paid-for service has come McKnight, G. (ed.) (1995) Agents of Challenge and the charge that lobbying introduces an element of Defiance: The Films of Ken Loach, London: Flicks corruption into democratic politics. Recent scandals Books. in Britain, centred on the unhealthy relationship between lobbyists and elected politicians and BOB MILLINGTON ministers (from the disgraced former Conservative MPs Neil Hamilton and Jonathan Aitken, to the lobby groups more recent 1998 scandal surrounding the lobbyist Derek Draper and the New Labour government) Lobbying is the political activity of influencing or have demonstrated for some why lobbying is an attempting to influence the political process in inherently undesirable (though inevitable) aspect of general and policy-making in particular. It is an modern democratic politics. activity widespread in politics where different groups and interests seek to influence political See also: democracy; pressure groups actors, such as policy makers, government JOHN BARRY ministers, MPs, members of political parties, the media and so on. Lobbying can occur at every level of politics, from local government and national local councils parliaments to supranational and international political organizations such as the European Union There are several levels of local councils, ranging and the United Nations. from parish councils to borough, district and county Lobbying is part and parcel of the realpolitik of all councils. Generally, the turnout at local elections is modern political systems, and in liberal democracies relatively low compared to national parliamentary is a highly professional activity which has not always elections, and the results are often determined by been the case. Whereas in the past lobbying occurred the national political struggle rather than by local through ‘old boys’ networks’, informal, ad hoc issues or personalities. Results of elections are arrangements between political actors and interest sometimes biased according to local and personal groups, in the modern political world there are factors, and sometimes according to national factors. professional lobbying agencies who will, for a fee, Local councils provide services at the borough lobby on behalf of their clients. Very often these level and are democratic institutions that allow professional lobbyists are ex-politicians, or are closely closer public scrutiny than is often the case with connected with particular political parties. national government. Local governments have local press 319 limited autonomy and can only exert power over local press matters granted by parliamentary legislation. Local councils’ largest source of income is in the The most famous local newspaper, the Manchester form of grants from central government. The rest Guardian eventually outgrew Lancashire to become comes from local taxation, in particular the council a national daily. The Scotsman in Edinburgh counts tax, a property-based tax. Increasingly, central as a national newspaper. Papers in Glasgow, government has taken over many of the functions Newcastle, Bristol, Cardiff, Liverpool, Leeds and traditionally carried out by local governments, and Birmingham all have a considerable reputation and other functions have been relegated to private maintain generally high standards of journalism, enterprise. Local councils have lost control over gas, but the majority, which represent smaller towns, electricity, some healthcare areas, and public tend to confine their activities to parochial matters. transport. Water, sewerage and drainage have now Local newspapers act as notice boards for events been privatized. Some local autonomy exists in that frequently interest only the participants and educational structures, such as school curriculum their immediate families, and will rarely involve and teaching methods, but with the 1988 Education themselves in serious investigative journalism. Act and the Labour government’s agenda to increase There are many reasons for this, but the main one standards and inspect schools, this autonomy has is the decline and disappearance of the independent been diminished in favour of increasing control by publisher. Markets are much tighter now than thirty the central government of the school curriculum. or forty years ago, and it is more important for Councils retain nominal control over some aspects publishers not to offend powerful local advertisers. of the local police, fire services, planning, social This was always the case to some extent, but in services and recreational matters but in practice, they the pre-television era some editors had more are subservient to increasing central control in all freedom to pursue local issues some of the time. these areas. During the growth period of television, which There are clear tensions in the relationship has given more people more access to better between local and central government and different entertainment and news services, the local press views on how independent local councils should be has fallen into the hands of fewer and fewer owners from central government. Central government has such as Reed Regional, London Independent and made major changes in the infrastructure of local Guardian Gazette Newspapers. Combined with a authorities. The primary shift has been a significant greatly increased mobility in the labour market, increase in centralization, a program of centrally the local paper has become less local in the sense declared standards, and a decline in local autonomy. that editors and journalists are less likely to be local These underlying principles have recently guided people and more likely to be recent graduates and continue to guide the relation between state and beating a path to what was once Fleet Street. Life local councils. The present government’s ostensible has been made additionally difficult for them by commitment to devolution and to the creation of an the freesheets, which carry mainly advertising with elected authority and mayor for London might have scraps of local news and sport tacked on. Like the the side effect of increasing the relative autonomy of national press until the 1997 election, most local local government. papers tended to take an implicit right-wing stance on most issues, in line with the politics of their See also: GLC owners. Similarly, standards of journalism and literacy have declined in the local press just as they Further reading have in the tabloid press, which the former tend to echo albeit in a more low-key fashion. Elcock, H. (1994) Local Government; Policy Management Taken together, these developments have in Local Authorities, 3rd edn, London: Routledge. contributed to homogenization. Some papers will PAUL BARRY CLARKE come out in one city and then appear with slight SVANBORG SIGMARSDOTTIR variations in half a dozen other local towns, as is 320 local radio the case in the areas around Canterbury and stations. Driven by market forces, they will try to Leicester. Such is the dependence on advertising maximize potential and often have an output on revenue that a major advertiser can exert pressure FM of standard chart material, while an AM sister on the editor or the owner for favourable publicity. channel will play ‘golden oldies’ to capture an older It is usually left to reporters from the national press audience of equal interest to advertisers. Manches- or television to highlight serious wrongdoing at a ter’s Piccadilly Radio follows this policy. The FM local level. version (Key 103) has a 23.6 percent share of listeners, while its AM twin (1152 AM) claims 8.7 See also: Northern Irish press; Scottish press; percent, with a sizeable 18.3 percent of the 35–44 Welsh press age group. BBC GMR Talk’s weekly share is 3.4 percent. The popularity of local radio can be seen by Further reading the number of organizations wishing to apply for Franklin, B. (1991) What News? The Market, Politics the very limited number of franchises becoming and the Local Press, London: Routledge & Kegan officially available from time to time. At time of Paul. writing, there are twenty-four special interest groups planning applications for the new London STEPHEN KERENSKY franchise over the crowded metropolitan airwaves, including a proposed Gay FM station with much local radio high-profile support. This phenomenon is part of the general buoyancy of radio, owing as much to The first local radio service was set up by the BBC the very wide choice available as to the intimacy in Leicester in 1967. This was followed by stations of the medium. in other centres of population, and the local radio Indeed, the strength of interest in providing a movement became successful at creating a local local service for local people can also be gauged by identity and a community experience for its the multiplicity of pirate radio stations, tending listeners. The potential success proved attractive to operate clandestinely in inner city areas and to various interests starting up in the mid-1970s, generally providing a fare of local ethnic music. who sought to combine the intimacy and extreme Because the government has a policy of allowing portability of the radio experience with the chance only very few licences, such stations are to bring freer commercial attitudes to a new market. marginalized and de facto criminalized. On the Both BBC and the commercial stations rely whole, these stations would prefer to go legitimate strongly on phone-ins as a way of involving their and ‘narrowcast’ legally to their small but strongly listeners and reinforcing the sense of local defined local constituency, than be quasi-outlaws. community. BBC stations often have daily two-hour This will need to be addressed as a fundamental or three-hour phone-in programmes on a variety of issue in the next round of franchising. current national and local topics. Moreover, BBC stations tend to cater more for various local See also: commercial radio; commercial radio, community groups, since these stations do not have national the same commercial imperatives driving them as do their independent competitors, and they happily Further reading put on weekly thirty-minute programmes for local ethnic minorities. Only the London area could Crisell, A. (1994) Understanding Radio, London: support a commercial enterprise like London Greek, Methuen. which has a comparatively small but highly Scannell, P. (1991) Broadcast Talk, London: Sage. concentrated audience. GEORGE HASTINGS The commercial stations in general have a bigger share of local audience than the BBC long-distance runners 321

London Fashion Week understated, non-representational and, in many cases, impermanent. Once a poor cousin to the Paris/Milan/New York shows, London Fashion Week has become a See also: sculpture prestigious international event and not just an outing for minor talents at venues across the NATALIE GALE capital. There are now scouts out looking for the new John Galliano, Stella McCartney or Alexander McQueen, plus major celebrities long-distance runners seeking tickets for shows from the slightly less Britain has had a long and successful record of well-known such as Pearce Fionda, Bella Freud, distance running, but the 1990s have seen poorer Owen Gaster, Amanda Wakeley, Sonja Nuttall results, at least for the men, with the result that and Michiko Koshino. The 1998 catwalks there have been calls for more financial backing. showcased the latest new designers such as Tristan There remain a number of women who are world- Webber, Deborah Milner, Julien MacDonald and class performers and have claimed numerous titles Matthew Williamson, the star of the 1997 show. and victories. Ironically, interest for the women’s Additionally, the week provides opportunities for sport was probably sparked by the controversial new models to develop a reputation, such as South African Zola Budd, who broke numerous Cordelia, a sixteen-year-old Dorset schoolgirl British records and kept the sport’s profile high. tipped by Vogue in 1998 to become one of the top Since Budd, the brightest hope has been Paula twenty models. The attempt to initiate a new Radcliffe (3000m, 5000m and mile distances), who Men’s London Fashion Week in July 1998 met won the world junior cross-country title in 1992; with only small success, as most of the top names the intervening four years were blighted by injury, such as Paul Smith and Katherine Hamnett but Radcliffe has emerged once more, breaking elected to show abroad instead. Budd’s 5000m record.

PETER CHILDS Other top female performers include marathon runner Marian Sutton, who won the Chicago race in 1996 after hovering on the edge of the elite for Long, Richard some time, and Yvonne Murray. Murray has had both many successes (European 3000m b. 1945, Bristol championship, world indoor 3000m championships, Commonwealth 10,000m), and a Sculptor string of inglorious failures (as at three world Since 1965, Richard Long has refashioned the championships and the 1992 Olympics). Probably landscape around him, considering the transient the brightest star, however, is Liz McColgan, nature of his surroundings. His earthworks concern marathon, 10,000m and cross country runner. the concepts of time, movement and place and are The men have struggled to live down the known by photographs, printed text and annotated successes of the 1980s by Moorcroft, Ovett and maps. He has crossed each continent, creating Cram, and Foster before them, and have less to sculptures of simple shapes from indigenous natural celebrate than the women. In marathon, Richard materials. Long’s initial method of rearran-ging Neurarkar (fifth at Atlanta in 1996) and Paul Evans local materials can be seen in A Line Made by Walking (third in London in 1996 and winner in Chicago (1967); this approach evolved into that expressed in 1996) are also joined by Eamonn Martin, who in Bushwood Circle (1977) and River Avon Mud Hand won London in 1993 and Chicago in 1995. In cross- Circles (1984). His Ordinance Survey maps are country running, meanwhile, Britain has Andrew annotated to provide additional information about Pearson, who won a bronze at the 1995 European his excursions, while his printed texts narrate his championships 9km race; the UK also took bronze journey in pictorial form. His works are in the team event. The track distances, though, have 322 Lonrho Affair not seen success for Britain for some years. Long- him an offer from RKO to direct his first feature. distance running has come to be dominated by After establishing a reputation directing ‘noir’ Kenya and Ethiopia, amongst others, and the thrillers, he fell foul of the Committee on Un- sport’s profile is low in the UK. Of particular American Activities for refusing to abandon shooting concern is the fact that most other countries pay Stranger on the Prowl in Italy, and was subsequently their distance athletes, so allowing for full-time blacklisted. Moving to England, he made his best- training. Marian Sutton complained that most of known features, The Criminal (1960), The Servant the women she ran against in Chicago were (1963) and The Go-Between (1971). Ultimately a salaried, whereas she was forced to juggle a full- cineaste, his films reflected his passion for European time job with her training schedule. cinema and the theatre. His career was long and highly productive; he directed over thirty features, See also: athletics; marathons; middle-distance culminating with an adaptation of Neil Dunn’s play runners; sprinters Steaming, released posthumously in 1985.

REX NASH ROB FILLINGHAM

Lonrho Affair Lovell, Bernard The Lonhro Affair in 1973 was described by b. 1913, Oldham Common, Gloucester- Edward Heath as ‘the unpleasant and unacceptable shire face of capitalism’. Lonhro was an international Astrophysicist mining and trading company accused of offering large financial ‘incentives’ to business contacts, Astrophysicist, author and cricket lover, Sir Bernard including Duncan Sandys, an ex-Tory MP. Sandys Lovell was a pioneer of radio astronomy in the was paid a tax-free sum in excess of £100,000 for period immediately following the Second World leaving his consultancy job, a practice which was War. The building of the giant radio telescope at not in itself illegal, but which exposed a gaping Jodrell Bank, Cheshire, followed initial success in hole in legislation. Subsequent scandals such as the the detection of meteor showers using radar. The ‘cash for questions’ inquiry into the ‘purchase’ of financial difficulties encountered by the program questions in the House of Commons in 1996, did not stop the telescope, and it and Lovell became allegedly involving another prominent Tory MP, world famous. The successful tracking of the Soviet Neil Hamilton, have occurred sporadically. satellite Sputnik 1 in October 1957 earned Lovell a knighthood in 1961, and confirmed Britain’s place See also: sex scandals; Westland Affair at the forefront of radio astronomy.

PETER CHILDS A distinguished academic, contributing to numerous scientific journals, Lovell popularized astronomy by considering the broader theoretical LORD’S STAND see Hopkins, Michael issues posed by space exploration and modern cosmology. His books include Radio Astronomy (1951), The Exploration of Outer Space (1961) and In Losey, Joseph The Centre of Immensities (1978), the latter of which b. 1909, La Crosse, Wisconsin (USA); d. articulated his view of a compatibility between faith 1984 and science.

Film-maker See also: science

The son of an American lawyer, Joseph Losey PAUL BARRY CLARKE abandoned a medical career for the stage, where his LAWRENCE QUILL successful direction of Brecht’s Galileo, Galilei brought M

MacCormac, Richard Oxford (winner of the Independent on Sunday Building of the Year Award 1994). Other projects b. 1938 have included projected developments such as the Architect Jubilee Line extension’s Southwark Station, and the Coventry Phoenix initiative that aims to Richard MacCormac trained at Cambridge and regenerate central public spaces and includes a then University College before working for Powell public art events programme. MacCormac also and Moya, Lyons Israel Ellis and the London designed the projected Tesco store at Ludlow in Borough of Merton. He founded MacCormac Shropshire which, rather than try to ape the Jamieson in 1972, three years after starting in private surroundings, has attempted to draw upon the practice. He is in essence a modernist, even though environs without resorting to some neo- his buildings differ from the more brutal work of architectural fancy by looking at how the town his contemporaries and employ natural and has developed and evolved, and then designing traditional materials. His principal work includes the new store to fit in with the landscape and to university buildings at Cambridge, Oxford and be sensitive to its ambience. A resident in the Bristol, housing projects at Duffryn, South Wales Spitalfields area of London, where much of his and Milton Keynes, and the redevelopment of work is based, he has shown a keen awareness of Spitalfields Market in London. His latest highly social issues that need to be addressed within praised building is the impressive Ruskin Library architecture, particularly in terms of (re)-creating at Lancaster University, opened in mid-1998. communities and reclaiming spaces/ places. An architect of international standing, MacCormac is a Fellow of the Royal Society of MacCormac has a keen interest in urban design Arts and senior partner of MacCormac Jamieson and architectural theory. He has held a number of and Pritchard. The firm is also responsible for prominent positions including chairing architectural designing the ‘new’ (it was first proposed in 1911) competitions such as The Sunday Times Building wing for London’s Science Museum in South of the Year Award, and has been a member of the Kensington. This is to be known as the Wellcome Royal Fine Art Commission and a Commissioner Wing, as the Wellcome Trust have offered £16.5m for English Heritage. In addition, he is a previous funding, which will be supplemented by £23m President of the Royal Institute of British Architects from the Heritage Lottery Fund. The firm has (RIBA), and was awarded the CBE in 1994. had to pay careful attention to integrating its MacCormac has been involved in a number design so as not to adversely affect existing of prestigious projects, including the Cable and neighbours, including the Omani embassy. Wireless College, Coventry (which won The Sunday Times Building of the Year award) and GUY OSBORN the Garden Quadrangle at St John’s College STEVE GREENFIELD 324 MacKenzie, John

MacKenzie, John called them). Ingrams appointed his own editorial successor, Ian Hislop, then 26. In 1989 £250,000 b. 1932 was awarded against Private Eye for alleging that Film-maker the wife of the Yorkshire Ripper was paid for her story. This again nearly led to closure. The An Edinburgh film-maker, John McKenzie circulation in 1995 had reached a healthy 183,216 produced television features in the early 1970s, and copies, sold to a readership which was 70 percent made his name with The Long Good Friday (1980), a male and 30 percent female. crime film about a London East End gang. Set in Viz came out of the punk movement in 1979. It the 1930s American gangster tradition of Scarface is aimed at a young male audience and consists and Little Caesar, its cast included Bob Hoskins and largely of ‘schoolboy’ humour about bodily Helen Mirren. The film presaged Peter Green- functions. However, its humour is in many ways away’s The Cook, The Thief, His Wife And Her Lover genuinely iconoclastic and zany. Thus it has kept a (1989). MacKenzie was best at documenting the wider and more intelligent audience than its remit way tough, fearless working-class thugs could rise would suggest. Part of its originality and ethos may and fall as infamous criminals. Others of his films come from its Newcastle upon Tyne base, away which achieved less critical and popular success from the vogues of London. Viz has been accused have been Graham Greene’s The Honorary Consul of sexism, but it has nearly half as many women (1983), The Fourth Protocol (1987) and The Last of the readers as, for example, Good Housekeeping. Its bi- Finest (1990). monthly circulation in 1995 was 3,354,000 copies, MIKE STORRY with about 15 percent of its readership being female. Attempts were made to introduce magazines which copied the Viz formula (such as Zit, Poot, Gas magazines, satirical and Smut), but they were of lower quality and failed. Oink (1988) was of higher quality, but failed because The most influential humorous and satirical it was wrongly associated with the top-shelf magazines in Britain are Private Eye, Viz and the magazines among which it was sold. revived Punch. The original Punch, founded in 1841, became a national institution but then began to go See also: comics; comics culture into decline. Alan Coren, editor from 1977–87, though dubbed ‘the funniest writer in Britain’ by Further reading the Sunday Times in 1976, failed to arrest its decline and, despite the appointment of a young editor, Riley, S.G (ed.) (1993) Consumer Magazines of the David Thomas, in 1989 with the brief of capturing British Isles, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. the yuppies, it eventually ceased publication in MIKE STORRY 1991. It was supplanted by Private Eye, which does what Punch did when it was first published: attack the Establishment. Punch was revived in 1996, but Magnum with a much different format, a bland mixture of topicality and humour. The photographic news agency Magnum was The fortnightly magazine Private Eye was formed as an international cooperative in 1947 by founded in 1961 by Richard Ingrams, Christopher the Hungarian Robert Capa (a pseudonym of Booker, Nicholas Luard and Willie Rushton. Its Andre Friedman), the Frenchman Henri Cartier- humour was much more savage than that of Punch, Bresson, the Swiss Werner Bischof and the and it was not afraid of libel actions. It was nearly American David ‘Chim’ Seymour. The agency closed on several occasions by successful libel suits, supplied news photographs to publications around notably from Sir James Goldsmith and Robert the world. Eve Arnold joined the collective early Maxwell (‘Sir Jams’ and ‘Cap’n Bob’, as the Eye on, when the agency spotted one of her marathons 325 photographs in London’s Picture Post. The style the arrangements can usually also be made for payment agency has tended to encourage is that of the by instalments, must be able to place their orders original members: realistic, non-voyeuristic readily by post or, increasingly, telephone. An photojournalism, influenced by Walker Evans and efficient service for meeting orders without errors Dorothea Lange, integrating personal drama with and prompt delivery are essential if retailers are to action in spontaneous yet carefully composed maintain good relations with the public. They cannot photos such as Capa’s ‘Moment of Death (of a survive either without an established reputation for Loyalist Soldier)’ (1936). acceptable quality, keen prices and readiness to honour their ‘no quibble’ guarantee to offer See also: photography exchanges or refunds to dissatisfied purchasers. Computers have simplified the vital task of record- MIKE STORRY keeping, and improving quality control by suppliers also makes it easier to give customers the service mail order they demand if they are to go on buying goods without inspecting them in advance of purchase. Around 5 percent of Britain’s retail turnover is Alongside the traditional catalogue names such accounted for by mail order, but the importance of as Littlewoods, Grattan’s and Kay’s, major mail this segment is probably greater than the figures order clothing companies working in the UK are suggest. For though the percentage is currently not Next Directory, Hawkshead, Racing Green, Land’s increasing, because of competition from high street End, La Redoute and, in a new move which may shops and, more significantly, shopping malls, mail lead to market dominance, Marks & Spencer. order is very important for those members of the public who are housebound on account of age, See also: catalogue shops; hire purchase disability or family responsibilities, who live in remote areas, or who cannot for some other reason Further reading readily go shopping by public or private transport. For certain purchases, mail order also spares Walsh, N. (1994) The Good Mail Order Guide, shoppers embarrassment or else offers a source of London: Macmillan. specialized goods not otherwise available. Mail order CHRISTOPHER SMITH companies do not operate in expensive high streets or shopping centres but from semi-industrial premises, often in the Midlands or the Northwest marathons where lower staff costs also help offset the costs of administration, packing and post. Serving a large Britain’s main contribution to marathon races is customer base, they are able both to negotiate obviously the London Marathon, the biggest such advantageous prices from manufacturers and race in the world. The UK does host other races wholesalers and to offer a remarkable choice of goods as well, as in Leeds, but London is the prestige in a wider range of sizes than is available in many event that attracts the most interest and the world’s shops. top competitors. The basis of mail order is the advertising of Held annually in April, the London race was goods, either in the press or, more typically, in an founded in 1981 by runners Chris Brasher and John illustrated catalogue. The importance of the Disley, with Brasher acting as the head of London ‘catalogue agent’, usually a woman raising some Marathon Ltd (who oversee the running of the race extra cash by soliciting orders on the basis of the and arrange sponsorship deals) until 1995. In 1996 catalogue for a small commission, has diminished the organizers received 66,000 applications for a place in recent years. Another crucial factor is good two- in the race, of which only 38,500 were accepted. Over way communications. Customers, who generally pay the first fifteen years of its existence some 300,000 when ordering or by credit card, although people have taken part, most running for charities 326 marriage and dressed up in an array of costumes. Over that married. By 1981, this figure had fallen to one in time, £60m has been raised for charity, of which £3m twenty-four. Between 1981 and 1990, the marriage was specifically set aside for recreation sites in London. rate for all age groups fell from 7.1 per year per The race was always specifically designed not to be a thousand of the eligible population to 6.8 (General financial burden on local taxpayers. Household Survey, Social Trends). The race is so prestigious that the BBC An alternative to marriage is co-habitation by broadcasts it live every year, offering blanket couples who are not legally married. Data from the coverage of every step of the 26 miles and 385 yards General Household Survey indicates the percentage course, and it attracts millions of viewers of non-married women who were co-habiting more worldwide, including a peak of six million in Britain than doubled between 1979 and 1991, increasing one year. It also attracts large general media from 11 percent to 23 percent. Another alternative coverage, and sponsors are very keen to get to marriage is the increase in single-parent families. involved with the event. The biggest and latest deal According to government statistics (Office of saw food company Flora pay £6m for the Population and Census Statistics), 2.5 percent of the sponsorship rights for three years, with the race population in 1961 lived in households with a lone costing £2.25m to stage annually. But despite these parent and dependent children. By 1992 this figure huge costs, the enormous interest from other had risen to 10.1 percent. Data from the General sponsors means that the organizers can afford to Household Survey indicates that between 1972 and pay top runners handsomely to appear, with British 1991, the percentage of children living in single- long-distance runner Liz McColgan being paid parent families had increased from 8 percent to 18 some £450,000 to run three times between 1993 percent. The General Household Survey also found and 1996; a total of £250,000 was available for that the majority of single parents were women. appearance money in 1997’s race. Some £100,000 Ninety percent of single-parent families were headed made from the race is also annually spent on the by women. UK long-distance running team. Between 1971 and 1991, the proportion of single Apart from London, there are races run lone mothers who were divorced increased from annually in Leeds and on the south coast in April, 21 percent to 43 percent. The number of mothers and there are a number of shorter (twenty mile) who were single also increased from 16 percent to and half-marathons held in Liskeard, Watford, 34 percent. There has also been a significant Camberley and Reading, with some boasting their increase in the divorce rate. In 1971 there were 6.0 own dedicated sponsorship. Marathon races are persons divorcing per thousand married people; clearly genuinely popular with people of all ages in 1991 this figure had more than doubled to 12.9. and from all backgrounds, and constitute one of In 1991 there were 350,000 marriages, but 171,000 the truly classless sports in the UK. divorces, indicating there were nearly half as many divorces as marriages (Social Trends 1993). See also: athletics; long-distance runners; middle- The decline in the rate of marriage, an increase distance runners; sprinters in co-habitation, an increase in single-parent families and an increase in marital breakdown all suggest REX NASH that the institution of marriage is in decline in Britain.

See also: divorce law; domestic violence; single marriage parents It has been argued that marriage is becoming less popular in society, as fewer people are actually Further reading getting married. This is also evidenced by an General Household Survey (1971, 1993). increase in the number of marital breakdowns, Social Trends 23 (1993). which is reflected in the rising divorce rate. In Britain in 1971, one in eleven teenage women got KALWANT BHOPAL Marxism 327

Martian Poets Chief Architect of the LCC from 1953–6, Martin established what was effectively a role as ‘sponsor With the publication of Craig Raine’s The Onion, of design’. From 1956 Martin engaged in private Memory (1978) and A Martian Sends a Postcard Home practice in Cambridge and from 1959–72 he held (1979), and Christopher Reid’s Arcadia (1979), a the position of Professor and Head of the brief and self-contained ‘movement’ in poetry was Department of Architecture, University of born. The ‘Martians’ were characterized by their Cambridge. His work there includes the Harvey attempt to look at the world from an alien Court Residential Building at Gonville and Caius perspective, loaded with the imagery of a topsy- College (1957–62, with Colin St John Wilson) and turvy world. In the title poem from Raine’s second the Stone Building at Peterhouse, Cambridge, also collection, a Martian visitor writes home about the designed with Wilson in 1960–4. The Library bizarre nature of the life he has found, forcing us Group, Oxford University (1963, with Colin St John as audience to re-examine what we take for granted Wilson, Patrick Hodgkinson and Douglas Lanham) in our world. Martian poetry injected a much comprises The Bodleian Law Library, The English needed dose of imagination, defamiliarization and Faculty Library and the Institute of Statistics Library, inventiveness into British poetry, emerging from which are grouped together around an external the more conservative poetry of the postwar period, public staircase and interlock to form a unified but epitomized by the Movement. free and picturesque composition. In the 1960s, the critical reaction to ‘mixed See also: poetry in the 1980s development’, comprising towers and row houses,

SARAH CORBETT began to emerge in the form of ‘low-rise high density’ housing. Supported by Martin and Lionel March’s research at Cambridge University into Martin, Leslie Fresnel Square and its application to housing, this solution, employed most notably by the London b. 1908, Manchester Borough of Camden, was sadly often as bleak as the tower blocks they sought to replace. Martin’s Architect ideas on perimeter planning were first employed Sir J.Leslie Martin achieved prominence as an at Pollard’s Hill (1971) by the London Borough of academic as well as a practitioner. Educated at the Merton Architects Department. Martin’s influential School of Architecture, University of Manchester approach to comprehensive planning, and concerns from 1927–30, he then lectured there from 1930 until for materials and constructional techniques taking up an appointment as Head of School of continue to be promoted through The Martin Architecture at the University of Hull, a post he held Centre at Cambridge. from 1934–9. Together with the painter Ben Nicholson and the sculptor Naum Gabo, he co- Further reading edited the short-lived constructivist magazines Unit One and Circle in 1937; these were one of the means Martin, L. (1983) Buildings and Ideas 1933–83, by which Continental modernism was introduced Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. to England. Principal assistant architect to the HILARY GRAINGER London, Midland and Scottish Railway from 1939 until 1948, he then moved to the architecture department of the London County Council. Marxism Martin’s best-known early work, the Royal Festival Hall, London (1951, with Robert Matthew, Peter Debates on Marxist theory and practice are carried Moro and Edwin Williams) dates from this period out in academic journals such as New Left Review and formed what William Curtis called ‘the last and in the pages of magazines such as Socialist Worker mannered fanfare’ of the modern movement. As and Marxism Today, as well as in the many political 328 Marxism organizations influenced by Marxist thinking The Welsh literary and cultural critic Raymond throughout the UK. Since the 1930s, Marxism and Williams was most influenced by the work of the its rumoured follower post-Marxism have Italian Antonio Gramsci. Williams, who had a undergone a number of radical theoretical and problematic relationship with Marxism, argued that ideological changes. The seminal intellectual figures most Marxist criticism too easily separated in this revolution have rarely been British: they economics from culture (which he discussed rather include Bertolt Brecht, Georg Lukács, Louis than ideology), dealing in generalities and masses Althusser, Lucien Goldmann, Alain Touraine, at the expense of individuals. He also argued that Hannah Arendt, Antonio Gramsci, Walter conceptions of the literary and the artistic are Benjamin, Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno determined by discourse and by vested material of the Frankfurt School. However, the influence of interests, not by timeless criteria. More generally, these Continental philosophers and theorists on from the late 1950s onwards Williams proposed a British intellectual life since the 1960s has been broadly based study of not just literature but considerable, and has impacted in many areas. (popular) ‘culture’ (which he defined as ‘lived The Marxist historians Eric Hobsbawm, E.P. experience’) alongside society and politics. Williams Thompson and A.J.P.Taylor have been amongst himself greatly influenced the agenda of the the most influential of their generation, and their Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural overviews of modern British history are probably Studies, which was led by the work of Richard more widely known than any others. Since their Hoggart, Stuart Hall and Paul Gilroy. first interventions in the 1970s and 1980s, Marxist In recent years, the attack of postmodernism history, which had previously been heavy going to on Marxism’s totalizing drive to provide a grand all but the initiated, has responded to new narrative or complete explanation for social and developments in psychology and French critical economic life has resulted in, on the one hand, a theory, combining them with the traditional base/ backlash from critics such as Eagleton, and on the superstructure model to create a historiography other hand, a shift towards the appropriation of which is both more aware of its own writing practice only certain aspects of Marxist thought by critics (in a metahistorical sense) and more attuned to such as Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, everyday life. leading to the creation of the term ‘post-Marxism’. The literary critic Terry Eagleton has been These critics aim less at the revolutionary greatly influenced by the work of the French overthrow of capitalist society than at the creation structuralist Louis Althusser on ideology (which is of ameliorating agendas for social change in reproduced in cultural works) and, more recently, conjunction with broad but temporary political by the work of Walter Benjamin and the German coalitions. The key aspects here are agency, wide social philosopher Jürgen Habermas. Eagleton took mobilization and demonstrable material change from Althusser the idea of Marxism as a scientific rather than a determinate economy or violent social theory of human societies and of how to change transformation. Post-Marxists commonly advocate them. Althusser in turn was greatly influenced by radical democracy. the theories of the Freudian psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, and argued that ideology was not a See also: media and cultural studies; post- consciously held set of beliefs but was the way in structuralism; structuralism which individuals are defined as subjects within the social system; consequently, ideology works Further reading primarily at the level of the unconscious to recreate and maintain the existing relations of society. For Geras, N. (1985) ‘Post-Marxism?’ New Left Review his part, Eagleton uses such theories to analyse how 163 (May-June). history suffuses literary texts, which may PETER CHILDS themselves critique the ideologies of their times and in turn influence society. McGrath, John 329

Mather, Rick McCartney, Stella b. 1937, Oregon (USA) b. 1971 Architect Fashion designer Rick Mather is known as an uncompromising new Stella McCartney is a graduate of Central St modernist. He studied from 1961 to 1967 at the Martin’s College, and is one of the latest wave of Architectural Association in London before young British fashion talents. She was appointed working on housing schemes for Lyons Israel Ellis Chloé’s new head designer in April 1997, after the and the London Borough of Southwark. He set up departure of Karl Lagerfield. The youngest child his own practice in 1972. His best-known works are of Paul and Linda McCartney (which suggests the the Peter Eaton bookshop in Holland Park (1974), roots of her refusal to use fur or leather in her the rebuilding of the Architectural Association (1977– collections) and close friend of model Kate Moss 82), a computer science building at the University (who, with Naomi Campbell, appeared in her of East Anglia (1981–5), and the Zen Chinese graduation show), she is well connected, and had restaurants in Hampstead (1985) and Mayfair (1987). developed only three commercial collections before landing the Chloé position. To date, she has been See also: modernism notable for her drawing from men’s tailoring and for the design of slip dresses, lingerie tops, ribbon PETER CHILDS ties, long and drawstring skirts. She has worked for Christian Lacroix, Vogue, and the designer Maze Prison Betty Jackson. Under her own label she supplied the London store Tokio and Bergdorf-Goodman. The Maze is a high-security prison complex built PETER CHILDS in the early 1970s. Situated southwest of Belfast, it was constructed to house Irish terrorists, both Republican and Loyalist. From 1976, new inmates McGrath, John were kept in the single-storey H-blocks for which the prison has become famous. Beginning in 1978, b. 1935, Birkenhead some inmates staged both a ‘blanket’ and a ‘dirty’ Playwright and theatre director protest; this led ultimately to the hunger strikes of 1981, in which Bobby Sands, newly elected as an John McGrath is a Scot who has worked as both MP in the British Parliament, starved to death. The playwright and director in the theatre. His work government refused to give in to demands for the generally comes from a very left-of-centre reinstatement of the special or prisoner-of-war perspective, and he is known for, among other plays, status accorded in the early 1970s, and there A Satire of the Four Estates which he wrote for and followed riots, more deaths and then a breakout of directed at the 1996 Edinburgh Festival. It was based thirty-eight Republican prisoners, which on the well-known sixteenth-century Scottish embarrassed the authorities. The Maze’s morality play Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis by importance to the Republican cause was highlighted Sir David Lindsay. This latter play, in the mode of when, following the killing of Protestant Everyman, attacked corruption in the church among paramilitary leader Billy Wright by Republican other targets. McGrath transposed the setting to inmates, Northern Ireland Secretary Mo Mowlam politics, where Margaret Thatcher, John Major and came to the prison to negotiate with inmates to Rupert Murdoch (‘Lord Merde’) were demonized, secure their participation in the peace process. and the idea of Scottish nationalism was promoted.

See also: Ireland See also: community theatre

PETER CHILDS MIKE STORRY 330 McQueen, Alexander

McQueen, Alexander Medawar, Peter b. London b. 1915, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil); d. 1987 Fashion designer Zoologist and immunologist Still under thirty in 1998, the Cockney upstart The immunologist Peter Medawar shared a Nobel McQueen has often intentionally courted the Prize with MacFarlane Burnet in 1960, following limits of taste in fashion by using animal pieces, their study of the way in which the body develops rotting fruit and images of ‘raped’ highland resistance to grafted tissue after infancy. His work, women, although at the 1998 London Fashion for which he was knighted in 1965, has been crucial Week his collection showcased an equally in understanding post-transplant tissue rejection. arresting but far less provocative Joan of Arc figure. He was director of the National Institute for McQueen puts pointy shoulder pads and flared Medical Research from 1962 to 1975, and was cuffs on otherwise straight suits, and uses human appointed professor of experimental medicine at hair, rhinestones and snakeskin as adornments. the Royal Institution two years later. He is currently working for the French fashion house Givenchy. In 1998, after exhibiting his Paris PETER CHILDS collection, McQueen won the prestigious contract to clothe the latest big-name British star in Hollywood, Kate Winslet, for her appearance at media and cultural studies the Academy Awards ceremony, where awards Cultural studies emerged during the late 1950s as a were heaped on her film Titanic. new field of knowledge production in British PETER CHILDS universities, and over subsequent decades has spread internationally, notably to the USA and Australia. In its first formation, cultural studies provided a Medak, Peter forum in which culture, society and history were given full weight in the analysis of media texts, and b. 1937, Budapest (Hungary) where the symbolic, meaningful character of social Film-maker relations could be explored. Contemporary cultural studies of the media represent a greatly expanded Originally an associate producer on television series field of various research projects and diverse in Hollywood, Peter Medak’s directing career theoretical discourses ranging from Marxism and commenced with Negatives (1968) and gathered feminism, psychoanalysis and ethnography, to post- acclaim with his satire of English aristocratic life, structuralism and postmodernism. While it is true The Ruling Class (1972). His work in the 1980s to say that the academic study of media has a long received a mixed reception; his parody of the Zorro history, especially in Europe and the United States, legend, Zorro, the Gay Blade (1981) was overshone cultural studies approaches to media have shifted by the disappointing The Men’s Club (1986), attention from ‘media effects’ and positivistic ‘mass described by Variety Movie Guide as a dated and communications’ debates to critical questions about distasteful piece of work. However his treatment the complex mediations which negotiate the of real life stories in the 1990s saw a welcome return encounter between media signifying practices and to form. The Krays (1990), featuring the Kemp twins audience-decoding strategies. from the new romantic pop group Spandau Ballet, One of the founding texts of British cultural and Let Him Have It (1991), about the life and studies, Richard Hoggart’s The Uses of Literacy (1957) execution of Derek Bentley, were both shrewd explores the terrain of communications and media observations of postwar Britain. from the perspective of culture conceptualized as GUY OSBORN part of the social experience of everyday life. STEVE GREENFIELD Hoggart criticized postwar mass culture media and cultural studies 331

(‘Americanization’) as disintegrative of traditional Hoggart, followed by Stuart Hall (1969–79), working-class communality and solidarity. ‘We are represents a watershed in the development of the moving towards the creation of a mass culture’, field of cultural studies. During the 1970s, the Hoggart claimed, and ‘the remnants of what was CCCS faculty and graduate students pursued the at least in parts an urban culture “of the people” collective critical study of newly translated texts of are being destroyed’. Hoggart’s critique of the Western Marxism (the Frankfurt School, Louis ‘corrupt brightness…improper appeals and moral Althusser and Antonio Gramsci) in an effort to eva-sions’ of mass entertainment is set against an develop a theory of ideology structured by class ethnographic mapping of residual forms of categories and cognizant of the enlarged cultural industrial working-class culture and their particular power of the media. According to Hall, the vocation institutions. In fact, Hoggart develops the contrast of the CCCS was ‘to enable people to understand between the ‘older’ and ‘newer’ cultures in Leavisite what is going on, and especially to provide ways of aesthetic and ethical terms (see Leavis, F.R.). The thinking, strategies for survival, and resources for new commercial media are castigated as ‘trivial’ resistance’. This vocation, together with the and ‘anti-life’, while the values of the older culture commitment to analysis of culture ‘from below’, are said to embody values of ‘the personal, the resulted in the classic CCCS youth subculture concrete, the local’. studies, notably Dick Hebdige’s Subculture: The Like Hoggart’s work, Raymond Williams’s The Meaning of Style (1979), and the signature collective Long Revolution (1961) places communications at the text Policing the Crisis (1978). centre of ‘common experience’, proposing that: Using Gramsci’s theory of hegemony and Althusser’s conceptualization of media as an Since our way of seeing is literally our way of ideological state apparatus, Policing the Crisis is a living, the process of communication is in fact ‘conjunctural’ analysis of media signifying practices the process of community: the sharing of in the context of economic decline, social conflict common meanings, and thence common and the general crisis of authority in post-imperial activities and purposes; the offering, reception Britain. Focusing on the exhaustion of ‘spontaneous and comparison of new meanings, leading to consent’ to state authority in the 1970s and the tensions and achievements of growth and change. media’s role in constructing ‘mugging’ as a ‘moral (Williams 1965:55) panic’, the authors theorize that this moral panic signifies the political transition to an ‘exceptional’ Williams’s theory of communications takes a form of ‘coercive’ state management of class conflict. dialectical and constructivist approach to culture: In this account, the media are seen as ‘a field of communities and social institutions in specific ideological struggle’ and ‘a key terrain where historical circumstances produce culture and “consent” is won and lost’. Because the media negotiate social meanings. Specifically, Williams legitimate through their ‘own constructions and locates the media and the social production of inflections’ the definitions and interpretations of meaning at the fulcrum of historical change. On events as seen from the ‘primary’ perspective of the the whole, Williams tends towards a more ‘ruling class alliance’, they are understood as central affirmative evaluation of the new media than to the maintenance of its ideological authority. In Hoggart, and in part sees his project as an attempt their concrete analysis of street crime news reporting to formulate criteria for aesthetic and moral and the demonizing of young black British males as discrimination between media products, between muggers, the authors argue that the media relied on ‘bad culture’ such as ‘the latest Tin-Pan drool’ and government, police and judiciary sources as their the ‘good living culture’ of jazz (a ‘real musical ‘primary definers’. Youth cultures and street crime form’) and the ‘wonderful game’ of football. were thereby discursively contextualized as parts of The formation of the Centre for Contemporary a general ‘law and order’ problem. The media’s Cultural Studies (CCCS) in 1963 at the University ideological amplification of this perspective resulted of Birmingham under the directorship of Richard in popular support for ‘the measures of control and 332 media and cultural studies containment which this version of social reality in cultural studies of the media to the qualitative entails’, particularly the passage of the notoriously audience research of the 1980s. In fact, this racist stop-and-search or ‘suss’ law. Criticism has ethnographic work also interrupted the neo-Marx- been made that this neo-Gramscian theory of media ist class perspective of cultural studies of the media as ‘a field of ideological struggle’ and contested by introducing first, feminist analytics, and second, cultural meanings is not easily squared with the the politics of race and ethnicity. The latter univocal implications of the claim that the media interruption is best exemplified by the work of Paul operate in a role of ‘structured subordination’ to the Gilroy, while Dorothy Hobson’s 1982 study of the primary definitions of the ruling-class alliance. mainly female viewership of the British soap opera It was partly in response to this ideological Crossroads bears directly on questions of media. dilemma that Hall produced the classic treatise Hobson went to women’s homes to watch and ‘Encoding/Decoding’ (1980). For Hall, media codes discuss Crossroads and found that it was incorporated were to be critically analysed in terms of encoded into the everyday lives of its audience and was a ‘preferred readings’ and contextually situated shared source of pleasure and conversation among decodings or productions of meaning by media its female fans. Far from being passive in face of audiences. Hall proposes that three major reading serial television production, female fans bring strategies structure the decoding process: dominant, meaning to the programme by drawing on personal negotiated and oppositional readings. Hall’s and community experience. For Hobson, soap theoretical intervention was complemented by Dave opera ‘is one of the most progressive forms of Morley’s important empirical study The ‘Nationwide’ television because it is a form where the audience Audience: Structure and Decoding (1980). Morley is in control’, and therefore to ‘try to say what redirected the community and communications Crossroads means to its audience is impossible for focus of the early work of Hoggart and Williams to there is no single Crossroads, there are as many the ethnographic study of television audiences. He different Crossroads as there are viewers’. explored audience sense-making processes in relation Similarly, Ien Ang’s important study, Watching to popular current affairs programming. He aimed Dallas (1985), investigated the reception of the to produce a typology of cultural responses to a world’s most widely viewed television programme budget day episode of Nationwide from twenty-nine of the 1980s, the North American serial Dallas. Like audience discussion groups, including managers, Hobson, Ang designed her study of Dutch fan trade unionists, students and Caribbean women. letters to explore how the popular appeal of the Morley found that particular audiences differed in television serial for female fans ‘is connected with their decoding practices, and explained these our individual life histories, with the social situation differences primarily through class factors. For we are in, with the aesthetic and cultural preferences example, the trade union group objected to the we have developed and so on’. Developing a theory programme’s content but accepted its style, while of the ‘melodramatic imagination’, Ang proposed the managerial group did the opposite. Morley also that the soap operas are made up of ‘an ensemble found that participants in various groups were aware of textual devices for engaging the viewer at the of the ‘preferred’ meaning of Nationwide, but that level of fantasy’. The pleasures of the text occur as ‘awareness of the construction by no means entails subjectively experienced ‘structures of feeling’ and the rejection of what is being constructed’. Like Hall, hence to enjoy Dallas it is necessary to have learned Morley divided the range of audience responses into a repertoire of ‘cultural competencies’ and categories of dominant, negotiated and oppositional appropriate decoding practices: ‘the tragic structure readings, and strongly critiqued the unilinear of feeling suggested by Dallas will only make sense’, determinism implicit in the assumption that media Ang argues, ‘if one can project oneself into, i.e. texts determine audience response. recognize, a melodramatic imagination’. Hall’s critical semiotics of encoding and Cultural studies was also spreading overseas to decoding and Morley’s empirical study of audience Australia, and by the mid-1980s were fast becoming decoding practices heralded an ethnographic turn institutionalized in North American universities. In media education 333 the USA, with some particular exceptions such as Hall, S. et al. (1978) Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the the Marxist Literary Group’s annual Institute of State and Law and Order, London: Macmillan. Culture and Society, the Marxist politics and —— (eds) (1980) Culture, Media and Language, ambitions of British cultural studies were London: Hutchinson (a good synoptic abandoned in favour of eclecticism in approaches anthology of 1970s CCCS cultural studies and to both theory building and cultural politics. media theory). Feminisms and sexuality studies, race and ethnicity Hoggart, R. (1957) The Uses of Literacy, research, poststructuralist and post-colo-nial Harmondsworth: Penguin. theories and a wide variety of perspectives on Morley, D. (1980) The ‘Nationwide’ Audience: Structure popular culture and media characterize the main and Decoding, London: BFI. currents of North American cultural studies. Many —— (1992) Television: Audience and Cultural Studies, cultural studies of the media in the late 1980s and London: Routledge. 1990s incorporated currents of postmodern media Morley, D. and Chen, K.S. (eds) (1996) Stuart Hall: theory and a mode of cultural populism, Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies, London: exemplified by John Fiske’s Television Culture (1987) Routledge (an important collection, including and Understanding Popular Culture (1989). Fiske’s essays and interviews with Hall, discussing his model of ‘active’ audiences who enact resistance intellectual project and its key place in to hegemony through subversive or oppositional development of cultural studies). readings and pleasurable appropriations of media Williams, R. (1965) The Long Revolution, texts stimulated a wave of ‘new revisionist’ studies Harmondsworth, Pelican. concerned with the pleasures of popular culture MARK DOUGLAS and the resistant-decoding practices of postmodern media audiences. The overemphasis on audience agency and the neglect of the efficacy of social media education structure and power in this view has been extensively critiqued by cultural studies and media The first university courses in film studies, supported theorists. For example, Morley argues in Television: by critical debates in Screen and its offshoot Screen Audience and Cultural Studies (1992) that the challenge Education, were established in the 1970s. By the mid- facing future cultural studies of television media 1990s, some 30,000 young people annually opted will be the ‘attempt to construct a model of for courses leading to public examinations in media television consumption that is sensitive to both the studies at age sixteen or eighteen, and many “vertical” dimensions of power and ideology and thousands were applying each year for limited, but the “horizontal” dimension of television’s insertion growing, numbers of university media courses. in, and articulation with, the context and practices The notion of media education as a general of everyday life’. This call for the reinvigoration of entitlement for all eight million UK schoolchildren a critical dimension in cultural studies of the media began to emerge in the 1980s. By 1990, schools in has been a shaping context for the work of Hall all regions of the UK had some kind of curricular and others, including Paul Smith, in the 1990s. requirement (optional in Scotland, compulsory in the National Curriculum for England and Wales) to teach about the media. However, without Further reading concomitant resources and teacher training, Ang, I. (1985) Watching Dallas, London: Routledge. fulfilment of these requirements is patchy and Brantlinger, P. (1990) Crusoe’s Footprints: Cultural variable in quality. Studies in Britain and America, London: Routledge Media education at any level typically involves (a useful genealogy of cultural studies). critical study of a range of media, such as television, Fiske, J. (1987) Television Culture: London, Methuen. film, radio, the press, magazines and popular music. —— (1989) Understanding Popular Culture, London: Media forms such as news, advertising and soap Unwin Hyman. opera, which feature in more than one medium, are 334 medical drama popular topics of study. Three different but Significant early British examples include Emer- overlapping approaches are commonly used to study gency Ward 10 and General Hospital, in which the media ‘texts’ (such as advertisements or films). standard genre conventions were already evident. Students look at how meanings are produced Dr Finlay’s Casebook was one of the first examples through close analysis of visual composition, to be primarily situated outside of the hospital, and soundtracks and so on; they find out about the was instead concerned with a rural medical practice. institutional and financial background (for example, The BBC’s most significant contributions are who produced it and why); and they consider who Angels, about a group of female trainee nurses, and the audience is and what its responses and Casualty. The latter has consistently been the BBC’s interpretations are likely to be. Some kind of practical most popular drama for many years, employing a production work usually forms part of the course. variety of big name stars in cameo roles, launching Many older media students want to work in the careers of a large number of actors and, in 1998, the media, but others regard their study simply as spawning a top 10 single. a useful preparation for the modern world. As The development of medical drama has seen a digital technologies develop, media education is slow but definite movement away from the godlike, likely to change, becoming more practical and more omniscient doctors of the 1950s towards an commonly accepted as part of everyone’s lifelong acceptance of the complexities of modern medicine. learning. Issues such as euthanasia and AIDS have become commonplace dramatic fare, and characters are See also: MOMI; Screen and screen theory conventionally portrayed as multi-dimensional, flawed individuals, working within tight budget constraints and dealing with complex moral issues. Further reading Medical drama has often been criticized by Buckingham, D. and Sefton-Green, J. (1996) governments for its portrayal of the medical Cultural Studies Goes to School, London: Taylor & profession, particularly those dramas set within the Francis (detailed and usefully critical accounts National Health Service. This was especially true of media education in practice). in the 1980s, when the Conservative government repeatedly lambasted Casualty’s portrayal of CARY BAZALGETTE overworked staff and underfunded hospitals. The most extreme case of this resulted from the BBC’s medical drama Cardiac Arrest in the mid-1990s, whose portrayal of a health service industry and staff in near- Medical drama is one of the most consistently apocalyptic crisis shocked both the viewing public popular and enduring forms of drama on British and professionals alike. The fact that the series was television. Conventionally set in hospitals (usually written by a practising NHS doctor (under an alias, National Health Service ones), they concern the for fear of reprisals) only strengthened the criticisms problems of both the patients who come to be made by the programme. treated and the medical staff who treat them. It is common for the staff to be the main characters, See also: crime drama; documentary; drama on with patients appearing for single or multiple television; NHS episodes. Dramatic tension arises out of life-and- BRETT MILLS death conflicts, and often concerns a variety of ethical and moral issues, exploring the effects of medical decisions on patients and the public. Merchant-Ivory Productions Because of this, medical drama is often criticized as a melodramatic form, concerned only with Merchant-Ivory is a film-making team comprising individualized, personal issues, and its similarities Ismail Merchant (producer), James Ivory (director) to soap operas are apparent. and Ruth Prawer Jhabvala (screenwriter), known Methodists 335 particularly for historical dramas. Having first ‘difference’, Brookside has frequently presented an emerged in India, the partnership gained wider alternative image of family life, and storylines have audiences with the British film The Europeans (1979), been developed that engage serious social issues such which set the tone for future projects. Further as unemployment, heroin addic-tion and lesbianism. adaptations followed, particularly of works by E.M. Mersey Television is Britain’s largest independent Forster: Maurice (1987), A Room With a View (1985) production company, and its setting up in Liverpool and Howard’s End (1992). This last, with its attention not only provides much-needed jobs for the local to detail, visual beauty, strong performances and work force but also challenges the metropolitan tempered themes of class conflict and sexual orientation of the television industry and extends identity, exemplifies the Merchant-Ivory style. the opportunities for television production and While commercial and artistic success was training in the regions. sustained with The Remains of the Day (1993), the team has been criticized for lack of experimentation See also: Granada; soap operas; Thames TV and for offering unchallenging interpretations of BOB MILLINGTON respected texts.

See also: heritage Methodists ALICE E.SANGER ‘Methodist’ was originally a term of abuse coined by Oxford undergraduates making fun of their fellow Mersey Poets students who gathered around John Wesley and his younger brother Charles and attempted to follow Also known as the Liverpool Poets, the Mersey Poets their rule (or ‘method’) to deepen their religious life. were Adrian Henri (1932–), Roger McGough (1937– John Wesley (1703–91) was the son of an Anglican ) and Brian Patten (1946–). Writing during the 1960s, clergyman. He himself took holy orders and never they published three collections as a group: The wished to break away from the Church of England, Mersey Sound (1967), The Liverpool Scene (1967) and but he reacted against what he sensed as its spiritual New Volume (1983). Taking their style from both the aridity, and strove for evangelical revival. Returning American ‘beat poets’, and from the explosion of from a missionary journey to the United States under musical talent in Liverpool during the 1960s, they the auspices of the Society for the Propagation of pioneered performance poetry in Britain. Their the Gospel, he found that his opinions were not style was humorous and fitted in well with the tenets welcomed by the Anglican church. He then took to of pop art. All three have published poetry separately, preaching in the open air, soon attracting huge and two have found careers within other media, crowds who welcomed his Bible-based sermons with Henri as an artist and art critic, McGough as a their stress on salvation for all through grace member of the satirical pop group Scaffold. (Arminianism), personal commitment, and practical good works to alleviate suffering. His brother See also: poetry Charles added an invaluable dimension to the revivalist fervour with his hymns; these expounded SAM JOHNSTONE simple doctrine in clear, vigorous language and were sung to catchy modern tunes. John Wesley was a Mersey Television tireless traveller, and his doctrines soon spread throughout Britain and North America, making a Mersey Television is the company set up and owned special appeal to the lowlier classes in society that by Phil Redmond. Its output includes the realist soap Anglicanism tended to neglect. Disputes over the opera Brookside, which since 1982 has provided ordination of priests inevitably led to a breach with Channel 4 with its most highly-rated programme. the Church of England, and squabbles about church In keeping with the channel’s commitment to organization and liturgy resulted in the division of 336 MI5 and MI6

Methodism into a number of more or less greater information concerning the intelligence independent sub-groups, each claiming it alone services has been released into the public domain represented the genuine tradition. Reunion was (it is now known, for example, that MI6 now achieved by the formation of the Methodist Church occupies London’s Vauxhall Cross (built 1989– of Great Britain in 1932. 92)). Most controversially, in the 1990s MI5 was As currently constituted, the Methodist Church deemed in breach of the European Convention on is characterized by a high degree of involvement of Human Rights because it carried out clandestine the laity in its work and organization, but the surveillance of campaigners for civil liberties. administration of communion is normally reserved to ministers. Though numbers are not buoyant, See also: secret services Methodism in Britain has some 400,000 full PETER CHILDS members, and more than a million people are more loosely connected; membership worldwide is around 26,000,000. Methodism has always had a middle-distance runners strong social conscience, and in Wales in particular it has been a focus for political activism, especially The early 1980s saw a massive increase in interest trade unionism. There is truth in the saying that in running in the UK, with large national events ‘the Labour movement owes more to Methodism such as the Sunday Times National Fun Run and than to Marxism’. Methodism has also traditionally the London Marathon attracting tens of thousands emphasized missionary work and children’s of applicants. But away from the limelight, the education. growth of local competition on the roads and over countryside courses was equally spectacular. See also: Anglican Church; Elim Inspired by British Olympic successes at the Moscow and Los Angeles Games (1980 and 1984) and celluloid celebrations of the 1924 Paris Further reading Olympiad (in David Puttnam’s Chariots of Fire), The Methodist Church: Minutes of Conference and Direc- keen amateur club and independent runners tory, London: Methodist Church Conference competed en masse for often no more than a cheap Office, published annually. commemorative medallion and the singular pleasure of finishing a race. CHRISTOPHER SMITH Despite a challenge from the sprints, perhaps the most commonly arranged and enthusiastically MI5 and MI6 watched athletics events in Britain remain the middle-distance events. Ranging from 800 metres The names MI5 and MI6 are short forms of to 10,000 metres in length (but most commonly the Military Intelligence, Section 5 and Section 6. The classic ‘shorter’ distances of 1,500 metres and the overall head of intelligence is the Chair of the Joint mile), the middle-distance events formed the back- Intelligence Committee, to which post Pauline bone of modern British track and field success. The Neville-Jones was appointed in 1994. Section 5 is tradition began with Roger Bannister’s celebrated the counter-intelligence agency, until recently under first sub-four-minute mile (3:59.4) on 6 May 1954, the director-generalship of Stella Rimmington, but reached a peak between 1979 and the mid-1980s appointed in 1992. Section 6 is the secret intelligence when British athletes dominated the 800 metre, 1,000 agency, which works primarily under Foreign metre, 1,500 metre and mile events. Office control. It has operated under the direction Sebastian Coe and Steve Ovett, although rarely of David Spedding since 1994. The peacetime paired in competition outside of Olympic finals, existence of MI6 had previously been denied cultivated a keen, albeit media-fuelled, rivalry which altogether. Though the base at GCHQ in helped to make them both sporting celebrities and Cheltenham had long been known, since 1991 names to be feared in the athletics arena. Coe (now military conflict 337 a Conservative MP) enjoyed a marvellous summer attacked Militant openly. The movement was of running in 1979. In the space of just forty-one expunged from the party by 1992. days, he broke three world records at 800 metres, 1,500 metres and the mile; the 800 metre record of See also: Communist Party; fringe groups; 1 minute 39 seconds has now stood for over fifteen Labour Party; lobby groups years. At the 1980 Olympics, Coe and Ovett stole ALASTAIR LINDSLEY the show in their battle for the major honours over the classic middle distances; in which Coe won gold at 1,500 metres and silver at 800, while Ovett took military clothing gold in the 800 and bronze in the 1,500. In 1984 in Los Angeles, Coe retained his 1,500 The wearing of military clothing has been a fashion metres Olympic title. But, despite the emergence fad for both sexes since the early 1980s. Interest in of a third world-class British middle-distance grunge, nostalgia and recycling of fashions from runner, Steve Cram (who took silver behind Coe), the past have contributed to it. The male trend the ‘golden era’ was waning. Ovett had a poor originated with skinheads, and was catered for by Olympics, troubled by illness and the heat, and army surplus shops like Soldier of Fortune, which never retained the form which once saw him were trendier than the Army and Navy stores. The unbeaten in forty-five successive races between fashion may have originated for women when they 1977 and 1980. Coe too had peaked, but the special adopted fishermen’s hampers as a fashion magic which these two athletes had brought to accessory. Camouflaged military wear is often middle-distance running (Ovett once described indistinguishable from fishing apparel. It is also a their contests as akin to the Ali versus Frazier product of the search for cheap serviceable unisex heavyweight boxing title fights), helped inspire clothing in the recessions of the 1980s and 1990s, confidence, interest and, most importantly, which also spawned Doc Martens shoes and the participation in British athletics at all levels. ‘uniform’ wearing of jeans.

See also: long-distance runners; marathons; See also: Dr Martens sprinters MIKE STORRY STEPHEN C.KENNY military conflict Militant As Britain made the transition from a global to a The Militant tendency was a Trotskyist group regional power, the North Atlantic Treaty within the British Labour Party. Though formally Organization (NATO) became the central focus of part of the party, the group had a distinct agenda British security policy. The withdrawal from east of and sought to use the more widespread support Suez in 1967 was the beginning of a major for the Labour Party to further its own ends. restructuring of the armed forces, which continued Militant succeeded in gaining control of several in the 1990s under the programme ‘Options for local Labour authorities, most infamously Change’. This should be seen in the context of a Merseyside. It did not, however, achieve rapidly changing technological environment, which widespread support, numbering around 5,000 has led to an increasing reliance on nuclear members at its peak in the mid-1980s. Its political deterrence (for example, Polaris and Trident). range was as limited as its support, focusing upon However, British garrisons are still maintained in a few economic and class issues. Initially the Labour Gibraltar, Belize and the Falkland Islands (and in party spurned action against Militant members, but Hong Kong up to 1997). There is still a British UN the style and tactics of the latter left them presence in Cyprus, and troops have been active in increasingly isolated and by 1985 Neil Kinnock Northern Ireland following the 1969 decision to send 338 Millet, Kate

Army units to ensure the security of the province. Millet, Kate The IRA’s bombing campaign caused many casualties throughout the 1970s and 1980s. b. 1934, St Paul, Minnesota (USA) The Falklands War in 1982 was an important Writer event in the collective British psyche. Parliamentary An American feminist, Kate Millett became well criticism of government mishandling of the early known in the UK with the publication of her first stages of the Argentine invasion of the islands led book, Sexual Politics (1970) (her doctoral dissertation to the resignation of the Foreign Secretary, Lord at Columbia). She argued that nearly all relations Carrington. But with her political survival at stake, between men and women are determined by the Margaret Thatcher ordered a campaign to retake male establishment’s need to preserve its power the islands, which received wide public support over women. She claimed that assigning women to (although there was controversy over the sinking their traditional role of social work was akin to of the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano). The asking them to clean the Augean stable. They were British task force succeeded, at a cost of 225 men thereby disabled from discovering and eliminating killed and 777 wounded. the structural inequities which guaranteed the The involvement of considerable numbers of inferior position of women in a patriarchal society. British troops in a conflict did not occur again until She is seen nowadays as not having taken a strong 1990, when 45,000 personnel took part in enough feminist line in her writing, and of not Operation Desert Storm against Iraq following the countenancing other forms of sexuality than the latter’s invasion of Kuwait. British troops heterosexual. intervened as part of a UN-sponsored coalition of national forces. See also: feminist theory From the late 1980s, Britain became more involved in UN peacekeeping operations. With the MIKE STORRY disintegration of the Cold War balance of power, there has been a proliferation of complex civil mime emergencies and a corresponding growth in UN solutions, often ‘second generation’ peacekeeping Since the 1970s, the term ‘mime’ has been applied missions outside traditional parameters. For to an increasingly varied field of theatrical activity, example, Britain has sent troops to Namibia (1989) broadly characterized by a primary focus on physical and Cambodia (1992–3) to monitor and create expression. This activity draws together a number elections, on observer missions in Iraq/Kuwait of historical strands, including the influence of several (1991–4), and humanitarian assistance and general French mime teachers. British drama schools have peacekeeping duties in Rwanda (1994) and the tended to offer little training in mime, and have former Yugoslavia (UNPROFOR 1992–5). The focused instead on acting that is voice/text based. latter conflict, with its ethnic cleansing and The development of contemporary British mime attendant atrocities, has proved a gruelling reflects this marginalization, taking strength and challenge for British troops. identity from it. Mime has typically seen itself in broad See also: Ireland opposition to the text-based literary theatre of the West End and regional theatres (see theatre, regional). The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a growth Further reading in alternative theatre companies. These companies Ovendale, R. (1994) British Defence Policy since 1945, were often formed by young artists rejecting Manchester: Manchester University Press. traditional ways of making theatre to devise and improvise work of their own. A contemporaneous RACHAEL BRADLEY revival of interest in street performance (for example, Covent Garden Piazza, Robotics and Mitchell, Juliet 339 body popping) helped to provide a rich and died in 1991—is a major force in the British news environment for a rapid development of mime and media. Founded in 1903 with the specific intention related activity. Initially in the 1970s, mime theatre of appealing to a female readership, the Daily Mirror relied on silent illusions and sketches. Critics has long been an important popular national tabloid accused this mime of being too formal, too technical newspaper. In 1997 The Mirror, as it had become, and lacking in content. Later companies/artists was Britain’s second best-selling daily paper. With sought to break down the formal restrictions of this circulation figures of around 2.3 million, it claimed earlier style, and performers such as Steven Berkoff, a share of nearly 17 percent in a total market of about Moving Picture Mime Show and Theatre de 13.2 million copies (or 21 percent of the popular Complicité have since pointed the way for new market). It was, however, outsold by the Sun, which physical-based theatre with a more popular voice sold 3.7 million copies (28 percent of the total, or 35 and an increasingly strong sense of content. percent of the popular market) and appeared to be Mime’s accessibility, distinctiveness and pulling even further ahead, stretching the lead by physicality have made it attractive to a number of over half a million in five years. minority subcultures. In the 1990s, Black Mime Mirror Group is also strong in the popular Theatre developed a body of work distinctive in Sunday paper market, with two papers that together its focus on black issues and its exploration of a are nearly as popular as the News of the World. The movement/mime ‘voice’ for black performers. Sunday Mirror (the Sunday Pictorial until 1963) had a Towards the end of the 1990s mime has reinte- circulation in 1997 of a little more than two million grated with dance, circus skills and acrobatics and copies (18 percent of the popular market), and the provided a core of skills now being explored Sunday People sold about 1.8 million copies (another through new forms (such as Club performance, 15 percent). New Circus, alternative comedy and physical theatre), directly related to youth culture and See also: Express Group; Guardian Group; News subculture. Mime’s growth, and its subsequent International; Telegraph plc transformation into physical theatre, has coincided CHRISTOPHER SMITH with an increasing willingness to accept the moving body as ‘text’. The literal use of gesture as sign has developed into a more complex understanding of Mitchell, Juliet movement as a richly diverse and socially resonant vehicle for the making of meaning. b. 1940 Psychoanalyst See also: improvisation; modern dance; theatre Juliet Mitchell is a British psychoanalyst, who began publishing essays in the mid-1960s which fruitfully Further reading combined socialism and feminism. Her essay ‘The Leabhart, T. (1989) Modern and Postmodern Mime, Longest Revolution’, published in New Left Review Basingstoke: Macmillan Education Ltd (gives when she was only 26, used Marxist theory to broad historical context). explicate patriarchy and, together with her later ‘Women’s Liberation and the New Politics’, helped MARK EVANS to shape later feminist analyses. Her seminal Psychoanalysis and Feminism (1974) turned away from Mirror Group Reich and Laing to Freudian approaches in order to reveal deep-seated and ideological assumptions that The Mirror Group—inevitably associated in the underpinned women’s oppression. Her work has been minds of many with the name of Robert Maxwell, singularly important in discussions of the construction who, in pursuit of his ambitious plans for a media of femininity and in forging methodologies through empire, bought the Daily Mirror from Reed in 1984 which to subvert patriarchy. Her other books include 340 models, 1960s

Women’s Estate, Women: the longest Revolution and, with blitz of media coverage in 1967. Twiggy’s trademark Jacqueline Rose, Feminine Sexuality. prepubescent physique and androgynous boyish look (see androgynous/unisex look), combined See also: feminist theory; Marxism with her London working-class accent, produced a fashion and media sensation on both sides of the PETER CHILDS Atlantic. Her career as fashion model and media celebrity translated into offers of film work and models, 1960s she starred in Ken Russell’s pastiche of the classic Hollywood musical, The Boyfriend (1971). However, During the 1960s there emerged a new style of controversy continues regarding the ways in which female model and fashion image: the model as pop Twiggy’s mode of ultra-thinness is associated with cultural icon, star personality and sexualized ‘child- the social prevalence of image-related illnesses like woman’ fetish object. The new models, particularly anorexia, bulimia (see eating disorders) and other Jean Shrimpton and Twiggy (Lesley Hornby), image-distortion syndromes in contemporary refused the elegant and distanced anonymity of western girls and women. earlier couture models, even as they appropriated the youthful glamour of pop stars. The expanding See also: supermodels British fashion, pop and advertising industries promoted the provocative, non-conventional and Further reading eroticized ‘Youthquake’ images constructed by the models and photographers. For example, the trend- Quick, H. (1997) Catwalking: A History of the Fashion setting television presenter Cathy McGowan Model, London: Hamlyn (a popular, illustrated modelled the innovative fashions of young British introduction). designers, including Tuffin and Foale and Barbara MARK DOUGLAS Hulanicki of Biba, each Friday night on the groundbreaking pop show Ready, Steady, Go. Pop singers Cilla Black and Sandie Shaw did likewise. modern dance Jean Shrimpton personified the transition from the expense, sophistication and elegance of 1950s The wide spectrum of modern and postmodern couture to the inexpensive and youthful pop dance on offer in the UK at the end of the twentieth fashion of the 1960s. She pioneered what Mary century had its genesis in the 1960s, when small Quant called the ‘Method School of Modelling’. groups of people dissatisfied with ballet began to Initially photographed by David Bailey in 1960 for look for a new way of moving, a new aesthetic, Vogue, the published ‘pin-ups’ made Shrimpton and new choreography more in tune with the an international sexual icon and fashion celebrity. contemporary climate. In 1963, the English Significantly, Shrimpton’s classic English beauty philanthropist Robin Howard paid for a few British type and her lithe figure contrasted sharply with dancers to study at Martha Graham’s school in that voluptuous mode of 1950s cinematic sexuality New York. Howard had been captivated by exemplified by Hollywood stars Marilyn Monroe Graham’s modern dance company during its UK or Jayne Mansfield. Central to the delineation of performances that year, and in 1954. He the fashionable child-woman ‘look’ were Shrimp- subsequently set up the Contemporary Dance ton’s shoulder length curtain of hair, her dramatic Trust, which established the London School of use of make-up and false eyelashes, and ever- Contemporary Dance (LSCD), founded London shortening skirts. Furthermore, her non-traditional Contemporary Dance Theatre (LCDT), and ‘kinky’ style and anti-establishment ‘dolly’ attitude opened The Place Theatre as a base for both. Led was expressive of the cultural ideology of the mods. by Robert Cohan, a dancer from Graham’s Twiggy and her teenage manager-boyfriend company, LCDT initially performed her work as Justin de Villeneuve (Nigel Davis) emerged in a well as Cohan’s. modern dance 341

Concurrently, in 1966 the Ballet Rambert took By 1980, Cohan began talking of easing out of the bold move of dropping its ballet repertory and LCDT, resulting in a triumvirate directorship of embracing a new dance genre. Assistant director himself, the company administrator, and first North Norman Morrice, whose idea this was, modelled and then Davies as the resident choreographer. the scaled-down company on Nederlands Dans North’s tenure was short, as he was appointed Theater’s melding of balletic and modern techniques director of Ballet Rambert in 1981; here his work and invited Glen Tetley, an American choreographer joined that of Bruce and Alston as mainstays of the working in this vein, to stage several pieces. Dancers repertory. were encouraged to choreograph, and the new Alston, meanwhile, was also making dances for repertory included work by Morrice, Christopher Second Stride, formed in 1982 by Davies and Ian Bruce and John Chesworth, among others. Spink (who eventually became the sole director). The 1970s saw the increasing acceptance and Spink’s increasingly theatre-based, collaborative popularity of ‘contemporary dance’ among audiences, pieces were partially influenced by the German as well as reactions to it from dancers and dance theatre of Pina Bausch, indicative of the choreographers who rejected the Graham technique European influences that began to be felt in British and the move to the mainstream. In 1972, Richard dance in the 1980s. Other new voices emerged in Alston, a former LSCD student and occasional LCDT this decade. Michael Clark, dubbed the ‘bad boy’ choreographer, formed his own company, Strider, of British dance, went for shock value, employing which embraced different American techniques cross-dressing, outrageous costumes, fascist (Cunningham and release) and a low-key, formalist imagery and a live punk band. Janet Smith, with aesthetic. More radical departures were taken by the her witty, fluid pieces, chose accessibility. As X6 Collective (for example, Jacky Lansley, Fergus director of Extemporary Dance Theatre, Emilyn Early and Emilyn Claid), who presented political Claid brought ‘new dance’ practices to mainstream works, and Rosemary Butcher, whose non-technical, audiences. Laurie Booth combined improvisation, non-theatrical movement reflected her studies with release and contact work. Lloyd Newson’s DV8 New York’s Judson Church choreographers. Many Physical Theatre explored relationships and of her dancers (such as Gaby Agis, Maedée Duprès, sexuality in powerful pieces that drew on the Sue MacLennan and Miranda Tufnell) later performers’ experiences. Yolande Snaith examined choreographed. Most of these alternative women’s issues in increasingly surreal narratives. practitioners— who were grouped under the label ‘new Postmodernist strategies were prevalent in the work dance’ — had contact with Mary Fulkerson, the of Lea Anderson, who formed the all-women group American invited to head the Dartington College of the Cholmondeleys in 1984 and later the all-male Arts dance programme in 1973 and who introduced troupe the Featherstonehaughs. release technique and contact improvisation to Britain. The breadth and variety of dance in the 1990s In the mid-1970s, Chesworth took over Rambert’s defies generalization. Old labels no longer seem directorship, with Bruce as associate director and exact; new labels have not come to prominence (and primary choreographer. At LCDT, while Cohan’s debates rage over the term ‘postmodern’). Named work sustained the repertory, several dancers emerged movement techniques have evolved, moulded to as choreographers; two of these, Siobhan Davies and individuals’ needs; new, unnamed ways of moving Robert North, were appointed associate have emerged. Dance’s boundaries with theatre and choreographers in 1974. ‘performance’ have blurred. Because of the nature In the late 1970s, festivals sprang up to showcase of public funding, few companies operate full-time the range of dance, particularly ‘new dance’, being and most choreographers work on a project basis, practised in the UK. The Dartington and ADMA pulling together the money and the dancers to make festivals provided workshops as well as a piece and tour it for a few months. performances. Dance Umbrella, established by the Several choreographers from the 1970s are still Arts Council in 1978 (and still running), presented thriving. In 1986, Alston took over at Rambert, professional companies from the UK and abroad. changing its name to Rambert Dance Company 342 modernism and bringing in a marked Cunningham flavour. modernism But by the early 1990s, the board, questioning the audience appeal of his formalist work, replaced him Modernism, or the modern movement, in with Bruce, who reintroduced accessible architecture is usually defined as a mode deriving choreography. Alston was then invited to establish from the work of the early Le Corbusier and of a new resident company at The Place, in the wake Walter Gropius and his colleagues at the Bauhaus of LCDT’s demise (in 1994). Davies, meanwhile, in 1930s Germany, culminating in the work of Mies was associate choreographer of Alston’s Rambert Van der Rohe in the 1950s and 1960s. Its formal while leading her own company, through which characteristics could be described as the absence she has explored the expressiveness of release of decoration, the absence of façade, asymmetrical technique. Their contemporary, Rosemary Butcher, composition and the use of severe geometrical has continued her minimalist work independently, forms, often repeated over a large area. Entrances holding a retrospective of twenty years’ output in and exits tended to be left unemphasized, in favour 1996. of the sense that the building could be penetrated Most choreographers from the 1980s are still in multiple ways. Modernist construction favoured going strong, joined by newcomers too numerous the concrete or steel frame over load-bearing to mention. Shobana Jeyasingh fuses a classical masonry, and through the use of curtain-walling Indian dance technique and modern British glass tended to become a structural element in its choreographic principles. Matthew Bourne’s own right. The early conception of modernism was Adventures in Motion Pictures has made a associated with certain utopian values, specifically speciality of reworking of the ballet classics in that the provision of a planned architectural modern dance. Jonathan Burrows, Matthew environment would lead to a better society. Hawkins and Russell Maliphant have left behind Neither Le Corbusier, the Bauhaus architects, their ballet training to explore new movement nor Mies ever built in Britain. Few examples of vocabularies. CandoCo explores the modern movement buildings exist in the country, choreographic possibilities of using both dancers and the majority date from the 1930s. The best- in wheelchairs and more traditional dancing known are perhaps Berthold Lubetkin’s Highpoint bodies. Nigel Charnock and Javier de Frutos are 1 apartments at Highgate, London, and Owen interested in gay themes and icons. Fergus Early’s Williams’s buildings for the Daily Express at London, Green Candle Dance Company is representative Glasgow and Manchester. At the time, the modern of the community and educational dance arena. movement was vigorously promoted by the The list of small-scale companies and Architectural Review, its photography of Williams’s independent choreographers is extensive, and Daily Express building in Fleet Street being a fine growing. example of its proselytizing tone. But the impact of the modern movement is arguably much stronger See also: ballet; RADA in terms of the indigenous responses to it, whether outright rejection or forms of adjustment. The first widespread application of modern Further reading architecture in Britain came with the establishment Clarke, M. and Crisp, C. (1989) London Contemporary of the welfare state in the period immediately after Dance Theatre: The First 21 Years, London: Dance the Second World War. A style based on Books. contemporary Swedish public architecture was Jordan, S. (1992) Striding Out: Aspects of Contemporary adopted by London County Council architects, and and New Dance in Britain, London: Dance Books. spread to become the dominant mode for Mackrell, J. (1992) Out of Line: The Story of British educational buildings until the late 1970s. Known New Dance, London: Dance Books. as the ‘contemporary style’, or sometimes ‘people’s detailing’, it employed a vernacular of gently CHRIS JONES pitched roofs, brick walls, exposed wood and modernism 343 picture windows. It was in other words a much modernism. The modern movement was all but softened version of the modern movement. For abandoned during this time. Richard Rogers and architects such as James Stirling, who admired Le Norman Foster (see Foster Associates), two Corbusier, the adoption of the Swedish model architects who had in many respects kept the faith, seemed to indicate a failure of nerve, as in its human built most of their early work abroad. scale and use of natural materials it seemed to evoke However, towards the end of the 1980s a a pre-industrial time: Stirling once remarked, reassessment of the modern began to emerge, and famously: ‘Let’s face it, William Morris was a by the mid-1990s it was possible, for example, to Swede.’ describe a modernist group of architects working in If the architecture of the British welfare state the north of England. One indicator of this was the adjusted modernism, British commercial increasing visibility of the work of late modern architecture was also less modern than elsewhere; architecture in Britain, a process perhaps begun with Mies Van der Rohe, prolific in the United States, the completion of Rogers’s Lloyds Building in the was conspicuously absent in Britain. There was City of London in 1984, and continued with such little commercial building until the late 1950s, when structures as Foster’s Stansted Airport (1992). These a vogue for high-rise office towers (along with other buildings, though far less restrained than early elements of urban design imported from the United modernist works, nevertheless embodied modernist States) became visible. If some of these, such as structural principles. At the same time, modernist the Vickers Tower on the Embankment in London details such as glass bricks and sunscreens began to (1962) or the CIS Building at Manchester (1959), reappear in commercial architecture. derived explicitly from the modern movement, However, it was not until the early 1990s that a many subjected the modern to considerable revival of interest in modernism resulted in some variation. Richard Siefert, for some time the most new buildings, and this tendency has been successful British commercial architect, designed particularly evident outside London. The work of Centre Point (1967), a thirty-five-storey tower at the Manchester-based architects Stephen Hodder, the junction of Charing Cross Road and Oxford Mills Beaumont Leavey Channon, Roger Street, London; the arbitrary and decorative form Stephenson and Ian Simpson is, in terms of of the windows alone identifies this structure as a composition, materials, placement and stylistic far more frivolous piece of building than anything restraint, probably closer to the original principles erected by Mies. Similarly, the vast Piccadilly Plaza of modernism than anything built in Britain since (1965) complex in Manchester, comprising office the 1930s. Hodder’s uncompromising Centenary towers, a hotel and a shopping centre, is an Building for Salford University (1996) received extraordinarily decorative structure incorporating national recognition by winning the first James stained glass, decorative tiling and coloured glass. Stirling Prize for an educational building. The fact In this aspect, and in the picturesque displacement that it won suggests that modernism was finally of the various components of the structure, the acceptable as an architectural style; at the same time, complex in same ways better resembles the the fact that such buildings look fresh is an indicator Victorian Gothic structures nearby than orthodox of the long isolation of British architecture from its modern movement architecture. European counterparts. In British public architecture, the dominant mode throughout the 1960s and 1970s was the so- Further reading called ‘new brutalism’, conceived of in opposition to all forms of the modern movement. Many of Frampton, K. (1992) Modern Architecture: A Critical the major structures of this period, such as the History, London: Thames & Hudson. Hayward Gallery (1968), the National Theatre Lyall, S. (1980) The State of British Architecture, (1972) and the Barbican Centre (1980), with their London: Architectural Press. picturesque, informal composition, are best RICHARD J.WILLIAMS described in terms of new brutalism, not 344 mods mods monarchy The term ‘mods’ refers to ‘modernists’, a bebop In recent years, the monarchy has all but fallen into phrase that was used to describe a particular disrepute in Britain. It was the butt of sophisticated youth subculture of the early 1960s. Mods wore humour on television programmes such as Spitting distinctive smart suits, listened to ska and other Image, was lampooned in Sue Townsend’s novel The Caribbean music, and followed British bands Queen and I (1994) and became the subject of much such as The Who and The Small Faces. Many tabloid treatment which ridiculed the affairs of mods rode Italian scooters, and these mods Prince Charles, Prince Andrew and their wives. attracted media attention when they fought To compound such adverse publicity, Buckingham with rockers at British seaside resorts. Many Palace has proved inept at handling the British working-class mods became skinheads. There media. Opponents of the Palace used the have been several revivals of the mod style, first newspapers against them, publishing for example in the late 1970s by fans of groups such as The Prince Charles’s conversations with his long-term Jam, and second in the mid-1990s by groups lover Mrs Camilla Parker-Bowles. Broadcasts of such as Blur. this and other gaffes turned the royals into a beleaguered, if not endangered, institution. See also: Britpop; pop and rock Already, for many years the country had regarded those other than the immediate Royal STUART BORTHWICK Family as ‘hangers-on’ and questioned why they should pay for their support. But in the 1980s the MOMI Royal Family was hit by an avalanche of negative responses to rumours of the extra-marital affairs The Museum of the Moving Image (MOMI) is of the younger royals, none of whom had succeeded situated within the BFI’s South Bank complex, in contracting a marriage which endured. Princess promoting British film and television culture. Anne divorced Captain Mark Philips, Prince Established in 1988, MOMI charts the Andrew divorced Sarah Ferguson (Fergie) and development of moving images from pre-cinema Charles divorced Diana Spencer. Some people experiments in photographic projection and suggested that the royals should only contract optical illusion to today’s industrialized and arranged marriages with other royals. Conversely, commercialized film and television production supporters said they were only mirroring society and exhibition systems. The chronological at large. journey through history is supported with an In addition to problems with public relations impressive collection of memorabilia, artefacts, and handling of the media, the monarchy made a videotape clips and interactive working models. number of other significant miscalculations of what The museum also operates as a national centre the public would (under)stand. People might have for media education, with support and tolerated the younger royals’ peccadilloes if marketing services structured around the complaints had not been treated with lofty disdain, requirements of national curricula. It is also the and if the monarchy had not chosen to ignore many location of special exhibitions and screenings in crucial twentieth-century changes in society’s tandem with the neighbouring NFT, and outlook. For example, adherents of Margaret includes a workshop dedicated to the Thatch-er’s 1980s ‘me’ generation were unlikely development of animation. to be as ready to continue to fund lifestyles which they themselves were never likely to emulate. A See also: National Museum of Photography, Film result of these miscalculations was that royalty lost and Television more than it otherwise might have. For instance, conveniences like the Royal Train and the Royal MATTHEW GRICE Yacht Britannia, and more importantly the Queen’s Moore, Henry 345 tax-free status, have gone. However, a number of See also: Establishment, the; privacy royal palaces are still maintained. MARIANE SMITH The loss of tax-free status occurred after the Windsor Palace fire in the late 1980s, when the Queen thought she would be able simply to call monetarism on the government for help with the refurbishment costs. Instead, after an embarrassing public outcry, This theory relates changes in inflation to the level not only did she have to pay the £70m involved of the money supply in relation to the level of real out of her own purse, but shortly thereafter had to output. Monetarism is also used as a generic term pay income tax on her entire income. for neo-liberal economic theories (such as An index of the worldwide interest in British liberalization and deregulation). A monetarist royalty was the media coverage of the death of Diana, revival occurred in the 1970s as a result of a period Princess of Wales. The Palace was seriously out of of stagflation (simultaneous rising unemployment touch with the mood of the people when Diana was and rising inflation). Keynesian theories failed to killed in a car crash in Paris in the summer of 1997. provide an explanation for this, but monetarism She was accompanied by Dodi Fayed, son of the did. Monetarism, adopted by the Callaghan Egyptian owner of Harrods department store, administration in 1976, was continued with marked Mohammed Al Fayed, who had been denied British enthusiasm by the Thatcher administration. By the citizenship. Traditionalists feared that any offspring mid-1980s, monetarism had lost popular produced by this relationship would be in line to countenance and strict control of money supply inherit the throne, and were thus seen as ‘relieved’ ceased. However, successive Conservative by the accident. Buckingham Palace appeared to administrations have continued to give primacy to think it could downplay the death of someone with the reduction of inflation and free market ideals. whom it had had public quarrels, but people were well aware of the antipathy between the Palace and See also: Conservative governments; Diana (her early 1990s television interview with Thatcherism Martin Bashir drew 14 million viewers). There was ALASTAIR LINDSLEY thus a huge outpouring of public grief, and the Palace had both to lose face and to upgrade the funeral obsequies to three days of national mourning. Moore, Henry The Royal Family has always paradoxically drawn support from large segments of the working b. 1898, Castleford; d. 1986, Perry Green, class, and no member has attracted affection more Hertfordshire than the Queen Mother. Nearly a centenarian, at Sculptor her every public appearance she is greeted with genuine affection possibly because of the gratitude Henry Moore dominated British sculpture in the which an older generation felt for a monarchy twentieth century. Rejecting the classicism of which chose to live in the heavily bombed city of academic sculpture, Moore was influenced by the London during the Second World War, and which stylized figures of ‘primitive art’ (Reclining Woman, insisted on carrying on construction of a cathedral 1929, Leeds City Art Gallery) and modernist art at Liverpool, a ‘futile’ project at a time when bombs from continental Europe. His most experimental were dropping all around. work combines surrealism and the biomorphism The monarchy continues to be much better of Picasso and Arp, with a commitment to ‘truth received overseas than in Britain. Americans display to materials’ and direct carving. The two central much more interest in it than in their own motifs of Moore’s mature career date from the ‘aristocracy’, and in Canada the young princes 1930s; the reclining female figure, often divided William and Harry received a rousing welcome to into two or more constituent parts and suggestive British Columbia in November 1998. of landscape forms (Four Piece Composition: Reclining 346 Morris, Desmond

Figure, 1934, Tate Gallery, London); and the pierced raisonné in six volumes, 5th edn, London: Lund or hollowed form which explores the relationship Humphries. between the interior and exterior space. CLAIRE GLOSSOP An official war artist, Moore’s Shelter Sketchbooks heralded a more conservative approach to the figure (Madonna and Child, 1943–4, Church of St Matthew, Morris, Desmond Northampton). Success at the Venice Biennale in 1948 secured his international reputation and a b. 1928 worldwide market. Prestigious commissions Anthropologist followed, including the UNESCO headquarters in Paris (1956–8). Replacing stone carving with Morris started as a zoologist at Birmingham and casting bronze editions, and using assistants, became an anthropologist at the University of enabled Moore to increase production, with the Oxford. He examined interactional synchrony majority of his 11,000 sculptures dating from the (people in a group moving in unison with, for final half of his career. example, a speaker) and postural congruence Within Britain, Moore’s audience grew through (adopting identical or mirror-image positions) He public commissions, open-air exhibitions in drew on his research into animal behaviour to London parks, and John Read’s films for the BBC. produce a sociological critique of human behaviour, His modernist yet recognizably figurative style promulgated in his best-known work The Naked Ape became the acceptable face of modern British art. (1967). His work, which includes The Human Zoo Although Moore’s popularity continued to grow, (1969), Manwatching (1977), The Soccer Tribe (1981), his artistic achievement is largely confined to his Catwatching and Dogwatching (both 1986), packages activities before the Second World War. and popularizes science (he was head of Granada Moore’s legacy continues through his charity. Television’s Film Unit at London Zoo from 1956– The Henry Moore Foundation (HMF) was 9) and thus paved the way for books like Stephen established in 1977 ‘to advance the education of Hawking’s A Brief History of Time. the public by the promotion of their appreciation MIKE STORRY of the fine arts and in particular the works of Henry Moore’. By the 1990s it was providing around £4 million per annum for the visual arts in Britain. motor racing Though Moore’s work is promoted by the HMF, its broader objectives are devolved to other bodies; Britain has played a major role in motor racing since grants fund exhibitions and research around the 1950s, when Jaguar sports cars regularly won Britain. In Yorkshire, two organizations promote the Le Mans Twenty-Four Hours race (this race and exhibit sculpture of all periods and still attracts some 50,000 British spectators nationalities: the Henry Moore Centre for the annually). The motor racing industry has become Study of Sculpture, Leeds, which holds a sculpture a major high-tech employer and exporter. In collection, library and archive, and the Henry Formula One (F1) racing, first Cooper and then Moore Sculpture Trust, which organizes exhibitions Lotus cars revolutionized the sport, providing the at the Henry Moore Institute in Leeds and the vehicles for a string of British world champions: Henry Moore Studio in Halifax. Graham Hill, Jim Clark, John Surtees (albeit in a Ferrari) and Jackie Stewart won eight of twelve See also: Hepworth, Barbara; sculpture championships between 1962 and 1973. Traditionally, F1 cars raced in their national colour (such as British racing green), but since 1968 Further reading sponsorship has become an integral part of F1’s Bowness, A., Read, H. and Sylvester, D. (1988) success and cars now usually race in the sponsor’s Henry Moore: Complete Sculpture, catalogue colours. One of the most striking examples is the MTV 347 successful Benetton team sponsored by the Italian information and ‘rockumentaries’ as well as clothing manufacturer. Tobacco manufacturers are promotional music videos. MTV Europe was also major investors in F1, since racing cars in their launched in London on 1 August 1987 as a ‘24 liveries offer a very important medium for hours-a-day music and youth-oriented circumventing increasingly restrictive television entertainment television channel’. In Europe, it advertising regimes. The worldwide growth of broadcasts thirty-seven countries and over fifty- interest in F1 is partly fuelled by its high-tech image four million households through satellite, cable (which encourages individual countries to wish to and terrestrial distribution, using the English stage Grand Prix races), partly by the traditional language. The leading European consumer is male macho glamour of the world of fast cars, and France (fifteen million households), followed by partly by the desire to open up new markets to Italy (eleven million); the UK has approximately sponsors, particularly tobacco firms. four and one-half million viewing homes. Russia Formula One became a major television sport is a growing and important market with MTV in Britain in the 1980s with the BBC’s package of accessible in some thirty million homes. Despite a distinctive Fleetwood Mac theme tune and its American origins, some 90 percent of MTV presenter Murray Walker, a cult hero whose hectic Europe’s programming is originated and produced commentary style found a perfect foil in the in Europe. In addition, MTV broadcasts public patrician insouciance of former world champion service announcements on issues such as AIDS, James Hunt. The entertainment potential of the racism, drugs and the environment. sport’s mixture of high-tech drama, business MTV has been seen by some theorists as a opportunities, noise and speed with individual fine example of postmodern culture (see drivers’ psychologies is exemplified in the stormy postmodernism) with its frenzied and history of the Williams team, who have regularly fragmented approach to scheduling. It is argued won world championships and, not quite as that this fragmented ‘cut and paste’ approach regularly, discarded the drivers who won them. works on the level of parody and pastiche by Nigel Mansell won a Williams-mounted merging high and low culture, much in the same championship in 1992, after a career dogged by way that the sampler has been seen as a injury, accident and bad luck, and did not keep postmodern musical magpie in terms of music his seat but consolidated his popular reputation production. Other have taken a contradictory by winning the American Indycar championship line, arguing that far from the approach above, the following season (in the face of the criticism MTV increasingly conforms to established of some commentators who appeared unable to scheduling patterns, and that far from forgive him his Midlands accent or for disproving diversifying culture in the way outlined above their predictions about him). Similarly, Damon by this ‘pick and mix’ approach, it may serve to Hill, who won the 1996 championship in a maintain these lines of demarcation with most Williams after what seemed like career-long battle audiences being increasingly ‘defined’. The with the ghost of his father Graham, was also international dimension to MTV makes it a very dumped by the team. important player in the global music industry. It has the power to shift artists from their national TREVOR R.GRIFFITHS marketplaces to not only the wider European and American markets but beyond into Asia, India, MTV South America and Japan. It remains to be seen whether this cultural globalization will result in Available in 25 percent of households worldwide, further standardization of product at the expense MTV (music television) boldly promotes itself as of traditional national and regional distinctions. ‘the global voice of youth culture’. Launched in the USA on 1 August 1981, MTV broadcasts See also: pop television music news, promotions, interviews, concert 348 Muir, Jean

Further reading by the City Architect George Kenyon and built in two successive stages from 1960–3 and 1965–8. Banks, J. (1996) Monopoly Television: MTV’s Quest to Occu-pying a central ten-acre site, the prominent Control the Music, Boulder, CO: Westview Press. feature of the composition is the council chamber. GUY OSBORN To the north is the reception suite, including the STEVE GREENFIELD banquet-ing hall and Lord Mayor’s and Sheriff’s suites; to the south are committee rooms and administrative offices. Surmounting the complex Muir, Jean is the familiar feature of the tall tower, with carillon, b. 1933, London; d. 1995 lantern and beacon and three golden castles from the City’s coat of arms; the tower can be seen on Fashion designer the approach to and across the city, and forms a Born in 1933, Muir trained in the fashion industry, symbol of civic pride. Other examples of civic working for Liberty and Jaeger until launching centres include Gravesend (1964) by H.T.Cad- her own Jean Muir label in 1966. Her training as bury-Brown and Partners, and Sunderland (1968) a dressmaker and tailor was reflected in the by Basil Spence, Bonnington and Collins. Both precision cutting of her elegant designs, whose provide cleverly articulated multi-functional apparent simplicity masked their impeccable complexes. tailoring. Muir’s signature fabrics were soft jerseys During the 1970s, many municipal buildings and matt crepes in muted colours and navy blue, drew on the brutalist aesthetic, employing a colour which Muir made ‘the new black’. Muir’s ubiquitous concrete; one of the most controversial designs brought her acclaim in the fashion media examples was Birmingham Central Library and a staunch following among women who (1974), designed by the John Madin Design wanted classic modern elegance rather than the Group. The Prince of Wales thought that it looked shock of the new. The label has continued since like ‘a place where books are incinerated, not her death in 1995. kept’. Competitions for town halls have elicited some See also: labels exciting responses, including the design for Northampton Town Hall, designed as a huge glass TAM S I N S PARG O pyramid. This Platonic form was designed by Jeremy and Fenella Dixon in 1972, and positioned municipal buildings to relate to local ley lines. BDP’s Town Hall, Tewkesbury (1977) together with Robert Matthew Postwar municipal building in Britain has continued Johnson-Marshall’s Civic Centre, Hillingdon, the traditions of the nineteenth century in terms of Middlesex (1977), established the popularity of the provision of civic centres and local government normally domestic neo-vernacular as a viable style buildings, although other building types historically for civic building, and were described by the Prince associated with local government, such as schools, of Wales as pioneering ‘the departure from the libraries, swimming pools and leisure centres, are nuclear-fallout-shelter look for public buildings’. now often under the control of county councils. However, one area of ‘municipal’ building which Hampshire County Council, led by the forward has fallen into decline in recent years is that of thinking Freddie Emery-Wallis, is acknowledged council housing, the prewar flagship of municipal widely as a centre for excellence for public building. aspiration. Visionary County Architect Colin Stansfield-Smith was appointed in 1974, and has orchestrated an See also: city redevelopment; town planning innovative programme of public architecture. HILARY GRAINGER One of the most celebrated examples of a civic centre is that of Newcastle upon Tyne, designed music industry 349 music colleges offered by the new Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts, which are aimed at contemporary Courses available at British music colleges generally performance styles. include the more traditional performance-based Most music colleges offer facilities for external conservatoire training which centres on the music students including examinations, part-time courses of the Western European classical tradition, side and summer schools which cover subjects from by side with newer style courses covering disciplines early music to jazz and rock. Many colleges also as diverse as jazz, music therapy, early music, music run junior departments aimed at school age technology and education. musicians, providing tuition and opportunities for Music colleges generally offer first degree/diploma ensemble playing. courses of two kinds, either a more performance based course or a more academic Graduate or BA/BMus See also: classical music; classical music, course. Skills typically covered include tuition in the contemporary; classical soloists student’s principal instrument or voice, study of western European classical forms, harmony, Further reading orchestration, keyboard skills and ensemble playing. Entrance qualifications for undergraduates generally Rich, F. (ed.) Music Education Yearbook, London: include a minimum performance standard of Grade Rhinegold, published annually. 8, usually to be demonstrated in an audition, in ANDREA MARTIN addition to possible keyboard, aural and academic requirements. Music undergraduates are subject to the usual DFE funding arrangements, though funding music industry for postgraduate courses can be hard to find: students are often obliged to make many approaches to The market for rock and pop music is dominated charitable trusts though the colleges themselves can by a handful of companies known as the Big Six: sometimes offer assistance from special trust funds. It WEA, Sony, Polygram, CEMA, BMG and UNI. is usually necessary for music students to work their The global market remains under the power and way through college as they are obliged to provide influence of the Big Six because of their control themselves with instruments of sufficient quality to over distribution. maintain a high performance standard, which often In the USA, from the late 1930s onwards the includes subsequent auditions for professional major recording companies, Columbia (established engagements. in 1889), RCA (1929), Victor (1901) and Decca There is an increasing awareness of the need (1934), were competing over recording and for students to emerge from music training with reproducing techniques in order to gain a significant the flexibility to move in new directions as the scope share of the market. In the 1930s, the standard record of professions in music expands. Consequently, format was a ten-inch disc which rotated seventy- music students are more often being encouraged eight times per minute. After the war, Columbia were to explore musical skills additional to that of their the first to introduce vinyl, and also the first to principal discipline, and to move away from introduce the long-playing hi-fidelity record. They European classical styles. An example of this more then went on to release the innovative twelve-inch adventurous approach is the performance and 33 1/3 rpm long-player. RCA in turn developed a communication skills course run by the Guildhall seven-inch record on vinyl which rotated forty-five School of Music and Drama, both as a one-year times per minute. Because there was an appropriate postgraduate course and as a part of undergraduate market for each, each company decided to produce training. Areas covered by this course include their records on both formats. The LP became the composition, theatre, workshop and presentation main outlet for classical music, and the 45 rpm seven- skills, t’ai chi and improvisation. A similar approach inch ‘single’ format was more convenient for popular of artistic cross-fertilization is evident in the courses music, which was played at radio stations and on 350 music industry juke-boxes. The seven-inch single format was much years in the light of the emerging European market easier to distribute, and in this way, smaller record forces and the Japanese multimedia conglomerates, companies were able to promote their artists amongst which have been instrumental in changing the radio stations cheaply and more effectively, giving identity of the industry. rise to the development of independent national The forces which can affect the structure of the distribution companies. By 1948, the four main industry range from customer behaviour through record companies were RCA, Columbia, Capitol and to competition from the smaller independent labels, American Decca. Out of the top ten most successful the changes in technological reproduction and the records of that year, 81 percent were produced by creative process itself. The music and radio industries these four major companies. had always to a degree been interdependent, but in The music industry is a multi-layered the United States during the period 1954–8 this organization, including not just the artists but also interdependence underwent significant employees of the record companies from managing developments. Radio depended on the record directors down to A&R (artistes and repertoire), industry as providers of material for its shows, and recording studios, production and management the record industry relied upon radio for the companies, songwriting and music publishing exposure and promotion of its products. Radio had houses (including film music and jingles for adverts started to become a medium in itself, and the number as well as mainstream songs), the music press, of radio stations was expanding rapidly. This manufacturing establishments (cutting and pressing inevitably led to the need for diversity and station rooms, blank tape and CD suppliers, makers and identity, and thus radio became regional rather than suppliers of instruments and PA systems), retail national in focus. Stations were on the lookout for outlets (mail order catalogues, record stores), new or local talent, and were keen to offer air time venues (from pubs to purpose-built complexes) and to acts which belonged to the lesser known labels electronic media, from radio to the Internet. The such as Sun, Atlantic and Coral. This created music industry is not subsidized by the government, opportunities for the independent labels, enabling but regional councils will fund local events such as them to compete for a share in the national market. festivals or outdoor concerts. In the United Over the last two decades of the twentieth Kingdom in 1996, retail sales exceeded £1bn, and century there has been another substantial the industry employed over 48,000 people. There revolution within the framework and constitution is considerable revenue to be earned from the of the industry, due to the external developments industry’s various associated activities and in mass media communications. Music in its products, such as tours and the merchandising commercial aspect was easily made into a which inevitably accompanies them, sponsorship commodity, and the systematic exploitation of deals, endorsement deals (of instruments and consumers could be negotiated within the markets. amplifiers, for example), royalties, and public The transformation of the media industry has led appearances and interviews. to a complete overhaul, with the ownership of The international music industry is a multi-billion media outlets belonging to a small number of dollar enterprise, and is primarily articulated by the corporate entities. In 1995, Seagram’s Company dynamics of market capitalism. It is historically bought 80 percent of MCA for $5.7 billion; located in the USA, but the United Kingdom has Westinghouse took over CBS for $5.4 billion, and always played a significant artistic and commercial the Disney Corporation bought Capital Cities/ABC contribution. The music business follows the for $19 billion. In 1996, Time/Warner bought economy very closely, and tries to influence trends Turner Broadcasting, with its outlets in cable, film and consumer practices. The industry has been and sports organizations, for $7.56 billion, dominated by Western practices, not purely in terms establishing the industry’s role as a major player in of its products but also in its economic structures other areas of media consumption. The music and its legal and political transactions. However, the industry and its economy became integrated with Anglo-American hegemony has waned in recent the worldwide computerized infrastructure of music industry 351 telecommunications and media. This process of more than 26,000) currently offering music free of controlling both hardware and software markets charge on the Internet. Music on the Internet is not and distributing products through a range of media yet covered by the various protecting bodies, such types is called ‘synergy’, and it has created as the Mechanical Copyright Protection Society and opportunities for crossover marketing strategies. the Performing Rights Society, and is offered without Records could sell films, and vice versa; the film- any author-ization from, or payment to, the legal to-video industry was booming, and computer holders of the copyright. The Internet has therefore games companies were now buying up rights for served to increase the threat of lost revenues for film and music. This was to be a complete musicians. Customization on a mass scale is fast monopolization of trans-global media, adopting the becoming the commercial pattern of the future. On individual-as-consumer point of view. visiting certain sites, the net user is invited to make Technology has always been a significant factor a personal selection of desired tracks, which are then in shaping the development of the music industry. dispatched at a fraction of the price of a commercially With the onslaught of technological advances in produced CD. recording equipment and the introduction of new Record companies need to maximize profits in formats such as the compact disc (CD) and digital order to create market stability, and within this need audio tape (DAT), new marketing strategies had is the obligation to offer their customers a degree to be developed, which in turn affected the of change and innovation. The record industry is consumption habits of the record-buying public. capable of establishing new and original ideas as The CD offered a clarity of sound and a scope for standard in order to generate a market for them. longevity with which vinyl could not compete, This creates a cycle of innovation, whereby the next bringing about its eventual decline. Also in decline new act to come along has to be more diverse, or was the sale of the seven-inch single. In 1980, before more original, in order to break through the now the rise of the CD, the gross annual worldwide established norm. turnover of singles was £550m, but in 1988 this During periods of a stabilized market, the major had dropped to £375m. In the USA, cassette sales companies can exert some control over the growth were on the increase, grossing $22.5m in 1988, and of the smaller labels, which specialize in the more by the end of 1989, this figure had significantly uncommercial genres or scenes, by buying them into risen to $32.5m. Vinyl had all but disappeared from their own conglomerates, or merging with them. the shelves of major record stores, but this in turn This can often mean taking control of not just the created an alternative market in the record collector, performers, but also of their creative rights as artists and jazz and blues connoisseurs still preferred the (which led to a major court case involving George authenticity of vinyl. Michael). The independent record companies have A continuing problem faced by the industry is risen in the international market stakes, and as they that of piracy. This can be in various forms, from are swallowed up into the mainstream by the majors, the illegal recordings of live events (known as others spring up in their wake. In the United States, ‘bootlegging’), to ticket-touting and forged industry power is located in three main areas, Los merchandise (posters, t-shirts, programmes and so Angeles, New York City and Nashville, with the on). The pirate industry is estimated to have an occasional ‘scene’ emerging on the peripheries, such international value of £3.7 billion, which totals 12 as grunge in Seattle. In Britain, power has always percent of the retail value of all legally sold recorded been located in London, despite the phenomenal music. In the United Kingdom alone it is thought success of groups such as the Beatles, who were at that music writers and publishers are losing about the forefront of the idea of a regional sound in the £40m annually, due to the upsurge in pirate CDs 1960s; this ‘Mersey’ sound was resurrected in the and cassettes. There is a current crisis in the music 1980s by bands such as Echo and the Bunnymen, industry, with a catastrophic decline in sales, and Wah, Teardrop Explodes and China Crisis, and the source of the blame lies in the increased tendency again in the 1990s with The La’s, Cast, Space and to visit the various music sites (of which there are The Lightning Seeds. There was also the ‘baggy’ 352 music labels scene in 1980s Manchester with The Stone Roses, —— (1998) Key Concepts in Popular Music, London: The Inspiral Carpets and The Happy Mondays. Routledge (an excellent analysis of the music National identity has become prominent in recent industry). years; notable is the rise of the Welsh band with ALICE BENNETT acts such as Catatonia, Super Furry Animals, 60ft Dolls and Park Trolley. Local labels are few and far between—Probe in Liverpool and Revolver in music labels Wolverhampton are examples—and 99.9 percent of labels in Britain operate from London, which means In the music industry, record labels fall into two that most bands have to migrate to the capital for categories, major and minor. The majors are those the convenience of managers, agents and record label labels which are comprised of, or attached to, the bosses. main six record companies in the world (Sony, There has been a rise in the consumption of WEA, Polygram, CEMA, BMG and UNI). The independently produced and distributed artefacts, minors are also known as indie labels, because they and the Big Six’s dominance over the global market are independent from the major record companies, has declined in recent years. With the rise in both in terms of artistry and finance. However, the popularity of world music (South American and independents often rely on the assistance of the Asian music’s popularity is at an all-time high) the majors for the distribution of their products, and focus has shifted away from Anglo-America to adopt similar business practices in order to expand Europe (especially in the light of the Ibiza ‘rave’ scene their market and establish the necessary industry and the European quirky dance acts such as contacts. Despite this, the independents consider Whigfield, Aqua and Two Unlimited). The themselves to be more flexible and innovative in independent or alternative labels operate on a their choice of signings. The main independent different basis to the major players, the difference labels are Mute, 4AD and One Little Indian. The being purely economic. The former deal with short- most successful British label is EMI (now a part of term contracts, sometimes without an advance to the Sony corporation), formed in March 1931. One the artist, and production and distribution can be of its subsidiaries was Parlophone, bought from local rather than national. In the UK, Pinnacle are Holland’s Transoceanic Trading Company, and in the main distributors of independent labels, while the 1960s it also had a red label for novelty and in the USA this role is filled by Jet Distribution. The comic acts. George Martin persuaded his bosses to desire for independent labels to produce innovative release the Beatles’s first two singles on this label, and quality work has to be matched with the and with their success, Parlophone became an necessity to work within economic boundaries, the outlet for popular music. In 1979, EMI were in main cost being that of promotion and marketing. financial difficulties and were taken over by Thorn Nevertheless, the latter half of the twentieth Electrical Industries becoming Thorn/EMI. century’s rapidly developing technologies have Despite the takeover, EMI still maintained relative made it possible for music to be both seen and heard freedom, and went on to buy up Liberty, United far and wide, immortalizing musicians and their Artists Records and the jazz label Blue Note. creative works in the process. Its omnipre-sence is Columbia is the oldest label still in existence, guaranteed through radio, television, cable, satellite, formed on 1 January 1889 by Edward Easton in vinyl, cassettes and CDs. the USA to sell musical recordings. By 1891 it was the biggest recording company in the world. In See also: pop and rock 1959, due to the success of rock ’n’ roll, the independents were able to establish a niche for Further reading themselves, aiming to pioneer new sounds and style. The majors often overshadowed their Shuker, R. (1994) Understanding Popular Music, attempts by buying up the smaller labels wholesale, London: Routledge. artists included, so the process would begin all over music press 353 again. Thus the majors had a decisive advantage The teen market is flooded with rather flimsy but over the independents, with a huge number of glossy biographies of the latest pin-ups, consisting artists on their books covering each particular genre of lots of photos and little text, or small magazines and able to satisfy every section of consumer trends. which fold out into full-size posters. They are With the rising popularity of the Internet, labels orientated towards the superstar status of the specializing in genres like house, ambient music performer or band, rather than their musicianship. trip-hop and techno music take advantage of its This type of publication is as accessible as the music ability for faster distribution. Instead of depending it writes about. Image is the all-important factor. It on sought-after airplay, the Internet can sell directly, is a rarity for a music paper or magazine to feature one track at a time, to fans who visit the websites. a picture of a record on its front cover. There are also publications which cater See also: record labels specifically for the individual musician, such as Modern Drummer and Guitar Weekly. Trade magazines which cater more for musicians and technicians Further reading who wish to trade in or buy musical instruments Burnett, R. (1996) The Global Jukebox: The or recording equipment are widely available. An International Music Industry, London: Routledge. indication of the changes in both availability and consumer trends of these publications is that until ALICE BENNETT fairly recently, they were not to be located on the shelves of High Street newsagents, but had to be music press ordered through a newsagent or distributor; today, however, they are to be found at most major The last decade has seen an increase in the academic newsagents across the country. research and analysis of popular music, largely due There are also locally based magazines known to the current trend of popular culture studies. The as fanzines, the majority of which are produced by music press consists of a vast range of publications, fans of a particular type of music or musician. the majority of which deal with popular music, and Although usually rather unsophisticated, being mainly that which is in, or is likely to be in, the mainly photocopies of self-produced material, they UK Top 40 charts. The music press is largely based are of great value to the local music scene, promoting around so-called ‘lifestyle’ magazines, such as Q or the regions, bands and venues which would The Face, which focus on the more avant-garde otherwise not gain a mention in the national music aspect of the culture of popular music; in the 1980s, press. Fanzines originated with the onset of punk in they were commonly known as ‘style Bibles’. Other the 1970s. Following the do-it-yourself ethos of punk, publications of this genre, such as Mojo and Vox, they were non-commercial publications and therefore have a similar format but are slightly less ‘arty’ and had more street credibility. The authorship was often have a more general appeal. The most popular type anonymous. They help to define a local scene and of publication is what are known as ‘the weeklies’, identify with that community. Due to the absence including Melody Maker and New Musical Express of material, both published and recorded, of the more (commonly known as NME); the general format obscure artists, fanzines were a highly useful source consists of interviews with the latest big name, of information. They often provided a springboard reviews of the latest album and single releases, into mainstream journalism. More recently, fanzines reviews of live gigs, plenty of photos, plenty of have become a standard follow-up to most genres adverts, a national gig guide and various chart and types of artists. Their role has turned out to be listings. The youth or teenage market is catered of significant value as an ongoing source of for with publications such as Smash Hits, with its information for the alternative genres that are printed song lyrics of the latest chart hits and mini constantly emerging within popular music. Some of biographies of the latest pop sensation. These types them can even be found on the shelves of the local of magazines follow the trends rather than set them. record store or newsagents. 354 Muslim Parliament

Also to be found on the shelves in any major constantly being explored and extended, but as in booksellers are biographies, autobiographies, rare pop music itself, the original format sits easily record collecting magazines, books dedicated to the beside its modern counterpart. top 100 singles, histories of pop and rock music, genre-oriented books, era-oriented books and See also: DJs; record labels gender-oriented books. There is a considerable amount of literature being devoted to popular music. Further reading Catalogues have emerged in the last decade to keep up with the trend of musical textual analysis. There Shuker, R. (1998) Key Concepts in Popular Music, London: Routledge (the most concise and are many essays devoted to pop music and its comprehensive study of popular music). varying genres in many cultural anthologies and journals. ALICE BENNETT The music industry is one of the biggest businesses in the world, and the music press plays a significant role within that industry. It is an Muslim Parliament essential marketing tool, playing a key role in the The 150-strong Muslim Parliament was established promotion of its products. The press will often play in London in 1992 by the late Islamic campaigner the role of ‘gatekeeper’, providing initial critical Dr Kalim Siddiqui (1933–96). Prior to its feedback on new releases. establishment, a statement of its aims appeared in The emergence of the Internet as a means of the Observer (5 January 1991): ‘This parliament must global communication has brought a new defend and promote the Muslim interest in Britain.’ dimension to how popular music is promoted and Dr Siddiqui’s attempt to create an effective Islamic received. There are now on-line music journals, voice in Britain failed, mainly due to the fact that with most major music magazines running he bypassed the British Islamic establishment when websites; news and reviews are updated on a daily setting up his parliament; hence he could not call basis, and the information is accessible twenty-four on the network of local mosques to create interest hours a day. Another new format is the CD-ROM. in his cause. Also founded in 1989, the Islamic Party A multimedia journal called Nautilus CD initiated for Britain aims to represent British Muslims and the first CDRomagazine, published in the early to lobby for pro-Islamic legislation. Membership is 1990s, heralding a whole new genre called over 1,000, and the Party contested five seats at ROMags. These emulate the style of an authentic the 1992 general election. music magazine but with the added bonus of video footage and musical accompaniment of image and See also: black Conservatives; Islam; Labour text. Images can be enhanced by the viewer, or Party black sections; Nation of Islam additional music or text can be chosen. The potential of the media coverage of music is EUGENE LANGE N

Nation of Islam restrictions which the National Curriculum has imposed. The Curriculum includes the core The Nation of Islam is an American black Muslim subjects of English, mathematics and science, plus anti-integrationist and black supremacist foundation subjects of history, geography, organization with origins in the 1960s civil rights technology, art, music and physical education (in movement. Well-known adherents have included January 1998 the Labour government placed a Malcolm X and Muhammed Ali. Founding texts greater emphasis on core skills of literacy and from the 1930s are W.D.Fard’s The Secret Rituals of numeracy). At secondary schools, a modern foreign the Nation of Islam and Teaching For the Lost Found Nation language is also part of the programme. Attainment of Islam in a Mathematical Way. Fard rejected white levels and assessment tests take place at key stages, culture and Christianity, maintaining that American which are at the ages of 7, 11, 14 and 16. blacks should turn to Africa and Asia for comradeship and religion. Its British wing was See also: school examinations; schools system established in 1995 and may have as many as 2,500 members. The Nation’s leader in Britain is Michael PETER CHILDS Muhammad, while Leo X Chester and Wayne X run two of the organization’s mosques; they also have two black-only schools which teach the Koran National Front and African history, while a shop on Harlesden The National Front was founded in 1967 through High Street called ‘Respect for Life’ sells Nation of a merger of extreme right-wing groups. In the early Islam products. 1970s the party gained prominence with its overtly racist attitude to large-scale coloured immigration See also: Islam; Muslim Parliament from the New Commonwealth. In this period it

PETER CHILDS attracted new members from the right-wing Conservative Monday Club faction, and enjoyed its greatest electoral successes. The National Front National Curriculum made strident appeals to British nationalism and captured the Union Jack as its symbol. The party’s A standard programme of education in England popularity faded with the right-wing programme and Wales, the National Curriculum was of the Thatcher governments, as well as damaging introduced by the Education Reform Act of 1988. splits in the 1980s. National Front membership and While politicians, the general public and influence is now minimal, save in a few inner city commentators on education have welcomed the areas. introduction of a standard programme, many teachers have opposed the uniformity and the See also: Communist Party; fringe parties 356 National Lottery

Further reading (National Endowment for Science and the Arts) to Fielding, N. (1981) The National Front, London: foster arts and science creativity. However, many Routledge & Kegan Paul. people feel that these areas should be covered already by core government spending. The government has COLIN WILLIAMS also introduced a watchdog committee to monitor the spending of lottery money. This was largely prompted by high-profile mismanagement at the National Lottery Royal Opera House, the subject of the television Britain introduced a national lottery in November documentary series The House. Undoubtedly, lottery 1994, the last country in Europe to do so. The funds have made a huge impact on the organizations private company Camelot was given a seven-year that have received them, at both local and national licence to run the lottery. Tickets are sold through level, and have in many cases replaced years of newsagents and post offices. The lottery’s revenues underfunding or no funding at all. were originally estimated at £14–35m per week but have far exceeded that, reaching around £85m See also: betting shops per week (plus £17m from ‘Instants’ scratch cards), and nine out of ten adults are claimed to buy tickets Further reading occasionally. The highest win to date was £22.5m, but the odds of winning the jackpot are Fitzhurst, L. and Rhoades, L. (1997) The National astronomically poor, at 14 million to one. The Lottery Yearbook, London: Directory of Social bookmakers Ladbrokes have likened the odds to Change. those of Elvis landing a UFO on the Loch Ness MIKE STORRY Monster. However, the smaller prizes are more winnable. Of the money subscribed, 50 percent goes in prize money, 12 percent in tax, 5 percent to the retailer, 5 percent to Camelot and 28 percent to National Museum of ‘good causes’. ‘Good causes’ has come to mean the Photography, Film and arts, charities, heritage and sport. Television The draw takes place twice weekly, on Based in Bradford, the National Museum of Wednesday and Saturday. The lottery is arguably Photography, Film and Television (NMPFT) popular because it offers the possibility of social opened in 1983 to explore the history, aesthetics, change. However, its inception has highlighted art and science of the visual medium in potential for social upheaval and division. photography, film and television. Its rare archives, Predictably, some people have not been able to cope renowned collections, interactive displays and with huge winnings, and many legal cases have special exhibitions examine still and moving images centred on breaches of trust among workmates, and their relationship to developing technologies. within families and between friends. For instance, while the cinematography collection Complaints against the lottery have come from charts the historical processes of film production Church leaders, charities whose revenues have fallen with early optical apparatus such as the praxin- and the football pools, among others. It is argued scope and the magic lantern, the museum’s own that people are spending money they cannot afford, Pictureville cinema and IMAX cinema screen (at that revenues are being diverted from the poor to 52'×64', the largest in Britain) illustrate their the rich, and that money is being given to evolution in the modern era. In 1998, the Imaging undeserving causes. Partly to assuage these concerns, Frontiers programme prepared an expanded the government has made some changes, including NMPFT for the digital and multimedia introducing a sixth ‘good cause’ called the New communications age. Opportunities Fund, which concentrates on health and education projects, and creating NESTA SATINDER CHOHAN nationalist parties 357

National Viewers and culture, and seeks self-government for Wales Listeners Association within the European Union. Independence for Wales is seen as more difficult to achieve than Formed by Mary Whitehouse in 1964 as the ‘Clean- Scottish independence, as Wales has fewer natural up TV Campaign’ to combat increasing television resources and no administrative apparatus liberalization, the National Viewers and Listeners separate from England. Nevertheless, Plaid Association (NVLA) is the foremost watchdog on Cymru is angered by Labour’s 1997 manifesto ‘standards’ in British television. It opposes sex, proposals for a devolved Scottish Parliament with violence and irreligiousity on television, theatre, legislative powers when a Welsh assembly would video and film, and conducted prosecutions against not have a similar capacity. Monty Python’s Life of Brian and Scorsese’s Last Both nationalist parties have a left-of-centre Temptation of Christ. The NVLA firmly believe that political orientation. Plaid Cymru has an explicit the media cause crime and violence, and has formed commitment to ‘decentralized socialism’, and both links with Christian MPs who lobby for changes parties advocate increasing income tax for higher to laws on video and television output. Often earners, an economic priority of full employment, accused of Puritanism, the NVLA claims to increased welfare spending, unilateral nuclear represent the decency of ordinary people, disarmament and constitutional and electoral counteracting the trendy left-wing intelli-gentsia and change along the lines proposed by Charter 88. In their liberalizing 1960s ideas. Parliament, the SNP and Plaid Cymru have an alliance and undertook joint initiatives in the 1997 See also: censorship general election campaign. Nationalist popularity declined following the failure of the 1979 referenda for devolution to Further reading Scotland and Wales under Callaghan’s minority Matthews, T.D. (1994) Censored, London: Chatto Labour administration. Only 20 percent of Welsh & Windus. voters supported devolution, and although 52 percent of Scottish voters wanted the measure, 42 REX NASH percent of the Scottish population had to vote for devolution to change Scotland’s constitutional nationalist parties status and only 33 percent did so. The 1990s witnessed a resurgence in nationalist support. Both The Scottish National Party (SNP) was founded parties increased their share of the vote in the 1992 in 1934 by supporters of self-government for general election and became the second parties of Scotland. Support grew from the late 1960s, thanks local government behind Labour in their respective to public dissatisfaction with the two-party system countries during Major’s second term. At the 1997 and the failings of the postwar consensus. The SNP general election the SNP won six seats, and Plaid benefited from the protest vote, and popularity was Cymru four. boosted with the discovery of North Sea oil in 1970. This increased the economic viability of an See also: Scottish language; S4C; Welsh language independent Scottish state, with the SNP claiming, ‘It’s Scotland’s Oil’. Support peaked in the October 1974 general election when the party won eleven Further reading seats and 800,000 votes. Davies, C.A. (1989) Welsh Nationalism and the Modern Plaid Cymru, literally ‘the Party of Wales’, was State, New York: Praeger. formed in 1925 and, like the SNP, experienced Marr, A. (1992) The Battle for Scotland, its greatest electoral popularity in October 1974 Harmondsworth: Penguin. when it gained three seats and 170,000 votes. It stresses the importance of the Welsh language and COLIN WILLIAMS 358 nationalized and privatized industries nationalized and privatized Complex regulatory machinery was set up to prevent industries abuse of monopolies, promote competition and ensure standards of service. Complaints were voiced After its 1945 victory, Clement Attlee’s Labour about corrupt ‘fat cats’, directors and managers in government immediately began bringing transport the new companies who paid themselves excessive (most notably the railways) and key industries such salaries (see corruption in the City). Though as coal mining, gas and electricity into public controversial, the privatization programme was ownership. Developing the ancient state monopoly carried through. The Labour Party accepted its of the Post Office (extended to telecommunications irreversibility when, before the 1997 election, it was in 1912) and the municipal ownership of many persuaded by its leadership to abandon ‘Clause 4’, utilities, the programme was carried through all its traditional pledge to strive for nationalization. the more readily because state control had applied Since 1979 many other countries have followed the throughout the Second World War and because UK and embarked on privatization programmes. private finance was unavailable for postwar reconstruction. Labour thinking was based on See also: CBI; Conservative governments socialist convictions. Consumers and workers alike would, it was argued, benefit from the replacement Further reading of capitalist exploitation by public ownership dedicated to ensuring that the means of production Neuberger, J. (ed.) (1987) Privatisation: Fair Shares for and transport operated for the good of all within a All or Selling the Family Silver? London: Macmillan planned economy. The various nationalized (three essays presenting opposing views). industries’ day-to-day operations were entrusted to CHRISTOPHER SMITH quasi-independent boards. These, however, were required to work within financial guidelines laid down by government. nature Apart from the steel industry, whose status changed with successive governments, The distinction between nature and convention nationalization went forward steadily until goes back to Anaximander, is well noted by reversed by Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative Aristotle, and is the source of much social and government after 1979. Arguments for political theory. It was not, however, until the privatization, as denationalization was soon romanticization of nature in the early modern called, were that lack of competition bred period that nature came to be seen as an object of inefficiency in nationalized industries, especially distinction and beauty that could be both inter- those hampered because the state had difficulties acted with and appreciated. Rousseau, Byron and funding them and yet persisted, despite its scant Wordsworth exemplified this latter view. business experience, in interfering with Changes in attitude in contemporary times, while management; this in turn impeded responses to built on an earlier romanticism, coincided with the market forces. Ideals of employees’ identification first photographs of the Earth from space in the with whichever nationalized industry they worked 1960s. These pictures conveyed the im-measurable for had not been borne out by experience and beauty of the globe, and its finitude. For the first were contrasted with the benefits of wider share time, the boundaries of the planet were clearly ownership. The proceeds of selling nationalized visible. Consequently, it was recognized that the industries and cutting subsidies and other Earth is a fragile totality composed of a precarious payments would also reduce public spending, balance of interdependent ecosystems, and that resulting in tax cuts. human survival depended upon preserving this When shares in privatized industries were offered balance. Contemporary public and media interest to the public, sales were brisk, even hectic, leading in nature and conservation emerged from this to accusations that prices were pitched too low. background of romanticization, spatial/global images neo-classicism 359 and the increasing knowledge of the variety of attempt on the part of twentieth-century architects species. That background produced knowledge of, to resist the modern movement in its determination and images of, particularity on the one hand and to develop a definitive style. Postwar architects the globe as a universality on the other. including Philip Johnson, Charles Moore, Robert These poles have been dealt with in and through Venturi and Frank Gehry began to consider unprecedented media interest, ranging from the architecture in historical terms. They were followed highly scientific journals such as Nature and National by architectural critics, notably Colin Rowe, Geographic to more amateur expressions such as Bird Michael Graves (architect and writer) and Allan Watching and Country Walking. British television Greenberg, who maintained that certain elements broadcasts on nature are internationally renowned; of modern architecture owe a debt to historical the most popular series have been Survival and Life antecedents. During the 1960s the reductivist on Earth. In the mid-1990s, increasing public interest consistency of 1950s modernism was challenged, in the natural world led to the introduction of the and by the late 1970s, postmodernism had satellite channel Discovery; a large part of this emerged. Resonances of classicism can be felt in documentary channel is devoted to topics concerning many postwar architectural productions, nature. As well as passive reception, active reception particularly in the work of American architects of media on Nature is now available via the Internet. during the late 1970s and 1980s. Luxembourg-born This interactive medium offers a variety of possible Leon Krier has been more explicit in his adoption interfaces. Earth Kids, for example, teaches children of early nineteenth-century neo-classicism, as in his about ecological concerns. design for the Royal Mint Square Project, London Ecological groups have merged with political (1974). British architects Terry Farrell, James concerns, as in the case of Friends of the Earth Stirling, John Outram and Robert Adam both and Greenpeace. Such groups have attempted respond to and undermine classicism. to draw attention to the value of the natural habitat Described by Robert A.M.Stern as a ‘canonical and have used the media to great effect in their classicist’, Raymond Erith (1904–73) quietly objections to government-backed activity, from the followed the classical ideal during the period of building of nuclear power plants to airport postwar new brutalism. Wivenhoe New Park, runways. Two thousand years ago, Horace wrote Essex (1963) remains one of his most characteristic that, ‘You may drive out nature with a pitchfork, buildings. Erith’s protégé and architectural partner yet shall be constantly running back’, the Quinlan Terry emerged in the early 1970s to lead implication being that, if the planet is to escape Britain’s classical revival, commanding a range of ecological disaster, public recognition of its variations of classicism. Beginning with a series of fragility is clearly necessary. small country houses, it was Frog Meadow, Dedham, Essex (1979) and a country house, Waverton, near See also: Gaia hypothesis; green consumerism Moreton-in-Marsh, Glouctershire (1977–9) that established his reputation. Dufours Place, London (1981–3), containing offices and residential Further reading apartments, shows an interest in the picturesque Attenborough, D. (1980) Life on Earth, London: manipulation of classicism further exploited at the Book Club Associates. larger Richmond Riverside Development (1983–8) where a range of classical forms from the sixteenth PAUL BARRY CLARKE to the early nineteenth century were rehearsed. EMMA R.NORMAN Terry’s most explicitly neo-classical commission was for Downing College, Cambridge, where he neo-classicism designed the Howard Building (1983–7), located within a context of nineteenth and twentieth-century Neo-classicism, a term generally associated with buildings including the chaste West Lodge by nineteenth-century architecture, has marked an William Wilkins (1807–21), additional work by 360 neo-Darwinism

Edward Barry (1830–80) and the North Range into segments of coding and non-coding DNA (1930) by Sir Herbert Baker (1862–1945). Arrol and which might lead to rather large changes in the Snell and Siddel Gibson have produced neo-classical structure of gene products from a single mutation works in the provinces. at a segment boundary; and (4) that simple mutations in genes which play key orchestrating roles in embryogenic development can lead to Further reading rather large changes in the overall structure of the Stern, R.A.M. (1988) Modern Classicism, New York: adult organism. Rizzoli. While these various mechanisms for altering gene structure provide the engine for evolution, HILARY GRAINGER the process of diversification requires also the range of environmental conditions which exist in different neo-Darwinism geographical locations and at different times (for example, the ice ages). These are the environments Charles Darwin knew nothing of the mechanism of which will favour or penalize organisms with heredity when he proposed his theory of evolution, particular characteristics and perhaps initiate even though this was some forty years after Mendel divergent lineages of organisms which are more had initiated the study of genetics through his work successful than average in those environments. on pea heredity. Neo-Darwinism is the assimilation of genetics into Darwinian evolutionary theory; the See also: Dawkins, Richard term is given to the paradigm which emerged from the synthesis of the key tenets of Darwin’s theory of Further reading evolution by natural selection and of Mendel’s discovery of the units of heredity, subsequently Ho, M. (1984) Beyond Neo Darwinism, London: understood as genes. Neo-Darwinian theory was Academic Press. initially proposed by J.B.S.Haldane and R.A. Fisher, PETE SHETERLINE among others, and states that evolution of diversity proceeds by the progressive selection of organisms which are different by virtue of mutations which new age music occur randomly in their genes. While key elements of basic neo-Darwinian The new age movement is largely rooted in the theory remain within current views of evolution, 1980s, but its actual origins can be found in the mid- subsequent evidence has suggested that many 1970s in America. New age music grew out of the different processes and events have played and will remains of the art-rock movement, primarily a British continue to play an important part in the evolution scene, with artists such as Brian Eno and Peter of the diversity of organisms in the biosphere. Many Gabriel. In 1976, a label called Windham Hill was more may yet remain to be discovered. Many formed by Will Ackerman, a guitarist, who wanted processes contribute to the rate of evolution of to distribute his album In Search of the Turtle’s Navel. diversity in addition to simple mutations, including: He sold his records through bookshops, health stores (1) the symbiotic theory of evolution which and by word of mouth. By 1984, sales had reached proposes that the consolidation over time of S20m. The term ‘new age music’ was first widely collaborations (symbioses) between different types applied to Ackerman’s label and its products, but of simpler cells (bacteria) gave rise (and may yet Ackerman stated that this term bore no relation to give rise) to more complex cells (the eukaryotic cells his label or his music. At about the same time in of plants and animals); (2) the knowledge that New York City, a company called Vital Body extracellular agents like viruses can transport Marketing were themselves producing a ‘New Age genetic material (genes) between cells; (3) the Music Catalogue’, which contained a list of hundreds relatively recent discovery that genes are divided of LPs of ‘listenable music that touches the spirit’. new brutalism 361

New age music is a blend of acoustic with soft Stripped neo-Georgian or the so-called rock, a hint of white jazz, updated by using the latest contemporary style, based on Scandinavian studio technology. It is often defined as mood music, modifications of modernism, were the forms and in this respect can be regarded as a reaction favoured for the comprehensive social building against the loudness and aggression of the pop and programmes initiated by the welfare state, intended rock genres. New age music is technically slick. It as a setting for postwar ‘New Britain’. These suave soothes the listener with its cascading string sections and undemanding, humanized versions of the reminiscent of earlier times, and introduces the modern movement, supported by the architects of modern elements of minimalism and improvisation. the London County Council and promulgated by Its concerned lyrics, if lyrics exist at all in the individuals including J.M.Richards and Nikolas compositions, tend towards the ecological and Pevsner in the editorial pages of the Architectural environmental. The music is characterized by its Review, became known as ‘the new humanism’ or technically accom-plished lush orchestral scores, ‘the new empiricism’. These forms were often depicted as thoughtful, listenable beautiful unacceptable to a growing number, who proposed chamber music. It keys in to the new age philosophy ‘new brutalism’ as an alternative architectural of getting back to nature and transcending everyday morality. This was a structural, spatial, troubles. It is also known for its pretentious organizational and material concept, attuned to the presentations, such that its defining feature is not given and necessary conditions of buildings. Alison how it sounds but how it looks. The elaborate style and Peter Smithson, supported by the critic Reyner of its record covers established new age music’s Banham and other members of the ‘20th Century identity as an essentially visual musical genre. New Group’ in London, were united in their desire to age composers such as Deuter, Kitaro, Harold Budd convey the realities of modern urban life by means and Hans-Joachim Roedelius were all inspired by of a new art. They sought to introduce a vein of Eastern music, and combined this with the floatiness social realism referencing the socio-anthropological of classical Indian music. There has evolved a whole roots of popular culture and informed by an interest scene in the UK with artists such as Banco De Gaia, in Continental existentialism. The Smithsons ideas Zion Train and Transglobal Underground, with for ‘urban reidentification’ brought them into Planet Dog being the main promoter and label. contact with the sculptor Eduardo Paolozzi, the photographer Nigel Henderson and Dubuffet’s See also: classical music, contemporary anti-‘polite’ art cult of art brut. These ideas found crystallization in the London exhibitions ‘Parallel of Life and Art’ at the Institute of Contemporary Further reading Arts, 1953 and ‘This is Tomorrow’, 1956 at the Bergman, B. and Horn, R. (1985) Experimental Pop: Whitechapel Art Gallery. Frontiers of the Rock Era, Dorset: Blandford Press. Early examples of a conscious brutalist sensibility showed an admiration for the uncompromising ALICE BENNETT intellectual qualities and roots in tradition of Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier. Palladian clarity new brutalism and restraint, the heroic scale of architecture by Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor and the ‘New brutalism’ was a term coined in Britain in 1954 uncompromising forms of nineteenth-century to characterize an architecture which provided a engineering structures were all embraced. The conscious embodiment of a mood widespread among Smithson’s Hunstanton School, Norfolk (1949–54), younger architects of the 1950s. Frustrated by the lack invokes the elegant steel-frame vocabulary of Mies’s of opportunities for building in postwar Britain and Illinois Institute of Technology, and reflects his by an increasing dissatisfaction with the aesthetic honest use of materials and structure. However, their compromises entered into by establishment architects, sprawling plans for the Golden Lane Housing they were prompted to offer a new response. Project, London (1952) show a move away from this 362 New Labour

Miesian expression, towards an aesthetic of change. Aalto’s Baker House, at once acknowledges and By the mid-1950s, the rather puritanical and hermetic denies the modern movement. British brutalism was extended to embrace an international movement which espoused a brutalism See also: ICA; modernism of form. Le Corbusier’s béton brut, exhibited at the Unité d’Habitation, Marseilles (1947–52), Further reading Chandigargh, India (1951–64) and the Maison Jaoul (1955), influenced the formulation of the aesthetic Banham, R. (1966) The New Brutalism: Ethic or aimed at expressing complete honesty in form Aesthetic, New York. described by Reyner Banham as ‘a unique and HILARY GRAINGER memorable image’. A developing concern for honesty in expressing functional spaces and their interrelationships is reflected in the Smithson’s New Labour scheme for the Economist offices, St James’s, London (1959–64), which solve the problem of adapting a In the context of opposition to the Conservative modern building type to the requirements of a governments of Margaret Thatcher and John particular place. At Park Hill, Sheffield (1961) by Major between 1979 and 1997, and particularly after Jack Lynn and Ivor Smith, rationalism has been their 1987 election defeat, the Labour Party began abandoned in favour of a brutalist composition based to articulate an ideology and rhetoric of ‘new on the topography of the site and the planning of realism’. A modernising ideology, new realism communications within the housing complex. The recognized that Thatcherism had changed the arrangement of Robin Hood Gardens, London agenda of British politics and, as a consequence, (1966–72), with street decks intended to express and proposed that the Labour party rethink its project embody the ideal community, was a further and objectives. This perspective informed the Policy demonstration of the Smithson’s housing theories. Review process of the late 1980s and, by the early A series of late brutalist ‘monuments’ by James 1990s, the party was retreating from such policies Stirling and James Gowan show the final as unilateral nuclear disarmament and the integration of the formal and populist aspects of denationalization of primary industries. The the British brutalist aesthetic with a glass and brick political ascendancy of the modernising tendency ‘vernacular’ drawn from nineteenth-century was confirmed in 1994 when, following the death industrial structures. In these university buildings, of John Smith, Tony Blair assumed party formal and functional concerns are combined with leadership. Blair promoted the centrist social cita-tions of the canonical forms of the modern democratic programme of ‘social-ism’ under the movement. The dormitory project for Selwyn slogan New Labour and led the party to its largest College, Cambridge (1959) and the Engineering Parliamentary majority ever at the General Election Building for Leicester University (1959) formed the of 1st May 1997 with 418 Labour MPs elected. basis of their personal style, based on a syntax of New Labour ‘social-ism’ rejects the socialist glass and brick, invoking a heroic engineering currents which helped shape the party’s postwar romanticism. Stirling’s History Faculty Building, political agenda, and advances a pragmatic Cambridge University (1964), continues this trend, programme of political modernization, constitutional with the teaching and library spaces being reform, ‘stakeholding’ democracy, social inclusion integrated by means of a radial plan in which the and community development. Symboli-cally diagonal becomes a major organizing axis. The important was the 1995 revision of Clause Four of vocabulary of Leicester is fully exploited and the Party’s constitution, when the language of social extended in the almost overwhelming prominence opportunity ‘for the many and not the few’ was of glass. The Florey Building, a student residence substituted for the socialist principle of ‘the common at Queen’s College, Oxford (1966–71), with its ownership of the means of production’. In practice, reminders of Le Corbusier’s Pavilion Suisse and New Labour’s ‘Iron Chancellor’ Gordon Brown has new towns 363 insisted on fiscal discipline and reoriented the party’s See also: ‘lads’ and ‘lager louts’ macroeconomic policy from Keynesian economic NICOLE MATTHEWS management to the neo-liberal strategy of renewal spending on infrastructure, training, education and job creation. New Labour has also articulated a new romantics proactive vision of Britain’s role in Europe, but, compromising with the late 1990s mood of Euro- An elite youth subculture and a genre of music scepticism, opted out of the launch of the euro in confined to the early 1980s. Conceived almost the year 2000. simultaneously in both London and Birmingham, The most significant achievements of the early the scene produced bands such as Duran Duran, New Labour government were in constitutional Spandau Ballet and Visage. Concerned as much reform. Referendums in September 1997 established with image as musical prowess, new romantic bands the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly, and dominated both the charts and the nation’s significant progress was made in Northern Ireland bedroom walls from 1981 to 1984, although only with the signing of the multi-party peace declaration Duran Duran garnered critical praise. Taking their in April 1998. However, critics have charged that musical direction from glam rock and European New Labour’s strict party discipline and soundbite synth-pop, the new romantics saw themselves as approach to politics has been bought at the cost of serious, glamorous artists. The music press, the suppression of left-wing dissent. however, did not agree, and there were long debates over ‘content versus style’ in the pages of NME See also: Militant and Melody Maker. A new romantic revival (called ‘Romo’) threatened to break out in 1996, but the groups spearheading the movement largely sank Further reading without trace. Shaw, E. (1996) The Labour Party Since 1945, London: Blackwell (an illuminating modern See also: new wave history of the party). SAM JOHNSTONE MARK DOUGLAS new towns new man The modern British ‘new town’ emerged in the The ‘new man’ is seen by some as challenging formative years of reconstruction after the Second traditional masculinity by embracing, variously, World War. The national mood favoured a centralist emotional openness, an interest in physical groom- policy to influence the creation of new towns intended ing and traditionally female tasks like child-rearing, to relieve the overcrowding of the great metropolitan as well as rejecting machismo. New age spirituality is centres such as London and Glasgow. Design less commonly linked to the British ‘new man’ than principles, considering the location of industry and to the US men’s movement. Others see ‘the new man’ housing with convenient transportation while at the as a response by left-wing men to feminism and the same time preserving the countryside, ensured gay liberation movement in the 1970s and 1980s. planned neighbourhoods with social and other However, there is little evidence of large numbers of facilities in spacious and amenable surroundings. The men taking on greater childcare and domestic tasks. social composition of the new communities was also Others see ‘the new man’ as a media creation for the a matter for attention with regard to popular concepts marketing of cosmetic and body improvement of egalitarianism. Directly descended from the products, and do not link a male concern with proposals put forward by Ebenezer Howard at the personal appearance with any other, pro-feminist end of the nineteenth century, the new town policy changes in dominant forms of masculinity. evolved gradually from the first garden cities at 364 new towns

Letchworth (1903) and Welwyn (1920), and through from the Belfast Regional Survey and Plan (1962) the propagandist activities of individuals, notably and included Craigavon (1965), Antrim (1966), F.J.Osborn, and organizations such as the Town and Ballymena (1967) and Londonderry (1969). Mark Country Planning Association. Final endorsement II plans, for higher populations, are more was secured through Sir Patrick Abercrombie’s plans centralized and have to consider the effects of the for London in 1943 and 1944, which were to form growing rise of the motor car, either by providing the basis for urban and regional planning for twenty appropriate roads or by the creation of effective years. public transport facilities. Mark III new towns, The New Towns Act (1946) set out government including Central Lancashire (1970) and Milton procedure for a national policy of town design, Keynes (1967), were intended for larger populations specifying the choice of agency for building a town, of 500,000 and 250,000 respectively. They involve the legislation required and the principles on which the incorporation of several existing large the town should be designed and the plan communities and evidence a much greater implemented. Initially, a total of twenty-six new incidence of private development. towns were envisaged: thirteen for London, seven Advocates, including Frank Schaffer, a former for the rest of England and six for Scotland, with official from the Ministry of Town and Country populations of between 30,000 and 50,000 people, Planning, were resolutely optimistic in their belief on sites varying in size from 5,500 to 11,000 acres. in the new towns as a social panacea, but ‘new town Between 1946 and 1949 eight new towns were blues’ were reported in the 1950s. Culling-worth’s designated, intended to absorb excess population official history (1979) argues that despite their from the Greater London area. Critics of the new becoming social and planning models for other towns drew attention to their totalitarian form, and local authorities to emulate, the new towns did not the consultation process surrounding the designation fulfil expectations in a number of ways. In 1972 of the first, Stevenage (1946), was both acrimonious they formed a very small percentage of postwar and disputatious. The other towns forming the housing. As Gordon Cherry contends, industry ‘London ring’ were Crawley (1947), Hemel does not relocate as readily as people, and the Hempstead (1947), Harlow (1947), Welwyn Garden building of dormitory areas in the vicinity of City (1948), Hatfield (1948), Basildon (1949) and existing manufacturing centres tended significantly Bracknell (1949). Others were designed to serve the to outweigh the building in new towns, so reducing special needs (social and industrial) of their areas, the intended effect on overcrowded cities. including Newton Aycliffe (1947), Peterlee (1948) Furthermore, new towns are not necessarily and Corby (1950). In Scotland and Wales, East meeting, directly, the social need for which they Kilbride, Glenrothes and Cwmbran, were intended because only a proportion of the Monmouthshire, were designated in 1947, 1948 and residents are drawn from the overcrowded 1949 respectively. These Mark I new towns are conurbations they were meant to relieve. characterized by fairly low densities, and as a central concept adopted subdivision of the towns into almost See also: town planning self-contained neighbourhood units planned around school and community facilities, involving strict land Further reading zoning. Based on an American concept from the Cherry, G.E. (1996) Town Planning in Britain since 1920s, this planning device has fallen into disrepute 1900, The Rise and Fall of the Planning Ideal, in recent years. Oxford: Blackwell. Cumbernauld (1956), Skelmersdale (1961), Cullingworth, J.B. (1979) Environmental Planning, vol. Runcorn (1964), Dawley (1964, renamed Telford III, New Towns Policy, London: HMSO. in 1968), Redditch (1964), Washington (1968), Schaffer, F. (1970) The New Town Story, London: Livingstone (1962) and West Lothian, (1962) were MacGibbon & Kee. all Mark II new towns designed to meet overspill needs. Proposals for Northern Ireland stemmed HILARY GRAINGER news, television 365 new wave including The Clash, Wire, Blondie, The Stranglers and so on. This movement was eclipsed by Britpop. Taking its name from a movement in French literature and film of the 1950s (nouvelle vague), new wave was a term used to describe a pop music style See also: alternative music; indie pop which evolved in the late 1970s, parallel to punk rock. New wave was for some people a sanitized, more commercially defined form of punk, although Further reading it was at one point used as a general term for the Savage, J. (1991) England’s Dreaming: Anarchy, Sex stripped down back-to-basics style which included Pistols, Punk Rock and Beyond, London: Faber & punk. For instance, Phonogram released an LP in Faber. 1977 entitled New Wave which featured mostly American acts such as The Ramones (pioneers of DAVE JACKSON the American punk sound), Richard Hell and the Voidoids (whose singer first sported the ripped t- shirt and spiky hair style which defined the look Newell, Mike adopted by British punks) and Talking Heads b. 1942 alongside British and Irish acts The Damned and Film-maker The Boomtown Rats (both of whom were seen as punks). Mike Newell is a film director whose first major Very quickly, however, the term underwent a film, The Awakening (1980), was a horror story transition from a loose description of the latest thing loosely based on Bram Stoker’s The Jewel of the Seven (which in many ways defined itself more by what it Stars. His Dance with a Stranger (1985), based on the was not—that is, old, progressive or heavy metal true story of Ruth Ellis, the last woman to be rock, adult-orientated pop, or disco) to a hanged in Britain, helped form his reputation. The commercially defined genre which was a less Good Father (1987) starred Anthony Hopkins as a outrageous, more musically competent version of man coming to terms with a post-feminist punk. In America, acts such as Blondie, Tom Petty landscape, while Soursweet (1989) concerned a and the Heartbreakers, Mink Deville and Talking Chinese family adapting to cultural and economic Heads were defined as new wave. In Britain, XTC, life in London. Following Enchanted April (1991), a Elvis Costello, The Records, Squeeze and The comedy of manners originally made for BBC, was Motors were joined by ex-punks The Boomtown the Irish-set ‘western’ Into the West (1992). His most Rats in an assault on the nation’s pop sensibilities successful film to date is Four Weddings and a Funeral under the banner of new wave. In both countries, (1994), which starred Hugh Grant. new wave began to infiltrate the mainstream of GUY OSBORN popular culture and displace some of the older acts, where punk for all its initial impact had failed. Eventually the term fell into disuse because it became too general, taking in any new acts in the early 1980s news, television except heavy metal. Ironically, the early 1980s saw In the UK, news scheduling defines each television bands such as Def Leppard and Iron Maiden station. The BBC have claimed the Nine O’Clock promoted as a new wave of British heavy metal, News slot, leaving ITV to broadcast News at Ten. claiming to replace ageing rock superstars with a Similarly, the BBC’s decision to broadcast half an lean and hungry, younger variety. In the post-grunge hour of early evening national news at 6 pm 1990s there was a music paper-based campaign to (followed by local news), has led Channel 4 to promote a ‘new wave of new wave’ with British schedule an hour of more in-depth news at 7 pm. bands such as Elastica, Smash and others wearing BBC2 has continued to offer news discussion later punk and new wave influences on their sleeves, in the evening and Newsnight has become one of its 366 News International flagship programmes. Television stations are also been the biggest selling UK daily since the mid- defined by their newsreaders, who are considered 1980s, and is the model followed by other tabloids. national icons of British identity and authority: the The Times was equally in decline in the mid-1980s, BBC’s introduction of the first woman newsreader, but News International managers recognized the Angela Rippon, in the 1970s was therefore in several editorial and policy errors that created that problem, senses a milestone. So too was the rise of Trevor and the paper steadily clawed back both its MacDonald, a black newsreader who has become circulation and reputation. Undoubtedly much of a figurehead for the preservation of ‘correct’ this is due to the backing these papers get; both English, in the 1980s. Since the early 1980s, BBC can survive price wars better than any other paper and ITV have broadcast early morning news because they can call on News International’s huge magazine programmes to rival Radio 4’s Today resources to back them up, unlike their competitors. programme and the daily papers, which people Another significant decision was the have less time to read than in the days of family controversial move in 1986 from Fleet Street to breakfasts. In the 1990s, the genre has been Wapping in London’s East End. This led to a successfully spoofed in the award-winning violent and bitter dispute between management and Channel 4 series Drop the Dead Donkey. workers, but in the end Murdoch won, and now nearly every national paper operates out of the East See also: breakfast television; current affairs End or Docklands, using the revolutionary computer technology that News International PETER CHILDS installed during the move to Wapping. News International will continue to generate News International controversy while it maintains its dominant market position, and rightly so. It will certainly be Part of Australian tycoon Rupert Murdoch’s global interesting to see whether a new government News Corporation, News International is the introduces stricter laws on cross-ownership, but for biggest and most influential media conglomerate many, News International represents a story of true in the UK, and inspires strong opinions and entrepreneurial ability, risk-taking and innovation. controversy. Currently, its most significant British The company currently has a wide range of components are the Sun, The Times, and the Sky significant plans for future development. satellite channel (see BSkyB). This gives News International a formidable position in the British See also: Guardian Group; Express Group; media industry, a situation that has prompted calls Mirror Group; Telegraph plc for restrictions on cross-media ownership, notably from the Labour Party. Further reading While News International titles staunchly backed the Conservative governments over the Seymour-Ure, C. (1996) The British Press and last twenty years (with accusations that Murdoch Broadcasting Since 1945, 2nd edn, London: has interfered in editorial decisions), both The Times Blackwell. and the Sun offered grudging acceptances of Labour REX NASH Party leader Tony Blair. He responded in kind, and Labour’s position on cross-ownership was diluted in 1995. This effectively removed the biggest threat newsstands and newsagents to News International in Britain. But while critics can point to News Internatio- Newspapers are still sold from newsstands by street nal’s over-dominant market position, there is also vendors in cities, but the newspaper business in no doubting the financial and media acumen of Britain is dominated by W.H.Smith, who control those running it. The Sun was ailing badly when distribution and have their own retail shops. There News International acquired it in 1971, but it has are a few other national chains including John NHS 367

Menzies, Martin and Forbuoys. Magazines and 1957 the present theatre under Waterloo Bridge comics are their other staple sources of income and was opened, to be followed by a second house in sales of National Lottery tickets (from which they 1970. In the late 1980s this was complemented by take 5 percent commission). The growth of the arrival of the Museum of the Modern Image specialist comics shops such as The Forbidden (MOMI) and the opportunity of observing the Planet means that fewer comics are bought at workings of the cinema to the public. traditional mainstream newsstands and newsagents. Recently supermarkets have started selling Further reading newspapers and magazines, and this would seem to accelerate the trend away from newsstands and Forty Years 1952–1992 (NFT Pamphlet). specialist newsagents. GUY OSBORN STEVE GREENFIELD See also: football pools

MIKE STORRY NHS NFT The NHS (National Health Service) was among the greatest reforms made by Clement Attlee’s Labour After its founding in 1933, the British Film Institute government following the Second World War. The (BFI) began to screen programmes throughout the Beveridge Report (Sir William Bever-idge’s 1942 UK for the purposes of education and study. Report on Social Insurance and Allied Services) However, these events were of necessity limited and recommended the introduction of universal unthematic, and it became important that if the comprehensive lifelong cover, replacing the various BFI were to be of importance to the wider public, provisions for public health dating from Victorian then a dedicated forum was needed. The National times and for personal health insurance and social Film Theatre provided this focus and fulcrum when security introduced by the Liberal government early it arrived on 23 October 1952; BFI membership in the twentieth century, as well as many voluntary immediately rose from some 2,000 to nearly 15,000 and self-help schemes. Labour prioritized these by the end of the year. The NFT was originally health policy proposals. Under health minister housed in the Telekinema, a temporary building Aneurin Bevan, the National Health Services Act of on London’s South Bank that sat 400 people, built 1946 took effect in 1948. All UK residents became as part of the Festival of Britain in 1951. The BFI entitled to medical, dental, optical and related suggested that the Telekinema be spared demolition services, and also to medicines, dentures, spectacles and given over for use as a National Film Theatre. and so on, as needed without charge or reference to First programmes at the NFT included Norman a contributions record (unlike various social security McLaren’s stereoscopic animation films and a benefits). Integrating general practitioners (GPs) into revival of Pygmalion, but a programming policy the new system caused difficulties, and although which sought to balance screen masterpieces, most came into the NHS from the start, they retain thematic and contemporary trends and highlighting some contractual independence. Administratively, the new and experimental was subject to criticism the NHS is divided into regions, under the Ministry as its objectives were not always fully realized. This of Health in England and elsewhere under the indeed has underpinned the NFT’s own quandary/ Secretaries of State for Scotland, Wales and Northern position—the tension between being a theatre for Ireland. The public, apparently not identifying with everyone, yet upholding the highest cinematic its health region despite indirect local representation, standards—a tension between high and low art, focuses on its GPs and the nearest hospitals, or on between art and commerce. The original the NHS centrally. A vast organization, the NHS Telekinema was unable to keep up with the employs one million workers of every category. technical advances that were being made, and in There are 32,000 GPs, 19,000 dentists and 300 368 Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners district hospitals. Funding, which Beveridge British Pavilion at the Expo ’92 in Seville, built out underestimated, has escalated. Charges for of glass with canvas sides and a water cascade down prescriptions were introduced in 1951 by Gaitskell, one elevation. His additions to Waterloo Station but 80 percent of patients are exempt, including the (1990–3) show a move away from surface young, pregnant women, the unemployed, the articulation towards a more profound interest in chronically sick and pensioners. Attempts to reduce enclosing space. costs—by allocating to GPs certain funds to manage, HILARY GRAINGER creating an ‘internal market’ to promote efficiency through competition between providers of medical services and making hospitals self-governing trusts— Nicholson, Ben were not marked successes. The Patient’s Charter (1992) brought scant benefits. Waiting lists for non- b. 1894, Denham, Buckinghamshire; d. emergency hospital treatment remain lengthy. 1982 Bevan, foresee-ing ever-increasing demands for Painter health services, if not the soaring costs of high-tech medicine, predicted that the NHS would always The son of the Victorian painter William Nicholson, need more cash, but pioneers like him failed to Ben Nicholson was one of the best-known British emphasize that although the NHS would provide painters of the twentieth century and a pioneer of treatment free at point of use, taxpayers would have abstract art. His early work concentrated on still lifes to pay up in the end. Costing £1,700 per household and landscapes, often in a cubist style. In the 1930s a year (17 percent of government expenditure or 5 he spent much time in Paris, where he met percent of GDP), the NHS claims huge resources, Mondrian, under whose influence Nicholson began but is not expensive by international standards, and to specialize in painted reliefs. This uncompromising its contribution to the nation’s health and the relief and ‘unBritish’ new work, such as the 1935 White of suffering is inestimable. Relief in the Tate, used only right angles and circles. Such arrangements put him in the vanguard of the See also: health policies and the NHS British abstract movement, and he was a member of the influential artists’ group Unit One as well as an editor, with Leslie Martin, of the constructivist Further reading manifesto Circle. He later moved on to serene painted Ranade, W. (1994) A Future for the NHS, London: abstracts with solid blocks of colour. His first wife, Longmans. Winifred Nicholson, was also a distinguished painter, and his second wife was the famous sculptor Barbara CHRISTOPHER SMITH Hepworth, with whom Nicholson lived at St Ives in the 1940s and began the local art movement Nicholas Grimshaw and centred there. Partners See also: Moore, Henry; painting; sculpture

A 1965 graduate of the Architectural Association PETER CHILDS and a contemporary of Richard Rogers and Norman Foster (see Foster Associates), Nicholas Grimshaw created his present firm in 1980. A practitioner of the high-tech style, his numerous Norman, Barry factory structures include those for Herman Miller b. 1933, London in Bath (1976), BMW at Bracknell (1980), Vitra at Film critic Weil am Rhein, Germany (1981) and for the Financial Times in London (1988). His involvements Barry Norman is a witty, popular and sometimes in high-profile projects include the energy saving populist British cinema critic, the son of film Northern Irish press 369 producer-director Leslie Norman. He is best known been several centralized initiatives to attempt to for the BBC movie review programme Film. Aside even out these differences in life chances. from a brief detour during his wild-erness years as presenter of Omnibus (1982), Norman has stuck to See also: class system what he seems to enjoy best: writing and talking PAUL BARRY CLARKE about movies, through television (for example, The Hollywood Greats (1978–9)) and books (Barry Norman’s 100 Greatest Movies (1995)). Broadcast since 1972, Northern Irish press Film’s mainstream selection of big hitters and Norman’s avuncular presentational style continue The daily newspaper market in Northern Ireland to draw steady audiences despite challenges from is dominated by the Belfast Telegraph (circulation brash and livelier review shows, and Norman was around 130,000), the Irish News (47,000), and the never usurped as he coasted home in his autumn Belfast Newsletter (32,000), although local versions years to retirement from the BBC in 1998 and a of British tabloids like the Mirror and the Sun have move to satellite. made some inroads into urban working-class readerships in recent years. Northern Ireland See also: film reviews manages to produce only two Sunday papers: the Sunday Life (104,000) and the Northern edition of DAVID McNEILL the Southern-based Sunday World (71,000). There are approximately twenty-four weekly regional North of England newspapers and a number of free weeklies, based mainly in the urban centres east of the river Bann. The North of England exists by virtue of a North- Also worthy of mention are political organs like South Divide. This is often regarded as a variable An Phoblacht, the newspaper of Sinn Féin and the construct, but the division does have deep historical Andersonstown News, both weeklies which sell in large roots. It was taken by the Romans to be along a numbers but do not appear on official industry line from the Humber on the east to the Mersey circulation lists. on the west, a division that still stands for most The usual readership profiles based on purposes. The area to the north was referred to as occupation, class and income are complicated in Britannia Inferior and that to the south as Britannia Northern Ireland by political and sectarian Superior. Lifestyle, life chances and culture vary allegiances, which colour editorial positions and remarkably between North and South. The coverage of everyday Northern Irish life. Thus, the economic base of the distinction is built primarily broadsheet Irish News has an almost exclusively on heavy versus light industry. The post-Fordist Catholic/Nationalist readership, and the tabloid decline of heavy industry has left high Belfast Newsletter an exclusively Protestant/Unionist unemployment levels in the North. Diet differences, audience. The broadsheet Belfast Telegraph, while a higher rate of smoking, and a lower degree of editorially a ‘Unionist newspaper’, has a general attention to preventive medicine have led traditionally more moderate perspective on to inferior life expectancy and markedly poorer life contentious issues like parades and demonstrations chances. That said, the North has produced a than the Newsletter, and sells in significant numbers distinctive popular culture, ranging from the Beatles to Catholics. Regional newspapers too, depending to Jimmy Connolly. A droll and dry humour, on ownership and local readership, often have combined with a more communitarian life style, sharply defined political positions. The Derry distinguishes the North. These factors, among Journal, for instance, the largest-selling regional others, differentiate North and South. In itself, newspaper (over 50,000 in two weekly editions) is difference and diversity in liberal societies is read by Derry’s majority Nationalist population, laudable, but when such difference affects life while the Londonderry Senti-nel, as the title might chances it is a source of some concern. There have suggest, caters mainly for local Protestants. 370 Northern Soul

See also: Scottish press; Welsh press novel DAVID McNEILL Postwar fiction of the 1950s and early 1960s was characterized by novels of class mobility, sexual adventure and realist aesthetics. Women were still Northern Soul under-represented in publishers’ prestigious fiction Nothern Soul is better described as a subculture lists, but influential texts appeared from writers as rather than a musical genre. Based around clubs culturally varied as Anthony Powell, Angus such as the Wigan Casino and the Torch in Stoke- Wilson, Kingsley Amis, George Lamming, Colin on-Trent, the first flowerings of the scene began in MacInnes, Alan Sillitoe, John Braine and David the late 1960s, when clubs in the north of England Storey. Their novels displayed a greater interest in would hold ‘all-nighters’ with the DJs playing culture and society, and concentrated on such issues obscure American rockabilly and R&B records. as class, education, the north/south divide, politics With the popularity of the Tamla Motown and Stax and race. To this extent, in contrast to the prewar record labels came a shift in the playlists to a purely modernist writers, they were less concerned with ‘soul’ sound, hence the name. Unknown in the pushing at the boundaries of art and the medium south of the country, Northern Soul clubs quickly of prose than with exploring the material relations gained cult status in the 1970s and 1980s, and gave of contemporary social experience. This emphasis rise to the enduring popularity of artists such as is consonant with a social and formal shift in the Jackie Wilson, James Brown and Wilson Pickett. concerns of the theatre (the kitchen sink dramas of John Osborne or Shelagh Delaney), poetry (Philip See also: DJs; soul Larkin and ‘the Movement’), and cinema (the ‘gritty northern realism’ films of English working- SAM JOHNSTONE class life, such as Billy Liar, Room at the Top and A Kind of Loving, all based on recent novels). The 1950s also saw a notable rash of fantasy novels, with the Notting Hill Carnival completion of Mervyn Peake’s Gormenghast trilogy, the start of C.S.Lewis’s Narnia chronicles, and the The Notting Hill Carnival is an annual street appearance of Tolkein’s epic The Lord of the Rings: carnival held on August Bank Holiday in Notting these novels, which were in many ways Christian Hill, a London district with a large black parables, and their popularity have been seen as a population. Since its inception in 1966, the event response to and retreat from the war, a subject has grown enormously from a local celebration of which has been said to have produced no great the Caribbean in London to become Britain’s British novel (unlike Catch-22 or The Naked and the largest carnival, attracting one and one-half million Dead in the USA). people. It attracts all kinds of people, but still retains In the 1960s, experimentalist writers such as a West Indian feel. Recent carnivals, especially in Lawrence Durrell were still preoccupied with form the 1980s, have been marred by racial attacks, and (the composition of The Alexandria Quartet is based have also attracted a heavy police presence which on the four dimensions of space/time) while realist has resulted in clashes between police and novelists such as Margaret Drabble wrote variously participants. Politicians vie with each other to claim about the ‘promiscuous generation’ or the national a media-friendly position alongside the crowds, and malaise. Other writers such as Anthony Burgess in 1997 the new Conservative Party leader, William and Iris Murdoch sit between these two trends: Hague, declared the carnival the most important Burgess because a novel such as A Clockwork Orange cultural event in Britain. experiments in a radical way with both language and social trends, and Murdoch because her novels, See also: Afro-Caribbean communities in their plots and characterizations, contain both a

PETER CHILDS concern with (at first existentialist) philosophy and novel 371 a strong narrative drive. Murdoch, the first widely The dominant themes of novels in the decade and consistently lauded postwar British woman reflected in alternative ways the postwar shift in writer, was at first placed by critics with the ‘angry social attitudes, sexual mores, religious young men’ of the 1950s, an indication of how a consciousness and youth movements, together with dominant trend can assimilate other voices. The the growing Americanization of British culture. 1960s also saw the first examples of postmodernist Politically, these novels sprang out of the British novels, by John Fowles (The French Lieutenant’s collapse of the liberal consensus in the 1960s. Also Woman), Christine Brooke-Rose (Such), B.S.Johnson from this perspective, Doris Lessing’s The Golden (Alberto Angelo), Eva Figes (Winter Journey), Andrew Notebook and Children of Violence quintet combined Sinclair (Gog) and Muriel Spark (The Driver’s Seat): an intense interest in socialist politics with an self-conscious fictions which experiment with investigation into the forces that shaped women’s previous genres, toy with literary theory, question emotional and social lives since the war, while traditional character representations of a stable others of her novels appraised her own and South personal identity, and complicate organizations of Africa’s post-colonial predicament. Also trying to narrative space and time, expressing the liberatory assess the failure of liberalism, Paul Scott dissected impulse of the decade in prose techniques. the end of Empire in the Raj Quartet, a sustained A different group of writers emerged in the attempt to deal with the colonial legacy that most 1970s, many of whom now constitute the writers, with the exception of Lessing, J.G.Farrell established names of the 1990s. These were and Anthony Burgess seemed to want to ignore. novelists who had not experienced the war, the Lessing also published allegorical fantasy and eclipse of the British Empire or the struggles for science fiction in the 1970s, from Briefing on a Descent teenage identity in the mid-1950s, but had grown into Hell to her Canopus in Argus: Archives series. Since up instead with high and popular culture, with the then, other more popular science fiction writers literary tradition and television, rock music, the (such as Brian Aldiss, Michael Moorcock, and welfare state and the Cold War. Martin Amis’s early J.G.Ballard) and fantasy writers (such as Iain Banks, novels, such as Dead Babies, marked a new ethos Douglas Adams, Clive Barker and Terry Pratchett) for a younger generation: drugs, parties, money, have pushed their genres into different realms of hedonism, consumer culture and a sometimes philosophical and psychological extremity, while morbid treatment of sexuality, which was even retaining undercurrents of social comment, and more apparent in the first short fictions of Ian gained cult status alongside the growth of horror McEwan. An alternative fantastic, ornate and erotic movies and science fiction television series, products prose became the recognizable style of Angela of the mainstream mass consumer culture which Carter in novels such as The Passion of New Eve, an was widely and wrongly anticipated to bring about allegory of the rebirth and self-fashioning of the the commercial failure of the novel. women’s movement in the 1970s, and The Bloody Fiction in the 1980s, including Graham Swift’s Chamber and Other Stories, a series of macabre, lush, Waterland, Alasdair Gray’s Lanark, and Julian Barnes’s sexualized versions of traditional fairy tales. A History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters, showed a Carter combined writing fiction with university postmodernist concern with history and its narrative teaching and critical writing. This is also the case construction (discussed as historiographic metafiction) with David Lodge and Malcolm Bradbury, who which suggested that analysts of historiography produced different varieties of the ‘campus novel’ needed to pay attention to the same prose effects as in the 1970s. Bradbury’s The History Man satirized literary critics. Discourse, metaphor, fantasy, narration the sexual politics of redbrick universities, while (different but related explorations in chronology, Lodge’s Small World and Changing Places poked fun history and loss came in Martin Amis’s Time’s Arrow, at literary theory, the international conference scene Marina Warner’s The Lost Father and Ian McEwan’s and transatlantic differences between the glamorous The Child in Time). Barnes’s earlier novel, Flaubert’s academic world of Euphoria State, California and Parrot, described by John Fowles as ‘too good to win the low-budget drabness of Rum-midge, England. the Booker Prize’, played similar tricks with 372 novel biography, as did D.M.Thomas’s The White Hotel and Booker Prize-winning novel Sacred Hunger, a powerful Peter Ack-royd’s The Last Will and Testament of Oscar condemnation of the eighteenth-century slave trade Wilde. Ackroyd has gone on in the 1990s, with his that exemplified the recent shift to a concern with studies of Charles Dickens and William Blake, to reclaimed histories, colonialism, the black Atlantic, contest the boundary between biography and fiction and racial, ethnic and religious differences. The most from the other side, introducing overt rhetorical or controversial work of fiction in the 1980s was Salman literary techniques into his life stories. The comic social Rushdie’s fourth novel, The Satanic Verses, which novel, along the lines of Evelyn Waugh and Kingsley brought book-burning to Britain’s streets and the Amis, continues in the work of writers as varied as fatwa from Iran. Rushdie’s earlier excoria-tion of William Boyd, Beryl Bainbridge and Tom Sharpe. Pakistan’s history since independence, Shame, had A.S.Byatt, in her tour de force Possession, brought been banned in several countries and brought him together satirical slants on post-structuralist theory, many enemies, but The Satanic Verses, a novel of the academic novel, detective fiction, the late Victorian migrants and post-colonial reinscripitions mainly set romance and biography. Most significantly, Byatt in Ellowen Deeowen (London), provoked greater succeeded in blending the social perspective of the controversy on religious rather than political liberal realist novel with a dissection of history, identity, grounds. A defining moment in itself, the Rushdie and language more typical of postmodernist writing. Affair became the backdrop to Hanif Kureishi’s The explicit treatment of heterosexual sex had 1995 novel of racial tension and multicultural failure, ceased to be taboo following the Lady Chatterley The Black Album. Kureishi also, like Rushdie, trial in 1960. Also, from the momentum gained by considered the meeting of East and West in The an increasingly militant movement in the 1970s, Buddha of Suburbia, a portmanteau of trends of the gay and lesbian writing broke into the mainstream 1970s that explored sexuality and politics, glam and in the 1980s with such authors as Jeanette punk rock, and suburban and metropolitan attitudes Winterson, Alan Hollinghurst and Maureen Duffy. against a hybrid background of ambition and Gender theory, body politics, queer theory and mysticism in Britain’s appropriation of India’s media interest in ‘hysterical illnesses’ all led to ‘spirituality’ but rejection of the transnational it had increased emphasis on sexuality and identity. Also, actively recruited from the Commonwealth since the a number of new women’s presses (see women’s 1950s. Kazuo Ishiguro also provided an understated press) were founded in the 1970s and 1980s after but probing examination of British values in The the success of Virago in 1973. Emma Tennant, Fay Remains of the Day, a novel which took the formality Weldon and Pat Barker produced assertive but and traditional hierarchies of his earlier stories set questioning novels that confronted chauvinism, in Japan and transferred them to an analysis of class patriarchy and male violence, while a lighter and and nostalgia in England, where repression and more lyrical and romantic style of writing was master-slave relationships were shown to have admired in the work of Anita Brookner, Barbara infected and stultified both emotional and political Pym and Penelope Lively. More recent feminist action. novelists like Zoe Fairbairns and Sarah Dunant have Alasdair Gray, Scotland’s most experimental remodelled masculinist genres such as the science contemporary novelist, has been followed by such fiction novel, detective fiction and crime thrillers. writers as James Kelman, Janice Galloway, Fairbairns also founded the very productive William McIlvanney and Agnes Owen. The most Feminist Writers group with Sara Maitland, well-known recent Anglo-Welsh novelists are Alice Michelene Wandor and Michèle Roberts. Thomas Ellis and Bernice Rubens, while Britain’s only Nobel Prize-winning novelist since Northern Ireland has produced one of the most the war is William Golding (1983), whose continued consistently excellent British writers in Brian concern with the interlocking of the material and Moore, whose novel Black Robe approaches the spiritual planes was apparent in his trilogy To the Ends Troubles imaginatively and tangentially through of the Earth, which began with Rites of Passage in 1980. a story of settlers and natives in seventeenth- Echoes of this sea-tale are found in Barry Unsworth’s century Canada. nuclear and arms industries and protestors 373

However, the contemporary period is most readily example of this was the women’s peace camp characterized in terms of decolonization and diaspora. established at Greenham Common in Newbury, For example, Indian fiction in English, concerned with Berkshire, outside a United States airbase where migrant identity and colonial relationships, has cruise missiles were located. The women-only revealed some of the most exciting writers of the last nature of the camp provided a focus not only for fifteen years: Vikram Seth, Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, the protest against nuclear weapons but as a positive Kamala Markandaya, Amit Chaudhuri, Shashi element of the feminist movement. Other camps Tharoor and Sunetra Gupta. While Steven Connor were sited at other bases in Great Britain, argues that amid these cultural cross-currents, emphasizing that positive action outside of the transnational tensions and international writings, ‘it mainstream pressure groups could raise and is now hard to be sure of what “the British novel” maintain the debate over nuclear weapons. may be said to consist’ (Connor 1996:27), its examples Organizations such as the longstanding are constantly being promoted and good fiction is Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) and appearing from the likes of Jane Gardam, Adam Greenpeace have campaigned against the nuclear Thorpe, Jane Rogers, David Wilson, Jane Smiley, threat. CND was founded in 1958 and organized Sebastian Faulks and Joan Riley. an annual Easter march to the weapons research establishment at Aldermaston in Berkshire. See also: popular fiction; readership Greenpeace have organized numerous campaigns to highlight threats to the environment, including nuclear tests carried out by France in the South Further reading Pacific. During this campaign, the Greenpeace Connor, S. (1996) The English Novel in History 1950– vessel Rainbow Warrior was sunk by French agents 95, London: Routledge (an incisive and wide- and a crew member was killed. ranging appraisal with some excellent short Other arms protests have concentrated on analyses). companies who manufacture and supply weapons, Stevenson, R. (1986) The British Novel Since the both generally and to particular regimes that have Thirties, London: Batsford (now a little dated, been seen as oppressive. Such action has been taken but an immensely readable introduction all the at company annual general meetings where same). protestors can, through the purchase of a small Taylor, D.J. (1993) After the War: The Novel and shareholding, gain access and ask difficult England Since 1945, London: Chatto & Windus questions. In terms of popular cultural (a highly selective account, from an author with representations, the issue of nuclear war was an axe to grind about the state of the novel, in memorably raised by Raymond Briggs in When the the tradition of liberal criticism). Wind Blows and has also been a focus for popular Waugh, P. (1995) Harvest of the Sixties, Oxford: Opus music and protest. The music festival organized (a comprehensive and authoritative review of by Michael Eavis at his farm in Glastonbury has literature since the 1960s). for many years donated profits to CND along with other charitable organizations, and there have in PETER CHILDS the past been a number of artists who have been broadly aligned with this cause including Billy nuclear and arms industries Bragg and Paul Weller. While in the Style Council, and protestors as well as playing benefit concerts, Paul Weller included a number of exhortations to join CND There have been a number of both general and on LP sleeves, along with the following quote from specific campaigns and protest against the arms a Greenham Common woman which perhaps industry and particularly nuclear weapons. These summarizes the issue: ‘We are concerned with the have at times focused on individual sites where preservation of all life. How dare the government nuclear weapons have been located. A prime presume the right to kill others in our names?’ 374 NUJ

See also: Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace with a variety of problems, caused largely by the introduction of new technology which irrevocably altered the traditional demarcation lines between Further reading journalists and printers and led to several major Minnion, J. (1983) The CND Story, London: Alison industrial confrontations. The union also had to & Busby. counter attempts to shift from collective agreements to personal contracts and ultimately union de- GUY OSBORN recognition. In addition to the usual union services, STEVE GREENFIELD the NUJ has also produced a code of conduct which outlines the ethical and professional standards that NUJ journalists should seek to maintain. Originating out of ‘chapels’ in Fleet Street in the See also: News International; trade unions late nineteenth century, the National Union of GUY OSBORN Journalists (NUJ) is the world’s largest journalists’ STEVE GREENFIELD union with over 20,000 members in the UK. During the 1980s and 1990s the union was faced O

office buildings Clerkenwell) and classical (as in Erith and Terry’s Dufours Place in Soho) buildings now sit alongside Office building in the 1960s was characterized by each other and attempt to relieve the drabness of the tall, thin skyscraper, perhaps the most famous the 1960s blocks which still dominate many of which being CentrePoint at the end of London’s skylines. Oxford Street. By the 1980s, such buildings were In the late 1990s, it has been argued that the both unpopular and unfashionable (though many new office space has become somewhere to interact were salvaged by remodelling, such as John Out- and relax as much as work (in the traditional sense). ram’s conversion of the Harp Central Heating New management ideas means new buildings, and buildings in Kent in 1984). One of the most famous the 1990s emphasis on communication and of recent London buildings, Lloyd’s high-tech information sharing requires ‘streets’, ‘hubs’, ‘oases’ Gothic headquarters developed by Richard Rogers, and ‘clubs’ rather than corridors and rooms. A good continued the modernist idea of the building as example is Ralph Erskine’s Seagram building, the machine and rivalled the best-known American Hammersmith Ark, in West London, full of office towers. However, the 1980s saw a large influx scenic views, terraces, walkways, towers and of American office architects (such as Skidmore, penthouses. Owings and Merrill and John Burgee Architects) who could design and construct a steel-framed See also: art galleries; restaurants and bars; shops building together, thus quickening the whole process. The major functional change over the period has been the revolution in technology which Further reading means deep-floor plans and high floor-to-ceiling Glancey, J. (1989) New British Architecture, London: depths. Thames & Hudson. The 1980s saw a large expansion in office buildings, especially after the deregulation of the PETER CHILDS London Stock Market in 1986. New offices were required quickly, and had to be of a new kind to official secrets and D-Notices convey the right image of the banks and trading houses and to house their computer equipment. Control of sensitive information relating to national An early example is Arup Associates’ stern glass security is governed by the Official Secrets Acts, and steel building at 1 Finsbury Avenue (1984), the first of which was passed entirely in one which won several major awards, and was built Parliamentary day in 1911 in response to scare around the increasingly common feature of a stories concerning German spies. Shortly after this central covered courtyard. Elegant modernist (as a committee, the Defence Press and Broadcasting in David Chipperfield’s Brownloe Mews in Committee, was established to give advice and 376 oi guidance to publishers. The Committee contains His glamorous, ultra-feminine ball gowns and party representatives of both the armed forces and the dresses have made him a consistently popular choice media. It may issue ‘Private and Confidential with celebrities, and his ‘rags to riches’ story made Notices’ on specific matters, although these have him an obvious role model for many in the 1980s. no independent legal force. The impotence of the Famous enough to have appeared as a castaway on government in containing ‘sensitive’ information Desert Island Discs, the London-born Oldfield has was illustrated by the farcical and unsuccessful become a popular designer with royalty, aristocracy attempts to suppress the book Spycatcher, the and the showbusiness elite. In 1990 he was awarded memoirs of former British secret agent Peter an OBE. Wright. TAM S I N S PARG O

See also: censorship; libel, defamation and privacy opera GUY OSBORN During the 1980s and 1990s, opera became popular STEVE GREENFIELD with a much wider public, probably due to both the activities of organizations promoting opera and oi the increasing use of operatic themes for films, advertising and sporting events. There remains, Oi refers to a type of music, closely affiliated to however, a dichotomy between the ideas of punk rock, that was briefly popular at the start of availability of opera for all by such means as cheap the 1980s. Designed to appeal to disaffected tickets, rehearsal passes and community/ education unemployed youth, oi music was fast and aggressive programmes, and the idea that by its very expensive with lyrics that emphasized dissatisfaction with nature opera is only for the few who can afford it. British society. Bands such as the 4 Skins attracted The latter is cited as an argument against the a violent skinhead following (see skinheads). Many subsidy of opera by the public purse, as opera is oi bands drew influence from ska and reggae and not cheap and only a limited number of people stressed their multicultural origins, although a can be accommodated at any one performance. minority flirted with fascist imagery and became In June 1995, the Royal Opera House (ROH) members of right-wing groups such as the National was successful in its bid for £55m from the Arts Front. These bands, such as Skrew-driver, became Council’s National Lottery board towards its known as ‘white noise’ bands, and developed links controversial £213m redevelopment scheme. The with European Nazis. ROH made efforts to reach a wider public,

STUART BORTHWICK including relays to screens in Covent Garden’s piazza, which deflected attention away from its need for large sums of money. Along with most arts organizations, it had suffered real-terms cuts in Oldfield, Bruce government funding during the 1980s and 1990s. b. 1950, London The ROH was the subject of the BBC2 documentary The House, screened in February 1996. Fashion designer The programme generated much interest: ‘…critics Raised in a Dr Barnardo’s children’s home, Oldfield thought it extraordinary that the ROH had let the was fostered and trained by a tailor and dressmaker, camera crews in…by the end of the series, Jeremy Violet Masters, and became one of Britain’s most Isaacs was thought of as shrewd for doing so’ famous designers of evening wear. After designing (Guardian, 22 June 1996). Doubtless many viewers for Bendel’s store in New York and selling sketches were surprised by the amount of work behind opera to Yves Saint Laurent, he launched his own ready- and ballet productions and the complexity of the to-wear collection in 1975 and a couture line in 1978. ROH. opera 377

Debate continues as to whether opera should them amongst commentators and public. Once be performed in its original language or translated again, the argument arose that opera is ‘elitist’. for reasons of immediacy to its audience. The ROH Other important opera organizations include performs in original languages, using subtitles in Leeds based Opera North, Scottish Opera, English. However, the English National Opera Glyndebourne, the D’Oyly Carte (specializing in (ENO) (which grew from the English Opera Group Gilbert and Sullivan and aspiring to be the nation’s begun by Benjamin Britten and Peter Pears’s circle light opera company) and Garsington Opera, in in 1947 to encourage the development of a addition to the many smaller companies, both repertory of English operas) performs in English, professional and amateur. and mounts many contemporary British operas. A movement away from the ‘elitist’ tag has ENO has along with other companies run been made by the now numerous small companies advertising campaigns selling opera on its presenting productions in imaginative ways, often bloodthirsty and seductive elements: one such in ‘miniature’, such as those of Travelling Opera, campaign in 1990 featured suggestive and evocative begun by baritone Peter Knapp in 1986. As Knapp photographs of percussionist John Harrod and said, ‘I…felt that there were many things about soprano Lesley Garrett. Along with other opera the way opera was presented that conspired to singers, Garrett has brought more widespread keep people away, including the language issue, publicity to opera through her solo career and the scale and the cost, so I wanted to find a way media appearances, including a television of making it more attractive to a new audience’ programme of her own. (Classical Music, 6 January 1996). Travelling Opera Away from London, regional opera companies manages without public subsidy: ‘It remains similarly fought for their survival along with the incredibly difficult for us to mount opera at the new breed of smaller companies. Anthony Freud, level we achieve without public money, and general director of Welsh National Opera (WNO), revolves around me calling on peoples’ goodwill commented that, ‘Trimming is no longer an option, for every show.’ For touring performances, special we’ve trimmed as much as we can…. What we orchestrations are used which only employ a can’t provide is the ultimate miracle: to exist dozen players, and singers double up for choruses. without the means to exist’ (Classical Music, 6 July Besides performing in Travelling Opera shows, 1996). WNO also goes on tour away from its home Knapp has done everything from driving the in Cardiff: ‘We are the provider, and in many cases company van and building the sets to rehearsing the sole provider, of opera in the cities we visit’ the cast: ‘If I had been told twenty years ago that (Classical Music, 13 April 1996). The opera began within the space of a week I would attend festival most of its 1990s productions in Cardiff’s New performances of two of Mozart’s greatest operas, Theatre, a venue viewed by musical director Carlo one in an Oxfordshire manor house garden and Rizzi as ‘terrible’. Much comment was made in the the other in a Lancashire village church I should press about plans to build the new Cardiff Bay have suspected a hoax…. The growth of Opera House, and a controversial design by Zaha enterprising small summer festivals in Britain has Hadid, original winner of the international been remarkable’ (M.Kennedy, ‘Opera Reviews’, competition. Competition for Millennium Sunday Telegraph, 7 July 1996). Commission funding was perceived from the proposed National Stadium development at Cardiff See also: opera singers Arms Park, though eventually a lottery award was made in summer 1996 to Cardiff Bay Development Further reading Corporation to fund a feasibility study for a ‘millennium centre for the arts’ to include a new Adam, N. (ed.) (1993) Who’s Who in British Opera, opera house. Perceived tensions between opera and Aldershot: Scolar Press. sport brought about by the various announcements Boyden, M. (1997) The Rough Guide to Opera, of plans highlighted the differing attitudes towards London: Rough Guides Ltd. 378 opera singers

Milnes, R. (ed.) Opera, Wickford: DSB (fortnightly Malcolm McLaren’s use of Puccini’s Madam publication). Butterfly, and Montserrat Caballe’s collaboration Sutcliffe, T. (1996) Believing in Opera, London: Faber with rock group Queen on the single ‘Barcelona’. & Faber. Soprano Lesley Garrett, a star of English National Opera, was involved in several ventures aimed at ANDREA MARTIN popularizing operatic repertoire including a CD, Diva, A Soprano at the Movies (featuring classical vocal opera singers repertoire used in films), and her own television programme. Baritone Bryn Terfel’s career took off Singers catch the public’s imagination, a during the 1990s, including a CD of Rogers and phenomenon which is exploited by those marketing Hammerstein songs amongst more traditional them, and singers’ photographs often feature on operatic and recital work. He has a strong following promotional material. Owing to the proliferation who travel overseas to hear him, and like many of mass media during the late twentieth century, singers he has his own website. singers in particular amongst musicians have benefited from access to a greatly increased See also: opera audience. For the big names, this has meant international fame and fortunes. The Three Tenors Further reading (Carreras, Domingo and Pavarotti) are probably the best known classical singers in the world Matheopoulos, H. (1998) Diva: The New Generation, following the publicity generated by their 1990 London: Little, Brown & Co. concert linked to the football World Cup. ANDREA MARTIN Classically trained singers move in various directions (musicals, early or contemporary music), although the mainstream career path is opera, orchestras oratorio or recital work. The idea of the diva or prima donna, often taken to mean a tempera-mental Britain’s orchestras are world-renowned for their but brilliant female opera star, continues and certain high standard of performance, and also their ability singers are given the respect of royalty. Maria Callas to perform well on little rehearsal time. Continental is seen by many as a legendary figure, and her orchestras often have generous rehearsal time in recordings are still released and promoted which to perfect pieces, but, through financial posthumously. Similarly revered are Kirsten necessity, the British must be able to produce a high Flagstad, Birgit Nilsson, Joan Sutherland and standard of performance quickly (hence the Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, along with younger names emphasis on sight-reading in auditions). Jessye Norman, Kathleen Battle and Kiri Te Britain has six symphony orchestras in London Kanawa, who became a household name in Britain and eleven regional contract orchestras. The 1993 following her appearance at the wedding of Prince Hoffmann report investigated the question of Charles and Lady Diana Spencer in 1981. dividing scarce Arts Council funds between The success during the 1980s of boy treble Aled London’s major orchestras, throwing them Jones, famous for ‘Walking in the Air’ from the unwillingly into competition with each other. Arts animated film of Raymond Briggs’ The Snowman, Council funding in Britain is comparatively low preceded that of treble Anthony Way in the 1990s compared to that on the Continent, and the with music featured in the television adaptation of situation affected orchestras such as the London Joanna Trollope’s The Choir. Both productions Philharmonic Orchestra, whose members took a attracted interest from a new audience for this clawback/pay cut as a result. principally sacred repertoire. Most of Britain’s orchestras are in a difficult The ‘crossover’ phenomenon had an impact on financial position, reliant on the generosity of private singers from the 1980s onward, examples being individuals, corporate sponsors and bank support. organic art 379

They have a firm bedrock of support from numerous organism dates back to classical antiquity. In friends’ organizations which raise money for smaller Phaedrus, for example, Plato states that a successful outgoings, but the principal concern is core funding oration must adhere to a coherent principle of for day-to-day running expenses. The shortfall has composition which should determine the order and not to date been made available from National relation of its parts. Further to this, Plato maintains Lottery sources, as these funds were limited in the that in its construction a good oration should be early 1990s to capital expenditure. Sponsorship has constructed like a living creature, and it must not become vital, and partnerships have developed such lack any organ or limb that would cause it to differ as that of the BT Scottish Ensemble with British from a living form. Telecom. Orchestral concerts and tours can be In modern times, organic art conjures up visions mutually beneficial to orchestra and sponsor, with of fashionable, wholesome, politically correct works both parties gaining publicity and prestige. of art. It is a term that, alongside organic farming The format of orchestral performances has and organic gardening, has returned to carve out changed little this century. Mainstream concerts its cultural and political niche in the latter decades generally follow the overture/concerto/interval/ of the twentieth century. Either rejecting or symphony pattern, with conductor and players in criticizing post-industrial scientific advances and the formal dress. Programme planners try to balance manipulation of the natural world, organic art mainstream repertoire (Beethoven, Brahms) with occupies territory that is devoted to a re-enchant- more adventurous contemporary works, although ment with natural materials and processes. audiences can be nervous of unfamiliar names of A close relation to organic art is organic composers on programmes. There have been architecture, of which the leading exponent was accusations of elitism levelled at the orchestral Frank Lloyd Wright. Organic architecture lays establishment, despite strenuous efforts by way of special stress on close relationships between building community events, ‘pops’ concerts, pre-concert and landscape. It was an aim that buildings should talks and an increasing amount of education work seem to grow out of the landscape rather than have by musicians. the appearance of being perched on alien terrain. In spite of the desperate financial climate, several Three artists adhering to this cooperative concert halls were built or refurbished in the early approach to working practice are Andy 1990s. These include Manchester’s £42m Goldsworthy, Richard Long and David Nash. Bridgewater Hall (with European and city council Goldsworthy has made work using ice and plant funding), Birmingham’s Symphony Hall and matter, Long is renowned for his works that involve Liverpool’s Philharmonic Hall. the arrangement of stones, while Nash makes carvings from found wood. In all three cases, an See also: classical music; classical soloists important factor is an awareness intrinsic to the work, of ways in which materials taken originally from the environment will continue to interact and Further reading relate to the environments in which they are Stern, I. (chair) (1990) The Evolution of the Symphony subsequently placed. Orchestra, History, Problems and Agendas, London: Although Goldsworthy, Long and Nash have Weidenfeld & Nicolson (report on the Wheat- many contemporaries who share a call of sympathy land Foundation conference). with a beleaguered natural world, a new generation of artists are also concerned with organic principles. ANDREA MARTIN However, unlike their predecessors, artists such as Susan Derges and Daro Montag use what could be organic art perceived as contrary technological references to, for example, photography in order to elude to natural Despite its seemingly trendy and up-to-the-minute systems and forces at work within the environment. image, the comparison of a work of art to an Common to all deriva-tions of organic art, however, 380 Orthodox Christianity are qualities of truth to life and a positive, at times from Byzantine sources, mystic hymns from the almost reverent, relationship to the natural world. liturgy were included in The English Hymnal (1906), and the Orthodox Church was recognized as being See also: pop art; sculpture ‘in communion’ with Anglicanism. Though Archbishop Makarios’s role in the Enosis Movement NICKY COUTTS for the union of Cyprus with Greece from 1950 provoked some to wonder whether his political Orthodox Christianity activity was compatible with his calling, criticism died down quite quickly. After the partition of Cyprus The various Orthodox Churches, whose name following the Turkish invasion, many Cypriots etymologically constitutes a claim to doctrinal emigrated to Britain, swelling the Greek Orthodox correctness that is not universally accepted, have congregations. Numbering under 20,000 in 1975, over 150 million adherents. Though with only these had risen to an impressive 88,000 in 1994. about half as many members as the Protestant churches, who themselves are outnumbered more See also: Anglican Church; Catholicism; Jewish than three to one by Roman Catholics, they form communities the third largest branch of the Christian church. The Orthodox Churches developed from Further reading Byzantine Christianity, which was centred on Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Empire, Doak, M. (1978) The Orthodox Church, Exeter: and gradually became detached from Roman Religious Education Press. Catholicism by disputes over papal authority and CHRISTOPHER SMITH differences over theology (particularly the so-called ‘filioque’ dispute on the question whether the Holy Spirit came solely from God the Father or also from out-of-town shopping God the Son). Attempts at reunification, at the Councils of Lyons (1274) and of Florence (1438), Patterns of retailing have been changing in Britain were abortive. After Constantinople fell to the over the last three or four decades. Although Turks in 1453, the Orthodox Church in Russia, a convenience stores offering limited ranges of food country where great missionary efforts had been and domestic products and, particularly, newsagents made since the eighth century, became the largest that also sell tobacco and confectionery still retain and most influential congregation. Other Orthodox significant (though relatively low volume) trade, Churches evolved in Bulgaria and in Greece, traditional high streets with their stores under local whence came the term ‘Greek Orthodox’, which ownership and others belonging to national chains is commonly used in England. Though discouraged have lost business virtually everywhere to shopping under communism, Orthodox Christianity centres (known as ‘malls’ when in urban situations). survived in Russia and Eastern Europe, emerging To accommodate a range of shops ranging from large with renewed vigour under more liberal regimes. ‘anchor’ stores (such as Debenhams, House of Fraser Served by priests who are usually married men, and Marks & Spencer), a major food retailer (such Orthodox Christians revere the sacraments as as Tesco or Sainsbury), chemist (such as Boots), sacred mysteries. The liturgy is generally conducted banks and a variety of smaller specialist shops down in the congregation’s own language, though to a post office, dry-cleaning outlets and newspaper sometimes in archaic versions. Icons—pictures of kiosks, shopping centres require huge premises and, Christ, the Blessed Virgin or various saints— occupy despite efforts (notably at Gateshead’s Metro Centre) an important place in Orthodox devotion. to promote public transport, they also need vast car In Britain Orthodox Christianity has long had a parks for customers who often come from quite long presence. The Victorian Bishop Benson derived the distances and hope to return with their car boots popular ‘Nine Lessons and Carols’ Christmas service laden with purchases. Generally located out of town Outram, John 381 on greenfield sites (such as Lakeside, at Thurrock defunct gay lifestyle magazine Outweek, are fierce in Essex), shopping centres sometimes also exponents of the strategy, and in the early 1990s the participate in large-scale schemes for urban and magazine was at the forefront of its defence. Initially, suburban renewal, on occasion taking over outing was a strategy directed at US politicians who redundant premises and adapting them for new were known or reputed to be gay but who lent purposes. support to homophobic political agendas. It was, Shopping centres develop the supermarkets’ however, quickly extended to any public figure concept of one-stop shopping by offering customers reputed to be lesbian, gay or bisexual, and keeping facilities for making all their purchases, from the quiet about it. For most people, outing came to the week’s food, clothing and footwear to durables such fore in 1991 when the anonymous US activist group as carpets, furniture and electrical goods, during a Outpost flyposted images of stars around New York single trip to one site, often all under one roof. under the heading ABSOLUTELY QUEER. Most Customers buy snacks or more substantial meals notable amongst these was the Hollywood film at a ‘food hall’ in the course of what is often a half- actress Jodie Foster, who was later ‘outed’ by lesbian day visit. Huge crowds and ever-climbing turnover, and gay activists from US groups ACTUP, Queer especially at peak times (for example, the pre- Nation and the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Christmas period) and during sales, demonstrate Defamation (GLAAD) at the 1992 Academy that people generally like to drive, often in a family Awards, ostensibly for lending her support to The group, to a shopping centre; once the car is parked, Silence of the Lambs, a film which these groups they can stroll around safely in a cheerful condemned as homophobic for its portrayal of serial environment viewing a wide choice of goods. killer Jame Gumb. Retailers, together with companies that carry out The pros and cons of outing reached British development and lease the premises, such as Capital through a series of debates in the newspapers, on Shopping Centres, achieve outstanding results. television and in pubs across the nation. No major Doubts have, however, been raised. As declining British star was outed. The hypocrisy of the British local retailing has social implications, and in order press was however exposed by gay Australian duo to protect green belts around conurbations, official Faggots Rooting Out Closets (FROCS). Vocifer- planning guidance since the mid-1990s has ously against outing as the expression of lesbian and discouraged further out-of-town shopping centres. gay activism, but only too happy to cast innuendo over stars in order to sell their papers, the British See also: supermarkets and malls; town planning tabloids visibly salivated at FROCS promise to out a selection of British MPs and media figures. Having collected the media together, FROCS revealed their Further reading cunning expose—a series of posters with faces filled Gayler, H.J. (1984) Retail Innovation in Britain, with the media print of the past few weeks. Norwich: Geo. See also: armed forces and discrimination; gay CHRISTOPHER SMITH liberation

CLARE WHATLING outing Outing, revealing the homosexuality of closeted gay Outram, John public figures, is a concept that rose from within the American gay movement in the late 1980s in New b. 1934 York and was soon exported to Britain. Thus argues Architect Michelangelo Signorile in his preface to the British edition to his 1993 outing manifesto, Queer in America. John Outram is an original and articulate architect, Both Signorile and Gabriel Rotello, editor of the now trained at the Polytechnic of Central London and 382 Outram, John at the Architectural Association, where he studied Central Heating headquarters in Kent (1984), a before doing apprentice housing and town planning Sussex country house at Wadhurst (1986), and a work with the Greater London Council. After pumping station for the London Docklands toying with high-tech, he set up in business for Corporation on the Isle of Dogs (1988). himself in 1973, since when he has developed a PETER CHILDS number of warehouses at Poyle, Middlesex (1976), Kensall Road, London (1982) and Aztec West, Bristol (1987). Other buildings include the Harp P

painting expressionism, as opposed to the focus on the surfaces of domestic life evidenced by the so-called A number of factors make discussion of postwar ‘kitchen sink’ realist such as John Bratby. Of the British painting difficult. The number of different, four artists mentioned, only one (Kossoff) was born co-existing styles of painting is one problem. in London, and his background was a Jewish Another, perhaps more serious problem is the fact immigrant family in the East End of London. It that painting has not been dominated by an avant- has often been argued that the distance these artists garde at any one time, as has certainly been true of had from mainstream British culture was partly painting in the United States. There has also been responsible for the alieneated appearance of their resistance to the idea of the avant-garde from some painting. of painting’s major figures, notably David Bacon’s work is probably the best-known: his Hockney. British painting, in common with other Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion (1944) forms of art making, is a centralized business, with is regarded as the beginning of his career (the artist the London institutions tending to dominate. in fact destroyed most of the work he made prior However, painting is arguably less centralized than to this), and the work in effect functions as a sculpture, and has competitions such as the manifesto for the following forty-eight years’ work. biennial John Moores prize (at Liverpool) and The paintings usually describe what is in effect a Northern Young Contemporaries (at Manchester) stage, on which a figure, or figures, are shown; the having managed to focus attention outside London. disjunction in treatment between the figure and There has also been vigorous promotion of Scottish ground is often striking, the latter being dealt with painting since the 1980s, and the Glasgow Museum in a matter-of-fact way while the former is often of Modern Art, which opened in 1996, has apparently subject to impressionistic violence. The deliberately focused on such work. original subjects frequently derive from old master Two important tendencies in painting can sources. Study from Portrait of Pope Innocent X (1965) nevertheless be described, defining collectively the is a good example of these characteristics; the practice of painting in the 1960s, and it is against original source is the portrait by the Spanish this that current practice should be seen. On the seventeenth-century painter Velásquez. one hand, the term School of London has been The work of Auerbach and Kossoff is used to describe a generation of painters who technically similar, involving the use of heavy emerged in the 1950s, including Frank Auerbach, impasto (exaggerated in the case of Auerbach), Francis Bacon, Lucian Freud and Leon Kossoff. thick, expressionistic brushmarks and strong colour. Diffuse both in terms of style and the institutions Their subjects differ, however: Auerbach’s work is with which the artists were associated, the ‘school’ basically expressionistic London cityscapes, worked can however be defined as deriving inspiration from up in the studio from numerous sketches, while 384 painting

Kossoff’s work focuses on the human figure, Portrait with Badges, continues this theme, showing although the setting is often made extremely the artists as an enthusiastic consumer of popular— precise. A well-known painting of Kossoff’s, specifically American—culture. depicting a sea of children in a pool, bears the title A later generation of artists at the Royal College Children’s Swimming Pool, 11 O’clock, Saturday Morning, of Art included Patrick Caulfield, David Hockney, August 1969 (1969). Allen Jones and Richard Smith. None of this work Freud’s work, although it has been described in was as politically engaged as (for example) terms of the School of London, is superficially quite Hamilton’s work had been, but it evidenced a much different. The subject is the human figure (Freud’s more explicit sexuality than had previously been models, including the late performance artist Leigh possible. While still at the RCA, Hockney had Bowery, have sometimes become celebrities in their painted We Two Boys Clinging Together (1961), in which own right), but the treatment is extremely precise, the artist had fantasized that a newspaper headline with only a little formal exaggeration. ‘Two Boys Cling To Cliff all Night’ referred to the Contemporary with the emergence of the so- singer Cliff Richard; the image itself is childish and called School of London was pop art. This ambiguous, although the homoerotic content is tendency in Britain developed out of discussions clear enough. But Hockney’s later work, made on at the Independent Group at the Institute for the artist’s removal to Los Angeles in 1963, is much Contemporary Arts in the early 1950s. The more explicitly homoerotic: the images of naked discussions were explicitly interdisciplinary, but the men in Californian swimming pools derive from painter Richard Hamilton played an important part homosexual soft pornography as much as from and helped organize the exhibitions This is Tomorrow direct observation. and Man, Machine and Motion. His own painting in Hockney encouraged Allen Jones to make use the late 1950s and early 1960s evidenced a collage of commercially available fetishistic imagery, which technique, in which disparate elements would be resulted in a notorious series of furniture pieces juxtaposed. Hommage á Chrysler Corp (1957) is one involving female mannequins. There were also of the better-known examples. Juxtaposing the numerous paintings on the same theme, often using headlamp assembly of a Chrysler car with Marilyn airbrushing and other techniques of commercial art. Monroe’s lips and a schematic brassière cup, it is Richard Smith’s paintings could initially resemble an overt critique of the language of contemporary American colour field painting in their size and soft advertising. Hamilton’s work, in contrast to that geometrical forms, but their titles (or example Product of American pop artists, often had an overtly (1962)) suggested otherwise. Closer examination of political edge: a grotesque portrait of Hugh the works revealed the source of their imagery in Gaitskell ‘as a famous monster of filmland’ was graphic design, particularly cigarette packets. made in response to the Labour party’s softening Patrick Caulfield, another contemporary at the RCA, line on nuclear disarmament in the 1960s. made more explicit references to art history. His A less critical approach is evidenced by Peter Portrait of Juan Gris (1963) places the Spanish artist Blake, a student at the Royal College of Art and against a yellow background, surrounded by abstract Hamilton’s contemporary. His Got A Girl (1962) linear forms that seem to refer back to vorticism or incorporates already nostalgic photographs of Elvis constructivism. The work is highly ironic: the image Presley and the disc that gives the title to the picture of the artist is cartoon-like, shadowless and outlined above a schematic, but faded stripe pattern. The in black, while the background yellow, applied collaged material is already nostalgic, and the uniformly, is a commercially available house paint. painted part is slightly distressed in appearance, Working outside either of the traditions of pop giving a worn look: the piece in other words or the School of London is Bridget Riley, whose appears to have a history, an idea at odds with the so-called ‘op art’ canvases composed of regular fresh appearance of other pop art, a comparison patterns of lines produce a highly physical, often especially striking if made with American work of disorientating effect on the spectator. Her work had the same period. A work from the same time, Self particular success in New York in the mid-1960s, painting 385 and she won the International Prize for Painting at painting, in order to work within it, towards the the Venice Biennale in 1968. end of the decade a new type of painting began to During the later 1960s, and for much of the emerge which seemed to reopen a type of 1970s, British art production was dominated by epistemological inquiry. Goldsmith’s College has sculpture and conceptual art, in common with most in recent years been popularly associated with a parts of the United States and Europe. The painters reconfigured form of conceptual art during the late who came to prominence in the 1960s continued 1980s, and also produced a number of outstanding to produce, exhibit and sell work— Hockney might painters, among them Ian Davenport and Gary be singled out as having been particularly successful Hume. Davenport’s large abstract canvases seem during the 1970s—but little sense remained of to reconfigure the process-oriented painting of painting as a potential avant-garde. However, a American artists such as Jackson Pollock and, reassessment of painting could be said to have particularly, Morris Louis. A canvas typically occurred at the beginning of the 1980s. There was comprises a series of parallel stripes made by renewed critical and commercial interest in pouring; the process recalls Louis, and it is no Auerbach, Kossof, Freud and Bacon, accompanied accident that Davenport has frequently been by the international revival of interest in figurative photographed, paint-splattered, in his studio in a painting, especially with narrative content, manner that deliberately recalls the famous represented by exhibitions such as A New Spirit in photographs of Pollock taken by Hans Namuth in Painting at the Hayward Gallery, London in 1981. The the 1950s. However the materials (commercial gloss exhibition featured work by Auerbach and Bacon, paint, often in garish colours) suggests that the work as well as new work by Frank Stella, Andy Warhol reads abstract expressionism ironically. Davenport’s and Julian Schnabel. At the same time, painters of work seems to reconfigure abstract expressionism the same chronological generation were promoted for a much cooler, better-informed audience. as exemplars of a new style of painting that accepted Gary Hume’s work makes more explicit use of the conventional limits of the practice, and was historical sources, so After Petrus Christus (1994), generally figurative and sometimes full of literary included in the British Art Show IV, starts from a allusions. Such painters included John Hoyland, fifteenth-century portrait, obliterating detail with Howard Hodgkin, Ken Kiff, Stephen McKenna and crudely-applied gloss paint in garish colours. The John Walker, all of whom were exhibited at the graffiti-like marks effectively vandalize the image. British Art Show in 1984. A new movement in A comparable vandalism of painting could be said painting was therefore construed around artists who to be achieved by Chris Ofili, whose works on the were at mature stages of their careers. theme of a childhood visit to Africa, also included A younger generation of Scottish-based painters, in the British Art show, were stuck with elephant including Stephen Campbell, Jock McFadyen and dung. Adrian Wiszniewski, worked in a similar way, and But these artists, who would identify themselves were often exhibited together with the older artists. as painters, are now in some respects atypical. For Campbell’s work is a good example. His large many prominent artists of the same generation, canvases, painted using an eclectic mixture of styles, painting has simply become one mode of operation quote from art historical sources; like much of the amongst many. Damien Hirst, better known for painting of the 1980s, the works appear to set up monumental installations involving preserved dead narratives which are then deliberately frustrated. animals, has also produced painting, as has Mark What remains is a play of surfaces, a manner of Wallinger. British art schools continue to produce operation that compares with the novels of Gabriel painters, especially outside of London, but in the Garcia Marquez or Umberto Eco, to give examples mid-1990s, critical attention seemed to be focused of two authors who were popular at the time. elsewhere. Whether painting will revive as a If the painting of the 1980s—in common with discrete practice is unclear. the sculpture of the same period—had generally accepted the technical and institutional limits of See also: Royal Academy; Tate(s) 386 Pakistani communities

Further reading descent. The majority of Pakistanis descended from regions with migratory traditions such as primarily Arts Council of Great Britain (1995) British Art Show rural but also urban Punjab, the Mirpur district of 4, London: Arts Council. Azad (Free) Kashmir (some of whom identify Hayward Gallery (1981) A New Spirit in Painting, themselves as Kashmiri) and the North-West London: Hayward Gallery. Frontier. Others included smaller numbers from Royal Academy of Arts (1987) British Art in the other regions such as Sind and Baluchistan and Twentieth Century, Munich: Prestel. Muhajirs (Indian refugees). Pakistani communities RICHARD J.WILLIAMS settled in largely unskilled labour-specific areas like the Midlands, the engineering and industrial north, and the textile regions of West Yorkshire, Pakistani communities Lancashire and Greater Manchester, while other significant communities have formed in Bradford, Pakistani communities began settling in Britain Birmingham and dispersed parts of London. following the New Commonwealth immigration Migrant support networks and intricate kinship of the 1950s and 1960s. As migrants from the structures underpinned processes of chain Islamic nation state of Pakistan (itself shaped by migration among Pakistani communities. Migrants migrant experiences following the 1947 India- relied on the patronage of other Pakistani migrant Pakistan Partition and the 1972 cessation of East relatives and friends to facilitate their arrival in Pakistan (Bangladesh)), Pakistanis comprise a Britain. Initial all-male settlements were gradually complex transnational religious and political superseded by family reunions with wives, children grouping in Britain. Sharing close affinities with and parents and then the addition of British-born other South Asian communities, particularly dependants which accelerated concentrated parallel Indian communities, Pakistani communities reconstructions of traditional Pakistani culture in demonstrate among other characteristics, an Britain. intracultural heterogeneity according to rural- Pakistani communities are effectively based on urban, regional, caste and sectarian divisions. the binding but definitionally flexible structural Pakistani communities were partly established notion of the biraderi (fraternity, brotherhood), by pioneer migrants who fought in the British Indian existing simultaneously as consanguineous kinship army and navy during the First and Second World systems and socially endogamous networks (in and Wars. Like other overseas ex-colonial subjects, between) Britain and Pakistan. The biraderi is a Pakistanis were lured by the employment, economic collective and mutually dependant unit bound by and social opportunities presented by severe labour kinship, social, religious or political links, extended shortages in Britain, while other localized factors through arranged marriages, often with first cousins such as partition, population and land pressure and or other distantly related family members to fortify the Mangla Dam construction also influenced its endogamous structure. Pakistani families migration. The 1950s and 1960s ‘beat the ban’ influx function around the joint household and of Pakistani immigrants, encouraged by immigration categorized notions of the extended family which legislation like the Commonwealth Immigrants Act traditionally demonstrate a patrifocal emphasis and (1962) and ironically, the work voucher system patrilineal line of descent. While older and male (designed to regulate the immigrant flow) continued members exercise superior authority and command the chain migration instigated by pioneer migrants greater respect, women have modified their to consolidate these developing communities. The traditional household roles, becoming as inclined ‘myth of return’ was ultimately dispelled for many as their male counterparts to seek self-employment as temporary sojourners became permanent settlers. or employment outside their domestic domain. With Urdu employed as the oral and literary Customary traditions like purdah and the wearing language of the Pakistani communities, other of the burqah and hijab are sporadically maintained. familial languages are based on linguistic-regional Izzat (honour, prestige) is the foundational Paolozzi, Eduardo 387 attitudinal and behavioural principal in all social of the Muslim Parliament and increased political interactions, enacted through a group conscious activity among Muslims intent on asserting their biraderi, a motivating force for achievement and identities against a perceived hostile, exclusionary advancement inextricably linked to culturally British state. While many of the largely British-born integral notions of social status and material wealth. descendants of Pakistani migrants are re-defining Despite the rejection of zat or caste distinctions their Pakistani identities and traditional heritages in Islam, some Pakistani communities loosely within British contexts in realms including family, equate social status through the caste considerations marriage and career (particularly among young of rural village life and hierarchical divisions of women), some ‘British Muslim’ youth are reasserting ashrafs (nobles), zamindar (landowners) and kammi their Islamic heritage in rejection of culturally (craftsmen and artisans). Zat also functions in imperialistic Western influences. determining acceptability between prospective Pakistanis have endured disadvantageous exclu- marriage partners. Westernization and Ashrafiza- sionisms in the social sector especially, for example tion are seen as potential forces of respective upward in employment and housing. Engaged in different socio-economic and religious mobility. accelerations of social mobility and being less Westernization, however, is often posited as a economically established than their Indian deleterious and morally corrupting power against neighbours on arrival, they have still determinedly assertions of a trans-ethnic Islamic identity. negotiated their own social, political and cultural Sectarian factions highlight the majority Sunni standing in a British context through emphatic and minority Shi‘a sects among British Muslims, kinship, regional/nationalistic and religious roots, yet further divisions occur according to followers whether retaining or rejecting traditionalisms in of, for example, the exegetically and theologically creating a clearly defined middle ground. opposed reformist Deobandi, traditional Barelwi, Ahymadiyyahs and other modernist movements. See also: Indian communities Politics and religion have combined to preserve Pakistani Muslim traditions, the Rushdie Affair signifying a pivotal moment in the birth of British Further reading Muslim history. Anwar, M. (1979) The Myth of Return, London: As a Muslim grouping, Pakistanis have acutely Heinemann (a pivotal, if somewhat dated text experienced the British/Western distortions of Islam on Pakistani culture). and Islamic fundamentalism, although the politico- Shaw, A. (1994) ‘The Pakistani Community in religious foundations of their communities remain Oxford’, in R.Ballard (ed.), Desh Pardesh—The strongly enforced. From the early supportive and South Asian Presence in Britain, London: Hurst and advisory role provided for newly-arrived immigrants Company (a thorough microcosmic study of a and settled Pakistanis by the 1957 established Pakistani community in Britain). Pakistani Welfare Association to the 1963 formation of a National Federation of Pakistani Associations SATINDER CHOHAN in Great Britain encompassing smaller grassroots organizations, community solidarity has soldered over internal divisions and wranglings among Paolozzi, Eduardo individual leaders to enforce notions of the biraderi b. 1924 on a broader community level. Concurrent religious developments have sought to fulfil objectives of Sculptor cultural preservation, building mosques and creating Eduardo Paolozzi influenced the development of local Muslim organizations, councils and after-school pop art in Britain during the mid-1950s with his weekly Islamic educational groups to maintain an collages made of juxtaposed images taken from active involvement from all sections of the magazines and advertisements, which were inspired community. The Rushdie Affair led to the formation by dada and surrealism. As a sculptor, he was 388 Park, Nick commissioned to produce a fountain for the Festival mainstream film, Bugsy Malone, a 1930s children’s of Britain in 1951. During the 1960s he created gangster movie, after which he directed a range of large, robot-like, bronze figures whose surfaces were films which have only their style in common: from covered in casts taken from mechanical gadgetry. Midnight Express (1978) through Fame, Angel Heart, Among his public commissions are the mosaic The Wall, Mississippi Burning and Birdy to The Road to decorations for the Tottenham Court Underground Wellville (1994) and Evita (1996). Parker has been Station, London, the installation of which was accused of abandoning Britain for Hollywood in completed in 1985, and the twelve-foot-high bronze the 1980s but with The Commitments (1991) he made sculpture inspired by William Blake’s image of Isaac a praised and profitable film outside the USA. Newton, situated in the piazza of the new British Parker has arguably been the most commercially Library which opened in 1998. successful British director over the last twenty years: a critic of British realism, he makes films that are See also: sculpture technically impressive but often melodramatic and

LUCINDA TOWLER sensationalist. To general astonishment, in 1998 he became chairman of the BFI and was widely tipped to take over the Labour government’s new Film Park, Nick Council. b. 1958 PETER CHILDS Film-maker Nick Park is the twice Oscar-winning film animator parliament who created Wallace and Grommit, the plasticine The British parliament has its origins in the man and dog stars of A Grand Day Out (1989), The thirteenth-century baronial councils. It is now a Wrong Trousers (1993) and A Close Shave (1995). In bicameral chamber that includes the monarch or each film, Wallace’s love of gadgetry and enterprise the monarch’s representative. Currently its full set the loveable duo off on a comic adventure in name is ‘The Queen in Parliament’, and it is a which northern domestic common sense must sovereign body that covers England, Wales, overcome the threat of cyber-culture. The detailed Scotland (since 1707) and Northern Ireland (since attention to cinematics, the wealth of intertextuality 1922). Under a variety of treaties, some of its and the superb parody of action adventure films powers have been ceded to the European Union. provide some of the distinctive features of the Some of its prerogatives have also been ceded animator’s engaging postmodern style. The films, through international treaties such as the United supported by strong video sales and merchandising, Nations Declaration on Human Rights. have demonstrated international appeal across all The House of Commons is the primary age groups, and have sold in over seventy countries. democratic chamber. It is composed of 651 directly See also: animation elected representatives who must seek re-election at not more than five-year intervals. The House of BOB MILLINGTON Commons is presided over by the Speaker, whose responsibility it is to make certain that the conduct of business in the House is in accordance with its Parker, Alan own conventions and rules. b. 1944, London The second chamber is the House of Lords. This is composed of approximately 1,200 peers, both life Film-maker and hereditary. In addition, the two archbishops Alan Parker began his career directing commercials (Canterbury and York) and twenty-four bishops sit, such as the famous Joan Collins ‘Cinzano’ as do the Law Lords. The House is presided over advertisements. In 1977 he made his first by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords can performance art 389 amend and delay bills that have been passed in the community, whose major paradigm is that House of Commons. By convention, it will not delay increasing complexity of computers can or will lead the Finance Bill or any bill that was included in the to consciousness. manifesto of the governing party in the House of PETE SHETERLINE Commons. Should the House of Lords delay any bill (as with the lowering of the age of consent for homosexual sex to sixteen in 1998), the Commons pensioners can ultimately reject this delay. There have been many calls to abolish the The state pension is paid to anyone who has made House of Lords. Hitherto such calls have been enough National Insurance contributions in the rejected, as there is a clear democratic advantage course of their working life. Retirement age in the in having a revising chamber. It is likely that the UK is still 65 for men and 60 for women, although constitutional reform currently under discussion in 1990 the European Court of Justice ruled that will retain the second chamber while removing the there should be no discrimination between men voting rights of hereditary peers. It is unlikely that and women with regard to pension schemes (in any reform will significantly strengthen the the UK, a common retirement age of 65 is being legitimacy of the second chamber, as that would phased in). There is additionally a perceived lack weaken the House of Commons, a move that is of cultural discussion of retired people’s lives, likely to be politically and culturally unacceptable. which figure little in mainstream television programmes. This led Richard Ingrams to found See also: Conservative governments; democracy The Oldie magazine in the late 1980s, and others have mounted their own protests. For example, in January 1998 near South Kensington Further reading underground station, the artist Melanie Manchot Punnett, R.M. (1994) British Government and Politics, displayed five six-by-three-metre posters of her 66- 6th edn, Dartmouth: Aldershot. year-old mother in her underwear with the caption ‘Look at you loving me’, to counter the PAUL BARRY CLARKE marginalization of older people. Unlike the USA, SVANBORG SIGMARSDOTTIR Britain has no anti-age discrimination law, yet one- third of the population will be over 60 by the year 2000, and many are both able and wanting to Penrose, Roger work (as witnessed by the success of stores like b. 1931, Colchester B&Q and Sainsbury, which have actively recruited people over retirement age). Mathematician Roger Penrose is a mathematician with radical See also: baby boom views about the relationship between quantum PETER CHILDS physics and consciousness. He, like Dawkins and Hawking, has been able to interest and influence a wide audience through his lucid and compelling performance art style. In his widely read books, The Emperor’s New Mind and Shadows of the Mind, he examines As a category, performance art is hard to define, as consciousness and the human mind from the it has referred to an extremely wide range of perspective of the laws of physics and binary practices. If most have involved artists acting in real computers, and concludes that classical computers time and space in a planned event, there has been lack some fundamental aspect of function found enormous variation in the duration of the event, in human and other animal brains. His views are choice of site, number of participants, ancillary contentious amongst the artificial intelligence (AI) equipment and intent. 390 performance poetry

The widespread use of the term in Britain dates Further reading from the early 1970s, and the general acceptance Goldberg, R. (1979) Performance Art, London: of live performance in art schools, museums and Thames & Hudson. galleries dates from the same time. If British performance art was late to develop, it has RICHARD J.WILLIAMS nevertheless gone on to have an international impact, and it continues to do so. However its audience is small, in comparison with New York, performance poetry where performance art has enjoyed genuine popularity. Broadly, performance poetry is any poetry delivered A well-known early work of British performance effectively in performance; narrowly, it is poetry art is Underneath the Arches by Gilbert and George composed specifically for performance rather than (1969), in which the pair, their faces painted gold for the page. With the spread of literacy, Britain had and dressed in their trademark identical suits, one lost any earlier tradition of poetry performance, and carrying a walking stick, the other a glove, stood modern, essentially urban, performance poetry on a table and moved around stiffly to a recording began in Britain in the late 1950s. Influenced by US of the Flanagan and Alan song of the same title. jazz and beat poets such as Allen Ginsberg, mostly The piece was performed a number of times young poets began to perform their work at jazz internationally. The early 1970s saw considerable clubs and cafes, both with and between the jazz. activity in the field. Bruce McLean and the Nice From this unlikely initial setting, pop poetry grew Style Pose Band (1972–5) developed 999 proposals to become a major part of 1960s counterculture. for ‘poses’, performed by the group at assorted Adrian Mitchell (b. 1932) became an important locations over the three years of its existence. political voice, speaking poems with a directness, Meanwhile Stuart Brisley was staging far more outrage and musicality that drew on Brechtian drama confrontational works, including And For Today, as well as rock ’n’ roll. Nothing in which Brisley spent two weeks motionless Meanwhile in Liverpool, during the rise of in a detritus-filled bathtub. Other important artists Merseybeat, Adrian Henri (b. 1932) was bringing of the 1970s include the Ting Theatre of Mistakes, together the existing poetry scene with multi-arts and Genesis P.Orridge and Cosi Fanni Tutti, who events. These events, more accessible than the arts alternated between performances as COUM ‘happenings’ in the USA, led poetry performances Transmissions, and the punk band Throbbing to incorporate elements of drama, satire, comedy Gristle. and music as well as the visual arts. Roger Since the 1970s, performances have often McGough (b. 1937) delivered his funny-sad poems featured the artist motionless in a gallery or with sharp satirical wit, performing both solo and museum, in work sometimes known as live art. with The Scaffold, while Henri formed the poetry- Examples include Stephen Taylor Woodrow’s and-music band The Liverpool Scene, and Brian Living Paintings (1986), Tilda Swinton’s Matilda Patten’s (b. 1946) lilting hypnotic delivery brought Swinton (1960–) (1996), the latter presenting the a particular emotional intensity to his lyrical poetry. sleeping artist in a glass case for the duration of an Henri, McGough and Patten performed widely exhibition. By contrast, the group Index have with the poetry—music—comedy roadshow Grimms staged events which recall New York happenings into the early 1970s, and still command a wide in their manipulation of the general public and the audience. urban environment. Performance art remains an With the rise of punk rock, new wave and important strand of British art, if somewhat reggae music in the mid-to-late 1970s came new overshadowed by painting and sculpture. styles of performance poetry, mostly with a fresh political emphasis. John Cooper Clarke mixed high- See also: ballet; modern dance; opera; performing speed wit and scorn with frequently surreal imagery. arts on television; physical theatre Joolz delivered aggressive urban poetry to the music performing arts on television 391 of New Model Army. Of the reggae and dub poets, television presents very little in these programme Linton Kwesi Johnson (b. 1952) first achieved areas, though there is an arts channel on cable prominence in the late 1970s, followed in the 1980s television. by Benjamin Zephaniah and Levi Tafari. Such ballet as appears on television is confined During the 1980s and 1990s, the initial to BBC2 and Channel 4. The latter tends to deal flourishing of alternative cabaret and comedy more with contemporary dance, showcasing such venues prompted more comedic and dramatic companies as Spiral Dance and offering ten-minute approaches. John Hegley combines the roles of dance slots, but BBC2 also shows original work. poet, singer and comedian; Henry Normal and For example, in prime time in 1998 it screened Lemn Sissay both use comedy, and Ian McMillan Urban Clan by Aboriginal choreographer Stephen blends surrealism with satire. The group Atomic Page, performed by the Bangarra Dance Theatre Lip frequently act out their poetry and interweave of Sydney, and Maguy Marin’s interpretation of their four voices, a development of the vocal Coppelia. blending used by rap crews since the original ‘rapid One of the most notorious television poetry’ of The Last Poets. 1990s performance interventions into the world of opera occurred with poetry promoters include Apples & Snakes the showing of The House: Inside the Royal Opera House (London), the Dead Good Poets Society Covent Garden in 1995. This fly-on-the-wall six-part (Liverpool), Morden Tower (Newcastle), and the documentary was made by Double Exposure for Edinburgh Writers Association. BBC2, with the permission of the then director Jeremy Isaacs. Critics felt he had been naive in See also: black performance poets; Johnson, allowing this to happen, as it exposed the Linton Kwesi; poetry slams inefficiencies and internal wranglings of a bastion of high culture at a time when it was under attack for its supposed elitism and blithe disregard for Further reading commercial considerations. Forbes, P. (ed.) (1997) Poetry Review 87(3), special Glyndebourne, by contrast, was thriving, and issue on performance poetry. unlike the homeless Royal Opera House it rebuilt its auditorium on time, to budget and without DAVID BATEMAN government subsidy. Channel 4 under Michael Grade televised the acclaimed production of performing arts on television Janácek’s The Makropoulos Case from there in 1996. Wagner’s Ring Cycle was also shown in 1997. Television coverage of performing arts is varied. As regards classical music, events like the The BBC is far more likely than independent Young Musician of the Year and the Leeds Piano television companies to screen ballet, opera or Competition are always covered on television, and classical music, and BBC2 is its preferred channel a staple of BBC1 programming is the Promenade for these programmes. Some avant-garde work is Concerts televised from the Albert Hall, London, produced on Channel 4. Other stations’ ‘high hosted in 1998 by James Naughtie. The annual culture’ presentations extend only as far as good broadcast of the Last Night of the Proms, with its quality made-for-television drama (Jane Austen/ staple fare including ‘Jerusalem’, ‘Rule Britannia’ George Eliot) and arts programmes such as The and ‘Land of Hope and Glory’, is one of the rare Late Show. Populist stage shows like Riverdance are occasions when high popular culture and television televised, and Later With Jools Holland contains a coincide. varied and impressive mix of live music. Regional channels of the BBC and ITV (especially Welsh See also: ballet; modern dance; opera; physical ones) and also S4C often have operatic and theatre orchestral company performances. The annual MIKE STORRY Eisteddfod has full coverage on S4C. Satellite 392 philosophy philosophy the particularistic fringes of philosophy with new vitality while leaving mainstream philosophical Philosophy (from the Greek philo (love) and sophia disciplines such as metaphysics and epistemology (wisdom)) in British culture has undergone a series either discredited, irrelevant or incredulous. of revolutionary changes since 1960. Until recently, The linguistic turn revolutionized the way in English language philosophy was dominated by which we view the world and the place of analytic and linguistic philosophy based on works philosophy within it. Most significantly, social and by Bertrand Russell, G.E.Moore, Wittgenstein and cultural worlds are no longer seen as external, real the ordinary language philosophy of Austin. The and analytically objective objects, but as something early logical positivist tradition rejected metaphysics in which we participate. Philosophy is now regarded as a genuine line of philosophical enquiry, arguing as part of our cultural enterprise rather than a mere that its findings were speculative, inconclusive, examination of that culture. unverifiable and, thus, meaningless. Instead, Engagement in philosophy no longer requires philosophy was allied with empirical science. Its an ivory tower retreat and is part of any thoughtful, task was identified as simply to derive meaning world-engaging enterprise. If philosophy dwells in through the logical analysis of concepts and the the world itself, it asks only that we engage in the language we use to express, apprehend and classify world, that we immerse ourselves in our particular them. Oxford linguistic philosophy, spearheaded culture, and that we perceive the meanings, values by Gilbert Ryle, A.J.Ayer and J.L.Austin, was and possibilities in a multiplicity of diverse ways ascendant in Britain until the mid-1960s. of life. This permits radical and intriguing questions Before the second half of the century, this from cultural fringes to have a legitimacy and a analytic approach shared almost no intersection voice that was hitherto excluded or silenced. with continental philosophy. The principle strands of continental thought concerned existentialism Further reading (Kierkegaard, Sartre), phenomenology (Husserl, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty), structuralism Bunnin, N. and Tsui-James, E.P. (1996) The (Saussure, Levi-Strauss, Chomsky) and critical Blackwell Companion to Philosophy, Oxford: theory (Lukacs, Adorno, Marcuse). While radically Blackwell. divergent, such continental philosophers generally PAUL BARRY CLARKE emphasized contextual relations of interdependence EMMA R.NORMAN and the consequent requirement of appre-hending the structures of the world in their totality. These approaches, while far removed from the formal, phone-ins and chat shows abstract, atomistic methods of English language philosophy, challenged that model by introducing Chat shows involve a regular presenter interviewing global context and the ‘linguistic turn’: the view various celebrities in a consistent format. Though that the world might be shaped by rather than make guests appear to promote products, the interview language. focuses upon a gentle, entertaining revelation of their In consequence, Anglo-American philosophy is humanity. The successful host skilfully mediates no longer restricted to mere conceptual analysis. between naturalistic conversation and a genuine Its convergence with continental philosophy has search for personal insight. On radio, Wilfred Pickles resounded throughout all the disciplines of social interviewed guests informally (Have A Go, 1948), but science in an attempt to come to terms with the it was Michael Parkinson who popularized the chat particularity, complexity and undecidability of the show as a television genre, succeeded by Terry Wogan, many and varied social contexts in which we live. whose eponymous show ran for fifteen years. Desert This constitutes a serious challenge to canonical Island Discs (Radio 4) is the longest running radio philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes or chat show, probably due to the flexible interest of its Locke, for the death of universalism has injected invariable question. Current daytime chat shows (such photography 393 as This Morning…With Richard and Judy, ITV) way to a new optismism for the children of what foreground friendliness and do not attempt was to become known as the baby-boomer years unpleasantly personal questions. However, some hosts (see baby boom). In its attempts to both rebuild entertain by exploiting the genre’s pseudo-revelatory and present itself as a modern nation, British culture nature to ask truly difficult questions, and it is then was to undergo a revolution of American origins, that the format segues into television comedy. Clive which found its expression not only in the more Anderson displays his quick wit at his guests’ expense traditional arts of painting and sculpture but (Clive Anderson Talks Back, 1990), and Edna Everage’s within design, architecture, photography and guests are foils to her comic routine. Caroline Aherne’s publishing and the new media industry of Mrs Merton (1995) is the most recent in this tradition. television. At the beginning of the 1960s the new Steve Coogan invents fictional guests to heighten the global communications were just beginning; but incapability of Alan Partridge, his creation (Knowing by 1969, NASA had landed men on the moon, who Me, Knowing You, 1995). photographically recorded the event and sent video Phone-ins also rely upon the creation of a images back to earth via a satellite link. familiar register. A radio or television presenter Photographers of the 1960s may be linked, but invites the audience to contribute live to a not exclusively, with four main consumer growth programme. Call Nick Ross on Radio 4 debated more areas of the 1960s: fashion (for example, David cerebral issues, but in the entertainment sector of Bailey, Terence Donovan and Brian Duffy); pop and the phone-in, callers pose questions to celebrities rock music (Robert Freeman’s pictures of the or answer questions themselves for prizes; on other Beatles); photo journalism (Tony Ray-Jones, Don programmes those with emotional problems are McCullin, Larry Burrows, Tim Page); and encouraged to phone, the anonymity of the exercise portraiture (Jane Bown, Bill Brandt, Lord Snowdon). allowing voyeuristic discussion of personal trauma. A central theme of photojournalism and On local radio, this inexpensive genre is continually portraiture in the 1960s included social life from both popular. Public interest in the private lives of both the successful, wealthier end of society and the less celebrities and nonentities means that chat show fortunate, poorer members of British society. For and phone-in techniques now define many example, the growing royal family and the Queen’s presenter-led shows; Kilroy! and Vanessa combine visits to the British colonies was a popular theme public discussion of social and personal problems amongst most daily newspapers and journals. The with chat show style interviews, as does The Queen’s brother-in-law, Lord Snowdon (previously Time…The Place, a live studio debate (ITV). The Anthony Armstrong-Jones), became a court division between viewer and presenter is becoming photographer as well as maintaining a career of more deliberately blurred to promote a contemporary, general portraiture and magazine work. Other spontaneous image. This seems particularly true photographers like Don McCullin specialized in of breakfast television and radio. Chris Evans photojournalism which was confrontational and incorporated an open phone and fax line into his often included images of destitution and dereliction. shows (Radio One Breakfast Show and The Big Breakfast, This included photographs of one of the poorest Channel 4) rather than setting aside a particular parts of London in McCullin’s 1961 series East of time for phone-ins. Aldgate, used by director Michaelangelo Antonioni in his film Blow Up, although paradoxically, the See also: daytime television; talk shows character of the photographer in the film, Thomas, was based on the personality of David Bailey. Bailey SARAH CASTELL was interviewed in 1964 by Francis Wyndham, and Antonioni used the text as the base for the part of photography Thomas. Photography was about to undergo an The postwar euphoria of victory combined with important status shift coinciding with the birth of an ongoing austerity of rationing in Britain gave the Sunday Times Magazine in 1962 and the overhaul 394 photography of Queen magazine. Previously, as Cecil Beaton This was classified as ‘new documentary’ remarked, the photographer had been regarded as photography. ‘New’ referred to the use of colour ‘a sort of inferior tradesman’. The publishing and a sense of humour. His photographs examined houses and magazines were owned by Oxbridge the eccentricities of the class system and British graduates, but the new photographers were obsessions with leisure time, hobbies and DIY. In bridging traditional class boundaries; many of contrast, old monochrome documentary (for them, like David Bailey, were from working-class example, that of Chris Killip and Graham Smith) east London backgrounds. Also, artists such as reaffirmed themes of formal concerns together with Richard Hamilton began using photomontage a mythology of the British northerner. techniques as part of their work, thus challenging A topical concern for the environment in the the traditions of both painting and photography 1970s was reflected in landscape photography. The and often as a critique of fashion magazines and exhibition The Land was presented at the Victoria advertising. The exception to the encroaching use and Albert Museum in 1975, and the 1970s also saw of colour in photography was within landscape and the publication of the work of John Davies, Paul documentary photography, where black and white Hill and Fay Godwin. John Davies’s work sought was used as a specific formal composition (for to revive the tradition of landscape photography, example, by Bill Brandt), or was to be connoted both rural and urban. The work of both Paul Hill with realism within the documentary tradition. and Fay Godwin attempted to describe and preserve The fighting that had begun in Northern Ireland a specific place, and also draw attention to the between Loyalist Protestants and Repub-licans in encroaching legal and illegal restrictions of access 1969 at first went largely unreported. However, by landowners. These included farmers, the Defence when the first British soldier was killed on 31 Department, new water schemes and government October 1970, this made headline news in Britain. road-building operations. The public, through newspaper reports and Photography education was also starting to photographs, had suddenly been made aware that change. In the mid-1970s, the conceptual artist the situation in Northern Ireland was in fact war. Victor Burgin was appointed to the photography Similarly, when the Vietnam war ended in 1975, degree course at the Polytechnic of Central London the Daily Mail’s headline on Wednesday 30 April (PCL, now the University of Westminster). His 1975 was ‘THE END’, with a photograph enthusiasm for reading as well as photographing captioned: ‘Americans and refugees clamber to an established a new way of teaching photography airlift helicopter’. Tim Page, one of many British based on the writings, amongst others, of the photographers to record the war in Vietnam, left semiologist Roland Barthes, the psychoanalyst home at fifteen and did not return until twenty years Sigmund Freud and feminist writing. Students on later. He was later to publish his experiences in the course were encouraged to analyse photographs detail in Tim Page’s Nam and Page After Page. within a structure of context and meaning. Changing attitudes to photography were also Graduates from this course in the 1980s included expressed by advertising agencies. In the late 1970s, Jo Spence (one of the founder members of cigarette manufacturers like Gallaher began to Camerawork), Olivier Richon, Mitra Tabrizian and consider the image itself—without a caption—as a Karen Knorr. In 1980, Victor Burgin edited Thinking means to selling Benson and Hedges Gold and Silk Photography, which included essays by himself, John Cut cigarettes. The adverts used a rhetorical Tagg, Umberto Eco and others. language of metaphor, rebus and metonomy, An enlightenment within photography incorporating a strong use of colour, such as cut characterized the 1980s, reflecting the new teaching purple silk or gold dust. The first of these new at PCL and other colleges. Slowly decreasing were adverts appeared in 1978, using the photographs galleries that only showed white, male of Adrian Flowers. documentary photographers; instead, these were By 1973, the young photographer Martin Parr being replaced by more radical venues that was beginning to have his work seen and published. attempted to encourage a wider representation of photography 395 photographers previously neglected by traditional Ingrid Pollard, Maud Sulter and others saw the photo galleries (for example women, gays and desperate need for better and broader representation lesbians, ethnic minorities and the disabled). A new of black arts in Britain and began curating their own audience was also sought and from a broader shows. The Essential Black Art exhibition in 1988 section of the population. included the work of photographer Zarina Bhimji. Family album photography began to be taken The Other Story was first shown at a major public arts seriously partly resulting from the work of Jo venue, the Hayward Gallery, London in 1989; it Spence (1934–92) and her autobiographical contained the work of painters, sculptors, video analysis of childhood and adolescence using family makers and photographers. album photographs. She also pioneered what The war in Northern Ireland, or the ‘Troubles’, became known as ‘photo therapy’ with Rosy as it became known, continued into the 1980s and Martin, photographing staged memories from their 1990s. The photographer and artist Willie Doher- family histories as a way of confronting labelled ty’s work explores issues of cultural difference in identities. In 1982, Jo Spence was diagnosed with Northern Ireland. His photographs often refer to breast cancer and was concerned about the existing surveillance, borders, invasion and the dialogue of attitudes and treatments. After consultation with misinformation from both sides. Some photographs alternative therapists, she decided to take incorporate text printed onto the surface. His responsibility for the treatment of her illness, exhibition Unknown Depths began at the Ffotogallery, including the use of photo therapy. Her book Putting Cardiff in 1990 and then toured to Glasgow, Deny Myself in the Picture was published in 1986 (her later and London. Another work, Same Old Story, was work Family Snaps was published in 1991). exhibited at Matt’s Gallery, London in 1997. Other photographers, writers and artists also The interest in the family and the began exploring issues relating to bodily photographing of children (including issues of child representation including sexual identity and its pornography), was to continue into the 1990s stereotyping, pornography, erotic photography, including the exhibition Whose Looking at the Family, the ageing or sick body, sexual fantasy and desire, curated by Val Williams at the Barbican Gallery, and voyeurism and fetishism. Helen Chadwick’s London in 1993. The photographers Nick (1953–96) work from the 1980s asked questions of Waplington and Richard Billingham were both to identity, sensuality, endurance and perhaps most produce work which recorded life in three very poignantly, transience: she was to die suddenly, different families. Nick Waplington began aged 43. Her work incorporated large, photocopied photographing two families on a council estate near images of herself and photographic references to Nottingham in 1987. In 1991, some of the meat, intestines and laboratory samples of her own photographs were published and exhibited as Living bodily tissue. She was shortlisted for the Turner Room. He said in 1994: Prize in 1987 after her exhibition Of Mutability at the Institute of Contemporary Arts (ICA) in 1986. When I began the project, I’d seen pictures of Her book Enfleshings was published in 1989. housing estates, black and white pictures of the In 1988, Aperture published British Photography: old school. The people in them looked like Towards a Bigger Picture. This contained work by victims, and I wanted to show that they’re not. photographers already mentioned plus Keith They’re not being beaten. These people are Arnatt, Hannah Collins, Anna Fox, Paul Graham, fighting back. Tim Head, Susan Trangmar and others. Gradually women, gay and ethnic minority His intention was to portray a more positive and artists were also finding publishers for their work. caring attitude to family life, the results being often The Arts Council realized the dearth of published gently humorous, but within an overwhelming material from these photographers and attempted subtext of poverty. to correct the under-representation. Black Richard Billingham’s work Ray’s a Laugh was also photographers like David A.Bailey, Sunil Gupta, published in 1996 as a book. The explicit snap shots 396 physical theatre of his immediate family, including his father Ray, commedia styles, elements which figure in training are taken inside his alcoholic parents’ flat. They also and praxis. Design is frequently an integral force, include pictures of the family dog and cat and his with actors involved in creating environments with brother. They were originally intended as references and without ‘props’. for paintings when he was at art college and still Many contemporary practitioners have trained living at the family home. Since then, he says he with Jacques Lecoq, and more have been influenced continues to photograph ‘as an attempt to by him via workshops conducted by his alumni. comprehend myself and them more fully’. Training is handed down through this ad hoc oral In 1993, Hannah Collins was shortlisted for the and experiential process, although skills sharing and Turner Prize. By the mid-1990s noticeable numbers self-teaching are crucial factors, which may account of women art and photography graduates were both for the multiplicity of styles under the umbrella term showing and selling their work in photography ‘physical theatre’. Two key concepts underpin the venues and public or commercial art galleries. In process by which somatic creativity is harnessed in London this was typified by Goldsmith’s College Lecoq’s training, which aims to promote creative graduates. Artists such as Jane and Louise Wilson, autonomy: the notion of individual ‘neutrality’ Bridget Smith, Gillian Wearing, Catherine Yass, where actors aspire to a ‘state of readiness’ in which Tacita Dean, Sarah Jones and Virginia Nimarkoh they are physically alert, mentally open and were already meeting dealers and getting attention imaginatively charged, ready for any stimulus to from curators and critics before leaving college. This provoke a spontaneous creative response; and the defied the usual system of graduating students importance of imaginative ‘play’, or ‘le jeu’, an open- (especially women) having to wait passively for ended approach to improvisation where actors curators and dealers to become interested in them. develop complicité, a shared belief and understanding Their work, especially Gillian Wearing’s, possessed which is the crux of ensemble practice. a raw vibrancy coupled with an attitude which The term complicité is also used to describe the insisted the work be noticed. In 1997 the shortlist relationship struck between actors and audience for the Turner Prize was all women, including that in physical theatre, where no fourth wall exists and year’s winner, Gillian Wearing. the intention is to keep open that invisible loop which enables an imaginative collusion to operate between stage and spectator. There is a tendency Further reading towards the comic, an acknowledgement perhaps Design Council (1987) Best of British: Design and that the concept of the ‘hero’ has been replaced by Photography, Geneva: Rotovision. the grotesque clown: some teaching concentrates on discovering the ‘clown within’ and ‘bouffon ALEXANDRA McGLYNN clowning’. Physical theatre techniques are applied to physical theatre ‘serious’ texts (for example, Kaos Theatre). Steven Berkoff has developed his own distinctive brand Physical theatre focuses on the visceral qualities of of physical theatre, forging texts in powerful brawny theatre, and is characterized by an emphasis on the language which act in counterpoint to a heightened actor’s body as the primary sign; it is rooted in the gestural style. He, like most practitioners, is belief that the actor is the ‘total resource’ for ‘total confined to the margins, although the National theatre’. Physical theatre is a broad church which Theatre has twice invited Theatre de Complicité includes hybridized forms previously labelled to work there, firstly with the devised Street of ‘visual theatre’ (The People Show), ‘dance-drama’ Crocodiles, then with Caucasian Chalk Circle. (DV8), ‘mask theatre’ (Trickster), which demonstrate the mutations and cross-pollination See also: modern dance which have impacted on theatre since 1960. It has DYMPHNA CALLERY strong relationships with mime, circus and pirate radio 397

Pinewood Studios Burton). It has been heavily involved with notable television productions such as The Camomile Lawn, Located twenty miles west of London and named Jeeves and Wooster and the Minder series. Today it after the pine trees in the grounds, Pinewood has boasts the world’s largest silent stage and Europe’s been at the heart of both British and international biggest exterior tank, and is carrying on the film production. The property, Heatherden Hall, commitment to modernization. was bought by Charles Boot in 1934, and he and J. Arthur Rank became partners in the project to See also: British film industry; cinemas build the studios. Pinewood proved groundbreak- GUY OSBORN ing in its use of the ‘unit system’ that allowed more than one film to be made at a time, and this enabled Pinewood to achieve the highest output of any pirate radio studio in the world. The first film to be completed at Pinewood was Talk of the Devil (1939, Reed) while ‘Pirate radio’, as we know it, began at sea in 1958 the immediate postwar period (Pinewood had been with Radio Mercur broadcasting to Denmark from requisitioned and hosted the Army Film Production the ship Cheeta. Piracy hit Britain from Radio Unit during the Second World War) saw six major Veronica’s ship when the Commercial Neutral productions including the acclaimed Oliver Twist Broadcasting Company made its first ever sea pirate (1948, Lean) and The Red Shoes (1948, Powell and broadcast in 1961. Ronan O’Rahilly hoisted the jolly Pressburger), a landmark film in British roger from a converted ferry situated in the Irish cinematography for its bold and expressive use of port of Greenore, to launch Radio Caroline on Good colour. Friday 1964; DJ Simon Dee opened the station The 1950s saw numerous productions including officially on Easter Sunday. Within a few months, the Doctor series, medical farces which were the Radio Caroline was attracting seven million listeners. predecessors to the Carry On films; the series New stations appeared and disappeared within the commenced with Doctor in the House (1954, Thomas) next nine months, including Radio Atlanta, Radio and led to a further six films. Other notable films 207, Caroline North, Radio Scotland and 370. of the 1950s era include the Prince and the Showgirl The Marine Offences Act laid down tight (1957, Olivier) starring Marilyn Monroe, Reach for control in 1967, in the same year that the BBC the Sky (1956, Gilbert), Carve Her Name with Pride restructured its services (from which emerged (1958, Gilbert), North West Frontier (1959, Radio 1). The first voice heard on Radio 1 was Thompson) and The Thirty-Nine Steps (1959, that of ex-Radio Luxembourg and pirate DJ Tony Thomas). This latter film was a reworking of John Blackburn. In this year the BBC also launched the Buchan’s novel, originally filmed by Hitchcock in first of their local radio stations, Radio Leicester 1939. Because of its innovation and expertise, (there are now thirty-five local stations). American production companies flocked to Piracy on the high seas saw its heyday from Pinewood and a major reinvestment was required. 1968 to 1970. Stations were raided, disappeared During the 1960s, four new stages were built to and only sporadically reappeared. Radio accommodate every aspect of film and television Geronimo, a survivor of the earlier raids, claimed production. This period also saw the start of the over two million listeners; Radio Veronica survived association between Pinewood and the James Bond until September 1972. Radio Jackie, a new station, series, which commenced in 1962 with Dr No appeared in 1969 and broadcast twenty-four hours (Young). The studios have continued to produce a day during 1970, and Radio North Sea imaginative and technically challenging material, International came on the air. such as Superman (1978, Donner), Superman II (1980, 1983 and 1984 marked the return of large-scale Lester), Superman III (1983, Lester), Superman IV: sea piracy in the form of Radio Laser and Radio The Quest for Peace (1987, Furie), Adventures of Baron Caroline, both transmitting from the North Sea. Land- Munchausen (1988, Gilliam) and Batman (1989, based pirates emerged, at first transmitting taped 398 playwrights music and then later live programmes in high-quality thanks to a crop of new playwrights, and also began stereo, twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. to attract fresh audiences. Middle-brow plays by As a result of this, the Telecommu-nications Act was Terence Rattigan (The Winslow Boy (1946), Separate passed in July 1984 to tighten up any loopholes that Tables (1955)) or Agatha Christie (The Mousetrap pirates operating on land might slip through. (1953)) gave way to plays located in ordinary settings Of the many land-based pirates to have rather than smart drawing rooms. The watershed is emerged, Radio Invicta, London Weekend Radio generally seen as John Osborne’s play Look Back in (LWR) and Dread Broadcasting Station (DBC), are Anger (1956), which railed against the Establishment the three most noteworthy. Radio Invicta led the and signalled the advent of the Angry Young Man way in black music pirates in 1970, as the first soul movement, where playwrights sought not so much pirate station. Started by soul enthusiast Tony to entertain as to outrage their audiences. Look Back Johns, it lasted fourteen years. The station played in Anger was set in a bedsit. An ironing board was a live for forty-eight hours over Christmas and New stage prop, and the abusive central character Jimmy Year in 1976, and received a summons and a fine Porter brow-beat his wife Alison for her class origins for it. At the same time, Robbie Vincent was given and her implication in the imperialist project of a soul show on Radio 1. LWR’s Tim Westwood Britain’s past (her father had been in the British army did for hip hop what Johns did for soul. On LWR in India), neither of which she could do anything you could hear mix tapes from local crews running about. Osborne boasted that the most pleasing thing side by side with their New York counterparts. In to him about the premiere of his play was the sound September 1984, Tim Westwood held a GLC- of the seats flipping up, as audience members left backed hip hop festival on the south bank in incensed by Jimmy Porter’s diatribes against his London that drew in a crowd of thirty thousand mother-in-law. One can detect the influence of people. He now hosts Radio 1’s Hip Hop show. Brecht’s alienation effect here, given a twist to attack Dread Broadcasting Corporation emerged around the British class system. 1981 to play reggae presented by Rastas. DBC used Osborne enabled the advent of writers like Joe echoes, sirens and all the sound effects used by Orton (Loot (1967), Entertaining Mr Sloane (1964)) sound systems in the bluesdance. In 1984, DBC and even Willy Russell (Educating Rita, Blood Brothers, disappeared off the airwaves; DBC’s Miss P was Shirley Valentine), as the theatre became for a time a recruited as a Radio 1 DJ. Globe FM’s DJ Jack- carnivalesque place where all social classes might Undercover, operating in Nottingham, 1996, points mix. Orton’s plays were iconoclastic and out how Radio 1’s strategy for survival in the 1990s outrageous, especially in the context of the is to poach new talent and audiences from the homophobic times in which they appeared, and pirates: he cites the recruitment of ex-pirates Lisa ironically in the 1990s, productions of them are L’Anson and Steve Edwards as evidence. well attended by groups of black-leather-clad homosexuals, for whom they have attained cult See also: commercial radio; DJs; Radio 1 status. Arnold Wesker arguably could also never have found an audience for his so-called ‘kitchen sink’ dramas without Look Back in Anger, although Further reading in practice he was helped by the fact that the Royal Hind, J. and Mosco, S. (1985) Rebel Radio: The Full Court theatre was state-subsidized to encourage Story of British Pirate Radio, London: Pluto. new work. His plays Roots (1959), The Kitchen (1961) and Chips with Everything (1962) were acclaimed at EUGENE LANGE the time and are still regularly revived, because they deal with and continue to relate to the problems playwrights and experience of ordinary people’s lives. Some critics suggest that the revival in British A middle-class enclave in the early 1950s, theatre theatre actually came from abroad. They cite the began to broaden towards the end of the decade visit to Britain in 1951 of Bertolt Brecht’s Berliner playwrights 399

Ensemble, and it is undeniable that Britain has often spotlighted publicity photo of them in their golden looked overseas for its dramatic influences. It has youth smilingly eagerly when they were full of hope always had an almost exaggerated respect for the and promise. The audience was left to make cruel European ‘greats’. So, university groups will comparisons between the past and the present and automatically stage Alfred Jarry’s Ubu Roi (1896), to draw its own conclusions about the ravages of Brecht’s Caucasian Chalk Circle (1948) or Mother age and the meaning of life. Courage (1941). Brecht’s influence and reputation Other influential Irish writers in recent years are now undoubtedly on the wane, but they have include Brendan Behan. His The Hostage (1958) has been very powerful. He stated himself that he regularly been staged in London. All of Brian Friel’s thought his future as a dramatist depended on the works, including Philadelphia Here I Come (1964), The survival of socialism, and it may be possible to map Faith Healer (1979), Translations (1980) and Dancing a shared decline. Botho Strauss suggested that a at Lughnasa (1990), have played to enthusiastic film like Alfred Hitchcock’s The Birds (1963) would audiences in Britain. Indeed, for a time it has outlast Mother Courage because it is mythic while seemed as though there was a total eclipse for the latter is instructive. British dramatists, with few exceptions. Ibsen and Strindberg are still studied in drama There has been a strong trend in political drama schools, although the latter is seldom performed spearheaded by David Hare (for example, The Secret in commercial theatres (an exception being There Rapture (1989), about Thatcher’s Britain in the Are Crimes and Crimes (1900) at The Haymarket, 1980s), Howard Brenton (Pravda, co-written with Leicester in April 1998). Productions of Ibsen’s Hare (1985) about Rupert Murdoch’s rise with Doll’s House (1879), however, enjoyed a vogue during News International), David Edgar (Destiny (1976) the second wave of feminism. Revivals of works about the National Front) and Trevor Griffiths (The by Arthur Miller or Tennessee Williams are also Gulf Between Us (1998) about the Gulf War). Other always popular, though less of an influence on British playwrights whose work has featured British playwrights. However, the playwrighting prominently in British theatre in the last two force which has really dominated British theatre in decades include Tom Stoppard, Alan Ayckbourn, the last ten years has been Irish. Caryl Churchill, Alan Bleasdale, Willy Russell, Irish playwrights from Sheridan, Congreve and Dennis Potter, Michael Frayn and Alan Bennett. Goldsmith to Wilde, Synge and Shaw for long Stoppard’s writing has been prolific and, after blazed a trail in British theatre. In much later times critics’ initial critical reservations (Kenneth Tynan Samuel Beckett’s work, though less frequently described Travesties (1974) as ‘a triple-decker bus, that performed at main ‘box office’ theatres, has become isn’t going anywhere’) has dominated the London a very powerful influence on British theatre in stage. He deals with witty, linguistically astute general. Waiting for Godot (1952) has developed into explorations of cross-purposes, existential questions, a standard college work for both study and and moral dilemmas in plays such as Rosencrantz and production. Happy Days (1961) and Endgame (1958) Guildenstern are Dead (1966), Jumpers (1972) and are staples of college syllabuses. Not I with Billie Arcadia (1993). His play Professional Foul (1977), an Whitelaw was first screened on BBC2 in 1977. attack on the repressive Czech regime, premiered Harold Pinter’s works The Birthday Party (1958) and on television and combined black humour with The Homecoming (1965), with their enigmatic silences serious ideological discussion in its treatment of the and their questioning of the possibilities of moral dilemmas facing a football-mad professor on communication perhaps owe most to the influence a freebie to a conference in Prague. He has to decide of Beckett. But even productions like that of whether or not to flout his hosts’ hospitality by Kingsley Amis’s The Old Devils at Theatr Clwyd in smuggling out of the country a manuscript given to 1989 posed the same nihilistic questions as Beckett, him by a former student. through the use of stage props. For example, as Alan Ayckbourn is a popular and perceptive actors (including the seventy-one-year-old lead) first playwright who has based himself at his own theatre appeared on stage, suspended above them was a in Scarborough. There he has staged a string of 400 playwrights successful productions, including Absurd Person McPherson—who have revitalized British theatre Singular (1972), in which a desperate woman over the past decade. Barry’s The Steward of repeatedly tries and fails to commit suicide while Christendom is reminiscent of Brian Friel’s Faith Healer, those around her remain entirely oblivious. and its favourable reception was only eclipsed by Caryl Churchill’s feminist work always relates that of Our Lady of Sligo, which played at the National to contemporary themes. She is best-known Theatre from April 1998 to rave reviews. perhaps for her two commercially successful plays, However, there is much home-grown talent Top Girls (1982) and Serious Money (1987). The latter which is reversing the trends referred to above, and is set in the greed-oriented City, when yuppies were many contemporary British dramatists are now in vogue. exporting their work. Some writers, including Alan Bleasdale’s work has mainly been seen on Malcolm Bradbury, see a revival in UK theatre at television, but he originated as a playwright for the the moment. Bradbury premiered his first play for theatre in Liverpool and took charge of Channel 4’s the theatre for thirty years, Inside Trading, at the new programme to encourage young writing talent. His Playhouse in Norwich in 1998. work includes Boys from the Blackstuff, an acclaimed Mark Ravenhill’s play Shopping and Fucking was series which, though set in Liverpool, articulated wildly popular at the Berlin Festival in 1998. He the misery being experienced by those on the dole has also written Handbag or The Importance of Being throughout Thatcher’s Britain. The catchphrases Someone, a witty but harrowing sequel to Oscar ‘gizzajob’ and ‘I can do that’, repeated by a character Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest (1895). Other in the play called Yosser Hughes, became names to look out for are Jim Cartwright, who commonplace around the country. Bleasdale’s play wrote I Licked a Slag’s Deodorant, Patrick Marber, GBH, about the right-wing takeover of a city council, Sarah Kane, Jez Butterworth, David Harrower, Ed also earned him national accolades and was Thomas and Rebecca Pritchard. The last named is compulsive watching on television. one of the Royal Court’s young prodigies. She has The multi-talented Willy Russell was heavily a gift for sharp dialogue, ribald humour and sudden involved with the film of his acclaimed play Shirley moments of pathos. These are evidenced in Ya r d Valentine, the story of a whimsical fancy which turns Gal, a co-production between the Royal Court and into a flight for freedom for the eponymous heroine Clean Break, a company that works with women to a new life on a Greek island. A measure of his offenders both inside and outside prison. Two girls, success as a dramatist is the fact that for this film, one black one white, reminisce hilar-iously about audiences—predominantly of housewives (or their misspent lives, but when the audience think ‘Shirley Valentines’) —queued round the block at the play is about to become homiletic (abusive local cinema venues throughout Britain. His play father; bad experience in children’s home) they are Educating Rita struck a chord with women forced to see and remember instead how much the everywhere, dealing as it did with the educational two girls look out for one another. aspirations of a working-class Liverpool woman Another notable young contemporary whose chauvinist husband seeks to thwart them in playwright is Ben Brown whose play All Things order to keep her as his own possession. It Considered was staged at the Hampstead Theatre in performed a necessary attack on the male 1997, when he was twenty-seven. It takes up the chauvinism of working class values, from within theme of Ayckbourn’s Absurd Person Singular the class rather than from outside. It has been mentioned above, and in it an Oxbridge professor translated into numerous languages and made into of philosophy decides to commit suicide, but is a successful film (set in Trinity College Dublin) with prevented from doing so by a succession of visitors Michael Caine and Julie Walters. who bring their own problems to him for solution. The most recent ‘invader’ of British theatre has Critics found it derivative (Simon Gray’s Butley and been another young Irish writer, Sebastian Barry. Christopher Hampton’s The Philanthropist), but it He is one of the astonishing new wave of Irish built well on these initial influences and eschewed playwrights—others include Billy Roche and Conor a tendency among young contemporary writers to poetry 401 deal with inner city despair and presented instead moving far from the kinds of metrics that the boulevard comedy: the play opens with the suicidal preceding years and poets had given them. don wearing a plastic bag on his head like an absurd The best illustration of this relative stasis in hat. Sarah Kane is another very talented female form, voice and aspect is to be found in the way playwright, whose Cleansed played at the Royal that two collections of poems may be said to stand Court in 1977. Her talent is to create a hermetic for the beginning and end of the century: Thomas world of obsessive misery and horror, and she does Hardy’s Poems of 1912–13 and Ted Hughes’s not so much prescribe solutions to social problems Birthday Letters are both collections written after the as enable the audience to understand the lives of death of a wife, the first immediately after and the others. It can thus fairly be said that the theatre as second apparently nearly thirty-five years after the a medium, and the playwrights who write for it, deaths of the women in question. They are both are still handling both the problems of day-to-day awkwardly passionate, haunted by guilt and lost life and questions of existentialism. love, and oddly similar in their metrical elaboration. Unconsciously, they enclose the century in a circle See also: actors (female); actors (male); directors; of theme and form. theatre W.B.Yeats (1865–1939) wrote a poem in which he listed in a wittily rhythmic pattern the names of his contemporaries, a form mimicked equally Further reading wittily by Anthony Thwaite in a 1975 poem. It Chambers, C. and Prior, M. (1987) Playwright’s would be tempting to list the poets published in Progress: Patterns of Postwar British Drama, Oxford: the British Isles in the latter half of the twentieth Amber Lane Press. century in alphabetical order, but such a list would extend far beyond he limits of this entry. It is MIKE STORRY perhaps more useful, then, to consider the issues which have relevance and significance to the poetry writing, publishing and reading of poetry in the latter half of the twentieth century in Britain. It is a commonly acknowledged truism that reading The first consideration is that poetry, as it is and writing poetry are both valued and difficult generally conceived, perceived and published, is a exercises. Poetry has an important cultural position product of high culture and art: not all publishing because it is often manifestly difficult, made so by houses in the British Isles have had a poetry list. the apparent obscurity of its allusiveness and the Faber & Faber, the Oxford University Press, disruption of syntax and narrative direction. Its Jonathan Cape and, more recently, Bloodaxe and complications require that the reader must learn Carcanet have been amongst the strongest new rules and recognize patterns that are embedded publishers of poetry. The older publishers have and hidden in a text that is observably different in used other parts of their lists to subsidize poetry, its lexis and form from that of prose; it possesses while regional and national arts’ funding bodies explicitly and implicitly the constituents of high art. have supported the newer houses. Its nature has been characterized as being Reading poetry, or listening to its reading, is something that we have to be taught, as in dancing, considered a reflective, thoughtful, profound, even as opposed to that which we learned, walking; and at times somewhat sombre activity. Performance yet in its use of patterns of rhythm, rhyme poetry, which calls for rhythmic participation from (sometimes) and metrics it invokes the prevocal and its audience and sometimes even laughter, is seen, corporeal which lie beneath and come before perhaps wrongly, as a surrender to levity. Despite language. If it is possible to characterize a ‘British’ all the attempts to demonstrate that poetry’s motto poem of the second half of the century, it would be is ‘make it new’, it is an indication of a pervasive the lyric narrative, borrowing from the poet’s life— conservatism that the favourite poem of the British often using a first person narrative voice—and not people, as recorded in a poll in 1995, was Rudyard 402 poetry

Kipling’s ‘If’. However, a 1996 BBC television achieving this distinction, their work effaces that telephone poll for the favourite poem written since of those who are their near contemporaries or who 1945 gave the prize to Jenny Joseph’s ‘Warning’, a predate them. As examples, Thomas Hardy, sharply witty poem that anticipates the pleasures of Edward Thomas and John Betjeman are seen as a woman’s wildness in her old age. It may merely Larkin’s poetic antecedents; it is a kind of influence reveal how unrepresentative telephone polls can be. spotting that ignores the more important If the reader now looks back to the beginning recognition of, for example, Larkin’s consciousness of the 1960s and the poetry appearing in original of his poetry’s relationship to Wordsworth’s in the texts and anthologies, poetry seemed in large use of meditative stances (Larkin’s ‘The Old Fools’ measure to be the creative second job of male (1974) is a transumption of Wordsworth’s university teachers of literature. There were ‘Intimations of Immortality’). Further, such a eccentrics and primitives, but they were often given creation of a hierarchy can mean that powerful and the same status as primitive painters: subjects for important poets become excluded or at best an almost anthropological study rather than critical marginalized until rescued by partisan conviction evaluation and enjoyment. Women, if they and advocacy: Basil Bunting’s work serves as an appeared in those anthologies, were either safe example of this tendency. ‘Briggflatts’ is one of the because they were not going to embarrass any best long poems of this century, but his poetry has reader by being, as Jeni Couzyn has pointed out, struggled to take its place in the consciousness of ‘too female’, or because they were, as Alfred Alvarez the poetry reading public. There is now a Basil claimed for Sylvia Plath, ‘[steering] clear of feminine Bunting Archive at the University of Durham; charm, deliciousness, gentility, supersensitivity, the although he was an internationalist, cosmopolitan act of being a poet.’ There were even anthologizers thinker and writer, financial exigency forced him who thought that there were no women poets who to become a sub-editor on the regional newspapers were worth including in their selections. published in the city of Newcastle upon Tyne. The anthologizers and critics have regularly In an essay first written in 1974 but published over these years celebrated newness, vividness, in his 1980 collection of essays, Preoccupations, originality and a strongly empiricist stance on the Seamus Heaney names the poets he thinks part of the poet under scrutiny; anything much of constitute a joint linguistic and thematic hierarchy a metaphysics or a veering towards at the forefront of British poetry. He names first transcendentalism are not things that are valued Ted Hughes for his choosing a language and, or celebrated. The most famous photograph of a increasingly, themes which reached back into Norse British poet from the 1950s and 1960s might well and Germanic linguistic roots and mythology; be Philip Larkin in a belted gabardine fawn second comes Geoffrey Hill, for his latinate raincoat, wheeling a bicycle through an overgrown language that explores a medieval world and its churchyard; the picture serendipitously gathers in renaissance continuance; finally, in Larkin’s work two of his best-known poems, ‘Church Going’ and he finds a summation and incorporation of all of the later ‘Whitsun Weddings’ The rather shallow these cullings from the past and his own wider readings of his poems led to a sloppy christening historical sense into the most potent and redolent of him as ‘the laureate of the suburbs’. Ironically, language and subject matter. Was it because Thorn the two poems actually explore the possibility of Gunn had by then moved to California that he had forms of transcendental experience by way of denial been replaced in the triumvirate? By a further irony, and frustrated desire. Seamus Heaney has become the central poet of Out of the anthologizers’ lists of ‘approved’ ‘British’ experience in the years since he wrote of poets and the genteel publicists’ celebrations of the those others, a process that culminated in his being daringly safe and the safely daring, a kind of awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1995. hierarchy emerged. The poets whose work first This universal recogntion of the worth of achieved eminence were Ted Hughes, Thorn Gunn Heaney’s poetry points to the way in which poetry and Philip Larkin. It is worth looking at how, in has moved in the latter part of this century. The poetry 403 central themes which transcend and subsume the the other could be an indifference that sometimes names of individual poets and which trace the touched contempt. course of poetry’s route to the present have been a Themes from the margins have crowded in questioning of those previously held canonical upon Britain, and there is one other that has assumptions which created inclusions and enormous significance: the European experience exclusions in poetry publishers’ lists and of the Holocaust and of totalitarian oppression. anthologizers’ choices. There has been a This has produced a literature which some might concomitant setting up of powerful publishing argue we have been fortunate to avoid, but which houses outside the cultural metropolis, a place not puts into perspective the concerns of much British too far culturally or topographically from poetry: still introspective, lyrical in mode and self- Bloomsbury. It has meant a moving to what some conscious in its representation of disregard of that have seen as the margins from that cosmopolitan wider, darker world (although Ireland’s long agony centre. At its best, this has meant a confrontation has made that unfortunate difference for British with the real and terrible; at its worst, an unearned poetry). It is worth remembering that the and unworthy posturing. The poetry of Heaney, totalitarian regimes of Eastern Europe thought Michael Longley, U.A. Fanthorpe, Geoffrey Hill poets were important enough to imprison or to be and Adrian Mitchell provide examples from the sent into internal exile and deprived of the right to whole of this spectrum of responses. earn a living. In the best poetry there has been a necessary The writing and reading of poetry has remained reengagement with the grinding pains of recent a mark of high cultural achievement: poetry texts history. Adrian Mitchell is quoted as saying that are often regarded as difficult in a paradoxical way. nobody is interested in poetry because poetry isn’t Very rarely, unless the poet is Christopher Reid, is interested in anything; a claim his own poetry the vocabulary obscure or recondite, but the attempted to challenge when he wrote about the structural density of the text, the complexity of West’s involvement in Vietnam in the 1960s and allusion and the definitive recourse to figuration early 1970s. The most powerful poetry in the British mean that reading poetry calls for an armoury of Isles takes on personal, regional and national critical and cultural weaponry, tactical sprightliness histories that reflect the consequences of class, in line-by-line reading, and a consciously chosen racial, political and gendered experience. The strategy of interpretation. Critical and theoretical emergence of poets who wrote about being out on writing have been taken up with the exploration the margins, in whatever way, meant that they drew and combative critique of the strategies for reading those margins to the centre of their readers’ poetry and of the place of poetry within the widest attention. It is no accident that the long torment of of critical contexts. At the same time, poetry has the north of Ireland has produced from Ireland the often been ignored in that its cultural exclusivity most powerful poetry of the last half-century, has meant that it does not impinge on the lives of though hardly ever as a directly polemical or many except in a formal, formulaic, even ritualistic crudely partisan intervention. way, as suggested by the choice of ‘If’ as an enduring These poetries of engagement have revealed favourite poem. It remains remarkable that the most unexplored territories: poets have come to Britain often-used poetry appears in the ‘Deaths’ and ‘In out of the long shadow of an imperial and colonial Memoriam’ columns of British regional and local past to remind us of what that experience meant newspapers, where anonymously composed, and of how change has been quicker and more sentimental elegiac couplets, supplied by the fundamental than Britain has sometimes realized newspapers from catalogued lists, commemorate or seemed to want. Poets as various as Peter Porter, the deceased loved ones of those who have paid Benjamin Zephaniah, Fred D’Aguiar, James Berry, for the insertion of the entries. Beverley Brown, Jackie Kay and Derek Walcott (an earlier Nobel laureate) remind Britain of their and See also: Martian Poets; Mersey Poets; its otherness, where the one was an indictment and performance poetry; poetry anthologies 404 poetry anthologies

Further reading event in the poetry world for many years…’, and Childs, P. (1998) The Twentieth Century in Poetry, ends, ‘it has been taken up as a set text for many London: Routledge. school and university courses’. In their O’Brien, S. (1998) The Deregulated Muse, Newcastle: confrontation with past and contemporary foes, Bloodaxe. anthology editors claim their selection’s victory. Nevertheless, the most worthwhile development JIM MALONEY has been the geographical spread of poetry presses with quirky anthologizing principles; almost every poetry anthologies British region possesses at least one publisher of poetry. Bloodaxe in Newcastle upon Tyne and For many, their first meeting with poetry is the Carcanet in Manchester serve as exemplary models anthology, as school reader, GCSE or A-level set for many others. text. The selection principle in anthologies is rarely made explicit. Nevertheless this is how, unnoticing, See also: poetry; poetry in the 1970s; poetry in the readers begin to regard literature’s worth and value 1980s; poetry in the 1990s canonically. It is therefore important to interrogate the process of selection and justification. Further, Further reading some politicians, who have responsibility for Longley, E. (1996) ‘Signposting the Century’, Poetry curriculum direction, believe that encouraging or Review 86(1): 8–12. directing curriculum managers to prescribe their contents can promote an ‘approved’ poetic culture. JIM MALONEY A wide spectrum of anthologizing agendas exists: gendered, chronological, regional and national are poetry in the 1970s all present. The reader must not only examine the selection of poets but the editorial principles The 1970s mark a point of transition in poetry. In expressed by the anthologizers’ introductions. For 1974, Philip Larkin published his last collection of example, the almost total omission of women poets poems, High Windows. The poets, mainly men, in earlier anthologies seems inexplicable, were it not whose work had been published for twenty or in some cases deliberately and insultingly ‘justified’. thirty years or even more, continued to be There is, however, an important line of collections published, but for many the end of their creative with claims to the term ‘key anthology’. It runs at lives was approaching. The most powerful least from Robert Conquest’s New Lines (1956) influences were Thomas Hardy (1840–1928) and, through Alfred Alvarez’s The New Poetry (1962) and more covertly, Edward Thomas (1878–1917). Edward Lucie-Smith’s British Poetry Since 1945 (1970, There was a lack of influence in the poetry of the revised 1985), to Blake Morrison and Andrew time, and in earlier decades, of the work of the Motion’s Penguin Book of Contemporary British Poetry more obviously modernist poetry of Ezra Pound (1982), and on to Jeni Couzyn’s Bloodaxe Book of (1885–1972), T.S. Eliot (1888–1965) or even Contemporary Women Poets (1985) and The New British W.H.Auden (1907–73). Poetry (1988), edited by Eric Mottram, Gillian Allnutt, This decade saw the poetry of the powerful Fred D’Aguiar and Ken Edwards. The latest is writers emerge from the jostling mob into the Bloodaxe’s The New Poetry Anthology (1993), edited permanent critical memory, gathering regard and by Michael Hulse, David Morley and David judicious admiration. Tony Harrison, Douglas Kennedy. ‘New’ is the key word as each struggles to Dunn, Geoffrey Hill, Seamus Heaney, Ruth Pitter claim power and relevance for its anthologized poets. and U.A.Fanthorpe are amongst a host of those The anthologists reveal their desire to shock and worth reading. The influence of poetry being surprise, claiming relevance and centrality. In the written in other countries seems minimal: especially same paragraph of promotional comment, one lacking is the sprightliness, speed and power of anthology praises itself as, ‘the most controversial intellectual control and emotional dynamics found poetry in the 1980s 405 in European and American poetry. Even in the most of greed. One of the most interesting of 1980s’ challenging British poetry there is a sense of the poetic productions was Caryl Churchill’s Serious prepared ‘set piece’ in which all the movements Money, a play that used a subtle and sprightly verse are rigidly mapped. A partial breakout might have form for a sardonic anatomy and an angry existed in the work of Craig Raine, where a celebration of that greed. deracinated metaphysical style reworked the The subjects that engaged poets were as various ordinary into the fantastic with flip-flopping, as the poets themselves, but the decade reinforced metaphoric trickery. The signature poem, ‘A the emergence of a variety of voices that celebrated Martian Sends A Postcard Home’, gave a name to a burgeoning diversity in their lives. There is the the manner and drew a line under the Martian sense of the poets writing out of their lives and ‘movement’ (see Martian Poets). their sometimes painful contexts: Tony Harrison’s At the same time a multitude of poetic voices ‘V’ (1985), a poem broadcast on television in 1987, that were to break the cosmopolitan and centralizing meditated upon violence and the impoverishment hegemony of the London-based ‘academic’ poetry of contemporary speech following the vandalising emerged. Black Afro-Caribbean, women’s and of the Leeds cemetery where his parents were regional poetic voices that were seen not as buried. It incorporated commentary on the year- remarkable primitifs but as authentic and variant long National Union of Mineworkers strike in its voices were published. They often took their vivid narrative. The Mrs Grundys only heard the richness from the coming together of poets in street crudity of some of the language and chose regional centres: the Morden Tower readings, not to understand its contextualization within the organized by Tom Pickard in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, poem. The 1989 Bloodaxe edition of the poem brought American beat and Black Mountain poetry contained critical and documentary material which in a direct way to British writers and readers. gives a clear sense of the poem’s reception. The break-up of the slightly complacent A characteristic and illustrative cause célèbre of consensuality of an earlier generation came 1980s poetry was the proposal that the black violently and vividly at the end of the 1960s and performance poet, Benjamin Zephaniah, should be both in Britain and across the world was awarded a fellowship at Cambridge University. The exacerbated in the 1970s. The most memorable refusal had a subtext of denial that he was not a poetry of this decade and the next is a commentary poet since his work was political, aware of its upon that exacerbation. blackness, often racially angry as well as funny, and meant to be delivered in a driving, rhythmically See also: poetry; poetry anthologies; poetry in the powerful way that owed much to black music from 1980s; poetry in the 1990s jazz to rap. The city and University of Liverpool offered him a fellowship and in return received a Further reading year’s work of powerful, admonitory and Jones, P. and Schmidt, M. (eds) (1980) British Poetry sometimes wryly celebratory poetry. Since 1970: A Critical Survey, Manchester: In the 1980s the emergence of ‘difference’ in poetry Carcanet. could be embodied in the exemplary figure, Eavan Boland, even though her first collection dates back to JIM MALONEY 1967. In the 1980s her great strength was that she was a woman born in Ireland and writing as one living in that country during a time of unending conflict. poetry in the 1980s She creates a language of awareness and meditative In Britain the 1980s began in 1979, when the long power that can serve as a reference for all else that national political domination of the Conservatives goes on both in writing and the real world. in national government began, and the 1980s became synonymous with the jingoistic nationalism See also: poetry; poetry anthologies; poetry in the of post-Falklands triumphalism and the celebration 1970s; poetry in the 1990s 406 poetry in the 1990s

Further reading important to recognize that many of the poets writing so variously and powerfully in the 1990s Kennedy, D. (1996) New Relations: The Refashioning have been writing for many years: Alan Brownjohn, of British Poetry 1980–94, Glamorgan: Seren. Edith Scovell, Anne Stevenson, Anthony Thwaite JIM MALONEY and Derek Walcott have all been publishing for at least the last thirty years. All their work is characterized by a determination to celebrate what poetry in the 1990s it means to be an individual separate from but held within a world that changes; in the world in which In the middle of the decade, Neil Astley, one of they must live, the subjective experiences they British poetry’s most powerful publishers and poets, record seek to impact upon that much larger mass asked the question, ‘Is poetry the new rock ’n’ roll?’ of the world’s objectivity, and make it seem different Someone is always asking, ‘is X the new rock ’n’ and surprising. roll?’; but it is instructive that poetry could make In the 1990s British poetry has caught up a little it, even putatively, into that litany. What is true is with its peers, articulating a quickness and vividness that more poetry books are being sold than ever of response seen for much longer, more vigorously before. Though the reason might be that the and more variously in American and European compilation of anthologies, using all kinds of poetry (particularly Eastern European). The 1990s, thematic focuses—bereavement and political ironically and tragically, provide themes for poetry resistance anthologies give an indication of the that break out of the precious and academic and range—has become an effective marketing device. speak powerfully and directly. At the beginning of They have become the recipe books of poetry the decade the Gulf War provoked in Britain publishing, but they remind us that the recognition meditative pieces on the televised horror of that of resonant topics and themes do attract readers. war. Tony Harrison’s ‘Cold Coming’ was printed Poetry in the 1990s is a cultural activity that is beneath the burned black rictus grin of a dead Iraqi promoted and marketed professionally and even soldier’s head; the soldier had been caught in the ruthlessly: the London Underground publishes firestorm bombing by US aircraft as he fled from poems on poster sites on its network. There is an Kuwait. The poem’s title and subject commented annual national Poetry Day. Poetry reading has on US male fighting forces in the Gulf having spilled over from Radio 3 to Radio 4 to Radio 2 ensured a store of their frozen semen would be and even Radio 1. Large public companies have available back home to fertilize their partners’ employed ‘poets in residence’ in their corporate ovum, should they fail to return. As a topical headquarters’ offices. The Internet offers the extension of the anthologizing principle that has possibility of a kind of vanity publishing of poetry been so powerful a publicization of poetry, editors at much lower cost. have given space to writing on the particular horrors The most worthwhile part of this phenomenon of the war in Bosnia in the middle of the decade. is that poets who might otherwise not find a public Against this kind of occasional writing, the work outlet for their writing do have the opportunity to of Alastair Elliott can stand as a reminder that the take their work out of their notebooks and off their reworking of autobiography into meditative, floppy discs. The means of propagation are very narrative lyric produces from the personal and often the real competitions run by regional arts private a wider significance. bodies, poetry magazines, national newspapers, Although poets in this new dispensation are still colleges and universities. This route has brought concerned to signal their particular position, the some poets to prominence and to publishing element of posturing and establishing falsely contracts. Those in the Observer and Stand are the oppositional stances seems to have passed. Good outstanding national competitions. publishers are concerned not to tokenize the lists While it is worth acknowledging the success of of those published but to selection for variety and such means of discovering new voices, it is true quality, and to encourage experimentation in police 407 form: Craig Raine’s History: The Home Movie (1994) and Art, London: St Martin’s Press/ is a good example of such experimentalism, a single- Macmillan. handed attempt to revive the long poem. JIM MALONEY At the same time, there is a clear sense that poetry’s most persistent, post-romantic form of meditative, very often autobiographically based lyric is, if not poetry slams beset, then certainly being reworked with an emphasis upon the requirements of form, to the point where These are open-floor events in which poets compete the term ‘New Formalism’ has acquired capital letters. by performing their poetry for prizes such as cash A characteristic example would be the work of Glyn or theatre tickets. Each competitor reads three Maxwell; his poetry displays elaborately formal minutes of poetry to an audience that includes a qualities, and he has produced versions of Ovid’s panel of five judges with score cards. The scores poetry acknowledging imitatively its formal regularity are added up as the ‘slam’ develops, and usually and complexity. Ted Hughes has produced an equally first, second and third prizes are awarded. Some formally elaborate version of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, events are sponsored by book shops or literary entitled Tales from Ovid, as well as Birthday Letters, about festivals, and book tokens or festival tickets may his relationship with Sylvia Plath. be given to all entrants. ‘Hungry’ poets often arrive What is best in 1990s poetry is variety. New early to ensure they make the list of readers. At the poetic forms, in each manifestation, appear certain UK National Poetry Slam in London there are both of their rightness and of their difference. Helen individual and team competitions (in the latter, a Dunmore has noted that women made hardly any group of poets read a combination of their work appearances in poetry texts in the earlier years of on a particular theme). postwar Britain’s cultural life, and characterized this as being created by ‘…mainstream publishers See also: black performance poets; Johnson, [building] up their lists [by] “discovering” bright Linton Kwesi; performance poetry young men from Oxford and Cambridge who would EUGENE LANGE keep British poetry ticking over’. Her sharply perceptive comment, that ‘this photocopying process led to a lack of excitement’, sums up the deadening police quality of some poetry, out of which there has been a slow break-out into the newness that remains the The tactics of the police for controlling public talismanic badge of success and worth so proudly disorders, such as the 1981 city riots, industrial displayed whether it is won or merely claimed. The disputes (such as at Orgreave in 1984) and the Barthesian claim that every reading is a new writing environmental protests of the mid-1990s, have been throws the challenge back upon the reader, asking criticized as over-violent and militaristic. The all who read to reflect upon the strategies of reading persistence of sexism and racism in the ranks has they use, so that in all the uncertainties of reading also been identified as a reason why sections of the there is a gently guiding awareness of how it is being population distrust the police. Notoriously, the carried out and of the very real pleasures to be taken over-policing of ethnic minorities in the inner cities from it. prompted widespread disturbances in the 1980s. In the last twenty years, the police have adapted to See also: performance poetry; poetry anthologies; financial hardship in a period of reduced public poetry in the 1970s; poetry in the 1980s spending, in three ways. First, there has been a ‘civilianization’ of non-essential services so as to free up police officers. Second, in some areas the Further reading police have relied on closed circuit television Day, G. and Docherty, B. (eds) (1997) British cameras. Last, private agencies have been Poetry from the 1950s to the 1990s: Politics contracted to provide police services. 408 political consumerism

There has therefore been a reduction in police political correctness services, which have been taken over by private security companies (in 1994 there were for the first Although having a distinguished ancestry in the time more private security officers than police race relations and equal opportunities acts of the officers). This has led some to conclude that the 1970s, the concern with political correctness can experiment in public policing is now ending, and be traced to the American academic community of police services will return to the traditional private the mid-1980s. Its advocates argue that language, organization of law and order. Despite this, the being value-laden, is a site of power relations. Thus police enjoy the popular support of the general terms and symbols loaded with discriminatory public, who approved of organizational initiatives nuances of sex, race, sexuality, body image, age such as community policing and campaigns against and disability should be subject to democratic property crime such as ‘Operation Bumble Bee’, redress. Attributed in the UK to the Left’s which was launched against domestic burglary in powerlessness during the Conservative Party’s 1995. Television crime drama programmes such administration of the 1980s and early 1990s, it as The Bill and Inspector Morse have also became a source of derision in the popular media, demonstrated the popularity of ‘England’s finest’. mostly through wilful misinterpretation. The state meanwhile tries to ignore semantic disagreements See also: armed forces and police in pursuing the promotion of equal opportunities in a multicultural society.

Further reading See also: libel, defamation and privacy; prejudice; Reiner, R. (1992) The Politics of the Police, 2nd edn, Race Relations Acts Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

BARRY GODFREY Further reading Feldstein, R. (1998) Political Correctness, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. political consumerism GORDON URQUHART As society becomes increasingly consumption- centred, so the power of the consumer replaces other forms of political power. Boycotts of political publications companies, products of particular countries and Daily newspapers are often associated with general individual products represent a successful strategy political standpoints, which can be manifested, of protest, causing financial damage and adverse particularly at election times, in more specific party publicity. Campaigning groups such as Third views. Election day in 1992 was notable for the World First advocate avoidance of firms trading Sun’s denunciation of Neil Kinnock’s Labour Party. unethically in developing countries, and boycotts Interestingly, the Sun, which claimed that it had centred on environmentalism (often grouped won that election for John Major, switched its under the banner of green consumerism), animal alliance to the Labour Party in 1997. More rights and human rights abuses, employment specifically, there are a number of weekly and conditions and other ethical issues are a common monthly political publications, some of which are feature of contemporary life. By shopping ethically independent of party politics but which may have and politically, consumers believe they can put a broad perspective, and others that are more significant pressure on the economies of nations closely aligned to a party or a narrower political and the profits of corporations, and thus effect view. A good example of the former is Socialist change. Worker, a well-produced weekly paper (also available DAVID BELL as a monthly review) linked directly to the Socialist politics 409

Workers Party and generally sold directly by party animals), while for others, politics refers to the members and activists. Similarly, there is the glossy activities and processes associated with government. Living Marxism, the product of another far left group. A common misunderstanding is the equation The fragmentation of the Left in the 1960s allowed of politics and democracy. While opinions differ for a plethora of these types of publications (of on this, is it more correct to view democracy as a varying quality) to appear, with some militant particular form of politics and political systems. groups with as few as fifty members preparing and Political systems can take different forms ranging producing their own publication to sell at rallies, from liberal democracies in the West to events and street corners. Also, there are a number authoritarian, non-democratic systems found in the of more broadly based political publications such former communist states or the fascist states of as, on the Left, New Statesman and Society and Red Franco’s Spain or Hitler’s Germany. Pepper, and on the centre right, the Spectator. While Politics can be seen as an activity as opposed to a some of these are broadly based and others espouse set of rules, the aim of which is to solve collective a particular ideological line, some have broadened problems and make decisions without resorting to their ambit to cover more cultural issues in an violence or force. It presumes plurality, disagreement attempt to capture more of the burgeoning and is a continuous process, rather than a finished publishing market and as a response to the changing product. Winston Churchill expressed a common political environment. view of politics when he said that ‘jaw-jaw is better A prominent and influential publication, than war-war’, a view echoed in Bernard Crick’s Marxism Today emerged from the divisions within famous In Defence of Politics, where he notes that the Communist Party and represented an attempt ‘Politics, then, is a way of ruling in divided societies to reposition a more traditional Marxist analysis without undue violence’ (1962:141). within a contemporary society. At its heart was an Many people have a cynical assessment of acknowledgement that newer generations of politicians, political parties and other aspects of political philosophers were becoming increasingly politics, seeing them as at best ‘necessary evils’ and influential, for example, Antonio Gramsci’s politics at worst a corrupt, ignoble, deceitful activity writings on the function of areas of society (such only engaged in for personal rewards. A more as culture) within the political process. Marxism Today positive account can be found in Crick, who holds was an indication of not only the past history of politics, in keeping with the ancient Greeks, to be the Left and the splits surrounding the legitimacy ‘a type of moral activity; it is free activity, and it is of the Soviet Union but also the changing political inventive, flexible, enjoyable and human’ analysis which sought to embrace new elements of (1962:141). This view of politics sees it as a noble civil society such as popular culture. calling, one which engages some of the highest aspirations of humanity, a desire to better one’s See also: fringe parties; Marxism community through public service, pursue and work for the public good. GUY OSBORN However, even if we accept the spirit of Crick’s STEVE GREENFIELD positive assessment of politics, there remains the problem, associated with Niccolo Machiavelli, that politics politics and political activity often require one to engage in less than moral action for some ‘greater Politics has been described as ‘who gets what, when, good’. For Machiavelli, ‘realpolitik’, that is the real- where and how’, ‘the art of the possible’, and in world context of political necessity and decision less polite terms as anything to do with people making, sometimes requires extremely difficult scheming, manipulating or otherwise abusing or decisions the nature of which are departures from seeking power or influence over others. For normal moral standards. feminists, ‘the personal is political’; for the ancient Greeks humans were ‘zoon politikon’ (political See also: Marxism; philosophy 410 poll tax

Further reading As the tax was based upon the electoral register, it was also claimed that the poll tax had an Crick, B. (1962) In Defence of Politics, undemocratic element. Because some of the poorer Harmondsworth: Penguin. sections of society may have remained off the Machiavelli, N. (1513) The Prince, Harmondsworth: register, the Conservative Party secured a larger Penguin, 1981. victory at the 1992 election than would otherwise JOHN BARRY have been the case. It was the widespread unpopularity of the tax which resulted in its downfall. Organized poll tax campaigns of non-payment and rioting in Trafalgar Square are the most public examples of popular A poll tax is a tax levied upon individuals at a flat resistance. After the change of leadership in rate per capita within a given geographical area. The November 1990, the ‘Tory Titanic’, as MP John community charge, which was to become known as Biffen had labelled it, sank. the poll tax, was introduced initially in Scotland, with the first bills due for payment in April 1989. In See also: Conservative governments; England and Wales, registration began in 1989 and Thatcherism payments became due one year later. The poll tax was introduced with a number of Further reading objectives in mind. The primary justification for a Esam, P. and Oppenheim, C. (eds) (1989) A Charge reform of local government taxation was the issue On The Community The Poll Tax, Benefits and The of accountability. Due to the unpopularity of the Poor, London: CPAG Limited. ‘rates’ (the taxation system the poll tax was to replace), successive governments had given grants ALASTAIR LINDSLEY to local authorities to enable them to maintain expenditure levels without increasing rates pop and rock proportionally. Therefore, an increasing amount of local authority expenditure was financed by Defining what does and does not constitute pop central government. Local electors could vote for and rock (or more simply ‘popular music’) is increased services knowing they would only have difficult. The criteria could be ethnic, generic or to pay a small proportion of the cost. The Thatcher geographical, or relate to ownership, modes of administration, faced with this situation of limited production or consumption, or factors such as age accountability, introduced poll tax to establish or class. The mythical ‘birth of rock ’n’ roll’ —the accountability and curb spending. first successful ‘youth’ style to achieve global impact Criticism of the poll tax was varied and —is usually located around 1955; there are widespread. Most notably, due to the flat rate conjunctural factors—demographic, economic, nature of the tax, it was criticized for its regressive generic and technological—that reinforce this nature (which is to say, the incidence fell particular date. Often overlooked is the shift in disproportionately on lower income groups), status between the live performance and the despite some exemptions. Animadversion of this recording that also takes place during the 1950s. nature was not limited to the Left; within the In this decade, pop’s audience increasingly Conservative Party, MPs Sir George Young and consumed the music via processes of mediation. Michael Mates both put forward amendments in Elvis Presley was the first major figure to tip the the House of Commons which sought to vary the balance decisively in favour of recordings, television incidence of the tax in relation to income. These and film. Popular music from this period on was amendments were defeated. The regressive nature an essentially commercially mediated form, as of the tax had also been noted outside parliament, distinct from previously successful idioms and styles where popular opposition grew. such as jazz, folk music, blues and ‘tin pan alley’. pop and rock 411

1950s rock ’n’ roll was mainly a teen to some extent, filtered into almost all forms of phenomenon. As the 1960s progressed, and in the popular music. wake of the unprecedented global impact of The Since 1964, Britain has been a hugely influential Beatles, the audience for pop rapidly broadened. force in global popular music. Being a small country The 1960s saw the first attempts in Britain to with a centralized music press and the tendency validate pop as an art form in ways similar to the to experiment and innovate in the areas of youth incorporation of film into a high-culture canon interest (particularly music and fashion) has some years earlier. Many view 1967 as the resulted in a large number of subcultural highwater mark of pop as a unified artistic and developments of a specifically British nature cultural movement, ‘the year it all came together’, achieving widespread attention. These range from in theorist Simon Frith’s terms. Following this Merseybeat and mod, through to skinheads, punk, specific moment, the beginnings of fragmentations rave and Britpop. Scenes based on one specific based on factors such as race, age, sex, class and area have also made an impact, from the days of genre began to surface, and these have since ‘swinging London’ through to the ‘Madchester’ become more pronounced. The construction of club scene (see clubs) in the late 1980s and the ‘rock’ with its connotations of authenticity, Bristol-based ‘trip hop’ culture of the early 1990s. profundity and virtuosity, as opposed to ‘pop’, With the proliferation of media outlets for popular characterized by many as ephemeral, commercially music that is a feature of the contemporary era, we standardized and immature, that begins to gain a now have the impetus of advertisers seeking to target hold in Britain during the late 1960s sets the tone specific niche markets through ‘narrowcasting’ and for many subsequent binary distinctions: white ever more distinct formatting, particularly on radio. rock versus black soul, art versus entertainment, In the 1990s, under the broad umbrella of ‘dance’, and underground versus commercial. There is there were at any one time dozens of identifiable sub- often a barely concealed class-based agenda at work divisions all servicing the lifestyle needs of disparate in drawing upon such distinctions. audiences. Despite the important musical crossovers Progressive rock, fusing elements of blues, jazz, achieved during the post-punk era, other factors avant-garde and classical music idioms, was the contrive to reinforce cultural fragmentation, and the dominant form for the bourgeois audience for pop trend seems likely to continue. from the late 1960s to the mid-1970s. By 1975 the The post-rock ’n’ roll era has witnessed the distinctions between this form (and others such as gradual shift away from ensemble playing of acoustic heavy metal), as opposed to those styles aimed and amplified ‘traditional’ instruments towards more at the disco or ‘commercial’ market, were at studio-based styles utilizing electronic and digital their widest. instrumentation, thus allowing for performance The impact of punk rock and roots reggae, removed from the constraints of dexterity, real time the emergence of a European sensibility which and established notions of artistry. By the early 1980s largely dispensed with the dominant values of ‘soul’ complete albums were being programmed rather and ‘warmth’, and the increasing availabilities of than played using early digital microcomposers, new technologies all combined to reshape music, sequencers and drum machines, a successful example and audiences, in the late 1970s. More importantly, being the Human League’s Dare, in 1981. In very by the mid-1980s the rock mainstream’s hostility broad terms this has benefited musical styles based to dance music (and ‘pop’ in general) had upon notions of groove, cyclical repetition and ‘cut diminished, and important styles based upon the and paste’ collage. Music composition has in many fusion of elements, cultures and genres such as new cases come to resemble architecture, manifested romantic, electro, house and hip hop made an visibly as bits and bytes on a computer screen. impact. Since this period dance styles have More organic genres drawing upon traditional proliferated, and the emphasis on rhythmic methods, such as grunge and Britpop, have repetition, stable tempo and time signatures coupled continued to surface, but most of the major musical with the widespread use of digital technologies has, trends since the punk era have been groove or dance- 412 pop and rock based. With the exception of hip hop, lyrics have and devoted media outlets such as MTV, have receded in prominence within popular music as a exerted a profound influence upon all elements of whole, with the human voice being used increasingly popular music. as a form of punctuation or for its percussive qualities The recording and promotional budget of an rather than as the bearer of a linear narrative. act now has to be spread more thinly. This has Melody, harmony and ‘nice tunes’ have not been resulted in a conservatism on the part of major dispensed with in contemporary popular music, but record companies regarding the sort of performers their significance within certain key styles of dance being signed and subsequently actively promoted. and rap has certainly diminished. In addition, the Leading on from this scenario, much of the 1980s percentage of music that is broadly or completely has seen the global sales dominance of a few vocal-free has been one of the most significant yet performers with the image and resources to meet overlooked trends of the past decade. Within many the demand for audio-visual material: Madonna, contemporary styles there have also been Prince and Michael Jackson are the most prominent considerable shifts in timbre, tempo and song examples of the new sort of global pop star. structure, with the classic historical models based Video has also foregrounded the importance of around verse, chorus, bridge, key change and pop’s iconic elements: sexuality, dress, movement instrumental breaks being decisively challenged. and physical gesture. In the early 1980s, many of Music making has always relied to some degree the British wave of ‘new pop’ performers (Duran upon technology, but the pop era has seen the Duran, Culture Club, Wham and so on) made their distinctions between human and technological world breakthrough via video and MTV The output become increasingly blurred. Multi-track proliferation of data made possible by mixed-media tape recording, with its inherent implications for formats like video ties in with many elements composition, musicianship and artistic status, associated with the condition of postmodernity: progressed rapidly between the early 1960s and pastiche, irony, depthlessness and hybridity. And the mid-1970s. During this period, capabilities in although many critics claim that the form has British studios stretched from two- and three-track already exhausted itself, under its impact pop can to sixteen- and twenty-four-track. In the 1980s this no longer be thought of as a primarily aural from. analogue process was augmented, and often During the 1990s the Internet began to exert an superseded by digital recording drawing upon influence on many aspects of popular music. As well computer technology. During this decade, a as allowing for the downloading of musical data using standardized interface linking computers to musical MIDI, the Internet can, to an extent, subvert the instruments (Musical Instrument Digital Interface, ownership and control of popular music by the global or MIDI) became widely available. This system corporations. Music can be distributed by groups or has further distanced the composer from the individuals without the need to have a recording constraints of real-time playing, and has had a huge contract. Although the more utopian claims on behalf impact upon musical styles, timbres and wider of the Internet must be treated with some scepticism, ethical issues relating to authorship and ownership. the long-term impact upon the world of popular music Another crucial technological development is may well prove to be considerable. the sampler (see sampling), which allows for the The commercial marketplace has long been digital recording and manipulation of any sound dominated in terms of ownership and distribution source. Many contemporary musical styles rely by a few large record companies—usually referred heavily upon such technologies as part of the to as ‘the majors’. The last forty years has seen these writing and performing process. majors develop into total entertainment companies The history of mixed-media recorded texts has with ownership of every stage of the production a long lineage, and many major bands made process (including studios, manufacture of ‘promo’ films during the 1960s, but the pop video instruments, technology, publishing, distribution and as creative work and marketing tool only came to retail and entertainment outlets). More recently, the world prominence in the early 1980s. Music video, majors have become pan-global operators. The chief pop art 413 source of income is often not from sales of records See also: alternative music; glam rock; but the ownership and exploitation of rights, psychedelic rock principally concerning publishing and licensing. Research into the workings of the global record Further reading industry suggests that organizations such as Time Warner, Sony or EMI are so huge that a fair Frith, S. (1983) Sound Effects: Youth, Leisure, And The amount of autonomy is by necessity granted to Politics Of Rock, London: Constable. national, regional or local branches. A typical Jones, S. (1992) Rock Formation: Music, Technology And ‘independent’ label will often preserve a degree of Mass Communication, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. autonomy and enter into a fairly flexible Negus, K. (1992) Producing Pop: Culture And Conflict relationship with the ‘parent’ major to ensure in The Popular Music Industry, London: Edward distribution and promotion of its acts. Such Arnold. relationships can allow for options to continue or RON MOY cancel, based usually upon financial considerations. This major/indie relationship does allow for the counter-argument to the many more pessimistic pop art scenarios of domination and cultural imperialism that have been forwarded, wherein indigenous Pop art is a term dating from the 1950s coined by ethnic and ‘non-commercial’ music are strangled Lawrence Alloway, a British art critic. It came to in the global grip of the majors. However, while be broadly used to refer to fine art which draws diversity and a richly hybridized world of popular from popular culture, epitomized by work by Peter music now exist, and are disseminated to ever Blake and Richard Hamilton. British pop artists of greater numbers, the inevitable inequalities of the 1960s included Clive Barker, Derek Boshier, economic and cultural capital do apply. It remains Pauline Boty, Patrick Caulfield, David Hockney, difficult for any act to ‘cross over’ without Allen Jones, and R.B.Kitaj (the US-born but considerable concessions being made to the London-based artist who in fact refuses the term). business strategies of the global corporations. Though the quintessential pop artist was Andy Almost every year sees an ‘obituary’ of pop being Warhol, the general ethic of a removed, detached, written by a cultural analyst. In the 1990s, these disinterestedly cool and analytical approach to the arguments have taken on a new dimension. It is said importing of ‘low’ cultural images and styles into that for a variety of reasons, today’s youth are ‘post- ‘high’ culture was extremely widespread. Pop art pop’. As well as the perceived ‘decline’ in the quality drew its chief influences from the mass media, of songs and artistry many see the major rivals to advertising, graphic styles, comic strips and pop as the new computer-based forms of celebrity icons. In later decades it has been attacked entertainment, such as video games, CD-Roms and as reactionary and as pandering to a consumerist the Internet. Research shows that popular music is society which values both mass-produced now merely one component struggling to be heard commodities and the least demanding art form— in this information overload, and is no longer central. realism. The term neo-pop is used to refer to Popular music, for some critics, no longer younger, pop-influenced artists such as Jeff Koons. defines the experience of growing up, and the projection that follows posits a situation wherein See also: painting popular music will be intrinsically linked to a precise historical period. Whether such Further reading observations will come to pass, or whether they are the opinions of critics unable or unwilling to Lippard, L.R. (1970) Pop Art, London: Thames & come to terms with the huge musical and cultural Hudson. shifts that have taken place over the last few PETER CHILDS decades, remains to be seen. 414 pop television pop television Consequently, with the emergence of the music video and VJs, in the last decade music The watershed in pop music programming was Six- programming has been dominated by the rise of Five Special with Pete Murray and Josephine Douglas MTV (launched in the USA in 1981), followed by in the early 1950s. Broadcast at teatime on other all-music stations like VH1 and The Box. Saturdays, the programme aimed simultaneously However, for those without cable and satellite, to cater generally for a family audience and innovative programmes like Jools Holland’s Later specifically for teenagers. This BBC show was soon have been considered exemplary because they rivalled by ITV’s Oh Boy! From the beginning, these assemble a musical and ethnic range of performers programmes believed in fast pacing and quick who take it in turns to perform live in the studio. cutting, giving the (assumed to be restless) audience In the late 1990s, Top of the Pops also finally allowed the feel of a dynamic show on the move, in keeping its performers to dispense with miming. with both the upbeat music and the desire to dance. Even at their inception, following the postwar birth/ See also: youth television recognition of the teenager, music programmes challenged studio formats and also television’s technology. The 1960s (and much of the 1970s) Further reading was then divided between seminal pop shows like Goodwin, A. (1995) ‘Popular Music and Ready Steady Go and formula family programmes Postmodern Theory’, in N.Wheale (ed.), The hosted by the more insipid pop stars: Lulu, Cilla Postmodern Arts, London: Routledge (this chapter Black or Cliff Richard. offers an incisive comment on the intersection The early 1970s was dominated by two of popular music with postmodern theory). stalwarts: Top of the Pops for those interested in singles and The Old Grey Whistle Test for the album market. PETER CHILDS The first is one of the longest running shows on television and has regular facelifts (it still gets over 8 million viewers in the late 1990s). The latter has Popper, Karl been eclipsed by more lively music shows with b. 1902, Vienna (Austria); d. 1994 more dynamic presenters than the seated hippie, ‘whispering’ Bob Harris. The late 1970s, alongside Philosopher the challenges of punk rock, saw the redefinition Karl Popper was chiefly a philosopher of science. of the genre by exciting but often short-lived His works include The Logic of Scientific Discovery programmes such as Something Else and Revolver. (1935), The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945), The In the 1980s, Channel 4’s The Tube was noted Poverty of Historicism (1957), Conjectures and Refutations for its technology as much as anything, bending (1963) and Objective Knowledge (1972). Popper and mixing the picture frame before the audience’s distinguishes between genuine science and ‘pseudo- eyes. Hosted by Jools Holland and Paula Yates, science’. Whereas genuine scientific propositions the programme was beamed live from Newcastle are falsifiable in that they explicitly or implicitly and built a large following not just for its music specify the evidence which would refute them, but also for its irreverent attitude—which backfired pseudo-scientific propositions (such as many of when Holland recommended the show to ‘groovy those expounded in Marxism and Freudianism) are fuckers’ and was taken off the air. The rise of the unfalsifiable in that no conceivable evidence promotional video also radically changed music constitutes their disconfirmation. Science develops programme formats, allowing a blend of live in an evolutionary manner. While no theory can performances, based on the concert, and videos, be proved, the ‘fittest’ survive rigorous attempts to which aimed at creating more mysterious falsify them. In his social and political philosophy, associations and repackaged the band’s tour Popper provides a penetrating critique of image. totalitarianism and a stalwart defence of democracy. popular fiction 415

See also: philosophy; science ‘bonkbusters’ revolve around the worlds of big business and movie stars, and, like the more innocent ROD PATERSON Mills and Boon shelf-fillers, are written to a formula. They require a considerable amount of marketing popular fiction and are promoted by specialist publishers such as Bantam Press and MacDonald. The style is Popular literature is no longer considered inherently exemplified by Jackie Collins, sister of the actress lowbrow or intrinsically inferior to a ‘high’ culture. Joan Collins, and Judith Krantz; more recent arrivals Accordingly, a text such as Frederick Forsyth’s The at the airport bookstores (where 25 percent of all Day of the Jackal now appears on A-level English books are sold in the UK) are Pat Booth, Shirley syllabuses, and best-selling authors from Agatha Conran and Vera Cowie. Detective stories are still Christie to Daphne Du Maurier and Stephen King associated with the canonical writers such as Agatha are studied at university. Popular fiction could be Christie, Dorothy L.Sayers and Ngaio Marsh, and said to cover at least the following categories: the leading contemporary practitioners, Ruth adventure stories, rural and local fiction, detective Rendell and P.D.James, are also women; both stories, fantasy, romance, historical novels, horror, specialize in intricate, crafted plots, not unlike those police dramas, comic novels, sagas, science fiction, found in Roald Dahl’s much-admired ‘twist in the sea stories, thrillers, spy novels, war novels and, tale’ short stories. Younger writers are Simon Brett, though not many are written outside the USA, Lesley Grant-Adamson and Emma Page. In terms westerns. Other popular authors do not fall easily of police novels, Colin Dexter’s Inspector Morse into any of these categories, and possible new forms series and its television offshoot (like Rendell’s are always appearing (for example, the politician’s Wexford and James’s Dalgleish) have created staple novel as written by Jeffrey Archer, Roy Hattersley British provincial identities. or Edwina Currie, or the celebrity’s novel as The most famously successful British popular produced by Hugh Laurie, Adrian Edmondson, authors are probably Catherine Cookson, Barbara Naomi Campbell, Michael Palin or Ben Elton). Taylor Bradford and Barbara Cartland, who write Several of the genres also now have their own absorbing, undemanding romantic family stories prizes, such as the Crime Writers Association and interminable sagas. Others in a similar mould Awards or Boots Romantic Novel of the Year, the are Marie Joseph, Audrey Howard and Pamela Historical Novel of the Year in Memory of Haines (who has an English MA from Cambridge). Georgette Heyer, or the Hugo awards (for science Fantasy writing has its roots in folk tales and fiction). It is worth saying a little in description of mythology as well as gothic horror (most popularly each of the major genres (see also thrillers; science continued in the novels of Clive Barker, Anne Rice fiction). and Stephen King in the USA) and science fiction. Macho adventure stories have been the making The classic exponent is J.R.R.Tolkein, whose The of some enormously successful postwar figures such Lord of the Rings has repeatedly been voted the best as Alistair Maclean, Wilbur Smith, Desmond or most popular novel of the century. Terry Bagley and Hammond Innes. A new generation Pratchett’s more light-hearted Discworld series has including Ken Follett and Craig Thomas appear to probably been the most successful descendant, lean more heavily on research and rounded although Nancy Springer, Peter Morwood, Robert characters. Meanwhile, Dick Francis, an ex-jockey, Holdstock, Piers Anthony and especially Michael has created a unique niche for himself writing Moorcock are also widely read. Humorous novels hugely popular novels set in the world of horse by Douglas Adams, Tom Sharpe, Peter Tinniswood racing, which almost invariably go straight to the and David Nobbs owe a lot to the style of Keith top of the lists of bestsellers. Waterhouse, and illustrate how the comic novel ‘Romance’ has also now to cover less coy kinds remains a largely male genre, notwithstanding the of writing aimed at women, from contemporary enormous sales in 1997 of Helen Fielding’s Bridget glamour to ‘sex and shopping’ novels. Often these Jones’s Diary, a success only rivalled by the 416 pornography confessional, male-identity-crisis books of Nick lesbian classic The Well of Loneliness in the 1920s and Hornby. Lastly, historical novels by Jean Plaidy/ D.H.Lawrence’s Lady Chatterley’s Lover in the 1960s. Victoria Holt/Eleanor Hibbert, Edith Pargeter/Ellis The public face of the anti-porn movement in Peters, and Joanna Potter/Joanna Trollope exemplify Britain is the Campaign Against Pornography the pleasurable, escapist indulgence of the genre, and (CAP), which over the last decade, and following their authors’ penchant for pseudonyms illustrates the example of US groups Campaign Against how many writers opt for pen names which add Pornography and Women Against Violence in the mystery or anonymity, protect the reputation of an Media, has launched a series of offensives against author known in another field, or, on occasion, the stars, publishers and readers of mainstream change the writer’s sex. porn. In 1986, Labour MP Clare Short took up In the 1990s, popular fiction is enormously the baton with her campaign to ban the Sun diffuse and the distinction between serious and newspaper’s page 3 nudes. Her bill failed to get a popular literature is problematic to say the least, second reading in parliament, but did much to with authors as disparate as Mary Wesley, Irvine expose the schoolboy sexism of most male MPs, Welsh and Stephen Fry appealing to myriad and while Off the Shelf campaigns through the late wide-ranging tastes. 1980s demanded the removal of pornography from the top shelf of newsagents such as W.H.Smith (see See also: novel; romance; science fiction; thrillers, newsstands and newsagents). detective and spy writing In the mid-1980s, however, the seemingly uniform face of feminist anti-porn rhetoric began to be addressed by Feminists Against Censorship Further reading (FAC), worried about the effect that wide liberal Hicken, M. and Pryterch, R. (1990) Now Read On support of CAP policy might have on subcultural A Guide to Contemporary Popular Fiction, Aldershot: artifacts such as the newly burgeoning vogue in Gower. lesbian-produced literary and filmic porn. Arguing that lesbian and gay material, often deemed PETER CHILDS pornographic by definition, is more likely to be the subject of state censorship than the mainstream pornography porn industry with its big business backing, FAC called for, and continues to call for, a readdressing Pornography is defined by US anti-porn activist of the law on obscenity and a re-evaluation of the Andrea Dworkin as: ‘the graphic depiction of arguments for censorship. whores’ (Dworkin, 1981). Most pornography does indeed feature women posing in sexually revealing See also: censorship; top-shelf magazines positions for money. However, in the light of the recent influx of gay and lesbian produced Further reading pornography, pornography for women—and the dark underside of the industry, pornography Dworkin, A. (1981) Pornography: Men Possessing featuring children—another definition seems Women, London: The Women’s Press. necessary. This has been hard to come by however, Norden, B. (1990) ‘Campaign Against with over a decade of feminist, legal and political Pornography’, Feminist Review 35: 1–8. debate coming no nearer an agreed definition. CLARE WHATLING In legal terms, Britain’s Obscene Publications Act defines pornographic material as that which may be deemed to ‘deprave and corrupt’. That this post-colonial writing leaves the definition open to interpretation by a politically conservative state has resulted in some As a starting-point, post-colonial studies is about notorious historical cases, such as the banning of the critique of and the resistance to colonialism. post-colonial writing 417

Post-colonial literature is a term which has come colonialism. By neo-colonialism, it is generally meant to replace the older labels ‘world literature written the way in which the West continues to maintain in English’, ‘Third World literature’ or maximum indirect control over ex-colonies through ‘Commonwealth literature’. Though ‘post-colonial’ economic, cultural, and political mechanisms. has its detractors, the latter three have been objected The term ‘post-colonial’ has other difficulties to because of their tendency to ghettoize and to because it stresses the importance of European suggest the centrality of Britain or the West. The influence in a country’s development and in the meaning of the term ‘post-colonial’ is open to contemporary World. Some critics resent the term debate. It can refer just to previously colonized ‘post-colonial’ in the same way that they reject countries, which are now independent: this makes ‘Third World’: because it defines the world in terms it simply a historical phase after colonialism. of the major colonial powers. To say that Pakistan Expanding from this, some critics say that is a post-colonial country implicitly defines it in colonizing and ex-colonizing countries should also terms of Britain. Lastly, the term ‘post-colonial’ be included: Britain is a post-colonial country as seems to lump together widely varying experiences: much as Nigeria, because Britain is also greatly if India, Rhodesia, Australia and Brazil are all post- affected and even defined by its heritage of colonial countries, their differences are lost in this colonialism— and this will be as much reflected in blanket term. the writing of Martin Amis or Angela Carter as Additionally, the second half of the twentieth Derek Walcott or Anita Desai. (On the other hand, century has been marked by huge demographic Britain is still a colonizing country: Northern shifts. The dismantling of the European empires is Ireland is one example, and many Pacific islands one major reason for this, together with the could offer others.) The problem with this economic, military, nationalist and cultural definition is it elides the difference between pressures that have followed on from colonialism. colonized and colonizer. On the other hand, this is Collective identities along lines of nation or also its strength: it does not duplicate the colonial ethnicity are both more forcefully asserted and binary through designating the West on the one more complex: dual or multiple affiliations are hand and ‘Third World’ countries on the other. common and terms such as black British and Indian A third argument is that post-colonialism is a term English are needed to express many people’s self- that should apply from the start of colonization, not identifications. Many contemporary ‘British’ the end. This is the argument of Ashcroft et al. in The writers are displaced or repatriated, born in one Empire Writes Back. This construction is needed country and now living in another: Salman Rushdie because, they argue, there is a continuity of (Bombay), Caryl Phillips (St Kitts), Lauretta preoccupations from the moment of European Ngcobo (South Africa), Grace Nichols (Guyana) imperial aggression onwards. To create a break at the and so on. Other prominent writers have far more moment of independence, they argue, creates a false complex histories: the novelist and playwright idea of the way culture develops: it is the inception of Nuruddin Farah was born in Somalia, educated in colonialism that crucially alters writing and identity, Ogaden, the Punjab, London and Essex, lived in while independence just complicates it. However, this Somalia until 1973 and has since migrated between is not widely accepted, partly because it seems Nigeria, Gambia, Sudan, France, Germany, Italy, reductive of the importance and effects of the USA and Uganda. Again, the national and independence, and partly because it becomes such a ethnic make-up of V.S. Naipaul is complex as he blanket term that it loses almost all specificity. was born in Trinidad to parents of Indian descent Most commonly, however, ‘post-colonial’ refers but lived most of his life in England. His novels to an approach rather than a historical period. Some and essays repeatedly probe Indian (An Area of critics use the absence or the presence of the hyphen Darkness), Caribbean (Miguel Street) and British (The to signal the two meanings. In terms of an approach, Engima of Arrival) identity, just as Salman Rushdie’s it is one that is consciously aware of and positioned novels dissect Indian (Midnight’s Children), Pakistani against the ideology of colonialism and neo- (Shame) and multicultural British (The Satanic Verses) 418 postmodernism colonial legacies. As Elleke Boehmer (1995:233) Meanwhile the facades themselves could be doubly has argued, cultural expatriation is also a key theme coded, appealing to an ‘interested minority’, such in novels like V.S. Naipaul’s Guerillas (1975), Amitav as architects and critics, as well as the general public. Ghosh’s The Shadow-Lines (1988) and Chinua In practice, postmodern architecture made use of Achebe’s Anthills of the Savannah (1987). modern building techniques—steel or concrete The importance of post-colonial issues to frames, curtain walling, lifts, mechanical servicing contemporary British writing can be gauged by the and so on—but allowed decoration to return to the Booker Prize. Novels set in India, and linked with facade. Above all, the playful use of the facade the Raj, won the Booker in 1973 (J.G.Farrell’s The allowed postmodern buildings to respond to the Siege of Krishnapur), 1975 (Ruth Prawer Jhabvala’s styles in their immediate surroundings. Heat and Dust), 1977 (Paul Scott’s Staying On) and Postmodernist treatment of the facade was 1981 (Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children). Other winners ironic. Gothic, classical, or other forms were often discussed in post-colonial studies have been appropriated playfully, an approach quite distinct Keri Hulme, Ben Okri, Kazuo Ishiguro, Michael from the nineteenth century battle of styles, in Ondaatje, Arundhati Roy and J.M.Coetzee. Indeed, which what was being contested though the style there is hardly a winner who could easily fall of public buildings was nothing less than national outside the limits of post-colonial writing, a fact identity. Irony separates postmodern architecture which emphasizes both its power as a discursive not only from these earlier appropriations of style, category and its in some ways disabling but from the modern movement which was itself pervasiveness. formally varied, and also late modern architecture, represented in Britain by architects such as Norman See also: literature, African; literature, Caribbean; Foster (see Foster Associates) and Richard Rogers. literature, Indian Postmodernism was the dominant architectural mode during the 1980s, but there is little doubt that it has now been superseded. Before 1981, Further reading nearly all building described as postmodern had Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G. and Tiffin, H. (1989) The been American, for good reason: before 1981, Empire Writes Back, London: Routledge. nearly all building in Britain had taken place in the Boehmer, E. (1995) Colonial and Postcolonial Literature, public sector, and all areas of this had been subject Oxford: Opus. to strict ideological controls. Public sector architects Childs, P. (ed.) (1999) Post-Colonial Theory and English brought up with the belief that architecture could Literature, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University be socially improving had no time for the exuberant Press. facadism associated with the postmodern. There was, it should also be noted, relatively little demand PETER CHILDS for commercial architecture until the financial boom of the mid-1980s. Postmodernism in Britain is postmodernism therefore closely associated with the changes of the first two periods of Conservative government after The use of the term ‘postmodernism’ in connection 1979, and as a result has tended to be described with architecture was not common until the critic unfavourably by left-wing critics. Charles Jencks began publishing on the subject in Regarding postmodern buildings in Britain, it 1975. Jencks described postmodernism as primarily should be remarked first that some of the most a matter of ‘double coding’, by which he meant significant projects (Canary Wharf, The Sainsbury the simultaneous appeal to different publics. The Wing to the National Gallery, the Broadgate new architecture owed everything, structurally, to development in the City of London) were designed the modern movement (see modernism), but at by American architects, or had substantial the same time its concern for the facade challenged American involvement in the planning stages. modernist ideology about form and function. Second, true postmodern architecture as defined postmodernist theory 419 by Jencks is generally only found in London. The station, yet this is deceptive; the arches do not economic boom of the 1980s benefited London and contain the expected open space, but conventional the South East much more than other parts of the offices. There are nautical references too, country, and consequently the opportunities (or the connecting with the ships moored nearby on the will) to build exuberant architecture were much Embankment: the bay at the front of the building more limited. suggests the bridge of a battleship. The Clore Gallery extension to the Tate Gallery, Perhaps the most bizarre postmodern office built by James Stirling, was probably the first major projects was Minster Court (1988–91), built by public example of the style to appear. Built 1982– GMW Partnership in the City of London The 6, it comprises an L-shaped extension built around scheme is designed to look like a medieval a small garden. Its complex facade relates to the cathedral, and is on the same scale; its central atrium elements of the older buildings immediately is effectively a nave. adjacent, so it continues, but quickly modifies, the Other British architects associated with classicism of the main gallery building. There are postmodernism are Jeremy Dixon, for housing in a number of characteristic jokes, too: the bright Docklands and elsewhere; John Outram for a green colour of the window frames is deliberately storm water pumping station in Docklands; and provocative, while a stone is deliberately left Campbell Zoglowitch Wilkinson Gough for ‘missing’ at the junction of the old building and housing in Docklands (including ‘Cascades’, a the new, as if to pretend that the building is not twenty-storey tower on a nautical theme). Outram quite complete. has continued to design buildings with highly A similarly chameleon-like building was the decorated, allegorical facades, but most major Sainsbury Wing extension to the National Gallery, postmodernist architects have moved on: the later built 1987–91 and designed by the American work of Farrell and Stirling is better described as a architect Robert Venturi and partners. Its five reconfigured modernism, and most younger facades each relate to a different part of the architects seem to prefer this mode. The quotation surrounding environment. The Corinthian of historical styles is still common, but Outram columns of the Trafalgar Square side continue, but apart, this tends to be done much more soberly modify, the main facade of the original building; than before. the second facade, adjacent to this, relates to the more sober Canada House and the gentlemens’ Further reading clubs beyond. Terry Farrell’s vast office schemes at Vauxhall Jencks, C. (1977) The Language of Postmodern Cross (1989–92), now occupied by MI6, and Architecture, London: Academy Editions. Embankment Place (1991) are among the best- RICHARD J.WILLIAMS known postmodern buildings, because of their size and their prominent sites along the Thames. The latter, which makes use of air-rights above Charing postmodernist theory Cross station, is closely related in a number of ways to the surrounding environment. The scheme was ‘Postmodern’ is a contested term for various social linked to environmental improvements such as the and cultural phenomena arising in capitalist societies pedestrianization of Villiers Street and the of the late twentieth century: expansion of establishment of a direct link from the station to multinational companies and decline of nation-states, Hungerford Bridge. But more significant are the growth of commodification and consumerism, historical references the building makes: its main extension of electronic media and the Internet, form is a giant arched roof, from which are weakening of traditional and communal forms of suspended the office floors. Facing the river is a social legitimation and undermining of all claims to giant glazed front, punctuated by a round bay faced universal truth. Where theorists differ is in their in stone. The effect recalls a Victorian railway naming, analysis and estimation of these 420 postmodernist theory phenomena. For some, they are the intensification is the ‘future now’, and so the end of history. From of processes already begun in the modern period, now on, the future can mean only more of the same. and are effects of ‘high’ or ‘late’ modernity; for At the same time, this condition is one of intense others, they mark a break with what has gone before disorientation and confusion. and are properly named postmodern. More The postmodern would be but a new name for philosophical uses of ‘modern’ and ‘postmodern’ the old avant-garde—for objects and practices that point to changing sensibilities or ways of exist ahead of, or before the habits and rules that understanding the nature of the human person, of (will) make them comprehensible—if it were not that knowledge and belief, and of claims to truth and it is now held to be ubiquitous. The old avant-garde meaning. Many theorists combine a mixture of these was an elite, a scandal to the generality, from which concerns and interests, and greet the postmodern nevertheless it took its bearings. But once with varying degrees of enthusiasm. everything is avant-garde, all of culture is ahead of Postmodernism—as the advocacy of the itself, and thus without orientation and direction. postmodern—trades on its distinction from the Most theorists of the postmodern are concerned modern and its cult, modernism. But the meaning with giving an account of this condition. and reference of the latter is as varied and contested Fredric Jameson finds an analogue for the as that of the former. For some it is a historical postmodern in the ‘hyperspace’ of John Portman’s period, while for others it is a mode of thought Westin Bonaventure hotel in Los Angeles (the and sensibility. But since the latter is always named quintessential postmodern city). The hermetic, after its typical appearance in the former—as with complex and (initially) unsigned spaces of the hotel Descartes’s self-authenticating ‘I’ in the seventeenth simulates those of the larger city, depriving its century—one can think the modern that period in inhabitants of any sense of location, either in the which a certain mode of self-understanding, larger city or in the hotel itself. It thus becomes a scientific practice and social order came into being. symbol of that wider sense of disorientation which It is when these are questioned and lose their is life in the ‘great global multinational and credibility that the postmodern arrives; at least, this decentred communicational network’ that is late is the story told by Jean-François Lyotard. capitalism (Jameson 1991:44). Religions once provided societies with master Jean Baudrillard is similarly concerned with the stories or grand narratives, ‘sacred canopies’ (Peter unsettling effects (social and moral) of rampant Berger) that offered meaning and security. Modernity commodification and consumerism, when all replaced God with Man or some other explanatory objects become signs, and reality gives way to force: natural (Darwin), social (Marx) or psychological hyperreality, as with the Gulf War (1991), when (Freud). Lyotard’s favoured example is the old the military-media staged ‘bloodless’ missile attacks communist meta-narrative of emancipation and for home consumption on television news socialist utopia, which was defeated in the Soviet bloc programmes. Baudrillard’s account of postmodern by the telling of many mini-narratives (petit récits). The culture as a sea of signs without depth, in which postmodern condition is then one in which social and we can never touch bottom, is paralleled by personal life is no longer ordered by a metanarrative, deconstructionist theories (associated with Jacques but where each individual has to take responsibility Derrida), which find all cultural life textual. Reality for his or her own story. no longer founds meaning (and truth) but is itself This can be read as an intensification of modern an effect of textuality, the economy of signs which autonomy, but it differs from the project of produces our sense of the ‘real’. modernity in disavowing any utopic trajectory. Zygmunt Bauman characterizes postmodernity There is no hope of a better tomorrow because as the radical privatizing of the fear of the Void, once tomorrow has arrived today. This is caught in the held at bay by the modern metanarrative of scientific oxymoronic nature of the term ‘postmodern’, which rationality and human progress, epitomized by the suggests a time or condition after the ‘now’, as if panoptic prison, where all are seen and all are happy. we were living ahead of ourselves. The postmodern Postmodernity trades in such security for freedom; postmodernist writing 421 but in so doing, the Void returns, and now to each contradiction, permutation of narrative line, alone. Now each individual has to provide his or discontinuity, randomness, excessive figural her own shelter. This raises the problem of substitution and shortcircuiting of the ‘gap between legitimation. We need someone (God) or something text and world’. Such strategies are employed in an (science) to confirm our story, to tell us that we have attempt to avoid choosing between the metaphoric got it right. In postmodernity this is provided by and metonymic patterns that had characterized imaginary communities which, unlike real ones, do modernist and anti-modernist writing, respectively. not restrict individual freedoms. However, to Linda Hutcheon similarly emphasizes the tendency convince they must be seen, and therefore compete of postmodernist writing towards a self-unravelling. for public attention through spectacular displays, She argues that contemporary texts, such as those whether acts of terrorism or public grief at the death of Salman Rushdie, Angela Carter and Julian Barnes, of glamour icons (Princess Diana). With ethics emphasize a strategy of irony, a trope achieved by a founded on private whim, Bauman anticipates self-conscious awareness of the text’s own fabricated growing tribalism and intolerance, yet also espies a nature, an awareness that knowingly undermines world re-enchanted. To discern which, we must await its own textual features. A particularly important what comes after the postmodern. mode of the practice of this self-deconstruction is intertextuality, the echoes and allusions to previous See also: postmodernism; postmodernist writing texts stressing the fact that a contemporary piece of writing is itself a fabricated document, a move that allows the postmodernist text to problematize our Further reading understanding of its ‘sources.’ Bauman, Z. (1992) Intimations of Postmodernity, In contrast, the shift from modernism to London: Routledge. postmodernism is primarily a philosophical one for Jameson, F. (1991) Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic Brian McHale, one characterized by a switch in of Late Capitalism, London: Verso. focus from epistemological to ontological problems. Lyotard, J.-F. (1984) The Postmodern Condition: A Postmodernist writing no longer questions what Report on Knowledge, trans. G.Bennington and B. can be known through the use of competing Massumi, Manchester: Manchester University accounts and stream of consciousness narratives, Press. but instead questions the unity and harmony of a single reality by highlighting the fragmentary and GERARD LOUGHLIN multiplicit natures of textuality and subjectivity. Pastiche (as seen in a writer such as Angela Carter postmodernist writing or John Fowles) is the dominant feature of postmodernism according to Fredric Jameson in a The foremost difficulty in characterizing formulation that likewise stresses the allusive and postmodernist writing is distinguishing it from the disjunctive nature of current writing. Because traits of high modernist texts such as Woolf’s Orlando, master narratives of history no longer seem Eliot’s The Waste Land and Joyce’s Ulysses. Because the sustainable, it has become impossible to order texts of both periods are associated with a focus on individual events, moments and texts into an stylization that highlights fragmentary organization account that is able to offer a coherent narrative of and intertextual echoes, identifying distinguishing how they relate to one another. Without this features other than date of composition has been a stabilizing metanarrative, postmodernism is thus primary task of attempts to describe what is truly in this account condemned emptily to echo texts postmodernist about contemporary writing and not of the past, regurgitating them without being able merely retreaded modernism. to offer a consistent explanation of their relevance David Lodge, in one of the first attempts to or importance. evaluate postmodernist writing, argues that postmodernism deploys devices such as See also: novel; postmodernist theory 422 post-structuralism

Further reading Jacques Derrida. Among structuralism’s most Hutcheon, L. (1988) A Poetics of Postmodernism, New important premises was that meanings do not York: Routledge. precede language but are constructed by it. Its model of language as a structure in which meaning RYAN S.TRIMM is produced through the differential relationship of arbitrary signs, each consisting of a signifier (sound post-structuralism image or written shape) and signified (concept), challenged the idea that language reflects reality Post-structuralism is a term applied to a range of and that words are labels for things or thoughts. positions and approaches in critical and cultural Post-structuralism built on this work but made theory, developed in and from the work of Jacques a number of significant challenges to Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, Julia structuralism, which was seen as only partly Kristeva and Louis Althusser among others. Post- escaping the constraints of traditional Western structuralist theory has been increasingly influential thought, notably of its scientific and formalist in Britain since the 1960s, particularly in literary claims and of its limited acknowledgement of and cultural studies. It is a term which marks a historical context. Jacques Derrida endorsed the connection with, and departure from, an earlier structuralist model of language but argued that it theoretical stance, namely structuralism. Both still privileged concepts or signifieds. His own ‘post-structuralism’ and ‘structuralism’ describe analysis of ‘logo-centrism’, forms of thought which theoretical approaches developed within a diversity are grounded in belief in an external reference of fields of enquiry, ranging from anthropology and point such as God or truth, suggested that psychoanalysis to linguistics, literary or textual, and traditional Western philosophy and metaphysics cultural studies. After, and in some instances before, has maintained a hierarchy in which ideas or Derrida’s inauguration of ‘deconstruction’, a thought are primary and writing is a secondary reading strategy that does not ‘interpret’ a text but vehicle. In his deconstructive reading of key texts expose its workings and reveal its hierarchical of Western thought, Derrida observed that this assumptions, post-structuralists in such fields as hierarchical division was often sustained by what psychoanalysis (Jacques Lacan and Julia Kristeva) he termed ‘phonocentrism’, the privileging of and history (Michel Foucault and Hayden White) speech over writing, based on the assumption that have decentred the principles and precepts of many speech directly expresses thought in a way that traditional disciplines. Most important, since post- writing cannot. In contrast Derrida argued that structuralist interventions, the human subject is language is a kind of writing and employed the now seen as without an ‘essence’, ‘nature’, or term ‘difference’, a compound of two French capacity for ‘self-determination’, and is instead seen words meaning to differ and defer, to describe and as being inserted in language and discourse. The exemplify the way in which meaning is contextual subject is therefore not considered the centre of and never absolute. history, and such categories as ‘meaning’ and In British post-structuralist analysis, this model ‘experience’ are also no longer authenticated by of the production of meaning was combined with appeals to the individual consciousness. ideas from Althusser’s reformulation of the Marxist The most widely influential work in both concept of ideology which posited a new structuralism and post-structuralism has been understanding of the human subject. Although the concerned with articulating alternative models of analysis of texts and various types of signification language and subjectivity to those deployed by the is a key strand of post-structuralist work, it is empiricist-idealist philosophy which underpins matched by attention to the subject addressed by, ‘common sense’ ideas. The most influential and produced by, signifying practices. As Saussure theorists of language within structuralism and post- and Derrida’s analyses of language overturned structuralism were, respectively, the Swiss linguist conventional idealist-empiricist models, so post- Ferdinand de Saussure and the French philosopher structuralist theories of subjectivity have challenged Potter, Sally 423 traditional Western ideas about the status of the Potter, Dennis subject. Post-structuralism’s challenge to the idea of the b. 1935, Forest of Dean; d. 1994 human subject as the autonomous source of meaning Playwright was developed from work on language and in the Dennis Potter is the outstanding ‘author’ of serious work of the psychoanalytic theorist Jacques Lacan, television drama (see drama on television), with of feminists like Helena Cixous and Julia Kristeva, over forty works to his credit. From the early Stand and in the cultural and historical analysis of Michel Up, Nigel Barton (1965) to plays of his maturity such Foucault. In adopting and deploying this work, as Pennies From Heaven (1978) and Blue Remembered British critics have explored a wide range of issues Hills (1979), Potter arrested attention with his of power, knowledge and discourse. individualistic world view and experimentation As post-structuralist theories have been adopted with form. Continually dramatising aspects of his and adapted within academic institutions, certain own predicament, Potter drew the key themes of forms, notably deconstruction as practised by some sexuality, spirituality, vocation and nostalgia academics in the United States, have been criticized together most successfully in The Singing Detective for being either too playful and ignoring the harsh (1985), endowing the protagonist with the crippling realities of capitalism or for being easily recuperated skin disease that had handicapped his own career. by a conservative academy. In Britain, where many From this time until his much publicized death from of its practitioners had or have occupied a Marxist cancer, his writing becomes increasingly self- or socialist position, post-structuralism is marked referential and arguably produced more interesting by a more clearly radical theoretical and political television events than successful drama. engagement and an understanding that criticism is a form of intervention in political and cultural See also: playwrights debates and struggles to change existing power relations. Post-structuralism in Britain has been an Further reading important force in changing the content, form and Cook, J. (1995) Dennis Potter: A Life on Screen, relationships between various academic disciplines Manchester: Manchester University Press. which address, as the stress on analysing a diversity of signifying practices necessitates a reappraisal of BOB MILLINGTON conventional divisions of knowledge. Among the best-known exponents of post-structuralist theory and analysis in Britain are Colin MacCabe and Potter, Sally Stephen Heath, whose contributions to the journal b. 1947 Screen were extremely influential in the 1970s, and Film-maker also Catherine Belsey, Antony Easthope and Christopher Norris. Sally Potter is something of a controversial figure in British independent cinema and a champion of See also: literary theory feminist issues. Her 1979 short ‘thriller’ is now regarded as a ‘classic’ feminist deconstruction of sexual politics in its re-working of ‘La Boheme.’ Further reading Her feature debut The Gold Diggers (1983) pursued Easthope, A. (1988) British Post-structuralism since similar themes, challenging the ‘oedipal trajectory’ 1968, London: Routledge (a wide-ranging, of contemporary narratives and their inherent knowledgeable and critical review across the misrepresentation of general issues. Working in social sciences and humanities). television towards the late 1980s she made several programmes including Women in Soviet Cinema and TAM S I N S PARG O Tears, Laughter, Fear and Rage, a discourse examining 424 poverty the representation of emotion. In 1992 she achieved families and, more generally, children and ethnic international recognition with her exuberant minorities. adaptation of Virginia Woolf’s Orlando, blending Homelessness has received much media visual flare with a more conventional narrative attention. The charity Shelter has observed that structure but still remaining true to her concerns the ‘official homeless’ (those accepted as such by regarding the corruption of sexuality. In Tango local authorities) nearly trebled between 1978 and (1977), she further explored her long-time affair 1991. In addition, it estimated that there were some with the dance (and with her tutor), but the film 1.7 million ‘unofficial homeless’ in 1991. received mixed responses owing to its rather Increasingly, the term ‘underclass’ has been used claustrophobic self-indulgence. in both journalistic and academic discussion of poverty. The notion has been profitably peddled See also: film, feminist by Charles Murray. In 1989, he claimed to discern a nascent, British underclass. Characteristics of this ROB FILLINGHAM putative stratum include high rates of illegitimacy, criminality and self-chosen unemployment. poverty Murray’s view that the underclass is marked not so much by its deprivation as by the ‘deplorable Popular representations of poverty have included behaviour’ of its members has been widely references to ‘scroungers’ on the ‘Costa del Dole’, castigated as crass and victim-blaming. Versions of ‘aggressive beggars’, the ‘dependency culture’ and the underclass thesis which emphasize structural the ‘underclass’. Although closer to home, the inequality rather than cultural aberration have been impact of images of ‘cardboard city’ has paled in more acceptable to most British academics, but for comparison with depictions of the abject poverty many the term is seen as so confused and stigmatic of overseas refugee camps. as to warrant erasure from social scientific ‘Poverty’ is a contested concept. Proponents of vocabulary. definitions of ‘absolute poverty’ which stress biological needs have vied with supporters of the See also: single parents notion of ‘relative deprivation’, which emphasizes cultural needs. Using the former conception, Lord Further reading Joseph claimed in 1976 that, since starvation is the essential characteristic of the condition, poverty was Oppenheim, C. (1993) Poverty: The Facts, London: almost non-existent in Britain. Employing the latter CPAG (a comprehensive, accessible analysis). notion, whereby people are poor if they cannot afford ROD PATERSON to engage in customary social behaviour (buying one’s grandchild a Christmas present without thereby suffering hypothermia through scrimping poverty, families and on fuel, for instance), researchers such as Townsend have repudiated the myth that poverty had been Single-parent families (see single parents) tend to abolished in an affluent, postwar British society. be financially worse off than two-parent ones. While no official ‘poverty line’ exists in Britain, Ninety-one percent of single parents are women. the unofficial benchmark of half the national Women’s wages (for mothers who are able to work) average income is often cited. From 1979, depressed average £301 per week, versus £414 for men. Thus lower wages, more regressive taxation and welfare families living in one-carer homes are doubly cuts led to massive increases in those beneath this financially disadvantaged and frequently live below line. Those most vulnerable to poverty include the the poverty line. Although they are eligible for state long-term unemployed, the low-waged, the elderly benefits such as income support and housing benefit, dependent on state pensions, the disabled and families at the bottom of the economic pile fall into chronically sick, the welfare-dependent one-parent the trap of not having time or skills to apply for power dressing 425 them. The Labour government’s proposal to bring in thirty-six slab blocks of two, four, seven and nine in a minimum wage may not help them. storeys, built in four sections parallel and at right Underfunded support organizations such as Shelter angles to the river. Considered to be exemplary and Child Poverty Action Group are their best hope. from the outset, Pevsner commented in the early 1980s that: ‘The aesthetic significance of Churchill See also: homelessness Gardens is that even now, after twenty-five years, it has remained one of the best estates in London’. MIKE STORRY At first thought elegant and generating well-scaled spaces between them, the slab blocks are now Powell, Michael believed to convey an image of overcrowding which fell short of the idealism of their continental b. 1905, Bekebourne, Kent; d. 1990 inspiration. Now considered megalithic, desolate Film-maker and cheerless, the scheme is accused, together with the Gospel Oak Estate (1954–80), where Powell Michael Powell is perhaps best known for his and Moya designed a row of houses, of belonging partnership with the Hungarian writer Emeric to those well-intentioned architectural crimes Pressburger. Their independent production committed by the welfare state. Problems have been company, The Archers, was responsible for the excused on the grounds of high-density building, production of some of the finest films of the 1940s but this popular myth is exploded when numbers and 1950s, including The Life and Death of Colonel are compared with those housed in neighbouring Blimp, A Matter of Life and Death, The Red Shoes and Dolphin Square, designed in 1937. Black Narcissus. Powell himself wrote, directed and Other work includes the ‘skylon’ at the Festival produced along with Pressburger, and his work is of Britain, London 1951; Mayfield Comprehensive held up by many contemporary directors as being School, Putney (1956) described by Ian Nairn as amongst the finest ever made. Powell’s films have ‘subtle, elegant, humane’; the addition to Brasenose a rich, colourful feel, something uncommon in College, Oxford (1959), recognizably modern but other British directors, and he used his medium to at the same time respectful of its historical context create work that blurred the divisions between in its use of stone and lead; the innovative fantasy and real life. hexagonal theatre with arena stage, Chichester

SAM JOHNSTONE (1961); Cripps Buildings, St John’s College, Cambridge (1964), large and linear in form, employing Portland stone and concrete; Princess Powell and Moya Margaret Hospital, Swindon (1972), and the Museum of London, in the Barbican In 1946, two years after graduating from the redevelopment (1976). Approached at an upper Architectural Association School in London, level by bridges, the latter’s rather bland and Arnold J.P.Powell and John Hidalgo Moya founded utilitarian exterior belies the extraordinary richness their partnership to carry out the Pimlico Housing of material relating to the social and cultural Scheme (now Churchill Gardens, 1946– 62), which development of London housed within. they had won in open competition. Positioned HILARY GRAINGER amongst the surrounding fine nineteenth-century terraces and squares, the development was widely acknowledged as one of the first significant postwar power dressing comprehensive redevelopment schemes in London. Influential both in attempting to establish a postwar A repercussion of the rise in numbers of women vernacular, and in suggesting a radically new form entering the workforce, power dressing evolved in of urban life based on Le Corbusier’s Ville the late 1970s as an appropriate form of dress for Radieuse, 634 flats of varying size were provided the office. Power dressers wore sharp, tailored suits 426 prejudice with padded shoulders, crisp shirts and court shoes Prejudices not generally discussed seem to be creating a sharp silhouette. This look attempted to subject to different criteria to those against groups address the problem of an appropriate mode of dress more usually seen as having grievances. Men are for working women, as by the nineteenth-century abused by feminists and this is apparently the male suit had become the metonymic signifier acceptable, but a men’s movement grew up in the of the world of work, materialism and power. early 1990s to fight back. The movement has not Consequently, the dress of the working woman was been taken very seriously, except inasmuch as there problematical as traditionally a woman dressed in are those who are prepared to weep for their fathers expensive clothes was not making a statement about or childhoods. Years of unemployment and rising herself but about a man. Power dressers were crime in Liverpool have made Scousers a target. working women whose dress signified status. Islamic fundamentalist terrorism and the Salman Rushdie Affair have provoked anti-Islamic See also: women in business prejudice. Some prejudices are acceptable. Hostility to the CAROLINE COX aristocracy, monarchy, big business, or even estate agents is explicable, if possibly unfair. Similarly, the prejudice 1988 anti-apartheid song ‘I’ve never met a nice South African’ would have been banned if it Legally meaning ‘damage’, prejudice more attacked almost any other nation. Hippies, commonly implies an irrational pre-conceived trainspotters and collectors of obscure facts known opinion. The eighteenth-century essayist Joseph since 1988 as ‘anoraks’ are also targets. Why these Addison’s reference to ‘natural prejudices’ would largely harmless people attract so much venom, now be thought odd, as it has been socially unless it is their cultural isolationism, remains outrageous to admit prejudice since the late 1960s. mysterious in the face of supreme viciousness and The law forbids bias on grounds of race, gender or pomposity on display elsewhere. Society and social marital status (but not age), and some employers relations appear to foster prejudices, even if only voluntarily add sexual orientation and disability. against our neighbours. There are contested exceptions for the armed forces. Demands by the disabled for access have been made Further reading with increasing vigour. All these issues have been championed by supporters of political correctness Bohm, D. (1996) On Dialogue, London: Routledge who hope to change attitudes by abolishing certain (leading physicist and thinker explains how to ideas or words, believing that a rose by any other examine prejudices and assumptions). name would smell completely different. STEPHEN KERENSKY The effectiveness of this approach is debatable since prejudice is not easy to quantify when most prejudice is secret. Some people bemoan what they Presbyterianism call ‘the race relations industry’, resentfully accusing it of giving unfair advantages to minorities. In Presbyterianism is an important Protestant strand reality, its influence is also doubtful and new within the Christian tradition. As indicated by prejudices evolve unexpectedly. In 1997 there were its name, derived form a Greek word meaning incidents of anti-white Asian violence in west ‘old’, its distinguishing feature is the system by London, where violence between Sikhs and which individual churches are regulated by its Muslims had been developing for several years. senior members, its so-called ‘elders’ (who need The Nation of Islam movement in New York, not in fact be the most aged). Though it emerged which is black, anti-Jewish, anti-white and preaches as a force during the Reformation, apartheid for blacks, established itself in London Presbyterianism does not see itself as an in 1995 but has yet to gain many converts. innovation, but rather as the restoration of a form Press Council 427 of church governance inherited from the Further reading synagogues that was characteristic of Christianity Bulloch, J. (1977) The Church of Scotland, Exeter: in its earliest days, before authoritarian Religious Education Press. centralization by bishops under the pope. Slack, K. (1978) The United Reformed Church, Exeter: Theologically, Presbyterianism looks to the Religious Education Press. doctrines advanced by the Genevan reformer John Calvin (1509–64), with their stress on the CHRISTOPHER SMITH helplessness of the individual, who is necessarily sinful as a consequence of original sin unless aided by the free gift of divine grace, and on strict Press Association ethical standards in personal life and business. The Press Association (PA) is a widely respected In worship, which generally follows accepted news provider based in London. All regional patterns though there is no fixed liturgy, the newspaper groups own PA shares, including the accent is on dignified simplicity without Mirror Group, Pearson-Longman and Associated ritualism. Main features are Bible readings and Newspapers. Founded when the British Parliament sermons in which the minister expounds acquired two telephone companies in 1868, by 1925 scripture, often drawing out practical moral the PA had 100 London journalists and 1,500 lessons. Though respected, communion is not a provincial stringers. Today, the PA provides an central concern as in Catholicism; it is celebrated extensive news service, a library with research at varying intervals—sometimes just twice a year— services, feature interviews with leading politicians, in the different Presbyterian churches. live sports coverage and, since 1996, a regional Strong in Scotland since the time of the advertising service on the Internet with News formidable reformer John Knox (c.1513–72), International. The PA’s dominance of its market Presbyterianism is the doctrine of the Church of has recently been challenged by the Leicester-based Scotland. As well as standing out against the UK News Group, and this may affect the PA’s plans claims of the Episcopal Church of Scotland, it to become a public company on the London Stock suffered over the centuries from internal feuding. Exchange in the year 2000. In England, Congregationalism, as it was called, emerged at the time of the Reformation. Breaking See also: Associated Press; Express Group; News away from the Church of England its adherents, International; Telegraph plc under the designation ‘Independents’, won Cromwell’s favour during the Civil War, and ANDREW QUICKE though they were attacked for non-conformity at the Restoration, they continued in their own Press Council way. In 1832 they amalgamated with the Congregational Church of Wales, and in 1972 A voluntary Press Council was established in 1953 the Congregationalists joined with the English with avowed aims of maintaining high ethical Presbyterians, with whom they had marked standards within journalism and promoting affinities despite certain differences on freedom of the Press. During the 1980s, the efficacy organization, to form the United Reformed of the Press Council was questioned in lieu of a Church. The Presbyterian and Congregational number of instances of tabloid excess. An ensuing churches founded across the Empire and beyond, report (the Calcutt Report) recommended the to provide for expatriates and carry out setting up of a new Press Complaints Commission missionary work, have since the War also (PCC), which occurred in 1991 against the generally combined in pioneering successful backdrop of the introduction of a statutory ecumenical experiments. complaints tribunal if the revamped voluntary body failed to be effective. The PCC consists of both See also: Anglican Church; Protestant churches representatives of the press and lay members, and 428 pressure groups it seeks to enforce a Code of Conduct which unions and the CBI enjoyed a special relationship includes issues such as privacy, harassment, with the executive on corporatist bodies. Conflict accuracy or reporting and chequebook journalism. increased with the unions in the 1970s, but the Thatcher governments were explicitly hostile to See also: Express Group; Mirror Group; News pressure groups. Yet pressure group activity International; Telegraph plc continued to rise, especially in groups concerned GUY OSBORN with issues not traditionally dealt with by the main STEVE GREENFIELD political parties. Consultation was very limited with the advent of conviction politics, even when important reforms were to be introduced. The New pressure groups Right consider pressure groups to be undemocratic organizations which undermine legitimate Pressure groups are organizations whose members government. This attitude contrasts with the one- act collectively to affect public policy in order to nation Conservative view of democracy, which promote a common interest. They are usually stresses governing by consent, and with pluralists distinguishable from political parties in that they do who contend that pressure groups are at the heart not wish to govern. They may be divided into of the democratic process as they encourage interest groups, which represent the concerns of their participation in politics. members—examples include trade unions and professional bodies—and cause groups, whose See also: Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace; members share common attitudes towards a specific lobby groups issue which will generally benefit society or a section of the community. These are divided between insider groups, which are viewed as legitimate by Further reading government and are consulted on a regular basis, Baggott, R. (1995) Pressure Groups Today, and outsider groups who are excluded from access Manchester: Manchester University Press. to the decision-making process. NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) groups also exist to tackle local issues. COLIN WILLIAMS Pressure groups now adopt a professional approach, often employing former politicians or civil servants with knowledge of the corridors of power. Price, Antony The most successful groups influence policy through b. 1945 the executive, and the concentration of power in the hands of the executive under the Thatcher Fashion designer administration has made this even more important. Born in 1945, Price was at the forefront of British Pressure groups also work through parliament. glamrock culture and style in the early 1970s. After Trade unions achieve this by sponsoring Labour studying at Bradford College of Art and working MPs and select committees are also lobbied. Large as a designer for Stirling Cooper and Plaza, he pressure groups are also increasingly lobbying at founded his own label in 1979. Price designed European level. Some pressure groups use public fashions for the stars of glam rock, notably Bryan campaigns, but this is usually interpreted as a last Ferry and his band Roxy Music. His glamorous, resort for outsider groups such as CND. impeccably cut designs in luxurious fabrics drew Nevertheless, this approach can occasionally succeed, attention to themselves and to the wearer’s body, as with the Anti Poll Tax Federation whose well- offering a combination of sophistication and sex supported demonstrations contributed to the appeal which flirted with but was never quite community charge being scrapped (see poll tax). reduced to the fetishistic. Until the 1980s, government would consult pressure groups before legislation and the trade TAM S I N S PARG O privatization 429

Prince of Wales’s Institute privatization In architecture, as in farming and countryside Privatization is the act of returning to private management, Prince Charles is essentially a ownership a company or concern that is owned by traditionalist worried about a headlong dash for the state, while nationalization is conversely the modernity that may cause irreparable harm to the opposite. In the postwar period up to the Thatcher environment and the people inhabiting it. Though administration, nationalization remained prevalent. experts who insist they ‘know best’ are generally The Thatcher era changed this. outraged, his opinions are often shared by the public The validity of nationalization can be explained at large. As well as airing his views at speaking from the perspective of market failures. Markets engagements, writing A Vision of England (1989) and are not perfect, because monopoly conditions, developing Poundbury near Dorchester as a model externalities and imperfect information can all cause village to express his ideals in practice, he founded them to be inefficient. Neither do markets distribute in 1992 the Prince of Wales’s Institute in London to in an equitable manner. It was believed that the train architects and planners in blending traditional government had a role to play both in the values with modern styles and techniques. redistribution of wealth and countering inefficiency. Nationalized industries are also a useful political See also: Architectural Association; RIBA tool for managing the economy as a whole, especially if using Keynesian demand management Further reading economics. It was thought that by investing in public sector projects the government could also Jencks, C. (1988), The Prince, the Architects, London: stimulate the private sector. Because the Academy (though published before the nationalized industries in Britain were used as Institute’s foundation, it provides valuable economic tools and many decisions were taken on background). a political as opposed to an economic level, they

CHRISTOPHER SMITH were not as commercially viable as they otherwise might have been. The Thatcher administration in essence privacy supported this view believing in the primacy of the market, postulating that government intervention The issue of privacy centres around the notion that would itself distort the market to the detriment of a person’s individual and family life should be free the industries involved. The market would, if left from unwanted intrusion, whether from institutions free of regulation, result in the optimum allocation of state or the media. However, there is no right to of resources to the benefit of the industry and the privacy enshrined in English law. In the 1990s, economy as a whole. By merely regulating concern centred on the weakness of the Press industries, let alone owning them, governments Council in preventing media intrusion into the exacerbate rather than eradicate inefficiency. Thus personal lives of public figures. The royal family it was that the Thatcher administration embarked were subjected to the most intense scrutiny, details upon a programme of privatization. British Telecom of Princess Diana’s telephone conversations and was one of the earliest and most significant as it the ‘Camillagate’ tapes being published, while held a dominant market position and as a private telephoto lenses and electronic bugs were used to concern would be open to exploit its monopoly reveal their marital difficulties. The Conservative position. The privatization of British Telecom led Party also suffered through a string of lurid to regulatory legislation and a body to monitor the revelations concerning the sex lives of MPs. industry. This set the pattern for subsequent privatizations such as British Gas (1986), the water See also: monarchy; sex scandals authorities (1989) and the electricity companies.

COLIN WILLIAMS The commitment of the Thatcher administration 430 producers to the market, to privatization and liberalization to fulfil the needs of both the artist and the record (as significant as privatization) has permanently label (although Meek especially was known as a altered the British perception of nationalized maverick, independent producer). Martin’s industries to the extent that they are unlikely to be involvement and input into the work of the Beatles a dominant feature of the British economy again. led to a reassessment of the producer’s role, and also brought the idea of the freelancer into being. See also: Conservative governments; Labour The studio role of the producer had not changed Party to a great extent, but the new creative power of artists in the 1960s led to a lessening of the producer’s input in terms of song choice and Further reading arrangement. Many artists became producers of Artis, M.J. (ed.) (1992) The UK Economy, London: their own work themselves, leading to problems Weidenfeld & Nicolson. within the hierarchical structures of the music Veljanovski, C. (1991) ‘The Political Economy of industry. The 1970s saw the ‘producer for hire’ Regulation’, in G.Dunleavey, B.Gamble and phenomenon reach its height, as many record J.Peele (eds), Developments in British Politics 3, companies refused to keep studio staff on contracts. London: Macmillan. Producers as performers became the byword during the late 1980s and 1990s, with many studio ALASTAIR LINDSLEY staff becoming as famous as their protégés, notably Pete Waterman, Nelle Hooper and Norman Cook. producers The role of producer had turned full circle, with, at one point in 1994, six of the top ten selling singles Often cited as being an extra member of a band, in the UK being created and performed by the role of the record producer has changed producers. dramatically over the past few decades, particularly during the 1960s and 1990s. Early producers ran See also: music industry artists’ careers, signing them to record labels, SAM JOHNSTONE choosing songs and arranging and producing the finished product. Producers built small rosters of artists, and became known as starmakers, especially product placement in the first era of rock ’n’ roll. Significant names during this period include Joe Meek, Denis Preston Product placement forms part of a marketing and George Martin, all of whom shaped British strategy where manufacturers identify and target popular music in some way. Meek in particular an audience of consumers and prepare them for followed the American format of becoming a products which they then release on to the market Svengali-like producer, assembling a stable of in tandem with, for example, the premiere of a film. British stars who competed with American artists The screening of Star Wars was accompanied by a during the mid-to-late 1950s. Ironically, it was the range of toys and clothes for children. Products production and arrangements of Martin that put can also be ‘placed’ in a film, because, for example, an end to Meek’s career in the early 1960s, as the seeing Superman drink Coke can boost sales. global phenomenon of the Beatles (and of the many In Britain, television has been used much more similar sounding bands of the era) swept aside the to create the kind of receptive environment for rock ’n’ roll that Meek was so found of. Unable to goods which advertisers wish to sell. For example cope with the changes in production, Meek the children’s series Teletubbies has a range of committed suicide in 1967. products to accompany it. Stores selling these Martin himself changed the way producers were capitalize on the fact that the goods are from the employed during the 1960s, as most were tied down television series and peer pressure among toddlers to long contracts with record companies and had and television advertising convinces parents to buy. progressive rock 431

The arena in which product placement is progressive rock was dominated by British bands probably most evident in Britain however, is sport. who, after the Beatles, were more prepared to For example, Manchester United football club gets experiment with diverse musical forms. Enormous roughly 40 percent of its annual £90m revenue success followed this willingness to combine diverse from souvenir and clothing merchandising, whereas elements, and bands such as Yes, Genesis, ELO, Continental clubs’ merchandise contributes on Jethro Tull, Led Zeppelin, The Who and Pink average 14 percent of their total revenue. Clubs Floyd where transformed into ‘stadium bands’ with are well aware of the power of the identification international audiences numbering millions. that supporters make with ‘their’ players, and so Musically, the term covers an eclectic range. purchasers can buy shirts with the number and While bands such as Yes, Genesis, Pink Floyd and name of their favourite. They have been attacked Jethro Tull turned to classical and other forms of for changing their players’ strip (football kit) too music to enhance the texture of their own, they often, because this places pressure on parents (often nonetheless remained musically diverse as a result single women on welfare) to buy the latest strip for of other non-shared influences (such as Pink Floyd’s their boys. Football kit, minus boots, for an eight- use of soul elements and Jethro Tulle’s concern with year-old boy can cost £80. Hence clubs have been folk music forms). Again, Led Zeppelin (and others accused of abusing their powerful position. such as Uriah Heep) retained more of the form of Another contentious issue with regard to rock but experimented with more complex product placement is marketing to children. On instrumentation including the use of mandolins, Saturday mornings in particular, a stream of acoustic and electric guitars and synthesizers. advertisements for toys is beamed directly at During the 1970s the popularity of these groups, children. This also increases pressure on parents. orchestrated by sophisticated marketing and Television and publishers have teamed up to promotional techniques, placed them at the top of complement each other’s marketing efforts. It is the rock hierarchy. At the same time they retained now commonplace for the book of a television enough of the values (towards personal freedom) of series to be simultaneously available in the shops. the counterculture of the 1960s to appeal to a James Herriot’s Yorkshire veterinary series is a case generation (in its non-aspirational form sometimes in point. Publishers time reprints of classic works identified as Generation X) which was itself which are being televised (Brideshead Revisited, increasingly diverse. As a result, the audience Middlemarch or works of Jane Austen). This often remained loyal despite the difference in wealth and leads to a huge increase in readership, paradoxically lifestyles. Permissiveness and the liberty to so because viewers have less ‘need’ to read the book experiment (with lifestyles, soft and hard drugs, than hitherto. sexuality, sex and so on) remained central themes of the progressive rock lyric, while at the same time See also: corporate identity adopting a more accepting stance towards the commercialization and materialism of society helped MIKE STORRY to define the seventies as a period of individualized experiment accommodated within the ‘system’. The progressive rock rock lyric also, with its continued experimental and subversive use of language, maintained the sense of Progressive rock emerged from psychedelia and shared values without limiting itself to precise refers to the trend towards increased technical and definition. Often (notably with Pink Floyd and Frank textural presentational complexity while retaining Zappa) a more pessimistic and satiric note was struck, thematic links with the ‘counterculture’ of the but largely the ‘system’ was seen as too powerful to 1960s. Progressive rock’s ascendant period challenge, thus allowing newer bands to foreground therefore runs roughly from 1969 to late 1976 when hedonism rather than commentary or critique. punk rock emerged to challenge its hegemonic As success raised the most gifted of the bands position. As a cultural and musical phenomenon, to the status of ‘supergroup’, some critics (mainly 432 promotions rock journalists) began to argue that they were too activation. From the perspective of the customer, ‘remote’ from the lives and concerns of their they can be seen as invasive and a loss of privacy, audience. This became a fully-fledged onslaught thanks to the indiscriminate use of personal with the appearance of punk, which defined itself information about the individual. by its opposition to the supergroups, who were now flaccid ‘dinosaurs’ bloated by the corrupting Further reading influence of success and the corporate values of the music industry. Similarly, their audiences were Rossiter, J.R. and Percy, L. (1997) Advertising written off as ‘boring old farts’. During the 1980s, Communications and Promotion Management, New the most popular bands retained a large audience York: McGraw-Hill. including increased popularity among the working FATIMA FERNANDES class and underclass. In the 1990s, their status has to an extent been reappraised with the arrival of ‘retro-bands’ such as Oasis and others and the re- prostitution emergence of the rock festival, although as yet there has been little to match the technical and formal In the UK, the Sexual Offences Act (1956) defined complexity of the music. prostitution (i.e. exchanging sexual services for money) as a matter of ‘private morality’ and so See also: pop and rock; psychedelic rock not subject to criminal law, although it criminalized most associated activities (such as loitering, soliciting and brothel-keeping). Hence, it is legally Further reading possible to sell sex in the UK but all the avenues Heylin, C. (ed.) (1993) The Penguin Book of Rock & through which the exchange might take place are, Roll Writing, London: Penguin. to a lesser or greater extent, illegal. Explanations for women’s involvement in NEIL ANKERS prostitution have included pathologizing explanations, economic explanations, and promotions explanations which focus on male power and male violence. Pathologizing explanations constitute Air Miles, a fully-owned subsidiary of British involvement in prostitution as a result of some social Airways, was the first successful promotions or psychological deficiency. Economic explanations programme. Initiated in 1988, in 1998 it had a focus on the dynamic provided by gender- registered database of over 3.6 million collectors segregated labour markets which, consequently, and involved nearly 360 companies in Britain and constitutes prostitution as a form of economic the Channel Islands. Air Miles can be inherited activity offering women a way out of their poverty and have been included in divorce settlements. relative to men. Male violence and male power Professor Steve Worthington, an expert on loyalty explanatory models understand prostitution as a schemes at Staffordshire University, has suggested manifestation of men’s power over and control of that ‘with all the different ways of collecting and women’s sexuality and the acceptability of male spending, Air Miles have become a quasi-currency’. sexual violence (linked to pornography). In the mid-1990s leading supermarkets, such Discussion on prostitution from the 1960s as Sainsbury and Tesco, also developed similar onwards has focused on the issues of increasing loyalty schemes in order to identify and stimulate punitive sanctions, decriminalization or legalization. brand awareness. Database marketing and loyalty A growth in neighbourhood vigilantism towards programmes, the ultimate promotion strategies for prostitution was noted in the mid-1990s, when the retailer, are powerful, highly segmented members of local communities that were effected customer-oriented forms of promotion, by street prostitution took it upon themselves to encouraging customer retention and purchase ‘drive prostitution out’ of their area by various high- Protestant churches 433 profile strategies (such as using video cameras to churches, sects and denominations—their very record both the women working and their clients). number and diversity provoking further criticism These groups were concerned with the ‘nuisance’ from Catholics —that sprang up during the prostitution causes such as the ‘kerb-crawling’ of Reformation in the sixteenth century. local women not involved in prostitution, noise and Characteristics of Protestantism are the associated criminal activity (such as drug dealing). conviction that the source of revealed truth is the In contrast, groups such as the English Bible, which is to be read in the congregation’s Collective of Prostitutes have argued for native tongue rather than Latin, and the doctrine decriminalization wherein any and all legal of the universal priesthood of believers, which proscriptions against prostitution are removed. means that the clergy have a less crucial role than With this, it is claimed that the stigma against in Roman Catholicism. While Protestant churches prostitutes will eventually disappear and women respect the sacraments, with some (such as the involved in prostitution will be afforded legal Baptists) placing great emphasis on certain of them, recourse to the violences they may suffer and they are generally less important than for Roman protection against exploitation. Catholics. A common factor amid bewildering Against these two positions, various police variations in organization, church discipline and forces and interested agencies have suggested liturgical practice is a distrust of the legalizing prostitution. Women involved in authoritarianism and centralization considered prostitution would work within registered, characteristic of Roman Catholicism. The inspected and regulated brothels, parlours, zones preference for self-government in individual of tolerance and so on. It is argued that this will congregations, which generally have to be provide the women and clients with a healthy financially self-sufficient, is marked, though working environment and reduce the level of episcopal structures or something similar often financial exploitation of prostitutes. serve a unifying function. Protestantism accepts as a fundamental in See also: censorship theology the doctrine that mankind is separated from God by sin and cannot be redeemed through any individual’s effort, but only by the divine will. Further reading Nevertheless, great stress has always been laid on McLeod, E. (1982) Women Working: Prostitution Now, the obligations of examining one’s own conscience London, Croom Helm. and following a strict moral code. It has been argued that a consequence has been the development of self- JO PHOENIX reliance and high standards in personal and public life, translated sometimes into the ‘Protestant work Protestant churches ethic’ and ‘Protestant thrift’, thought by some commentators to be, along with individualism, Of the world’s 1.7 billion Christians (around 25 formative and progressive influences in Protestant percent of world population), about a quarter are, societies. In a multicultural, multi-faith Britain where at least nominally, Protestants (more than twice as Christianity has declined, recent years have seen the many are Roman Catholics). Historically, gradual replacement of antagonism, not only ‘Protestant’ was the nickname for those who at the between the various Protestant churches but also Diet of Speyer in 1529 rejected the majority decision between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, by that would have banned Lutheranism in the tolerance and mutual respect as witnessing, albeit in Catholic parts of Germany. Though originally differing ways, to the same faith. applied to churches adhering to the teachings of Martin Luther (1483–1546) or the Genevan See also: Anglican Church reformer John Calvin (1509–64), ‘Protestant’ CHRISTOPHER SMITH became one of the terms used to denote the various 434 psychedelic rock psychedelic rock related to its own history, and so prevented it from becoming overly insular and repetitive. That, Psychedelic rock was a brief but important strand perhaps, is its greatest legacy. of British popular music. It emerged in 1967 and its heyday lasted until early 1969, when it was See also: pop and rock superseded by progressive rock. Musically, it was SIMON BOTTOM characterized by playfulness and an exploration of varied styles and instrumentation, along with a tendency to use studio techniques (such as tape pub rock reversal) to a larger extent than before. Unlike its American cousin, British psychedelia A specifically English minor music genre, pub rock coupled this with lyrics which were concerned with was based in the London music scene of the 1970s more than simply flowers and peace. Recurrent and received its name from the lucrative pub venue themes included an escape into childish fantasy, circuit, which consisted of small bands playing in an interest in eastern mysticism and a use of pub back rooms. Seen as a welcome reaction against Victorian imagery. All of these motifs are present the progressive rock and stadium rock of this on what many claim to be the definitive psychedelic period, it presaged punk rock as the antithesis of album, the Beatles’ Sergeant Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club the overblown clichéd rock scene, although punk Band, in the songs ‘Lucy In The Sky With would later infiltrate and ultimately take over the Diamonds’, ‘Within You Without You’ and ‘Being circuit. Based in venues such as the Hope and For The Benefit Of Mr Kite’, respectively. Anchor, the Greyhound and the Falcon, it had no Another important element of psychedelic rock real stylistic features musically but, like punk, it was that it attempted to link a visual experience gave bands the opportunity to play live during a with the auditory one, as witnessed in the light period when it was becoming increasingly difficult shows of bands such as Pink Floyd and Dantalion’s to be heard. Notable pub rockers include Nick Chariot. To a lesser extent, this can also be seen in Lowe (and his band Brinsley Schwarz), Ian Dury the tendency of psychedelic albums to have (Kilburn and the Highroads) and two-tone/ ska intricate, multi-coloured covers, a fine example here band Madness, all of whom began their careers on being the inner gatefold sleeve of the Rolling Stones’ the pub circuit and went on to achieve major chart attempt at psychedelia, Their Satanic Majesties Request. successes. Other acts, such as Dr Feelgood and The Psychedelic rock also gave rise to an attempt to Jam, built up major followings on the circuit but change the traditional format of the rock concert. were loath to be a part of the pub rock ‘scene’. The Events such as 1967’s 14-Hour Technicolour Dream, opening up of new venues following the punk along with other ‘love-ins’, stretched the live explosion of the late 1970s ended the dominance performance into an all-night event, and as such were of the pub circuit. precursors of the rock festival. Songs also grew lengthier, although tracks such as Pink Floyd’s ten- See also: pop and rock minute ‘Interstellar Overdrive’ are short in SAM JOHNSTONE comparison to what would follow in the progressive rock era. An offshoot of this lengthening was the idea of a linked series of songs, or the ‘concept public schools album’. Again, although this idea would be taken to its limits within the progressive rock format, About 6 percent of British children attend albums such as The Pretty Things’ S.F.Sorrow and ‘independent schools’. Though officially inspected (side two of) The Small Faces’ Ogden’s Nut Gone Flake to ensure standards, they are largely independent of both have a coherent story running through them. both the state and the local education authority. Psychedelic rock allowed popular music to Their funding comes from endowments and, for the accept influences from styles of music not directly most part, the fees they charge. Only the most publishing trends 435 prestigious independent secondary schools are called Further reading ‘public schools’, an imprecise and increasingly Rae, J. (1981) The Public School Revolution, London: discarded term. Some are ancient foundations which Faber. were radically reformed in Victorian times, when several more were set up; others followed in the first CHRISTOPHER SMITH half of the twentieth century. The heads of most of these schools form the Headmasters’ and Headmistresses’ Conference publishing trends (hence ‘HMC schools’). Changing the name to include headmistresses reflected both the status of The most significant trend in the publishing many girls’ schools and trends towards co- industry in recent years has been its increasing education in schools originally admitting only boys. concentration in the hands of international media Qualifications for HMC membership include a conglomerates. In the 1980s and 1990s, a series of large sixth form and independence from the state traditional London publishers have been bought education system, although pupils take GCSEs and out by major parent companies, most notably the A levels. Boards of governors control public simultaneous buyout of three independent houses— schools, acting as trustees, overseeing finances and Jonathan Cape, Chatto & Windus and The Bodley working with the head for excellent teaching and Head—by the American firm Newhouse in 1987. pastoral care. Many of the subsidiary developments in British While much is made of tradition, modernization publishing—the use of increasingly aggressive forms is evident in a marked decline in classics in favour of book publicity, the growing size of advances for of a wide range of A levels. Though less emphasis a small number of big name authors, the new is now placed on religion, sport is still taken very importance of literary agents who can broker huge seriously. Cadet corps, intended as preparation for deals for their clients, the vigorous attempts to sell military careers or the Territorial Army, now exist British authors in other English-language markets alongside other leisure activities, from Duke of in the USA and Commonwealth —can be accounted Edinburgh Awards to bird-watching. Music is for in part by the more commercial instincts of these highly regarded. Though many public schools cater large publishers. Similarly, the increasing exclusively or largely for boarders, others— among conglomeration of the industry contributed to the them some of the best—are day schools; many of ending of the Net Book Agreement (NBA) in them were originally town grammar schools. September 1995, which was caused by the In 1997 the government announced the phasing withdrawal from the agreement of large out of the ‘assisted places scheme’ which met, fully international publishers like Random House, or in part, public school fees for a certain number HarperCollins and Penguin. In fact, although it was of pupils from less affluent families. Seeing public predicted that the collapse of the NBA would lead schools as bastions of privilege, critics decry them to price-cutting which would benefit the large as socially divisive. The more knowledgeable publishers and the most commercially successful among them admit, however, that intensive, well- authors, its effects have so far been minimal. In resourced teaching to carefully selected small general, the commercialization of publishing since groups regularly leads to impressive results and the 1980s has been offset by other developments, that, as state secondary education improves and not least the survival of editors committed to less more people go on to university, the ‘old school obviously commercial works even within corporate- tie’ is less of a factor in career prospects than owned houses. hitherto. ‘Old boys’ (and girls) are themselves rarely A second major development in publishing in indifferent about their public school; they usually the 1990s has been the growing importance of regard it either with loyalty or loathing. interactive multimedia, particularly CD-Roms and pay-to-view on-line computer networks, as another See also: class system; schools system way for publishers to sell text to readers. Although 436 punk rock these new technologies are frequently said to be ‘Anarchy In The UK’ lyrically mocked what the producing a ‘post-book’ age, it is too soon to say band perceived to be the conformist and drab how comprehensively they will alter the nature of nature of British society, against a backdrop of publishing. The books most affected have so far rambunctious guitars and drums. It was not long been children’s, reference and educational texts, before The Sex Pistols attracted a fanatical following and virtually no inroads have been made into the of punks equally disillusioned with British society fiction market. In the area of fiction, the huge and culture. expansion in audio books, abbreviated works The media furore that surrounded early Sex recorded on cassette by the author or an actor, has Pistol’s gigs was nothing in comparison to the been more significant. outrage that followed their actions in December 1976 when, following the cancellation of an appearance See also: black literature press; feminist by the group Queen, The Sex Pistols were invited publishing houses to appear on the early evening London television show Today. After drinking heavily before the show, the band verbally insulted interviewer Bill Grundy, Further reading and caused a tabloid storm with their explicit Owen, P. (ed.) (1993) Publishing Now, London: Peter language. This set the stage for the release of their Owen (includes short chapters by editors, ‘God Save The Queen’ single, a week before the publishers and agents, and is a useful insider’s Queen’s Jubilee weekend in June 1977. Again tabloid look at developments in publishing in the 1980s newspapers and the public in general were outraged and 1990s). by the band’s forthright attacks upon an institution central to British society, the monarchy. In particular JOE MORAN the record cover, created by the band’s ‘Art Director’ Jamie Reid, created a sensation with its image of the punk rock Queen with a safety pin through her nose. ‘God Save The Queen’ was The Sex Pistol’s Punk rock is primarily a British musical genre that high point. Later in 1977 the band released their reached its creative and popular peak during 1977 one and only official album, Never Mind The Bollocks. and 1978. The precursors of punk rock were those Like all the band’s releases it came in a trademark American and British groups of the late 1960s and Jamie Reid cover that mimicked the style of a early 1970s who played rock music with an ransom note, and contained direct attacks on aggressive feel, with loud distorted guitars and central facets of British culture. The Sex Pistols nihilistic lyrics. In particular, many of the original found that they were unable to obtain gigs in Britain punk rock groups formed in 1976 and 1977 were because promoters and venues showed an influenced by bands such as MC5, the New York unwillingness to allow them to perform. Band Dolls, The Stooges, The Who and The Velvet tensions reached a head following the band’s tour Underground. While most punk rock groups drew of the USA, and they split in early 1978. The band’s influence from some earlier bands, they were lead singer Johnny Rotten reverted to his real name specific about rejecting the majority of music John Lydon, formed Public Image Limited, and produced in the early 1970s; in particular, punk left the punk rock genre. The band struggled on in rock musicians were disdainful of what they termed his absence, but the drug-related death of bass the hippie music of progressive rock. player Sid Vicious led to their inevitable demise. Central to any discussion of punk is the band At the same time as The Sex Pistols were The Sex Pistols. Not the first punk rock group but attracting media attention, a whole wave of other certainly the most influential, The Sex Pistols punk rock bands were forming, notably The formed in late 1975. Shortly after this the band Damned and The Clash in London and The started touring on the pub rock and college gig Buzzcocks in Manchester. Although none received circuits. Early songs such as ‘Submission’ and the same mixture of notoriety and fame as The Puttnam, David 437

Sex Pistols, many considered them to be musically kind of learned musicianship of previous rock more interesting. Although shunned by other punk genres. It is understandable that house, jungle and rock groups, The Damned’s album Damned Damned techno acts, with their cheap sampling equipment Damned (1977) was critically acclaimed at the time, and their own production technology, consider and The Damned continue to perform in the late themselves to be the direct descendants of the first 1990s. The Clash also achieved critical and punk rock bands. commercial success with sixteen chart hits in the five years following 1977. Musically and lyrically See also: alternative music; new wave more sophisticated than The Sex Pistols, The Clash combined the noise and aggression of punk rock Further reading with reggae and other Caribbean musics. The Buzzcocks developed a different musical agenda Savage, J. (1991) England’s Dreaming: Sex Pistols and and were influential amongst the indie bands that Punk Rock, London: Faber & Faber (the definitive developed in the aftermath of punk (see indie pop). account of the social, cultural and musical In the wake of the successes of punk rock’s first significance of punk rock). wave, many young people began to form their own STUART BORTHWICK bands in 1977 and 1978. In particular these bands developed a ‘DIY’ attitude to making music. Bands such as Siouxsie and the Banshees, X-Ray Specs, Puttnam, David The Adverts and Sham 69 developed different styles of punk, but maintained a central ethos of b. 1941 opposition to mainstream British society. Either Film producer implicitly or explicitly, this political ethos was central to punk. Formerly in advertising, commercial producer The degree to which punk rock has influenced Puttnam’s first project was the Alan Parker subsequent musical styles is hotly debated. scripted Melody (1970). Puttnam gradually Throughout the 1980s, new bands formed and assembled an ex-advertising film-making coterie, drew inspiration from the events of 1976 and 1977. producing Ridley Scott’s The Duellists (1977), In particular, indie bands’ faith in the seven-inch Parker’s Midnight Express (1978), Adrian Lyne’s single and suspicion of the LP has been interpreted Foxes (1979) and Hugh Hudson’s Chariots of Fire as directly related to punk’s ‘DIY’ approach. (1981). Roland Joffe’s The Killing Fields (1984) and Musically, punk rock has been particularly The Mission (1986) were among other noteworthy influential upon American bands, with Nirvana, achievements. Puttnam’s films have Hole and Mudhoney all having had chart successes predominantly charted male histories, revelling in Britain. These ‘post-punk’ bands developed a in the triumph of the human spirit in adversity similar sound to the stripped-down aggression of with well-meaning but sometimes emotionally the first generation of punk rock bands. Some exploitative intent. Associated with the early 1980s British rock groups, such as The Wildhearts, resurgence in British film, Puttnam has Therapy and the Manic Street Preachers also have campaigned tirelessly on the industry’s behalf. A their musical roots in punk. standard bearer of British arts liberalism, he was However, some commentators claim that the made a Labour peer in the House of Lords in ‘spirit of punk’ is not to be found in those groups 1997. who sound like their 1970s counterparts, but in the house, techno and jungle acts who make music Further reading for reasons other than commercial gain. For many Kipps, C. (1988) Out of Focus, New York: Silver of the first generation of punk rock groups, making Arrow Books. music was about ‘making do’ with the available technology, and they were therefore opposed to the SATINDER CHOHAN Q

Quant, Mary stores as well as designing for J.C.Penney in New York in 1962. Quant launched her own wholesale b. 1934, London company, Ginger, in 1963 and cosmetics and Fashion designer accessories bearing her daisy logo soon joined her hugely successful fashion range. Quant is Mary Quant was one of the most influential associated above all with cheeky mini-skirts and British designers in the ‘Swinging Sixties’. Born dresses which provided the main fashion image in 1934 and trained at Goldsmith’s College, Quant of the mid-1960s. opened her Kings Road boutique Bazaar in 1955. Her innovative, youthful fashions were an TAM S I N S PARG O immediate success and led to Quant opening other R

Race Relations Acts Radio 1 Acts of Parliament concerning race relations have Radio 1 is the BBC’s main popular music station been passed in 1965, 1968 and 1976. The most for younger audiences, continuously influential and recent Act, which also established the much talked about. The station was launched by Commission for Racial Equality, prohibits the BBC in 1967, following a period of intensive discrimination on the basis of colour, race, activity by pirate radio stations broadcasting pop nationality or ethnic origin, and also outlaws music from off-shore. The popularity of these indirect discrimination in the provision of goods, stations and the BBC’s resistance caused renewed services, facilities, accommodation, debate (echoing the introduction of commercial advertisements and, most importantly, television) about standards, tastes and consumers’ employment. rights. The Labour government outlawed the stations under the Marine Offences Act of that year See also: British Citizenship Acts and encouraged the BBC, against its institutional traditions and instincts, to establish a specialist youth PETER CHILDS pop music station alongside Radios 2, 3 and 4. Radio 1 quickly won a large audience share and a generation grew up with its music and presenters, RADA often listening in bedrooms or workplaces on the new, cheaper portable radios. The weekend top 20 The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) is a chart countdown became a national institution. school for aspiring actors in London’s Gower Street. Many of the station’s disc jockeys established fame It was founded by Beerbohm Tree in 1904, over in their own right, achieving a relaxed, informal forty years after the oldest theatre school, the relationship (casual, chatty and cheeky, though until London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art recently mainly masculine) with their listeners. (LAMDA). RADA, which benefits from one-third Others, of whom John Peel has been the most of the Royalties from all George Bernard Shaw’s enduring and distinctive, developed their own plays, stages performances for the public in its eclectic musical tastes on air. Radio 1’s DJs have Vanbrugh Theatre, which opened in 1954. British often gone on to appear on the other BBC radio actors trained at RADA include Alan Bates, Glenda stations (such as Tony Blackburn on Radio 2, Paul Jackson, Richard Attenborough and Margaret Gambaccini on Radio 3 and Andy Kershaw on Lockwood. Radio 4). In the 1980s, during discussion about the See also: actors (female); actors (male) restructuring of broadcasting, Radio 1 faced PETER CHILDS possible privatization. Subsequently, in the 1990s 440 Radio 2 new commercial stations have developed in keen stations repositioned the new Radio 2 next to a competition, with continuous press coverage of the younger sibling, Radio 1. varying audience shares obtained by Radio 1 and For many years the contrast in style, musical its main rivals such as Virgin 1215. Controversy preferences and ways of talking to the listener has been fostered by the main breakfast time between these stations has been very great. Radio presenters, with some switching between stations. 2 has attracted a mainly much older audience, Radio 1 makes considerable use of computer- offering musical styles from earlier in the century, generated playlists tracking successful chart records, presented in a consciously relaxed, soothing, but at other times presenters’ musical choices are sometimes nostalgic way. The station retained a more ambitious. A significant amount of live music loyal core audience, but was little noticed or and pre-release new music is broadcast, including discussed. Instead, it was subject to some routine music by new bands. derision, perhaps connected with prejudices about Despite competition and a certain loss of age, though the station also seemed to lack clarity listeners to Radio 2 and elsewhere as they grow of aim and to be merely undemanding. It became older and find the station’s music and style too a rumoured target for privatization (fulfilling no young for them, Radio 1 covers a wider range of obvious public service remit) during the 1980s. contemporary music, playing more titles each week As the BBC developed audience strategies and than other stations. It attracts weekly almost half mission statements in the 1990s, the functions of the population in the 15–24 age range, and retains radio services were closely analysed. There were a key place in British culture and musical life. already signs that Radio 1 had become too youthful for some, while Radio 2 was rethought until, in a See also: commercial radio, national; local radio; development mostly unforeseen, its audience share Radio 2; Radio 3; Radio 4; Radio 5; radio DJs began to match and at times exceed that of Radio 1. The BBC describes the station, somewhat ambiguously, as reflecting the ‘heritage of popular Further reading music and culture’ (1997:9). In practice it now offers Barnard, S. (1989) On the Radio: Music Radio in Britain, considerable variety, anchored around a Milton Keynes: Open University Press. recognizable address to listeners: a very wide range —— (1997) ‘Postscript’, in T.O’Sullivan and Y. of music; comedy, quiz and magazine programmes; Jewkes (eds), The Media Studies Reader, London: documentaries, book readings, coverage of the arts, Edward Arnold. religion and several other areas. Its distinctive voices include those of Terry Wogan, a brilliant improviser MICHAEL GREEN and raconteur; Steve Wright, formerly a Radio 1 disc jockey; and several previously associated with Radio 2 other stations. Still not much noticed or discussed, Radio 2 describes itself as ‘the most listened-to radio Radio 2 was established by the BBC as a station in Britain’ and its future development, development from its Light Programme. This in including what kind of audience it attracts, will be turn, after the Second World War, had replaced of considerable cultural interest. the General Forces Programme which broadcast in an accessible style to the armed services. The See also: local radio; Radio 3; Radio 4; Radio 5; Light Programme in the postwar decades was the radio comedy BBC’s most widely appealing radio service, very different in character to the authoritative public Further reading service ambitions of the Home Service or the BBC (1997) Our Commitment to You, London: BBC specialist tastes in the arts and classical music Books. addressed by the Third Programme. The decision in 1967 to establish four very distinctive ‘streamed’ MICHAEL GREEN Radio 4 441

Radio 3 but still evolving attempts to extend its core audience beyond typically older and (to some The main current function of Radio 3, now extent) more educated and professional listeners. broadcast twenty-four hours a day, is to carry a very wide range of live and recorded classical music. See also: commercial radio, national; Radio 1; Radio 3 emerged when BBC radio was reorganized Radio 2; Radio 4; Radio 5; radio drama in 1967, but its origins lie in the celebrated, often controversial, Third Programme established in 1946 and described by then Director General Further reading William Haley as the apex of a cultural pyramid, Carpenter, H. (1996) The Envy of the World, London: above the Home Service and still more the Light Weidenfeld & Nicholson. Programme. The Third Programme was dedicated to the full range of the arts, including music but MICHAEL GREEN also drama, features, discussions of science and much else, though with a distinctive style of presentation leading to much praise for, and Radio 4 mockery of, the station as demanding, intellectual Radio 4 is the BBC’s most prestigious, best- and ‘highbrow’. resourced radio channel, offering a wide range of Since in its early years the Third Programme speech programmes and a regular focus of political was sometimes hard to receive and attracted only and public attention. It is seen by the BBC, and a small (at times almost invisible) audience share, widely accepted, as an importantly national station it has over a long period been seen as public service with only intermittent attention to ‘regional’ output. broadcasting at its most dedicated or, alternatively, Radio 4 evolved from the former Home Service its most costly, off-putting, even absurd. However (launched 1939), giving considerable time to news it has been continuously central to British cultural and current affairs but also to magazine and life, and especially classical music, particularly as discussion programmes, drama, comedy, quizzes a musical patron. Half its output at present is live and much else including vital (and for some, or specially recorded, while the BBC’s own and evocative) shipping forecasts. The popular teatime other orchestras, and many smaller groups and Children’s Hour ended in 1961 but Woman’s Hour has soloists, gain from its dedication to a wide classical run continuously since 1946. Originally introduced repertoire. This reaches a climax in the summer by men, offering advice for housewives at home, it BBC Promenade concerts (‘the Proms’), which now gives voice to women on air over a huge have become increasingly adventurous and are variety of issues through its journalists and carried live on Radio 3. presenters, and is virtually the only dedicated The station still has critics since, despite some women’s space in British broadcasting. Similar airtime for jazz and other forms, Radio 3’s version specialist programmes designed for a general of cultural value is confined mainly to music within citizens’ audience concern finance, food, gardening, the western classical tradition (with an important disability issues and much else. Celebrity guests commitment to living British composers). Speech feature in the widely known Desert Island Discs or programmes have largely migrated to Radio 4, more recently In the Psychiatrist’s Chair. while drama, science and discussion of other arts Radio 4 (so named since 1967) aims to give have become much scarcer in the schedule. intelligent, at times demanding speech coverage to On its central territory Radio 3 faced a particular many areas of life, using skilled and at times high- challenge with the appearance of Classic FM in profile presenters. Its breakfast current affairs 1991, a commercial station broadcasting CD programme Today, though sometimes criticized for extracts in a new, populist format with its focus on politics as what happens in Westminster, approachable presenters. The station’s success and has established itself as compulsory listening; some the debate about Radio 3 elitism led to some uneasy of its interviewers (such as Brian Redhead and John 442 Radio 5

Humphreys) have been celebrated for their intended audience, which is predominantly male rigorous, at times combative, grillings of politicians (though too simply stereotyped as ‘radio bloke’). and experts. The station’s perception of itself as distinctive, See also: phone-ins and chat shows; Radio 1; challenging and invaluable radio has been accepted Radio 2; Radio 3; Radio 4 by much of its influential, predominantly higher MICHAEL GREEN status and south of England audience. Possible threats to BBC radio in the 1980s drew strong resistance and organized lobbying from groups such radio comedy as Voice of the Listener and Viewer, while the prolonged cricket coverage on long wave has been Comedy on radio is inevitably associated with the resented by listeners missing regular programmes networks run by the BBC, even though it is clear carried on other frequencies. Attempts to that comedy is essential to most radio, whether restructure Radio 4’s schedule, given a mainly older national or local, BBC or independent. While the audience and huge drops in listening after breakfast term ‘radio comedy’ is usually used to refer to a current affairs coverage and the long-running early variety of situation comedies, panel games and evening farming soap opera The Archers, have given sketch shows, it can be seen that virtually all radio rise to intense press and public discussion. The presenters and disc jockeys use comedy, irrespective BBC is committed to developing Radio 4 as its of the format of the actual programme. The careers core public service radio channel offering a of disc jockeys such as Chris Evans, for example, particular version of quality speech output. rely very heavily on their ability to make people laugh. It can be seen that this trend has become See also: Radio 1; Radio 2; Radio 3; Radio 5; more apparent in the 1990s, with Radio 1 spawning radio comedy; radio drama a number of significant comedies, such as The Mary Whitehouse Experience and Chris Morris’s Blue Jam, signalling the increasing importance of comedy to Further reading the medium of radio overall. Crisell, A. (1997) An Introductory History of British Despite this, the majority of specific comedy Broadcasting, London: Routledge. programmes appear on Radio 4, which has a lengthy tradition of producing such programming. MICHAEL GREEN Panel games such as I’m Sorry I Haven’t a Clue and Just a Minute have been running for decades, as Radio 5 has The News Huddlines on Radio 2. Radio 4 has broadcast hundreds of sitcoms, the most famous Radio 5 is the BBC’s fifth and youngest radio earlier examples probably being It’s That Man Again, channel, carrying a twenty-four hour mixture of The Goon Show and Hancock’s Half-Hour. However, news and sports. Radio 5 joined the network in the format continues to be reinvented on radio in 1990 with an uneasy mixture of material lacking such programmes as On the Hour and People Like Us, space elsewhere, including adult education and both sophisticated parodies of Radio 4 and its schools broadcasts, sport, stories and magazine journalistic excesses. The Asian-based sketch show programmes. It once seemed that Radio 5 would Goodness Gracious Me! was seen to be a significant become home to a planned continuous rolling news breakthrough for ethnic minorities. service, but in 1994 was instead relaunched as While radio comedy achieves significantly Radio 5 Live, seeking by comparison with Radio smaller audience ratings than its television 4 to offer news and current affairs in a format which counterpart, its future is assured not least because would gain a younger and broader range of it often serves as a breeding ground for new comedy listeners, alongside a wide range of sports talent before the lure of television rears its head. A commentary. Radio 5 seems to be attracting its number of television sitcoms began on radio (such radio drama 443 as After Henry and Second Thoughts), while Goodness rewards in return for the promotion of a particular Gracious Me! transferred to BBC2, Radio 4’s The record or artist. News Quiz became Have I Got News For You and On Record companies rely heavily on radio to the Hour moved on to satirize television journalism introduce and promote its products, and disc as The Day Today. Many in the radio industry jockeys are regarded as the ‘regulators’ or bemoan the low standing the medium occupies ‘gatekeepers’ of the industry. Disc jockeys now have compared to television, particularly when it is the power not only to influence playlists but to probable that much television comedy would not make or break a star, playing a crucial part in exist without radio serving as an apprenticeship. determining chart success. Disc jockeys have played a crucial part in defining new genres and See also: comedy on television; situation comedy discovering new markets. Pirate radio, with the pioneering Radio Caroline in 1964, inspired a new brand of ‘pop’ radio in the UK, with such Further reading personalities as Tony Blackburn, John Peel and Took, B. (1976) Laughter in the Air, London: Robson Kenny Everett. They eventually went mainstream, (affectionate but outdated history of radio but John Peel continues to work towards the comedy). discovery and promotion of new talent. Disc jockeys played a major role in the BRETT MILLS emergence of the twelve-inch single in the 1970s, by mixing the seven-inch single for prolonged radio DJs playing time. By the late 1970s this became an industry standard, and by the 1990s it comprised The cult of the disc jockey, or DJ (see DJs), grew 45 percent of sales. Due to the success of club up out of the transformation of radio stations in culture, the disc jockey is now the key figure here the years 1948–58 in America. Prior to these years, as well, and can earn as much if not more than radio was a domestic medium, developed in the musicians. 1920s and aimed primarily at housewives. Radio programmes had previously been in-house See also: pirate radio; Radio 1 productions by the major networks, which, because ALICE BENNETT of its large-scale organization, involved a high percentage of specialized departments and job- specification. The initial role of the disc jockey was radio drama purely functional. His (as it invariably was a man) job was to cue the records, and ensure the smooth Most radio drama is broadcast on Radio 3, Radio continuity of the show. DJs had no influence over 4 and the World Service, although Radio 3’s playlists. When radio stations became more output was halved in 1994–5 after competition from localized in the 1950s, career patterns within the Classic FM. There is a scattering of drama on local industry changed dramatically, the most significant radio at Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle. of these being the transformation of the functional Radio suits multiple genres and styles including radio announcer to personality disc jockey. This book adaptations, situation comedy, detective reshaping of radio was a key factor in the advent stories, science fiction, classical works, mainstream of rock ’n’ roll and through this, the disc jockey British and European plays and modern writing, emerged as a star figure. On American radio, Alan some of it commissioned. In the early days of radio Freed was the epitome of the showman it was widely regarded as the most avant-garde entrepreneur disc jockey, but his downfall was medium, and work by MacNeice and Dylan guaranteed when he was exposed for succumbing Thomas provided an experimental springboard for to the practice of the ‘pay-to-play’ payola system, Beckett and Stoppard, Caryl Phillips and Anthony whereby disc jockeys would accept financial Minghella because the medium, while imposing 444 rambling strict disciplines of explication in plot and character, rambling allows unlimited freedom of location, action and style. Adaptations of works like Gogol’s Diary of a Rambling has been a popular activity throughout Madman which would be impossible on television this century, although numbers have risen or on stage can be produced on radio very significantly as leisure time and car ownership have successfully. increased. The Rambler’s Association, which was In the nature of contemporary media culture, formed in 1931, represents the rights of walkers, success is measured in terms of mass audiences and protecting rights of way and campaigning for the highly-paid stars. Journalists and pundits are freedom to roam over uncultivated open country. unwilling to make qualitative judgements for fear Successful campaigns have led to the passing of the of being thought elitist or politically incorrect by National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act contrasting popular television drama with any other 1949 and the inclusion of rights of way on popular sort of work. To a limited extent this favours radio, Ordnance Survey maps. Several rambling as many writers have used the relative freedom and ‘personalities’ have developed over more recent obscurity of radio to develop their careers before years; perhaps most famously Alfred Wainwright, going on to wider audiences and closer critical who first started producing guide books covering attention. Most notably, Douglas Adams had a huge walks in the Lake District in the 1950s and 1960s. popular hit with The Hitch-Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy. HELEN COOKE The transfer to television was not so successful because the density of the material failed to register on the screen. Rank Although radio drama does not maintain a high cultural profile or attract large audiences, its Now the Rank Group, Rank has interests in many listenership is dedicated, highly articulate and prone areas as one of the world’s biggest leisure groups. to campaign should anything disturb the general Its holdings include over 300 Odeon cinemas, tenor of radio output. When allied to the high Pinewood Studios, theme parks, bingo halls, quality of radio writing, this produces a Butlins holiday villages and franchises of the Hard disproportionately influential effect on the rest of Rock Cafe. Overseas, this extends to ownership of media output. Cultural power has shifted even Universal Studios and a theme park in Orlando. further away from creative people during the 1990s, The prime mover within the embryonic as it did from film during the 1970s and television organization was J.Arthur Rank (1888–1972), a during the 1980s, because of changes in Methodist millionaire businessman who switched management style introduced for the ostensible from the family flour company to became one of purpose of saving (or making more) money. It has the most important figures in British cinema. been widely suggested that managers simply do Originally J. Arthur Rank had founded a film not want allegedly wayward creative talents company, British National, whose aim was to interfering with the smooth running of the promote Methodism through documentaries. This organization. However, radio continues to foster floundered due to lack of distribution, and he later talented writers and performers in the production allied with General Film distributors, which became of marginal work other media reject. Rank Film Distributors. The powerful position of the Rank organization led to a reference to the See also: radio comedy Monopoly Commission, which reported in 1943 that the extent of the company’s control (over 50 Further reading percent of studios and 10 percent of cinemas) was acceptable. The film distribution arm was sold to Kirkpatrick, D. (ed.) (1978–) Best Radio Plays, Carlton for £65 million in 1997. London: Methuen/BBC. While Rank produced bawdy films such as STEPHEN KERENSKY Doctor in the House (Thomas 1954) and the Carry rap 445

On films, the Methodist roots of the organization playing two copies of the record on separate began to show through with attempts to ban X- turntables, using a crossfader (a simple mixing rated films, now classed as 18 Certificate, from device) to ‘cut’ between the two records, manually showing in their Odeon chain. Later, having ‘rewinding’ the record to the start of the break on financed Nick Roeg’s 1980 film Bad Timing with one turntable while the other plays. To encourage its necrophiliac story line, executives echoed earlier people to dance at parties where they played, DJs conservatism in condemning it. While Rank’s sole began to have live MCs (originally standing for commitment to film is fast receding, it is important Masters of Ceremonies) on hand, to throw phrases to appreciate the crucial importance the like ‘yes, yes, y’all, and you don’t stop,’ or ‘throw organization once had and the role J.Arthur Rank your hands in the air, and wave ‘em like you just enjoyed as its catalyst: don’t care’ into the mix. It was not long, however,

before MCs began to expand their repertoire, Rank managed to tie all the discrete strands of moving from simple phrases of crowd British film culture together. In his bid to set encouragement to ever longer and more complex the industry on its feet, he intervened on every spoken rhymes. These rhymes were known as raps, level. He pioneered technical research and and the music became known as rap music. developed equipment. He invested in ‘B’ The idea of spoken vocals on songs was, of pictures. He started a ‘charm school’ to generate course, not new. In the early 1970s, Isaac Hayes stars…. For a brief moment in the mid-1940s, had performed a song entitled ‘Ike’s Rap’, and it seemed as if he had managed to introduce a Millie Jackson included a track on her Caught Up measure of harmonious sanity to the album called simply ‘The Rap’. What was schizophrenic organism which the British film innovative about rap music was the combination industry has traditionally been. of the spoken vocal of the MC with the recycled (Macnab 1993:xi) beats of the DJ. By 1979, rap music had become a See also: British film industry recorded genre itself, although early records, such as The Sugarhill Gang’s ‘Rapper’s Delight’ used live musicians to recreate the sound produced by Further reading DJs. ‘Rapper’s Delight’ was an international hit, Macnab, G. (1993) J.Arthur Rank and the British Film and opened the door for groups such as Industry, London: Routledge (a thorough, Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five to produce engaging account of both the Rank organization records with a DJ rather than a live band. and J.Arthur Rank). By around 1983, the sound of rap music was changing, with the prevalent ‘disco-funk’ giving GUY OSBORN way to a more stripped down style, with the STEVE GREENFIELD distinctive tones of the Roland TR-808 drum machine coming to the fore, while DJs played rap shorter extracts from records, often ‘scratching’ the record to further alter its sound. At around the same Rap music began as an integral part of New York’s time, social commentary raps such as the Furious burgeoning hip hop culture in the mid-1970s. From Five’s ‘The Message’ and Run DMC’s ‘It’s Like the beginning, its sound was quite unique, with That’ began appearing. This trend was taken the music being created collage-style by DJs further in what is often considered a golden age combining elements from pre-existing records, for rap music, the years 1987 and 1988, by one of rather than live musicians. One of rap’s early the leading acts of the time, Public Enemy. innovators, Kool DJ Here, is credited with Public Enemy’s sound was an intense originating the process of taking the instrumental combination of 808 drum beats, looped samples breaks from songs such as James Brown’s ‘Give It (the sampler, an instrument for digitally Up Or Turnit A Loose’ and extending them by reproducing any sound fed into it had been added 446 Rastafarianism to the tools of the DJ, allowing ever smaller extracts Although the deaths of Tupac Shakur and the of records to be used) and the ferocious rhymes of Notorious B.I.G. meant that the shadow of violence Chuck D. Along with the likes of Boogie Down was never far from rap music, producers such as Productions, Eric B and Rakim and EPMD, Public Puff Daddy made slick, commercial rap records that Enemy took rap music to new heights of popularity were hugely successful. Many long-term rap fans, in the late 1980s. however, decried this commercialization, preferring By this time rap was well established in the UK, to return to the sounds of the ‘old school’. By 1998, and although commercial success has always this more traditional rap sound was making a evaded British rap acts (the exceptions being Slick comeback, as evidenced in groups such as the Rick and Monie Love, both of whom relocated to Jurassic 5. The old school also seemed to be the USA before establishing themselves), fans of returning with Jason Nevins’s house remix of Run the music are fiercely loyal to it. Indeed, it was DMC’s ‘It’s Like That’ (although the lyrical content British rap fans whose cheers and whistles were of the song was less foregrounded in this version) used for the live segments of Public Enemy’s and the related rise in popularity of related hip hop seminal It Takes A Nation Of Millions To Hold Us Back artforms, such as breakdancing. album. Rap’s popularity in Britain was probably only further increased by a media backlash, with See also: disco the Beastie Boys coming in for particular press disapproval during their 1987 tour of the UK. Further reading Meanwhile, in the USA, rap music was being attacked in the press for being both violent—the Fernando, S.H., Jr (1995) The New Beats, Edinburgh: ‘gangsta’ rap of groups such as NWA (Niggaz With Payback Press. Attitude) and Compton’s Most Wanted—and Toop, D. (1984, 1991) Rap Attack 2: African Rap to misogynist—the 2-Live Crew’s As Nasty As They Wanna Global Hip Hop, London: Serpent’s Tail. Be album was eventually banned on grounds of SIMON BOTTOM obscenity, and became part of a larger debate over freedom of speech. ‘Gangsta’ rap became the next major wave of rap music, although it provided few Rastafarianism hits in the UK. Whereas earlier rap acts had achieved crossover success (Run DMC and Aerosmith hit the Rastafarians (colloquially ‘Rastas’) are followers of top ten with ‘Walk This Way’ in 1986), gangsta rap a cult which enjoyed popularity from about 1930 appealed more to the small, solid fanbase. to 1960 in Jamaica and subsequently abroad, where Throughout much of the 1990s, rap music its main influence became cultural. The movement remained a largely underground form. While there has a male emphasis, aimed at least in part at were occasional rap hits (A Tribe Called Quest’s repudiating the matrifocal ethos produced by ‘Can I Kick It?’, for example), it was not until the nineteenth-century slavery’s dislocation of the mid-1990s that a resurgence of rap’s popularity family. It also has seen feminism as a manifestation occurred. While groups such as the Wu-Tang Clan of the moral decline of the West. The Rasta look is created a sound that renewed the faith of rap very distinctive. Men have long matted plaits of followers, commercial success was coming for hair, dreadlocks, which replaced the pre-1970s ‘afro’ ‘poppier’ rap acts like Coolio, whose ‘Gangster’s cut, and were first worn in a closed community in Paradise’ (the title hints at the content: watered- Jamaica (Pinnacle) in the early 1950s to indicate down gangsta rap) became, in 1995, the first rap African warrior status. Rastafarians also wear song to reach number one in the UK. distinctive clothing, including ‘tams’ (crocheted or Subsequently, rap reached a much wider fabric hats) and army-surplus camouflage wear. audience, with rap records and records that Women wear their hair in tightly braided incorporated elements of rap music being heard arabesques. Clothes are often in the traditional with increased frequency on daytime radio. Rasta colours, red, gold and green, taken from the Rastafarianism 447 national flag of Ethiopia. Rastafarianism has had reward to poor people, Rastafarianism moved on in considerable cultural significance in Britain, largely Britain and America to become a focus for alienated, through its offering of an identity to alienated urban black, urban youth. One of the tenets of the religion black youth, but also through its influence on is that adherents should make sacramental use of disaffected white youth culture. marijuana (ganja). This cultural dimension was Rastafarians’ philosophy of life was originally misunderstood in Britain and the USA, and became based on their adaptation of the Christianity they the only widely known aspect of a whole way of experienced in the colonial West Indies. A religion life. This also led to the demonizing of which countenanced slavery offered them no Rastafarianism as a subculture and made Rastas even comfort. However, the Bible gave them hope less likely to participate in a society which held because they found in it the promise of a return to travestied notions of their religious beliefs. Africa. They understood as a prophecy Revelation Rastafarians have been influential in many 19:16 And he hath on his vesture and on his thigh cultural ways in Britain. Their hairstyle is shared by a name written, ‘KING OF KINGS, AND LORD some new age travellers or crusties. They were OF LORDS’. They identified as their ‘saviour’ (and probably influential in promoting a climate of hence deified) the Emperor Haile Selassie of tolerance towards soft drugs in the 1980s. For Ethiopia (1892–1975). He was known variously as example, they staked out their territory in urban Lion of Judah, and Ras (Prince) Tafari (Selassie’s areas of cities like Liverpool with graffiti such as: family name, meaning ‘Might of the Trinity’), and ‘Toxteth Not Croxteth’, meaning that marijuana was was believed to be the messiah who was going to welcome in Toxteth, but not the heroin which was lead black people, who were one of the lost tribes available in another district of the city. They also of Israel, back to Ethiopia. Rastafarians see marked their area of urban influence by painting themselves as Israelites displaced from their the streets and pavements in red, green and gold. homeland, and Babylon is the collective name for Though the religious group is small, millions all countries of exile outside Africa. appreciate the characteristic Rastafarian music The authorities in Jamaica, North America and reggae, with its development of a slow ‘African’ Britain have been hostile or at least unsympathetic to rhythm, often with lyrics that remind West Indians Rastafarianism. Perhaps the person most responsible in Britain of their roots and recommending a for offering leadership for Rastafarians was Marcus coherent black cultural identity. Its principal Garvey (1887–1940), a mercurial black Jamaican with exponents were Bob Marley and the Wailers. maroon (fugitive slave) ancestors. Garvey was educated Marley’s music uses a vibrant and compulsive briefly at London’s Birkbeck College, and founded rhythm based on a loud electric bass guitar, the Universal Negro Improvement Association on his accompanied by organ, piano and drums. Marley’s return to Jamaica in 1914. He advocated a return to music has been enormously influential, for example Africa for black people, and his followers held firmly with many British white punk rock bands (such as to this idea, despite their dispersal throughout such The Clash, Stiff Little Fingers and The Ruts), plus areas as America, Britain and France. Neither Garvey more mainstream pop groups like Culture Club and nor Haile Selassie claimed divinity for the latter: Garvey UB40. Among other black British groups displaying only made a link between a ‘black king’ and ‘the day Rasta influence are Aswad, Misty in Roots, and Steel of deliverance’; Selassie told Jamaicans on a visit in Pulse. Also, the Rastafarian poets Benjamin 1966 to liberate themselves before focusing on Africa. Zephaniah and Levi Tafari have published widely The movement started at a time of adverse social and speak for large numbers of people in expressing and employment conditions in twentieth-century a spirit of both anomie and resistance. Jamaica and expressed the aspirations of those who Today there is less emphasis on the repatriation were disaffected and disillusioned with their aspect of the cult and more on its rules. Its ‘official’ prospects. From being initially a movement which wish to be repatriated to Africa was demoted to the offered an explanation of blacks’ economic plight status of an ‘ideal’ after an ‘immigration mission’, under white exploitation and promised a heavenly suggested by a 1959 University of the West Indies 448 rave commission, visited Africa. Rastafarians practise banging’, and suggest that the experience of raves vegetarianism and aim to consume ‘I-tal’ or is more to do with non-stop, uninhibited, vigorous ‘unprocessed’ food. Their reworkings of English dancing, enabled by drugs, than with an include ‘I and I’ not ‘we’ (an assertion of individual appreciation of the music. Ravers often adopt identity against the dehumanization of slavery as uniform clothing styles: for example many female well as an expression of the speaker’s relationship ravers, ‘rave grannies’, wear long black ‘granny’ with Jah/God). They continue to reject ‘white’ dresses over Dr Martens boots. Christianity which counsels forbearance and Police objections to these mass happenings are acceptance of one’s lot, but for many the movement based on the fact that they create traffic problems, is now much more about contemporary style than are unlicensed and are places where drugs, about its original religious meanings. particularly ecstasy or ‘E’, are taken. Rave supporters attribute police hostility to a distrust of See also: Afro-Caribbean communities any manifestation of youth popular culture which they cannot control. Raves, among other forms of spontaneous gathering, led to government giving Further reading the police special powers of arrest under the Barrett, L.E. (1977) Rastafarians: The Dreadlocks of Criminal Justice Act (1994), whose provisions were Jamaica, London: Heinemann (a solid, accessible so ‘catch all’ in terms of their curtailment of rights introduction). of population movement and assembly that even Cashmore, E. (1979) Rastaman: The Rastafarian the staid Ramblers’ Association felt threatened. Movement in England, London: Allen & Unwin (a Debate surrounding raves has centred on dated but definitive and widely available review whether they indicate a loss of values, are just an of British Rastafarianism). aspect of drug culture, or offer a form of carnivalesque freedom. This would make them a MIKE STORRY cultural practice where there is no distinction between actors and spectators, a space to which rave the hedonistic and marginalized retreat and where rules are temporarily suspended. The word ‘rave’ (possibly from the Old French rêve, to dream or to be delirious) is associated with See also: clubs; rave culture frenzy, and the term ‘raver’ has been in use in British slang since the 1960s for a reveller or Further reading partygoer. Buddy Holly’s song ‘Rave On’ may also have given rise to the coinage. Raves have been Redhead, S. (1990) The End of the Century Party: Youth supported by youth subcultural groups spanning a and Pop Towards 2000, Manchester: Manchester wide range of social, ethnic and income divisions, University Press (short and often sweeping, but and have a pan-European youth cultural influence. still a punchy cultural politics review of rap, rave Raves started in Britain in the mid-1980s. They and youth culture). are usually in rural locations but the concept MIKE STORRY probably derives from urban acid house parties. Rave organizers rent a hall or farmer’s field and sell tickets for this undisclosed location. On the rave culture night only, partygoers will be given directions to the event and large convoys of cars will travel, often Rave culture has its origin in the ‘second summer hundreds of miles, to the all-night party. of love’ in 1988. Initially held in the North of The original music of raves was disco, but it England in disused Victorian mills and warehouses, later changed to techno and indie pop. Detractors and on greenfield sites within the M25 motorway accuse rave music of being just a variant of ‘head- surrounding London, raves were all-night parties readership 449 at which was played a mixture of house, acid house, the growing drug culture associated with raves, techno, disco and hip hop. Early raves were drug usage at raves appears to be no greater than characterized by the easygoing nature of those who at discos and other clubs. attended. However, the use of the drug ecstasy at Despite the commercialization of rave in the these parties meant that they attracted the attention early 1990s, some promoters continue to organize of both drug dealers and the police. In order to illegal raves. ‘Sound systems’ such as Desert Storm, prevent a rave being shut down, organizers opened Sativa, Exodus and DIY organize secret parties at up special telephone lines for ravers to ring on the secluded country locations. Information about such night of an event for information as to the time parties is usually spread by word of mouth, or and location of the rave. Often convoys of ravers occasionally through the Internet. People who would form on the M25 and on roads heading attend such events are usually older than those at towards towns in Lancashire and Cheshire. legal raves, and often include a sizeable contingent Police objections to raves initially led to mass of crusties and ‘new-age travellers’. arrests, and in 1990 to the Entertainments (Increased STUART BORTHWICK Penalties) Act. This legislation meant that ‘unofficial’ raves and parties were outlawed. As a consequence of this, rave organizers hired nightclubs and outdoor Rawls, John venues for raves. Clubs such as Quadrant Park in Liverpool, The Hacienda in Manchester, and b. 1921, Baltimore, Maryland Shelly’s in Stoke-on-Trent were at the forefront of Philosopher these developments. While the music of early raves was an eclectic mix of styles, the early 1990s saw John Rawls has become the most important postwar the arrival of ‘hardcore’ rave music, a more liberal political theorist through his neo-Kantian aggressive form of dance music characterized by reformulation of the social contract model. A Theory high-pitched female vocals, fast beats and ‘hoover’ of Justice (1971), emphasizing justice as fairness in noises. Some more commercially orientated rave an anti-utilitarian argument rooted in rational self- records reached the official top 40, for instance N- interest, has had great appeal in Europe and the Joi’s ‘Anthem’ and The Prodigy’s ‘Charly’. USA. He posits a hypothetical, non-historical The rave scene of the mid-1990s is a very situation in which the ‘parties’ to the contract are different one from that of the late 1980s. Outdoor placed behind a ‘veil of ignorance’ of their particular raves are now extremely lucrative events that attract status in society and so would choose that ‘all social a younger crowd than the ‘semi-legal’ events of the primary goods—liberty and opportunity, income 1980s. Organizers such as United Dance, Evolution and wealth, and the bases of self-respect—are to be and Dreamscape hold all-night events attended by distributed equally unless an unequal distribution up to 25,000 ravers, who are often prepared to of any or all of these goods is to the advantage of travel hundreds of miles to attend such events. The the least favoured.’ Non-violent civil disobedience music played at the raves of the mid-1990s is gabba to bring changes in law or government policy is (a form of rave music from Holland), ‘happy sanctioned. Political Liberalism (1993) reaffirms his hardcore’ and jungle. original stance while attempting to answer critics. Ravers often wear fluorescent clothing, white gloves and carry luminous ‘glow sticks’ that are See also: philosophy waved while dancing. The rave scene appears to DAVID MELLETT be more popular in Scotland than in the rest of the UK, with organizers such as Rezerection frequently selling out massive venues. The clubs at the readership forefront of English rave culture include The Drome in Merseyside and Kinetic in Stoke-on- Until the 1970s, literary criticism was content to Trent. While there has been some concern about limit itself to romantic considerations of the writer 450 received pronunciation and historical context. It regularly stretched to manifest a range of possibilities that are not located aesthetic valuations of the text but remained in, but are rather triggered by, the text. Reading resolutely uninterested in what it might do for its achieves its end through a kind of writing. readers or in the possibility that, without the reader’s intervention, the text remained no more See also: book marketing; literary theory; than a latency. The idea of readership became popular fiction; publishing trends central to structuralist and post-structuralist JIM HALL criticism as a consequence of the work of Roland Barthes, especially with regard to his notion of the writerly or productive text, and to received pronunciation phenomenological, reader-oriented theories of literature (see structuralism; post-structuralism). Received pronunciation is the name given to the Reader-oriented theory proposes that the literary Southern pronunciation of English identified early text can have no meaning, indeed no existence as in the twentieth century as the usage of the public literature, until it is read. Meaning materializes through schools and the professions and promoted as the act of reading. It is a response by and to the reader, ‘correct’. It became the norm to which educated and hence any assessment of literary meaning must people were expected to conform, and was taught derive not from some hypothetical intention on the to foreigners learning English. Though it did not part of the writer, nor indeed from a typographic displace such strong regional accents as Scots, which composition on the page, but on a potentially retained prestige, English dialectal variants tended unlimited number of possible acts of reading. Readers to be despised. The BBC’s use of received actualize, and produce meaning from, literary works pronunciation did much to establish it countrywide, by applying a series of codes or conventions to them. as did the stage and the talkies. Over the decades That knowledge allows the reader to span the gaps since the Second World War, using received and elisions of the text to produce an intelligible whole, pronunciation has been increasingly seen as and since those codes are the product of previous artificial and socially divisive. reading, each reader will necessarily arrive at a unique and inevitably provisional interpretation of the text See also: class system; dialect; Estuary English with every reading. Every reader’s experience will be different and every reading will produce new nuances Further reading of meaning. There can be no definitive reading of any text. Honey, J. (1989) Does Accent Matter? London: Faber. The idea of readership thus insists upon the CHRISTOPHER SMITH possibility of gendered, class and ethnic inflections in the production of meaning. Interpretation depends on the disposition and competence not recession only of the individual reader but of their ‘reading community’. Reading is culturally and historically A recession is a period during which a country’s determined, and since it is so implicated in the social economic output falls below its potential, producing there will clearly exist common strategies to less goods and services than the country has produce meaning. Reading is doubly capacity for. Recessions are characterized by transformational in that it not only actualizes the negative levels of economic growth and text but changes the position of the reader. Any corresponding unemployment. High levels of reading of a given text can never be repeated. unemployment alone do not mean recession, as the Subsequent readings and their precursors are late 1980s illustrate. The British economy has inevitably differently informed. experienced three recessions since the 1970s. The Readership thus seems to imply that its defining first came at the end of the Heath government’s act narrativizes, structures, (re)frames or makes (1970– 4) brief economic experiment. The second reggae 451 was at the beginning of the 1980s following known for her ‘Swinging London’ performances, Thatcher’s deflationary budgets. The third was at especially as Georgy Girl (1966). Vanessa’s daughters the beginning of the 1990s as the Lawson boom Natasha and Joely Richardson are also actresses, collapsed. In 1998 it was feared that the country as is Corin’s daughter Jemma. was slipping into a fourth recession. ALICE E.SANGER

See also: financial crises; monetarism Reger, Janet Further reading Fashion designer Artis, M.J. (ed.) (1992) The UK Economy, London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson. Janet Reger is Britain’s most famous lingerie designer. Her luxurious designs in silk, satin and ALASTAIR LINDSLEY lace offered a flattering and indulgent alternative to the extremes of utility or sleaze which had characterized lingerie design. Reger’s fortunes Red or Dead declined during the 1980s and she sold her Founded in 1982 by Wayne and Geraldine company to Berlei in 1983. She bought the Hemmingway, Red or Dead specialize in footwear company back in 1986, and has since regained a and customized second-hand clothing. An position in a market in which she now competes internationally known design label, they have shops with many other companies and designers for in England and abroad as well as a mail-order whom she was undoubtedly a role model. service, The Hemmingway’s streetwise anti-fashion TAM S I N S PARG O stance has been to make clothes that do not endure but which make an immediate statement. A speed for interpreting trends and an idiosyncratic nature reggae has made Red or Dead consistently successful. Reggae first appeared in Britain in the sometimes See also: Dr Martens; rave culture illegal drinking and social clubs, known as the ‘blues-dance’, following the Irish tradition for PETER CHILDS drinking dens or ‘shebeens’. It is in these early blues-dances that the first reggae sound systems— early mobile discos specializing in black music— Redgrave family sprang up. Much of the music was imported from Michael Redgrave (1908–85) forged a distinguished the Caribbean: labels like Melodisc, Bluebeat, and career in films, which included The Lady Vanishes Sonny Roberts’s Planitone emerged, before (1938), The Browning Version (1951) and The Dam evolving into Orbitone. In 1962, Chris Blackwell Busters (1955), despite a preference for the stage. travelled to England to expand his Island label, Married to actress Rachel Kempson, their children, which was launched with Millie Small’s pop-ska daughters Vanessa (1937–) and Lynn (1943–) and hit ‘My Boy Lollipop’. By 1968 Trojan records was son Corin (1939–) also became actors. Vanessa established. achieved particular popularity in the 1960s in Blow The first British independent labels soon Up, A Man For All Seasons and Camelot, and sustained grasped the financial implications of releasing their her career through the 1970s despite political own local productions, as opposed to merely notoriety with diverse leading roles such as Mary, distributing Jamaican records. London was the Queen of Scots and Julia. Prick Up Your Ears (1987), imperial capital where many early reggae artists Howard’s End (1992) and Mission Impossible (1996) came to break into the international market. Artists offered her strong supporting roles. Lynn is best like Jimmy Cliff, Peter Tosh, Bunny Livingstone 452 reggae and Bob Marley (the original Wailers), Desmond hampered by straightforward reggae, and since his Dekker, Sharon Forrester, The Aces, Errol Dunkley, break with Matumbi he has become notorious for Gene Rondo and many more followed this route. his eclectic mixes. Bovel invented Britain’s longest The first British-based reggae band to emerge standing reggae innovation, ‘lovers rock’, by mixing was Matumbi, founded in 1972. This was the start soul and reggae. Where ‘roots rock reggae’ was of a new-wave of homegrown reggae artists. Because primarily a ‘rebel’ music and very male-oriented, most were born in the UK, the socio-cultural the sweeter sounding ‘lovers rock’ was pioneered background of this new wave was informed as much notably by females. The 1977 carnival in Notting by British life as by Jamaican. Soon British reggae Hill, which was marked by clashes with the police, started to define itself independently from that of was also marked by Louisa Mark whose ‘lovers rock’ Jamaica. This engendered a sense of pride and anthem, ‘Caught You in a Lie’, produced by Bovel, independence that gave birth to dozens of placed ‘lovers rock’ on a par with any of the ‘rebel homegrown reggae bands during the early to mid- rock’ music around at that time. It was not long 1970s. Names like London’s Matumbi, Aswad and before a host of solo artists and harmony groups Misty in Roots, Bristol’s Talisman and Black Roots, emerged: Cassandra, Black Harmony, Marie Pierre, Nottingham’s Naturalites, Liverpool’s Cross Section Carol Kalphat, Janet Kay, Caroll Thompson, Jean and The Players of Instruments, Birmingham’s Steel Adebambo and Mellow Rose, all selling quantities Pulse and other bands like Black Slate, Dambala, I of records unprecedented in black British history. Jahman Levi, Natrus Roots, Jahdeanko and The People like the Mad Professor and the Scientist Blackstones all became synonymous with a followed Bovel by using the mixing desk as an homegrown British ‘roots rock reggae’ sound. instrument and a means of expression to create The group Aswad were formed in Ladbroke something new and distinctly British in origin. After Grove, West London, in 1975. Aswad were at the working on sound systems for most of the 1970s, time one of the youngest homegrown bands to have the Mad Professor started his own label Ariwa in emerged from the mid-1970s school in terms of age. 1979, from which he released some of Britain’s finest Aswad’s success also came from their dub. Bass player George Oban left the more rebelliousness, and records like Concrete Slaveship traditional British reggae scene after five years with drew heavily on the experience of life on Britain’s Aswad, to create an eclectic mix of a more subtler housing estates, while songs like ‘Three Babylon’ type than Bovel’s. Oban’s music avoided the head- were related to the ‘SUS’ (stop on suspicion) laws on collision of style favoured by Bovel, and emerged that plagued the lives of many black youths in as a multi-layered fusion of reggae using the Britain. Rebellious at first, by 1980 Aswad had paradigms of jazz, Latin and funk. Oban was born crossed over to the mainstream pop arena by in Britain, and claims that his musical roots were becoming the first British reggae band to have a primarily people like the Beatles and the Beach Boys. number one hit in the UK charts. With the experimentation of people like Dennis Black Slate have been cited as the most overtly Bovell and George Oban, by the mid-1980s British British of these bands. Their 1976 hit single ‘Stix reggae was becoming an entity in its own right. Man’ (since released at least four times in Britain After the crash of Trojan in 1975, Virgin, an English alone), was one of the first profound expressions rock label, attempted to fill the gap. Other labels of the black British experience. Steel Pulse, whose that sprung up at the time of the Trojan crash were record Handsworth Revolution clearly identified them Groove Music, Hawkeye, D-Roy, Klik, Ballistic, with their Birmingham home, became the most Burning Sounds and Greensleeves. British reggae successful on an international level. was up and running. Dennis Bovel, co-founder of Matumbi in 1972, The reggae sound system played a major role in left in the early 1980s and went solo as a producer the development of British reggae because they of dub music. His first album Brain Damage, a double promoted the music at dances. Most black album, featured Bovel as writer, producer, singer and communities in most major cities had a champion player of most of the music. Bovel always felt sound: Manchester had President Hi Fi, Liverpool regulation 453 had Jah Crasher (later to become King Struggla she settled permanently in London in 1976. In the Sound), Birmingham had Jungleman, Quaker City 1950s she discovered Dubuffet and began to draw and Jah Wasifa, London had Jah Shaka Spiritual Dub on childhood experiences, movies and fairy tales Warrior, Frontline from Brixton, Sir Coxsone Outer such as Fantasia, Snow White and Pinocchio for National and Saxon Sound System. Each ‘sound’ inspiration. At this moment her narratives began had its own entourage of singers, toasters and DJs, to function as moral fables. In the early 1980s, and as their DJs and toasters moved into pirate radio animals were used to express the contradictory and the recording industry, so did the music. Macka nature of human emotions and behaviour, such as B, a Rasta from Birmingham’s Jah Wasifa Sound, in her Girl and Dog series (1985). The sense of made his name by adding his lyrics and voice to unease that her paintings impart is strengthened The Mad Professor’s London brand of Reggae. by her use of harsh lighting, heavy outlines and Saxon Sound gave birth to such stars as Tippa Irey, sparse settings. She creates large figurative paintings who had a big hit with ‘Hello Darling’, and Smiley in acrylic or pastel, or smaller etchings reminiscent Culture’s ‘Cockney Translation’ was another UK of storybook illustration. chart success that identified itself as both black and cockney. Jah Shaka recorded as a musician-producer See also: painting in much the same way that Bovel had, but specialized NATALIE GALE in ‘roots Dub’. His 1990 album Dub Symphony uses a string section, and creates a reference point where dub meets the Reggae Philharmonic Orchestra. In regulation the 1990s, the raggamuffin style has appropriated the use of hi-tech adding yet another dimension to The principle of regulation in Britain combines the ever-changing face of British reggae. constitutionalism and privatization. The constitutional principle, that of the rule of law, is at See also: Afro-Caribbean communities; its weakest in institutions in civil society and in state Rastafarianism; ska; two-tone institutions based on the power of royal prerogative. Formal institutions of regulation have been designed to cover some cases. These are generally Further reading monopolistic state utilities transferred to the private Broughton, S., Ellingham, M., Muddyman, D. and sector. Regulators covering gas, telecommunications Trillo, R. (eds) (1994) The Rough Guide to World and numerous others now control both the practice Music (contains a useful section on British reggae and pricing of monopolistic utilities. by Gregory Salter). The transparency that such regulation has Davis, S. and Simon, P. (1983) Reggae International, engendered is leading to a regulation regime that London: Thames & Hudson (a comprehensive has begun to feed back into all areas of public life. account of reggae up to a point, but has a useful Once regulation and transparency have been bibliography, and an impressive list of invoked, it is unclear that any private or public contributors). body, including parliament, should be considered exempt. The Nolan Committee on Standards in EUGENE LANGE Public Life, and the appointment of a parliamentary commissioner to oversee such standards, are parts of a massive sea-change in the way in which Rego, Paula institutions are increasingly held accountable to b. 1935, Lisbon (Portugal) transparent principles. This is a ‘quiet’ revolution, but a revolution it is nonetheless. Painter See also: regulatory bodies For Paula Rego, there is a potential threat, a sinister unease that prevails in fairy tales. Born in Portugal, PAUL BARRY CLARKE 454 regulatory bodies regulatory bodies should concentrate less on the specific working and content of broadcasting and more on the Regulatory bodies are agencies that oversee fair and open operation of the market. With the particular industrial areas or activities where some convergence of telecommunications and economic, political or socio-cultural concern exists broadcast technologies and services, the (for example, over industrial concentration or public question of whether OFTEL, the interest requirements). Usually they are appointed telecommunications regulator, and the by government, though self-appointed semi-official broadcasting regulators, ITC and the BBC regulatory bodies do also exist, such as the Press governors, should merge to create one large Complaints Commission. While following a general regulator—OFCOM—has been raised. remit laid down by government (or the industry if an industry-appointed body), the regulatory body See also: democracy; lobby groups has a degree of autonomy in its day-to-day undertakings. Regulatory bodies come in a number of forms, such as those that oversee all industries in Further reading terms of a theme, for example the Monopolies and Murroni, C. and Collins, R. (1996) New Media, New Mergers Commission (MMC), and those that focus Policies: Media and Communications Strategies for the on specific activities, such as the Independent Future, London: Polity Press. Television Commission (ITC). Historically, broadcasting has been the one PAU L RIXON area of the media that has had its own specific government regulators: the ITC for the commercial sector and the governors of the BBC Reisz, Karel for the BBC. The reason regulation has been viewed as necessary for broadcasting is because b. 1926 of the nature of the medium: the scarcity of Film director channels, the possible abuse of monopoly power Reisz belonged to the late 1950s social realist Free and the perceived influence and power of radio Cinema Movement, collaborating with Lindsay and television in the life of the nation. Therefore, Anderson on the film journal Sequence and Tony a regulator has been needed to control access to Richardson on the shorts Momma Don’t Allow the limited airwaves and to oversee the service (1956) and We Are The Lambeth Boys (1959). Reisz’s and content actually provided on behalf of the Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960) is a public. Other forms of media—cinema and the definitive example of the Free Cinema, capturing press— have escaped official regulation by creating the 1960s zeitgeist of male working-class defiance. their own industry appointed bodies such as the Like other British new wave directors, he worked British Board of Film Censors (BBFC) and the in the USA directing film adaptations of Who’ll Press Complaints Commission. Specific Stop The Rain (1978), The French Lieutenant’s Women government regulation did not seem warranted (1981) and Everybody Wins (1990). Reisz translated in these areas because of the openness of such his mastery of direction, dramatic pace and markets to competition and because of worries structure to the theatre during the 1990s with a about government censorship and control. series of critically acclaimed plays at the Almeida With technological developments now in London. providing an abundance of television and radio channels, the role of the regulator is changing. It is argued that, with huge numbers of channels Further reading now coming on stream, broadcasting is Gaston, G. (1980) Karel Reisz, Boston: Thayne. becoming more like the press in that anyone can now enter the market. Therefore, regulation SATINDER CHOHAN Rhodes, Zandra 455 restaurants and bars and gratuitous appropriation of traditions and styles from other ethnic groups under the often spurious Alternative places to eat and drink have appeared name of art. in Britain over the last twenty years. The changes in licensing laws, the appetite for international PETER CHILDS foods, the increase in numbers of professional women workers, the delay in getting married or having children, and the general increase in R euters spending power and sophistication have all made The biggest news agency in the world, Reuters had the traditional British pub and cafe outmoded. a turnover of £2,914m in 1995. The largest part of British cities have consequently broken out in a Reuters’ earnings comes from the sale of financial rash of theme bars and continental cafes. Many of information, which reflects the entrepreneurial these are open plan and feature long bars, thus genius of its founder Paul Julius Reuter who used different from the usual pub design which aims to carrier pigeons to fly stock prices between Aachen give drinkers privacy rather than public display (the and Brussels in 1849. Reuters’ huge growth dates trend to visibility is exemplified in Tchaik Chassay’s from the 1974 introduction of computer-based Groucho Club in Soho (1984)). Following Julyan displays of real-time foreign exchange, and the 1981 Wickham’s Zanzibar (1976), restaurants and bars birth of the Reuters Monitor Dealing Service. By are now designed by architects almost as often as 1997 Reuters had become a financial services giant, interior designers. Typical examples are Eva and a leading source of international news for the Jiricna’s Le Caprice near the Ritz (1981) and Rick world’s media. Though a public company traded Mather’s Zen in Hampstead (1985). Most of these in London and New York, Reuters has elaborate have been influenced by architecture in other provisions to safeguard its independence. countries, particularly New York high-tech chic (for example, Jiricna’s Joe’s Cafe in Brompton (1985)) See also: IRN; news, television and Japanese minimalism (Nigel Coates’s industrial baroque style developed in Tokyo). ANDREW QUICKE

See also: office buildings; shops Rhodes, Zandra Further reading b. 1940, Chatham Glancey, J. (1989) New British Architecture, London: Fashion designer Thames & Hudson. One of the most colourful and idiosyncratic figures PETER CHILDS in British design, Zandra Rhodes studied textiles at the Royal College of Art in the 1960s and launched her first solo collection in 1969. She retro developed a distinctive style, specializing in special occasion clothing such as ethereal dresses in ‘Retro’ is a 1970s term made current by French unusual shapes, fabrics and colours with an writers commenting upon the postmodernist fashion emphasis on brightly coloured screen-printed for artists, designers and film-makers to revive and textiles and hand finishing and decoration. Her own recycle past styles, often very recent ones. A shop flamboyant image complemented her designs, and called Retro duly opened on the Tottenham Court while her clothing is no longer at the cutting edge Road in 1975, and by 1979 the backlash had started of fashion, Rhodes is still a popular figure in the with feminist art critic Lucy Lippard coining the term British media. ‘retrochic’ to denote ‘a reactionary wolf in counter- cultural clothing’. Much retro involves the uncritical TAM S I N S PARG O 456 rhyming slang rhyming slang Richardson, Tony Witty and often inventively reflecting b. 1928; d. 1991 contemporary persons and events, rhyming slang Film director turns ‘use your head’ first into ‘your loaf of bread’, then truncates it to ‘your loaf, now an Like Free Cinema collaborator Karel Reisz, everyday idiom. News from the Afghan frontier Richardson was an Oxbridge educated member prompted ‘Khyber’ for ‘arse’, adding a giggle to (arguably, instigator) of the British new wave in the film Carry On Up The Khyber. A speech habit both theatre (with his 1958 production of John of Cockneys, in fact all East Enders, and Osborne’s Look Back in Anger) and cinema (with his Australians, rhyming slang was identified in the 1959 adaptation for Woodfall Productions, formed mid-nineteenth century as impenetrable thieves’ with Osborne in 1958). A formidable, cant. Today it serves less for communication nonconformist character who worked within the group than as a linguistic means of simultaneously in television, film and theatre, displaying group identity to bemused outsiders, Richardson’s numerous film adaptations included as much in comedy and chat shows as in real-life A Taste of Honey (1961), Tom Jones (1963), Hamlet situations. (1969), Joseph Andrews (1976) and The Hotel New Hampshire (1984), alongside the epic The Charge of See also: Cockney the Light Brigade (1968). Richardson moved to California during the 1970s, directing his final film Blue Sky in 1990. Further reading

Franklin, J. (1953) The Cockney: A Survey of London Further reading Life and Language, London: Deutsch. Hill, J. (1986) Sex, Class and Realism: British Cinema: CHRISTOPHER SMITH 1956–63, London: BFI.

SATINDER CHOHAN RIBA The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) dates from 1834, one of a number of similar Riley, Bridget institutions founded in London in the first half of b. 1931 the nineteenth century when the Royal Academy was not felt to be providing adequately for the study Painter of architecture or, equally important, for the A leading exponent of op art, Bridget Riley gained regulation of the architectural profession. The twin recognition during the early 1960s with her focus has remained to this day, with town planning abstract black and white paintings, whose patterns emerging to become one of the Institute’s major created visual sensations such as movement or concerns, and RIBA has played an important role vibrations. In 1965 she achieved international in improving standards. Other bodies control the recognition when her work was included in The registration of architects, but RIBA is still a force Responsive Eye exhibition held in New York, and in British architecture. in 1968 she won the International Painting Prize at the Venice Biennale. Towards the end of the See also: Architectural Association 1960s Riley introduced colour to her work, using

CHRISTOPHER SMITH contrasts which increased the optical effects produced by the image. In the 1980s the artist continued to use the vertical structure which appeared in her stripe paintings, offsetting this Ritchie, Ian 457 with diagonally placed rhomboids to produce a worse and riots lasted for six days, with white sense of overall rhythm. youths joining and eventually outnumbering the blacks. The other ‘copycat riots’ had the common See also: painting characteristics of occurring in deprived urban areas characterized by high unemployment, immigrant LUCINDA TOWLER settlement and aggressive and racist policing. Government response to riots has been to give riots and civil disobedience the police power to ban potentially violent demonstrations, to arrest protesters for the offence Civil disobedience occurs when a person or group of disorderly conduct under the Public Order Act feels morally compelled to publicly break the law, 1985, and to encourage more community policing. usually without using violence, and is prepared to These measures have not been entirely successful, face the full consequences of the legal system. It is as riots have continued to occur in the inner cities considered justifiable if the law is unjust and there in the 1980s and 1990s. is no other effective means of opposition. Conservatives view civil disobedience as going See also: direct action against the need to maintain law and order, as it encourages selective acceptance of laws and is Further reading against the sovereignty of a democratically elected parliament. It is contended that civil disobedients Harris, P. (1989) Civil Disobedience, Washington, DC: act according to the highest ideals of the law and University Press of America. are not above the law. COLIN WILLIAMS Civil disobedience has occasionally proved successful, as when London dockers went on an illegal wildcat strike and suffered imprisonment to Ritchie, Ian defeat the Industrial Relations Act of 1971. Civil disobedience defeated government in the 1980s b. 1947 when rallies organized by the And Poll Tax Architect Federation and their campaign of public non- payment resulted in the scrapping of the Ian Ritchie trained first at the Liverpool School of community charge (see poll tax). Architecture (1965–8) and then at the Polytechnic The dividing line between civil disobedience of Central London (1970–2), after which he worked and rioting is indistinct, as civil disobedience can for Foster Associates until 1976. With Foster coerce violent reprisals which may be responded Associates, he worked on the design of the Willis, to in the same manner. Organized protests are Faber and Dumas office in Ipswich and the sometimes aimed to precipitate violence, as with Sainsbury Centre for the Visual Arts at the the National Front demonstrations of the 1970s University of East Anglia. He then worked in Paris against coloured immigration and counter- (he is also a registered architect in France) before demonstrations by the radical left. establishing Chrysalis Architects (with Michael Riots occurred in twenty-seven urban areas in Dowd and Alan Stanton). This was up to 1981, the summer of 1981. Race was a factor in all the after which he was a director of Rice, Francis and riots. The first riot was in Brixton, an area with a Ritchie in Paris up to 1986 (he also taught at the high concentration of immigrants and 55 percent Architectural Association at this time, from 1979 unemployment amongst 16–18-year-old blacks. to 1982). Additionally, he set up a private practice Street crime was high, so police had instigated a in London from 1981 as Ian Ritchie Architects. stop-and-search policy which antagonized local His most noticeable design style is a people. The riot lasted for two days, with firebombs combination of architecture and engineering, as in and looting. In Toxteth, Liverpool, deprivation was the Meccano-kit Eagle Rock House at Sussex (1983) 458 Robert Maguire and Partners and in his work on Fiat vehicles, cranes and high Edinburgh (1956) and including the tensile fabric roofs. In the late 1980s he worked on Commonwealth Institute (1962), the Universities apartment housing in Docklands. Overall, Ritchie of York (1966), Stirling (1974) and Lincolnshire and is better known in France than the UK, because of Humberside (completion 1999), Cockenzie Power his work with Martin Francis and Peter Rice which Station, East Lothian (1968), Royal contributed to the Louvre pyramid. Since his return Commonwealth Pool, Edinburgh (1969) and to Britain, and move to Wapping, he has become a Hillingdon Civic Centre (1976). New Zealand leading UK architectural light and is a Royal Fine House (1963) is an early example of the postwar Art Commissioner. Despite his technical expertise modern movement. RMJM’s founding (he is known for his structural uses of glass), his commitment to social architecture has developed approach to architecture is holistic. In his book Well by combining dynamic aesthetic and technological Connected Architects he says ‘to understand the quality considerations with a conservationist conscience, of our environmental fabric it requires inspiration, as with Glaxo Wellcome HQ, Greenford (1997). ideas and expertise’, from artists, poets, economists and members of the public. He is commissioned See also: town planning to design the new Crystal Palace.

PETER CHILDS Further reading Knewitt, C. (1997) ‘RMJM’s 40th Anniversary’, Robert Maguire and Partners Architect’s Journal 205(23): 30–47. SATINDER CHOHAN Maguire and Company was founded in 1988, and specializes in student accommodation, other university buildings and church design. The firm Robinson, Bruce has worked on large-scale projects such as the al- Gassim campus of King Saud University in Saudia b. 1946 Arabia, and small-scale conversions such as that of Film-maker the Old Congregation House at Oxford, the oldest university building in England. Maguire’s first First an actor, then a screenwriter and then a director, enterprise, St Paul’s church, London E3, is now a Bruce Robinson first came to prominence with his Grade II* listed building. The company sees its Oscar-nominated screenplay for David Puttnam’s work in terms of craft as well as high art, and has The Killing Fields (1984), but then achieved cult status skills in the fields of urban design, landscape, with his directorial debut, Withnail and I (1987), a product design and graphics. comedy about two drunken, world-weary but comical actors living out the last days of the 1960s See also: university building with the sense of doom and disillusionment that Hamlet feels in Elsinore. This was followed by How PETER CHILDS to Get Ahead in Advertising (1989), again with Richard E.Grant, The Shadow-Makers (1989) and Jennifer 8 Robert Matthew Johnson- (1992). He published his first novel, The Peculiar Marshall and Partners Memories of Thomas Penman, in 1998. PETER CHILDS Robert Matthew and Stirrat Johnson-Marshall established RMJM as an architectural practice in Edinburgh and London in 1956. A prolific output rock festivals of small-scale and larger commissions reflects RMJM’s multidisciplinary nature and stylistic Taking their cue from both the major US rock diversity, commencing with Turnhouse Airport, festivals of the late 1960s (Woodstock, Monterey Roeg, Nicholas 459 and so on), and from the existing jazz and blues smaller events, and notably the large Phoenix festivals that began in the 1950s, the British rock festival, failed to sell a sufficient amount of tickets festival circuit has grown in size and become the to be financially viable and so were cancelled. most prestigious of its kind in the world. The first major British festival was held on the Isle of Wight See also: concert promoters; hippies; WOMAD in 1970, attracting artists such as Bob Dylan, The Band and Jimi Hendrix. Originally intended as a Further reading commercial venture, it fell prey to the same problems encountered at the earlier Woodstock Clarke, M.J. (1982) The Politics of Pop Festivals, festival, most notably lack of security. The festival London: Junction Books. became free to all-comers, and attracted a crowd SAM JOHNSTONE of around 150,000. Also in 1970, a Somerset farmer decided to put on a low-key free festival with mostly unknown rockers acts (including T-Rex and David Bowie), headlined by folk singer Donovan. The Glastonbury Festival Rockers were a male youth subculture of the early (actually based at Pilton, Somerset, some miles 1960s. They wore black leather jackets and biker away) quickly became a semi-permanent feature boots, rode powerful motorcycles and had a during the summer months, and is still the most reputation for violence. In particular, the style of important rock festival of the season. The numbers the rocker drew influences from Elvis Presley and that gather at Glastonbury confirm the enduring Marlon Brando. Rockers hit newspaper headlines popularity of outdoor rock events, with over in 1964 when they held running street fights at 100,000 paying customers each year. True to the British seaside resorts with their sworn enemies the hippie ideal of festivals, most of the proceeds go to mods, who referred to rockers as ‘greasers’. good causes, both global and local. Going from Rockers usually had low-paid manual jobs, and strength to strength, the importance of the festival their violence was interpreted as a rebellion against in promoting and resurrecting careers is clear to the drab nature of postwar British society. Many many artists. Following appearances at Glastonbury rockers became Hell’s Angels, a closed subculture during the 1990s, the careers of Tom Jones, Tony of motorcycle gangs known for their extreme Bennett and Lou Reed had massive resurgence, violence. opening up their music to a new, younger audience. STUART BORTHWICK The main rival to Glastonbury is the Reading Rock Festival, a descendant of the Reading Blues and Jazz festival. The rising popularity of the Roeg, Nicholas festival is shown in the huge commercial possibilities opened up by having a captive audience b. 1928, London of tens of thousands for a three-day period. This Film-maker potential was quickly seized upon by promoters, particularly during the early 1990s, when many Nicholas Roeg started out in British cinema in 1947 smaller festivals began to be promoted. The as an editing apprentice, becoming a Phoenix festival, V96 (-97, -98, etc.), T in the Park cinematographer in the 1960s (with credits including (based in Scotland), and other smaller one-day The Masque of the Red Death, Fahrenheit 451 and Far events quickly became an integral part of the from the Madding Crowd) before directing his first film summer festival scene, as did genre based events Performance in 1968 (with Donald Cammell). This (Monsters of Rock, Futurama) and artist-led was followed by Walkabout, Don’t Look Now and The outdoor concerts (Knebworth and Crystal Palace, Man Who Fell To Earth (1976). In these early works, for example). The commercial bubble appeared to Roeg displays a virtuoso command of the film have burst, however, in 1998, when many of the medium, particularly in his use of associative 460 Rogers, Richard montage sequences, disrupting and resisting needs. Since the completion of Lloyd’s in 1986, conventional narrative methods. Since the mid-1980s RRP has completed other prestigious projects, Roeg has produced more commercial work in notably the European Court of Human Rights in Castaway (1987) and The Witches (1990), and several Strasbourg (1994). Major commissions in the late films for television including Sweet Bird of Youth (1989) 1990s include Law Courts in Bordeaux, a new and Heart of Darkness (1994). terminal at Madrid Airport and the Millennium Dome in Greenwich, London. STEPHEN C.KENNY Rogers is a trenchant critic of the intensively capitalized imperatives of postmodernism in Rogers, Richard contemporary architecture. Castigating postmodernism as an aesthetic determined by the b. 1933 principle ‘form follows profit’, Rogers has called Architect for a ‘new cultural enlightenment’ in which architecture and urban planning would play key Richard Rogers studied at London’s Architectural roles in the democratic restructuring of public space. Association and at Yale University in the USA, He combines this vision of a revivified urban where he met Norman Foster (see Foster culture with an ecologically sustainable and holistic Associates). Rogers and Foster returned to London approach to the built environment. In 1996, Rogers and established Team 4 Architects, with Su Rogers was made a Labour peer and introduced to the and Wendy Cheesman. Their defining commission House of Lords as Lord Rogers of Riverside. was Creek Vean House in Cornwall (1966), which owes its organic conception to the influence of See also: high-tech American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Team 4 was dissolved in 1968 and Rogers subsequently entered a partnership with Italian architect Renzo Further reading Piano. In 1971, Piano and Rogers won the Rogers, R. (1990) Architecture: A Modern View, commission to design the Centre Georges London: Thames & Hudson (Rogers’s lucid Pompidou in Paris. The Pompidou Centre, opened examination of contemporary urban space). in 1977, is envisaged as ‘a people’s place…a cross between an information-oriented, computerized MARK DOUGLAS Times Square and the British Museum’. Reinterpreting futurist and constructivist aesthetic aims, this flexible and rhythmic structure of steel romance and glass is recognized as an outstanding British romance writing has witnessed an achievement in postwar European architecture. astonishing profusion of popular novels since 1960, Rogers’ international reputation was augmented as well as successful commercial earnings. Modern when he and new associates John Young, Marco trends towards greater realism, action and simplicity Goldschmied and Michael Davies were in plot have strengthened the genre, despite commissioned to redevelop the Lloyd’s of London negative critiques from academics and disdainful headquarters in 1977. Richard Rogers Partnership prophecies of imminent demise. The Harlequin designed a complexly layered futuristic building: publishers imprint has had a phenomenal effect; its six serrated steel towers, opaque glass walls and the novels of British gothic-style romance writers central glazed atrium are perceived in dynamic are marketed in abundance in North America, most vertical and horizontal sections from street level particularly on the popular reading shelves of and as a visually integrated totality from the supermarkets and shopping centre malls. Carole riverside. The design of the Lloyd’s Building, like Mortimer (A Lost Love, Wildest Dreams) is a very the Pompidou Centre, allows for the controlled popular romance novelist because of her glamorous redistribution of internal space to suit changing London settings and her sophisticated heroines. rowing 461

This success reflects, in great part, the fact that Furthermore, the more feminist novelists of the the British romance genre responds to the need for last four decades who were once considered threats sheer escapism of stressed, often jobless female to the values of romantic fantasy fiction have in fact suburbanite woman. Barbara Cartland (the Queen skillfully blended their intuitive concerns for the of Hearts) is a primary example of writers whose realistic existential victimized heroine with novels and television adaptations contrive to focus recognizably Gothic and Romantic themes. Irish- unapologetically on romantic melodramatic born Edna O’Brien’s lead characters (The Country character types such as Regency ‘rakes’ and crafty Girls, The High Road) are modern but bittersweet ‘belles’. Their adventures are situated in an British heroines. But these women characters, born idealized age of a less industrialized England, on in the 1950s, notably react against the still abiding an isle of fantasy. These fantasized stories arguably rural repression and religious conformity dating from respond to a deeply-rooted desire for nostalgia and that period. Traditional expectations of them as ‘girls’ hope in the modern age. are still not uncommon on both sides of the channel However, Cartland’s supporters and other and do impede character development in a changing believers in escapism exaggerate the lack of social context. In addition, Beryl Bainbridge portrays psychological realism in the traditional Gothic in her works (such as Sweet William) the mistreatment romance novel, whether in Mary Shelley’s of complex modern heroines; yet her philandering Frankenstein or in Jane Austen’s Northanger Abbey, both male characters are often gothically eliminated as of which are equally nightmarish and sexually they receive their ‘just’ punishment. Old-fashioned suggestive. It is no accident that, in our times, justice often takes the form of revenge imposed by Gothic romance has returned to its own dreamy, women as the plot evolves. more disturbing introspective realism to express the individual endeavours of people seeking to resolve See also: popular fiction; readership personal difficulties in the society of post-1960s Britain. The story is sometimes resolved tragically Further reading or punitively for the character of the protagonist at the expense of women’s personas in the novel. The Rowbotham, S. (1997) A Century of Women, London: genre suffers as well from a too-confident belief in Viking-Penguin (although far to the feminist left the total perfectibility of rationalized gender and herself, Rowbotham demonstrates generous and childcare relationships, felt to be deeply personal fair understanding of avowed conservatives matters by most more conservative Britons. such as Dame Barbara Cartland). Northerner Catherine Cookson (The Black LAWRENCE IRVINE ILES Candle, The Black Gown Woman) shared Cartland’s insistence on a predominantly historical setting. BETTY McLANE-ILES Cookson had written and published nearly 100 novels by the time of her death in 1998, by which rowing time she had reached millionaire status. But she was particularly successful, paradoxically, with In rowing (unlike canoe paddling) the human effort contemporary twentieth-century romances. of arms and legs, maximized by a sliding seat, is Cookson’s romances captured the era of her own complemented by mechanical advantage as oars youth and harsh upbringing in the early twentieth pivot in rowlocks fixed on the boat’s side or, better century, portrayed as a more meritocratic, less still, on outriggers. A sculler pulling a pair of blades ruthless time than the present. Realism also has can compete alone or in a crew with one or three been the cultivated hallmark of the equally more other scullers; a rower, with a single oar, successful Barbara Taylor Bradford’s (A Woman of always teams up with one, three or seven more. Substance) romance fiction, in her characters, in her Fours may have a cox; eights always do. visually powerful global portrayal of society, and Rowing as a sport emerged from competitions in her panoramic landscape descriptions. between Thames watermen, who provided an 462 Royal Academy important transport service in London. After the Royal Academy institution of Thomas Doggett’s ‘Coat and Badge’ prize race for Thames watermen in 1715, the gentry Founded in 1768 as a society of artists, the Royal started wagering on oarsmen who made their living Academy (RA) is the oldest visual arts institution from rowing. The nineteenth-century decline in in Britain. It sought to raise the status of the artist commercial rowing was paralleled by the rise of through the provision of professional training, rowing as one of the sports adopted by the middle providing grants for impoverished artists and their classes, particularly at the public schools and families and exhibitions of work by living artists. universities, as a recreation leading to both moral Although in the eighteenth century there were other and physical well-being. The founding of the societies, the RA enjoyed royal patronage which Leander Club on the Thames in about 1818, the conferred status and authority, enabling the RA to first Oxford and Cambridge University Boat Race establish itself as the standard-bearing institution in 1829 and the inauguration of the annual Henley for the practice and teaching of art. Regatta ten years later had counterparts in further The RA has played an important role in developments in Britain and abroad. The improving the professional conditions for artists establishment of amateurism was crucial; gentlemen historically by providing a system for professional rowers shunned competition (and social contact) not recognition. However, as the arbiter of taste the only with those who made their living by rowing RA has been criticized by artists and professionals but also with tradesmen who might have developed whose own interests do not correspond with its muscle power at work. In recent decades, with own. In particular, a tendency to conservatism has rowing virtually disappearing as a trade and work meant that the RA has often excluded, or publicly generally involving less physical toil, amateur/ attacked, innovative artists, and this reactionary professional distinctions have been set aside. As image has damaged its reputation. rowing has evolved as an international sport, with When the RA was founded there were few women’s rowing as a vital sector, the norm has opportunities for artists to exhibit, and therefore become racing over distances up to 2,000 meters in sell, their work, and the RA Schools was the first straight lanes in still water. Modern facilities have art school in Britain. However, at the beginning of been provided, for example, at Sutton Valence, the twentieth century the establishment of because it is felt that the Oxford and Cambridge municipal arts schools, growing internationalism Boat Race (four and one-quarter miles on the in art and increased professional and commercial tideway), Henley (1 mile 550 yards upstream on the opportunities for artists contributed to the erosion Thames) and other traditional events are not ideal of the importance of the RA and a widening gap influences on British rowing. Though recreational between the work exhibited at the RA and the work rowing on rivers has declined since the Second World which is considered to be historically significant. War, Steve Redgrave’s triumphs in four successive During the Presidency of W.T.Monnington (1966– Olympics have given the sport a higher profile, and 76), the RA became more sympathetic to progress competitive rowing of all sorts, such as on inshore and its influence and reputation, particularly for salt water, has steadily gained popularity. its world-famous programme of ‘block-buster’ loan exhibitions, was partly restored. See also: angling; sailing The RA comprises eighty members (or Academicians), all of whom are artists or architects. It is governed by an elected President and a Council Further reading on which Members serve in turn. There are two Wigglesworth, N. (1992) The Social History of Rowing, main kinds of membership: associated (ARA), and London: Cass. full (RA). Membership is divided into five categories: painting, sculpture, draughtsmanship, CHRISTOPHER SMITH architecture and engraving. Each new Academician is required by the Instrument of Foundation to Royal Academy 463 provide ‘a Picture, Bas-relief, or other specimen of Loan exhibitions began in 1870, when they his abilities’; these are known as ‘Diploma Works’. provided an important opportunity to see work, as Academicians such as John Bellany, Peter Blake, public and municipal galleries were rare and art Tony Cragg, Richard Deacon, David Hockney, Sir publishing was still in its infancy. The Loan Richard Rogers and John Ward may not be Exhibitions Advisory Committee, consisting of fashionable artists by the time of their appointment historians and curators, was established during the (normally at an advanced stage of their careers), late 1950s to assist with the exhibitions programme, but are not usually reactionary. For example, R.B. functioning in a similar way to the Art Advisory Kitaj’s work includes painting, drawing and screen- Panel of the Arts Council. printing. Kitaj (1932–) has remained committed to There are around six loan exhibitions per drawing from life and the human figure is the basis annum. Many are originated, although shows often of his work. Phillip King (1934–) was appointed tour to other venues within Britain or abroad, and Professor of Sculpture at the RA Schools in 1990. many are organized in collaboration with other Rosebud (1962, MoMA, New York) combines new institutions. Exhibitions range from The Age of materials such as plastics and fibreglass with Chivalry: Art in Plantagenet England 1200–1400 (1987) colourful, abstract forms. to Cézanne: the Early Years 1859–1872 (1988). Often Professorial chairs are appointed from the accompanied by weighty catalogues, these members to teach in the RA Schools, under the exhibitions provide an opportunity for publishing direction of the Keeper. Teaching includes drawing new scholarship. from life, draughtsmanship, carving, engraving, Norman Rosenthal was appointed Exhibitions lithography and graphic arts. Secretary in 1977, and under his supervision the loan The RA Magazine, which profiles the RA’s exhibitions have re-established the RA as an exhibitions and the work of Academicians, is one of important force in contemporary art. With Nicholas the highest circulation art periodicals in Britain. The Serota and Christos Joachimides, he curated Post Library was founded to support the teaching of the Impressionism: A New Spirit in Painting in 1979. The Schools and is the oldest fine art library in Britain. exhibition’s success in predicting the trends of the The RA also administers over sixty trust and award next decade focused attention once more on the RA’s funds for students, artists and their families. ability to shape opinion about contemporary art. The RA does not receive public funds (although Major survey shows of international art have during the 1970s it applied unsuccessfully to the included German Art in the 20th Century (1985) and Arts Council for revenue support) and raises its American Art in the Twentieth Century (1993). Sensation: own income through trading activities, donations, Young British Artists from the Saatchi Collection (1997) sponsorship, the Friends organization, corporate characterized the RA’s exhibitions in its attempt to membership and exhibition receipts. 1977 saw the provide a definitive survey of a period, its high launch of the Friends, entitling free entry to media profile and box office success. By exhibiting exhibitions on payment of a subscription. By 1980 the work of artists who had in the preceding decade there were over 25,000 Friends, and this success been presented as controversial, the RA revealed has encouraged other arts institutions to follow suit. its continuing ability to institutionalize the The annual Summer Exhibition began in 1769. It innovative. represents an opportunity for Academicians to sell their work. Around ten times as many entries are See also: painting received as selected. An open competition, the Exhibition allows members to submit six works and Further reading non-members three. Works are selected by a Hanging Committee. Many other open competitions, for Hutchison, S.C. (1986) The History of the Royal example at the Whitechapel Gallery, have been Academy 1768–1986, London: Robert Royce. established and are a testament to the importance of CLAIRE GLOSSOP this model of exhibition for revealing new talent. 464 Royal Ballet

Royal Ballet Royal College of Art Founded in 1931 as the Vic-Wells Ballet (because A postgraduate art college in London which took it performed at both the Old Vic and Sadler’s its present name in 1896. With its origins in the Wells theatres), and awarded its name by Royal early nineteenth century, the College’s premises Charter in October 1956, this is Britain’s national beside the Albert Hall were developed in 1853 with ballet company. The organization is descended money from the Great Exhibition. Prestigious from the Academy of Choreographic Art, which students over the last few decades have included was formed in London in 1926. Its centre is now Bridget Riley, Peter Blake and David Hockney. the Royal Opera House in London’s Covent Garden, and there is also a Royal Ballet School at See also: painting; sculpture White Lodge in Richmond Park. From 1962, PETER CHILDS Margot Fonteyn and Rudolf Nureyev, a newly defected ‘permanent guest’ from the Kirov Ballet, were its famous leading partnership. Other notable Royal Court dancers have been Robert Helpmann, Lynn Seymour, Merle Park and Wayne Sleep. Leading Started as a new writing theatre by George Devine, British principal dancers in the 1990s are Darcey the Royal Court is the site of several theatrical causes Bussell, Jonathan Cope and Viviana Durante. The célèbres including Look Back in Anger (1956), Saved company was started by Ninette de Valois (born (1965), Masterpieces (1984) and Blasted (1995). 1898), who was also founder of the Birmingham Directors such as Gaskill (1965–72) and Stafford- Royal Ballet and the Royal Ballet School. It was Clark (1972–93) developed a style of uncluttered her vision to create a national ballet centre to staging, based on a belief that acting, direction and match the national institutions in other arts, and design should serve the text, which has had a strong the formidable de Valois, known to all simply as influence on alternative theatre. This theatre’s ‘Madam’, was herself a major choreographer, commitment to new writing has been emphatic: director, and teacher who kept a hand in the many major playwrights had their early work company up to her recent one hundredth birthday. staged here (Brenton, Churchill, Wertenbaker). De Valois resigned as Director in 1963 to be The Court provides a unique link between the replaced by Frederick Ashton, then by Kenneth classical and unconventional, and is renowned for Macmillan in 1970, Norman Morrice in 1977 and inspiring passionate responses from within and dancer Anthony Dowell in 1986. Since 1975 the without, having as many critics as supporters. pattern has been to have two large troupes, one of about eighty dancers at Covent Garden, who See also: playwrights; theatre also do some major tours, and another of about DYMPHNA CALLERY fifty dancers who would mostly be on tour but also hold a London season at Sadlers Wells. Royal National Theatre See also: English National Ballet The National Theatre was established by Parliament in 1949, although the company’s opening Further reading performance was delayed until 1963 when Lawrence Bland, A. (1981) The Royal Ballet—The First 50 Years, Olivier directed Peter O’Toole in Hamlet. The London: Macmillan company lacked a permanent home until the GLC donated the present South Bank site. The ‘brutalist’ PETER CHILDS concrete and glass structure of the National Theatre was designed by Denys Lasdun and Partners and opened in 1976 under the directorship of Peter Hall. rugby league 465

The National Theatre building houses three theatres: twenty years ago failed, though it is popular in the Olivier, an open stage amphitheatre; the Australia and New Zealand and touring sides from Lyttelton, a proscenium arch stage; and the Cottesloe these countries come to Britain. There is major studio theatre. To celebrate its silver anniversary in rivalry between Lancashire (especially Wigan and 1988, the National was granted the title ‘Royal’. St Helens) and Yorkshire (Castleford/Halifax) clubs, which is heightened when the Challenge Cup takes See also: Barbican Centre; Royal Court place each year at Wembley. The League has been dominated since 1986 by Wigan. There are a number of significant differences Further reading between rugby league and rugby union. League Callow, S. (1997) The National: The Theatre and has thirteen as opposed to union’s fifteen players itsWork, London: Nick Hern Books. on each side. There are no lineouts or loose scrums; each time there is a tackle, the player in possession MARK DOUGLAS must back heel the ball to a team mate. This makes possession (rather like American football, where Royal Shakespeare Company an interception is a major upset) much more important in rugby league than in rugby union. The modern Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) Again like the US game, rugby league has a series was established at Stratford-on-Avon in 1961 under of plays (four), although it does not define the the artistic directorship of Peter Hall. Hall amount of ground that must be advanced; a ten- committed the company to a repertoire of classical, yard gain does not allow the process to start again. modern and new works. In 1962 the RSC After these four plays, the other side gains established a London home at the Aldwych possession, usually through a kick ahead. Theatre, and initiated the continuing practice of Rugby union, the amateur game, has always touring at home and abroad. In 1982 the RSC been played by the middle classes, but rugby league moved its London base to the Barbican Theatre. has working-class roots and remains working class The RSC staged spectacular and popularly in all its aspects. Its tough, hard-drinking ethos was acclaimed musical productions during the 1980s captured in David Storey’s novel This Sporting Life, and 1990s, including Les Misérables. The ambition which was made into a successful film by Lindsay of the current artistic director, Adrian Noble, is to Anderson (1963) starring Richard Harris and make the RSC ‘the best classical theatre company Rachel Roberts. Players have always been paid (one in the English-speaking world’. reason for the original breakaway was that working- class players, who had to take time off to play, were See also: Barbican Centre; directors; theatre tired of being looked down on for expecting compensation) and has attracted some players from rugby union, such as the Welsh international Further reading Jonathan Davis. One result of the rivalry between Beauman, S. (1982) The Royal Shakespeare Company, league and union for such players is the ‘baptism Oxford: Oxford University Press. of fire’ they have had to endure when making the transition. They are always seen as ‘soft’ entrants MARK DOUGLAS to a hard sport, and are dished out extra tough treatment until they prove themselves. rugby league A feature of rugby league has been the recruitment of players from Australia and New Rugby League is a northern sport. It was first Zealand. Such ‘exotic’ immigrants into an organized at the George Hotel, Huddersfield in economically poor northern environment have 1895 as a breakaway from rugby union. An integrated well, through working-class solidarity, attempt to introduce it into southern England according to some commentators. 466 rugby union

Further reading Meanwhile, England was celebrating the fact that it was defeated by the All Blacks in New Zealand by Collins, T. (1998) Rugby’s Great Split: Class, Culture ‘only’ twenty points. England conceded fifty points and the Origins of Rugby League Football, London: or more in four out of five matches, and was beaten Frank Cass. 76–0 by Australia, their worst defeat ever. Gate, R. (1986) Gone North: Welshmen in Rugby League, In 1995, rugby union officially became a Sowerby Bridge: Gate. professional sport. This major change led to an MIKE STORRY undignified scramble by top clubs to sign up players, offering money they often did not have. The Rugby Football Union was criticized by rugby union international bodies for not controlling the clubs, who even signed up players from overseas, which The Rugby Football Union was founded in 1871 had ramifications in other countries. A bitter and with headquarters at Twickenham, England. There divisive row between the clubs and their ‘governing are currently a number of competitions. body’ was officially resolved in 1998 and was International championships were instituted in binding for seven years. 1884 and are competed for by the five ‘home’ nations: England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales and See also: rugby league France. (The World Cup was instituted in 1987, and won by New Zealand in that year). The Further reading Pilkington Cup (formerly the John Player Special Cup) is the English Club knockout tournament, Rugby Football Union (1994) Rugby Union, London: and was first held in 1971–2. Black. The Rugby League was organized (in 1885) MIKE STORRY because players needed pay when taking time off work. (One club was fined because its players did not work on the morning of a Cup Final). Rugby union’s Rushdie Affair, the players, organizers and spectators, on the other hand, have always been quintessentially middle class. This The 1988 publication of Salman Rushdie’s novel fact is cited as an explanation of the ‘Troubles’ in The Satanic Verses precipitated the most dramatic Ireland, for example, where there are separate national reception ever experienced by a literary text. The soccer teams for the North and the South, but both intellectual debate and violent protestation parts of Ireland cooperate in a single national Irish associated with this work, crossing boundaries of rugby union team. Hence the North’s problems are literature, religion, cultural identity and claimed by some to be working class in origin. international politics, have come to be known as Spectators at Twickenham, Murrayfield, Cardiff Arms ‘the Rushdie Affair’. Park and Landsdowne Road (the national English, Muslim opponents of The Satanic Verses point to Scottish, Welsh and Irish grounds), which become its allegedly blasphemous representation of the the focus for nationalistic fervour during the annual Prophet Mohammed, claiming that Rushdie seeks Five Nations Championships, do indeed tend to be to question the validity of the Qur’an as a holy middle class, well-behaved and tolerant despite book. For its critics, the text appears to undermine partisan national rivalries. the very foundations upon which the Muslim faith UK rugby union is in a state of flux because of rests: that the Prophet Mohammed’s source for the poor performance, professionalization and politics. Qur’an was divinely inspired by God through the Overseas tours in 1998 were particularly depressing. Archangel Gabriel. Consequently, charges of Wales suffered the worst defeat ever of any of the apostasy were levelled against Rushdie, followed eight rugby playing nations, in South Africa, beaten by the declaration of a fatwa, or religious ruling, by 96–13 with Wales conceding fifteen tries. the Ayatollah Khomeini. This fatwa was based on Russell, Ken 467 the view that Rushdie had blasphemed and Russell, Bertrand consequently merited a death sentence. Calls to ban the book in Britain were supported by public b. 1872, Trellick, Monmouthshire; d. demonstrations against Rushdie. Suspected racist 1970 attacks against Muslim offices soon followed. Philosopher However, the Al Azhar Seminary of Cairo, the Bertrand Russell profoundly influenced British Muslim religious ruling body, has not passed any culture in political and philosophical circles. His decree on The Satanic Verses. contributions to philosophy are outstanding in Much debate has centred upon the protection conceptual rigour, range and plenitude. His Principia against blasphemy afforded by British law to the Mathematica (with A.N.Whitehead, 1910– 13) Christian faith, yet denied to other religions. In unsuccessfully attempted to describe meta-language, 1976, for example, successful action was taken yet raised puzzles about logical class that still exercise against the magazine Gay News for publishing a analytic philosophy. Russell increasingly turned from poem depicting Christ within a homosexual analytic philosophy to political concerns. He stood context. Recourse to similar legal redress is denied for parliament, unsuccessfully, before becoming a those of a Muslim faith. Calls to extend the major public figure from the 1930s onward. He wrote blasphemy laws have so far been unsuccessful. Such and campaigned for civil rights and pacifist debate suggests a tension between Britain as a movements (for which he spent six months in prison) constitutionally Christian state, and as a and was heavily involved in the Campaign for multicultural society encompassing a variety of Nuclear Disarmament (CND). Latterly he came to religious faiths. However, this view is complicated represent the conscience of a troubled nation. He by Christian leaders’ support for Muslim protest. was rehabilitated with the award of the OM and a Defenders of The Satanic Verses prefer to direct Nobel Prize. debate towards issues of freedom of expression. Such debate questions the accountability of literature, as fiction, to non-fictional realms of Further reading discourse. Rushdie himself has repeatedly pointed Pears, D. (1950) Bertrand Russell and the British to The Satanic Verses as a work of literature, as a Tradition in Philosophy, 2nd edn, London: Fontana. product of the imagination, but one that engages with the world. Supporters of the text direct us to PAUL BARRY CLARKE Rushdie’s use of the imagination, not as an attack EMMA R.NORMAN upon the Muslim faith but as an attempt to explore and express the nature of cultural identity and religious faith in a post colonial and increasingly secular world. Russell, Ken In 1998, ten years after the first publication of b. 1927, Southampton The Satanic Verses, the UK authorities negotiated an Film-maker official ‘end’ to the fatwa with the government of Iran. Ken Russell directed numerous television documentaries before Women in Love (1969) See also: literature, Indian; Islam; post-colonial catapulted him into the cinematic mainstream. The writing; violence Rainbow (1989) and television’s Lady Chatterley’s Lover (1993) later concluded his trilogy adapted Further reading from D.H. Lawrence. Russell’s Tchaikovsky biopic The Music Lovers (1970) set the sensationalist tone Appignanesi, L. and Maitland, S. (eds) (1989) The of much ensuing work, including the overwrought Rushdie File, London: Fourth Estate. iconoclasm of The Devils (1971) and other biopics DAVID SMALE Mahler (1974), Lisztomania (1975) and Valentino (1977), 468 Ryle, Gilbert which preceded a brief Hollywood excursion. From mind can be translated, without loss of meaning, the early romanticism of his pioneering anti-realist into statements about actual or possible behaviours. documentaries, Russell’s work has degenerated into He held that many philosophical misconceptions increasingly dark, sexually disturbed, often have their basis in ‘category mistakes’, whereby misogynistic terrain, with Gothic (1986), The Lair of objects and attributes relating to one logical the White Worm (1988) and Whore (1991) category are misrepresented as belonging to demonstrating an exhausted intentional power to another. In his most influential work, The Concept of shock. Mind (1949), Ryle delivered an assault on Cartesian dualism. Descartes’s view that mind and body are absolutely distinct (disparagingly described by Ryle Further reading as the doctrine of ‘the ghost in the machine’) Grant, B.K. (1993) ‘The Body Politic’, in L. constitutes a classic example of a category mistake. Friedman (ed.), British Cinema and Thatcherism, Attributes such as consciousness, which are London: UCL Press. subsumed erroneously under the category of mind, are, on analysis, reducible to behaviour. SATINDER CHOHAN

See also: philosophy

Ryle, Gilbert ROD PATERSON b. 1900, Brighton; d. 1976 Philosopher Gilbert Ryle was an exponent of analytic behaviourism, the theory that statements about S

sadomasochism the feminist press as it became clear that it was not confined to judges and Tory MPs. The publication The term ‘sadism’ originates with the writings of in the early 1980s of US West Coast consensual eighteenth-century French noble the Marquis de sadomasochist group, Samois’s Coming to Power Sade, whose 120 Days of Sodom remains a key text. precipitated a vigorous, some would say vicious, The term ‘masochism’ comes from a nineteenth- debate within the London Lesbian and Gay Centre century exponent of the practice, Leopold von and in provincial centres around the country. Many Sacher-Masoch; his Venus in Furs was made famous independent bookshops still refuse to stock the by the rock band Velvet Underground, who named work of feminists and consensual sadomasochist a song after it. The two terms coined together have proponents such as Pat Califia, a censoriousness come to represent a side to British culture exposed which is reflected in the situation in Canada and in titillating commentaries such as the film Personal the USA where feminist and other sadomasochist Services (Terry Jones, 1987), an account of London publications are often seized at state and national madam Cynthia Payne’s ‘house of sin’. Indeed, the borders. popular conception of sadomasochism has become inseparable from the notion of political or social See also: age of consent; censorship; pornography satire, conjuring up images of judges in suspenders straddled by a whipcracking dominatrix. In 1992, the issue of consensual sadomasochism Further reading —of whether an individual might willingly consent Samois (1981) Coming to Power: Writings and Graphics to being harmed by another person in the pursuit on Lesbian S/M, Boston: Alyson. of sensual gratification—was put in full public view by the case of a group of men involved in a CLARE WHATLING consensual sadomasochism ring. Consent, in such a case, was argued to be unlawful and the men sailing were found guilty of, variously, assault, malicious wounding and the publication of obscene material. There has always been a strong interest in sailing Operation Spanner spawned much sensationalist in the British Isles, where there are 1,605 sailing media debate and untenably long prison sentences clubs. The south coast of England, the west coast for those convicted. Though appeals against the of Scotland and the lochs of Northern Ireland are case were lost, a campaign was instigated which popular cruising grounds, but throughout Britain’s continues to work to change the law around often hostile environments, recreational sailing has consensual activity. always taken place. The television series Howards In Britain in the mid-1980s, the practice of Wa y and media coverage of the Observer Single- consensual sadomasochism between women rocked Handed Transatlantic Race (OSTAR), which 470 sales started in 1960 and is held every four years, have See also: angling; rowing; yachting catered to such interest. MIKE STORRY From the 1950s on, plywood (later GRP) sailing dinghies such as the ‘Firefly’, ‘GP14’ and ‘Merlin Rocket’ became popular and opened SAINSBURY CENTRE, NORWICH see Foster sailing up to a mass market. ‘GP’s (General Associates Purpose) and Mirror dinghies (started by the Daily Mirror) have sold many thousands. But sailing is more often a low-key pastime, practised locally sales by people uninfluenced by national or international trends. So, for example, of the seven Reflecting consumers’ invincible conviction that sailing classes used in the Olympic Games—Soling they can buy what they want at bargain prices, (three crew), Flying Dutchman, Star, Finn (single- and also shop owners’ readiness, to cut profit handed), Tornado, 470 and windsurfer (single- margins in order to increase turnover and improve handed) —only the last named is popular in liquidity by shifting stocks that have not yet found Britain. buyers, sales are a feature of British shopping. Dinghy sailing has given way to windsurfing, Traditionally they are seasonal, in mid-summer and which is largely restricted to the younger at New Year, and Harrod’s sale features almost like generation. Cruising/racing boat owners are older Henley Regatta on the social calendar. But when and now have a wide range of GRP boats available retailing is slow, sales tend to come earlier and to them: Westerly & Hunter supply this market, earlier, and some shops appear to have virtually and the French manufacturer Beneteau caters for continuous sales. All this encourages racing enthusiasts. ‘cherrypicking’, the habit of shoppers to defer all Due to conservatism (and conservation), but the most urgent purchases until they can buy numerous local one-design classes (where each what they want at reduced price in a sale. boat is identical) remain throughout the UK. Shoppers at sales are entitled to the same There are Rhyl ‘Jewels’, Hoylake ‘Operas’, protection as at any other time. Descriptions of Salcombe ‘Yawls’ and Solent ‘X’s. The Howth materials used in manufacturing must be accurate, ‘17’s, built at Carrickfergus in 1898, are believed and the quality and suitability for purpose of goods to be the oldest class still sailing. There has been should be comparable with that of similar ones, a revival of interest in wooden boats and boat having regard to what may reasonably be expected building. Lancashire Nobbies, Bristol Channel at a given price level. If these standards are not Pilot Cutters and Falmouth Quay Punts are met, the dissatisfied customer has a just complaint examples of working boats, now called ‘classics’, against the supplier. At sale time retailers generally which have been convened to purely recreational offer a range of specially brought in cheap goods, and racing use. but customers’ attention fixes particularly on stock Public interest in sailing has been fostered by previously available only at full price and now visits to Britain by participants in the Tall Ships offered more cheaply. All statements about race (when they visited Liverpool in 1994 there reductions are subject to a code agreed by retail were fifteen-mile traffic jams and two million associations under the 1987 Consumer Protection visitors, in addition to the 2,000 crew members Act. A retailer is allowed to attract purchasers by enlivening the port). The ships saluted the visiting announcing that the price of, say, £25 for an item Royal Yacht Britannia as they left the Mersey. represents a reduction (or ‘saving’) of £10 only if Organizations such as the Ocean Youth Club run identical items have been on sale in the shop or (as large yachts like the Malcolm Miller and the Winston it is sometimes interpreted) in a branch of the same Churchill and accept people for specific trips around chain at the higher price for twenty-eight days at Britain. Participation in these events has become some time in the previous six months (though there part of the culture. is no requirement to show that anyone actually paid Sanger, Frederick 471 so much during that period). If a sale is held when sampling a new shop opens or a ‘cheap offer’ is made to introduce a fresh product, there is a requirement The advent of digital recording technology to announce when in the future the full price will made possible the extraction of small segments be restored. The code covers prices, but not of pre-existing records, which could then be statements purporting to convey ideas of worth or added to new songs. The technique is widely value. These, like advertisements declaring, for used in dance music, with some samples example, that ‘everything must be cleared becoming more widely known than either their regardless of price’, are considered advertising hype original source or the records which that consumers should take with a pinch of salt. subsequently use them—as, for example, in the case of the drum break from James Brown’s See also: discount stores; promotions ‘Funky Drummer’. The rise of sampling caused widespread debate over the authorship of songs, Further reading which resulted in most samples being treated as ‘quotations’ from the original, for which credit Silberstein, S. (1994) Consumer Law, London: Sweet is usually given. A later development, & Maxwell. ‘timestretching’ —changing the tempo of a CHRISTOPHER SMITH sample without altering the pitch—was instrumental in the inception of jungle.

Salvation Army See also: DJs

William Booth, a former Methodist preacher, SIMON BOTTOM founded the Christian Mission to preach evangelical revivalism and offer material help to down-and-outs in the slums of Whitechapel in Sanger, Frederick 1861. He changed its name to the Salvation Army, giving the movement its present form and character, b. 1918, Rendcombe, Gloucestershire with quasi-military ranks, uniforms and brass bands Biologist that march with banners flying. In hymn-singing, preaching and the War Cry, the Salvation Army Frederick Sanger is one of the foremost British newspaper, emphasis is laid on the Gospels and on scientists of the century. A molecular biologist, Jesus as a personal redeemer. The Salvation Army, he won the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1958 now an international force, always adds a practical after working out the structure of insulin. dimension to religion by trying to relieve poverty Sanger spent his life at Cambridge, where he and suffering, maintaining hostels, undertaking attempted to ascertain the nature of several youth work and running a missing persons bureau. substances vital for biological functioning, In the late 1990s the organization tried to update including enzymes, antibodies and hormones. its image, shifting from a traditional profile to a In 1980 he won a second Nobel Prize for look that might have more in common with the chemistry, with Walter Gilbert and Paul Berg, laid-back guitar-based appeal of street-buskers. for determining the base sequences of nucleic acids. His work has been crucial for biologists See also: evangelism attempting to manufacture genetic materials in the laboratory. Further reading See also: science The Salvation Army Yearbook, London: International HQ of the Salvation Army, published annually. PETER CHILDS

CHRISTOPHER SMITH 472 Savile Row

Savile Row school examinations Traditionally, the best suits for men have been Since the nineteenth century, school examinations tailored in Savile Row, London. Austin Reed, with syllabuses by outside bodies and question Dunn’s, Gieves and Hawkes and Moss Bros are papers, set and marked by examiners unconnected names of tailors whose work has become the basis with the candidates or their schools, have served for nationwide retail outlets, though the most several functions. They have offered parliament sought-after suit makers are the smaller Savile Row some assurance that education funding has been well tailors. However, in recent years, fashion houses spent; they have reinforced efforts (first in the civil in Italy (particularly Armani) and elsewhere have service, but later more generally) to replace challenged Savile Row’s hegemony. Savile Row appointment by patronage and nepotism by selection has also been hit by trends towards casualwear based on merit and qualifications; and they have (including denim) and particularly sportswear. helped raise standards by bringing into all schools Computerized manufacture in the Far East has the practice of the best and stimulating staff and also undermined Savile Row’s position, which was pupils to greater efforts. Although criticisms that based on traditional tailoring skills and exclusive school examinations are educational strait-jackets British cloths which have now been copied appear exaggerated, difficulties have arisen both from extensively abroad. frequent, underfunded change and also from a persistent tendency to assume that the prime purpose See also: Knightsbridge; Smith, Paul of examinations is discovering who ‘comes top’ when the emphasis ought to be on assessing candidates’ MIKE STORRY abilities and attainments with the object of determining the most appropriate form of education for them at the next stage and subsequently giving Schlesinger, John career advice. Similarly, the records of results achieved by schools published annually by the b. 1926, London Department for Education and Employment (DEE) Film-maker are too frequently taken as ‘school league tables’ for determining which institutions are ‘best’ when it John Schlesinger began his career as a director is more helpful to use them diagnostically, so that in television before moving to feature films. His individual schools can regularly appraise their earliest work seems to typify fashionable 1960s performance by comparison with others with, for British cinema: the social realism of A Kind of instance, a similar intake of pupils. Loving and the superficiality of Billy Liar and Doubts about school standards have led the Darling. The arresting style and epic qualities of DEE to institute a National Curriculum and Far From the Madding Crowd (1967) effectively examinations in such core subjects as English and demonstrated wider possibilities. An interest in mathematics, and in a range of options for all state troubled and complicated human relationships school pupils at three ‘Key Stages’ at the ages of 7, which marked Schlesinger’s British films was 11 and 14. At Key Stage 4, when aged 16, given greater resonance in his US movies, candidates sit GCSE or various vocational including the intense and poignant Midnight examinations, such as Foundation or Intermediate Cowboy (1967), and the thrillers Marathon Man General National Vocational Qualifications (1976), The Falcon and the Snowman (1985) and the (GNVQs). Advanced Level (A Level) examinations less convincing Pacific Heights (1990). In the 1980s are taken two years later; for university entrance, and 1990s Schlesinger returned to directing for candidates usually need good A Level passes in British television, with An Englishman Abroad and three subjects (though some offer one or two Cold Comfort Farm. Advanced Subsidiary (AS) passes either in lieu of ALICE E.SANGER one A Level or in addition). The International School of London 473

Baccalaureate, demanding competence in a range various critics and artists since the term was first of subjects, is also a qualification for university used. It was Kitaj, as early as 1976, in the catalogue entrance. Advanced GNVQs correspond to two A preface to a group exhibition of figurative works Levels. Scotland has a somewhat different range The Human Clay, who ruminated over the of examinations serving similar purposes. possibilities of an emergent group. After a discussion with the Paris-based critic Michael See also: GCSEs; schools system Peppiatt a decade later, it was Kitaj again who instigated a touring exhibition under the banner of A School of London: Six Figurative Painters. The Further reading exhibition toured Europe in 1987–8. The National Curriculum and Its Assessment: Final Report At first, the idea of a School seems improbable (1993), London: HMSO. when considering six artists whose work is fiercely Review of 16–19 Qualifications: The Issues for protective over notions of individuality and is Consideration (1995), London: HMSO. therefore fundamentally opposed to considering the finer points of artistic fashion. It also seems CHRISTOPHER SMITH paradoxical that Kossoff is in fact the only one of the six artists who could be considered a Londoner school league tables by birth, though the others have formed an attachment to the city through study or long periods Introduced in 1992, performance tables show the of living and working in the capital. The mood of examination results and basic statistics of schools in the disinherited city, however, pervades the work England and Wales, with primary schools included of all six artists. A recurring sense of guilt and in 1997. Part of the Citizen’s Charter, they are designed human vulnerability recalls the atmosphere of such to inform the public and act as an incentive to increase existentialist mentors as Sartre and the works of national standards to meet government targets and Giacometti, who was of particular significance to to be used in conduction with prospectuses, governors’ the artistic development of Andrews and Bacon. reports and inspection reports. Criticism has decreased The most deeply-rooted connection between the since their introduction, but many argue that the data six artists, however, centres on an obsessive is misleading, placing too much emphasis on exam fascination with the figure, notably throughout the results and not enough on the all-round education a heyday of abstraction. A comprehensive disdain school provides in terms of extra-curricular activities for artistic vogues may also have gone towards and moral education. Although available elsewhere, drawing the private, even at times reclusive, group important details such as quality of intake and socio- more tightly together socially. Akin to the economic conditions are not shown in the league Impressionists, their lives and work have been tables. closely interrelated since early in their painting careers. In-depth discussions and arguments have See also: public schools; school examinations inevitably added to the way each individual has shaped his work. Although the artists have shared CHRISTOPHER COLBY galleries and have appeared in many group shows together, it was not until 1995 that the six artists School of London were shown together in Britain for the first time. Michael Andrews, Frank Auerbach, Francis Bacon, See also: painting Lucian Freud, R.B.Kitaj and Leon Kossoff constitute the core of artists that were dubbed a Further reading ‘School of London’. The idea of the emergence of a School is firmly down to the American-born artist The British Council, in association with the Scottish R.B.Kitaj, although the term has been adopted by National Gallery of Modern Art (1995–6) From 474 schools system

London, London: The British Council (a During this period, dominant explanations of catalogue containing informative essays). patterns of educational achievement shifted from

NICKY COUTTS a focus on the individual intelligence of children to the identification of a succession of structural and cultural barriers that located failure in factors such schools system as the inefficiency of the eleven-plus examination, the iniquities of provision between different areas The 1944 Education Act in England and Wales of the country, the nature of society itself, the enshrined the principle of balanced responsibilities failings of parents and the cultural mismatch for the structure and content of education. One between home and school. The internal workings of the corollaries of the system of checks and of schools were left largely unexamined except for balances was individuals’ perception that power a focus on the grouping of pupils and the lowly seemed to reside anywhere but where they expectations that teachers had of children from happened to be working in the school system. disadvantaged backgrounds. Lines of accountability and responsibility were The critical scrutiny of schools was not an issue, unclear, but this was not necessarily a problem since schools were assumed to be doing their best because central and local government and teachers with the particular children they were working had influence in their own domain at a time when with. Although social class was seen as a major what was regarded as their proper domain was influence on achievement, once most of the country relatively unproblematic. This kind of had abolished selection and introduced arrangement suited a stable environment, where comprehensive schools, it was generic features of change was incremental and conceived as largely schooling that were held to be the problem rather a professional matter. than the particular school a child attended. Central government’s role was restricted mainly The debate on a wider range of issues, for to approving the local structure of provision, example, reforming the ‘secret garden’ of the planning the supply of teachers and attempting to curriculum, was begun in the early 1970s. influence the content of education through advice Inappropriate teaching styles, the dilution of the and guidance issued by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate curriculum in the interests of ‘relevance’, for Education. Teachers, largely through the perceptions of declining standards of literacy and influence of their professional associations, had numeracy and the lack of effective preparation for considerable flexibility in curriculum development. the world of work were all held up as examples of Local Education Authorities (LEAs) were, in an educational ‘crisis’, compounded by the limited theory, the managers of the system, responsible for powers of central government to act. It was not allocating resources, planning the numbers of until the 1980s that the dominant mode of school places and shaping the local pattern of government influence based on advice and educational provision, which often owed as much guidance gave way to an approach based on to demographic factors as to any coherent legislation to achieve policy objectives. educational philosophy. LEAs also exerted The 1980s saw the start of a root-and-branch influence on teaching methods, curriculum reform of school education that marked a long development, the promotion of teachers and the march through the educational institutions aimed selection of headteachers through the activities of at introducing greater accountability and reducing their advisory services. Until the early 1970s, the the influence of the providers as opposed to the conduct of the school system was seen as a consumers of education. At the same time, central professional matter to be determined largely at the government acquired new powers for itself to give local level, with national debates confined most to it greater leverage over educational policy and structural issues, most notably the issue of selection practice. ‘Blame society’ and ‘blame the home’ gave and the replacement of grammar and secondary way to ‘blame the school in general and teachers modern schools with comprehensive schools. in particular’. This was bolstered by research that schools system 475 demonstrated the differential achievements of was also intended to improve the quality of schools with children from similar backgrounds. teaching, and at the same time reforms, of teacher Although there were numerous Education Acts education were pursued including the introduction passed during the Conservative government’s of national curriculum for teacher education. period of office, the 1988 Education Act introduced Increasingly, ministers and the Chief Inspector for the local management of schools and the National the Office for Standards in Education were vocal Curriculum; it extended the scope of school about a range of issues that had hitherto been ‘choice’ through open enrolment, and enabled regarded as the preserve of the profession. The schools to opt out of the LEA system through the quality of teachers, methods of teaching and the creation of grant-maintained (GM) schools. It was organization of classes were all the subject of the most significant piece of legislation since 1944, adverse comment. LEAs had an ambiguous relation and altered decisively the balance of power and to these developments; they provided many of the responsibility between central and local government personnel that undertook ‘independent’ school and individual schools and introduced clearer lines inspections and offered pre- and post-inspection of accountability. Subsequent to that legislation, the advice to their schools. Some LEAs also intervened introduction of independent school inspections and when schools were deemed as failing to offer an the publication of league tables of examination acceptable standard of education, but ultimately a results and truancy rates contributed to the governing body that did not want the advice of its development of a competitive quasi market for LEA could reject it. schools. The key themes of the Conservative It is inevitable that reforms driven primarily by approach to education were diversity, choice, legislation and centrally imposed with limited accountability and quality. consultation tend to be blunt instruments. The Diversity was promoted through the National Curriculum quickly ran into difficulty establishment of GM schools, city technology because of overloading and the unrealistic demands colleges and a network of technology, language, made of teachers, leading to a review that reduced arts and sports colleges. They were allowed to select its complexity. From work undertaken by the Audit a percentage of their intake based on aptitude in Commission, it has been shown that open enrolment the respective curriculum areas. Choice was to be still leaves 20 percent of parents unable to realize furthered through enabling parents to express a their preference, and in some urban areas the figures preference for which school their child should are much higher. Teacher appraisal is regarded attend and the creation of an assisted places scheme universally as a failure in most respects, and the for attendance at independent schools. evidence that inspection leads to improvement is Accountability was intended to be achieved through mixed. There are a number of examples of schools the reform of governing bodies that placed ‘lay’ identified as requiring special measures improving interests in the majority and the publication of a sufficiently to be taken off the list, but there are other variety of information about school provision and examples of schools who remain on the list following performance including school inspection reports; a critical inspection report. The reform of school the introduction of the National Curriculum also governance has done little to increase parental meant that schools could be compared on the basis involvement, and governing bodies are often either of tackling a similar curriculum. unwilling or unable to monitor educational provision The government’s approach to ‘quality’ rested in their schools and reluctant to take action when largely on the introduction of the National problems arise. Curriculum, examination and assessment reform Examination reform at 16-plus shifted the and raising achievement through inspection; the emphasis away from norm to criterion-referenced public identification of failing schools and the use assessment where pupils need to demonstrate what of its powers to send in a team of people to take they know, understand and can do. There has been over a school, leading ultimately to its closure, were an increase in the number of entries and the rarely used. The introduction of teacher appraisal proportion of candidates achieving grades A to C, 476 schools system but there is a debate about the extent to which this While there is much debate about what else represents a genuine improvement or whether education should strive to achieve, there is at least examinations are now easier than they have been a widely shared view that without the basic in the past. International comparisons appear to foundations, children cannot easily access whatever show that British pupils achieve relatively well in else is on offer in the school curriculum. The science but less well in numeracy, although the underachievement of boys has emerged as a murky waters of comparative statistical analysis concern in recent years, now that they are make international comparisons difficult. outperformed by girls, and the ethnic minority The debate about provision for the 16-plus age experience of education, particularly racial range centres on the appropriateness or otherwise harassment, is beginning to be taken more of the ‘A’ level examination, the need for breadth as seriously. Gender issues continue to be a focus for well as depth of study, the amount of specialization academics and researchers, but have rarely found and the desirability of combining vocational and their way on to national policy-makers’ agendas. academic elements in individual’s programmes. Structural questions are now of relatively minor However, a preoccupation with educational high concern; few people believe that independent performers has given way to a more inclusive schools or grammar schools will be abolished. emphasis driven largely by changes in the Although grant-maintained schools will be able to occupational structure and an overall reduction in call themselves foundation schools, it is only minor the numbers of unskilled jobs. Poor educational differences in governing body representation that attainment and the prospect of social exclusion for will distinguish them from community or LEA young people lacking in ‘employability’ skills is one schools. Gone are the days when the jibe about of the driving forces behind the ‘Welfare to Work’ the National Union of Teachers making Labour scheme introduced by the Labour government. Party education policy had the ring of truth about The creation of a single body, the Qualifications it. Gone also are the days when standards and and Curriculum Authority (QCA) to oversee quality were regarded as part of the exclusive vocational and academic qualifications, will facilitate discourse of the Conservative Party and right-wing the development of a single framework enabling reactionaries. The Labour Party learned some equivalencies between different approaches to be lessons from the ‘Educashun isn’t Working’ worked out, as well as pathways through and bridges campaign run by the Conservatives in 1979. There between academic and vocational routes. In recent is now a basis for an emerging political and years, the 14–19 age group has emerged as a phase professional consensus around educational issues of education that needs to be looked at as a whole, and priorities, and it is likely that teachers, although and it is likely that more vocational options will be not necessarily their representative bodies, will have introduced and collaboration encouraged between a greater involvement in and be consulted about schools and further education colleges. educational change. The creation of a General The past few years can be characterized as Teaching Council similar to that which has existed having had a number of distinctive shifts in thinking for a long time in Scotland will also contribute to about the nature of education. Some of the old raising the image of the teaching profession. philosophical debates about, for example, equality While the school system in England and Wales of opportunity and how it should be measured and can be characterized as the site of much political and the purpose of education are more muted, but professional conflict in recent years, the situation in equity is now a much more widely used term, as is Scotland has been rather different. Professionals have the debate on how to ensure it. A political consensus not had their judgements or capability questioned has emerged about the primary instrumental in the same way, and the reforms that have been purpose for education, which is to master the basics introduced have been accommodated without as a foundation for lifelong learning in a global seeming to threaten the professional status of economy; there is also a consensus that schools do teachers. Devolved management and the creation make a difference to pupils’ achievements. of school boards has been a low key affair, and science 477 teachers have been fully involved in the development sophisticated technological and medical of the school curriculum. achievements. Science itself is simply a process In Northern Ireland, the ‘Troubles’ give the which is driven by a combination of philosophical school system a particular character, and it is inquisitiveness, commercial considerations and the noteworthy that the government reserved the personal aspirations of individual scientists. Most category of grant-maintained status exclusively for basic research is funded by tax revenue. previously segregated schools that wanted to It is generally agreed that physics (with the aid become integrated. Not only is the school system of mathematics) is the core science, since although divided along religious lines, but the 11-plus complex and difficult for non-specialists, it deals examination and an extensive selective secondary with the fundamental properties of matter and education system have been in existence for a long energy which give rise to all the more complex time. The assessment of the 11-plus examination phenomena of cosmology and astrophysics, also leaves 55 percent of the cohort with a ‘D’ grade. chemistry, geology and biology. These fundamental particles and their energies of interaction can See also: school examinations usually be studied on earth only in the high-energy conditions available in particle accelerators, since JOHN WILLIAMS their association into the more familiar guises of atoms and molecules are extremely stable under science normal earth conditions of temperature and pressure. Chemistry is the study and exploitation Science is a process by which evidence, obtained of the behaviour and interactions of atoms to form by systematic experiment or observation, is used molecules, whose interactions occur readily under to verify or negate hypotheses about any aspect of earth conditions. The highest levels of complexity the universe leading to an accumulation of a body arise in the biosphere, where extremely complex of knowledge and principles. Popular usage of the chemical systems which have evolved over the last word ‘science’, however, tends to refer to the actual 3–4 billion years are present as cells and living knowledge and to any technology which derives organisms, and these organisms interact with each from its application, rather than to the process itself. other and the environment to form ecosystems and The process of science is international and is the entire interactive system of the entirety of the prosecuted by many thousands of experimental living world known as the biosphere. scientists who work in universities, government or Science (in its pure form) differs from pure commercial laboratories. The information gathered philosophy in that it is based on evidence. While from these activities is promulgated internationally philosophy may have sharpened the use of logic through the publication of specialist journals (of and symbolic analysis, only science can yield new which there are several hundred), which report knowledge about the universe and provide the raw regularly the data obtained by experimental material for philosophical debate. The beginnings scientists throughout the world. The quality of of the accumulation of knowledge about ourselves science published is regulated by peer review. and our environment were necessarily conducted Eventually, and necessarily in sanitized form, this in the absence of much real information, in a information finds its way into teaching textbooks, situation where sets of beliefs, arguably thus establishing a body of consensual knowledge. manipulated for social and political advantage, Much of this body of knowledge, however, is formed the context of such understanding. provisional pending the appearance of new, Because the implications of the real information clarifying or even contradictory data and so cannot which became available to refine knowledge be considered to be ‘truth’, except in certain simple through the efforts of systematic observation and circumstances. However, the majority of scientific investigation often contradicted the original information forms an empirical knowledge base of beliefs, there has been continuous conflict between sufficient accuracy and validity to allow very the belief systems and the knowledge system of 478 science fiction science. This conflict will probably always remain Ballard’s The Atrocity Exhibition (1970) and Keith even if its centre of gravity shifts into the scientific Robert’s Pavane (1968). This emergent literature sphere (which has its own set of belief systems), largely ignored American postwar science fiction partly for simple reasons of conservatism, concerns—typically the conquest of the galaxy and prejudice and lack of enthusiasm of those in power the discovery of strange alien cultures— to relinquish it, and partly because some aspects concentrating instead upon essentially British of human activity and even the behaviour of themes: the catastrophic vision of a dim but not aspects of the physical universe may never be necessarily distant future, the condition or amenable to a cogent knowledge-based transcendence of the human spirit trapped in a explanation. The conflict is still clearly visible in technological wasteland. These are themes which the often futile debates between ‘science’ and might reasonably be traced back as far as the pages ‘religion’. It has been an interesting feature of of Gulliver’s Travels. British culture in particular and that of the western In the mid-1970s the recession hit the British world in general that even basic scientific science fiction market hard. New writers found it knowledge is not considered a necessary increasingly difficult to get published. Major ingredient for ‘intellectual’ activity. The success, it seemed, could only be guaranteed unexpected success of books in which the scientific through established notoriety. Stanley Kubrick’s arguments underlying current knowledge of some film of Arthur C.Clarke’s 2001: A Space Odyssey of the fundamental aspects our universe are (1968) assured the author a worldwide reputation discussed suggest that there is a previously still enjoyed to this day. Douglas Adams’s radio unexploited enthusiasm for this knowledge which series A Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy spawned a may lead to a reappraisal of such ignorance. television serial and a succession of best-selling novels, their appeal being broadened by a strong PETE SHETERLINE comedic element. Similarly, market conditions encouraged the production of the novel series, with science fiction leading examples being Brian Aldiss’s Helliconia Trilogy (1982–5), and Ian Watson’s trilogy The Book In the early 1960s the science fiction market was of the River, The Book of the Star and The Book of Being dominated by America. British exponents of the (1983–5). genre were often first published by American By the late 1980s British science fiction was once companies and thus tended to reflect American again a relatively unhealthy genre, the popularity preoccupations. There was a void to be filled; an of heroic fantasy largely displacing its function. opportunity existed to develop a new national style However, writers such as Terry Pratchett (Discworld, and to re-affirm traditional British science fiction 1983 to the present), Robert Rankin (Armageddon themes. In 1964, Michael Moorcock became editor Trilogy, 1990–2) and Iain M.Banks (The Player of of the science fiction magazine New Worlds. Inspired Games, 1988; Use of Weapons, 1990) continue to by the existing works of J.G.Ballard, The Four flourish in the 1990s using proven formulas, Dimensional Nightmare (1963) and The Terminal Beach comedy and or serialization. (1964), he began to promote the cause of a science fiction ‘avant-garde’. Moorcock’s own experimental See also: fantasy and science fiction works—the Jerry Cornelius series of novels among others—encouraged science fiction authors to Further reading experiment with style and method, notably Brian Aldiss, who produced Report on Probability (1968) Greenland, C. (1983) The Entropy Exhibition, and Barefoot in the Head (1969). Stories which London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. originally appeared in New Worlds and its sister MICK TURNER magazine Science Fantasy also contributed to several important science fiction collections, including J.G. Scottish press 479

Scottish language Scottish press Scots is the Lowland Scottish dialect of English, The distinction between regional and national with a tradition going back to at least the fifteenth newspapers has become blurred, as newspapers century. It is derived from the Northumbrian dialect have moved their editorial and printing facilities of Old English, and is usually readily from Fleet Street to other parts of London or of comprehensible with English. Famous examples are Britain. For example, the Independent is printed in the terms ‘kirk’ for ‘church’ and ‘bairn’ for ‘baby’. Bradford, Northampton and Portsmouth, and The royal union of Scotland and England in 1603 Scottish editions of the Sun, the News of the World and the Act of Union in 1707 have probably kept and the Sunday Times are printed in Glasgow. the two languages close and prevented Scots from Scotland, however, is the home of a newspaper developing a markedly separate vocabulary, circulating throughout Britain, the Daily Record, keeping standard English as the common mode of sister paper of the Daily Mirror and the Sunday Mail, written communication. and many other papers including six morning, five Lallans is Scottish for ‘Lowlands’, and was a evening, three Sunday and 118 local weekly term used by Robert Burns for Scots (in the central newspapers. Lowlands and up the northeast coast to Aberdeen). Scotland’s newspaper industry has recently There was an attempt to revive it as a literary become much more competitive, partly because of language by Hugh MacDiarmid’s renaissance of the fallout from political upheavals including the the 1920s; this movement has had many inheritors demise of the Conservative party and the prospect who use both Scots and English, including the of a Scottish parliament, and partly because poetry of George Mackay Brown, Sorley Maclean, consolidation in the media business has thrown up Iain Crichton Smith, Robert Garioch, Norman commercial opportunities. So, for example, the MacCaig, Gael Turnbull and Edwin Morgan, who Scottish comedian Billy Connolly has buried his has influenced Robert Crawford and W.N.Herbert. famous dislike for the Scottish press (he once More recently, alongside Jackie Kay, Frank appeared on the front page of the Sunday Mail for Kuppner and Kathleen Jamie, there is the demotic hitting one of its photographers) to join the Scots of Tom Leonard and Liz Lochhead. The use consortium The Edge with the Daily Record to bid of Scots is often associated with a sense of political for Scotland’s largest radio licence, a commercial independence. For example, with no Conservative licence with the potential to reach 2.8 million candidates elected to represent Scottish seats at people, or around half of the country’s population. Westminster, Lochhead’s apposite ‘Bagpipe Muzak, The Barclay twins, David and Frederick bought Glasgow, 1990’ superbly parodies Glasgow’s Scotsman Publications Ltd from the International marketing as European City of Culture and also Thomson Organisation three years ago, and have echoes MacNeice’s earlier similarly-named poem spent large sums of money on the Scotsman and its in its rhythm and in the refrain, ‘It’s all go’. The sister title, Scotland on Sunday. The latter has poem concludes by denouncing a Tory government expanded its readership by introducing several new that Scotland did not elect: ‘So—watch out Margaret sections and being repositioned slightly down- Thatcher, and tak’ tent Neil Kinnock/Or we’ll tak’ market. the United Kingdom and brekk it like a bannock.’ Papers north of the border are becoming more This threat seemed partially to come true when nationalistically oriented. The Scottish Sun under Scotland enthusiastically voted for parliamentary its English editor Bob Bird famously swung behind devolution in September 1997. the Scottish National Party during the 1997 election, and the Scottish Mirror is also slated to become more See also: literature, Scottish; Welsh language Scottish. For many years the Observer and the Sunday Times have carried Scottish supplements, but many PETER CHILDS other national titles have recently been ‘tartanized’. The Daily Mail’s Scottish edition now has a much 480 Scott, Ridley more Scottish focus than it had. and the Daily Record the vampire movie The Hunger (1983), a box office is being revamped to reflect its Scottish roots and failure which nevertheless bore the hallmarks—a to shake off a perceived macho image. Despite the slick visual style—of later mainstream success. In fact that it has dominated the Scottish tabloid scene Top Gun and Beverly Hills Cop II, Scott made the top- for decades with sales of over 600,000, the Daily grossing films in 1986 and 1987, respectively. With Record had been looking vulnerable after a failed The Last Boy Scout (1991) and Crimson Tide (1995) he drive for more advertising revenue. failed to repeat the same level of commercial success, despite working with some of Hollywood’s See also: Northern Irish press; Welsh press most bankable stars. In 1993 he made the acclaimed True Romance, a violent noirish thriller scripted by MIKE STORRY Quentin Tarantino.

MATTHEW GRICE Scott, Ridley b. 1939 scouse Film director ‘Scouse’ is an eighteenth-century word from An art graduate, Scott worked as an award-winning ‘lobscouse’, a sailors’ meal of meat and vegetables director of television advertisements before similar to Irish stew. Hence, ‘lobscouser’ was the embarking on television and then film work with name used for a sailor and ‘scouser’ became the The Duellists (1977). He achieved commercial success term for a person from Liverpool, a major port with his Hollywood vehicles, the science fiction- where the stew was popular. ‘Scouse’ has come to horror Allen (1979) and the futuristic film noir Blade refer fairly recently (probably since the Second Runner (1982). Scott employs raise en scène techniques World War) to the flat, adenoidal working-class in films with meticulously observed sets, often speech of the city, which combines elements of sacrificing narrative content for a visually Lancashire with English dialects from Ireland and, spectacular style, for example in Legend (1985) and to a lesser extent, Wales. Probably the most famous 1492: Conquest of Paradise (1992). A later proclivity users of scouse were the Beatles, though the Mersey for strong female characters (as in the female road Poets used it to literary effect. movie Thelma and Louise (1991) and G.I.Jane (1997)) is undermined by simplistically subverted gendered See also: Cockney; Geordies stereotypes, yet Scott’s revisionism of conventional film genres and indeterminate symbolism render PETER CHILDS his work ideal for feminist and postmodernist analysis. scouts and guides SATINDER CHOHAN Robert Baden-Powell, born in 1857, won great popular fame, if not much of a reputation with the military authorities, as commander of Mafeking Scott, Tony during its 217-day siege in the Boer War. Returning b. 1944, Stockton-on-Tees to Britain, he responded to anxieties about the physical condition and moral fibre of the nation’s Film-maker youth. His initial impulse was to help develop such Tony Scott is one of a number of British directors youth organizations as the Boys’ Brigade, founded who have achieved high-profile Hollywood careers. in 1883 by William A.Smith, a Glasgow Sunday- After leaving the Royal College of Art, he joined school teacher. But after an experimental camp on his brother Ridley Scott in directing commercials Brownsea Island, near Poole, in the summer of 1907 and television movies. His first Hollywood film was and publishing Scouting for Boys the year after, Screen and screen theory 481 scouting emerged as something rather different. scratching Criticized by some for jingoism or militarism, it reflected in fact its founder’s scepticism about Most commonly heard in rap and hip hop songs, regimentation. Scouts took to wearing uniform, but the technique of scratching involves manually there was, by Edwardian standards, not much moving a record back and forth, so that one small smartness in dress more suitable for cross-country section—usually only one sound—is heard hiking than parade grounds. backwards and forwards, repeatedly. Essentially, Baden-Powell’s prime concerns were with the resulting sound is used to provide an extra health and fitness, promoted by open-air activities, rhythmic texture to the track. The rise of trip hop comradeship, loyalty within ‘troops’ (structured music (jazz-influenced, largely instrumental hip groups) and social responsibility. Such qualities hop) has moved scratching to the forefront, with would, it is true, be of value to future soldiers. songs such as The Herbalizer’s ‘Scratchy Noise’ But Baden-Powell was not the man to turn employing the technique to great effect. For the scouting into a cadet movement. Instead, as most part, though, scratching remains a tool for became clearer with time, the emphasis was on creative DJing, with Coldcut’s 1995 Journeys By DJ the development of the individual in the company mix album containing many fine examples of the of others. There was a good deal of moral technique in use. exhortation, but no more than was common in education generally at the time, and the non- See also: sampling denominational nature of the movement allowed SIMON BOTTOM it to be adopted, for instance, by churches of different denominations. The pace at which scouting expanded shows that it matched a need, Screen and screen theory as was recognized by the grant of a Royal Charter as early as 1912. Girls insisted on being part of Screen was the most influential journal of British the movement, which led to the formation of the cinema studies in the 1970s and 1980s. Under the Guides. Spreading to other countries, scouting had editorship of Sam Rohdie, Screen developed a a million members by 1922 (and 25 million by theoretical practice of cinematic analysis which 1995). Small boys were catered for by Wolf Cub investigated the structure of cinema and the packs, and Brownies appealed even more to little positioning of the cinematic spectator. Screen girls. The Duke of Edinburgh Awards represent theorists including Colin MacCabe, Laura Mulvey a modern development of some aspects of and Stephen Heath were distinguished by their scouting, but Baden-Powell’s movement, if less theoretical investigation of the dominant codes of significant than formerly, remains an important narrative cinema, as well as by their collective part of Britain’s provision for young people. attempt to establish theoretical film analysis as a legitimate field of higher education. The internal development of screen theory can be traced through Further reading its self-reflexive encounters with Saussurian Rosenthal, M. (1984) The Character Factory, New semiotics, Althusserian Marxism and Lacanian York: Pantheon (informative, though sharply psychoanalysis. critical). Screen theorists drew upon semiotics to Springhall, J. (1977) Youth, Empire and Society: British investigate how the cinematic ‘language’ as a system Youth Movements, 1883–1940, London: Croom of signs, images and codes is structurally organized Helm (though concerned with events up to by the conventions of narrative. MacCabe argues 1940, invaluable for the perspective it provides). that the classic realist text does not reflect reality but instead produces the narrative illusion of the CHRISTOPHER SMITH reproduction of reality. Realist cinema establishes a formal hierarchy of film discourses in which 482 Scruton, Roger narrative functions as the privileged code. It fixes Scruton, Roger the spectator in a unified position of ‘pure specularity’ or a point of view from which b. 1944 ‘everything becomes obvious’. Heath deploys the Philosopher concept of ‘suture’ to define this structural A prolific writer, critic and broadcaster, Roger positioning of the spectator. MacCabe critiques the Scruton is also a professional philosopher who has classic realist text as ideologically conservative commented widely on political theory and aesthetics. because it elides the contradictory character of the Educated at Cambridge, he has taught at the ‘real’, and he calls for the production of a Universities of Bordeaux, where he witnessed the progressive, non-narrative cinema. student upheavals of the 1960s, Birkbeck College Extending and critiquing MacCabe’s position, in London and Boston. Founding The Salisbury Review Mulvey’s ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’ in the early 1980s, a journal dedicated to conservative has become foundational for feminist film thought, his essentially right-wing views have led analysis. Mulvey uses Lacanian psychoanalysis to him to a position of notoriety within academic circles argue that the subject is not only produced but in Britain, though less so in the USA. His essentially decentred by language. According to Mulvey, the Burkean conservatism (The Meaning of Conservatism), cinematic ‘gaze’ is structured by gendered regimes his view of sex as that which is permissible only of power and desire which dichotomize visual within marriage (Sexual Desire), and his assertion that pleasure into active/male/subject versus passive/ animals should not be accorded rights (Animal Rights female/object. Cinematic pleasure, then, is and Wrongs) have done nothing to modify the voyeuristically encoded as male. Mulvey calls for controversial standing of Britain’s only fox-hunting an attitude of ‘passionate detachment’ disruptive philosopher. of the visual pleasures of narrative cinema and, like MacCabe, she calls for a non-narrative avant- See also: philosophy garde cinematic practice. Despite its influence, screen theory has been PAUL BARRY CLARKE systematically critiqued for its theoreticism and LAWRENCE QUILL elitism. Nevertheless, contemporary debate about spectatorship and pleasure continues to engage questions that were central to the Screen project. sculpture Contemporary British sculpture is informed by two See also: media and cultural studies major ideas: the response to the work of the ‘new generation’ of the early 1960s, and the dominance Further reading of a handful of London art schools, including St Martins, the Royal College of Art and Goldsmiths Bennett, T. et al. (1981) Popular Television and College. Very little contemporary production can Film, London: BFI Publishing (a useful reader, be isolated from the fact that almost all recent work including essays by MacCabe, Mulvey and is in some way informed by the sculptural debates Heath). that began in the 1960s, and nearly all of the current Mast, G. and Cohen, M. (1992) Film Theory and generation of sculptors went to the three schools Criticism, New York: Oxford University Press (a mentioned above. In common with many other useful anthology, including the essays by aspects of British life, the production of sculpture MacCabe, Mulvey and Heath). is highly centralized, and few sculptors working MARK DOUGLAS outside of the London institutions have had success. But these qualifications aside, sculpture is one area in which British artists have made an international reputation. sculpture 483

In 1965, the Whitechapel Art Gallery in London By the late 1960s, modernist sculpture as presented The New Generation, an exhibition of new practised by Caro and his disciples at St Martins British sculpture by artists born mainly in the 1930s, was under attack both from minimalism in the including Philip King, William Tucker and Tim United States and from a new generation of St Scott, all of whom were then working at St Martins Martins sculptors in Britain. The new work was College of Art. The materials in the show marked extremely diverse, involving the use of soft and a break with traditional sculpture, and included flexible materials, the incursion of performance and painted steel, polythene, plywood, glass hardboard photography into sculpture, and in some cases the and wood. But there was little doubt that the most disappearance of any recognizable object altogether. important figure in the show was Anthony Caro, Barry Flanagan’s work is a good example: it also teaching at St Martins, whose work had been consisted of cloth or hessian bags stuffed with soft exhibited internationally and had been well- materials and casually arranged, often subject to received in the United States. Caro’s career began considerations of gravity or chance. Superficially as a studio assistant to Henry Moore, and his early it resembled so-called ‘anti form’ sculpture which work resembled Moore’s figurative sculpture. had recently emerged in New York, and during the However, after meeting the modernist David Smith late 1960s Flanagan was often shown alongside on a visit to the United States in 1960, Caro began Americans such as Robert Morris and Eva Hesse. to make welded steel sculpture, improvising forms If Flanagan continued to make sculptural with a variety of disparate elements. Two other facts objects, albeit ones which were subject to some new marked a sharp break with the artist’s earlier considerations, his contemporaries at St Martins practice: there was no plinth or base in the new showed ways in which sculpture was no longer work, causing the sculpture to rest directly on the necessarily contingent on an object produced for floor; and the sculptures were coloured, using the specific viewing conditions of the gallery. bright, commercially-available colours that had During his time at the College, Richard Long began nothing to do with those found in nature. One of to exhibit his ‘walks’ as sculpture. Hence, A Line the largest and best-known examples of this work Made by Walking, England, 1967 was photographic is Early One Morning (1962). documentation of a straight line made by the artist Caro went on to teach at Bennington College, in a field by the simple process of walking. The Vermont in 1963–4 and again the following year, line itself was not exhibited, but the photograph and his acceptance by the American avant-garde was: the material presence of the sculpture all but was such that his inclusion in the massive survey dissolved, and what was left was a conceptual trace. show American Sculpture of the Sixties (Los Angeles The work of Gilbert and George provides a County Museum of Art, 1967) went more or less different example of the way sculpture began to unremarked. Caro’s career in the United States was lose some of its material aspects. The duo—who particularly helped by the critical support of met at St Martins in 1967, and have been working Michael Fried, and Caro’s work came to represent together ever since—presented themselves as ‘living Modernist sculpture internationally. sculptures’ in performances between 1969 and 1977. Meanwhile, various former students of the In Balls: The Evening Before The Morning After—Drinking Royal College of Art were making work informed Sculpture, the artists performed an evening’s drinking by pop art. They included Allen Jones, who at Ball’s, a favourite establishment in Bethnal Green produced life-size female figures in fibreglass, (although Penelope Curtis reports that no alcohol dressed in fetishistic leather clothing, posed to make was actually consumed) and the results were furniture; Mark Boyle and family, who made exact photographed and displayed. The final form of Balls replicas in fibreglass of small areas of London was, in some respects, functionally equivalent to streets, selected at random; and John Lacey, whose Richard Long’s records of his walks in the country. Boy oh Boy Am I Living (1964) was an absurd robot An early conceptually-oriented work was Still and assembled from a Belisha Beacon and artificial Chew (1966) by John Latham, then a part-time limbs. lecturer at St Martins, constituted as a direct (and 484 sculpture extremely funny) attack on the then-dominant is anchored, literally it seems, by a heavy iron plate modernist criticism of Clement Greenberg. The and chain. The ordinariness of the sculpture’s piece was in the first instance an event, in which a materials and their simple juxtaposition again refer copy of Greenberg’s Art and Culture (removed from back to work produced internationally at the end the St Martins library) was chewed by Latham and of the 1960s, but the precise result here is a fantastic assorted colleagues—he reported that there was some spectacle in which the table is only prevented from selection of pages—and the results were spat into a flying away by means of its tether. A further point flask. To this was added an ‘Alien Culture’, a yeast, of interest is Wentworth’s frequent use of anecdote and the mixture was left to ferment, and eventually to explain the work; in this case, the sculpture is distilled. When the librarian finally recalled the book, said to have been inspired by the sight of a café Latham took the distillate to the College, and after owner rushing outside during a storm to upend some argument was able to persuade the librarian the outdoor tables. that this was indeed the remains of Greenberg’s text; The rather literary sculpture produced during the following day a letter arrived stating that his the 1980s had obvious equivalents in the field of services would no longer be required at the College. painting. Since the 1980s there has been something Still and Chew is displayed in the form of a flask of of a retreat from this mode and a renewed the distillate, plus assorted documentation, all engagement with the theme of the body. In many contained in a case. ways this recalls minimalism in its initial phase, with If the work of the post-Caro generation of St its critical grounding in phenomenology, and a Martins sculptors opened up a field of particular interest in the perception of bodies in epistemological enquiry, the avant-garde of the space. What has appeared to occur in British 1980s evidenced something of a return to earlier sculpture in the late 1980s and early 1990s is a re- concerns. Generally speaking, the work of the so- engagement with this idea, but with a specifically called ‘New British Sculptors’ such as Tony Cragg, female focus. Two artists best represent this Richard Deacon, Anthony Gormley, Anish Kapoor, tendency, Helen Chadwick, who died in 1966, and Richard Wentworth and Alison Wilding, Rachel Whiteread. Chadwick is generally regarded acknowledged the formal possibilities opened up as a sculptor, although her primary medium could by the sculpture of the late 1960s and early 1970s, be said to be photography: her work tends to but deliberately encouraged metaphysical readings. comprise photographs of arrangements of matter, The work was in general poetic, literary and often configured to generate explicitly sexual oriented towards the creation of objects. As such, readings. Materials in these cases have included it evidenced a shift away from the previous interest meat, lambs’ tongues, fur and vegetable matter. in the means of production. There have however been a number of large Examples of this new tendency include Cragg’s sculptures, many of which achieved some notoriety Britain Seen From the North in which a giant silhouette on their first showing. Piss Flowers, a series of Britain, rotated ninety degrees and accompanied comprised a series of plaster casts of holes made by a riot policeman, is generated via an assemblage by urinating in snow. The results were often both of assorted broken bits of plastic, most of which surprising and beautiful. have recognizable sources. The technique and scale Whiteread’s mature work comprises casts of the of the work would appear to derive from the interior of domestic objects, furniture and, most horizontal sculptures of artists such as Richard famously an entire terraced house. Her materials Long, but the piece is wall-mounted, and makes a are extremely varied, ranging from concrete to recognizable image, which at the time of its plaster to rubber and various kinds of resins, and production was legibly political, a statement of an the work has much tactile appeal. The work is often unequal Britain, regionally divided and beset by made, and displayed in serial arrangement, which social unrest. Wentworth’s Shower (1984) comprises tends to encourage comparison with minimalism, a kitchen table (with a propeller set, surrealistically, a suggestion that the artists does not dispute. House, into the rim) balanced on one leg; the assemblage a huge project in the East End of London, resulted SDP 485 in the making of an inside-out house; commissioned Royal Academy of Arts (1987) British Art in the by Artangel, it was created over some months in Twentieth Century, Munich: Prestel. 1993, and then famously destroyed despite a RICHARD J.WILLIAMS campaign that it should stay. The controversy over this work has been compared to the destruction of Richard Serra’s Tilted Arc in New York in 1984. SDP Both Chadwick and Whiteread evidence a reading of 1960s art which shows its concerns On 25 January 1981, four former Labour Party reconfigured to represent a more specific idea of cabinet ministers—David Owen, Shirley Williams, the body; Whiteread’s more architectural work Bill Rodgers and Roy Jenkins, known collectively shows minimalism reconfigured to specifically as the Gang of Four—launched the Council for English ends; her materials, with their faded colours Social Democracy, which became the Social and decayed appearance, are resonant with decline Democratic Party (SDP) in March. The Gang of and nostalgia, which gives her works a specifically Four left Labour because of that party’s drift to the English accent. far left and changes in the party rules designed to Of all contemporary British artists, none has further increase left-wing influence. The SDP was attracted so much media attention as Damien Hirst. the first political party to be formed since 1900, This is as much to do with the manner in which he and by December 1981 it had caused a major stir, has courted attention, which recalls Andy Warhol, attracting 70,000 members and going ahead in the as with his startling materials, which include dead opinion polls with 50 percent of national support. farm animals preserved in formaldehyde, cigarette Twenty-seven Labour MPs and one Conservative butts, medical instruments and maggots. Precedents MP also defected to the new party. for Hirst’s cool arrangements can be found in the For the first year of its existence the SDP enjoyed conceptual art of the 1960s, and Goldsmiths a honeymoon period with the media and the public, College where Hirst was a student during the mid- and it achieved its biggest by-election successes at 1980s has vigorously promoted the investigation this time. Yet when the SDP unveiled its policies of the art of this period. The technical they were not particularly innovative, despite its ambitiousness of Hirst’s work is nevertheless a attempts to portray itself as a new, radical alternative departure. In common with other recent British art, of the centre left. In June 1982, the SDP and the it is not an intellectual project, and it remains to be Liberals emphasized the common ground between seen whether Hirst’s creations have the persistence them and announced that they would form an of the work from which they clearly derive. alliance for electoral purposes. It also remains to be seen whether sculpture In the 1983 general election, the SDP/Liberal reasserts itself again as a discrete practice. Much of Alliance with its dual leadership of Roy Jenkins the interesting or notorious British sculpture of the and David Steel gained 25.4 percent of the vote 1990s has been made by artists who might equally compared to Labour’s 27.6 percent, the best be at home making installation art, photographs performance by a third party since 1923. or videos; the category ‘sculpture’ once again seems Nevertheless, Labour took 209 seats to the to have dissolved. Alliance’s 23 (of which only six were held by SDP candidates), due to the first-past-the-post electoral See also: Hepworth, Barbara; Nicholson, Ben system. David Owen replaced Roy Jenkins as SDP leader, and with Steel led the Alliance into the 1987 election. Here the Alliance’s share of the vote fell Further reading and they held only 22 seats. This failure resulted Arts Council of Great Britain (1995) The British Art in widespread calls for merger of the SDP and Show 4, London: Arts Council. Liberal Party, to which Owen responded by Curtis, P. (1988) Modern British Sculpture From the reiterating the ‘need for a fourth party’. Owen was Collection, Liverpool: Tate Gallery Publications. isolated when the SDP membership voted by 57.4 486 secret services percent to 42.6 percent to join a merged party, has been ameliorated slightly by Stella which eventually became the Liberal Democrats Rimmington, who was until recently head of MI5 (see Liberal Party). Subsequently there was an and who gave press briefings. The value of these acrimonious split, with the Owenites or ‘continuing briefings is limited. SDP’ breaking away. This undertaking was a Until the late 1970s, the clandestine nature of failure, and the party was wound up in May 1990. the individual agencies ensured that each was reticent about sharing information with the others. See also: fringe parties They consequently operated on a largely separate basis, which caused a degree of inefficiency in handling the increased IRA activity in Northern Further reading Ireland. In 1978, MI5, the Special Branch of the Crewe, I. and King, A. (1995) SDP: The Birth, Life Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), Army and Death of the Social Democratic Party, Oxford: Intelligence and the SAS coordinated intelligence Oxford University Press (a definitive guide). gathering and set up the first Tasking and Coordination Group (TCG) in Belfast. The COLIN WILLIAMS resulting success in ambushing IRA activity led to the extension of the TCG throughout Northern secret services Ireland. The various arms of the secret services are still Founded in 1909, the British secret intelligence somewhat jealous of their ‘patch’. Set against that, service revolves around two major departments of however, is the need to redefine their role after the military intelligence with several adjunct executive Cold War and to ensure better coordination of branches. MI5 is concerned with state security and information. The Joint Intelligence Committee counter-intelligence. Its responsibilities cover (JIC) now handles coordination, and role counter-espionage and the investigation of other redefinition has occurred in a number of areas. The internal security threats such as political dissenters most successful redefinition has been the shift of and subversives. MI5 also prevents the dissemination MI5 from generalized mainland security to dealing of classified information and is heavily involved in with the IRA in particular. The effect of this is not counter-terrorist activities in the UK. MI6, which, to be underestimated. Underlying the current drive until recently, the government claimed had no official to peace in Northern Ireland are many factors, but existence in peacetime, deals with obtaining included in those factors lies a redefinition of the knowledge and with espionage concerning British working role of the secret services following the interests on an international scale. end of the Cold War. More latterly, there is clear Other major aspects of the secret services evidence that the secret services (widely include the Special Branch of the British police. understood) have been involved in the While originally centralized in Scotland Yard from identification, serving of indictments and arrest of 1883, the Special Branch was recently extended in criminals charged with war crimes in Bosnia. This localized form to all forty-two of Britain’s police betokens both a shift in the mandate of these forces. organizations and, more significantly, a clear Army Intelligence and Special Air Service (SAS) indication that they are now regarded as responsible are allied with the secret services in several areas, directly to Downing Street rather than to the particularly regarding counter-terrorist operations Ministry of Defence. The shift is significant, and affecting state security. The activities of the IRA unprecedented, in that the secret services may turn have been a main area of responsibility for MI5, out to be an arm of the prime minister in particular especially since the end of the Cold War. However, rather than the government in general. This even within the secret services the tensions between indicates a shift from parliamentary and cabinet the efficiency of openness and the protective shield government to a more presidential style of of secrecy are evident. This secretiveness in MI5 government. The way in which the secret services serial killers 487 are being commanded and held accountable Further developments have occurred both with indicates a fundamental and unprecedented shift the onset of mail order and so-called ‘e-commerce’. in the way in which Britain is governed. Mail-order facilities were adopted by many companies such as Littlewoods and Sears Roebuck, See also: MI5 and MI6 as a response to the need for a more convenient mode of shopping for rural or busy consumers with the convenience of shopping via catalogue and Further reading having products delivered directly to the home. Pincher, C. (1987) A Web of Deception, London: Coupled with credit schemes that allowed the Sidgwick & Jackson. spreading of costs and outlay (hire purchase agreements) this proved a viable and popular means PAUL BARRY CLARKE of home shopping. With the advent of the World EMMA R.NORMAN Wide Web, further opportunities for home shopping have presented themselves, and after self-service some initial scepticism these have been seized upon by many corporations wise to the advantages this Historically, the human element of the shopping might bring. With government figures showing that experience was paramount, with shops as an over 10 percent of the UK population are now important feature of communities and the online, many see this idea of the ‘wired catalogue’ shopkeeper as a central figure (even Napoleon being the next logical step in self-service/home infamously remarked that ‘England is a nation of shopping. shopkeepers’). However, shifts in lifestyles and the introduction of larger retail units led to new ways See also: electronic shopping being developed to maximize turnover. The growth of supermarkets and the use of shelves stocked with Further reading groceries and foodstuffs removed the need for human intermediaries and allowed a more cost- DTI (1998 ) ‘Moving into the information age’ , effective way of supplying goods. This shift also http:/www.dti.gov.uk created a number of legal problems centring upon GUY OSBORN when the contract of sale was concluded, as this STEVE GREENFIELD had consequences for the sale of goods such as intoxicating liquor to minors. A similar experience was seen in the case of garages supplying petrol. serial killers Historically, an attendant would have enquired as to how much petrol was required by the motorist After the horror of the Moors Murders in the 1960s, and delivered the petrol into the vehicle. However, the 1980s was the decade in which the serial killer for similar reasons to the supermarket shift, it entered the public consciousness as a descriptive label became more cost-efficient to permit motorists to for mass murderers. The phrase itself was allegedly supply the petrol themselves and pay the amount coined in 1978 by FBI agent Robert Ressler to due to a central point. This shift also created legal describe those who kill repeatedly and obsessively. problems when it was discovered that the law of Prominent examples of killers who have attracted theft did not initially cover situations where the the term include Dennis Neilsen, Peter Sutcliffe, and motorist filled up and then decided not to pay, Fred and Rosemary West. The portrayal and although this problem was later rectified. It is now psychology of the serial killer has since become a possible for the whole transaction for petrol to be focus of popular culture; notable cinematic portrayals automated through payment by debit or credit card are Manhunter (Mann, 1986) and The Silence of the at the pump itself, completely removing all human Lambs (Demme, 1991) both based on the novels of contact from the transaction. Thomas Harris. Brett Easton Ellis’s controversial 488 set design novel American Psycho further explored the subjective practice naturally focuses on the output of dimension to the phenomena. comprehensive technical drawings, rather than the atmospheric, coloured and textured scale model so See also: police; violence central to a theatre designer’s language. GUY OSBORN Most theatre designers still elect to design both STEVE GREENFIELD settings and costumes to ensure a visually coherent whole for their productions. However, Ralph set design Koltai, John Napier (Starlight Express, Cats, Les Misérables, Miss Saigon) and William Dudley are Design jobs in the performing arts include theatre distinguished British theatre designers regularly designer, stage designer and, increasingly the confining themselves to set design. European term ‘scenographer’ (with sub-categories of set designer, costume designer, lighting designer Further reading and sound designer). Taken together, these describe a relatively unsettled and developing ‘profession’. Allen, K. and Shaw, P. (eds) (1994) Make Space!, The development of set design as a specialist Theatre Design Umbrella in association with theatre discipline in the UK (as distinct from the The Society of Theatre Designers (a copiously prevailing orthodoxy, established in the 1920s by illustrated catalogue of British theatre design the design group Motley, of theatre design (or stage between 1990 and 1994, including 135 design) where the designer’s responsibility is for designers’ biographies; each design is set and costumes), was probably precipitated by accompanied by a brief text describing the the impact of the theatre design work of the architect underpinning ideas). Sean Kenny in the 1960s (for example, Oliver (1960) DAVID BURROWS and Hamlet (1963), and by the influence throughout Europe of the innovative Czech designer Josef Svoboda, who first successfully incorporated slide Sex Discrimination Acts projection into set design. Kenny was trained as an architect (managing a successful architectural Most feminists have argued women’s position in practice throughout his career), conforming to the the labour market is a source of female historical model of set design established in England disadvantage. Functionalists have argued that by Inigo Jones in the seventeenth century. Svoboda women get paid less than men as they have less began as a carpenter’s apprentice. skill and labour market experience than men, due The number of specialist set designers has to the time women spend in households. Marxist increased concurrently with the rapid development feminists stress material and economic factors and of the technology of computer controlled stage capital-labour relations. However, it is liberal mechanics, lighting and sound. Research and feminists who have placed most emphasis upon the development of these technologies has been introduction of equal opportunities in the labour propelled and financed by the demands of market through new legislation. extravagant stage presentations of live pop music In 1970, the Equal Pay Act was passed, followed (for example, the Rolling Stones and Pink Floyd). in 1975 by the Sex Discrimination Act. This act Television and film design have always been barred discrimination on the grounds of sex in separated into the two disciplines of set and costume employment, education and the provision of goods, design, with costume designers generally being the services and premises. In employment, women were poor relations in a rigid hierarchy; witness the credits to be given equal access to jobs and equal chances for any television programme or feature film. Set for promotion as men. Some types of jobs however, design in these media, usually credited as production were excluded from the provisions of the Act, where design, has been dominated by practitioners often there was considered to be a genuine occupational trained as architects or interior designers, and whose qualification by sex. The act was broadened in S4C 489 scope in 1986. One of the reasons for these this political upheaval were Christine Keeler and legislative changes was the political pressure from Mandy Rice-Davies. In 1976 Jeremy Thorpe resigned women in trade unions. as Liberal leader, after weeks of Westminster gossip Whether the Sex Discrimination Act has had a about allegations of a homosexual relationship; the significant effect upon women’s employment levels following year, the story of the obsession of Joyce and position in the labour market, relative to that McKinney for a young Mormon missionary was the of men, is not immediately obvious. There was a leading story in the British press, and during the final slight closure of the wages gap between men and months of 1977 it was impossible to buy a newspaper women immediately after the act was implemented; or turn on the radio or television and not read or women’s wages as a percentage of men’s rose from hear about McKinney. She was granted bail and 63 percent in 1970 to 76 percent in 1977 (Equal escaped to America, dressed as a nun. Opportunities Commission). There was little In October 1983, Cecil Parkinson, chairman further increase until the early 1990s, when in 1993 and architect of the Conservative election victory the figure rose to 79 percent. Whether or not the in June, resigned from the Cabinet following decrease in the wages gap between men and women revelations of an affair with his secretary, Sara can be attributed to the legislation has been Keays. Unlike Macmillan with Profumo, Prime questioned. There continue to be considerable Minister Margaret Thatcher supported Parkinson differences between the average pay of men and and appointed him Trade and Industry Secretary, women, and men and women still continue to do thus demonstrating the vastly different attitude to different jobs. The legislation has also been issues of morality. Conservatives in the mid-1980s criticized for failing to address other problems were prepared to handle the Parkinson sex scandal, women face in paid employment, such as domestic through a renunciation of Miss Keays and the care of children, husbands and elderly relatives. saving of the marriage of the disgraced minister. Thus, the party which put the family first kept its See also: armed forces and discrimination; Race conscience clear. Unfortunately, when the news Relations Acts became public knowledge, Parkinson was unable to continue in government. The major scandal of the 1980s and 1990s Further reading involved members of the British royal family. The Equal Opportunities Commission (1994) Some Facts publication of Diana—Her True Story by Andrew About Women, based on New Earnings Survey Morton in 1992 ended a century and a half of Royal and Labour Force Survey, London: HMSO. reserve on personal matters, replacing it with indulgent exhibitionism. By 1993 the book had sold KALWANT BHOPAL nearly five million copies worldwide. sex scandals See also: monarchy In London on 2 November 1960, Lady Chatterley’s Further reading Lover, the long-banned novel by D.H.Lawrence, was cleared of a charge of obscenity by an Old Bailey Cassell, D. (1998) The Book of Modern Scandal—from jury. In many ways the trial pitted an old Britain Byron to the Present Day, London: Orion. against the new; it was not only a case of what was FATIMA FERNANDES considered literature but of the direction of national morality. In 1963 John Profumo, the Secretary of State for War, resigned after allegations of a sex scandal S4C involving ministers, prostitutes and Russian spies. The Profumo Affair was the biggest crisis in the Macmillan S4C (Sianel Pedwar Cymru, or Channel 4 Wales) is government; the two key protagonists responsible for a television station which has broadcast since 1982. 490 shoplifting

A Welsh-language channel, S4C was the direct result numerous US police raids. There is also an of political lobbying. The Welsh national party, Plaid increased reliance since the 1970s on violence or Cymru, had argued for such a medium to stimulate torture as part of police interrogations, especially and protect Welsh in the country. The argument in the Third World. These elements have effected found favour with the incoming Conservative Party the legitimization of criminal activity in the eyes of in 1979, though the Tories later backed down the the young and underprivileged, or in the case of following year and it took a hunger strike (by Plaid so-called champagne socialists, the overprivileged. Cymru’s leader Gwynfor Evans) and many In 1997 a vicar, the Rev. Papworth, attracted demonstrations to reconvince them. The station hostile attention in the press for suggesting that the broadcasts over twenty hours a week, primarily in poor should not be condemned for stealing from peak evening times. supermarkets. Six months later Jimmy McGovern, writer of the widely-praised television series Cracker, See also: Channel 4; nationalist parties; Welsh about a police psychologist, announced that language shoplifting was one of his habitual activities. Security in shops is more intense as open counters PETER CHILDS and counter assistants have been replaced by detectives, cameras and expensive alarm systems shoplifting set off by tags at electronic checkouts. No doubt shoplifting will continue until attitudes change, both ‘All property is theft’, Proudhon’s slogan of the from industrialists towards their customers and French Revolution, became popular in the late from young people towards society, which sanctions 1960s. Until then, shoplifting was largely seen as a a psychologically insidious and yet voracious children’s activity. Suddenly those owning shops materialism to be cultivated by the subtle water were designated enemies of ‘the people’, and it was torture of television advertising. a particularly bad time for bookshops in university towns. Even university libraries now need very See also: advertising, influence of costly security systems. This attitude to capitalism and private property is best illustrated by Jerry Further reading Rubin, leader of the Yippie movement (the paramilitary wing of the hippies) which arose after Hoffman, A. (1969) Woodstock Nation, New York: police rioted at the Democratic Party Convention Random House (seminal exposition of in Chicago in 1968. He wrote Steal This Book, on underground philosophy). the basis that all commercial operations are a form STEPHEN KERENSKY of theft. Most shops were then vulnerable to a bold approach, and what was known as liberating goods became a popular pastime for under-30s and has remained so. By 1972, gangs of mainly Australian shoplifters specialized in taking large items from big stores in London’s Oxford Street. A culture of making criminals into anti-heroes in the French existential tradition of Sartre and Camus evolved through a long series of American movies from Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid to Thelma and Louise or Reservoir Dogs in which shoplifting, bank robbery or murder are admired. This development has been assisted by police actions in which innocent parties have been jailed, as in various anti-IRA operations, or shot, as in shops 491 shopping, recreational where customers can sit and rest or eat and drink, and the increase in ‘luxury’ and ‘exotic’ foods in The term ‘recreational shopping’ refers to the supermarkets. The overall effect is that experience of shopping as a leisure activity, and supermarkets may become more like malls, and implies the satisfaction of personal and social as the concept of recreational shopping may be well as material needs. The rise of recreational extended to incorporate even the most mundane shopping is seen by some as a victory for capitalism, forms of consumption. whereby sophisticated marketing techniques have established a ‘culture of consumerism’ which will See also: electronic shopping; supermarkets and ensure its own reproduction. For others, however, malls recreational shopping is a characteristically postmodern phenomenon, in which the boundaries between work and leisure are blurred, and the Further reading locations for social interaction and ‘identity work’ Falk, P. and Campbell, C. (eds) (1997) The Shopping become fragmented and dispersed. Experience, London: Sage. Recreational shopping is seen to be most clearly demonstrated in the phenomenon of shopping LIZ MOOR malls, which combine leisure facilities such as PETER LUNT cinemas and restaurants with more conventional consumption outlets such as supermarkets and chain stores. In such spaces, shopping is rarely a shops purely functional experience; visitors drift from one shop to the next, browsing in many shops but often There have been many exciting innovations in shop only making small purchases, and interspersing design in recent decades, aided by the rise in their shopping activity with eating a meal or going designer fashions and consumer culture, especially to see a film. in the 1980s, and also by the fast turnaround in Recreational shopping is assumed by many to businesses as new shops come and go quickly. be more common among women than men. Falk Japanese style has been an enormous influence, and and Campbell (1997) suggest that women are more the use of natural materials, open spaces, light positive about a wider range of shopping activities effects and above all simplicity (polished floors, than men, and are more likely to cite shopping as glass and steel) has become a familiar feature of preferable to other leisure activities. Indeed they hundreds of clothes shops; early examples of this suggest that for women, shopping may have style were for Japanese clients in London, such as intrinsic recreational value, whereas men are likely Issey Miyake (by David Chipperfield and Ken to see it as comparable to work. It is important to Armstrong) and Yohji Yamamoto (by Munkenbeck add, however, that most people distinguish between and Marshall). Earlier styles were variously high- different kinds of shopping (such as food or non- tech, postmodernist (see postmodernism) or food), and that women in particular often draw a experiments in ‘creative salvage’, such as in the case distinction between ‘doing the shopping’ and ‘going of several of the shops in London’s Covent Garden. shopping’, seeing one as a chore and the other as Several of the best examples of architects akin to an outing. working to showcase fashion are the remaking of Retailers are increasingly keen to exploit the Harrods fashion floor by Jiricna Kerr in 1985, and concept of shopping as a recreational or leisure Foster Associates’ stark warehouse, complete with activity. Supermarkets in particular are attempting access by a steel bridge, for Katharine Hamnett. to find ways to make mundane grocery shopping Supermarkets have appeared in ever-increasing more attractive, thereby extending the length of numbers in the last two decades, and several have time that customers spend in stores; hence the been to experimental designs (though always within development of ‘food courts’ in supermarkets, corporate lines), such as Nicholas Grimshaw and 492 showjumping

Partners’ 1989 Sainsbury’s store in Camden Town gymkhanas, teams or individuals, whether male (Grimshaw has since moved on to designing a north or female, amateur or professional, compete on a London store for Homebase, the DIY arm of knockout basis, with later rounds often requiring Sainsbury). Malls have also become commonplace; fewer but more difficult jumps in a shorter time. one excellent example is the enormous Ealing Puissance competitions, which test to the limit Centre (1985) by the Building Design Partnership, a horse’s ability to negotiate high obstacles, are less which resembles a walled castle. popular in the UK than elsewhere. Showjumping also constitutes the final discipline in three-day See also: housing; office buildings eventing. This sport, which developed from exercises for gauging cavalry officers’ efficiency, is well described by its French name as a ‘complete Further reading test of horsemanship’. The first day is devoted to a Glancey, J. (1989) New British Architecture, London: ‘dressage’ competition that assesses the training of Thames & Hudson. horses and riders in a prescribed range of movements. A gruelling cross-country ride over a PETER CHILDS variety of obstacles, against the clock within strict time limits, occupies the second of the three days. showjumping Three-day events and showjumping competitions draw large crowds and are popular on television. From antiquity, horse owners have rarely been Enjoyment of the sport is enhanced by attractive able to resist the temptation to demonstrate their venues (such as Gatcombe Park and Hickstead), steed’s superiority in speed or agility and their the riders’ smart traditional turnout and the horses’ own prowess as riders or trainers. Vienna’s physical grace. Spanish Riding School, founded in 1572, is testimony to long-lived international traditions in See also: Grand National; horse racing horsemanship. Apart from horse racing, now largely (though not entirely) a professional sport, Further reading equestrianism attracts many amateurs, although a professional upper tier sets the standard. The Manual of Horsemanship (1993) Kenilworth: Pony Emerging at nineteenth-century shows designed Club. to foster general agricultural improvement, CHRISTOPHER SMITH showjumping had developed to something very like its present form by the time of the second Olympic Games at Paris in 1900 and the first Sikhism London International Horse Show seven years later. Showjumping courses, which are all basically A monotheistic religion originating from the similar, are designed to confront horses and riders Indian Punjab (annexed by the British) in the late with a variety of obstacles reflecting the challenges fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries by Nanak, that might be encountered in hunting or cross- a Hindu influenced by the Islamic Sufi teachings. country riding. Accordingly, some jumps resemble Nanak believed that both Hinduism and Islam a fence, gate or wall, while others involve expressed truths about God, sat nam (the ‘true negotiating a water-filled ditch or two or three name’). From Hinduism, Nanak took a belief in obstacles in rapid succession. Though primarily reincarnation, but he rejected caste, pilgrimages, a test of jumping, with points deducted (for idols and ritual prayers. Nanak appointed one of example, when a horse fails to clear an obstacle his followers to become guru of the Sikh cleanly or refuses to jump) penalties are also community on his death, instigating a line of ten imposed for exceeding a given time limit. At every developers who, among other things, collected level from international events to local pony club Sikh sacred scripture and built the Harmandir single parents 493

(Golden Temple) at Amritsar, which, ironically, trap’, whereby additional costs such as fares reduce has become a major pilgrimage centre. The last income to below the level of state benefits. Over Guru, Gobind Singh, created the Khalsa to allow 40 percent of lone mothers are in paid work, with followers to demonstrate their commitment to the about one million single-parent families relying on faith, including the distinctive five K marks of a Income Support. They are often portrayed in the full Sikh (sikhi means disciple). Sikhs have no tabloid press as scroungers, with, for example, girls particular holy day, but keep some festivals of getting pregnant to obtain council houses. Yet fewer Hindu origin, and celebrate Gurpurbs in honour than three percent are teenagers, and single parents of the ten gurus. There are 16 million Sikhs are usually offered smaller properties than two- worldwide; as it is not a proselytizing faith, nearly parent families, with mother and child often all of these descend from Punjabi migrants. Many required to share a bedroom. Sikhs came to Britain in the 1950s seeking The main disadvantages for children are employment (often in response to British parental absence, economic hardship and spousal entreaties) in the cities, and this was followed by conflict. Reports suggest that poor relationships another smaller wave in the early 1970s. In Britain, with parents (whether in one-or two-parent families) Sikh identity has been typified by the wearing of leads to lower self-esteem; more young people from a turban, for which many were discriminated lower conflict homes enter tertiary education. Thus against at work and school until legislation in the where stress is concerned, family life could have a 1970s outlawed such actions. more direct effect on health than either material factors or cultural influences. See also: Hinduism; Indian communities The National Council for One Parent Families (NCOPF) works for the prosperity and independence of single parents and challenges Further reading negative stereotypes about their children. This Nesbitt, E.M. (1988) ‘Sikhism’, in R.Zaehner (ed.), organization was set up in 1918 as The National Encyclopedia of Living Faiths, 4th edn, London: Council for the Unmarried Mother and Her Child, Hutchinson. to rescue them from starvation on the streets. In 1970, the support group Gingerbread was PETER CHILDS established when social services would not help Raga Woods unless her family had nowhere to go. single parents She named it after a café, The Golden House of Gingerbread, which had provided her with Single-parent families are also known as ‘lone- refreshments on the house. parent’ or ‘one-parent’ families. There are about Over 70 percent of divorces are initiated by 1.5 million such families in the UK. Approximately women, and one-parent families may be regarded one in five children live with one parent, of whom as one of the results of the women’s liberation 9 percent are fathers. Just over four in ten black movement. The increasing number of single-parent British families are headed by a single parent. families is a cause of much social anxiety. Over 60 percent of mothers have been separated, divorced or widowed. More than half See also: divorce law; marriage; social welfare have a weekly income under £150, compared with seven percent of two-parent families. Despite the Further reading Child Support Agency (CSA), only about one- third receive maintenance. Macaskill, H. (1993) From the Workhouse to the In 1988, the Labour government set up the New Workplace, London: NCOPF. Deal for Lone Parents, to encourage them to return CAROLE BALDOCK to work. Ninety percent want jobs, but are thwarted by lack of affordable childcare and the ‘benefits 494 Sinn Féin

Sinn Féin Féin has increased in the past decade both in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Ireland, and it continues ‘Sinn Féin’ (Gaelic for ‘Ourselves Alone’) was to be the only major political party to organize on founded in 1905 in pre-independence Ireland by both sides of the border. In the 1997 Irish general Arthur Griffith, as a revolutionary Irish nationalist election, Sinn Féin won its first seat, while in the 1997 movement. It was a small movement made up of British general election its two leading spokespersons, enthusiasts of the ‘Celtic Revival’ (Irish language Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness, were elected and cultural revivalists) and Irish nationalists as MPs, though they refused to take their seats. As a committed to the violent overthrow of British rule result of the IRA ceasefires of 1994 and 1997, Sinn in Ireland. However, it was not until the Easter Féin has been closely involved in the ‘peace process’ Rising in 1916 that it gained popular support as and multi-party talks which led to the ‘Good Friday the dominant political force of Irish nationalism. Agreement’ of 10 April 1998. In the recent elections In the Westminster parliamentary elections of to the new Northern Ireland Assembly in May 1998, 1918, Sinn Féin won the majority of Irish seats and Sinn Féin won 15 seats out of a total of 110, firmly refused to take them, opting instead to set up an establishing itself as the second nationalist party after independent Irish parliament (The Dáil). Following the moderate SDLP (Social Democratic and Labour the Irish War of Independence (1921–2) and the Party). partition of Ireland, Sinn Féin as the voice of revolutionary, violent Irish nationalism, became a See also: Ireland; Irish communities; Ulster minor party in Irish politics. However as a result of Unionists the eruption of the troubles in Northern Ireland in 1968, Sinn Féin became the political wing of the Further reading Provisional IRA, with the aim of achieving a united thirty-two-county Ireland by armed insurrection. The Coogan, T.P. (1980) The IRA, London: Fontana. ‘hunger strikes’ by jailed IRA members of 1980–1 Patterson, H. (1989) The Politics of Illusion: was a turning point in popular support for Sinn Féin Republicanism and Socialism in Modern Ireland, when it succeeded in getting one of the hunger strikers, London: Hutchinson Radius. Bobby Sands, elected as an MP. After ten hunger JOHN BARRY strikers died, the nationalist community’s distrust in and hostility towards the British government of Margaret Thatcher resulted in a rapid increase in situation comedy support for Sinn Féin both North and South of the border. Throughout the 1980s, Sinn Féin/IRA Situation comedies, or sitcoms, focus on a comic adopted a ‘ballot box and Armalite’ strategy to situation which is returned to by a small cast of advance their cause of Irish unity. While Sinn Féin actors in successive episodes. Much of the humour deny it is linked to the IRA, this denial has never in these shows derives from character, and ‘straight’ been convincing, and there is evidence that Sinn Féin actors appear in them more frequently than representatives have been IRA members and sit on comedians. Although there have been notable the latter’s Army Council. Indeed, while its democratic exceptions, such as On The Buses, Dad’s Army, Yes, mandate has increased in the past decade (in terms of Minister and its Whitehall location, or Fawlty Towers electoral support), its inclusion in the peace process with its seaside hotel setting, a domestic was premised on its link to the IRA and the latter’s environment has been the most common location declaration of ceasefires in 1994 and 1996. for the sitcom since shows of the 1960s like Steptoe The ‘political’ turn to Sinn Féin strategy was and Son. This characteristic has meant that sitcoms further strengthened in 1986 when at its annual often feature more female characters than many conference, it recognized the Irish parliament (Dáil) other television genres, and indeed from the 1970s for the first time. This led to some members leaving onwards numerous sitcoms have centred on and founding Republican Sinn Féin. Support for Sinn women, including The Liver Birds, Solo, Butterflies, ska 495

Girls on Top, Birds of a Feather and, most recently, ska Absolutely Fabulous. Making humour out of the domestic scenarios of sitcoms has equally made The first precursor of reggae, ska originated in them vehicles for ‘unusual’ domestic arrangements, Jamaica in the early 1960s. Its sound, which began in attempts to represent shifts in gender and family as a development of American rhythm and blues, relations. A Man About the House and The Good Life is characterized by a steady up-tempo rhythm, with were premised, respectively, on the ‘swinging’ and strongly accented off beats. Repeated tuneful ‘hippie’ reputation of the 1970s. Men Behaving Badly, basslines and insistent, catchy brass parts are also Home to Roost and Fresh Fields are more contemporary important, and the main melody is often carried examples of this theme. by an organ. Poverty and class differences have been a Ska quickly reached Britain, and its first peak common theme in sitcoms since the 1960s, in shows of popularity came as early as 1964, with Millie’s like To the Manor Born, Porridge and its sequel Going ‘My Boy Lollipop’ reaching number two in the Straight, Man About the House’s spin-off George and charts. This record was seen as something of a Mildred, Rab C.Nesbitt and Rising Damp. In contrast, novelty hit, however, and for the remainder of the issues of race and ethnicity have rarely been explicitly 1960s, ska in Britain remained the preserve of the a focus in British sitcom. Desmond’s and its spin-off West Indian community. Many of the records at Porkpie starred black actors, as did Love Thy Neighbour, this time were instrumental, save for wordless The Fosters, Empire Road and Tandoori Nights in the 1970s vocalizations which added to the general rhythmic and 1980s. Famously, Alf Garnett’s performance as feel of the songs, but several of those which did a bigot in ‘Til Death Do Us Part was intended to parody contain lyrics formed an important sub-group: racism but was open to misinterpretation. ‘rude’ songs, packed with sexual innuendo. A Comedy drama was one hybrid of the sitcom, classic example of this subgenre was Lloydie and which emerged in Britain from the 1970s, which the Lowbites’ ‘Birth Control’. Songs such as this incorporated straight dramatic acting. One such helped promote the concept of the ‘rude boy’, a series, about an idiosyncratic barrister, played by macho young follower of the ska sound. Leo McKern, was Rumpole of the Bailey. Auf Around 1969–70, ska found a new audience Wiedersehen, Pet is a more recently broadcast amongst the urban, white working class in the form example. The sitcom has also spawned parodies, of skinheads, who embraced it as their music of notably The Young Ones, which inserted four choice. It seems likely that the macho image of the ‘alternative’ comics into the domestic scenario of rude boys played a role in this adoption. Whatever the sitcom using special effects and visual jokes, the cause, however, the result was a resurgence in like the earlier show The Goodies. Blackadder might the popularity of ska, with artists such as the also be considered a programme that spoofs Upsetters and the Pioneers releasing singles that sitcom’s conventional situation, since its characters reached the charts, and Desmond Dekker’s return in various incarnations across the centuries ‘Israelites’ became the first ska record to reach to the same situations and relationships. number one (although by this time the sound was growing less urgent, and the change to reggae was See also: comedy on television; radio comedy underway). Ska was now recognized as more than a musical Further reading novelty, but with the growth of reggae it all but disappeared until a new generation of urban youth Crowther, B. and Pinfold, M. (1987) Bring Me rediscovered the sound around 1979–80. This latest Laughter: Four Decades of Television Comedy, resurgence of ska proved to be its most successful London: Columbus. to date. Groups such as the Specials, the Selector Neale S. and Krutnik, F. (1990) Popular Film and and Madness reached levels of popularity which Television Comedy, London: Routledge. far outstripped that of the acts which had influenced NICOLE MATTHEWS them. Central to this revival was the Coventry- 496 skinheads based record label Two-Tone. After this boom was developed their own music in the form of oi. By over, ska once again took a back seat to reggae the 1980s, skinheads had grown so far from their and dub, but its legacy as a groundbreaking force mod origins that they perceived the mod revivalists for West Indian music in Britain is assured. of the time to be their enemies, and promptly attacked them. Running gang fights between SIMON BOTTOM skinheads and mods occurred during bank holidays at seaside resorts such as Hastings. skinheads Although the skinhead movement has decreased in size since the early 1980s, it is still in existence The skinhead style is a direct descendant from the today. The rivalry between skinheads and mod mods of the early 1960s. In the early 1960s the revivalists appears to have lessened, and skinheads mod movement split in two ways. Some mods were are often seen at scooter rallies alongside mods. A attracted to the scene that became known as rift has developed between those skinheads who ‘swinging London’, and their dress became more are racist and have fascist sympathies, and non- outlandish and camp. Some of these mods also racist skinheads. The latter are often known as became involved in the psychedelic rock scene. SHARP skins; SHARP being an acronym for Many working-class mods, known as ‘hard mods’, Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice. These rejected what they saw as the effeminacy of the skinheads emphasize the Caribbean roots of the ‘art-school’ mods and became skinheads. skinhead movement. The majority of British These skinheads dressed in an aggressive style skinheads are either anti-fascist or apolitical, with based upon the clothing of the traditional British membership of SHARP far exceeding the working man, namely jeans, checked shirts, boots membership and votes for right-wing groups. Some and braces. The music favoured by this embryonic elements of the skinhead style have entered into skinhead movement was ska, reggae, bluebeat and the clothing vocabulary of British youth in general, soul. Some skinheads developed a style of clothing in particular the Dr Martens boot and brogue shoe, that was based upon Afro-Caribbean youth the Fred Perry t-shirt, and the Ben Sherman shirt styles, and wore sunglasses and wide brim hats. with buttoned-down collar. Towards the end of the 1960s, skinheads began STUART BORTHWICK to develop a fearsome reputation for violence, and were dubbed ‘bovver boys’ or ‘boot boys’ by the media. This name was derived from the skinhead Sloane Rangers tendency to wear Dr Martens boots, particularly those boots that extended to just below the knee A term invented by the style commentator Peter and had steel toecaps. York to describe a set of upper middle-class women Skinheads were often fanatical football fans, and based in moneyed areas of London such as Sloane this often led to fights between skinhead gangs and Square and who were daughters of colonels, rival football fans. This violence was seen to be admirals and gentleman farmers. Also described the traditional manner of solving disagreements, as the horsey set or the Headscarf Brigade, the and fitted into the skinheads’ peculiarly typical Sloane Ranger could be recognized by her conservative ethos, based around patriotism and safe, scrubbed appearance, traditionalist attitudes masculinity. Skinheads were opposed to the hippie and ritualistic behaviour, which were catalogued movement and to homosexuality, which often led in The Official Sloane Ranger Handbook in 1982. to groups of skinheads going ‘queer bashing’ and Dressed in a Hermes headscarf and pearls, the attacking hippies, or any group perceived to be typical Sloane Ranger supposedly worked at top either an easy target or willing to fight. auction houses, merchant banks or Bond Street As punk rock gathered steam, some skinheads galleries before entering into marriage, which was became involved in this movement. Towards the their real career. Princess Diana was seen as a end of the 1970s, in the wake of punk, skinheads successful example of the type. Smithson, Alison and Peter 497

See also: fashion (1980s) See also: actors (female)

CAROLINE COX ALICE E.SANGER small ads Smith, Paul Shopping, in a mass culture, is sometimes perceived b. 1946 as the only means of restoring identity, because it Fashion designer involves making choices. Responding to, or better, placing an advertisement in a newspaper is a better Paul Smith made his name by revamping classic form of ‘individuation’. Such ads (for cars, and traditional styles. He has a distinctive household goods or services) and are performed menswear fashion philosophy but no formal ‘parallel’ to regular shopping transactions. There design training. Now with over 200 outlets for are numerous freesheets plus Daltons Weekly, Loot his R Newbold label in Japan alone, Smith and Exchange & Mart, but small ads are also found opened his first shop in Nottingham in 1970 in most newspapers. In ‘lonely heart’ ads (for when he was unable to find the clothes he example, as in Private Eye), advertisers target wanted on the current market. He mainly potential partners as ‘tall, non-smoking, London worked in wool, tweed and fine cottons, based’ or ‘20s playmate sought by 1950s fashioning garments that appealed in the 1980s professional man’; these tend to be more romantic to both city gents and yuppies. He has been than, and lack the specificity of, American tirelessly copied by retailers such as Next, and abbreviations such as ‘dwf’ (divorced white female). he is responsible for reintroducing Filofaxes and boxer shorts in the accessories boom of the See also: car boot sales; mail order 1980s. In 1998, Smith launched his first women’s wear collection at the London MIKE STORRY Fashion Week; like the men’s suits, with which they have much in common, Smith’s new clothes were again characterized by external Smith, Maggie confidence and hidden luxury. b. 1934, Ilford PETER CHILDS Actress Maggie Smith is a film actress (though with a Smithson, Alison and Peter commitment to the theatre), who has offered a range of interesting performances in her diverse The Smithsons opened an office in London in 1950, screen appearances. A supporting role in the star- after graduating from the University of Durham. studded The VIPs (1963) established her screen The significance of their contribution to postwar potential, and in 1969 Smith won the Best Actress architecture resides both in their architecture and Oscar for her forceful portrayal of the deluded girls’ in their exposition of the theoretical principles of school teacher in The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. new brutalism. Both members of the Independent Smith’s distinctive balance of intensity and humour Group and of the radical Team X within CIAM, in her performances secured scene-stealing roles in they were supported by the critic Reyner Banham her later movies such as California Suite (1978) —for and other members of the ‘20th Century Group’ which she won a further Oscar—and Sister Act in London, in their united desire to convey the (1992), as well as British films A Private Function realities of modern urban life by means of a new (1984) and A Room With a View (1985). Her screen art. work beyond comedy includes The Lonely Passion of The years 1951–4 were crucial to the Judith Hearne (1988) and Richard III (1995). formulation of the sensibility of Brutalism, and 498 soap operas the Smithsons followed their early success with a soap operas sequence of highly original competition entries which, as Banham remarked, can only be seen as Soap operas were first developed by American attempts to invent a totally ‘other’ kind of detergent companies as radio promotional tools. architecture. The building which immediately Their lack of narrative closure and cliffhanger associated with this movement was the endings rewarded the sponsors with a devoted Hunstanton School in Norfolk (1949–54), audience eager for the next (advertisement invoking the elegant steel-frame vocabulary of interspersed) instalment. The modern soap opera Mies van der Rohe and reflecting his honest use still maintains the original structure of varied of materials and explicit display of structure. Their conflicts and resolutions amidst an indefinitely unbuilt design for a town house in Soho (1952) ongoing whole. Its most successful examples displays an oxymoronic confluence of utility and balance escapist fantasy with identifiable everyday luxury. Their design for the Sugden House, events timed at a rate that will maintain the interest Watford (1956) was described by Banham as being of its viewers. Daytime soaps are traditionally cosier ‘recognized by timid souls as a subtly subversive and slower in pace, while prime-time broadcasts building’, with its mixture of formality and basic are more action packed. utility. Their Golden Lane housing proposal for The first British soap, The Robinsons, appeared London (1952), a flatted development, drew on on the radio in 1942. It was devised for listeners of notions of identity and association which the BBC’s North American Service, but became developed out of their first hand knowledge of popular with British audiences as well. Bethnal Green. ‘Street decks’ were designed to Britain’s longest running soap opera, The Archers, foster social exchange and somehow to invoke and has been broadcast on Radio 4 since 1950. Its nurture the traditional working-class domestic nearest television equivalent in longevity, Coronation environment. Street, began in 1960. Unlike its grittier rivals Other significant buildings by the Smithsons Brookside and EastEnders, Coronation Street aims to be include the Economist Group of Buildings in more light-hearted and amusing. London (1962), whose spatial composition can be British soaps have centred on both working and located within the urban theories of ‘Team X’ and middle-class people. Their locations vary from also drew from their competition entry for the rural, urban and suburban environments of the Haupstadt district of Berlin. The design for St north and south of England, Scotland (Take the High Hilda’s College, Oxford (1970) differed Road) and Wales (the Welsh language Pobol y Cwm dramatically in its social and physical context from (People of the Valley)). Robin Hood Gardens housing estate in London In the 1970s and 1980s, glitzy American imports (1972). In designing the estate in two serpentine such as Dallas and Dynasty became popular in rows with corridor streets above ground level, they Britain. In comparison with their homely British posited an alternative to the slab block. By including counterparts, their storylines were distinctly more two-storey dwellings, they remained faithful to their fantastical. Australian daytime soaps have also commitment to a modern equivalent of the East drawn large audiences, particularly Neighbours and End environment. Home and Away. The habitual degradation of soaps, often See also: housing provoked by cheap production values, hastily devised scripts, ill-rehearsed acting and lowly women’s genre’ status, frequently induces viewer Further reading guilt. Although soap’s traditional targeting of McKean, John M., ‘The Smithsons: A Profile’, housewives often entails a stereotypical Building Design, May 1977. melodramatic treatment, it also offers its women viewers an unqualified range of well-developed HILARY GRAINGER female characters. social welfare 499

Soap opera increasingly invites multitudinous Later, the voluntary body the Charity viewing practices. From intense involvement to Organisation Society (COS) developed ‘social detached mockery, its audience comes to regard its work’ to enhance an individual’s efforts at regularity as an enjoyable habit. Sustained contact independence in difficult times, forestalling resort can provide a comforting sense of intimacy and to the poor law. The COS saw ‘social welfare’ as community that is not available from other its distinctive province. This reflected the close ties programmes. Soap operas have become valued with ‘idealist’ thinkers such as Helen and Bernard focal points for discussion and social interaction. Bosanquet, who saw charity as a channel of social By airing common (and normally considered development, since personal charitable work private) problems, they encourage their viewers to enhanced the character of both giver and recipient. voice their own opinions on these issues. The In their own attempts to meet urgent needs, impact of soap characters’ actions on those of voluntary organizations such as the Salvation viewers is also a recurrent issue in forums Army were less concerned about questions of concerned with media ethics. personal character. Social thinkers such as Herbert Spencer rejected any positive role for the state. See also: daytime television; drama on television Both the poor law and the COS saw poverty and unemployment as caused by personal failing Further reading rather than circumstances beyond an individual’s Kilborn, R. (1992) Television Soaps, London: B.T. ability to control. Around 1900, evidence mounted Batsford. that such circumstances were significant, particularly low pay at work. The poor law/COS KAY DICKINSON view of how to achieve social welfare famously collided with the ‘social causes’ view of need in the social welfare Royal Commission on the Poor Laws: two Reports were issued in 1909, reflecting the disagreement. ‘Social welfare’ is sometimes a synonym for welfare The Fabian socialists Beatrice and Sydney Webb, state, but here it is taken to refer to ideas about through Beatrice’s membership of the Royal what the objectives of a welfare state are and by Commission, argued in the minority report for the what mechanisms and processes they might best abolition of the poor law as embodying an be achieved. inappropriate understanding of social problems. The principle of less eligibility, classically Instead, the state should guarantee a ‘national expressed in the Poor Law Report of 1834, has minimum’ of civilized life in health and education shaped all subsequent discussion and its shadow through specialist services staffed by experts, with dogs contemporary social security provisions such unemployment tackled nationally. Neither model as income support. The principle declared that relief won the day: Lloyd George, learning from to the indigent should be given in such a form that Germany, introduced limited compulsory and the recipient’s condition was rendered ‘less eligible’ contributory insurance schemes for health and (i.e. less desirable) than that of the lowest-paid unemployment (with state funding as well) as a via independent labourer. This principle could be media, although a reduced poor law was retained. implemented if relief was made subject to entry to a Between the wars, the Webbs and others were workhouse, with concomitant loss of freedom. The influenced by Marxism, believing that capitalism principle was not officially discarded until 1948, was unstable and decaying, with social welfare only although it was enormously modified, even in the possible in a post-capitalist society. J.M.Keynes’s early practice of the ‘new poor law’ established in economic analysis suggested a centrally planned 1834. While the truly needy would receive economy was possible and desirable, with social assistance, the thrust of the principle was to give welfare provision being a vital component. every incentive to being in work; thus, it was In introducing the ‘welfare state’ in 1948, the believed, benefiting the wealth and welfare of all. government acknowledged that a market economy 500 sociology required the state to provide social welfare for all once again, and ‘workfare’ in America has been people on a comprehensive basis. R.M.Titmuss influential. Popular support for social welfare emerged as an influential analyst of social welfare services meant they were transformed, not in Essays on ‘the Welfare State’ (1958), Commitment to dismantled. Consumerism has to an extent been Welfare (1968) and The Gift Relationship (1971). encouraged in schools and in reform of the NHS Marrying idealism and socialism, he viewed social and social care which, in reducing the direct welfare as fostering equality, social integration and responsibilities of government and dividing the altruistic sentiments, but he criticized remaining purchasing and providing roles, has reduced the selective or means-tested benefits as stigmatizing power of professionals. Diversity in the NHS may and inefficient in reaching those eligible; services have helped, for example, aromatherapy and without a test of means (universal services) were alternative medicine generally. The achievements the ideal. Voluntary organizations and private of Thatcherism in social welfare are to have providers had inappropriate ‘social’ objectives. rehabilitated private markets and the voluntary Titmuss also argued that poverty and inequality sector as providers (particularly in social care) and were inadequately addressed by the welfare state, elevated consumer choice over social engineering and that social welfare services needed integration as an objective, at least in principle. with fiscal welfare (tax allowances) and occupational welfare (pensions from work). Further reading In criticizing social welfare services, the work of John Rawls on social justice and the idea of George, V. and Wilding, P. (1993) Ideology and Social citizenship and associated rights were explored (for Welfare, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester example R.A.Pinker, Social Theory and Social Policy, Wheatsheaf. 1971). Marxist criticisms too were voiced in the McCarthy, M. (ed.) (1989) The New Politics of Welfare, 1970s. However, interest in the voluntary sector’s London: Macmillan. potential contribution also developed (the JOHN OFFER Wolfenden report of 1978); and less bureaucracy, and more decentralization and participation was urged (see R.Hadley and S.Hatch, Social Welfare and sociology the Failure of the State, 1981). Populist, as opposed to socialist, meanings of social welfare were prominent Sociology sets out to ‘describe, understand and in Pinker’s The Idea of Welfare (1979). Informal ‘social explain’ (Abercrombie et al. 1986) the social world welfare’, welfare provided by neighbours, friends that we inhabit. Far from being a ‘new’ discipline, it and family, and its neglect by statutory and has its roots in the early nineteenth century, with voluntary social welfare services, became major Auguste Comte (1798–1857) first coining the phrase topics. Ideological glosses on such ideas contrary in 1824. By the 1880s, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) to ‘orthodox’ social welfare thinking came from the was teaching courses in sociology at the University New Right, including the Social Affairs Unit, the of Bordeaux; in Germany, Ferdinand Tonnies (1855– Institute of Economic Affairs and Roger Scruton. 1936) was writing Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1889) Social welfare has also been analysed from and Max Weber (1864–1920) was moving towards postmodernist and feminist viewpoints (see Gillian a historical sociology and a comparative analysis of Pascall, Social Policy: A New Feminist Analysis, 1997). capitalist societies. A serious attempt was being made New demands on social welfare services include by sociologists such as Weber, Durkheim, Georg tackling domestic violence, drug culture, single Simmel (1858– 1918) and Herbert Spencer (1820– parents and issues raised by environmentalism. 1895) to establish the parameters and concerns of Conservative governments since 1979 have sociology, as wide as social reality itself. been sceptical as to the role played by ‘social causes’ European sociology owes in part its theoretical or the class system in explaining poverty and heritage to the philosophy of Hegel and the work of illness. Personal responsibility has been emphasized Karl Marx. Marxism has informed a great deal of sociology 501 sociological theory and debate, focusing its The re-emergence of the women’s liberation perspective on the form and nature of capitalist movement in the 1970s brought a whole new area society, the relations of work and production, and of critique to sociology (although Friedrich Engel’s the structure and nature of class and power. In turn, The Origin of the Family (1884) had gone some way to post-Marxist sociology, best characterized by The addressing the oppressive nature of women’s position Frankfurt School (1923–50) and the works of Max in society). The tools established for looking at and Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno (1903–69) Herbert understanding the nature of power and the structures Marcuse (1898–1979) and Georg Lukács (1885– of human interaction proved valuable to early 1971) has provided a valuable critique of Marxist second-wave feminist attempts at creating a theory in the twentieth century. The postwar period theoretical and historical picture of patriarchy and has seen a renewed interest in the work of European male dominance. The subjective, everyday philosophers, such as Nietszche, Heidegger and experience of women came under scrutiny with such Foucault, sparking a debate within contemporary works as Ann Oakley’s The Sociology of Housework sociology about the future direction and nature of (1974), and Subject Women (1981) exploring the nature the discipline, whether towards a more empirical, and details of women’s lives within a theorised scientific base or a continuing expansion of the framework of patriarchy. There have developed theoretical/ideological tradition (see philosophy). three main branches of feminist sociological thought: Ultimately, the status of sociology as an independent radical feminism, more recently influenced by the practice in its own right has come into question. arguably ‘essentialist’ French feminism of Helene By way of contrast, in the 1950s, sociology in Cixous and Luce Irigaray, which seeks to reclaim America was dominated by the positivism of Talcott the body and name of woman and establish a Parsons (1902–79), a functionalist view of society woman-centred society with the radical overthrow which aimed at a synthesis of individual action and of patriarchy; Marxist feminism, which, as the name the larger social structures. This was essentially a suggests, aligns itself with Marxist and post-Marxist conservative movement which dissolved the critiques, viewing women’s oppression as essentially analysis of power and conflict that had based in the exploitative class nature of society and characterized sociological theory so far, and gave the means and relations of production; and liberal rise in reaction to a resurgence of ‘conflict theory’, feminism, grounded in the ideas of equal especially in Britain, in the 1960s and 1970s. opportunities and legislative reform. During the 1960s, sociology became firmly Most recently, some branches of sociology have established within British universities, but has shifted into debates around postmodernism (see continually come under attack for alleged political postmodernist theory); indeed, some sociologists leanings (generally to the left), and a failure to argue that sociology has been heralding the separate itself from philosophy or economics and postmodern era since the works of Georg Simmel establish a unified approach. On the contrary, the and his conceptualization of the fragmented self nature of sociology itself denies such an approach, within the fragmented society. The decline of and holds within its boundaries contrasting and industrialism and the encroachment of the post- competing views and theoretical standpoints. industrial society has been mapped since the 1960s Contemporary debates have centred on issues of (for example, D.Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial ideology, class and power, race and ethnicity, and Society, 1974). Postmodernism has attempted to gender; beginning from a largely structuralist formulate a poststructuralist idea (see post- standpoint, with analyses of the larger social structuralism) of a society no longer bound by structures such as the state and systems of the ‘grand ideologies’ such as Marxism or dominance and the public and private institutions Christianity, but a populist cultural free-for-all of education and family. This is epitomized by the where anything goes and no one system of thought works of such prominent British sociologists as holds sway. Sociology has responded by, on the A.H.Halsey (b. 1923) and Anthony Giddens (b. one hand, claiming its inherently postmodernist 1938). nature, its endemic plurality of content and 502 Soho viewpoint, and, on the other, restating the Soho remains one of the most distinctive areas of importance of an understanding of the structures London. of our society that continue, increasingly, to inform and control our lives. Feminist sociologists have See also: pornography; restaurants and bars; top- become particularly influenced by postmodern shelf magazines theories, finding renewed impetus in the seeming DAVID BELL vastness of cultural and personal/political space it has created, bringing to the forefront of contemporary debate the issues around sexuality, Solar School, Wallasey the body, individual identity and the shifting perplexities of power relations. The architect Elmslie Morgan used direct gain Sociology, therefore, continues to redress the passive solar heating in this building in 1961. The balance of its own agenda, responding to both entire southern facade is double glazed to collect economic and cultural pressures, and tensions from the solar energy falling upon it. Thick concrete within its ranks to questions about its nature and floors store the heat, good insulation reduces the future. Sociology is most often criticized for being rate of heat loss, and solar control blinds prevent contradictory and conflictual. However, the overheating. It was the first school in the United discipline aims to remain diverse and fluid, Kingdom to be solar heated. When energy costs providing a critical vehicle for the observation and escalated, its fuel bills were just half those of similar understanding of the society in which we live. conventionally heated schools. Its ideology stimulated the later more widespread construction See also: media and cultural studies of low energy-consuming buildings having a minimum environmental impact.

Further reading See also: environmentalism Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. and Turner, B. (1984) ROY WORMALD Dictionary of Sociology, London: Penguin. Giddens, A. (1982) Sociology: A Brief But Critical Introduction, London: Macmillan. soul SARAH CORBETT Although soul music has played an important role in British popular culture since the 1960s, its Soho impetus has always come mainly from America. Its contribution has been as a sound which has The Soho district in the West End of London influenced British music, despite rarely being occupies an almost mythological position in the produced in this country. capital’s geography. Most widely renowned today Early soul music developed as a combination of as the heart of London’s sex industry, it is also rhythm and blues, gospel and popular ballads. Its embedded in the showbusiness hub of the city, sound was made for dancing, with strong emphasis carries connotations of bohemia, has a thriving placed on the rhythmical elements of the music. By lesbian and gay scene, is ethnically diverse, and is the early 1960s it was beginning to be heard in Britain, home to much of Britain’s media, advertising and with bands such as the Rolling Stones drawing heavily PR business. By the nineteenth century, Soho had on the soul sound on their early records. developed a unique reputation within London as In the years that followed, soul came to be avant-garde, chic, cosmopolitan and multicultural, dominated by the ‘Motown sound’, strongly and this reputation remains in its iconography. With melodic songs, often written to a formula, with its slick offices, artists’ and actors’ drinking dens, performers having little or no artistic control. One ethnic restaurants, strip clubs and plush gay bars, offshoot of this sound was Northern Soul, a special interest magazines 503 particularly frenetic form of soul which became (32,306); Practical Woodworking (22,729); BBC popular in the north of England. Gardener’s World (314,759); What Hi Fi? (64,460); In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a political Motorcycle News (135,031); Autocar (73,921); Practical element developed in soul music with songs beginning Photography (64,680); Horse and Hound (68,738); Golf to comment on issues such as racial inequality and Monthly (72,629); The Face (71,007); and TV and poverty. At around the same time, funk grew out of Satellite Week (184,750). These magazines are usually the soul sound. Over the next few years the sound of arrayed along a single wall and displayed under soul changed dramatically, with songs becoming headings such as DIY, Gardening, Health, Home slower, more in a ballad style, and lush orchestration Computing, Photography, Sport, Pop Music, being introduced, particularly in the style known as Television and Satellite and so on. The profusion Philly (or Philadelphia) soul. Throughout the and variety are persuasive; people stand and browse remainder of the 1970s and the 1980s soul became before purchase. more and more commercial, becoming typified by Special interest magazines may be divided into slick production values and precise instrumentation those which are for a targeted range of trades or which robbed the music of much of its emotional professions (Accountancy Age, Campaign, The Grocer), appeal, although its popularity remained unaffected. those under the classification of general interest but In the 1990s, however, soul has been influenced which are mainly for the professional classes (The by hip hop (which had, in turn, drawn much of its Economist, Spectator, Investor’s Chronicle, Newsweek, Time), sound from earlier soul), and the resulting style, and the rest which are specialized in terms of their know as swingbeat (or simply swing) has brought sport or leisure interest (Shoot, Golf Monthly, PC Review). some passion back to the music. Swing is Because they are essential reading for characterized by fairly stripped down practitioners in their fields, many trade and instrumentation, strong melodies (often sung in professional magazines tend to be expensive and close harmony) and a seemingly endless lyrical are taken on subscription by, for example, interest in sex. architectural or law practices. News reports on Soul music has influenced many different styles television and radio are occasionally abstracted of popular music in Britain, from the bluesey soul from journals such as Nature or the Lancet, but by of bands such as the Spencer Davis Group in the and large this group of magazines is not read 1960s through to the pop soul of artists like outside its narrow milieu, although the cult Gabrielle and Eternal in the 1990s, and has proved television programme Have I Got News For You spoofs itself to be a lasting and versatile musical force. this type of magazine, by reading it out of context. General interest magazines are used by busy See also: blues; reggae professionals to replace rather than supplement television and radio news. Their content is topical, SIMON BOTTOM and they are designed to supply in shorthand form an informed briefing on current affairs, politics and business. SOUTH BANK see Martin, Leslie; Denys Lasdun The third category above contains the and Partners magazines read with most enthusiasm. Statistics on job satisfaction in Britain show a disgruntled special interest magazines workforce, who get along by focusing on their interests outside work. They fantasize about fishing A visit to any large newsagent’s in Britain (such as or model railways, and these magazines supply W.H.Smith or John Menzies) will show the amount them with a means of both following their hobby, of material available for Britain’s voracious reading and escaping from their work. public. The following magazines (with their circulations) give an indication of the range of See also: newsstands and newsagents; top-shelf interests of the population at large: Yachting Monthly magazines 504 Spence, Basil

Further reading Temple in Guyana. Freud’s remark was also pre- empted by 86 people, including British citizens, McCracken, E. (1993) Decoding Women’s Magazines: when they followed their leader David Koresh to From Mademoiselle to Ms, London: Macmillan. Waco, Texas and death by fire in 1993. In Britain, Ohmann, R. (1996) Selling Culture: Magazines, the Korean Sun Myung Moon found a willing Markets, and Class at the Turn of the Century, congregation for his Unification Church in British London: Verso. youth. MIKE STORRY The authority of leaders of the traditional religious institutions of the country was increasingly eroded by a general disenchantment with Spence, Basil establishment figures. The Nobel Laureate Mother Theresa of Calcutta became a spiritual icon, but b. 1907, Bombay (India) her position was put in doubt when she was dubbed ‘Hell’s Angel’ by a television documentary which Sir Basil Spence studied architecture in Edinburgh questioned her association with dictators. During and London, working under Edward Lutyens and the 1990s, Roman Catholic clergy fell from grace Rowland Anderson, before forming a partnership as news of their sexual indiscretions appeared in with Partner and Kinnenmouth in Edinburgh. the press. The Church of England alienated sections Moving to London, Sir Basil Spence and Partners of society with its stance on homosexuality and established their reputation with the Sea and Ships the opposition of a number of its leaders to the Pavilion at the Festival of Britain in 1951. Best ordination of women. Evangelical Christianity known for the controversial rebuilding of Coventry found favour with many people; hundreds flocked Cathedral (1954–62), won in competition in 1950, to hear preachers such as Billy Graham speak. his subsequent highly successful practice centred ‘New age’ mysticism brought with it spiritual around housing and university buildings, including leaders from other cultures and disciplines with its Edinburgh, Southampton, Nottingham, Liverpool fusion of spirituality and personal growth. Perhaps and Sussex. His later work, such as the British the New Age godfather was the psychologist C.G. Embassy in Rome (1971), the Knightsbridge Jung. His teachings appealed to the society of the Barracks (1970) and government offices in Petty 1960s, for whom the pursuit of religious experience France, London, all modern and employing had become fashionable. His use of the mandala concrete, always resonated monumentality. image, used in Eastern meditation techniques, found a popular appeal amongst a population See also: university building becoming familiar with gurus such as the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. It was the mix of Western psychology HILARY GRAINGER and Eastern mysticism which brought to prominence the Indian mystic Osho Rajneesh, with spiritual leaders centres devoted to his teachings established in most countries. The universally respected leader of In a secular age, the role of spiritual leaders has Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lama, also acquired changed and adapted to meet the needs of an a large following amongst a wide section of British increasingly individualistic society. In the 1890s, society. It seems today that East has overtaken West Freud remarked that the only thing one could be in spiritual leadership. sure of about the next century is that one would die in it. The end of a century has traditionally See also: evangelism brought with it a dread of Armageddon; perhaps JAN EVANS the approaching end of a millennium spawned such cults as those led by Jim Jones, who persuaded 900 people to commit collective suicide at the People’s sport on television 505 sport, racism in wrong and how they made later success all the sweeter. Sport in Britain has long suffered from racism, and The situation is improving, and when a head- despite progress over the last few decades, it bandaged Paul Ince defiantly led the English remains tainted by the problem in the 1990s. The football team to victory in the run-up to the 1998 most obvious racism has appeared in football, partly World Cup finals, he became an icon of as it is the sport most covered by the media. Apart Englishness. However, much work remains to be from the casual abuse, football has also been done and many people are still unconvinced that a targeted by hard-core fascist groups, such as the minority background is no impediment to a National Front and Combat-18. The history of successful sporting career. football in the 1970s and 1980s is littered with spectator abuse of players and other fans in this See also: black sportsmen and women fashion. Players were abused on the pitch by opponents and even by team-mates. Further reading Black supporters were obviously put off attending football matches by such behaviour, but Jamie, G. (1991) Sport, Racism and Ethnicity, London: in the 1990s research has shifted from the Afro- Falmer. Caribbean population to Asian fans, who are clearly SAM JOHNSTONE interested in football but very rarely attend matches. The Criminal Justice Act of 1996 (though poorly framed) offers some protection from racist chanting, sport on television and anti-racist campaigns by sports fans are spreading rapidly across football. From slow beginnings in the 1950s, sport has Other sports have suffered too; rugby league become crucial to all television stations, costs and cricket have seen spectator abuse of minority millions of pounds and can attract huge ratings. players and confrontations between sets of fans. The 1950s saw the BBC establish a format for sport Test matches between England, India and Pakistan that has endured. Wednesday evenings, Saturday have seen fans squaring up to each other for this afternoons and evenings became the norm, with reason. Even in the mid-1990s it remained possible programmes like TV Sport Magazine (later Sportsnight) for a journalist to publicly question black players’ and Sports Special aimed at the dedicated fan loyalty to the England test cricket team, on the basis (assumed to be male). The flagship, Grandstand, of their background. began in 1958 and covered a range of sports linked Racism also operates institutionally: black by a personality presenter. Once ITV came into people might successfully perform in most sports, existence, it responded with World of Sport, but it but they have yet to take the next step and become often suffered both from having to show more administrators and managers. There have been minority sports and from comparisons with the very few black Football League managers, and BBC. virtually no black administrators; some club By the 1970s and 1980s the competition for chairmen still hold highly suspect views. For British rights was becoming increasingly fraught, with Asians there is the bigger problem of becoming accusations of bad faith in 1978 over the sale of competitors at all. Too many coaches in a number rights to league football for instance, while the of sports hold racist assumptions: research by Jas economic pressures on the BBC saw commercial Bains in 1996 found that many football officials television snap up numerous events. Increasingly, thought Asian players’ religion and language would however, the significance of television to a number cause problems, and many felt the Asian physique of sports could be seen, particularly in tournaments was not strong enough for the game. The first Asian invented solely for coverage, such as the football rugby league player to play for England, Ikram Screen Sport Cup, and new tournaments in Butt, noted how such assumptions were simply athletics, tennis and many smaller sports. The 506 sports stadia

1990s saw the rise of BSkyB and the globalization football grounds have been completely redesigned, of television sport, with Channel 4 showing Italian with Blackburn Rovers rebuilding all four sides of football, Gaelic football, kabbadi, sumo, gridiron Ewood Park, Manchester United making Old and Australian rules football. Trafford a 55,000 all-seater venue and Liverpool Television sport portrays itself as apolitical, but demolishing their world famous Kop terrace. Other many theorists have shown how politicized it actually clubs relocated rather than redevelop existing is. The vast majority is male sport; women rarely facilities, like Northampton Town, Middlesbrough, get shown, and when they do, the coverage reinforces Millwall, and Huddersfield, while Newcastle, concepts of femininity and elegance, while women Sunderland, Bolton and Southampton all intend spectators are usually categorized as casual viewers moving before the year 2000. more interested in the personalities than the game. These events also highlighted the state of the Football, rugby and cricket coverage has also been ‘national stadium’, Wembley. Used for football, shown to pander to dubious concepts of racial and rugby league and pop concerts, it has long needed national identity. Equally, when it suits the national substantial work, and this coincided with the plan interest, broadcasters forget that they are apolitical, to build another national stadium. Financed by the as at the 1980 Moscow Olympics. Usually, overtly National Lottery and supervised by the Sports political messages are ignored, as when black Council, this new venue will host both domestic footballer Paul Ince was racially abused by West sports and international events (bids for the Ham fans in 1995. BBC commentary on the game Olympics, World Cup or Commonwealth Games simply redefined this as abuse towards an ex-player. need new facilities to stand any chance of success). Sports authorities have recognized that millions Manchester was expected to get the vote over of pounds are available from television coverage, Wembley (Birmingham, Bradford and Sheffield also directly and indirectly, so getting coverage has bid), but Wembley ultimately won the backing of become the top priority, while television concedes the Football Association and so is almost sure to win, sport is the best way of securing ratings. after announcing reconstruction plans costing £120m. This involves turning the stadium round, See also: sport, racism in; women in sport installing undulating seats (to create ‘Mexican waves’ without spectators having to stand up), placing video screens on the armrests of most of the seats, and Further reading building retractable seats over the track to give both Whannel, G. (1992) Fields in Vision, London: football and athletics fans a better view. Routledge. Football has seen most of this redevelopment, but cricket and rugby have been affected too. SAM JOHNSTONE Hampshire County Cricket Club will move to a new site around 2000, and Lord’s, home of English sports stadia cricket, recently built an impressive new structure, the Mound Stand. The most successful British The design and location of sports stadia has been rugby league side, Wigan, hope to share a site with an active political, sporting and planning issue in local football club Wigan Athletic, while new stadia Britain since the late 1980s, since when the are planned by a number of rugby union clubs near landscape of stadia has changed beyond all London. recognition. The catalyst was the Hillsborough The idea of sharing is also increasingly disaster of April 1989, in which ninety-six Liverpool common, though not as Taylor envisaged: he football fans died. Following Lord Justice Taylor’s wanted rival clubs to start sharing a new site, but Reports into Hillsborough in 1990, the government that has not happened. Instead, sharing a stadium banned terraces at football in the top two English between sports became a cheap alternative to divisions, starting a process of redevelopment that building a new ground: Wasps rugby club was continues today across a range of sports. Many bought by the owner of QPR football club in 1996 sportswear 507 and now share QPR’s ground, while when uncleared litter beneath a wooden stand was Huddersfield’s award-winning Kirklees stadium accidentally set alight, causing an inferno that killed also features rugby league (and hosts pop concerts fifty-six people. to pay for itself). Both football and rugby union But whether all the changes that followed Taylor are played at Bristol rugby club and at Cardiff Arms were actually necessary is debatable, and the report Park, while Murrayfield in Edinburgh is used for has clearly been used by many clubs to charge more rugby union and American football. for admission, increasingly affecting who can afford There was never much chance of local rivals to attend sports and how regularly. Certainly much sharing a ground, since each stadium carries too of the old individuality of stadia has gone, replaced much emotional importance for fans: the directors by uniform and unimaginative designs (with of Liverpool might have been happy to discuss notable exceptions, like Huddersfield). Some of the sharing a proposed £50m ground near Aintree with cultural aspects of all-seater stadia are undoubtedly local rivals Everton, but the two sets of fans opposed negative, with much of the interaction between fans the plan. This hostility often also extended to the and their sports increasingly lost, and the element concept of all-seater stadia, which has caused higher of participation reduced. Nonetheless, stadia remain prices and a loss of atmosphere at football matches. a significant issue in British sport, and the changes While most commentators praise the new are not over yet, for better or worse. stadia, there has of course been a price to pay: redevelopment at football alone has cost around Further reading £500m, and the need to rebuild stadia jeopardized the existence of some clubs. The future of Brighton Inglis, S. (1996) The Football Grounds of Britain, football club, for one, will hang in the balance until London: CollinsWillow. they can get permission for a new ground, which Taylor, Lord Justice (1990) Final Report into the appears some way off (the issue led to Brighton Hillsborough Stadium Disaster 15th April 1989, fans invading the pitch during home games in London: HMSO. 1996). Inevitably, obtaining planning permission REX NASH has proved hard, since clubs often wanted to move to green belt sites. Financial and planning help from local authorities has been slow in coming, and has sportswear been ultimately limited in most cases. British stadia are now seen as amongst the safest An interesting commercial phenomenon of recent in Europe; to host world and European years is the way in which clothing apparel has competitions regularly, new facilities were required, copied sportswear. Hitherto, the wearing of and it is even thought that the improved stadia in tracksuits or jogging suits was confined to those British sport in the 1990s are helping attract more practising sports. However partly because of the female and black people to grounds. Certainly the higher profile accorded to athletes and sports people concrete fenced boxes common from the 1960s to via television, consumers began themselves to buy the 1980s needed redesign: in those decades, the sports clothes for leisure wear. Research and political and public emphasis was on controlling investment by shoe companies, particularly Nike the fans, with the police, the State, the football and Adidas, undoubtedly improved the quality of authorities and the clubs locked into a mindset that athletes’ footwear and introduced the running shoe saw all supporters as hooligans. This led to the or ‘trainer’. The companies used various new construction of the perimeter fences and pens in materials and technology to, for example, correct the mid-1960s that proved so lethal at Hillsborough. pronation and supination and to protect joints. Most clubs were not very interested in providing They also pruned their production costs by building safe facilities, and standards were often neglected. factories in Asia and spent fortunes on sponsorship The 1985 Bradford disaster showed how failures and advertising. As these shoes were both to address basic safety issues could prove fatal, lightweight and comfortable, they became popular 508 sprinters with consumers in general. This has meant that Los Angeles and other locations. However, between the sale of conventional leather shoes has declined, 1987 and 1993 British sprinting did very well. as that of sports shoes has risen. During these years Britain’s 100 metre hopes Sports clothing tends to be bought more by were pinned on Linford Christie. He won silver young males (47.8 percent); however, 27.9 percent medals at the 1988 Olympics, gold at the 1992 of all adults bought trainers and 17.7 percent bought Olympics; and, in 1993, he won the world track suits in 1994. Even in the age group 55–64, championship. His British 100 metre record of 9.87 14.1 percent bought tracksuits (cloned briefly as seconds (at Stuttgart in 1993) is only just outside ‘shell suits’). A feature of Britain’s supermarkets is the world record held by Donovan Bailey of the number of overweight people in trainers and Canada. Christie captained the British Athletics jogging suits pushing shopping trolleys around the team from 1992 onwards and led the team to gain store as quickly as they can so they can get outside twenty-three major championship medals. for a cigarette. Disqualification at the Atlanta Olympics and Formerly British clothes were discreet in terms withdrawal from the World Championships in of colours and attribution (a small label inside the Gothenburg (1996) with a hamstring injury marked collar at the rear). Clothes with logos displayed on his decline. the breast pocket of, shirts and pullovers then Among the best known women sprinters is Sally became popular. These included those of Fred Gunnell. She won the 100 metres at Zurich in 1988 Perry (tennis), Pringle (golf), Ron Hill (running). with a time of 12.82, and the 400 metre hurdles at A striking feature of the high street now is that much Stuttgart in 1993 in a time of 52.74. She won a of the clothing that people wear is bright and has gold medal in the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games. got large writing on it. That applies to general Both Linford Christie and Sally Gunnell designer-wear such as Tommy Hilfiger or Helly announced their retirements at the 1997 Athens Hansen, but this trend has come from sportswear Olympics and in June 1998, having both previously where purchasers are practically walking been awarded MBEs, they were also awarded advertising hoardings for: Nike, Umbro, Adidas, OBEs for their services to athletics. It is generally Asics, Fila and so on. The baseball cap is also felt that they represent a ‘golden age’ of sprinting becoming as universal in Britain as it is in the USA, which will be very hard to recreate. though the influence here is partly sport, partly Some, including Malcolm Arnold, Britain’s chief homage to America. coach, insist that things will not improve until the arrival of the £2.6m (of the £4.3m bid for) See also: fashions, youth; military clothing; rap promised through the National Lottery to set up a national coaching and athletes’ services scheme. However there are some optimistic straws in the Further reading wind. Through the ex-hurdler and multi-millionaire Hebdidge, D. (1979) Subculture: The Meaning of Style, Alan Pascoe, Nivea in 1998 offered £100,000 London: Routledge (seminal text about the annual sponsorship for three years. This covers a signification of clothes and youth cultural series of three races for 100 metres runners (the practices). British Sprint Challenge). It takes place at Bedford, Gateshead and Sheffield. The final carries £25,000 MIKE STORRY in prize money, including £10,000 for the winner. There are also hopes for the future in the sprinters performances of, among others, heptathlon athlete Denise Lewis, Allison Curbishley and Dwain Sprinting—from 100 to 400 metres—is a chequered Chambers, who holds the world 100 metres junior section of British athletics. Lack of money for record. Roger Black, Mark Richardson, Jamie training and facilities in Britain is contrasted with Baulch and Iwan Thomas formed the relay quartet the USA, where there are specialist programmes in who won silver medals behind the Americans at St Ives 509 the world championships, although Black has since This building, in an urban setting, shows the full retired. range of Stirling’s ability to re-invent a traditional building type, melding a collection of eclectic See also: long-distance runners; marathons; elements into a harmonious whole. Stirling’s middle-distance runners ‘Turner Museum’ extension to the Tate Gallery, London in 1980 continues the playful eclectic MIKE STORRY approach to composition, subtly complementing the existing Gallery and its surroundings (see Stirling, James Tate(s)). Stirling’s work attracted further controversy b. 1926, Glasgow; d. 1992, London with his design for low-cost housing at Southgate, Runcorn New Town (1967–77). Houses were Architect grouped to form blocks around landscaped open James Stirling, internationally recognized and spaces, emulating the scale of the English Georgian awarded many design commissions abroad, was square. The project was greatly admired in the arguably the leading British architect of his architectural press, but the tenants were not so generation. Born in Glasgow, he moved with his happy. Unfortunately, the combination of deck family to Liverpool at an early age. After serving access planning and low-income families with social in the army during the Second World War, he problems led to insoluble management problems. studied architecture at Liverpool University. The scheme was eventually demolished and On graduation, he worked in the office of replaced by more conventional low-rise housing, Lyons, Israel and Ellis, Architects in London, from as preferred by the tenants. 1953–56. In 1956 Stirling teamed up with James Stirling’s later work was marked by the Gowan to form the Stirling & Gowan Partnership. incorporation of robust forms and shapes derived Notable early buildings were blocks of flats at Ham from traditional building. His work was thereby Common and various small-scale housing projects. rendered more accessible to the lay public. In 1980, The reputation of the practice was established with Stirling was awarded the RIBA’s Royal Gold the design of the Leicester University Engineering Medal for Architecture, and in 1981 he received Building (1959–63). This building utilized an the Pritzker Architecture Prize. He was also uncompromising industrial aesthetic, with the knighted for his services to architecture. various functions of the programme split up and separately expressed. See also: modernism; new brutalism; Smithson, During these years, Stirling evolved a style Alison and Peter heavily indebted to Le Corbusier, but incorporating elements inspired by the northern industrial Further reading aesthetic of the nineteenth century. The Stirling Gowan Partnership was dissolved in 1963. In 1971, Arnell, P. and Bickford, E. (1993) James Buildings Stirling took into partnership Michael Wilford, a and Projects, London: Rizzoli International former assistant, and the practice continued under Publications (Whitaker UK). the title of James Stirling, Michael Wilford and JIM HUNTER Associates. Stirling’s work first attracted controversy with his design for the History Faculty, Cambridge, 1967. The building’s users were soon complaining about St Ives roof leaks and excessive solar heat gain through When the Tate Gallery opened in St Ives, Cornwall, the dramatically ‘cascading’ glass roof. In 1977, in 1993, it focused attention on the important role Stirling designed the Staatsgalerie and Workshop that the area had played in the development of Theatre in Stuttgart, possibly his best-known work. modern art in Britain during the twentieth century, 510 St Ives as well as renewing interest in the artistic discovery of Alfred Wallis by Ben Nicholson and community which still flourishes there. The Christopher Wood in 1928, which had far-reaching architects Eldred Evans and David Shalev were the effects on the direction that abstract art took in winners of a nationwide competition to design the Britain. Impressed by Wallis’s naive renditions of new gallery, which is situated on the site of the old the town as he perceived it, the artists felt that this gas works, and the cylindrical loggia at the entrance retired sailor had captured much in his ‘crude’ style of the building recalls the shape of the gas holder that they were also striving for, namely a sense of which once stood in its place. This is juxtaposed artistic simplicity which was formed by personal with the rectangular form which comprises the experience and freed from the adherence to accepted main body of the gallery, and is reminiscent of pictorial devices, such as perspective. However, it other, earlier buildings which existed in the was not until the start of the Second World War in Porthmeor area. The building, while being in a 1939 that Nicholson, along with his second wife modernist style, manages to suggest a sense of Barbara Hepworth, and the Russian artist, Naum continuity with the location and its past, something Gabo, moved to the area from London. Nicholson’s which can also be said of the art which helped to paintings, and Hepworth’s sculptures showed their establish the area’s reputation. interest in abstract forms which were derived from Evans and Shalev wanted the progression through the local landscape. the interior of the building to reflect something of the In 1948, the Penwith Society of Artists was experience of visiting the town itself. The various formed in opposition to the more traditional work gallery spaces, and the way in which natural light is which was being exhibited by the St Ives Society used within them, is reminiscent of a walk around St of Artists. Members included Peter Lanyon, Ives, particularly the Downalong area in which the Wilhelmina Barns-Graham and Bryan Wynter building is situated, with its small, narrow back streets alongside the influential figures of Nicholson and which open unexpectedly into larger, brighter areas, Hepworth. It is the work of these artists, and that with a glimpse of the sea never far away. Many of the of others including Terry Frost, Denis Mitchell and artists whose work is displayed in the Tate lived and John Wells, that the Tate gallery in St Ives features worked in the immediate area; Ben Nicholson, for in its exhibition programme. Patrick Heron, one example, had a studio in close proximity to where of the original members of the Penwith Society, the gallery now stands, and the gallery’s roof is clearly also designed one of the building’s main features, visible from the cottage which was once occupied by a large, abstract stained glass window, which Alfred Wallis. The paintings and sculptures which illustrates his interest in colour and light. The work are exhibited can be seen in direct relation to the of the potter Bernard Leach, who settled in the area environment in which they were executed. This is in the 1920s, is also well represented in the gallery. particularly apparent in the upper and lower terraces While the Tate provides something of a focal of Gallery Two, where there is an impressive view on point for art produced in, or inspired by, the to Porthmeor Beach through a large, concave window coastline of west Cornwall, other artistic activities which runs along the length of the gallery. The works which take place outside of the gallery form an which are displayed here can be appreciated in direct important part of its programme. In 1993 Air, Land relation to the natural landscape which inspired them, & Sea, the first project with which the gallery was while the high quality of light which attracted artists involved, was based upon the work of Peter to the West coast of Cornwall is used as natural Lanyon. In this joint venture with the Newlyn art lighting for the exhibits. gallery, children from local schools examined the Changing its displays annually, the gallery shows way in which Lanyon’s abstract paintings were the work of those artists who helped to establish St inspired by his feelings for the Cornish landscape, Ives as a place of international, artistic importance. and they were encouraged to produce work which While artists had been drawn to the area, and nearby captured their reactions to, and perceptions of, the Newlyn, during the nineteenth century, and a St Ives local environment. In 1997, St Ives International, a Art Club had been established in 1888, it was the group whose main objective was to manage Strawson, Peter Frederick 511 collaborative arts initiatives in Cornwall, was support of feminist revisions of history. For formed. Their first project, A Quality of Light, example, he argues that in the nineteenth century involved fourteen contemporary artists from Britain a married woman ‘was the nearest approximation and abroad, and took the area’s distinctive quality in free society to a slave’. Her husband ‘could use of light as the theme for a variety of works. These her sexually as and when he wished, and beat her included pieces which were exhibited in the St Ives (within reason) or confine her for disobedience to Tate Gallery and a number of other venues in the any orders’. His work shows how from the town, including the parish church and the Hardwicke Marriage Act (1753) onwards, the law fisherman’s chapel, as well as using one of the aimed to regulate the passage of property and guard historic artist’s studios. The work ranged from against ‘spurious issue’, men’s perennial fear that paintings to installations and video. The artists also their sons and heirs are not their own. He refuses exhibited throughout the region of west Cornwall, to join in the lament for the decline of the family, including the railway station at Penzance, the partly because he sees divorce as simply replacing Geevor Tin Mine at Pendeen and Land’s End. earlier deaths. While interest in the area seemed to fade with Hepworth’s death in 1975, St Ives has continued See also: history to have an established artistic community, and the PETER CHILDS opening of the Tate Gallery has helped to re- establish the area as a centre of international artistic importance. Strawson, Peter Frederick See also: painting; Tate(s) b. 1919, London Philosopher Further reading Peter Frederick Strawson is a major philosopher, Cross, T. (1984) Painting the Warmth of the Sun: St who has taught at Oxford since 1948. He became Ives Artists 1939–1975, Penzance: Alison Hodge. Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy Tooby, M. (1993) Tate St Ives, London: Tate Gallery in 1968. Strawson has published numerous articles Publications. and books principally in the areas of metaphysics, logic, epistemology and freedom. LUCINDA TOWLER His broad approach has been to suggest that certain traits in ‘ordinary language’ provide better ways of understanding phenomena than those Stone, Lawrence offered by formal philosophical logic. Early b. 1919, Epsom criticism of Russell’s theory of ‘descriptions’ through this approach led to his ‘solution’ of the Historian mind-body problem in Individuals: An Essay in Lawrence Stone is the foremost contemporary Descriptive Metaphysics. The ‘descriptive’ rather than British historian of the family and society in the ‘speculative’ metaphysics which he developed in early modern period. Now an American professor this work led him to later reappraise Kant’s of history, Stone went to school at Charterhouse, epistemology in The Bounds of Sense. More recently, and then studied at the Sorbonne and Christ he has argued against scepticism and reductive Church, Oxford. His publications include Social naturalism and has published an introduction to Change and Revolution in England, 1540–1642 (1965), philosophy, Analysis and Metaphysics, that attempts The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500–1800 to understand philosophy as an analysis of the (1977), The Past and Present (1981), and Broken Lines: relation between concepts. Peter Strawson can fairly Separation and Divorce in England 1660–1857 (1993). be regarded as one of the most technically Stone is a historian whose work has been cited in sophisticated imaginative and inspiring 512 Street-Porter, Janet philosophers of his time. His work combines a high social policies that were pursued created a large degree of technical analysis with an imaginative swathe of people who might broadly be deemed to grasp of the wider issues involved; an unusual if constitute part of an economic underclass. Such not unparalleled gift, leading to an unusual if not economic and social policies led to an increase in unparalleled contribution to that combination of the emergence of street begging and homelessness technical rigour and wide imagination so necessary on the part of the dispossessed and disenfranchised. to a rapidly shifting philosophical outlook. While begging on the streets had always been a feature of city life and in particular the daily life of See also: philosophy London (which has always attracted itinerant groups seeking work) the ‘problem’ became so great in the PAUL BARRY CLARKE late 1980s that John Bird launched a publishing LAWRENCE QUILL venture, The Big Issue, in 1991 to give homeless people the opportunity to make a fresh start. The Street-Porter, Janet Big Issue is a magazine sold directly on the street by badged vendors who are generally homeless or b. 1946 vulnerably accommodated; they buy the magazine Television producer and executive for 40p and sell it on for £1. In addition The Big Issue ‘campaigns on behalf of homeless people and Janet Street-Porter was educated at Lady Margaret highlights the major social issues of the day. It allows Grammar School, Fulham, and the Architectural homeless people to voice their views and opinions’. Association. After journalism on Petticoat and the Busking in many ways is a cultural art form, and Evening Standard, she emerged in the 1980s, as both there is a long history of buskers in major city centres; presenter and executive, as one of the most prominent the move towards pedestrianized areas within cities women in British television. Tall, bespectacled and and towns has provided further opportunities for strikingly dressed, with prominent teeth and street entertainers to ply their trade. For example, uninhibited Estuary English, she revels in stirring the paved area within Covent Garden attracts a controversy by forthrightness. Nine years at the BBC variety of street entertainers and the wider area ended with acrimony; in her 1995 Edinburgh Festival features numerous buskers and other performers. lecture she described the Corporation as male, middle- Buskers may fall foul of both the civil and criminal class, middle-aged and mediocre. Winner of a BAFTA law, although local authorities may operate a scheme originality award (1988) and the Prix Italia (1993), of licensing. One problem area is the London and a Fellow of the Royal Television Society (1994), Underground, which for obvious reasons actively she has expressed another of her interests as president discourages buskers from performing within stations; of the Ramblers’ Association. the attraction of a huge amount of passing trade inevitably draws performers. See also: youth television

CHRISTOPHER SMITH See also: homelessness; poverty

GUY OSBORN STEVE GREENFIELD street selling There are a number of current examples of street structuralism selling, some of which may be traced to the entrepreneurial ethos of Thatcher’s Britain. While Structuralism has made an impact in several the market was taken out on to the street and on to disciplines, particularly linguistics, anthropology, the pavements and beyond (a phenomena psychology and literature. The key initial theorist celebrated in the feted BBC television series Only was the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857– Fools and Horses) at the same time the economic and 1913). Saussure argued that language was a system supermarkets and malls 513 of differences with no positive terms, meaning that responses to a cultural phenomenon will have much no ‘word’ could be understood in isolation from in common with those of the previous generation, other words—words did not, in fact, refer to ‘objects’ but that they will also have significant differences. in the world but to other words. Saussure also Perhaps most important of all structuralism’s initiated the synchronic study of language, whereas contributions is the belief that nothing in human previously forms of speech had been analysed in activity is ‘natural’; it is all ‘constructed’ and is terms of their change over time, or diachronically. therefore open to analysis and critique. This idea By contrast, Saussure recommended the analysis is developed much further by the various strands of speech usages within communities, to reveal not of post-structuralism. their grammar but their patterns or structures, and that each utterance (parole) had to be understood See also: literary theory within its system of language (langue). Structural anthropology derives from the work Further reading of Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–) which analysed the structures of culture—its kinship and taboo rules, Hawkes, T. (1977) Structuralism and Semiotics, its eating and story-telling practices and so on— London: Methuen. while structural psychology offers an analysis of PETER CHILDS mental reasoning on the basis of components of thought and feeling. In literary studies, after the work early in the supermarkets and malls century of the Russian formalists (for example, Vladimir Propp, who took a structuralist approach Supermarkets, defined as large self-service stores to relatively simple narratives in his 1928 work offering a variety of food and household goods Morphology of the Folktale), the most influential under one roof, have changed the face of British practitioner of a structuralist reading practice was retailing since their emergence in the 1960s. Prior to Roland Barthes. Perhaps most importantly, that date, shopping was an activity mainly associated Barthes’s S/Z painstakingly assesses and details the with small retail outlets and street markets in town several codes at work in a short story by Balzac centre locations. The abolition of resale price (other important texts are Gèrard Genette’s Figures maintenance in 1964 provided the impetus for chain of Literary Discourse and Tzvetan Todorov’s The stores such as Kwik Save and Tesco to establish larger Fantastic and The Poetics of Prose) but a better premises so that they could offer a wider range of introduction is provided by his Mythologies. Here, goods at discounted prices. Initially, these retailers in a series of bravura performances, Barthes offers sought to adapt and expand existing premises in the a number of cultural readings from a structuralist city centre, including disused cinemas and car perspective on such wide-ranging subjects as showrooms, although growing development wrestling and haircuts in films. pressures led them to seek purpose-built premises, Structuralism influenced numerous British often in off-centre or suburban locations. In the literary critics in the 1960s and 1970s, and in some 1980s, the economic reforms associated with ways initiated the interest in continental literary Thatcherism, coupled with the relaxation of theory that has dominated literary studies over the planning laws, led to a dramatic growth in the last thirty years. One other important coinage was number of supermarkets in Britain, with the four made by the Welsh literary and cultural critic biggest grocery chains (Tesco, Sainsbury, Safeway Raymond Williams, who invented the term and Asda) particularly targeting out-of-town sites ‘structure of feeling’ (most fully discussed in his The where extensive parking for customers could be Long Revolution) to describe the way in which provided alongside stores which often exceeded individuals become aware of how they resemble and 25,000 square feet. Architecturally, most differ from each other within a common culture. supermarkets (often referred to as superstores) were For example, he says that one generation’s shared undistinguished, designed by in-house teams in 514 supermodels bland variants of postmodernism and neo- (see models, 1960s), the names of models were classicism, yet were extremely popular, especially largely unknown outside of the fashion business with affluent car-owning consumers. unless they married celebrities (as with Jerry Hall, The expansion of out-of-town shopping in the marrying Mick Jagger). By the 1980s models had 1980s was similarly evident in the development of become household names, often better known than regional shopping centres, malls of over one million the designers of the clothes they wore on the catwalk. square feet offering a mixture of convenience and Each supermodel had a particular look which comparison shopping. Although British malls (such concurred with the fashion moment and epitomized as Merry Hill, Dudley and Meadowhall, Sheffield) the dominant characteristics of the contemporary rarely approached the size of their North American western feminine ideal. Accordingly, the influence counterparts, cultural commentators begun to argue of the supermodel in the formation of gender identity that these malls offered new opportunities for was fiercely debated, never more so in the 1990s recreational shopping (see shopping, recreational), with the introduction of the waif look through the with their careful internal design encouraging new new realist fashion photography of Corinne Day and forms of consumerism. To these ends, some malls the appearance on the catwalk of supermodels Kate attempted to recreate ‘traditional’ retail Moss and Jodie Kidd. Their undernourished, environments, immersing shoppers into a setting underdeveloped look led to much debate over the characterized by hyperreality and simulation. link between fashion imagery and eating disorders Although fears about the impacts of out-of-town in young women, and some were dubbed ‘vocational shopping on town centre retailing resulted in stricter anorexics’, whose body shape was directly related, planning controls on retail development in the like ballerinas, to the demands of the job. 1990s, supermarkets and malls were already Once a transient and thus well-paid job, from the established as significant features of the 1980s on the shelf-life of the supermodel was contemporary urban landscape, changing long- considerably lengthened through product established patterns of consumer behaviour in the endorsement, particularly exclusive contracts with process. However, while supermarkets and malls cosmetics companies and glamour shoots for personal perform a number of important social functions in calendar work. In the 1980s and 1990s the distinctions British society (especially if they have extra features between runway and catwalk models began to like creches and cafés) questions remain as to disappear, with the profitability of the fashion image whether they cater adequately for poorer groups. becoming more dependent on the marketable look of each model who had become a personality in the See also: corporate identity spirit of the film star or pop star rather than a body which displayed clothes. In the volatile business of fashion, the supermodel was seen as a safe marketing Further reading. tool. The success and status of the supermodel by the Miller, D., Jackson, P., Thrift, N., Holbrook, B. end of the 1980s was best expressed by supermodel and Rowlands, M. (1998) Shopping, Place and Linda Evangelista, who was reputed to have boasted Identity, London: Routledge. she didn’t get out of bed for less than $10,000. Naomi Campbell, a black model from PHIL HUBBARD Streatham, South London, became one of the first in Britain to be given the title of supermodel. supermodels Campbell went on to appear on the cover of British Vogue and was the first black cover girl for the The term ‘supermodels’, coined in the 1980s, French edition. However, the wholehearted exemplified the changing status of the model from acceptance of black models is debatable, as non- mere clothes horse to a woman with international white models have yet to receive major product status and business acumen. Even in the 1960s and endorsements or be awarded the more lucrative 1970s, despite stars like Twiggy and Jean Shrimpton cosmetics contracts. swimming 515

See also: models, 1960s swimming CAROLINE COX Despite the British weather, swimming is a popular leisure activity enjoyed by people of all ages, backgrounds and cultures. This popularity is surveillance maintained by the relatively low cost to participants The balance of surveillance has shifted markedly and the numerous swimming pools throughout the in recent years from state to civil society. With the country, both publicly and privately owned. Many decline of the ‘cold war’, state surveillance has ‘leisure’ pools are now open. These pools are often declined somewhat and is now lawfully restricted creatively shaped, relatively shallow and only to activities that have a subversive intent. In incorporate wave machines and flumes to increase civil society, surveillance’s prime objectives are to the appeal and excitement for recreational build credit and consumer profiles on individuals. swimmers. It does this in primarily a passive way, assuming Most people are aware that they should engage credit is good unless there are recorded defaults. in some form of exercise or physical activity as part Computerized means of payment, together with of a healthy lifestyle. Swimming is ideal because it ‘loyalty cards’, have made active surveillance of uses most major muscle groups and can develop, consumption patterns readily available. A means of maintain and enhance aerobic endurance and surveillance that falls between the active and the overall mobility. The support provided by the water passive is provided in the video record, found in and the non weight-bearing character of swimming places such as shopping centres. Normally this record makes it preferable to high-impact activities such becomes active only if a crime has been committed. as jogging and aerobics, as the risk of injury is An increase in surveillance is probably greatly reduced. For this reason, swimming is good unavoidable. It is, however, striking that such an for sufferers of back pain and arthritis, as well as increase has occurred largely without public debate being a comfortable mode of exercising during and without clear mechanisms in place to inhibit pregnancy. ‘leakage’ from one area of surveillance to another. Learning to swim is not exclusive to children, An increase in police surveillance is planned although many schools provide swimming lessons through an increased use of hidden cameras and within their physical education curriculum. Most scanning mechanisms. Initially these mechanisms public pools offer lessons for all ages and for will be capable of reporting car registration different levels of competency. For those who wish problems and alerting officers within four seconds. to improve their swimming performance and It is reasonable to assume that the system will be possibly compete, there are a large number of extended from car profiles to individual profiles. swimming clubs that provide tuition, coaching and What is at issue here is the extent to which security training. These clubs train most the UK’s is traded off against civil liberty. This debate has competitive swimmers of all age groups. Masters not yet been fully addressed. clubs provide training and competition for swimmers over twenty-five. Swimming training is See also: libel, defamation and privacy; riots and very demanding, especially for the young, as pools civil disobedience; secret services can only be given over to clubs when the public are not admitted. This usually means training from 5.30 a.m. and often again in the evening. Not only Further reading is this demanding for the swimmers, but it also requires a very high level of commitment from their Campbell, D. and Connor, S. (1986) On the Record: supporters (parents, family, partners). Surveillance, Computers and Privacy, London: There are few British swimmers who are Michael Joseph. household names. There are exceptions, however, PAUL BARRY CLARKE including David Wilkie, Duncan Goodhew, Nick 516 swimming

Gillingham and Sharron Davies (though the latter spectrum of alternatives. Among these are life- is possibly better known in her role as a television saving, diving, open water or sea swimming, ‘Gladiator’). Nonetheless, a number of British synchronized swimming, scuba diving and many swimmers regularly qualify for international and related activities such as water-skiing, sailing, Olympic competition. Others, despite their early surfing, windsurfing and triathlon. Swimming promise, never make it to this level. This may reflect brings with it benefits such as enhanced self- a relatively high drop-out rate of young swimmers, confidence, greater socialization, improved health as they realize that going out, relationships and and, most importantly, enjoyment. parties are increasingly less compatible with the commitment and intensity that swimming traditionally demands, coupled with the unsociable Further reading hours. Gorton, E. (1982) Swimming, London: Batsford. Pool swimming is only one option. Swimming ability and water confidence provide for a broad JEANETTE WARDROP T

table tennis (though some top British players have moved to play in Europe), but the warning signs are clear; Table tennis has never been a huge spectator sport the top club, Grove, lost its remaining three in Britain, and the professional game faces clear professional players in September 1996 when it problems in the late 1990s in terms of financial could not pay their wages. viability and performances. The men’s national As a participant sport, table tennis is popular in team were relegated from the top division of the the UK, since it is cheap and easy to learn, and European SuperLeague in 1996 (for the first time participation is particularly strong in higher since 1984), although the women did far better. education. However, this has not been translated The 1997 World Championships, held in Britain, into a strong professional circuit or a high media rekindled some public interest. profile, and since it is clear that since particularly 1996 also saw the formation of a World Grand the 1980s, all sports need sustained television Prix circuit, including the English Open, but despite exposure (and the sponsorship it brings) to generate featuring the world’s top players, lack of television a mass public appeal, table tennis will remain in interest remained the central problem. Previous this minority position until it is able to interest attempts to get television coverage have largely television in its events. failed: for the showcase 1977 World Championships, held in Britain, the English Table See also: tennis Tennis Association obtained commercial sponsorship and BBC coverage, but the forty hours of play the BBC broadcast failed to attract large Further reading ratings. By the mid-1980s, the sport was getting on Myers, H. (1987) Table Tennis, London: Faber. average just two hours coverage a year, a situation not helped by stars like Desmond Douglas leaving REX NASH to play in Germany. When he returned in 1987 the sport again tried to generate television interest, by adding extra colour and glitz to proceedings, Tait, Margaret but this failed once more, leading to the view that b. Orkneys table tennis is simply too fast a sport to be successfully televised. It is a measure of the Film-maker difficulties that table tennis faces that the ETTA Margaret Tait first qualified as a doctor before did not expect to secure any television coverage changing careers and studying film making in for the 1996 English Open, because it clashed with Rome. She produced thirty short films from the the University Boat Race. That said, the sport 1950s onwards, but her first feature was Blue Black remains professional, with a British club league Permanent (1993), which she both directed and wrote 518 talk shows the screenplay for. It has aspects of autobiography, type. The aspects of The Jerry Springer Show that in its Scottish setting and therapy in its protagonist’s generated most concern were the physical search for identity as herself, as daughter and confrontations between guests who were involved granddaughter. It is a subtle film which examines in relationships. The subject matter, which and replicates the processes that lie behind our ways frequently involves admissions of sexual infidelity, of seeing. Hence, it deals with the nature of encourages such direct conflict which is then creativity itself and maps a series of experiences controlled by the intervention of security staff. which serve as reference points for memory and Ironically, although some of the physical assaults imagination. are broadcast, the language of the participants and audience is subject to severe censorship rendering MIKE STORRY much of the dialogue inaudible. Springer himself has been seen to question why talk shows people come onto national television to bare their souls and to confess their worst sins. In many of The original talk shows involved the use of a these instances, the desire for exposure outweighs seasoned presenter interviewing guests before an any potential humiliation or accusations of washing audience. The guests would promote books, films dirty linen in public. Perhaps more than any other or music or be otherwise involved in the public area, this phenomena illustrates the veracity of eye. Prominent examples included the Parkinson Andy Warhol’s ‘famous for fifteen minutes’ dictum show and Wogan, the latter occupying a key early and hints at a wider voyeuristic fascination. evening slot several times a week. While this format has been maintained (when launched, Channel 5 See also: phone-ins and chat shows used comedian Jack Docherty in this role), a new GUY OSBORN genre has emerged where the guests are no longer STEVE GREENFIELD celebrities but members of the public who are chaperoned through a controversial subject area. The personal experiences of the contributors are Tate(s) exploited, sometimes in a confrontational fashion such as when victims of burglaries discuss the issue Henry Tate, son of a Unitarian clergyman, was of theft from houses with burglars, and provide born at Chorley, Lancashire in 1819 and entered the fulcrum of the shows. Examples of such the grocery trade after a limited education. programmes which have occupied the mid-morning Prospering, he built up a sugar refining business slot on both major terrestrial channels include Kilroy that subsequently combined with a rival concern (hosted by ex-MP Robert Kilroy-Silk) and The Time to form the firm Tate & Lyle. With increasing and the Place (hosted by John Stapleton). wealth, he moved to London in 1874, setting up Contemporaneously, a number of American made house at Park Hill, Streatham, and buying pictures programmes have been imported particularly for for the gallery at his home. Though not unerring the satellite and cable channels (with hosts such as in taste, he built up a remarkably comprehensive Rolonda, Oprah, Geraldo and Tempest). collection of art by late Victorian masters, such as The most controversial of the American imports Millais, Alma-Tadema, Landseer and Stanhope has been The Jerry Springer Show, which initially Forbes. A philanthropist who had already made appeared on cable and satellite but also gained a generous donations to hospitals and for educational mainstream terrestrial lunchtime slot on the purposes, he offered his pictures to the nation in independent network. The show was said to be 1889. After delays and obstructions, Tate made an television’s biggest cash cow, generating more than additional offer: he would pay £80,000 for the $40 million in 1997 via advertising and commercial construction of a new gallery if the state would deals (Guardian, 2 May 1998) and displacing the provide the land. Finally, in 1892, the Treasury Oprah Winfrey Show as the most popular show of its approved a proposal to make available for a Gallery techno 519 of British Art the site of Jeremy Bentham’s early Manchester and Oxford (1938–63), Taylor had a nineteenth-century panopticon penitentiary in narrative flair for provocative, intuitive Millbank, London. commentary and illuminating detail. His reputation The location was and remains inconvenient for was established by the controversial The Origins of access by public transport, and, though the views the Second World War (1961), an original work which across the river from the classical portico have argues that Hitler was an opportunist who become more pleasing with passing years, damage improvised history rather than planned it (the book to the collections has been caused periodically by is one of a seminal five-volume history of Europe flooding from the nearby Thames. The architect that covers the period 1848–1948). Many of his was Sidney R.J.Smith, and when the building theories rest upon notions of history occurring not opened in 1897 it housed, as well as the works given through progress and human determination but by Tate (who was rewarded with a baronetcy), through chance and mistake. He was considered a modern British pictures from the Chantrey and maverick historian for his irony and commitment, Vernon Collections and from the National Gallery. and became a national figure through his Officially recognized also as the home of the appearances in the early 1950s on the BBC’s In the nation’s collection of modern foreign art since 1916, News and then on ITV’s Free Speech. His the Gallery was renamed the Tate Gallery in 1932. autobiography, A Personal History, appeared in 1983. Among more significant recent developments has been the opening of the Clore Gallery, where See also: history; Hobsbawm, Eric J.M.W.Turner’s pictures are on permanent display, PETER CHILDS and plans are afoot for expansion into the former Bankside Power Station, on the right bank of the Thames. With the name Tate becoming virtually techno synonymous with modern painting and sculpture, a Tate Gallery Liverpool opened in Albert Dock in Techno is a form of electronic music that has its 1988, followed in 1993 by the Tate St Ives, whose origins in house music. While the gay club scene striking premises, designed by Eldred Evans and of Chicago developed the distinctive 4/4 beat of David Shalev, look out to sea from Porthmeor Beach. house music, it was in Detroit that this blueprint was taken further, developing into a harder more See also: painting; St Ives electronic music that became known as techno. It was the development of ‘MIDI’, a way of connecting synthesizers, samplers and computers, Further reading that enabled the genre of techno to be developed. Axton, J. (1995) Gasworks to Gallery: The Story of Tate In particular, contemporary techno frequently St Ives, St Ives: Axten & Orchard. involves the usage of the Roland TR909 drum Wilson, S. (1995) The Tate Gallery: An Illustrated machine and the Roland TB303 bass sequencer. Companion, London: Tate. The musicians Juan Atkins, Derrick May and Kevin Saunderson are credited with developing the CHRISTOPHER SMITH techno sound, although bands such as Tangerine Dream, Parliament, Depeche Mode, Can and, in Taylor, A.J.P. particular, Kraftwerk are said to be central influences. Techno eschews the melody and vocals b. 1906, Birkdale, Lancashire; d. 1990 of house music, while emphasizing synthesized artificial sounds. While house music continues to Historian draw influence from genres such as soul, funk and Alan John Percival Taylor was one of the most jazz, techno is perceived to be more of a ‘pure’ genre prominent and respected historians of the century. based around a strict technological aesthetic. An unorthodox Marxist radical who lectured at Connected to this aesthetic are developments in 520 teds computer graphics and the computer network who adapted the clothes of the Edwardian dandy, known as the Internet. Many techno acts hence their collective name. Ted clothing included incorporate these new technologies into their live drape jackets, ‘drainpipe’ trousers and crêpe-soled performances, with, for instance, bands such as The shoes known as brothel creepers. Teddy boys were Grid using sound-generated computer graphics as criticized for their overtly macho behaviour, for a visual accompaniment to their music. their love of rock ’n’ roll, and for their tendency to The music played in British techno clubs is form violent gangs which were prone to vandalism. particularly diverse, although British DJs often Teds saw this behaviour as a way of relieving the become known for playing one particular style of boredom of their work, which was invariably techno. At one end of the spectrum is ‘hardcore’, an unskilled labour. Many Teds rode motorcycles, and aggressive techno subgenre that reaches the many became rockers in the early 1960s. improbable tempo of 220 beats per minute. This form of techno is particularly popular at raves (see See also: mods rave). At the other end of the spectrum is a techno STUART BORTHWICK more akin to ambient music, with slow beats and gentle harmonies. In-between these two extremes lie a bewildering array of subgenres that often teen magazines originate from a particular city, region or country. Within the American techno that is popular in Teenage or ‘teen’ magazines have consistently been Britain, the Chicago sound is based on a heavily associated with a feminine market, and more rhythmic percussion, while Detroit techno has a raw, specifically with girl readers between the ages of minimal feel. Dutch techno, or Gabba, is popular in 11–14. This section of the publishing industry is Scotland, and is renowned for its speed and the notoriously unstable, not least perhaps because it violent imagery of its lyrics. Techno from Germany, tends to be carried along by playground crazes and Israel and Goa is particularly popular in London the most ephemeral of high street trends. trance clubs such as Return to the Source. British- Consequently, scores of different titles have been, produced techno appears to draw influence from a come and gone, or merged, over the last thirty variety of global sources. Artists such as Dave Clarke years, from Boyfriend, launched in 1959 (only to appear to be highly influenced by the original Detroit cease publication in 1965) to Sugar, a ‘baby glossy’ sound, while bands such as Orbital and Underworld of the 1990s. For teenage boys, on the other hand, have an affinity with European trance. there has been no equivalent range of titles, the In Britain at the moment, techno is generally assumption being that young male readers are more played at either large outdoor raves or in small likely to buy either specific ‘hobby’ titles or music specialist clubs. Those clubs at the forefront of the papers such as the NME. British techno scene include Voodoo in Liverpool, D.C.Thomson’s Jackie magazine, which first Bugged Out in Manchester, Beyond The Final appeared in the mid-1960s, dominated the teenage Frontier in London and Pure in Edinburgh. While market for nearly twenty years, and achieved an jungle appears to be gaining critical acclaim as the almost iconic status in British culture because of logical progression from house and techno, these its associations with ‘Cathy and Claire’s problem latter two genres continue to be the dominant sound page’, pin-ups and comic strip romance. The demise of the contemporary dancefloor. of Jackie began with the launch of Just 17 (owned by EMAP Maclaren publications) in 1983, and it STUART BORTHWICK finally disappeared altogether in 1993. Just 17 was set up by the editor (David Hepworth) of Smash teds Hits, and signalled a crucial shift in the teenage magazine market during the 1980s towards formats Teds, or teddy boys, were a youth subculture of centred more on music, ‘gossip’ and fashion than the mid-1950s. Teds were working-class young men conventional romance. Perhaps the most significant teenage and youth programming 521 trend in teenage magazines, from the 1970s shambolically produced and presented and onwards, was the move from ‘romance’ to ‘real life’. frequently had technical problems, all adding to the Early teenage magazines consisted mainly of excitement of a live pop music experience. illustrated romantic stories, which were in turn Channel 4’s brief for youth programming largely superseded by photo-love stories (i.e. extended the boundaries of what was required for narratives acted out by ‘real people’) in the 1970s. young (16–25) audiences. No longer would plain By the late 1980s, however, magazines such as Just pop music suffice for what was now a highly 17 featured almost no fiction, focusing instead upon educated, demanding audience. The introduction narratives of readers’ ‘true-life’ experiences. of a Sunday lunchtime show on the station turned Teenage titles are strongly influenced by the notion of youth programming on its head, and aspirational patterns of consumption, the overriding created what is now termed ‘yoof television. concern apparently being to identify with an older Produced by Janet Street-Porter, Network 7 was the age group (hence the apparent anomaly that Just 17 first current affairs and entertainment news is predominately bought by readers under the age of programme aimed at the youth market. Its quirky fifteen). It follows, therefore, that with the ascendancy camera angles, young reporters, no-nonsense in the 1990s of more sexually explicit magazines such interviewing style and rough production created a as More! (with its infamous ‘(sexual) position of the style that dominated the genre for the next decade. week’) aimed at young women in their late teens and Street-Porter then moved to the BBC (whose early twenties, teenage magazines such as Just 17 have previous efforts at programming had proved both continued to evolve. For example, in 1997, Just 17 critically and commercially inadequate), creating changed to a monthly ‘glossy’ format, more overtly programmes including Reportage, Rough Guide and modelling itself on adult magazines. Standing Room Only, all of which dealt with issues crucial to the youth market. See also: women’s press Street-Porter’s appointment gave the BBC a range of classy, intelligent and popular programmes JO CROFT with which Channel 4 found difficult to compete. With media accusations of ‘dumbing down’, teenage and youth Channel 4 commissioned new programmes to vie programming with the BBC, the most (in)famous being The Word. The antithesis of the pseudo-serious BBC, The Word The 1950s saw the need for broadcasters to was accused of many crimes, including bad taste, programme specific shows to cater for the blasphemy, sexism and perversity. Catering for the burgeoning teenage market. Shows like Oh Boy! and post-pub Friday night audience, the show drew Thank Your Lucky Stars gave mainstream popular viewing figures in the millions and became the most music its first real television exposure. Recording discussed television programme in decades. artists would appear weekly, promoting their latest Following its demise, there have been efforts to record. The zenith of these shows came with the create a new format for youth programming, none introduction of the BBC’s Top of the Pops in 1964, quite as successful as the previous incarnations. that became both a byword for pop music television, and the longest running show of its kind in the world. See also: pop television; youth television Other markets were catered for with programmes like The Old Grey Whistle Test (for rock and progressive Further reading music), and a British version of the US show Soul Train, dedicated to the promotion of black music in Lury, K.E. (1997) ‘Cynicism and Enchantment: the UK. Channel 4’s The Tube, which began British Youth Television in the 1980s and 1990s’, broadcasting on the station’s inaugural night, is seen Liverpool University, unpublished Ph.D. thesis. as the high-point of the genre. Featuring both live SAM JOHNSTONE performances and pop videos, the show was 522 teenyboppers teenyboppers are good, the arts reporting, especially of musical events, is serious and respected, and the design and Since the advent of Elvis Presley, teenagers have layout of its ‘broad sheet’ pages, characteristic of comprised the most important element of the pop the quality papers, have improved in recent years. music audience, but it was not until the 1970s that Founded in 1855, taking advantage of the repeal the term ‘teenybopper’ was coined. The term was of the Newspaper Duty, the Daily Telegraph applied derisively to fans of Marc Bolan, Donny encountered varying fortunes before gaining Osmond, David Cassidy, the Bay City Rollers and, something like its present position just before the in the 1990s, Boyzone, with the unjustified Second World War under William Berry (Lord implication that these artists had nothing to offer Camrose). It was acquired in 1985 by Conrad musically and only appealed through their image. Black’s Hollinger, a Canadian company. Formerly Arguably, however, teenyboppers have always been published from Peterborough Court—hence the more discerning than more ‘sophisticated’ music pseudonym of one of its regular columnists—the fans. Whereas ‘intellectual’ listeners have fallen for Daily Telegraph, like most of the rest of national press, the emperor’s new clothes, from the Doors to deserted Fleet Street for the Isle of Dogs in 1987. Radiohead, teenyboppers have always had an ear The Sunday Telegraph was not established until 1961, for a good tune and unpretentiously discarded their with a Sunday Telegraph Magazine offered as an extra idols at the first hint of a drop in quality. in 1995. Though there are signs of growth, sales of the Sunday Telegraph, at 860,000, are markedly lower See also: fanzines; pop and rock than for the daily paper, amounting to only some 30 percent of the ‘quality’ Sunday market (as CRAIG GERRARD opposed to 45 percent for the Sunday Times) and to a 6 percent overall share. Apparently a sizeable Telegraph plc proportion of Daily Telegraph readers opt for a newspaper from a different stable on Sundays, most The Daily Telegraph is Britain’s best-selling ‘quality’ likely the Sunday Times. daily newspaper. At the end of 1997 its circulation was nearly 1.1 million copies a day, challenged only, See also: Express Group; Guardian Group; at some remove, by The Times with a figure that Mirror Group; News International had only recently risen above three-quarters of a million, while the Guardian totalled fewer than Further reading 400,000 and the Independent only a quarter of a million. Commanding not far short of 40 percent Hart-Davis, D. (1990) The House the Berrys Built: of the ‘quality’ newspaper market, and more than Inside The Telegraph, London: Hodder & 8 percent of total sales nationally, the Daily Telegraph Stoughton. appears, even if its figures are not rising, to be in a CHRISTOPHER SMITH strong position. Though criticism of the Conservative Party is not precluded, the Daily Telegraph is generally regarded, particularly by those teletext preferring other papers, to be firmly oriented towards the right in politics, an aspect reflected Teletext is a system of carrying data, graphic and more in its comment columns than in its news textual information on top of the normal television reporting. Its readers, male and female, tend to be broadcast signal. With an appropriately equipped conformist, middle-class and middle-aged or older. television set in 40 percent of households in Britain Such a readership commands considerable (in 1992), many viewers are able to access this spending power, a factor reflected not only in the service. The IBA licensed Oracle in 1973, and the fine quality of its business pages but also in the BBC started its service, Ceefax, in 1974. Both advertising that the paper attracts. The sports pages provide a mix of news, sports information, recipes, television exports 523 weather reports, travel information and so forth, and to provide a representative range of laid out in indexed pages. Though the information programmes. provided is limited and one-way, compared to the Jackanory (1965–), a children’s story read to more interactive telecommunication’s equivalent camera, and serializations of novels such as The Prestel, it is free at the point of use and is constantly Box of Delights (1989) prove that powerful narrative updated. Teletext is also the means by which is still gripping. Drama featuring magical characters broadcasters provide their captioning of and unusually proactive children are satisfying to programmes for the deaf. the socially powerless child, which accounts for the popularity of fantastic, comedic series such as See also: Internet; news, television Rentaghost (1983) Wo o f ! (1996) and the long-running Dr Who (1963–). The activities of fictional children PAU L RIXON in realistic settings are increasingly favoured. The soap operatic Grange Hill (1978–) has been joined television, children’s by Byker Grove (1989) and The Biz (1996). Jimmy Savile bridged the intriguing gaps between fantasy, Both ITV and BBC1 run children’s programmes reality, entertainment and documentary by granting after school hours from 3 p.m. to 5 p.m. every the wishes of his young audience on Jim’ll Fix It weekday, and also at lunchtime and on Saturday (1980), which was enjoyed by both adults and mornings. The midday programmes are designed children. For slightly older viewers, children’s for pre-school children, as are the earliest afternoon broadcasters were initially responsible for shows. Despite the existence of separate educational programmes such as Top Of The Pops (1965–). programming, an emotive debate on television’s educative role has pervaded children’s television See also: film, children’s; literature, children’s and since its inception in 1946 (with the BBC’s For The teenage Children). The longest running children’s programme is Blue Peter (1958–). Consistently Further reading endorsing a duty to inform, its presenters suggest socially useful hobbies for children and reward the Hartley, I. (1983) Goodnight Children…Everywhere, achievements of the programme’s viewers. For Kent: Midas. younger children, Play School (1964) and others SARAH CASTELL achieved a televised version of good nursery education. Cartoons and puppet characters are widely used, asking the naive questions that young television exports viewers wish explained and helping to avoid the alienating didacticism of a pontificating adult. Television exports are the sale of programmes by However charismatic facilitators have frequently producers in one national market to broadcasters made overtly factual and instructive programmes in another; although, with the increased popular, such as Johnny Morris (Animal Magic, internationalization of television in terms of 1962), Johnny Ball (Think of a Number, 1972) and production and broadcasting, a clear cut definition John Craven (Newsround, 1972). Entertainment is is no longer possible. Individual programme an equally strong priority in this field. Tiswas (1977) exports take a number of forms: there are the created a genre wherein adults behaved like straightforward sales of programmes made for a children, exploiting children’s innate appreciation specific national market; pre-sales of programmes of the anarchic within a safe structure. Quiz shows not yet made, the joint production of programmes and trials of progress such as Record Breakers (1972– as co-productions, and the selling of formats or ) have always been popular with children. Most programme concepts. The selling of formats usually afternoon shows are shorter than half an hour to occurs when the original programme appears too account for the short concentration span of the child culturally specific for export but, by remaking the 524 television licence programme, it can be tailored for a different television licence national audience (for example, Cracker, originally made for the ITV network, has been remade for The television licence, introduced in 1947, is a flat ABC in America). fee payable annually by all those using a television By the 1960s, a flourishing international market set. Two rates, set by the government, are currently in programmes appeared, stimulated both by the payable, one for black and white television sets and need to fill more broadcast hours and the supply the other for colour television sets. For many years of popular and cheaply sold American the licence fee has been accepted as the best means programmes. British broadcasters, keen to derive of funding the BBC, a public service broadcaster, income from programme sales, soon established protecting it from both direct governmental themselves as the second largest exporter of interference and commercial pressure. However, the programmes after the Americans. A notable early continuation of this licence fee has recently come success was the ITV company, Associated under attack with the proliferation of new channels Television (ATV). By tailoring productions more and the drop in BBC’s audiences. The BBC is now to the needs of the American market they were under pressure to develop new forms of income able to sell a number of series to the major US either to supplement or, at some stage, to replace networks, including The Avengers, The Saint and the licence fee.

Dangerman. While ATV’s success was initially PAU L RIXON rewarded, gaining the Queen’s Awards for Export, the loss of its franchise in 1980 was partly attributed to this export led policy that neglected the needs television unions of its domestic audience. By the 1970s, Britain had established a reputation The television unions in the UK represent workers for producing quality programmes including active in three main areas: talent, craft and studio historical dramas (Brideshead Revisited, Upstairs, support. These unions initially grew out of distinct Downstairs) and factual programmes (Civilisation, The media areas, such as radio, cinema, theatre and World at War). The main market for this product was, other forms of entertainment, and the different craft at this time, the USA, though programmes were and skill divides that existed within such activities. almost always sold to the Public Broadcasting System However, as the industry has changed, so the (PBS) rather than to the main US networks. number of different unions has been consolidated. Increasingly, Europe has overtaken the USA as the Currently, the main television union is the major market for British programmes. With Broadcasting Entertainment Cinematograph and increasing costs and a squeeze on revenues, the Theatre Union (BECTU). Alongside this are the importance of exports, at least for some genres of talent unions Equity, the Musicians’ Union and the programming, looks to be on the increase. While Writers’ Guild of Great Britain. Journalists have some worries are voiced about the possible their own specific union, the National Union of consequence in terms of an internationalization of Journalists (NUJ). Unions, working alone or domestic programmes for export requirements, it together in bodies such as the Federation of must be noted that the national market is still the Entertainment Unions (FEU), look after the most important in terms of revenue. interests of their members, including pay, conditions, employment rights and contracts with See also: imported television employers, and negotiate and lobby on their members’ behalf with broadcasters, producers, Further reading national governments, regulators and European bodies. Collins, R. (1990) Television: Policy and Culture, BECTU was created from the amalgamation London: Unwin Hyman. of the ACTT and BETA in 1990. BETA was itself PAU L RIXON the result of the merger of the Association of tennis 525

Broadcasting and Allied Staff (ABS) and the Beginners (1986), a musical based on Colin National Association of Theatrical Television and MacInnes’s novel celebrating teenage culture in Kine Employees (NATTKE) in 1984. ACTT 1950s Soho with a soundtrack boasting luminaries incorporated the medium of television when, in such as Paul Weller (himself a MacInnes aficionado) 1956, commercial television came on stream. From and David Bowie. Other films directed by Temple the 1950s, employment in the broadcasting industry include his contribution to Aria (1987) and Earth came to be linked to belonging to one of the Girls are Easy (1988), a farcical reflection of the accepted unions, such as the ACTT, and was lifestyle and values of Los Angeles culture. considered by many to be a closed shop. In many ways this ‘closed shop’ had been an aim of the See also: punk rock unions because of their desire to protect their GUY OSBORN members from the casualization of labour that had STEVE GREENFIELD afflicted the film industry for some time. This was accepted by the broadcasters while the industry was healthy and profits made; recently, however, with tennis increased competition, shifts towards more filmed productions, and the appearance of different types Far more British people watch than play tennis, of organization with greater reliance on and the fact that Britain hosts Wimbledon makes independent productions and the emergence of tennis appear an annual national two-week love publisher-commissioner broadcasters, more labour affair. Yet while tens of millions of people watch is becoming casualized. It is in reaction to this that the tournament globally, the millions of pounds it unions that once represented the old industrial and raises for the Lawn Tennis Association (LTA) has craft divides have begun to merge and amalgamate generated very little British success. Since 1977, to reflect the new industrial situation. when Virginia Wade won the Wimbledon singles title, no British player has come close to winning a See also: trade unions major event, and the standard of the women’s game declined so much in the early 1990s that the traditional Federation Cup (between the USA and Further reading the UK) was dropped, due to the scale of the Macdonald, B. (1993) Broadcasting in the United American victories. The outlook for the playing Kingdom: A Guide to Information Sources, London: standards in the women’s game in the 1990s is Mansell. bleak, with the highest ranked UK player well outside the world top 100 at the end of 1996. Some PAU L RIXON inside tennis see this as the result of the declining numbers of young girls playing tennis (and sport in general), with three times more boys than girls Temple, Julian taking up the junior game every year between 1991 and 1996. The men saw some improvement in the mid- Film-maker 1990s, with players of true potential appearing Julian Temple’s first film, The Great Rock ’n’ roll (notably Tim Henman and Greg Rusedski), and Swindle (1980), was a cynical parody of the creation clearly the LTA’s investment in the 1980s had of the Sex Pistols. It was characterized by its improved the standard of junior tennis, but perhaps portrayal of Malcolm McLaren’s thesis to real success should not be expected in a country manufacture a pop sensation in ten easy steps, without a genuine grassroots tennis base. There including the memorable ‘cultivate hatred’. This have always been many clubs, but until the mid- was followed by Amnesty international fundraiser 1980s most were privately run and expensive. In The Secret Policeman’s Other Ball (1982) and Absolute the 1980s the LTA began building inexpensive 526 Terry Farrell Partnership facilities for young players from all social classes. Thames TV More generally, tennis in schools has declined, as has all school sport. The LTA (with an annual Thames TV was formed in 1967 with the merger budget of £40m by the mid-1990s) has tried to fill of ABC Television and Associated-Rediffusion, this gap, increasing the number of indoor courts two ITV franchise holders, to create a new from 150 in 1986 to 800 in 1996, and setting up company to run the London weekday franchise. training centres in twenty-six different cities, but Until it lost its franchise to Carlton in 1993, these are essentially attempts to shift the culture of Thames TV was the largest and wealthiest of the game from its middle-class roots. the big five network broadcasters in the ITV Tennis in the UK is as much a social occasion system. With the loss of its franchise, Thames as a sporting one. While this is not necessarily a became the largest independent producer in bad thing, it accordingly reduces the chances of Britain. It has also diversified into satellite Britain producing world-class players. Until a real broadcasting (for example, UK Gold). Thames, popular interest in tennis is generated, the UK under its own name and subsidiaries, namely cannot really expect to seriously compete in the Euston films and Compton Hall, has a reputation world game. for making quality historical dramas (Edward and Mrs Simpson), documentaries (The World at War See also: table tennis series), action adventure series (The Sweeney) and comedy (The Benny Hill Show).

Further reading See also: Granada; Mersey Television; TV-am Evans, R. (1988) Open Tennis: The First Twenty Years, PAU L RIXON London, Bloomsbury.

REX NASH Thatcherism Thatcherism is the collective term for the Terry Farrell Partnership political policies of Margaret Thatcher, Prime Terry Farrell was born in Cheshire in 1938 and Minister from 1979–90. Although Thatcher’s trained at Durham University (1956–61) and the policies were not homogeneous, they were University of Pennsylvania (1962–4). He then consistent with a general policy line. Thatcher worked in partnership with Nicholas Grimshaw up sought to liberalize the economy, stressing the to 1980 before establishing the Terry Farrell importance of the market, deregulation and Partnership. The practice has contributed greatly privatization. She sought to minimize state to London’s cityscape (Farrell has been chair of intervention, and to create an enterprise culture the Urban Design Group) and has expanded in which private industry led the economy. Self- greatly over its first twenty years. Major projects help, the individual accumulation of wealth and have been the redevelopment of Charing Cross independence were all strong themes. Coalescing station, the TV-am headquarters, the Henley with these neo-liberal beliefs was an Regatta HQ, Limehouse TV studios and the authoritarian social policy, with an emphasis postmodern Alban Gate office block at London upon increased police power and harsher Wall. Farrell is probably Britain’s most outspoken penalties for offenders. Thatcher was ousted in postmodernist, influenced by Michael Graves and 1990, largely due to her narrow views on Charles Jencks, and his modern art deco style is Europe and the unpopularity of the poll tax. noted for a striking use of colour and decoration. See also: Conservative governments; See also: postmodernism Conservative Party

PETER CHILDS ALASTAIR LINDSLEY theatre 527 theatre human condition might be reached. The notion that theatre had to occur in buildings designated In the 1950s and 1960s a new wave of angry young for that activity was overturned, and new venues playwrights (such as Osborne, Wesker and Delaney) promoted new styles of presentation and a renewed re-established theatre as a vibrant arena of socio- fervour for ‘theatre-as-event’, as a spreading political debate with plays emphasizing a social network of arts centres, pubs and clubs became naturalism focused on working-class culture. George sites for theatrical activity. This was the era of Devine established the Royal Court as a theatre ‘instant theatre’, with performances springing up devoted to new writing, and the instant success of on any issue in any style at any time. A new John Osborne’s Look Back in Anger in 1956 ushered generation of performers arrived, often self-taught in a new era of writers concerned with probing the rather than formally trained; workshops and limits of their craft (Orton, Storey, Stoppard). Joan collectives replaced the old hierarchical ways of Littlewood’s Theatre Workshop took up residence working, and no subject was taboo. Theatre became at Theatre Royal, Stratford East, and attempted to radicalized and politicized. create an audience for popular theatre with plays The spirit of 1968 was ensconced in the that frequently upset the critics but also transferred abolition of censorship that year. Even commercial to the West End (such as Fings Ain’t What They Used theatre availed itself of the new libertarianism with To B e and Oh What A Lovely War). Both these directors nudity on stage (Hair in 1969), although the West not only promoted new writing talent but also End mostly continued to stage well-made thrillers evolved theatrical styles closer to poetic realism than and farces which reinforced the status quo, like The the conventional cluttered naturalism. This return Mousetrap and No Sex Please, We’re British. This kind to the ‘bare boards’ had a major impact on the of theatre, dubbed ‘deadly’ by Peter Brook in his aesthetics of theatre throughout the postwar period. seminal book The Empty Space, has been termed Additional influences during 1956–68 came from ‘theatre of comfort’ in contradistinction to ‘theatre the European absurdists (Beckett’s Waiting for Godot of commitment’ (Edgar, McGrath, Griffiths), which was first staged in London in 1955), and is seen as offering more challenging perspectives international visits from Brecht’s Berliner Ensemble on society. (1956), Open Theatre and La Mama from New York The years 1968–78 produced a tide of radical (1965) and Jerzy Grotowski from Poland (1968). energy which placed theatre at the heart of cultural The 1960s were characterized by new writing transformation. Theatre of commitment flourished and experimental approaches. Individualistic in tandem with the growing awareness of cultural writers like Harold Pinter and Samuel Beckett issues and oppressions. Women’s theatre (for forged reputations as great stylists of twentieth- example, Monstrous Regiment), gay theatre and century theatre; other playwrights emerged whose lesbian theatre (Gay Sweatshop), black theatre concerns were more social and political (Bond, (Black Theatre Co-operative, Talawa Theatre) Brenton, Edgar). Practitioners began to embrace groups toured extensively on the alternative circuit. innovative approaches focused on the physical and Text-based playwriting ‘driven by a belief in visual priorities of theatre, such as Brook’s socialism in general and sometimes Marxism in profoundly influential productions of A Midsummer particular’ (Shank 1994:15), from avowed political Night’s Dream and Weiss’s Marat/Sade. idealists such as Edward Bond, Howard Brenton The impact of 1968 manifested itself in an and David Hare, was produced at the newly opened explosion of alternative theatre and fringe venues. National Theatre in addition to the more By the mid-1970s there were two kinds of theatre, conservative talents of Tom Stoppard and Alan official and unofficial: the first was characterized Ayckbourn. The ICA and Ed Berman’s Interaction by endorsement of the establishment, the second supplied risqué experimental work which tested the by a rediscovery of the essential nature of theatre boundaries of theatre and performance; iconoclast as an encounter between stage and spectator Steven Berkoff presented himself in his own highly through which new understandings about the charged physical theatre productions. 528 theatre

The Royal Court continued to stage radical touring, only to close them within the decade as work illustrating the oppressions of race (Fugard’s they succumbed to the recession and the invidious Sizwe Bansi’s Dead) and homosexuality (Martin vagaries of arts funding. Sherman’s Bent). Women playwrights had work Most repertory companies were disbanded by staged in London, again primarily through the the mid-1990s, leaving provincial theatres to play Royal Court (Churchill, Page, Gems), in addition host to touring productions while perhaps to their growing presence on the fringe and mounting the annual pantomime. Issue-based alternative scene, although attempts to close the radical theatre dwindled, and when the ‘gender gap’ in theatre (where most directors and Conservatives were re-elected for the fourth time decision makers are white, middle-class males) met in 1992, the limitations of theatre dogged by with little success. Despite the feminist slogan ‘the political ideology were exposed. The beginning of personal is political’, the assumption persists that the 1990s saw a resurgence of interest in aesthetics men write ‘public’ plays suitable for a general and many groups emerged whose aim was to search audience and while women write ‘private’ plays for new forms of theatrical expression rather than focused on personal issues: plays by women have take on ideological battles. been relegated to studio spaces (for example, The legacy of mainstream theatre in the 1980s Daniels’s Neaptide, Churchill’s The Skriker in the is the musical, a form imported from the USA but National’s Cottesloe) while male ‘state-of-the- reinvented in Britain by Andrew Lloyd Webber, nation’ plays take the main stage (Edgar’s Maydays whose string of successful shows (Cats, Starlight in the Olivier). Express, Phantom of the Opera) make a substantial Away from the metropolis, the concept of theatre contribution to the economy. These shows rely on was changing as local councils embarked on the spectacle of huge casts and technical wizardry, building theatres which embodied notions of civic and their emphasis on escapist entertainment places pride and community. Bolton’s Octagon and them in the category of ‘populist culture’. Webber’s Sheffield’s Crucible were purpose-built places for directing associate Trevor Nunn put the National social gathering, including exhibition spaces, bars back on its financial feet with Les Misérables in 1985, and restaurants, alongside modern thrust stages a musical adaptation of Hugo’s novel, which with advanced technical capabilities, signalling an continues touring internationally. Adaptation has end to ‘proscenium arch’ naturalism. The number become a significant growth area in theatre as well of repertory companies increased from 20 to over as film and television, in an attempt to woo back 100 by the end of the 1970s, frequently with TIE audiences to the theatre. companies attached to undertake outreach work, New writing became much more difficult to fund and youth theatres with the task of encouraging and revivals, old masterpieces and adaptations new generations of theatre-literate audiences. burgeoned in the 1980s, spawning a fresh breed of State support for the arts has had a significant directors whose ethos was to reinvent the classics or effect on the development of postwar theatre, in rediscover old plays in modern cultural and aesthetic both positive and negative ways. The growth of contexts. David Edgar expressed his concern about alternative and community theatre in the 1970s the fall in the production of new writing in the owes much to the enlightened funding policies of Independent in May 1991, pointing out that ‘there has the Arts Council. After four years of Labour been a shift of writerly energy from theatre to the government (1975–9), which included the first novel and film’ (Wandor 1993:4), and subsequently Minister for the Arts (Jennie Lee), the Thatcher a campaign was launched to draw attention to the government took office and in 1984 the White funding problems in theatre. The problem was not Paper The Glory of the Garden laid plans for the merely funding but attitudinal, as evidenced by reduction of public funding in favour of private statistics: only 6 percent of the population attended sponsorship. In the early 1980s, many repertory theatre in 1988–9. Those who had espoused a theatres opened up studio spaces to accommodate ‘popular theatre’ rooted in working-class concerns more new and experimental work and small-scale had never managed to reach the working class. theatre 529

Theatre is still an elitist art. Yet, despite its minority performative dynamics of theatre than language, status, its impact is felt beyond the stage door. When and often they are influenced by European Sarah Kane’s Blasted premiered at the Royal Court practitioners like Artaud, Grotowski and Lecoq, in 1995, it made front-page headlines and generated and contemporary movements in performance art, a debate about tabloid mentality and the visual art and circus. Many young performers take ‘grotesquerie’ of Bosnia that ran in the papers for courses with specialist practitioners abroad, in weeks. mime, dance or mask work, where they learn new Theatre has had to compete with cinema and ways to exploit their creative autonomy. Often these television since the 1950s. One of the consequences schools are multicultural, taking students of various has been in a new generation of theatre-makers nationalities, and sometimes companies spring from reassessing the live nature of theatre and moving students meeting there, such as Theatre de away from the concept of ‘literary theatre’ to one Complicité, whose members trained with Jacques which privileges its visceral qualities. Experimental Lecoq in Paris. theatre has slowly taken hold, particularly in the Theatre still has its ‘official’ and ‘unofficial’ regions, notably Glasgow, which hosted Peter branches, although these are being constantly Brook’s Mahabharata in 1988, and through the infiltrated by a younger generation of performers Cardiff Centre for Performance Research, which and playwrights who have different backgrounds fostered companies such as Moving Being and and aspirations from their predecessors. A surge Volcano. The impetus to redefine British theatre in of new writing in the 1990s has been dominated relation to its global counterparts has been fuelled by playwrights who reject the moralistic tone of by the influx of international touring and the increase the ‘social-issue’ play (Gregory Motton, Sarah in cross-cultural exchanges through workshops, Kane), and search for the ‘unknown’ rather than courses and theatre scholarship. The biennial any notion of ‘truth’ (Shank 1994:16). The ‘issue London International Festival of Theatre (LIFT), play’ continues to serve a purpose in TIE and for example, which was founded by two young community theatre (and several pioneering political women arts graduates in 1981, has acted as an troupes from the 1970s are still in business, such as important and provocative influence on Red Ladder and Welfare State International), contemporary theatre, importing and commissioning although the political play, once so prevalent, has a diverse range of experimental work, from the given way to explorations of individuality and Peking Opera to Peter Badejo’s Kufena, a dance postmodern preoccupations with gender and theatre drawing on disparate traditions, and the identity. Perhaps the one issue that remains central Canadian Robert Lepage’s Dragon’s Trilogy. to much contemporary playwriting is sexuality, as British theatre in the 1990s demonstrates evidenced by the success of Jonathan Harvey’s significant examples of hybridization with other art Beautiful Thing. forms, especially dance, and companies such as DV8 and Motionhouse use text with movement, See also: actors (female); actors (male); while others show evidence of cinematic influences playwrights (Lip Service, Kaboodle). There is also a noticeable shift away from hierarchical modes of production, Further reading informed by new ventures in collaboration and Chambers, C. and Prior, M. (1987) Playwright’s companies who operate on an egalitarian footing. Progress: Patterns of Postwar British Drama, Oxford: Improvisation has been rediscovered as a means Amber Lane Press. of producing texts as well as interpreting them, and Shank, T. (ed.) (1994) Contemporary British Theatre, the concept of the ‘actor-as-creator’ is re-emerging. London: Macmillan. Groups, such as Forced Entertainment, Told By Wandor, M. (1993) Drama Today: A Critical Guide to An Idiot, often comprise self-sufficient young artists British Drama 1970–1990, London: Longman. who develop and perform their own ‘texts’; frequently they are more concerned with the DYMPHNA CALLERY 530 theatre, regional theatre, regional absence of functional theatres in such influential towns was particularly regrettable. Both theatres, Regional theatre has had a difficult time in recent like many others, are however known as ‘receiving years. It has had to compete with shifts in the houses’, which is to say they do not sustain their pattern of people’s leisure towards home own repertory company but largely buy in existing entertainment such as television, videos or music. productions. When people go out, it is more often to cinema than to theatre. There have also been cutbacks in See also: fringe theatre; West End funding. Consequently, many theatres have closed down and those which have survived are struggling. Further reading Loss of theatres is important because traditionally actors have come up through the Rowell, G. and Jackson, A. (1984) The Repertory repertory route, travelling around Britain’s regional Movement: A History of Regional Theatre in Britain, theatres to learn and practise their craft, and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. because students in particular, who are notoriously MIKE STORRY difficult to attract into theatres, need to be exposed to a culture of theatre if it is to be sustained in future years. Historically, much of the original television theatre critics drama came from the provinces, not least from the many civic theatres (the Belgrade in Coventry, the Theatre criticism in national newspapers is largely Leicester Haymarket, the Nottingham Playhouse confined to the daily and Sunday broadsheets and and so on) which, in the 1960s, nurtured new middle-market tabloids. Specialist listing magazines playwrights. such as London’s Time Out have given opportunities The picture is not uniformly gloomy, however. to new critics, although the profession still tends to For example, in Liverpool both The Royal Court be dominated by white males whose aesthetic (which was mainly given over to pop concerts) and preferences broadly follow those of their papers, the Playhouse have closed down, but other theatres and have ensured that more shows are seen and continue to thrive, such as the Everyman, the Unity recorded, albeit briefly (often in about 100 words). and the Neptune. Also, several regional repertory Since many productions receive only the most companies have secured strong local followings for cursory notices, national newspaper critics exert a themselves and their theatres. These include the significant influence in their choice of what they Royal Exchange, Manchester and the Nottingham review as well as in what they say about it. Playhouse. Theatrical managements maintain an uneasy Norwich has been fortunate to have a brand symbiotic relationships with critics: critical acclaim new repertory theatre, the Playhouse. Supported can bolster reputations but critical condemnation by Arthur Miller and Timothy West, it has, like can help to close shows. Although the power of the civic theatres of the 1960s, a deliberate policy critics in Britain is not as great as it is in New York, of initiating new plays. Malcolm Bradbury’s first where a bad notice from the New York Times can play for the theatre for thirty years, Inside Trading, still kill a play overnight, Harold Hobson and opened there. Kenneth Tynan exerted a massive influence into A further gratifying development for regional the 1960s, so much so that Laurence Olivier is theatre has been the advent of the National reputed to have asked Tynan to join him at the Lottery. In 1996, its grants enabled an entirely new National Theatre partly because he wanted rebuilt Cambridge Arts Theatre to open, at a total to neutralize him as a critic. cost of £8.5m. The theatre had been closed for Critics can perform an important mediating three years. Similarly the Oxford Playhouse, closed function between productions and potential for four years, reopened in 1995, radically audiences, but are always under pressure from the modernized after a £4m refurbishment. The often conflicting demands of newspaper editors and theatre in education 531 theatre managements. Theatre criticism may be Kenny) work with companies, they tend to work regarded either as news reporting or as feature collaboratively with other company members. writing: the overnight review places a premium on Plays are rarely self-contained, stand-alone entities: the critic’s ability as a reporter able to give an interactive workshops are an important part of the account of a hot news event for the next morning’s educational process. The ‘performance’ of a newspaper. Sunday reviews and those for specialist programme is thus no less collaborative than the monthly magazines tend to be more reflective but devising process. At its best, TIE is challenging, may lose the eyewitness authenticity that the best provocative and radical; in many ways it is a overnight criticism can sometime achieve. Theatre development of Brechtian practice, in that the criticism demands that its practitioners spend much emphasis of the programmes is on making an of their time every week seeing productions of very audience active and reflexive. limited achievement and then writing about them. In its heyday, funding for TIE companies came Sometimes this can lead to an eccentricity borne from a variety of sources, but predominantly from from a limited knowledge of the world outside the Local Education Authorities (LEAs), Regional Arts theatre; sometimes it can produce a kind of critical Associations and the Arts Council of Great Britain. battle fatigue; sometimes it can lead to an eccentric Some companies received support ‘in kind’ (for championing of minor talents. However, the example the use of space in schools and access to newspaper review is a vital source for anyone local authority infrastructures), while some were interested in theatre, not only as a guide to the closely tied to the development of regional theatres’ present but often as the only accessible trace of a community programmes. past production. By the early 1980s, LEA financial cutbacks had already begun to result in the closure of some of See also: film reviews; theatre the less well-established TIE companies. After the 1988 Education Act, which introduced local management of schools (demanding the devolution Further reading of budgets away from local education authorities Wardle, I. (1992) Theatre Criticism, London: Faber to individual schools), most LEAs cut off their (a contemporary journalist’s analysis of the financial support to TIE companies, many of which trade). had prided themselves on being able to develop and tour programmes without charging individual TREVOR R.GRIFFITHS schools, seeing their work as an essential part of the educational process (and a necessary theatre in education counterbalance to the institutionalization of education). There are now only very few companies The first theatre in education (TIE) company was operating; none of them are as securely funded as established at the Belgrade Theatre, Coventry, in they were in the heyday, and the idealistic impetus 1965, as part of that theatre’s project of developing of the movement seems (perhaps temporarily) to its links with the community. TIE is not a theatrical have been stifled by lack of finance and the form as such but is rather a movement, increasing demands of the National Curriculum characterized by its aims and by its working within schools. methods. Whereas the primary aims of children’s See also: community theatre theatre are to entertain and to make theatre accessible to young people, TIE uses theatre as part of an educational process, focusing on Further reading contemporary social and political issues. Redington, C. (1983) Can Theatre Teach?, Oxford: Collaborative working practices are at the heart Pergamon Press. of the TIE movement. Where writers (such as Lisa Evans, Noel Greig, David Holman and Mike BRIAN WOOLLAND 532 Thompson, Edward Palmer

Thompson, Edward Palmer adapted Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility, in which she starred and for which she won another Oscar, b. 1924; d. 1993, Upper Wick, this time for Best Adapted Screenplay. Worcestershire Historian See also: actors (female) E.P.Thompson was the leading Marxist social ALISON BOMBER historian of the postwar period. Identified with the New Left, Thompson founded the New Reasoner and published numerous studies and essays. He is Thomson best known for his second book, The Making of the D.C.Thomson publishes 145 magazine and English Working Class (1963). The cultural emphasis newspaper titles including Beano, Dandy, The Peoples’ of Thompson’s ‘history from below’ represented a Friend, Sunday Post, Weekly News and My Weekly. With paradigm shift in social and labour history, and contents emphasizing family values, readers are was theoretically foundational for the practice of mostly aged forty-five or more. Sales of titles have British cultural studies. In the late 1970s and 1980s, slumped since the 1950s. By adopting new Thompson, increasingly involved with peace promotion strategies, D.C.Thomson is attempting activism, was elected vice-president of Campaign to increase circulation in British and foreign markets. for Nuclear Disarmament and founded European Popular in Scotland, the Sunday Post has Nuclear Disarmament. approximately 2.5 million readers per week. The See also: Hobsbawm, Eric; Marxism; Taylor, Guinness Book of Records (1990) listed the Sunday Post A.J.P. as the newspaper closest to saturation circulation, with an audience of 57 percent of Scottish people aged fifteen or more in 1988. Further reading Beano and Dandy comics have become institutions Kaye, H. and McCelland, K. (eds) (1990) E.P. of British childhood, achieving acceptance by parents Thompson: Critical Perspectives, Cambridge: Polity and children. Each issue contains slapstick stories Press. of characters such as Dennis the Menace and Desperate Dan. The largest circulation in any region MARK DOUGLAS is Southeast England, where 29 percent of children, mainly boys aged 7–15, form the readership. Dandy and Beano stories have changed little since their Thompson, Emma conception in the 1950s by Leo Baxendale (Bash b. 1959, London Street Kids, Minnie the Minx) and David Law (Dennis the Menace, Beryl the Peril). Dudley Actress Watkins invented Desperate Dan for the Dandy in Emma Thompson graduated straight from the the 1930s. In 1994 letters were written to The Times Cambridge Footlights to the West End (Me and My when it was rumoured that the Bash Street Kids Girl) and television, in Tutti Frutti (1987) and teacher was to be replaced by a robot; however, this Thompson (1988), starring and written by herself. turned out to be a marketing ploy. The BBC’s Fortunes of War brought her together Despite their popularity, the Beano and Dandy with Kenneth Branagh, with whom she audience has declined from two million in the 1950s subsequently starred in Renaissance Films’ Henry to 250,000 in the 1990s (audience figures for Beano V, Dead Again, Peter’s Friends and Much Ado About and Dandy are combined). This decline is attributed Nothing. Her other films include The Tall Guy, to the rising popularity of computer games, television Howard’s End, for which she won the 1991 Academy and globally marketed texts. Dandy and Beano also Award for best actress, The Remains of the Day, In the compete against comics with internationally Name of the Father, Junior and Carrington. In 1996 she promoted characters such as Tom and Jerry. thrillers 533

By means of animated series produced for more sustainable model for the contemporary television and video, D.C.Thomson aims to thriller film. However, in the immediate postwar increase interest in Dandy and Beano characters era, crime dramas such as Basil Dearden’s The Blue abroad. Licences for characters such as Dennis the Lamp (1949) commanded wide audience appeal and Menace, Desperate Dan and Bash Street Kids established the conventions of the 1950s crime began in 1988. They are featured in 70–80 product vehicle. Prosaic crime themes investigated by ranges including stationery, chewy bars, burger worthy and uncomplicated police protagonists promotions and most successfully clothing for characterized the typical thriller. children and adults. Licensing nets approximately By the end of the 1950s, the reassuringly £75–£200 million per annum. formulaic narratives were increasingly challenged Beano and Dandy have a mature cult following, by crime dramas with plotlines which sought to which may explain the popularity of adult confront social issues, dramas which can be merchandise. However, to date there are no considered stylistically and thematically suggestive statistics available. The magazine Viz, a comic for of the social realist tendency that marked 1960s adults, is influenced by and pastiches the anarchic British cinema. Val Guest’s Hell is a City (1959) offers humour of the Beano and Dandy. gritty Manchester locations to reveal the city’s seedy underworld as an embittered detective tracks down See also: teen magazines; women’s press a brutal escaped convict. In the problematic thriller Sapphire (1959), the search for the killer of a black woman uncovers disturbing undercurrents of racial Further reading and class tension amongst suspects and their Barker, M. (1989) Comics: Ideology, Power and the Critics, investigators. Joseph Losey’s complex story of Manchester: Manchester University Press. incarceration and gangsterism, The Criminal (1960), presented the prison environment and underworld JOAN STEWART ORMROD with new authenticity; the film, however, encountered a poor critical reception in Britain. thrillers While the traditional values of the police drama were maintained in 1960s B movies, main feature The thematic conventions of the contemporary crime films diversified. The stylish James Bond thriller—suspenseful and exciting drama, a narrative action thrillers, which began in 1962 with Dr No, which locates criminality as its focus— offer a followed by From Russia with Love in 1963, revitalized framework perhaps more readily associated with the British spy genre and opened the way for the the genre-based US film industry. The British similarly US-funded Harry Palmer trilogy: The thriller is not always easy to define, its forms shifting Ipcress File (1965), Funeral in Berlin (1966) and Billion at times between and beyond the crime, Dollar Brain (1967), adapted from novels by Len melodrama, horror, espionage and action Deighton. Of these, the most significant, The Ipcress categories. File, while lacking the glamour, extravagant plot Suspense and intrigue as durable characteristics and budget of its Bond counterparts, offers realism of the thriller are significantly identified in the and style in a credible spy drama which speaks with prewar films of British-born director Alfred a dry and off-beat humour of Cold War cynicism Hitchcock. The Thirty-Nine Steps (1935) and The Lady and disillusion. Michael Caine as Palmer supplied Vanishes (1938) are tightly paced, if improbable, spy a matter-of-fact, civil service secret agent, in deep adventures featuring charming, upper-class contrast to the playboy spy Bond. However, the protagonists. After the war, the seedy realism of Bond character has proved more sustainable, with John Boulting’s Brighton Rock (1947) introduced an Pierce Brosnan introduced in Goldeneye to represent altogether different set of players, and its the 1990s version of this long-running series. horrifyingly dark portrayal of vicious criminal While Michael Powell’s controversial British ambition amongst small-time gangsters offered a film Peeping Tom (1959) —which explicitly addresses 534 thrillers, detective and spy writing themes of voyeurism and violence—had been Neil Jordan’s Mona Lisa (1986), a poignant study of greeted with outrage by reviewers on release, in the relationship between a prostitute and her minder, the 1960s the emerging sub-genre of the The Krays (1990), the compelling story of 1960s psychological thriller was popularized by the underworld bosses Ronnie and Reggie Kray, and international success of Hitchcock’s US film Psycho Jordan’s provocative IRA drama The Crying Game (1960). The psychological thriller of the 1960s and (1990) represent new responses to the category. 1970s allowed film-makers room to deviate on the While Shallow Grave (1994), a chilling story of cinematic possibilities of the crime film in a variety greed and duplicity, proved that the thriller could of ways. In the mainstream, Hammer Films (see still be made in Britain, the decline of the British Hammer Horror) made a series of taut film industry and the identification of a marketable melodramas, which began promisingly with Taste national film type in historical drama are factors of Fear (1961). Beyond Hammer, the US-British co- which have severely diminished the production of production The Collector (1965), a haunting study crime films in this country. British stars remain of cruelty and obsession, and Sleuth (1972), an visible, however, due to the Hollywood trend of elegantly theatrical mystery, were built on strong the late 1980s and 1990s to cast British actors, and suspenseful plots. Experimental responses to including Terence Stamp, Charles Dance and the category include Blow Up (1967), in which Jeremy Irons, as villains in big-budget US crime Italian director Michelangelo Antonioni bound a movies. At home, the fragmentary forms of the mysterious and fragmentary plot within a pastiche contemporary thriller, coupled with the precarious of Swinging London images and contexts. Similarly, state of the nation’s film industry, have meant that Nicholas Roeg used his evocative visual style to television can be seen to offer a more stable context disclose a violent and decadent underworld in for the sophisticated crime drama with the making Performance (1969), and to reveal the hidden of feature-length and serialized thrillers, such as malevolence of an atmospheric Venetian setting in Prime Suspect, scripted by Lynda La Plante, and the supernatural thriller Don’t Look Now (1973). Jimmy McGovern’s Cracker. Big-budget thrillers of the 1970s offered an unusual internationalism. Lavish Agatha Christie See also: crime drama; thrillers, detective and spy adaptations Murder on the Orient Express (1974) and writing Death on the Nile (1978) revamped the British whodunit tradition with glamorous settings and all Further reading star casts. Tightly-paced conspiracy stories The Day of the Jackal (1973) and The Odessa File (1974) — made Merry, B. (1977) Anatomy of the Spy Thriller, Dublin: with British-European funding—combined Gill & MacMillan. journalistic plots (from bestsellers by Frederick Murphy, R. (1992) Sixties British Cinema, London: Forsyth) with international casting and a distinctive BFI Publishing. use of European locations. Conversely, lower ALICE E.SANGER budgets produced a range of British-based crime films: the hard-edged revenge drama Get Carter and Stephen Frears’s grimly ironic Gumshoe (both 1971) thrillers, detective and spy are introspective thrillers which make effective use writing of their North of England locations. Further significant studies of modern gangsterism, Villain British mystery writing has undergone a significant (1971) and The Long Good Friday (1979), are, like series of changes over the past three decades. The Roeg’s Performance, London-centred. detective mystery story, highly restrictive, narrowly For the most part the modern British crime film defined and dominated by the Queens of Mystery is not immediately identifiable as a thriller; while —Agatha Christie, Dorothy Sayers and Ngaio preserving themes of violence or the underworld, it Marsh—reflected an image of England at odds with tends to deal more with characterization than action. the realities of life in Britain during the 1970s, 1980s thrillers, detective and spy writing 535 and 1990s. A backlash against the highly restrictive, strongest reputations in British detective literature conservative format of ‘genteel puzzle’ fiction began belong to women writers, particularly P.D.James, in the 1950s and challenged the homogeneity of that the aforementioned Ruth Rendell and, latterly, format in which suspense and atmosphere, action Lynda la Plante. and characterization were generally sacrificed for the In apparent contrast to detectives whose purity of the puzzle itself. There is now a recognition professional and personal problems are of the existence of ‘evil’ and a shift in emphasis to a determinedly contemporary, there are ‘historically- greater interest in psychology. Thrillers, suspense distanced’ detectives, such as Ellis Peters’s medieval and crime novels, including the psychological thriller monk-detective, M.J.Trow’s Victorian inspector and spy stories, have attracted a wider reading public and Peter Lovesey’s Victorian police sergeant. Yet at the expense of the ‘pure’ detective novel. Although they too are observed with minutely scrupulous the pure detective story is still continuing to attract attention to realistic detail. These new thrillers were new readers and has had some revival during the actively in competition with—and often 1990s in a wave of nostalgia for the manor house indistinguishable from—serious works of literary settings, upper-class characters and a comedy of fiction. In particular, a strong sociological manners tone, it is no longer the dominant force in perspective, at times even quite political, influenced British detective fiction. crime literature, describing and analysing an As many new writers of mysteries in England England caught between traditional and progressive reacted against the limitations of the genre itself, modes of behaviour, the changes wrought by the they also moved away from the ‘well-made’ plot advent of the welfare state, the new permissiveness, format, the artifices that had their field of play in the disruption of conventional family life and, most the puzzle, the near distinction between good and recently, such problems as unemployment, drugs evil, and the insistence that the values of societal and racism. norms be upheld, particularly in plot resolutions. Espionage fiction, which had burgeoned with These crime novels have moved closer to the first Eric Ambler novels, persisted through the investigating real sociological problems in cold war years and on into the 1970s and 1980s contemporary Britain, and although they often through the works of John Le Carré, Ian Fleming have the familiar elements of humour and horror, and Len Deighton. Ian Fleming, the creator of more often they provide new insights into human James Bond, Agent 007, began writing in the 1950s behaviour and social conditions. with a realistic approach to the spy story. In the The genre, in effect, has become far more character of Bond, he expressed reaction against domesticated, as in the novels of Colin Dexter and the sobriety of the 1960s. His use of details and his creation, Inspector Morse, and in many brand names, real and fantasy worlds became instances the family conditions of the police official/ intertwined. Bond’s sexual confidence made him detective parallels those of the victims and suspects, into a hero of the more sexually open world of this so that plot situations are intricate and charged with time. Fleming’s heroines (his ‘Bond women’) had dramatic irony. In addition, complex and perverse their own agendas, independent but often tragic sexual relationships are part of the interpersonal figures in his books. His works left a legacy for complications both inside and surrounding the John le Carré and Len Deighton to follow. crimes; homosexuality and even incest are Action and adventure dominate the novels of important subjects in crime fiction, as John le Carré. Since his first publication Call for the psychologically determined characterization has Dead, he has returned again and again to the same become a major emphasis. Ruth Rendell, a major subject matter, the affairs of the British Intelligence force in modern detective fiction explores the Service, and to the same character, George Smiley. criminal mind, homosexuality, misogyny in her His writings reflect his disillusionment with society psychological novels as well as an optimistic view in the second half of the twentieth century, and his of friendship, and village life in her Inspector books analyse an individual’s relationship with that Wexford novels. Since the 1960s, some of the society. Cynicism and pessimism pervade his ten 536 time shares novels in which George Smiley became his seeker Martha Lawrence. Sharon McCrumb and Patricia after humanity, epitomized in Tinker Tailor, Soldier, Routledge. The widespread popularity of detective Spy, The Honourable Schoolboy and Smiley’s People. fiction whose readers cross economic, social Len Deighton, on the other hand, portrayed a educational and gender lines suggests that it makes more rebellious reflection of the cultural tendencies an important political statement about how the of the 1960s. In later books, the hero opts out. His culture works; when women are involved, that contributions were to style and the depiction of the statement is traditional, stereotyped and restrictive. anti-hero. Harry in The Ipcress File typifies the When detectives are amateurs, they can be ignored maverick individualist that Deighton uses as a and their behaviour seen as a momentary intrusion vehicle for his anti-establishment sentiments. He into public life; the changes in social organization shifted pragmatically in later works to make a more which would arise from women’s active topical series of responses to political, social and participation in public life, disruption of economic cultural climate of postwar England. activity and involvement in the political process Literary conservatism in detective fiction is well are thus seen as short-lived and inconsequential. established, with conventions that are consistent The difficulty which authors have in affecting the and recognizable. The overwhelming majority of conventions is paralleled by the problems of their published detective novels provide the safe view of characters, caught between the inside and outside the world in which a single hero can both know in adopting a traditionally male profession. The and correct an important problem, usually as challenge to contemporary authors is to take on serious as deliberately caused death. This is the genre, to fashion it, and to deconstruct the exemplified in the fictions of such authors as Dick structures of the patriarchy. Francis, Cynthia Harriet-Eagles, Ian Rankin, Peter Hill, Derek Raymond, Nicholas Blincoe, Victor See also: crime drama; popular fiction; thrillers Canning, Ted Lewis, Philip Kerr, John Milne, Clark Smith, William McIlvanney and so on. The Further reading economic consequences of a conservative posture are equally clear. Bloom, C. (1990) Twentieth-Century Suspense, The enormous and ever-increasing popularity Basingstoke: Macmillan. of the genre, as registered by published titles, sales JIM SINCLAIR figures, bestseller lists, and library circulation numbers, could not have occurred unless detective fiction were successfully meeting a wide variety of social needs and expectations. Authors and time shares publishers might rightly conclude that there would Time shares became popular in the 1980s but be no advantage in tampering with a proven resulted in bankruptcy, court proceedings or simple success. The predictable formula of detective disappointment and frustration for many people. fiction is based on a world whose sex/gender ‘Time share’ refers to the selling and buying of the valuations reinforce male hegemony. Taking male right to occupy a flat or house, usually for behaviour as the norm, the genre defines its holidaying abroad, for specified weeks of each year. parameters to exclude female characters, Time shares continue to be marketed heavily and confidently rejecting them as inadequate women promoted by aggressive selling techniques, in which or inadequate detectives. A detective novel with a holiday or similar free gift is offered to any invited a professional woman detective is, then, a person who attends the hardsell pitches; these can contradiction in terms. The existence of one last for several hours. effectively eliminates the other. Recently, a number of woman writers have See also: tourism emerged to challenge this stereotype, such as Minette Walters, Stella Duffy, Patricia Cornwall, PETER CHILDS top-shelf magazines 537 tobacco industry display of inner genital areas or sexual acts between men and women. Hard-core magazines, often Since the 1950s, the tobacco industry has been originating in Scandinavia or Holland, which may fighting a rearguard action against consumer explicitly portray heterosexual and homosexual acts, protection agencies, the medical profession and the along with scenes of female domination, fetishes and ethical investment industry. Advertising on corporal punishment, may legally only be acquired television was stopped many years ago. through licensed sex shops. In recent years, in the Sponsorship of sport by tobacco companies is no context of an increasingly competitive market, there longer acceptable. Cigarette packets and other has been a steady drift towards harder material advertising media have long had to carry within top-shelf magazines: for example, the government health warnings. Despite these efforts, introduction of women in the process of shaving, or young females continue to take up smoking: 39 shaved of, body hair, posed lesbian scenes with two percent of the 20–24-year-old age group smokes. women, or models clad in fetish or bondage gear. Tobacco companies such as BAT have diversified Some magazines, for example Mayfair and Club, into financial services, and some companies target, feature models of Page Three girls or the stars of as new consumers, people in the Third World, pornographic video series. Magazines such as where constraints on advertising and legal redress Penthouse feature professional models in glamorous are much more limited. locations. (One hugely popular issue in the 1980s, which included a photoshoot with a Princess Diana See also: newsstands and newsagents lookalike in apparently royal surroundings, sold

MIKE STORRY out in days.) Other titles, such as Escort and Fiesta, trade heavily on ‘readers wives’: polaroid photographs of ‘ordinary’ women usually top-shelf magazines submitted by their partners, and on letters purported to be from readers detailing their sexual Top-shelf magazines are soft-core pornographic experiences. Some invite contact (via box numbers) magazines, so called because they are displayed on with the ‘wives’ in question. This is matched by a the top shelves of shops, too high for children to general trend towards more explicit captions, and reach them. Readily available in Britain in exhortation to masturbation ostensibly urged by newsagents and petrol station shops, and generally the models themselves. priced at £2–£3, they are sold as an aid to sexual The market also supports a growing number of fantasy and masturbation. The top ten titles have specialist magazines whose titles indicate their combined UK sales estimated at 2 million. contents: 40 Plus, Fat and 40, Asian Babes, Skinny and The social role of top-shelf magazines sheds Wriggly and Leg Love. An attempt to open up the insights into British attitudes to sex, and the contrast market to women in the early 1990s was largely a between private and socially acceptable behaviour. failure, perhaps due to British obscenity laws which Despite their popularity for private use, generally, forbid the display of an erect penis. For Women is one outside of all-male environments, use of these exception, which remains in widespread circulation. magazines remains socially taboo. In a recent legal The magazine market is closely linked to case a secretary tried to have her manager fired premium-rate phone sex lines. Up to a quarter of after she found top-shelf magazines in his office. the page length of some titles may be devoted to The manager was retained but referred for advertising such services, which provide a vital counselling by his employers, and the secretary element of the revenue. Several titles have resigned in protest. The revelation that the late poet associated websites. By the late 1990s the Philip Larkin used pornographic magazines caused pornography market had shifted from its main a storm of disapproval in intellectual circles. ground to three relatively new areas: ‘lads’ Soft-core is defined as photographs of nude, or magazines like Loaded and FHM (for softcore), more commonly semi-clad women, precluding video and the Internet (for hardcore). 538 tourism

See also: pornography; special interest magazines The amount of leisure per person within Britain has grown significantly. Key factors have EDMUND CUSICK been the reductions in working time, longer periods of retirement, and the rise of forced leisure tourism in the form of unemployment. Until the 1950s paid holiday entitlements were very limited, Demand for holidays, which increased in the 1950s, particularly among manual workers. Between was stagnant in the early to mid-1960s. Towards 1950 and 1975 such entitlements were much the end of the 1960s, rising standards in Britain, extended, and by 1980 a majority of manual coupled with the increasingly competitive position workers had four or more weeks of paid holidays, of foreign package tours, led to a rapid rise in the secured by the relevant trade unions. This number of holidays taken abroad. Thus, while extension of holiday, coupled with the rise in domestic holiday expenditure rose by 78 percent personal incomes, enabled growing numbers to (from £320 million in 1951 to £570 million in take vacations away from home. In 1980 62 1968), British tourist spending abroad rose from percent of British residents took holidays abroad £60 million in 1951 to £320 million in 1968. in comparison with 56 percent in 1966. Tourism Whereas holidays abroad in 1951 accounted for in the 1990s was an extremely sophisticated only 16 percent of total expenditure; in 1968 they machine, making full use of all information represented 36 percent. However, it is important technology strategies, thus securing efficient and to stress that foreign travel in the 1960s was effective communications. predominantly enjoyed by the higher socio- Since their formation in 1969, the statutory economic groups and the young. Tourist Boards have sought to spread the benefits In the 1970s, the demand for holidays became of tourism throughout Britain and to assist the more geographically diffused, further tourist industry to become and remain competitive. undermining the established resorts. Also, foreign In the 1980s, tourism was widely promoted as a holidays dramatically reduced the rate of domestic coherent entity rather than a multi-product sector, holidays, resulting in a rapid expansion in short- for political and economic reasons. Labelling stay holidays along the British coastline. These tourism an industry was a method of unifying a new types of holidays fell into three main heterogeneous and diverse number of different categories: caravans, holiday cottages and day businesses which individually had very little trips. The 1970s was the decade when caravanning lobbying power than the more homogeneous became extremely popular, but as package industries like transport and agriculture. Thus, they holidays increased, the consumer exchanged the were able to achieve greater visibility with the caravan for the beaches of Costa Brava in Spain. government and the public. Furthermore, the 1970s were the first time that holidays were financially available to people in See also: cross-Channel shopping; heritage the lower socio-economic groups. Therefore, it is important to place holidays and tourism in an economic context because of the symbiotic Further reading relationship between social and economic change; Chaney, D. (1993) Fictions of Collective Life: Public holidays and tourism must be seen as standard Drama in Late Modern Culture, London: features of consumer society lifestyles, in that they Routledge. tend to be occasions of extravagance and Holloway, J.C. (1989) The Business of Tourism, conspicuous consumption. Further, as David London: Pitman. Chaney suggests, ‘the practice of holidaying has Voase, R. (1995) Tourism: The Human Perspective, become a display of citizenship and the tourist is London: Hodder & Stoughton. expected to conform to a script of orderly consumption’ (Chaney 1993:165). FATIMA FERNANDES trade unions 539 town planning survive. Nonetheless, British society is still characterized by multi-unionism. In retrospect, the 1960s and 1970s seem marked Eighty percent of union members are affiliated by poor town planning, based on tower blocks, to the coordinating centre of British politics, the corrupt politics, aggressive property development Trade Union Congress (TUC). The TUC meets and bypasses. The 1980s, by contrast, were annually when collective policies and strategies are characterized by a renewed interest in urbanism, outlined, with voting strength related to union size. in conservation and in historical styles. Buildings The TUC also elects the General Council which are now more likely to be built into a context rather carries out policy between congresses. Its current than designed individually or after massive General Secretary is John Monks, who succeeded demolition (often of historically important Norman Willis in 1993. The 1990s have seen the buildings) has made way for their arrival. These growth of business unionism, with Monks new ‘infill’ buildings of course vary in quality and attempting to update the TUC’s image, offering attractiveness, and many suffer from imitation affiliates technical and legal advice and financial rather than inspiration, missing the value of contrast services. Eight of the ten largest unions also in a rush to conformity. However, there are maintain links with the Labour Party by paying excellent examples of blending and grafting, such political levies and having a strong, though as Harper Mackay’s Gaemester Kenyon in diminished, influence at the Labour conference and Southwark, London. Large new sites have also within the party’s National Executive. provided great opportunities, notably at Spitalfields In the postwar years, trade unions enjoyed good Market (Leon Krier), Canary Wharf (Skidmore, relations with government. In the era of the postwar Owings and Merrill), Horselydown Square, consensus, governments joined with trade unions Southwark (Wickham Associates) and Richmond and business in economic planning, and unions riverside (Erith and Terry). were consulted before legislation as a matter of course. However at the end of the 1960s, union See also: city redevelopment militancy began to increase, reflecting public dissatisfaction with Britain’s relative economic Further reading decline. This was manifested in the increased number of political strikes, work-ins, occupations Glancey, J. (1989) New British Architecture, London: and demands for greater worker participation in Thames & Hudson. industrial decision making.

PETER CHILDS Edward Heath and the Conservatives came to power in 1970, committed to the Selsdon Programme which advocated right-wing economic reforms and trade unions curbs on trade union power. The latter was attempted with the Industrial Relations Act 1971, which would Trade unions are associations of workers who prevent industrial action harmful to the economy, combine to safeguard their collective interest and prohibit unofficial strikes and limit the powers of the to maintain or improve their working conditions closed shop, the practice whereby individuals must and wage levels. Union aims can be industrial, join the relevant union as a condition of employment social or political. They are either closed at a specific workplace. Union opposition to this Act organizations, concentrating on the interests of was universal, and widespread strikes, originally in defined groups of workers, or open, seeking to sympathy with London dockers who were increase the range of their membership. The trend imprisoned for withholding their labour, rendered the since the 1970s has been towards openness through legislation unworkable. Union strength in this period conglomerates of distinct organizations or through is demonstrated by the National Union of mergers. Closed unions have suffered a drastic fall Mineworkers (NUM), whose members received a in membership and many unions have united to 27 percent pay rise after a strike in 1972 and then 540 tragedies objected to Heath’s statutory incomes policy. Heath and undemocratic. They were aided by the changing went to the country in 1974 asking whether the unions face of industry, the erosion of Britain’s or the government ran the country; Labour was manufacturing base and the increase in de-unionized elected. service industries. In addition, recessions in the early Labour overturned the preceding 1980s and 1990s, the ineffective opposition of the administration’s trade union legislation in return Labour Party and the embourgeoisement of the for wage restraint in a voluntary incomes policy in working class weakened union strength and a deal known as the Social Contract. However, this solidarity within the labour movement. agreement resulted in real cuts in living standards, Trade unions are now considerably weaker than especially in the public sector, and the TUC was in the 1970s. Militancy has been replaced with unable to prevent increased industrial unrest. This business unionism, and the strike rate is low. The culminated in the Winter of Discontent and unions are consistently denied access to the electoral success for the Conservatives in 1979. corridors of power, and consultation is limited, Mrs Thatcher was ideologically opposed to corporatist bodies having been abandoned. Union corporatism; following the New Right economic membership has fallen from thirteen million in 1979 theories of F.A.von Hayek and Milton Friedman, to nine million in 1994, and is a public sector she believed that the market works better preserve. Nevertheless, unions are still active and unimpeded by the state. The unions were blamed seeking to recruit members outside of their for the nation’s economic ills, and their power was traditional areas of influence. They now look to systematically reduced through legislation. increase their influence at European level, Secondary picketing was outlawed in 1980, but particularly in the light of developments according 1982 saw the most radical changes with the them a positive role such as the Social Chapter. Employment Act, which limited strikes to those Some trade unions outside of the TUC have grown concerning pay or conditions, tightened procedures in the 1980s and 1990s, and collective bargaining on the closed shop, made occupations and sit-ins still covers about half of the workforce, suggesting illegal and reduced trade union immunities. Further that trade unions will continue to be prominent in legislation in the 1980s and 1990s made British politics for the conceivable future. requirements for strike ballots more stringent, restricted rights for union officials and forced See also: Labour Party; New Labour; NUJ unions to give seven days notice for industrial action. The basic right to be in a union was also Further reading threatened, with workers at GCHQ from 1984 no longer allowed union membership. Kessler, S. and Bayliss, F. (1995) Contemporary British The defeat of the NUM in the 1984–5 miners’ Industrial Relations, London: Macmillan. strike was a watershed, after which the trade unions McIlroy, J. (1995) Trade Unions in Britain Today, 2nd were forced to come to a new realism in their edn, Manchester: Manchester University Press. dealings with government. The miners were tackled COLIN WILLIAMS when coal stocks were high, after a general election and when the police were ready to deal with mass picketing. The strike was a disaster for the NUM tragedies itself, with the breakaway of the Union of Democratic Mineworkers, and its consequent While there have always been mass tragedies, since inability to combat the 1992 pit closures the development of radio and particularly television, programme. NUM membership fell from 250,000 our perceptions of such tragedies have taken on a in 1979 to 8,000 in 1993. more ‘national’ and intimate perspective. The The Conservatives succeeded in curbing union immediacy of coverage, which in some cases has been strength, with media backing and some public contemporaneous, also allows the viewer a voyeuristic support as unions were perceived to be too powerful position of an unfolding tragedy. An early example trance 541 that touched the public’s conscience was the Aberfan trance disaster in 1966, where the mid-Glamorgan town’s coal waste heap collapsed onto a school and houses, Trance music belongs to the genre of electronically killing 144 people including 116 children. There have produced sound. Its immediate predecessors been a number of other events that have taken on include techno (circa 1990), ambient wave (circa the mantle of national tragedy and have been the 1990), breakbeat (comprising jungle and drum ‘n’ subject of mass grieving, and in some cases, moral bass, 1991–7) and initially acid house. The latter panics. Such tragedies have not been confined to any broke onto the dance scene in the UK in 1988 and one area of life but have encompassed travel, fundamentally altered club culture; indeed it was community life and sites of recreation. Examples of the beginnings of a major cultural explosion, giving the first include the 1988 fire at Kings Cross station rise to raves and wild house mutations. By the end and the aircraft crash onto the town of Lockerbie of 1990, a fusion of American and European house following an on-board explosion. The Aberfan and techno styles was innovated, forming new sub- disaster is an example of the second, as are the mass styles which included trance and ambient under shootings by a lone gunman at Hungerford in the the general heading of global house nation. 1980s and Dunblane in the 1990s. The latter event Trance music gained ground around 1994 and attracted widespread national and international provided an alternative to the rawer beats of house attention as all but one of the victims were primary and extremities of techno where tracks can exceed schoolchildren. Both these events led to a tightening 1,000 bpm. Trance music thus probably originated of gun control, though after the tragic incident at as a counteraction to hardcore techno and identified Dunblane the government was criticized for not itself more with ambient, the latter being an learning the original lessons of Hungerford. atmospheric sound with softer rhythms and Prominent examples of tragedies relating to restrained noise levels. Hardcore trance and techno leisure activities have occurred at football grounds. are related by the bass beat, with trance having a On 15 May 1985, a fire at Bradford City’s Valley more moderate melodic sound. From 1994 Parade ground claimed fifty-six lives, and a riot onwards a new type of sound appeared, known as described as ‘being like the battle of Agincourt’ at tribal music: it was the sound between hardcore Birmingham City’s ground killed one fan. These techno and ambient. were overshadowed by two further events both Trance also produced its own sub-genres. involving Liverpool supporters. First, at the 1985 Hardtrance, with a faster rhythm, is the popular European Cup final in the Heysel stadium in version played on the club scene; Café Del Mar, Belgium, thirty-nine Juventus fans were killed when for example, is a highly popular trance club in Ibiza. terracing collapsed following disturbances between Trancecore is a mixture of trance and hardcore. the opposing fans. The second incident took place Goa trance, also known as psychedelic trance, is a at Hillsborough, the ground of Sheffield more dynamic, deeper and ethno-based version Wednesday Football Club, on 15 April 1989 at an which gained popularity in 1996–7. The name FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and originates from the holiday resort in India, where Nottingham Forest. Overcrowding at one part of DJs initially began producing and playing this more the Liverpool end coupled with perimeter fencing, ethno-based variant. It involves a complex itself a product of the hooliganism of the 1980s, intermixing of synthetic and kaleidoscopic sound, led to the crushing to death of ninety-six supporters. with a steady 4/4 beat underlying a whirling This tragic event spawned massive media coverage assembly of analog sounds. A more popular and some of the issues remain largely unresolved. division of trance music has been that of dreamhouse, which incorporates swelling piano See also: football; government inquiries arrangements inducing a more peaceful state of mind in the listener: the artist Robert Miles’s track GUY OSBORN ‘Children’, which reached number one in most STEVE GREENFIELD European countries, is an example of dreamhouse. 542 transcendental meditation

Since the dawn and increasing popularity of years in seclusion with Guru Dev, the man who electronic music, coupled with widespread had rediscovered the technique this century. The psychoactive experimentation, the age of the dance Mahirishi converted the Beatles and other ‘bands’ with instruments in the traditional sense influential people to the twice-daily twenty-minute has given way to the new age of the sampler and stress-reducing and relaxing exercise, which is technology in the production of sound. However, believed to lead towards self-understanding. There trance music in particular has seen a revival in the are meditation centres in many British cities; an ideologies of the late 1960s and early 1970s, but example is the Liverpool Meditation Centre, this time with an incorporation of a distinctly established in 1994 by the Friends of the Western technological agenda. Trance music is more than Buddhist Order, a registered charity. merely intertwined arpeggiated sixteenth-notes and one-note chords as is often perceived: hardtrance See also: spiritual leaders is arguably small nuances in the arrangements PETER CHILDS around a repeating rhythm, and thus seems to be designed to induce the listener/dancer into a ‘trance’ due to its repetitive nature. Yet, the softer, ambient transmission technologies trance is a more contemplative, meditative mix using musical structures with sounds from the Transmission technologies are the electronic means electronic wavestation as well as Aztec flutes, bells by which communications are sent and received. and African drums. Although this more sombient Historically, communication transmission sound is also electronically derived, its hypnotic technologies in Britain have been developed and sound would more aptly be described as mood- used in two specific ways: for telecommunication seducing music enhancing an altered state of or point-to-point communication, and for consciousness. If ambient trance is perceived as broadcasting or one-to-many communication. music for the ‘mind and soul’, the club version is British Telecom, as it is now known, developed its counterpart for ‘mind, body and soul’. transmission technologies to allow interactive two- As trance music is an abstract construct rather way voice communication between any part of its than actual instruments, it has been able to be network. The broadcast media developed simultaneously energetic yet sedate, either using transmission technologies that allowed a similar an insistent rhythmic pulse to hypnotize into a service to be delivered to many, over a large ‘trance’ or a free-floating languidity to ‘en-trance’: geographic area; it was thus non-interactive and either way the music gives expression to a sound one-way. However, current developments in which crosses listening genre boundaries and transmission technologies, both software and provides a blend of cross-cultural fusions. hardware, are blurring this divide. For most of the twentieth century, transmission See also: hip hop; rave culture technologies have been of the analogue type. This form of technology creates and transmits signals MIRIAM MOKAL that are analogous or similar to the original source. Hence, for example, music, which exists as sound transcendental meditation waves is picked up and then converted into radio waves for transmission; once received it is Transcendental meditation (TM) has become converted back into sound waves. Currently, widely popular in the West since the 1960s. Those analogue technologies are being replaced by digital who practise do not necessarily have any religious technologies which, for some, signal a revolutionary belief, although in some US states TM has the jump in communication technology. By digitalizing status of a religion itself. Of Hindu and Buddhist data —converting data, voice, text, graphics and origin, TM was first popularized in the West by video into a binary form—intelligent software can Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who had spent thirteen process, manipulate, compress and prepare the travel writing 543 signal for transmission. At the receiving end this addition, the British state continues to disregard processes is reversed, turning the digital signal back change of sex with reference to birth certificates, into an analogue form that can be viewed, read or job protection and adoption, a fact that has led to a heard. Digital technologies will allow a huge number of cases (currently under review) being increase in the number of channels that can be taken to the European Court of Human Rights. offered, an improvement in the technical quality of these services and the forms that they take will See also: ‘gender benders’ increase. For example, BSkyB will be offering CLARE WHATLING hundreds of satellite delivered broadcast, narrowcast and interactive digital television channels after the millennium. travel writing Alongside digitalisation there have been developments in the hardware used: fibre optic, For centuries, the genre of travel writing was satellite, cable, cellular radio and microwave. While unchanged. There was very little difference in initially such developments reinforced the dichotomy approach between Richard Hakluyt’s The Principal of telecommunication and broadcasting, they are Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the currently helping to redefine the boundaries. For English Nation (1598–1600) and George Borrow’s example, as the power of satellites has grown, so their Wild Wales (1862). Travel books contained a truthful original use for point-to-point communications has account of an actual journey. Travellers went to been supplemented with the development of direct faraway places and recounted their ‘adventures’ to to home broadcasting (DTH). Thus in Britain, the armchair reader. Books which challenged these telecommunication bodies are starting to offer various generic conventions included Jonathan Swift’s new information and media-styled services, while the Gulliver’s Travels (1726) and Voltaire’s Candide (1759), media is beginning to be involved in interactive two- but these did not affect the tradition. way services (for example, cable systems are also The maximum ‘deviation’ until recent times was providing telecommunication services). the inclusion of ‘tall tales’. Joshua Slocum alleged that he sprinkled the deck of his yacht Spray with tin See also: cable and satellite tacks to deter marauding Indians in Sailing Alone Around the World (1900). Tristan Jones claimed to have pushed his eye back into its socket when it was Further reading knocked out by his mast in Ice (1979). This increased Negrine, R. (1994) Politics and the Mass Media in tendency towards the picaresque and emphasis on Britain, London: Routledge. the eccentricity of the authors is evident in Dervla Murphy’s account of her bicycle ride to India Full PAU L RIXON Tilt (1965) and Rosie Swales’s sailing exploits in Rosie Darling (1973). But the focus in these accounts transsexuals remained the same kind of derring-do that had been practised by such great travellers of the past as Lady A term coined by Dr D.O.Cauldwell in the early Hester Stanhope, Richard Burton or Wilfrid 1950s to describe the case of a girl who desperately Thesiger, whose account of crossing the Empty desired to be a boy, transsexualism first came to Quarter in Arabian Sands (1959) or living in Iraq in public consciousness in 1953 with the case of male- The Marsh Arabs (1964) became popular Penguin to-female transsexual Christine Jorgensen. Despite titles. Even Eric Newby’s cult book A Short Walk in advancements in hormonal and surgical techniques, the Hindu Kush (1958) and Vikram Seth’s From Heaven sex changes, as they are commonly known, are still Lake (1983), apparently in the ‘understated’ tradition prohibitively expensive, rarely available on the where the focus is deliberately shifted from the National Health and emotionally and physically prowess of the traveller to the interest of the people painful processes for those who undergo them. In encountered, were really about their authors. 544 tribalism

The recent trend has been from the informative Class can also be a source of the division unveiled to the impressionistic. Rough Guides and the in ‘tribalism’. Social status thus creates the ‘tribe’. American Bill Bryson are largely responsible for this. In practice, tribalism is seen at its barest with The former, written for budget travellers and football supporters, where supporters of a certain students on their year off, are an iconoclastic football club can be viewed as a ‘tribe’ within the alternative to tourist-brochure influenced guides, wider community. Tribalism can to a lesser extent whose production was often subsidized by the tourist be connected to other sports, but in all these cases industry. Bryson’s approach—acerbic, idiosyncratic, it is connected to a need to belong to some grouping opinionated, at times manic— replaced that of gentler from which identity personal and political can be writers like Jonathan Raban (Hunting Mr Heartbreak, drawn. Worldwide, there is nothing unusual in this; 1990) and Paul Theroux. (The Great Railway Bazaar, on the contrary, it is quite basic and quite primitive. 1975). His books do not lay claim to veracity, yet If there is a prime question overhanging ‘tribalism’ have restored travel to the bestseller lists. They in developed societies such as British culture, it include The Lost Continent (1989), Neither Here Nor There centres on the degree to which the freedom (1991) and Notes from a Small Island (1995), espoused as a value in such societies can be squared with tribal attitudes. See also: autobiography See also: football; violence

Further reading Further reading Jarvis, R. (1997) Romantic Writing and Pedestrian Travel, Basingstoke: Macmillan. Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London: MIKE STORRY Verso. Clarke, P.B. (1996) Deep Citizenship, London: Pluto tribalism Press, pp. 93–7. PAUL BARRY CLARKE The distinction between the tribes of Europe are SVANBORG SIGMARSDOTTIR well known, and have indeed led to wars spilling well beyond the bounds of Europe. The threat of such recurrence has brought Helmut Kohl, the tribute bands previous Chancellor of Germany, to imply in a controversial statement that without a full European Described by some as a postmodern musical unification backed by economic and monetary development, the tribute band is a peculiar hybrid union (EMU) tribalism in Europe might yet again of fandom and cabaret culture. Usually taking their lead to war and strife in the next millennium. name from some aspect of their idol’s work, tribute Less well known is the phenomenon of tribalism bands tend to perform note-perfect renditions of in Britain. This tribalism stretches between the the band they are imitating. Stage shows and countries of the Union, Scotland, Wales, Ulster and costumes, even accents, are meticulously studied England, for example, or even within such regional and performed to audiences. Bands such as Bjorn groupings. Tribalism in Britain can be explained Again (Abba), The Australian Doors and the in several ways. It can be viewed as how the people Australian Pink Floyd all regularly perform sell out in Britain are identified by particular terms and gigs. The Bootleg Beatles have achieved recognition categories that feed into their identities. These terms by performing at Liverpool’s Royal Philharmonic can be geographical, as in, for instance, dividing Hall, something their illustrious predecessors failed the British people according to their residency. This to do. Some artists are pleased by the ‘tribute’ paid can be both general—for example, from south or to them; Oasis copyists No Way Sis have the north—or it may associated with counties or regions. blessing of their idols. two-tone 545

See also: pop and rock This development was in parallel with an increasing intervention by Hollywood into the field of science SAM JOHNSTONE fiction with notable films such as Logan’s Run (Anderson, 1976), Star Wars (Lucas, 1977 re-released TV-am 1997) and cult favourite Blade Runner (Scott, 1982), also released as Blade Runner: The Director’s Cut (Scott, TV-am was an ambitious television start-up, the 1991). While all may owe something of a debt to first television company to offer programmes in 2001: A Space Odyssey (Kubrick, 1968), they reflected the mornings. It drew widespread scepticism for the move of traditional areas of human conflict into the hype surrounding its launch. It recruited high- visions of a future society. The most telling profile media figures including David Frost and contribution of 2000 AD is undoubtedly the Anna Ford (who were nicknamed ‘dinosaurs’) and character Judge Dredd, the ultimate law enforcer, predicted ITV-style success. In 1983, Ford threw a judge, jury and executioner who rode the streets of glass of wine over the Conservative politician MegaCity One in the twenty-first century dispensing Jonathan Aitken because she felt he had ‘betrayed’ justice as and when he felt necessary. The character her colleagues at the station. The programmes were was utilized in the Hollywood film Judge Dredd innovative and ambitious (Ulrika Jonsson was a (Cannon, 1995) though some purists decried its weather girl), but TV-am never achieved the ratings depiction (and Sylvester Stallone’s portrayal) for it set out to gain and eventually lost its franchise. being not true to the ‘original’. It is somewhat curious that while we can be precious about cultural artefacts See also: breakfast television; daytime television; created in the recent past we are far less concerned Granada; Mersey Television; Thames TV with interpretations of work with a longer history such as Shakespearean plays. Judge Dredd himself MIKE STORRY has emerged as a cultural icon, and 2000AD to a large degree operates within the shadow of its most 2000 AD famous creation. 2000AD was essentially a product of its time. After See also: comics; comics culture Warlord was launched by rivals D.C.Thomson in September 1974, IPC magazines realized that it Further reading was important to counter with their own new magazine. At the time of the launch of 2000AD, Jarman, C. and Acton, P. (1995) Judge Dredd: The the market was awash with themed comics such Mega History, Leonard Publishing (more as Roy of the Rovers (football) and Action (war), while concerned with Judge Dredd than 2000 AD 2000AD’s own theme was to be broadly science- itself, but in the absence of any reference works fiction oriented. As the founder of the magazine on 2000AD it provides some useful early detail explained: and context).

GUY OSBORN I didn’t want 2000AD to follow in the same old STEVE GREENFIELD house style of existing publications like Eagle or TV21. I actually saw sci-fi as a vehicle for increased action and violence, and, more two-tone importantly for myself a chance to explore the difficult idea and concept of the human At its height in the years between 1979 and 1982, archetype of the beast. 2000AD was not a the two-tone movement provided an often damning vertical progression from previous comics, more musical commentary on the most significant a retreat into a darker world, where you could rightward ideological shift in modern British get away with anything. political thought. Hailing mainly from the more 546 two-tone ethnically diverse, though by no means for their dress code, rudies evidenced an harmonious, communities of Coventry, enlightened outlook on issues of race. Birmingham and East London, the Specials, The Having released a string of hits which dealt with Beat, The Selecter and Madness formed the nucleus unemployment, foppery in higher education, racial of the bands signed to the Two-Tone label and violence and the futilities of the urban nightclub produced the self-defined two-tone or ska music lifestyle, it seems fair to say that the most incisive which dominated the charts in the early Thatcher political commentary from within this musical years. Two-tone by name and two-tone in movement came from the Two-Tone label’s composition, with black and white group members, founders, The Specials (officially named the Special these bands preached a positive and provocative AKA). But their most prescient and haunting song message of interracial cooperation and was ‘Ghost Town’, a number one in 1981, which understanding, against a background of coincided with the widespread inner-city rioting of bureaucratic and political indifference, neo-Nazi the same year. Furthermore, while recording as the nationalism and the planned structural decay of Special AKA in 1987, the band again captured the the inner cities. mood of the moment in contributing to the This post-punk wave of British popular music international campaign effort to secure the release had its roots and sought its inspiration in the work of Nelson Mandela. Their catchy anthem, of Jamaican musicians, such as Prince Buster, Duke celebrating the name and plight of the jailed ANC Reid and Coxson Dodd, from some twenty years leader, was sung throughout the townships of South earlier. Indeed, many of the original ska sounds Africa. (such as ‘Guns of Navarone’ and ‘My Boy Several two-tone/ska revivals have occurred Lollipop’) were covered by British two-tone bands since the movement’s heyday, while many original and became huge hits with the movement’s many two-tone band members have since found success skinhead followers (see skinheads). But two-tone in new group combinations (including the Fine music was more than ska; it was ska plus pop, punk Young Cannibals, General Public and the Fun Boy rock and soul. This unique cocktail of musical Three). Meanwhile, perhaps recognizing their influences created a new dance craze (the title of a obvious influence on younger Britpop bands, 1981 film documenting the British two-tone Madness returned with several sold-out live shows. phenomenon) and a new strain of youth-culture. Rudeboys and rudegirls, or gender-neutral rudies, Further reading were a fashion-conscious crowd prone to wearing smart suits, ‘pork pie’ hats, white socks and slip- Marshall, G. (1988) The Two-Tone Story, London: on, tasselled brogues. Unlike some extreme Boxtree. nationalist elements of the mod (see mods) and STEPHEN C.KENNY skinhead cohort, from which they drew inspiration

Ulster Unionists unfettered approach which captured the dissenting attitude and mood of the underground, the Ulster Unionists support the constitutional status underground press demonstrated that even those of Northern Ireland tied to state and Crown within without journalistic, design or publishing the United Kingdom. Popular Protestantism is the experience could produce culturally definitive traditional link between Unionists and independent magazines and ‘fanzines’. Conservatives, and the former took the With localized and international influences Conservative whip until the Stormont Parliament ranging from concurrent cultural movements such was prorogued in 1972. Unionists oppose sharing as the New Left, Beatniks and Situationists power with Ulster’s Catholics and any integration International, the 1960s and early 1970s with the Irish Republic, hence condemning underground press mushroomed with publications initiatives such as the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement including the first British underground magazine and bilateral London—Dublin talks on the future It (International Times, 1966), the satirical Oz (1968), of the province. In 1998, David Trimble was leader the Marxist left Black Dwarf (1968) and London of the official Ulster Unionist Party and Ian Paisley listings magazine Time Out (1968) alongside a led the more extreme Democratic Unionist Party. plethora of political manifestos and pamphlets. The Unionist parties have a no-contest electoral early 1970s introduced 7 Days (1971), Ink (1971), agreement whereby sitting MPs are unchallenged, feminist publications like Shrew and Spare Rib (1972) lessening the possibility of the Catholic SDLP and Gay News (1972). The infamous 1970 Oz court gaining more seats. case for its ‘schoolkids’ issue featured in a decade of frequent police raids and court action against See also: Ireland; Sinn Féin the transgressive underground press.

COLIN WILLIAMS All manner of independent publications were to energize the publishing arena in subsequent years. Punk signalled the proliferation of the underground press and cheaply produced, xeroxed or photocopied fanzine, fanzines with Mark Perry’s Sniffin’ Glue (lauded as the first contemporary music fanzine) and others such as The cultural explosions of the 1960s reverberated the Glaswegian Ripped and Torn and More-On throughout the publishing world, creating an demonstrating the punk ‘do-it-yourself’, working- underground press invigorated by and class ethos with their haphazard, anarchic disseminating ideas synchronously with emerging typography and graphic arrangement indicative of counter-cultural movements. Rejecting mainstream punk music and attitude. publishing conventions, revolutionizing language The early 1990s trans-Atlantic Riot Grrrl and visual print with an experimental thrust and movement drew upon punk subculture to challenge 548 Unification Church received gender roles and representations, riot grrrls money. The group uses ‘front’ names, such as ‘The forming their own bands and producing fanzines Kensington Garden Arts Society’, ‘The New World such as Ablaze and Fast Connection which fused music Singers’ and ‘The International Conference on the with forthright feminist opinions. Unity of the Sciences’. As 1980s underground magazines like ID and The Face went overground with their stylistic fusion See also: evangelism; Jehovah’s Witnesses of music, fashion, art and culture, they partly MIKE STORRY triggered the early 1990s publishing revolution, creating an underground press replete with titles like Dazed and Confused, satirical fashion magazine universities Blow, The Idler, aBeSea, G-Spot, Herb Garden, Jockey Slut and Zine which benefited from cheap and During the postwar period, universities underwent accessible desktop publishing and printing methods a series of significant and revolutionary changes. and a burgeoning creative spirit among aspirant Up until the Robbins Report (1963), chaired by photographers, writers and designers. Other Lionel (later Lord) Robbins, universities were magazines like the ragga Skank, second-hand relatively autonomous academic republics receiving fashion Cheap Date and Charlotte Cooper’s thematic a quinquennial recurrent grant from central zines have followed. government via the University Grants Committee Independently published and distributed on (UGC). The latter, established in 1919, advised smaller budgets and with smaller circulation figures government on the distribution of funds to than its mainstream counterparts, the underground universities and acted, as Hugh Dalton noted, ‘as press is aimed at specific audiences and irreverently a buffer or shock absorber between the government covers all aspects of culture. It resists dominant and the universities’. trends by creating them instead through a risk- That role, and indeed the system of university taking approach without the marketing, advertising finance, management and autonomy, changed and orthodox constraints of larger publications. radically following the Robbins Report, which outlined details recommending a move from elite to mass higher education. This involved a projected Further reading tripling of student numbers by 1980 and a higher Fountain, N. (1988) Underground: The London education system dominated by the universities. Alternative Press 1966–74, London: Routledge The demands placed on universities by growing (fascinating, revealing appraisal of the nascent numbers of eligible students, together with an contemporary London underground press). overall projected increase in population size, prompted Robbins to recommend expanding the SATINDER CHOHAN number of universities. Robbins introduced the principle, sacrosanct Unification Church until recently, that all students capable of benefiting from higher education be permitted, if they so A North Korean electrical engineering graduate, wished, to proceed to such education. A significant Sun Myung Moon (1920–) founded his church as correlative to this was that education should be free God’s new religious vehicle in 1954. His followers at the point of delivery. The underlying justification are known derogatively as ‘Moonies’ because they for this was that as the benefit was not just to an believe their leader is the Second Coming. Moon individual but to society in general, the cost could chooses members’ marriage partners, who are reasonably be borne by the community. usually unknown to one another. His mass What followed the Robbins principle was the marriage of 30,000 couples in 1992 is in The Guinness building of a number of new ‘plate glass’ universities, Book Of World Records. The religion is unpopular or as Harold Wilson somewhat disparagingly called because its adherents are allowed to lie to raise them ‘Baedeker’ universities, in towns such as universities 549

Canterbury and Colchester. The UGC had of steps towards increasing government control and promptly followed Macmillan’s commission of further undermining traditional university Robbins in 1959 with a proposal to build seven new autonomy. universities, and by 1974 the number of universities The degree-awarding institutions, a right had doubled from its pre-Robbins total to forty-four. previously confined to universities holding Royal Ultimately, the final number was determined by bids Charters, were expanded through the creation of that were able to meet the deadline set by the the CNAA. This was a nationally and centrally Treasury. Such bids conformed to the UGC’s accredited authority that was able to validate guidelines: that a site of at least 200 acres be made degrees in institutions outside the traditional and available, and that there was evidence of local autonomous universities. In addition, there was a financial support, an ability to accommodate students transfer of direct responsibility for the UGC from and an attractive location for staff. the Treasury to the Department of Education and Although the funding of higher education was Science (DES). Consequently, universities were a popular political move at the time for the made subject to inspection by the Comptroller and Conservative Party, the speed with which the Auditor General, and the Permanent Secretary of Robbins Report was adopted almost in toto, without the DES became the Accounting Officer for the even the briefest of discussions in the House of universities. In addition, responsibility for academic Lords, was exceptional. The proposals reflected the salaries was transferred from the UGC to a popularity of, and demand for, higher education National Incomes Commission. In an at the time. The manner in which higher education unprecedented use of state influence, the DES was presented was also clearly an attempt by an intervened directly to control university fees. In ailing Conservative Party to appear populist rather 1967 the raising of overseas students’ fees to a sum than elitist. This was particularly evident after £200 in excess of home fees was recommended, Macmillan stepped down, leaving Alec Douglas- and, while this was resisted strongly at the time, Home as leader and Prime Minister. Ironically, the raising of overseas student fees as a reasonable however, while Robbins envisaged an expanding economic export was an argument used repeatedly university sector that remained beyond the direct by successive Conservative governments. control of central government, the degree of A worsening economic crisis meant that by the planned university expansion came at the turning early 1970s the DES continued to exert ever-greater point of Britain’s economic fortunes. This left the control over universities. The UGC, a body that incoming Labour government of Harold Wilson had protected universities from government with no choice but to become more actively interference, now became an arm of government involved in the organization of the universities. For interference. In 1974, the quinquennial funding the first but not for the last time, government began system, which had stretched back to the creation to undercut the autonomy of universities. To his of contemporary universities, was abolished in great credit, Wilson forced through the institution favour of an uneven and irregular annual allocation of the Open University, a primarily home, local of funds. The effect of such action was to tie and distance learning form of education that universities ever more closely to the economic expanded the opportunities of higher education policy of a particular government and to alter the beyond anything previously imagined. On some role of the UGC such that it became an accounts, this was his greatest political legacy. interventionist agent of government. Thus the The Robbins Report had already outlined the autonomy of universities as organizations costs of the university system from its 1937–8 figure established under direct authority of the crown as of £26 million to its 1962–3 figure of £129 million. ‘bodies politick’ (bodies embodying the highest The plans for university expansion saw that figure ideal of faith and trust) was, at a stroke, ended by a climbing much higher, leaving Tony Crosland, the convenient political fiat. Labour Secretary of State for Education in 1964, The return of a Conservative government under with no other option but to take the first of a series the leadership of Margaret Thatcher in 1979 laid 550 universities the Robbins principle to rest. One of the that were ‘successful’ were still required by the government’s first actions was to remove the UGC to submit formal plans annually detailing subsidy on overseas student fees altogether, how an institution was allocating resources requiring universities to charge the full amount; a earmarked for particular departments. decision which led to universities needing to The next round of research assessments in ‘market’ themselves overseas. Furthermore, the 1988–9 saw a number of changes. First, by the time home student fee payable to universities was of its publication in 1990 the UGC had been halved. This was a blatant attempt to encourage eliminated and replaced by the Universities universities to adhere to the student number targets Funding Council, a body composed of a defined by the UGC (a failure to comply led the considerably smaller number of people with far UGC to fine institutions that exceeded these limits). fewer academics present. Second, the publication In 1979–83, £100 million was withdrawn from of A Strategy for the Science Base by the Advisory Board the university system through a series of different for the Research Councils (ABRC) in 1987 paved stringency measures. In 1980, a reduction of £30 the way for a stratified university system with million (3.5 percent) of the recurrent grant for the institutions falling into three broad categories: first, following year was announced, prompting the those with excellent research capabilities across a UGC to issue a directive requiring the universities wide range of disciplines; second, those engaged to plan for three scenarios: a projected zero increase in research of high calibre within particular fields; in funding, a 2 percent increase, and a 5 percent and third, those without the provision of advanced reduction. The actual variation in grant allocation research facilities. varied widely, and following the recommendations While Robbins recommended that all from its sub-committees, three universities (Aston, universities should have a significant research Bradford and Salford) received a reduced grant in capability as well as a teaching function, the the order of 30 percent. adoption of research as the definitive criteria of The differential squeeze placed upon institutions institutional excellence seemed to push the by the UGC marked the beginning of a process of universities away from this principle and towards selectivity between and within the universities, a tiered university system. This tendency was altering radically the shape and composition of reinforced by the presentation of numerical listings, British higher education. The chairman of the with each department listed from 1 (below average) UGC, Sir Peter Swinnerton Dyer, announced in to 5 (excellent) and in the latest round (1996) to 1– the publication of A Strategy for Higher Education into 5*. The differential funding more or less removed the 1990s (1984) that the Robbins principles were research monies from grade 1 departments and to be revised. The principle that higher education quite markedly concentrated research funding in be available to all who could benefit from it, was, 5* departments. therefore, replaced by offering such education only The effects of the research exercises have on the to those qualified by ability and attainment. The one hand meant that more research has been report also mentioned that the amount of recurrent produced, some of which is of extremely high quality. grant available from central government would be On the other hand, it has also meant that the need based on an institution’s effectiveness in research. for universities to discriminate in favour of those This principle introduced the Research departments with a good research rating has resulted Assessment Exercise, a method of determining the in a shift away from teaching towards research. quality of research in a university and a means of The idea of a university is now less the body differentially allocating funds to universities. The politic as stated in its statutes and charters, and first round of research assessment exercises in more an institution with managers. The Education 1985–6 rated departments based on their research Reform Act of 1988 abolished academic tenure. record. Gradings such as ‘starred’, ‘above average’, That institution which had ensured freedom of ‘average’, or ‘below average’ were translated into speech replaced it with a system that permitted funds via a resource allocation model. Even those enforced redundancies, enforced early retirement University Boat Race 551 and dismissals for academics who expressed education. In consequence, students could find dissatisfaction with the way in which their themselves paying more towards a better service institutions were managed. While most institutions that cannot be provided because the money they have retained their quality, their standing and the pay does not find its way back into education. basic trust on which all sound institutions must be It will be some years before the effect of all these based, it is clear that some institutions have proposed changes are known, whatever the detailed destroyed quality, standing, openness and trust outcome it will result in the biggest shake-up in while also severely curtailing academic freedom. universities since the Robbins report. It will regard In the course of the early 1990s, reclassifying the student as a consumer with a consequent duty polytechnics as ‘autonomous’ universities increased to pay for the advantage obtained from higher the number of universities. In consequence, there education, and will regard the universities as are now 100 or so universities. The UGC, and its providers with clear duties and standards. In many successor the UFC, have been replaced by the cases this will lead to vast improvements. How Funding Councils, established by the Further and widespread those improvements turn out to be, Higher Education Act of 1992. only time will tell. Student fees have been dramatically reduced and maintenance awards have been frozen for ten See also: adult education; schools system years, falling 36 percent against inflation. This has led to a serious reduction in university income. It Further reading is now quite usual for student income and public funding combined to be less than 50 percent of a Clarke, P.B. (1986) ‘Exporting Education: Risks university’s total income. The effect of this, together and Benefits’, The Australian, 22 January. with the Research Assessment Exercise, has been Higher Education in the Learning Society: Report to divide universities into primarily teaching or of the National Committee of Inquiry into research institutions. Higher Education (The Dearing Report) (1997), In either case, the shortfall in student fees is so London: HMSO. serious that universities have considered breaching Shattock, M. (1994) The UGC and the Management of the Robbins principle and charging students ‘top- British Universities, London: The Society for up’ fees. In the light of this, a bipartisan committee Research into Higher Education and Open under Ron Dearing was established to re-examine University Press. the fee structure of universities, their function, their PAUL BARRY CLARKE wider purpose and their place in the community. LAWRENCE QUILL The Dearing report ended the Robbins’ principle of free university education at the point of delivery and recommended that students be University Boat Race required to pay for a substantial part of their fees. The government’s response has been to accept this The Boat Race is an annual rowing race between and to simultaneously eliminate the maintenance Oxford and Cambridge Universities along the grant replacing the cumulative total (approx. Thames, first rowed at Henley in 1829. The race £10,000) with a twenty-year payback scheme that became an annual event in 1839, and moved to its will come into effect once earnings have passed a present course from Putney to Mortlake (four and certain level. In practice, the costs of such payback one-quarter miles) in 1845. Cambridge recorded are likely to be relatively small, but the principle of the longest straight run of wins from 1924 to 1936, higher education free at the point of delivery has and there has been one dead-heat in 1877. The event formally been breached. It is also regrettable that is televised by the BBC, bet on by thousands of there are no guarantees that the money so recouped punters, and deemed to sit alongside such once-a- has been ‘ring-fenced’; that is to say there is no year television regulars as the Grand National and guarantee that it will be fed directly back into higher the London Marathon as a quintessential British 552 university building armchair spectacle. Most people arbitrarily support allowed for expansive and individual planning. The one or other of the two ‘blues’, and the elevation seven examples cited differ considerably. Four are of a parochial Oxbridge novelty to a national unitary, with communal buildings arranged occasion is arguably one of the chief sporting variously towards the centre and with student definitions, like Royal Ascot or the Henley Regatta, residences placed on the periphery. Sussex, located of a continuing class society. in Stanmer Park just outside Brighton, was planned by Sir Basil Spence, together with most of the See also: rowing principal buildings. The style adopted was a variant of new brutalism, with red brick and concrete PETER CHILDS lintels creating a certain monumentality even though no building rises above three storeys, with university building the exceptions of the Meeting House and the Gardner Arts Centre. The 1950s in Britain witnessed an East Anglia, by Denys Lasdun and Partners, unprecedented period of school building, partly places science buildings in a continuous east-west as a result of the 1944 Education Act. During spine with others, including the stepped, eight- the 1960s attention turned to university storey student residences, arranged to the north building. The social climate favoured an and south. Essex, near Colchester, takes advantage expansion of the university system which had of the contours of the site. Principal buildings fallen behind other countries in Europe, notably forming long parallel, linked blocks, with Italy, France and Germany. The Robbins courtyards and walkways at upper levels connecting Commission, established in 1959, contended also to the fifteen-storey student residences. that appropriately qualified individuals ought to Warwick, outside Coventry, by Arthur Ling and be entitled to a university place. These ideas Alan Goodman with contributions from Yorke, happily coincided with the recognition that Rosenburg and Mardall and Grey, Goodman and modern architecture could be socially adaptable Partners, provides another variant. The collegiate and could serve the wide range of challenges Universities of York, Kent and Lancaster offered presented by both old and new universities. the opportunity for architectural variety amongst This potential was fully exploited in the British the colleges. Surrey, in Guildford (1966) sited on universities founded and partly built in the 1960s, the hill below the cathedral, integrates more including Sussex (1961), East Anglia (1963), York successfully with the city. (1963), Lancaster (1964), Essex (1964), Warwick (1965) and Kent (1965). All built in parkland, well Further reading outside the towns, they adhered to the brief that each university required about 200 acres to Birks, T. (1972 ) Building The New Universities, Exeter: accommodate sports facilities and playing fields. David and Charles. This principle, while denying the many advantages HILARY GRAINGER offered by bringing together ‘town and gown’,

installations in galleries as well as the arrays of Vadim, Jean monitors that eventually became standard b. 1966 backdrops on television programmes like Clive James on TV. Artists such as Gilbert and George, Film-maker Mick Harvey, Susan Hiller and Catherine Elwes Jean Vadim has directed three movies: Lean the have used the medium. The term also covers Pigfarmer (1992), Beyond Bedlam (1994) and television art, video sculpture, street video or Clockwork Mice (1995). As screenwriter and director, guerrilla television. his films have been characterized by gentle comedy PETER CHILDS and social observation. His debut effort is a parable about race and identity that tells the story of a Jewish London twenty-something who finds out Video Recordings Act that his true parents are Yorkshire farmers. Though the film, which degenerates into farce, did This 1984 Act controls the classification system and comparatively well at the box office as ‘the first the distribution of video recordings. The British Jewish comedy to come out of Britain’, his later Board of Film Censors provides classification films treat psycho-social situations more seriously, certificates for all legal video recordings and it is such as Clockwork Mice, about the relationship illegal to supply any video without one, or without between a delinquent pupil and the special needs meeting the stipulated labelling requirements. The teacher who tries to develop in him a sense of aim of the Act, which provides for powers of ambition and achievement through cross-country confiscation, is to control the depiction of sexual, running. violent, genital, urinary and defecatory acts.

PETER CHILDS See also: censorship

PETER CHILDS video art The term ‘video art’ refers to recordings by fine viewing technologies artists on videotape plus sculptures and installations. In its early days in the late 1960s and Watching television has traditionally been thought early 1970s, video art explored its own construction of as a passive activity. The viewer would watch and toyed with the medium itself. In Britain, artists’ television for several hours, only occasionally getting video only appeared on television arts programmes up to change channels. Television scheduling and in the 1980s. Video’s capacity to time-shift and to advertising was built round this premise. The viewer mirror spectators led to a range of innovative would absorb advertisements between programmes 554 violence while waiting for another programme segment. The Further reading true significance of the television experience was one Silverstone, R. and Hirsch, E. (eds) (1994) Consuming of viewing programmes. However, with the Technologies: Media and Information in Domestic development of video, the introduction of television Spaces, London: Routledge. sets with remote controls and with more channels being provided, questions have been raised about PAU L RIXON the way audiences view and use television. With new technologies of viewing, it would seem that the viewer is gaining new pleasures from watching and violence using television and is indeed more active than previously thought. It is now recognized that the Violence is a pervasive and enduring aspect of all tyranny of the schedule and the programme societies and takes many forms from politically timetables, is no more: the viewer now has the motivated violence (terrorism) to ‘common’ freedom to watch when, what and how he or she assault or rape, and can be directed against the likes. person or property. In Britain, political violence With the increased use of VHS video people has taken and takes different forms, from the are able to watch programmes at different times bombing campaigns of the Provisional IRA and than originally shown. Thus they are able to re- the street violence of the fascist British National schedule or ‘time-shift’. No longer are they Party to the violent clashes between strikers and restricted to the carefully controlled and constructed police during the miners’ strike of 1984–5. Other television schedules, but can watch programmes forms of violence include collective forms such as hours, days or months after they were shown. football hooliganism or riots, and individual ones Video technology has also introduced the ability such as muggings, rape and murder and the for viewers to fast-forward through advertisement violence associated with ‘gang culture’ and the breaks. This has become known as zipping, and is illegal drugs trade. A less commonly a practise that worries the advertising industry as acknowledged form of violence is the legitimate more and more people time-shift and are institutionalized organization of violence by the increasingly able to ‘miss out’ the advertisements. state in the form of the police and the armed forces. Video helped to introduce the remote control, In common with all states, the British state claims, since by using the video handset people could in the words of Max Weber, a monopoly on the change video channels from the comfort of their legitimate use of violence, and it is the latter which seats. Most television sets now also come with their constitutes the ultimate authority of the state and own remote control. This technology has also given its agencies. the viewer the power to change channels quickly. A simple way of analysing violence, useful for So, for example, when an advertisement break distinguishing ‘political’ from ‘ordinary’ violence, comes on, viewers can switch to another channel is to determine who or what is the perpetrator, who for the duration of the break. This is referred to as or what is the victim and what is the reason for the zapping. Where the remote control is used to flick violence. However, the distinction between political through many channels, increasingly possible in and ordinary violence is extremely porous; for the multi-channel environment, a form of ‘channel example, many feminists have claimed that rape is surfing’ or ‘grazing’ occurs. Here, part of the a form of political violence since it is the ultimate pleasure is the experience of creating one’s own means by which women are exploited and collage or programme experience divorced from subjugated in a sexist, patriarchal society. A similar that offered by the programmers of a particular argument is often used to explain racial violence channel. on ethnic minorities and the past violent reaction of black and Asian communities to perceived police See also: cable and satellite; transmission racism and harassment in the inner city riots of technologies Brixton and Liverpool in the early 1980s. Vogue 555

Violent crimes have been on the increase in Vogue Britain over the past decade, and recently there has been a good deal of support for the argument that British Vogue is part of the Condé Nast socio-economic inequality, unemployment and International Magazines Group, and Vogue is one deprivation are the major cause of crime and of the nine magazines published in Britain by this violence. However, the strict regulation of personal highly influential company. Its award-winning firearms makes Britain a less violent society than British magazines have a readership of over five others, such as the USA. million adults, accessing a combined household Just as important as violence itself is the threat income in excess of £88.4 billion. Vogue was of violence, and on this measure many people feel launched in Britain in 1916 and is commonly that Britain is a more violent society. For some, regarded as the British fashion bible. British Vogue this is due to a ‘culture of risk’ in which people in is aimed at affluent, brand-literate and brand- advanced societies feel increasingly insecure, unsafe conscious readers. It thus influences purchasing and fearful, as a result of the decline in community habits and greatly impacts upon the editorial and solidarity and the rise of a materialistic and direction of other media. (The average Vogue individualistic culture which, in the context of an woman reader spends circa £2000 per annum on absence of sufficient means to take part in this clothes, whereas a typical middle-class woman consumerist lifestyle (without enough jobs or generally spends less than a third of that figure). money to go round), explains the rise in violence. The combination of beauty and fashion is central to Vogue’s enduring success. Its influence in these See also: armed forces and police; domestic related fields is unparalleled among retailers and violence; Ireland; police; WAVAW readers alike. It is read by nearly two million adults every month, building and shifting specific products, and directing the spending power of Further reading affluent Britain.

Burton, J.W. (1997) Violence Explained: The Sources of FATIMA FERNANDES Conflict, Violence and Crime and their Prevention, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Honderich, T. (1977) Three Essays on Political Violence, Oxford: Blackwell.

JOHN BARRY W

Oxford High School, Fellow and Tutor at St Hugh’s Ward, Barbara College, Oxford and Mistress of Girton College, b. 1914, York; d. 1981 Cambridge from 1985–91, Warnock was made a life peer in 1985. She is married to the philosopher Economist Sir Geoffrey Warnock. Barbara Ward (later Baroness Jackson of Mary Warnock is well known for her work in Lodsworth) was an economist who influenced moral philosophy, particularly concerning thinking on aid to underdeveloped countries, the existentialist ethics, J.S.Mills’s utilitarianism and the global environment and the plight of the world’s concept of moral sense in Hume and in poor. Only One Earth: The Care and Maintenance of a contemporary bioethics. Her short but extremely Small Planet (1972) (co-authored with René Dubos) respected book On Ethics Since 1900 presents a lucid and Progress for a Small Planet (1979) are her best- and accessible account of the major transformations known works. Her first book, The West at Bay, was occurring in English and continental moral published in 1948. In Progress for a Small Planet, she philosophy in the twentieth century. She has also identified three principal threats to the global devoted an interesting volume to women environment: pollution, affluent nations’ philosophers. Her most recent research has centred consumption of limited resources, and consequent around the philosophy of mind, to which she has growing tensions between rich and poor. She contributed substantial works, Imagination (1976) offered practical strategies for recycling waste, more and Memory (1987). efficient use of energy and meeting the basic needs Warnock’s reputation as a moral philosopher of the disadvantaged. led her to chair two government inquiries that have exerted considerable influence on British public See also: environmentalism awareness and legislation. The first inquiry in the mid-1970s concerned education, particularly special MIKE STORRY education needs. The second, and most famous, was the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilisation and Embryology, established in 1982. Warnock, Mary In July 1978, the first test-tube baby was b. 1924 successfully delivered in Britain. The social, ethical, theological and legal implications of this scientific Philosopher breakthrough and its potential developments were Baroness Warnock has contributed to enormous. For the first time, human life could be contemporary British culture in both academic created and/or assisted artificially. This offered great philosophy and public services concerning hope in alleviating the infertility problems education and bioethics. A former headmistress of experienced by many British couples. However, it Warnock, Mary 557 generated deep anxieties from different sections of principles behind the new techniques and their British society concerning where the limits to implications. To some extent, therefore, new practices such as artificial insemination by donor principles governing moral conduct would be (AID), in vitro fertilization (IVF), human egg/ required. As such principles were not altogether embryo donation and surrogate motherhood forthcoming or clear, some decisions were based should be drawn. Arguments against some or all less on clearcut moral criteria than on the need to of these practices mainly rested on the deviation ‘allay public anxiety’. from the natural process of fertilization and the The report separated out certain issues. In a free separation of unitive and procreative aspects of society, it was felt that assisted reproduction could marital sexual intercourse. Other arguments against not be regulated and/or policed without concern the introduction of a third party into the encroaching on some basic individual liberties. procreative process, possibly for financial gain, and However, the report advocated that AID, gamete/ the likelihood that IVF would create a surplus of embryo donation, surrogacy and IVF should embryos, some of which would not have the chance always be practised non-commercially and that of reintroduction into the mothers uterus. involved medical practitioners must be licensed to, The possibility of IVF raised a number of and subject to the regulations of, a proposed serious ethical dilemmas never before experienced. authority. The most difficult problem the report For the first time, the existence of embryos outside had to deal with was the limits that should be placed the mother’s uterus had to be considered, and their on embryo research. Some representations to the moral status had to be defined and protected. This Committee were based on the principle that human required a reassessment of where the boundaries embryos should be afforded some protection in law. of personhood, and the respect of rights that go Hitherto, the human embryo per se did not have with it, should now be placed. The deepest anxieties direct legal protection. revolved around the ethical sustainability of the It was felt that the report attempted to ameliorate use of human embryos for the scientific research the opinions such dissension represented by necessary to improve human assisted reproduction restricting the period over which embryo research techniques. could be undertaken. They recommended that The new techniques and practices clearly research might be carried out on an in vitro embryo required careful examination and protracted until the end of the fourteenth day after fertilization, discussion, from which an adequate ethical and after which any further research/ handling of the legal framework could be drawn and implemented. embryo would be a criminal offence. The fourteen- In consequence, the committee chaired by Mary day distinction was based on some scientific Warnock deliberated upon many of the issues and evidence, primarily the appearance of the primitive implications involved in recent and potential streak within the embryo when the beginnings of developments in human assisted reproduction. It the spinal cord develop, thus leading to distinct took evidence from all interested parties and cellular division and even to the possibility of attempted to reach conclusions that were both feeling pain. Nonetheless, it was admitted that there philosophically well-based and consensually was no clear scientific grounds at which point a satisfactory. Its findings and recommendations were respected rather than an unrespected embryo published as The Warnock Report on Human Fertilisation occurred: ‘However we agreed that this was an area and Embryology in 1984. in which some precise decision must be taken, in Warnock stressed that the methods of order to allay public anxiety’. The report made it deliberation undertaken by the Inquiry could not clear that a new, independent statutory licensing be based on obedience to established moral rules authority was essential to regulate Britain’s alone. The creation of human life in laboratory infertility services and embryo research, to inquire conditions constituted such a radical departure from into and license current practice(s) and to former practices that established codes of moral technically and ethically scrutinize any future conduct could not be expected to govern all the proposals for their ethical significance. 558 Watkins, Peter

The Warnock report was sent out for WATERLOO TERMINAL see Nicholas consultation under white papers in 1986 and 1987, Grimshaw and Partners and after submission was enshrined in the 1990 Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act, which also set up an authority to license procedures, Watkins, Peter police the act and take a broad legal and ethical b. 1935 view on actions and proposed actions falling under its general remit. Broadly speaking, there is a wide Film-maker consensus that the Act has worked fairly well and A RADA graduate and pioneering drama- that, within its fairly narrowly defined remit, the documentarist, Watkins introduced his licensing authority has worked moderately well. documentary reconstruction technique in Culloden There is some concern that membership of the (1964). He began working for BBC documentaries licensing authority has been drawn fairly narrowly in 1963, but resigned following their international and might overly represent vested interests. This suppression of his nuclear film The War Game seems to be a general weakness in the (1965). He emigrated abroad after his first feature appointments that have been made to such bodies: Privilege (1967). Against charges of hysterical on the whole, they tend to take a narrow view of paranoia, Watkins reconstitutes official truth and their remit. A recent, highly publicized case has freedom narratives by questioning existing been that of Diane Blood, who sought permission orthodoxies and repressive ideologies. His uniquely to utilize the sperm of her dead husband taken experimental style is invested with performative, from him while he was comatose and on life realist and expressionistic elements in support. While it was widely agreed that he had documentaries like Punishment Park (1971), The previously given verbal consent to such a Journey (1987), The Media Project (1991) and the epic procedure, the Embryology Authority refused biographies Edvard Munch (1976) and The Freethinker permission on the narrow if formal grounds of (1994), about August Strindberg. Despite his lack of written consent. In the event, after appeal continued marginalization by the film-making she was permitted to take the sperm to another community, Watkins’ contribution remains pivotal. European country. In respect of this case, Mary Warnock publicly said that this was exactly the Further reading difficult kind of case that the Committee had not foreseen and that it indicated the need for Macdonald, S. (1993) Avant-Garde Film MotionStudies, flexibility in this area. This indicates that the Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Embryology Authority needs a degree of SATINDER CHOHAN philosophically and consensually based common sense rather than merely strict legal definitions in guiding its decisions. The latter alone will never do: the situation is far too fast-moving for the law Watts, Alan to lead. It must, therefore, be philosophically b. 1915; d. 1973 acute, legally aware and publicly acute individuals Writer that form part of such bodies. Warnock, it seems, established the broad principles, but the Watts was known as one of the high priests of the combination of flexibility of practice and clear counterculture which burgeoned in the USA and limits has yet to be met. Britain during the 1960s and early 1970s, and his writings on Zen Buddhism and Taoism were widely See also: Abortion Acts; euthanasia read by its participants. The recipient of an English public school education, by the age of twenty Watts PAUL BARRY CLARKE had written and published his first book on Zen. EMMA R.NORMAN He had already studied the Orientalists extensively welfare state 559 and been greatly influenced by the Japanese scholar Social provision in the 1930s faced problems D.T.Suzuki. He left his native England for America with high unemployment, leading the wartime in 1938, and although he became an Episcopal government to ask William Beveridge to report on priest for a period of some five years, it was his social insurance. In his Report of 1942, Beveridge individualistic interpretation of Zen which earned recommended that employers and employees him lasting recognition. should contribute to a unified, comprehensive and compulsory insurance scheme, which would pay See also: Buddhism; transcendental meditation subsistence level benefits in sickness, old age and unemployment, irrespective of income. For those JAN EVANS excluded from ‘National Insurance’, ‘National Assistance’ provided a means-tested ‘safety net’ WAVAW benefit. Family allowances (not means-tested), full employment policies and a health service for all The first Women Against Violence Against Women were ‘assumptions’ made by Beveridge. (WAVAW) conference took place in London in In 1948, under Attlee’s Labour government, November 1981. Papers from this and two further most of Beveridge’s recommendations became conferences were published in 1985 by Onlywomen reality. Alongside National Insurance and National Press under the conference title. The view that Assistance was a National Health Service (free at violence against women should be understood as point of use), family allowances and a children’s an expression of patriarchy reinforced by economic, service (for children deprived of a normal home familial and cultural arrangements first gained life; providing too career opportunities for qualified popularity in the 1970s. Among others, WAVAW women). High standards of service were intended. argued that violence was fundamental to male The health service was aimed at the whole biology and also that it had a spectrum of symptoms population, even though private practice continued. including murder, battery, rape, reproductive Abolishing apparently many sources of insecurity technologies, psychiatry, pornography, and even and social division, these provisions creating ‘the make-up and fashion. For WAVAW, a radical British welfare state’ were popular. feminist organization, even when individual men The precise significance of the welfare state did not actually participate in any of these acts, remains controversial. Its radical and egalitarian men as a group still benefited since brutal and aims and the unpopularity of previous provisions, physically coercive acts served to keep all women even including the Poor Law, may have been oppressed by placing the threat of violence over all overemphasized. The new state provision was heterosexual relationships. rarely integrated with voluntary or private provision. If the form of the ‘welfare state’ owed See also: domestic violence; violence much to populist idealism, it owed little less to consensus politics and the lobbying of pressure PETER CHILDS groups for the professions. By the early 1960s, the optimism expressed in welfare state Rowntree and Laver’s Poverty and The Welfare State (1951) that poverty was virtually eliminated was By 1950, it was unremarkable to describe Britain evaporating. Following new research, in 1965 the as a ‘welfare state’. Mostly this term referred to the pressure group Child Poverty Action Group new legislation to promote social welfare, but (CPAG) was formed to lobby for families in sometimes it stood for a more general view of social poverty. The ‘rediscovery’ of ‘child poverty’ and political culture. References could be either embodied a still-controversial new definition of positive or negative. Other countries were also so ‘poverty’, in relativist terms, where poverty was described. The more specific sense is the one defined not as a minimum and essentially fixed discussed here. living standard but according to the changing 560 welfare state nature of needs and standards in a more affluent means-tested nor taxed. The abolition of tax Britain. Abuse in long-stay institutions for old allowances accompanied extending benefit to cover people and people mentally ill or with a learning the first child. disability also became widely publicized, assisted By contrast, Margaret Thatcher’s victory in by the popular sociology of Erving Goffman’s 1979 brought big changes in the ‘welfare state’, Asylums and Stigma. Ken Loach’s television film which were continued by John Major from 1990 Cathy Come Home highlighted homelessness. to 1997. The Conservatives, supported by new The response of Harold Wilson’s Labour thinking about social welfare and committed to government was low key. Deinstitutionalization and improving choice and quality of service, the development of community care proceeded privatization where practicable and value-for- slowly, and a promised grand reform of social money and market disciplines, encouraged tenants security ended in a renaming of National Assistance to buy council houses, and reduced corporatism to Supplementary Benefit in 1966. However, by introducing splits between purchasers and comprehensive schools increased rapidly between providers in health and social care (whereby 1965 and 1970, and it was the Labour Social voluntary agencies and the private sector competed Services Act of 1970 that introduced almost a new with the state to be providers). A new factor in the social service (social work), although expansion of social care was acknowledging the implementation was left to Edward Heath’s preferences of informal carers (usually family Conservative government of that year. In Britain, members). However, charges for care might result social work services for families and communities in the need for the patient to sell their home. in which children, chronically sick, disabled and To reinforce incentives to work or train, elderly people needed care were developed by local Supplementary Benefit was replaced by Income authorities separate from the NHS. In Northern Support in 1986, with a loan-based Social Fund for Ireland the two were the responsibility of one ‘special needs’. The Conservatives also modified the administrative body (the welfare state is thus shown schools system, empowering schools to opt out of as taking different forms in different parts of the the control of local education authorities, and United Kingdom, a point often overlooked). introducing the National Curriculum. Preventative Heath’s government also introduced Family health measures were encouraged and an emphasis Income Supplement in 1971 (known as Family was placed on personal responsibility for health. Credit since 1986, and under review) to tackle child ‘Scroungers’ on benefits remained a bogey, as did poverty. This was a means-tested benefit, related single parents, and a ‘dependency culture’ and an to family size, for families with low income from ‘underclass’ created by the ‘welfare state’ drew employment. While the Institute of Economic attention. Child abuse was established as a problem. Affairs supported such ‘targeting’ of resources, the Feminist theory and research questioned women’s CPAG opposed means-testing as stigmatizing ‘the employment patterns in the ‘welfare state’ and poor’, producing ‘inefficient’ ‘low take-up’ requiring inequalities of provision. Similar questions were corrective ‘welfare rights’ work, and constructing raised respecting ethnic minorities. Thatcherism’s a ‘poverty trap’ whereby extra money earned changes look safe with the new Blair government. resulted in more lost through diminished eligibility However, the ‘welfare state’ will be changing again for benefits. as European Union policies filter through and if Electorally vulnerable and dogged by inflation, devolution takes place. oil price increases and eventually the Winter of Discontent, Labour governments from 1974 to See also: class system 1979 managed to modify state funding and provision for pensioners to take account of the Further reading trend of relatively fewer people of working age and more of pensionable age. In 1975, Child Benefit Hill, M. (1993) The Welfare State in Britain, Aldershot: superseded Family Allowances, being neither Edward Elgar. Welsh press 561

Hills, J. (ed.) (1990) The State of Welfare, Oxford: See also: literature, Welsh; Scottish language Clarendon Press. MIKE STORRY JOHN OFFER Welsh press Welsh language A total of eighty-three newspapers are published Welsh is acknowledged as the strongest surviving in Wales. Because of the relatively small size of the Celtic language, partly thanks to the Welsh population, the readerships of individual titles tend Language Act and the setting up of the Welsh to be smaller than those of English papers. For Language Board, which insist, among other things, example, the readership of the Cardiff South Wales that the language appears on road signs, is taught Echo, 79,189, is a fraction of that of the Liverpool in schools and is a requirement for certain jobs. Echo at 191,000, or even of the Leicester Mercury at Also, the University of Wales’s Board of Celtic 118,594. In addition to the major commercial titles, Studies is working on a historical dictionary of the there are many Welsh community newspapers. Welsh language and major surveys of place names This large number is partly because they receive and dialects at its Aberystwyth Centre for an annual grant as a result of the government’s Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies. wider financial support for the Welsh language, Known as Cymraeg, Welsh comes from a Celtic which has undergone a resurgence in recent years. branch of the Indo-European language family. It is Most of the newspapers are locally owned and spoken more in the north than the south. After a run, and none seems to be ‘a licence to print money’ period of decline, the trend is now towards more —quite the reverse—even though they have Welsh being spoken, especially by young people. reasonable circulations. For example the tabloid A 1981 census showed that 18.9 percent of the Swansea South Wales Evening Post has a circulation of Welsh population used it. A Bangor University 68,935. Smaller papers like the Newport-based report showed that figure had risen to 22.8 percent evening broadsheet South Wales Argus and the tabloid by 1996. The advent of the television station S4C Wrexham Evening Leader, with circulations of 35,644 has obviously enhanced the survival of Welsh. The and 31,598 respectively, are much less viable. popular Welsh-language sitcom Pobol y Cwm (People In Welsh newspapers there is a substantial of the Valley), for example, reflects daily Welsh- difference in advertising rates per page. The South speaking lives, and the Welsh news programme Wales Evening Post charges £1,763 where the Cardiff Newydd mediates everyday events through the morning broadsheet Western Mail charges £7,728. Welsh language. The circulation figures for these two papers, in the Outside Wales, the forty-year-old Welsh School, mid-60,000s, are more or less the same. This price housed in a Welsh chapel in Willesden in northwest difference is in line with a British national trend, London, is more popular than ever. The Canadian that broadsheets charge more than tabloids, but astronaut Dr Dafydd Rhys Williams learned Welsh nowhere else is the discrepancy so extreme. Against so that he could send messages from the space another national trend is the fact that of two Cardiff- shuttle Columbia to the BBC Wales television based newspapers, the Sunday paper Wales on Sunday programme Wales Today. charges half as much for advertising as the tabloid Immigrants to Wales face difficulty with the evening South Wales Echo. Normally, Sundays are education of their children, which is often solely slightly more expensive. The Welsh edition of the through the medium of Welsh. This practice is also Liverpool Daily Post, owned by Trinity Holdings and questioned locally by people who fear it will narrow with a circulation of 73,436, also sells significant job prospects for their children. Litigation has even numbers of papers in North Wales. been initiated by non Welsh-speaking people from Under the Broadcasting Act (1990) no South Wales to outlaw the compulsory learning of proprietor of a national or local newspaper is Welsh. allowed more than a 20 percent interest in direct 562 West End broadcasting by satellite channels, independent managers who did not always give fellow actors a television Channels 3 and 5 and national and local full script. radio within its circulation area. Partly because of the financial constraints referred to above, this limit See also: Royal National Theatre; theatre does not look like being breached by any of the STEPHEN KERENSKY local owners in Wales.

See also: literature, Welsh Westland Affair MIKE STORRY At the close of 1985, the UK military helicopter supplier Westland needed financial support. Two West End interested parties emerged, Sikorsky of the USA, supported by the Trade and Industry Secretary Until the appearance of television in the 1960s, the Leon Brittan, and a European consortium favoured West End was the epicentre of British by the Defence Secretary, Michael Heseltine. The entertainment, including everything from music Cabinet agreed to take a neutral line. However, hall acts at the London Palladium to Oedipus Rex officials from the DTI promoted the Sikorsky offer the Old Vic. During the 1970s the West End lost to MPs and, with Downing Street’s approval, this place, for several reasons. First, there were the leaked a letter from the Solicitor General costs of finally paying a living wage for actors and questioning Heseltine’s assertion that Sikorsky stage crew combined with London rents. West End would have difficulty finding European outlets. theatre became expensive and shows now attract Heseltine resigned and Brittan soon followed, mainly tourists. This in turn means that serious admitting his knowledge of the leak. The Defence drama, which gave the West End its kudos, was Select Committee investigating Westland was replaced by musicals. The National Theatre, Royal denied access to several key witnesses including Shakespeare Company and Young Vic came to Mrs Thatcher, and complained about obstruction London during the 1960s and their subsidized from senior civil servants and Brittan. prices accessed everything from Stoppard to Shakespeare, taking risks no commercial See also: government inquiries management could justify. Everything interesting COLIN WILLIAMS then seemed to be in the subsidized sector, even though that is unfair to managements responsible for Brief Lives, plays by Simon Gray and Peter Shaffer or Beyond the Fringe. Nevertheless, the growth Westwood, Vivienne of fringe theatre at the Hampstead Theatre Club, b. 1941, Derbyshire the King’s Head in Islington and the Bush Theatre Fashion designer directed the artistic focus away from the West End. Additionally, the national companies and regional Vivienne Westwood began her career as a designer repertory theatres developed ensemble styles of in 1971. She partnered Malcolm McLaren in acting that quite simply produced better results. running a boutique which has had various names The ‘star system’, more of a payscale than a style (most famously, Sex, in 1974) and came to of acting, tended to militate against good prominence in the mid-1970s as the fashion designer performances in all but the smallest casts. who accompanied McLaren’s launching of punk Productions at the National and the RSC in London. Noted for revival gear and anti-fashion, concentrated on the play as opposed to the way, she began with 1950s retro teddy boy styles, and for example, Noel Coward’s plays were vehicles moved through new brutalism and punk bondage for him and Gertrude Laurence. West End acting to a new romantic look (see new romantics), with was a hangover from those days of the great actor- pirates, highwaymen and then hobos. She first Wilson, Colin St John 563 showed under her own name in 1982 and started a regarded as E.P.Thompson, Richard Hoggart or menswear collection in 1990. By 1998 Westwood’s Stuart Hall. Key early works were the collections were variously marked by tweeds, enormously influential pair of books Culture and strapless mini-crinolines, corsets, twinsets and Society 1780– 1950 (1958) and The Long Revolution Regency costumes. She won the British Fashion (1961). Williams argued for a materialist reading Industry Designer of the Year Award in 1990 and of the production of culture, the inception of the 1991. social studies of communication, and the recognition of mass popular culture’s usurpation See also: punk rock of (the value placed on) high art. Other notable PETER CHILDS books were The Country and the City (1973) and Keywords (1976), an extensive glossary of the main terms of the new cultural studies. Later work, Wilkinson, Chris pervaded by a stoical pessimism about Britain’s social and economic decline, ranged over the novel, drama, television, film and left-wing Architect politics. Wilkinson has worked for Norman Foster (see Foster Associates) and Richard Rogers, whose See also: Marxism; media and cultural studies architectural styles he greatly admires and to a PETER CHILDS degree emulates, and has practised in London since 1983 with his partner James Eyre. Wilkinson’s Jubilee Line Maintenance Depot work (plus WILLIS FABER OFFICES, IPSWICH see Foster Stratford Market Station on the same line) brought Associates him attention in 1995, and he has had rapid success since (while Wilkinson Architects designed the concourse for the new Stratford Station on the Wilson, Colin St John Jubilee line, Troughton McAslan is the chief architect on the line’s platforms and station accommodation). Other major new and recent work has been Liverpool Street Station arcade, an Architect £8 million Science World Building Millennium Colin St John Wilson heads up an architectural project for Bristol, and a £120 million sports and practice which has worked abroad (particularly university complex on Teesside. Wilkinson’s firm Hong Kong) and in Britain. It has designed many have gained much attention in the last few years school buildings, and in Britain specializes in and have become sought-after architects for their designing public buildings, particularly libraries. English high-tech image. The partnership designed London’s new British Library, which has a six-story glass tower housing PETER CHILDS the entrance lobby, and the King’s Library. Incorporated in the partnership’s philosophy is the Williams, Raymond idea that libraries are as much about recreation as about scholarship, and thus must be made b. 1921, Wales; d. 1988, Cambridge congenial places for casual browsers as well as for Literary critic serious academics. Hence the new British Library has an informal and asymmetrical layout with The son of a Welsh miner, Raymond Williams ‘student-friendly’ galleries, exhibition rooms and became a Cambridge professor, seminal British recreational facilities. cultural historian and a leading Marxist (literary) critic, as well as a media commentator as widely PETER CHILDS 564 Wimbledon

Wimbledon Winter of Discontent Wimbledon is the most famous tennis Shakespeare’s metaphor (from Richard III) was used tournament in the world, hosted on the grass in the press to refer to the troubled state of British courts of the All England Club in Wimbledon, industrial relations during the winter of 1978–9, London. Lasting for a fortnight from the last when a wave of strikes across a range of industries week of June, it is one of the four grand slam resulted in the loss of more working days at any tournaments, along with the Australian, French time since the General Strike of 1926. The tabloid and US Opens. The tournament has had to media denounced trade union militancy and adapt to the pressures of the commercial era, relayed increasingly grotesque images of closed while striving to maintain its traditional hospitals, uncollected rubbish and even unburied character. It offers increasing levels of prize bodies. The opposition Conservative Party under money and has invested strongly in facilities, Margaret Thatcher strategically represented itself such as the building of a new Number One as embodying the national against the sectional Court. The tournament attracts global interest interest of the unions and, mobilizing anti-union and has become a summer tradition in Britain, rhetoric, won the May 1979 general election with despite the lack of British success in recent years. the slogan ‘Labour isn’t Working’. The Club celebrated its centenary in 1977. See also: Conservative governments; trade See also: tennis unions MARK DOUGLAS CHRISTOPHER COLBY

WOMAD Winner, Michael WOMAD stands for World of Music, Arts and b. 1935, London Dance. The aim of the WOMAD festival, as stated by its founder Peter Gabriel, is simply to bring Film-maker together and celebrate as many diverse forms of With a background in BBC documentary and music and dance as possible, from cultures and nudie films, Winner’s early films like Play It Cool countries worldwide. Since the first festival in the (1962), West Eleven (1963), The Jokers (1967) and UK in 1982, WOMAD has presented sixty-nine I’ll Never Forget What’s ‘is Name (1967) variously festival events in seventeen countries across the captured the ambience, enterprising attitudes and globe, including Australia, the USA, Japan, Spain, fashionable settings of 1960s swinging London. Denmark, Canada and several countries throughout A Hollywood phase of brutally violent movies Europe. A typical WOMAD weekend also offers commenced with the Western Lawman (1970), particpatory workshops which include special events through thrillers such as The Mechanic (1972) and for children, and these family-oriented activities The Stone Killer (1973) to the box office success of introduce the audience to many of the visiting artists. Death Wish (1974) and its sequels (1981, 1985). Later British comedies A Chorus of Disapproval See also: Notting Hill Carnival; rock festivals (1988) and Bullseye! (1990) merely accentuated EUGENE LANGE Winner’s ponderous style, with Dirty Weekend (1992) signalling a return to the monotonous sex and violence of his earlier films in a largely women, employment patterns undistinguished film There have been significant increases in the SATINDER CHOHAN proportion of women who work. Data from the Labour Force Survey indicates that, in 1961, women women in the arts and media 565 made up 32.3 percent of the labour force; in 1981 Earnings Survey and Labour Force they made up 39.5 percent, and in 1993 they made Survey. up 44.4 percent. This significant rise in women Labour Force Survey (1993, 1994), Department of working has been mainly due to the increasing Employment. numbers of married women in employment. KALWANT BHOPAL However, women are also overrepresented in part- time work. In 1970, women working full-time earned 63 percent of the average male full-time wage. This women in the arts and media figure increased to 76 percent in 1977. There was little further increase until the early 1990s when this Women have reached many influential positions figure rose to 79 percent (Equal Opportunities in the Arts and Media over the last twenty years. Commission 1994). Whether the legislation of the Although they have a long way to go to achieve 1970s (Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act) parity of representation with men, they hold top has had any significant impact on women’s position administrative positions in broadcasting in the labour market has been questioned, as there organizations like the BBC and ITV, and are very are still considerable differences between the average visible in print media. pay of men and women. In performing arts, Britain displays a stunning Although women do make up an increasing range of talent. Emma Thompson and Helena proportion of the labour force, they are not equally Bonham Carter are well known actors, but represented throughout the occupational structure. numerous other versatile women take on roles This is due in part to horizontal segregation (men beyond those called for by the ‘Merchant-Ivory’ and women doing different types of jobs) but also version of Britain. These include Marianne Jean- in part to vertical segregation (men having higher Baptiste (Mike Leigh’s Secrets and Lies) and Kathy paid jobs, in more advanced positions than women). Burke (Gary Oldman’s Nil by Mouth). Among The Labour Force Survey data (1993) indicates Britain’s many women directors are Margaret Tait women are considerably more likely than men to and Beeban Kidron, and the concerns of both work in hotels and catering, education and the health actors and directors goes well beyond ‘women’s service. Men are more likely to work in agriculture, agendas’. forestry and fishing, as well as in construction and Examples of influential younger journalists are transport. Employment in banking and finance is Julie Burchill, who writes for the Sunday Times, and more evenly balanced. Men are more likely to Cristina Odone, the deputy editor of the New dominate most areas of management and higher Statesman. Radio has offered opportunities to women status professions such as medicine, whereas women far beyond their traditional toehold of Woman’s Hour. are more likely to be in lower paid, lower status Radio 4’s respected Analysis programme is often professions such as teaching and nursing. Clerical presented by eminent women, as have been the Reith and secretarial work is overwhelmingly carried out Lectures. Libby Purvis presents Mid Week on Radio by women. Furthermore, few women occupy high 4. Anna Ford co-presents the Today programme. positions in society; in 1988 women made up only However, television is probably where women are 6 percent of government ministers and the number most in evidence and most successful. News of women in parliament amounted to only 6 presenters like Julia Somerville and Katie Derham percent of MPs. receive six-figure salaries. The ex-BBC presenter Kirsty Young, Channel 5’s news presenter, at age See also: women in business twenty-nine earns £750,000. Television’s first woman presenter, Angela Rippon, earned little more than a teacher. In ‘serious’ television, current regulars Further reading on the Late Show include Sarah Dunant and Equal Opportunities Commission (1994) Germaine Greer. An older generation of women Some Facts About Women, based on New from Mavis Nicholson to Esther Rantzen secured 566 women in business the television bridgehead, but arguably American the ability to handle several projects at one time, imports, such as Oprah Winfrey’s chat show and less hierarchical styles and interpersonal skills. alternative women comedians like Penny Arcade and Organizations such as the Institute of Management (UK resident) Ruby Wax have supplied powerful claim that these are the skills which women role models for women in British television. managers can bring to business, and moreover that Relatively young female presenters on television these are the skills that are now in demand. There include Magenta De Vine on BBC2’s Rough Guide are difficulties, however, with such changes. For travel programme and Caroline Hook with her example, an emphasis on non-hierarchical popular chat show Mrs Merton. Gaby Roslin, who management affords less opportunities for career used to present The Big Breakfast with Chris Evans, advancement for women. Further, an emphasis on has her own show. ‘women’s skills’ essentializes all women and may People complain that many of the women who in fact have a damaging effect on those women who have succeeded on television have done so because do not conform to the stereotype. In addition, when of their looks. Ulrika Jonsson (Gladiators) and Anna such skills are no longer in vogue, women will again Ford (newsreader) are cited in this context; but be sidelined. television stations deny it is a determining factor. However, it is cultural change which is required, and an emphasis on the development of new skills See also: women in business; women in rock and new ways of working by women and men is an appropriate way to proceed. Such change must be MIKE STORRY managed and promoted in a way that is inclusive of all women and men, and will result in lasting change. women in business See also: women, employment patterns; women In the late 1990s, women are still grossly in parliament underrepresented in business. In 1997, only 5 percent of directors and 15 percent of managers Further reading were women. Although these figures are low, they represent a significant increase on previous years; Coyle, A. (1995) Women and Organisational Change, but even a limited increase in numbers has to be Manchester: EOC. treated with caution. Research from the Equal Marshall, J. (1995) Women Managers Moving On, Opportunities Commission has shown that new London: Routledge. managerial jobs for women are predominantly in CLARE McGLYNN new grades which are often inferior in pay and status to the jobs previously occupied by men (Coyle 1995). This is echoed by the fact that women women in parliament managers and directors continue to be paid substantially less than their male counterparts: in The female suffrage struggle before the First World 1995 the average woman director earned £56,446, War led to important reforms in 1918. Among the as against average earnings for all directors of provisions of the Representation of the People Act £78,692. Even when women are let into the was the grant of the vote in Parliamentary elections boardroom, they occupy certain posts which are to all women over thirty (the franchise was not seen as being more appropriate for women, namely extended to women aged twenty-one and upwards personnel, marketing and company secretary. for another ten years). Under the Parliament Change may come in the form of new (Qualification of Women) Act, women became management styles which are associated with eligible as MPs for the first time. Countess women. Considerable emphasis is being given to Markiewicz (née Constance Gore-Booth) contested so-called female management skills such as Dublin St Patrick’s in the 1918 election and gained teamworking, negotiating, consensus management, a majority, but as she was imprisoned in Holloway women in rock 567 at the time for Republican activities, she did not take women in rock her seat in the Commons. The first woman to do so was Lady Nancy Astor. A Virginian by birth, she A traditional aspect of the music industry is the won Plymouth Sutton for the Unionist Coalition emphasis on its masculinity. Sexism has always on 28 November 1919 in a by-election called when pervaded, from the organization of its workforce her husband, MP for the constituency in 1911, down to the lyrics of its songs. It means a struggle entered the Lords on inheriting a viscountcy at his for nearly every woman working at all levels of father’s death. An irrepressible character who quickly the industry. Women are the exception to the rule: put paid to suggestions that women might, literally an addition to, rather than an integral part of, the or figuratively, be unable to make their voice heard music-making process. There continues to be fewer in the Commons, Lady Astor was soon followed by women than men working in the management, a handful of other women MPs, mostly earnest engineering and production aspects of the industry. intellectual politicians, with opinions tending left of Music is a way of expressing a social or political centre. Though doubts about their capacity for the statement, and most pop and rock music is often a job were soon proved mistaken, the number of vehicle for the objectification of women, classing women MPs increased only gradually. From the time them as secondary and static. Women who make of Margaret Bondfield’s appointment as Minister of inroads into the industry often have to comply with Labour 1929, however, it became customary to these values, casting aside notions of individuality include a woman in the government, generally with to become a part of the process of ‘otherness’ so departmental duties perceived as involving a caring readily set out for them, becoming ‘female’ role. musicians or ‘all-girl’ bands. They had their Such typecasting has been abandoned in the established roles as lead singers, backing vocalists post-Thatcher era. In 1992, Betty Boothroyd or groupies. The 1960s saw a host of successful became the first female Speaker of the House of British performers, including Lulu, Sandie Shaw, Commons. Discontent in the mid-1990s over the Petula Clark, Dusty Springfield and Marianne low proportion of women MPs led Labour to oblige Faithful, none of whom achieved full artistic certain constituency parties to select a candidate control. from an all-women short list. In the 1997 election, The video, now established as a crucial the number of women in Parliament doubled, to accompaniment to the song, with institutions such 119 (18 percent of the members, 24 percent of as MTV dedicating their whole airtime to music, Labour MPs). Possibly distorted by the landslide, means the image of the performer is as essential as these figures, though the highest yet, are still far the song itself. It is of cultural, social and economic from reflecting the male/female balance in the significance that how a person looks can determine population. Under the Life Peerages Act (1958), their income and status; hence the birth of the ‘rock women became eligible for nomination to the chick’ and ‘babe’, manufactured acts such as Louise House of Lords just like men, and the Peerage Act and the Spice Girls, Eternal and All Saints relying (1963) allowed hereditary peeresses in their own on their looks rather than on any specific talent to right to take their seats there as well. gain chart success. Innovative women are often assigned dual roles, or signified as unnatural. Kate See also: women, employment patterns; women Bush is the English eccentric, or just plain weird. in business Annie Lennox, Sharleen Spitieri from Texas and Justine Frischmann of Elastica all adopt the androgynous look. Cerys Matthews from Further reading Catatonia is largely defined in terms of her sex Vallance, E. (1979) Women in the House: A Study of Wo m e n appeal. An A&R man at a major UK record Members of Parliament. London: Athlone Press. company, when recently asked whether he was interested in signing an all-girl band replied ‘No CHRISTOPHER SMITH thank you, we already have one of those.’ The 568 women in sport industry is nevertheless having to readjust itself to In other sports, British women do not fare female power, because, as Kurt Cobain so succinctly badly: the hockey team were rather unlucky to only argued shortly before his suicide in 1994 ‘the future finish fourth at the 1996 Olympics, and the of rock belongs to women’. women’s England cricket team have been world champions, although British swimming declined See also: women in the arts and media in performance and public profile after Sharron Davies retired. The football team has always struggled (mainly because so many other nations Further reading have full-time professional leagues), but women’s O’Brien, L. (1995) She Bop: The Definitive History of matches were televised on Channel 4 in the early Women in Rock, Pop and Soul, London: Penguin. 1990s, and international fixtures played at professional clubs (like Luton and Walsall). ALICE BENNETT Women’s football started developing its grassroots in the early 1990s, and many clubs in the national women in sport league linked up with men’s teams; Liverpool Ladies take their name from Liverpool FC, who Historically, women have struggled to be allowed advertise the women’s fixtures and results. A small to compete, attract television and sponsor interest, breakthrough is the £250,000 invested by UK and bring their sporting excellence to public Living in the women’s FA Cup over two years from attention. But in the 1990s, the picture changed and, 1996. That the tide has turned was equally clear in crucially, television and sponsors became interested. the £100,000 two-year sponsorship agreed for Women’s professional golf took a long time to women’s rugby in 1996. develop in Britain (longer than the US or Europe), However, the media depiction of sportswomen but tournaments were covered live by both BBC has remained problematic, and despite the women’s television and BBC Radio 5 in 1996, and the ample professionalism and high performance, many quality newspapers devote considerable space to commentators still repeatedly refer to the femininity women’s events. The first British female golfer to of competitors rather than their performance. There become a popular icon, Laura Davies (also once have often been blunt remarks about the figure of the world number one), is both talented and female shotputters, about the women’s family successful, and was mentioned in 1996 as a possible circumstances or the birth of a child, or women BBC Sports Personality of the Year. These advances are simply called ‘girls’. This regularly causes have seen women golfers commentate for television controversy, and suggests that male commentators and radio on men’s tournaments, and over 12,000 have not accepted women as valid competitors. spectators watched one day’s play at the 1996 This is also evident in the general tendency for British Open. newspapers to just tag the women’s results on the Women’s tennis has the jewel of the end of an article about the men. Feminist theorists Wimbledon tournament televised each year, but call this ‘symbolic annihilation’, which is even more the British game has had no success or genuine insidious than traditional stereotyping of stars since Virginia Wade won Wimbledon in 1977; masculinity and femininity, since it damages the prize money remains about 75 percent of that of mass interest and appeal that would allow women’s the men. British athletes have a better record: Sally sport to develop, and destroys the level of Gunnell has won world and Olympic 400m hurdles seriousness with which it is taken. medals, and is Britain’s richest ever female athlete The fact that the BBC have broadcast women’s (from her numerous sponsorships), while Tessa golf live offers some hope, since without television Sanderson and Fatima Whitbread both won sponsors will not become involved, and this gives Olympic javelin medals in the 1980s, and Ashia governing bodies a good excuse to offer women less Hansen took bronze in the 1996 Olympic long prize money (as at Wimbledon). But sponsors jump. remain less interested in women’s sports since they Women’s Institute 569 have lower profiles, and so women generally earn a entering the workforce was affecting the numbers good deal less from their career. They also have to of female participants in sport and leisure. make more financial and personal sacrifices, juggling the competing demands of their sport and their job See also: sport, racism in or family. This of course assumes they are allowed to compete at all, with a predictable and rather sexist Further reading storm greeting the decision in 1996 to allow British women to box professionally for the first time. Birrell, A. and Cole, J. (eds) (1994) Women, Sport As for spectating, there were signs in the mid- and Culture, Chicago: Human Kinetics. 1990s that more women were watching professional REX NASH sport, and clearly many sports became more accessible to women. But theories about the ‘feminization’ of crowds probably underestimate women priests how many attended in the 1970s and 1980s, and the concept rests on rather dated notions of female The ordination of women received royal assent in passivity and gentleness. November 1993, and the Church of England Women as journalists however still face bigger General Synod gave its approval in February of problems: their numbers started increasing in the the following year. The first women priests were late 1980s, and women in the 1990s got bigger and ordained in March 1994 amid both protests and more important events to cover, but no woman has celebrations; many male priests switched to the yet presented the top sports programmes, like the Catholic Church, while many feminists saw the Olympics, the FA Cup Final or Match of the Day. move as the first positive improvement the Female reporters had to endure considerable Establishment had made in the rights of women hostility and disbelief from male counterparts for since the Conservatives had come to office in 1979. years before they became accepted as serious The debate over whether women should be priests journalists, notably in football, and certain sports extends as far back as Thomas Aquinas’s thirteenth- appear off limits, with few female reporters at rugby century view that, though ordination concerns the or cricket. Radio has a better story to tell in this soul and not the body, women must not represent sense, with BBC Radio 5 Live featuring a number authority. After 1994, Catholic, Orthodox and of female reporters at games (particularly from the some Anglican churches continue to deny women early 1990s), and women regularly presenting the the right to become priests. The Vatican continues station’s high-profile football and general sports to hold by its 1976 encyclical, which maintained programmes. Indeed, women have started that only men can represent Christ. producing such programmes as well. As simple participants, women have been a See also: Anglican Church; Catholicism target group for decades, with the Sports Council PETER CHILDS and others trying to entice more women, particularly from working-class and minority backgrounds, to become active in sport and leisure. Women’s Institute But all these campaigns have failed to increase attendance rates amongst women (and especially Catering particularly for country women, the from these specific target backgrounds), and it Women’s Institute (WI) network in England and seems that family demands, considerations of Wales (the Women’s Rural Institutes are an money and time, and dominant cultural norms equivalent in Scotland) offers social and educational about ‘femininity’ and appropriate gender roles facilities. Noted for its middle-class, middle-aged remain too pressing or strong for many women to image, the organization moved to Britain from feel able to participate. By the mid-1990s, it was Canada in 1915. Still flourishing, and visible selling suggested that the increased numbers of women homemade produce and handicrafts at fairs and 570 women’s press village halls, the WI has around 9,000 branches in days). In the same year the radical, unglossy, political Britain. and uncommercial Spare Rib was launched, describing itself as a ‘women’s liberation magazine’. PETER CHILDS The magazine folded in 1993, but its remit is still fulfilled by Everywoman and Women’s Review. Other women’s press new magazines were Look Now (for the 18–24s), Candida (an upmarket weekly), Personal (on readers’ Over the last forty years, women’s magazines have sexual problems), Good Life (cashing in on the image changed from offering advice to wives and mothers of the television programme), Womancraft (promoting about their families and homes, through the single- and catering for multiple hobbies) and numerous girl sexual revolution of the 1970s, to catering for teen magazines. diverse consumer markets in the 1990s. In the 1980s, Options tried to catch the ‘Cosmo The 1960s saw many more changes in the Girl’ before she turned to Good Housekeeping; EMAP magazine world than the previous two decades. Maclaren launched Just Seventeen, followed by Many magazines folded, even more merged (because Looks; Working Woman tried to cater for the of various takeovers, particularly by the Mirror professional ‘realist’; Chic and Candace were aimed Group), and over a dozen new titles were launched at black women; In Store focused on furnishings (including Honey, FAB, 19, Petticoat and the best-selling and shopping; Cachet was for women size 16 and Nova, ‘the new magazine for the new kind of woman’ above; Essentials was a compendium of practicality of the 1960s). The launch of Family Circle in 1964 from index cards to cut-outs; House Beautiful in 1989 began the trend for selling magazines at supermarket was stuffed with detail about the modern home checkouts; it became the top-selling women’s for the millions who did not own the houses that monthly and even achieved the unheard of figure appeared in House & Garden; and Rupert Murdoch of a million sales. Fashion was (unsuccessfully) launched Elle in the UK in 1985. Perhaps the big launched to challenge the hegemony of Vogue, Queen launch of the 1980s was the Spanish Hello!, which and Harper’s (the latter two soon to merge as Harpers followed on from the success of Prima, Bella, Best and Queen), and a new kind of magazine was and other German imports. By 1993 Hello! was created when a husband and wife team brought out selling nearly a half a million copies a week (the Slimming and Family Nutrition. European invasion of the 1980s was completed by The 1970s saw still more intense activity. Most the UK launch of the French Marie Claire). notable was the new launch of Cosmopolitan in 1972 The 1990s has seen further fragmentation, (incredibly, it was first sold in the USA in 1886). specialization and proliferation. The latest kid on The principle behind the magazine, to encourage the block is the competitions and puzzles magazine and enable liberated career girls to succeed for Take A Break which, at 1.4 million copies, became themselves and not through men, was forged by its the biggest selling women’s weekly magazine in the first editor Helen Gurley Brown, author of Sex and 1990s. Sex became more pictorially explicit in For the Single Girl. The frankness and intimate discussions Women, Women on Top and Bite. Supermarkets began that informed every topic were an instant success, to produce their own checkout magazines, and OK! and have of course been imitated countless times in arrived to rival Hello!. magazines (Company was the most important in the 1970s) which have the same set of concerns: careers, See also: feminist publishing houses; women in relationships, body maintenance, fashion, health, business food and most of all, sex. The previously cardinal subjects of the home and babies were discarded. Further reading When Cosmopolitan was launched in Britain, following Braithwaite, B. (1995) Women’s Magazines, London: unprecedented success in the USA, the first issue Peter Owen. sold out on its first day (the second, which increased its print run by one-half to 450,000, sold out in two PETER CHILDS World Service 571

Working Title then rapid expansion during the Second World War. The Service may now be heard throughout Working Title was formed in 1985 by Tim Bevan most of the world in one or more of over forty as a minor independent production company in languages. It employs specialist staff including the midst of Goldcrest, Palace and Zenith. The journalists, experts and translators. company financed such movies as Frears’s My There is evidence that the World Service is the Beautiful Laundrette. In 1992 Bevan was joined by most listened to international radio station, despite Eric Fellner from Initial film and Television. strong competition from Voice of America and Polygram bought up Working Title in the same Chinese and other broadcasters, and also the most year and input enough money to make nearly 100 trusted. The BBC’s news coverage during the war new movies, from several of the Coen brothers was widely perceived as authoritative, balanced and films to Four Weddings and A Funeral, Bean, Trainspotting reliable in depth, free from propaganda or national and Notting Hill. In 1998 Bevan and Fellner were bias. Some of its war correspondents and their live honoured alongside nine others at Cannes in a new coverage became widely known. Later, during the category of ‘the world’s best-respected producers’. Cold War, listeners in Eastern Europe and elsewhere often turned where possible to the BBC See also: Channel 4 Films for news about both the world and their own

PETER CHILDS country, despite persistent attempts by some governments to prevent the reception of BBC broadcasts. Workshop Declaration For many, the core of the World Service has been its broadcasters’ close knowledge of and An agreement between the ACTT (Association of affection for the countries to which they broadcast Cinematograph, Television and Allied Technicians) and on which they report. Some correspondents union, the British Film Institute (BFI) and have eloquently defended the Service as the core Channel 4. The Declaration recognized a number of the public service broadcasting ideal and objected of ‘franchised workshops’ for the production of to management changes and ‘rationalization’ in the work commissioned by Channel 4 at sub-normal BBC of the 1990s. rates with smaller crews. The aim of the Declaration In addition to its wide range of news and current was to stimulate the creation of community affairs, the Service carries English language workshops based on race and gender as well as teaching, and also many other kinds of programmes region. Partly as a consequence, black workshops concerned with business, science, the arts, religion such as Sankofa, Ceddo and Black Audio Film and sport. It can now be heard in Britain (though Collective were established in the mid-1980s. not straightforwardly) while a major development Women’s workshops in Leeds and Sheffield were through digital technology is planned and the also franchised, as well as regional ones in Cardiff, World Service has its own website, which may grow Birmingham and the East Midlands. in importance. An associated monitoring service obtains and analyses information (available PETER CHILDS commercially) from a large range of foreign media sources. World Service The World Service has always been funded through the Foreign Office (which has offered The World Service is the BBC’s globally broadcast advice on how much broadcasting time should be radio station, with a distinguished history and given in what languages to what countries) but has formidable reputation (though now also working remained a successful example of ‘arm’s length’ alongside a world channel for television news). An autonomy from government. A proposed major Empire Service in English was established in 1932, restructuring of the BBC was seen by many of its with broadcasting in Arabic starting in 1938 and most famous and internationally recognized 572 wrestling journalists and others as threatening the Service’s Europe, observes rules that are based on those quality and independence. After considerable attributed to the legendary Theseus and observed parliamentary and press discussion, a BBC/ Foreign in contests described in Homer’s epics. The basic Office steering group was set up in 1996 to rule is that only the arms (and not the legs) may be safeguard the World Service’s quality and character. used in an attempt to score a fall, and holds below the waist are not allowed. Freestyle wrestling See also: Radio 3; Radio 4 involves no such prohibition, though kicking, biting, punching and dangerous holds are banned. Freestyle wrestling evolved from Lancastrian catch- Further reading as-can, which, like the Cumberland and Mansell, G. (1982) Let Truth be Told: 50 Years of BBC Westmoreland and the Devon and Cornwall styles External Broadcasting, London: Weidenfeld & that still survive, was popular as both a participation Nicholson. and a spectator sport at country fairs. Professional wrestling also follows the freestyle MICHAEL GREEN code. In the nineteenth century it had a status among sporting events similar to that of wrestling professional boxing nowadays, but standards were not maintained. The bouts, which are presented Wrestling, a one-to-one unarmed combat sport in in the halls and on television with glitzy razz-ma- which the participant grapples with his opponent tazz, are ostensibly contested with savage ferocity on a mat delimiting the field of play in an endeavour and a total disregard for referee and rules as if to defeat him by winning points for gaining various reflecting unbridled rage and boundless personal advantages or by scoring a ‘fall’ (that is, overcome animosity. But, in the eyes of many who note how him by forcing him to the ground), has a worldwide rarely the fighters’ seemingly unbridled ferocity recorded history stretching back beyond antiquity. results in serious injury, these bouts, like those of Sumo is a form of wrestling that makes much of its women’s professional wrestling, appear not as place within Japanese tradition; various rituals genuine sporting encounters but rather more or certainly add an air of solemnity, but not many less choreographed display combats designed to Western spectators get beyond marvelling at the thrill fans whose noisy partisanship is all part of huge bulk of the fighters who clash only for very the entertainment. brief bouts in the course of championships that take place over a fortnight. See also: boxing From the outset, the Olympic movement recognized two styles of wrestling, and in both Further reading combatants compete in a range of weight divisions, Kent, G. (1968) A Pictorial History of Wrestling, as in boxing, so that physical differences are to some London: Feltham. degree evened out. Graeco-Roman wrestling, which is practised particularly in Scandinavia and Eastern CHRISTOPHER SMITH Y

yachting obviously contributed to this. Since then, commercial sponsorship has made a huge difference Yachting used to be known as ‘the sport of kings’ in yachting. Each of the major international races (possibly from Charles II’s having been presented is sponsored by a commercial organization, and with a ‘jacht’ by the Dutch East India Company in each boat carries the advertising slogans of its 1660). Prince Philip continued the royal tradition sponsor. This has led to a proliferation of races into the 1960s by sailing a Dragon class yacht at such as the BT Global Challenge 2000/2001, the Cowes on the Isle of Wight with Uffa Fox (the Whitbread Round the World Race (sponsored by designer of the GP14). Today, UK yachting lacks Volvo for 2000/2001). The website for the 1998 the royal patronage it enjoyed, but Cowes week is Whitbread Round The World Race was visited by still the premier annual yachting venue in Britain one million people per day. and, in 1990, attracted 661 boats in 19 classes. In Yachting in Britain is still dominated by its the prewar period, local fishermen in ports around exclusive traditional clubs such as the Royal Ocean Britain were taken on by rich owners as ‘paid hands’ Racing Club, which holds the Admiral’s Cup, and to race in prestige races. This reflected the money the Royal Yacht Squadron at Cowes which was and class divide between owners and professional founded in 1812. To earn the ‘Royal’ title, clubs’ crew. Nowadays the sport has become more members must own yachts over a certain tonnage. ‘democratic’ in that it is no longer only open to the rich, though amateur participants still have to See also: sailing contribute up to £25,000 for a passage in the major races listed below. MIKE STORRY British yachting will always be associated with the America’s Cup. In 1851 the schooner America beat all-comers in a race around the Isle of Wight. Yates, Peter Thomas Lipton was the last British individual rich b. 1929, Aldershot enough to mount a challenge for the return of this cup, in the 1930s. In recent years commercially Film-maker sponsored syndicates led by businessmen, notably Peter Yates is a versatile director who has covered Peter de Savary, have unsuccessfully attempted to numerous subjects utilizing different styles. Two regain it. of his early British films, Summer Holiday (1963) The Observer Single-Handed Transatlantic Race and Robbery (1967), reflect different aspects of (OSTAR) began in 1960, but arguably yachting English cultural life in the 1960s. The former, a did not impinge on the national consciousness, until musical starring Cliff Richard, romanticized the solo circumnavigations of Sir Francis Chichester teenagers’ newfound freedom, while the latter, and Sir Alec Rose in 1966–7. Television coverage based on the Great Train Robbery, aimed to 574 Yiddish uncover the world of British organized crime. The youth television car chase in Robbery led to Yates directing the thriller Bullitt (1968), which starred Steve The arrival of satellite and cable technology, McQueen. Numerous films followed in the 1970s combined with broadcasting deregulation, meant including an Oscar nomination as Best Director that in the 1980s, British broadcasters were for his cycling movie Breaking Away (1979), a story searching for new markets to exploit. Youth depicting class conflict in America. He received a television was designed to attract 16–25 year-olds, similar nomination for The Dresser (1983). a socio-economic group perceived to have a relatively high disposable income. Youth television GUY OSBORN programmes such as Network 7, The Tube, Snub TV STEVE GREENFIELD and The Word contained information on youth culture, pop music and show business gossip, and were distinctive in their use of fast editing, Yiddish unconventional camera angles and computer With about 4 million speakers worldwide, Yiddish graphics. While some have praised youth television is the language of Eastern and Central European for its lively style, it has been criticized for Jews and their descendants. Jewish English, in its amateurism and for patronising young people. most common variety, has elements of Yiddish and Hebrew, introducing neologisms such as nosh and See also: MTV; pop television; teenage and shlep. Jewish English has been important to many youth programming; television, children’s

English and American writers such as Dan STUART BORTHWICK Jacobson, Israel Zingwill, Joseph Heller, Saul Bellow and Philip Roth. youth theatre See also: Jewish communities Groups and organizations whose aim is to engage PETER CHILDS young people in theatre-related activities outside formal education. The National Youth Theatre was established in 1956 by Michael Croft, whose former Yorke, Rosenberg and Mardall pupils wanted him to continue staging Shakespearean productions. Its popularity led to The YRM partnership was founded in 1944 by the formation of other youth theatres, with the aim F.R.S.Yorke (a pioneer of modernism in Britain), of classical drama professionally produced in Eugene Rosenberg and Cyril Mardall. An early conventional theatre spaces. routine European modern style gave way to an In 1959, actor Ewen Hooper founded the espousal of the Chicago style. Their rebuilding of Greenwich Young Peoples’ Theatre (GYPT), St Thomas’s Hospital (1963) proposed an open bringing together community theatre companies, ‘campus’ layout of rectangular buildings arranged youth theatre, professional repertory theatre and at right angles. A ‘house style’ emerged here, with theatre in education. The County Youth Theatre, the white tiles used in the cubic ward block and founded by drama adviser Silas Harvey in 1963, linear nurses’ home being employed extensively took a more experimental approach, comprising in YRM’s buildings of the late 1960s, for example, devised work and productions by modern at Warwick University. Their airport oeuvre ranges writers. from the black, steel-framed Cargo Agents’ building The popularity and success of youth arts saw a and offices at Heathrow, to Gatwick, where the dramatic growth in the 1970s and 1980s. Initiated elegant, patrician architecture serves contemporary or supported by the youth service and youth- society perfectly. orientated community arts/theatre groups, their HILARY GRAINGER philosophy hinges on an approach to working youth theatre 575 practices centred on young people. As for the have gone on to jobs as workshop leaders, to take inclusion of amateur groups (i.e. the junior sections performing arts courses and become involved in of amateur dramatic societies or groups developed film, television and theatre work. The National from private stage schools), this is still disputed, Association of Youth Theatres, an educational largely due to definitions of financial status, charity formed in 1982, sums it up thus: ‘[Youth working practices and approaches, social and Theatre offers] the opportunity for young people personal education, and, indeed, the actual term to gain invaluable practical, vocational and social ‘amateur’. skills, to explore themselves and the society in Most participants in youth theatre are aged which they live.’ twelve to twenty-four, are predominately white European (about 90 percent), and around two- See also: community theatre; devising thirds are female. The next largest group, African/ Caribbean, accounts for approximately 5 per cent); Further reading the lowest (about 1.5 per cent) is Asian Other, while the number of participants with a disability has Ripley, N. and Canning, P. (eds) (1996) Strategies increased. for Success, Birmingham: National Association of An estimated 700 youth theatres cater for more Youth Theatres (a comprehensive publication, than 50,000 participants. Since 1991, funding has useful to all those involved, whether as members been reduced by approximately 20 per cent as a or organizers, workers in education or funding). result of cuts in local authority education and youth CAROLE BALDOCK service budgets. Former members of youth theatre

Index

Page numbers in bold indicate references to the main entry.

Aardman Animations 27 and popular music 51 Abbot, Diane 61, 296 television and video 10–11, 90 Aberfan disaster 541 see also ASA; commercial radio; small ads Abortion Acts 1–2 Adverts, The 437 accessories 2, 35, 149, 158, 497 African literature see literature, African Achebe, Chinua 305 Afro-Caribbean communities 11–14, 63 Ackerman, Will 360 Notting Hill Carnival 370, 452 Ackroyd, Heather 317 ska and reggae 452–3, 495 Ackroyd, Peter 57, 372 women’s movements 65 acronym groups 2–3 see also Rastafarianism action series 3, 5 Afro-Caribbean culture see black art; black film; actors (female) 3–4, 282, 451, 497, 532, 565 black literature press; black music actors (male) 5–6, 40, 70–1, 80–1, 94, 122, 145, Afro-Caribbean youth styles 14–15, 37, 496 208, 235, 451 jungle music 289 Actors Touring Company 6, 215 language and vernacular 71 Adam, Robert 359 Afrocentrists 14, 15 Adams, Douglas 178, 371, 415, 444, 478 Afropop and African music 15–17 Adams, Gerry 494 Agard, John 61, 307 Adé, King Sunny 15 age discrimination 389 Adebayo, Diran 305 age of consent 17 Adorno, Theodor 231, 328, 501 see also gay liberation adult education 6–7, 218, 442 see also further Aggiss, Liz 98 education colleges Agis, Gaby 97, 341 Adventures in Motion Pictures 226, 342 agitprop 17–18, 215, 299 advertising graphic design 236 alcohol 160 see also avant-garde theatre; community theatre; and animation 26 fringe theatre cars 84 agricultural buildings 18 and corporate identities 131 Aherne, Caroline 393 cosmetics 132 Ahlberg, Janet and Allan 307 cultivation of materialism 490 Ahmad, Rukshana 35, 36 fashion models 340 AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) influence of 7–10 18, 225–6 photography 394 and contraception 177 578 Index

and gay film-makers 225, 284 media and cultural studies 332–3 and gay theatre 226 models for city redevelopment 103 literature 223 new wave and punk music 365, 436 medical dramas 334 political correctness 408 airports, architecture 209, 343, 458 postmodernist theory 216 Aitken, Joan 306 rap 446 Aitken, Jonathan 318, 545 rhythm and blues 495 Akomfrah, John 18–19, 59 rock festivals 458–9 Albarn, Damon 75–6 science fiction 478 Aldiss, Brian 178, 371, 478 soap operas 90, 242–3, 498 Ali, Muhammad 355 sociology 501 Ali, Tariq 51, 254 teenage novels 306 Alsop, Will 19, 29 television 91, 265–6, 566 Alston, Richard 97, 341, 341–2 transsexuals 227 alternative comedy 19–20, 215, 299, 339 women’s hairstyles 243 see also comedy on television see also African American culture; Hollywood alternative music 20–1 Amies, Hardy 186 alternative poetry 21–2 Amin, Idi, expulsion of South Asians from Uganda alternative theatre 338–9, 464, 527, 528 131, 252, 271 see also avant-garde theatre; fringe theatre Amis, Kingsley 370, 372, 399 Althusser, Louis 328, 331, 422 Amis, Martin 41, 314, 371 Alton, David 1 Amnesty International 22–3, 274 ambient music 22, 353, 520, 541 Anderson, Brett 58 Ambler, Eric 535 American churches Anderson, Clive 393 evangelism 167, 173 Anderson, Lea 98, 341 sects 286 Anderson, Lindsay 23, 42, 152, 194, 201, 454 American culture films 193, 211, 465 advertising 7 Anderson, Viv 63 animation in television 27, 84 Andrew, Prince, Duke of York 344 architecture 359, 375, 418 Andrews, Julie 4 avant-garde cinema 42 Andrews, Michael 473 avant-garde dance 97, 98, 340–1 Andriessen, Louis, influence 110 Beat poets 21, 335, 390, 405 androgynous/unisex look 23–4, 182, 229, 340, 567 and the British novel 371 Anger, Kenneth, influence 42 cinema and film industry 72, 73, 99 Anglican Church 24–5 comics and graphic novels 116, 117, 236, 237 church buildings 123 contemporary classical music 110 and the Establishment 170 country music 133 evangelism 173–4 critiques of 75, 331 stance on homosexuality 504 disco and dance music 144 women priests 86, 504, 569 gay movement 381 see also Archbishop of Canterbury; Archbishop gay theatre 226 of York grunge 249 angling 25 Hell’s Angels 249 animal rights 25, 26, 169, 262, 408 hip hop 253, 445 protest groups 26, 152 house music 260 animals, in circuses 101–2 installation art 273 animation 26–7, 367, 388 jazz funk 285–6 children’s films 192 Index 579

comedy films 115 theatres 464 television cartoons 26, 84 see also city redevelopment; high-tec; industrial Aniston, Jennifer 244 buildings; modernism, architecture; Anokha 37 municipal buildings; neo-classicism; new anthropology 346, 513 brutalism; office buildings; university Anti-Nazi League 61, 214 building anti-nuclear movement see nuclear and arms Argos 85, 86 industries and protesters aristocracy anti-racism 61–2, 63 films 330 comedy 116 heritage 250 sport 505 armed forces and discrimination 29 anti-semitism 287 armed forces and police 29–30 anti-sexism, comedy 116 see also military conflict; police anti-war protest arms industry see nuclear and arms industries and films 292 protesters Vietnam 253–4 Arnatt, Keith 395 Antonioni, Michelangelo, films 393, 534 Arnold, Eve 324–5 Aphex Twins, The 22 Arnold, Malcolm 198 appliances 27 aromatherapy 30, 500 Apted, Michael 99 art galleries 30–1, 264 Arab communities 28, 280–1 architecture 30, 96, 209, 419, 509 see also Islam; Muslims art history 232–3 Arabic 28 Art Nouveau movement, and Liberty 303 Arad, Ron 217 art schools Araeen, Rasheed 34, 59 experimental film 192–3 Aram, Zeev 217 sculpture 482, 483–4 Arcade, Penny 566 see also Goldsmith’s College; Royal College of Archaos 102 Art; St Martin’s College of Art Archbishop of Canterbury 28, 170, 388 Arts Council 31, 88, 141 Archbishop of York 24, 170, 388 Artists’ Film and Video Committee 193 funding of classical music industry 108 Archer, Jeffrey, novels 415 funding of film 42, 55, 74 Archigram 28–9, 251 funding of literary magazines 313 Architectural Association 19, 29, 96, 147, 156, funding of opera 31 217, 258, 329, 368, 382, 425, 457 funding of orchestras 378 Architectural Foundation 29 funding of theatre 17, 31, 215, 299, 528, 531 architecture funding of video art 121 architects 19, 89–90, 96, 114, 141, 141–2, and photography 395 209, 229, 258–9, 323, 327, 329, 381–2, arts programming 31–2, 391, 454 457–8, 460, 504, 509, 526, 563 Arup Associates 32–3, 375 art galleries and museums 30, 96, 209, 419 ASA (Advertising Standards Authority) 33 awards 142, 323, 509 Ascot 247, 259 churches 142, 229, 458 Ashcroft, Dame Peggy 4 and engineering 32 Ashdown, Paddy 303 London Docklands development 31, 104, 418, Ashley, Laura 33, 169, 183, 186, 187 419, 458 Ashton, Frederick 47–8, 49, 464 Prince Charles’s interest 156, 429 Asian artists 33–4, 79 restaurants and bars 455 Asian communities shops 96, 114, 491–2 explored in film 89, 224, 308 supermarkets 513–14 from East Africa 131, 252, 269, 270 580 Index

and racial violence 12 baby boom 45, 228, 393 women’s movements and activism 65, 269 Bacon, Francis 45–6, 224, 383, 385, 473 Asian Dub Foundation 37 Baden-Powell, Robert 480–1 Asian fashions 34–5 badminton 46 Asian film and film-makers 194, 269 BAFTA (British Academy of Film and Television Bollywood 200 Arts) 46–7 Asian literature see Indian literature Bagley, Desmond 415 Asian music see bhangra Baha’i 47 Asian theatre 35–7, 215, 299 Bailey, David 340, 393, 394 Asian underground 37 Bailey, David A. 395 Asian youth styles 14, 35, 37–8, 271 Bailey, Roy 202 Associated British Picture Corporation 72, 99 Bainbridge, Beryl 372, 461 Associated Press 38 Baldwin, Gordon 89 Astley, Neil 406 Baldwin, Mark 98 Astor, Lady Nancy 567 Balkans crises, reporting 313 astronomy 251, 262 Ball, Kenny 284 astrophysics 322 Ballard, J.G. 178, 371, 478 Aswad 447, 452 ballet 47–50, 134–5, 377, 464 athletics 38–9, 63, 336, 505, 508, 568 companies 168–9, 464 Atkin, Sharon 296, 297 designers 123 Atkins, Juan 519 on television 391 Atomic Lip 391 see also choreography Attenborough, David 39–40 ballet music 50–1 Attenborough, Richard 40, 439 Ballet Rambert 48, 97, 341, 341–2 Attile, Martine 151, 194 Bancil, Parv 35 Attwood, David 40, 151 Band Aid 51, 92, 93 auctions 40 Bandung File 51–2, 64 Auden, W.H. 100, 223, 404 Banham, Reyner 217, 361, 362, 497 audience research 40–1 banks films 99–100 architecture 209, 251 audiences frauds 131–2 cinema 99–100 Banks, Iain 311, 371, 478 classical music 108–9 Banks, Jeff 52, 112, 185 television ratings 159 Bannister, Roger 336 Auerbach, Frank 383, 385, 473 BARB (Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board) Auguiste, Reece 59 41, 52 Austin, J.L. 392 Barber, Chris 284 Australian culture, soap operas 498 Barbican Centre 52, 89, 395 autobiography 41–2 feminist film-makers 43 architecture 343, 425 avant-garde art see installation art; live art Barker, Clive 266, 371, 415 avant-garde cinema 42–3, 99, 224 Barker, Pat 372 diasporan artists 151 Barnes, John 63 and feminist film 193–4 Barnes, Julian 41, 371–2, 421 festivals 197 Barnes, Rosie 302 avant-garde theatre 6, 43–4, 153 Barrett, Lezli-Ann 194 see also agitprop; fringe theatre Barrett, Syd 161 Average White Band 216 Barry, Sebastian 400 Ayckbourn, Alan 399–400, 527 Barthes, Roland 190, 394, 450, 513 Ayer, A.J. 44, 392 Bartlett, Neil 223, 226 Index 581

Barton, Derek 52–3 Behan, Brendan 399 Base, Danny 312 Beith, Alan 303 Bashir, Martin 345 Belfast Telegraph 369 Batchelor, Joy 26 Belize, British military presence 337 Bateman, Colin 310 Bell, Quentin 57 Bates, Alan 439 Bell, Sam Hanna 309 Bates, Django 110 Bell-Hughes, Terry 88 Bates, John 181 Bellany, John 463 Battersea Arts Centre 44 Belsey, Catherine 191, 423 Battersea Power Station 250 Benjamin, Walter, influence 328 Battle, Kathleen 378 Benn, Tony (Anthony Wedgewood) 202, 213, 294 Baudrillard, Jean 263, 420 Bennett, Alan 20, 246, 399 Bauhaus, influence 342 Bennett, Louise 60, 61 Baulch, Jamie 508–9 Bentley, Derek 330 Bauman, Zygmunt 420–1 Berkoff, Steven 5, 44, 339, 396, 527 Bausch, Pina, influence 341 Berlin, Isaiah 53–4 Bawden, Nina 306 Bernstein, Leonard 121–2 Bay City Rollers 182, 522 Berry, James 60, 307, 403 BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) 52, 53, Berwick Street Collective 193 234, 265, 524 Best, George 205 arts programming 31–2, 391, 454 Betjeman, John 402 breakfast television 71 betting shops 54 Broadcasting Act (1990) 77 Bevan, Aneurin 367 coverage of London Marathon 326 Bevan, Tim 571 crime dramas 140 Beveridge Report 28, 367, 559 daytime television 145–6 Beyond the Fringe 20 documentaries 57, 69, 157 BFI (British Film Institute) 47, 54–5, 344, 388, 571 fashion programmes 52 and avant-garde cinema 42 films 73, 74, 89, 365 education and study 367 independent production 176, 267, 276 film distribution 195 language and dialect 150, 450 funding of film production 73, 90, 158, 197, 199 local radio 320 Bhabha, Homi 59, 224 medical dramas 334 bhangra 37, 55 ‘minority’ audiences 64 Bhimji, Zarina 34, 395 news programmes 365–6 Bhuchar, Sudha 36 radio 439–42, 498 Bhundu Boys 16 sport on television 505 Biba 2, 55–6, 340 see also under radio stations bicycles 56 Beamish, Sally 111 big beat 56 Beane, Douglas Carter 291 Big Issue, The 56, 229, 258, 512 Beano 532–3 bilingual communities 56–7 Beastie Boys 56, 446 see also Arab communities; Asian communities; Beat, The 546 Chinese communities Beatles 351, 352, 411, 430, 480, 542 Bilk, Acker 284 albums 161, 434 Billingham, Richard 395–6 films 26, 301 Bintley, David 49, 50 influence 75, 186, 452 biography 57–8 Beaton, Cecil 52, 393–4 and the novel 371–2 Beckett, Samuel 278, 399, 443, 527 biology 137, 145, 471 582 Index

Bird, Antonia 197, 224 black theatre 64–5, 153, 215, 299, 339, 527 Bird, John 56, 258 Black Theatre Co-operative 65, 527 Birkenhead, Guitar Festival 109 ‘Black Women Talk’ Collective 65 Birmingham black women’s movement 65–7 Central Library design 348 Blackburn, Tony 156–7, 157, 397, 439, 443 city-centre housing development 261 Blackman, Honor 181 clubs 260 Blackwell, Chris 451 high-rise housing 261 Blackwood, Maureen 151, 194, 289 Symphony Hall 379 Blair, Les 67 Birmingham Conference Centre 58 Blair, Tony 129, 296, 362, 366 Birmingham International Film and Television Blake, Peter 384, 413, 463, 464 Festival 197 Blake, William 372, 388 Birmingham Royal Ballet 49 Bleasdale, Alan 32, 159, 229, 399, 400 Birmingham University, Centre for Contemporary Blethyn, Brenda 194 Cultural Studies (CCCS) 244, 328, 331 Bliss, Arthur 198 Birt, John 53 Blixen, Karen 305 birth control Blondy, Alpha 16 and the Catholic Church 86, 177 Bloodaxe 401, 404 see also Abortion Acts; family planning Bloom, Valerie 61 Birtwistle, Sir Harrison 111 blues 16, 67–8, 410 Bischof, Werner 324 see also rhythm and blues bisexuality 58–9, 381 Blur 75, 75–6, 93, 344 Biswas, Sutapa 34 Boardman, Chris 143 Bjorn Again 544 Boateng, Paul 51, 61, 296 Black, Cilla 221, 340, 414 Boateng, Rosemary 59 Black, Roger 38, 508–9 Bob Godfrey Films 192 black art 59, 395 Bodley Head, The 435 Black Audio Film Collective 18–19, 43, 59, 59–60, body adornment 35, 68 151, 193, 571 Body Shop, The 132 black communities see Afro-Caribbean body size 69, 165 communities; Asian communities Bolan, Marc 23, 229, 522 black Conservatives 60, 61 Boland, Eavan 405 black film Bolland, Brian 236 feminist film-makers 194 Bolt, Ranjit 35, 36 see also diasporan film-makers Bolton, Octagon Theatre 528 black literature press 60, 189 literary prizes 314–15 Bond, Edward 527 Black Mime Theatre 65, 339 Bond films 23, 122, 397, 533 black music Bonham-Carter, Helena 4, 200, 565 disco 154–5 Book of Common Prayer 25 see also dub; jungle; reggae book marketing 69, 100, 314, 431 black performance poets 21, 60–1 Booker, Christopher 324 black politics 37, 61–2 Boomtown Rats 365 Black Power movements, influence 64, 65, 243 Boorman, John 69–70, 99 black press 60, 62 Booth, Laurie 97, 341 see also black literature press Booth, Pat 415 Black Sabbath 248 Booth, William 471 Black Slate 452 Boothroyd, Betty 567 black sportsmen and women 63 Bootleg Beatles, The 544 black television 63–4 Bosanquet, Helen and Bernard 499 Index 583

Bosnia, task force 30 and film distributors 195–6 Botham, Ian 301 government policy 198–9 Boulting, John 533 and Granada 234 Bourne, Matthew 98, 342 Hammer Horror 244 Bourne, Val 97 British Library 563 Boushier, Derek 256–7 British National Party 554 Bovell, Dennis 288, 452 British Union of Fascists 12 Bowie, David 224, 230, 525 Britpop 58, 75–6, 99, 185, 244, 365, 411, 546 style 132, 182, 229, 230 Brittan, Leon 562 Bown, Jane 393 Britten, Benjamin 198, 224, 377 boxing 63, 70, 569 Britton, Alison 89 Boy George 23, 51, 157, 183, 184, 227 Broadcasting Acts 76–7 Boyd, William 372 Brodsky Quartet 110, 112 Boyle, Mark 483 Brody, Neville 121, 236 Boyzone 522 Brook, Peter 44, 152–3, 527, 529 Bradbury, Malcolm 371, 400 Brooke, Peter 278 Bradford, National Museum of Photography, Film Brooke-Rose, Christine 371 and Television 356 Brookner, Anita 372 Bradford, Barbara Taylor 415, 461 Brophy, Brigid 222 Bragg, Billy 202, 373 Brown, Ben 400–1 Bragg, Melvyn 31 Brown, Beverley 403 Brakhage, Stan, influence 42 Brown, Christy 145 Branagh, Kenneth 5, 70–1, 73, 100, 200, 532 Brown, George Mackay 311, 479 Brando, Marlon 188, 249, 459 Brown, Gordon 295, 362–3 Brandt, Bill 52, 393, 394 Brown, Helen Gurley 570 Branson, Richard 118, 169 Brown, James (magazine editor) 180 Brasher, Chris 325 Brown, James (soul singer) 188, 216, 285, 370, 445 Bratby, John 383 Brown, Sandy 284 Brathwaite, Edward Kamau 60, 305 Browne, Tom 285 Braunsweg, Julian 168 Brownjohn, Alan 406 breakfast television 71, 393 Brownlow, Kevin 77 Brecht, Bertolt 328, 398–9, 527 Bruce, Christopher 49, 97, 341, 342 Breeze, Jean Binta 60 Bruno, Frank 70 Brenton, Howard 215, 399, 464, 527 Bryden, Bill 153 brewing industry 160 Bryson, Bill 544 Brewster, Yvonne 153 BSkyB 73, 77, 77–8, 80, 91, 366, 543 Briggs, Raymond 237, 307, 373, 378 advertising 10 Brisley, Stuart 390 sports coverage 206–7, 505–6 British Black English 71 Buchan, John 305, 397 British Black Panthers 13 Budd, Harold 361 British Citizenship Acts 71 Budd, Zola 321 British Council 71–2 Buddhism 78, 504, 542 British culture see also Zen Buddhism and democracy 146–7 Bugner, Joe 70 and films 99 buildings promotion of 71–2 conservation 123–4, 250 British Fashion Council 183 see also agricultural buildings; architecture; city British film industry 3, 72–5, 100–1, 199 redevelopment and Channel Four 90, 234 bungee jumping 78–9 584 Index

Bunting, Basil 402 Campaign for Press and Broadcasting Freedom 81 Bunting, Heath 121 campaigns 81 Burchill, Julie 275, 565 against drinking and driving 160 Burgess, Anthony 86, 370, 371 against poll tax 152, 410, 428, 457 Burgin, Victor 394 against pornography 416 Burgon, Geoffrey 111 against racism 505 Burman, Chila Kumari 34, 79 Campaign for Real Ale 160 Burningham, John 307 civil rights for disabled people 153–4 Burrell, Diana 111 community politics 119–20 Burrows, Jonathan 98, 342 environmental 212 Burrows, Larry 393 Green party 239 Burton, Richard 194 protest fashion design 183 Busby, Matt 205 see also anti-nuclear movement; gay liberation; Bush, Kate 567 pressure groups Bussell, Darcey 464 Campbell, David 242 Buster, Prince 188, 546 Campbell, Naomi 329, 415, 514 Butcher, Rosemary 97, 341, 342 Campbell, Stephen 385 Butler, Judith 316 Campbell Zoglowitch Wilkinson Gough 419 Butt, Hamad 34 CandCo Dance Company 98, 342 Butt, Ikram 505 Capa, Robert 324, 325 Buzzcocks, The 189, 436–7 car boot sales 82 Byatt, A.S. 314, 372 car industry Byker Housing 79 Japanese firms 283 Byrds, The 272 see also cars Byron, George Gordon, 6th Baron 6, 358 Carby, Hazel 65–6 Carcanet 401, 404 Caballe, Montserrat 378 Cardiff Bay Opera House 82, 377 cable and satellite 9, 32, 80, 234, 265, 266, 414, Cardiff Centre for Performance Research 529 518, 574 Carey, Dr George 28 see also BSkyB; Discovery satellite channel Carey, Peter 315 Cadbury-Brown, H.T. 348 Caribbean literature see literature, Caribbean Caesar, Imruh 150 Carnaby Street 82–3, 99, 180, 181 Cain, Maureen 13 Caro, Anthony 215, 483 Caine, Michael 5, 80–1, 114, 197, 400, 533 Carr, E.H. 83 Callaghan, James 125, 294, 295 Carr, Ian 284 Callas, Maria 378 Carrington, Peter Alexander Rupert, 6th Baron 338 Callil, Carmen 189 Carry On films 83–4, 114, 200, 397, 444–5 Callow, Simon 224 cars 84 Calvin, John 427, 433 see also car industry; motor racing Cambodia, peacekeeping operation 338 Carson, Ciaran 310 Cambridge Arts theatre 530 Carson, Michael 223 Cambridge Film Festival 198 Carter, Angela 177–8, 314, 371, 421 Cambridge Folk Festival 202 Carter, Ruth 36 Cambridge Footlights 4, 20 Carthy, Eliza 202 Cammell, Donald, films 99, 193, 459 Carthy, Martin 202 Campaign for Homosexual Equality (CHE) 225–6 Cartier-Bresson, Henri 324 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) 199, Cartland, Barbara 415, 461 254, 373, 467, 532 Cartoon Archetypal Slogan Theatre (CAST) 17 Index 585 cartoons and puppetry 84, 523 Chambers, Aidan 306–7 comedy on television 115 Chambers, Dwain 508 see also animation Chandra, Avinash 34 Cartwright, Jim 400 Channel 4 90, 280, 335, 571 Cartwright, John 302 advertising 10 Casely-Hayford, Joe 303 American import programmes 265–6 cash and carry 84–5 animation films 27 Cast 351 arts programming 32, 391 Castle, Roy 115 breakfast television 71, 393 catalogue shops 85–6 Broadcasting Act (1980) 76, 77 Catatonia 352, 567 educational programmes 265 cathedrals 250 film funding 73, 90, 193, 234 Catholicism 86, 380, 433 independent production 176, 267, 276 films 145 lesbian and gay series 225 Northern Ireland 276, 277, 369 news 365 opposition to family planning 86, 177 pop and rock programmes 414 opposition to women priests 569 programmes concerning ethnic minorities 51, writers 309 64, 150 Caton-Jones, Michael 86 sports programmes 506, 568 Caulfield, Patrick 384, 413 youth programmes 521 CBI (Confederation of British Industry) 87, Channel 4 Films 18, 89, 90–1, 199 131, 428 Channel 5 10, 77, 78, 91, 518 CD-ROM Channel Tunnel see Nicholas Grimshaw and infotainment 273 multimedia magazines 354 Partners publishing 121, 242, 435–6 Channel X 91 Ceddo 151, 193, 200, 571 chaos theory 91–2 Celtic tradition 87 Chard, Festival of Women in Music 109 druids 162 Charing Cross see Terry Farrell Partnership film and television festival 197 charities and charity shops 92–3 and Sinn Féin 494 for disabled people 154 sport 252 National Lottery funding 356 see also Welsh language support for the poor 425 censorship 87–8 see also Band Aid film 558 Charles, Prince of Wales 156, 258, 344, 378, 429 pornography 416 Charlton, Bobby and Jackie 205 publishing 376, 469 Charnock, Nigel 98, 342 SAS memoirs 29 Charter 88 93–4, 147, 239, 357 television 318 Chatto 435 theatre 226, 299, 527 Chaudhuri, Amit 373 video recordings 553 Cheeseman, Peter, community theatre 152 see also Campaign for Press and Broadcasting Chelsom, Peter 94 Freedom Chemical Brothers 56, 157 ceramics 88–9 chemistry 52–3, 257, 477 see also Crafts Council Cherry, Gordon 364 Chadha, Gurinder 89, 151, 194 Chesworth, John 341 Chadwick, Helen 274, 395, 484, 485 Chieftains 87 Chamberlain, Paul 217 Child Poverty Action Group (CPAG) 94, 559 Chamberlain, Powell and Bon 89–90 Child Support Agency 94, 493 586 Index childbirth 94–5 city redevelopment 103–6, 260–2, 418 see also Abortion Acts; family planning civil disobedience Chilton, John 284–5 hippies 254 China Crisis 351 see also riots and civil disobedience Chinese communities 56, 95–6 civil liberties films 365 campaigners 336 Chipperfield, David 29, 31, 96, 375, 491 organizations 93–4 Chivers, Steve 42, 192 civil rights Chloé 329 for disabled people 153–4 Cholmondeleys 341 Northern Ireland 277 choreography 47–8, 49–50, 51, 97–8 civil service 106, 170 see also ballet; modern dance Cixous, Hélène 423, 501 Christian, Peter 217 Claid, Emilyn 97, 98, 341 Christian Science 98 Clapton, Eric 68, 133 Christianity 433 Clark, Gillian 312 and blasphemy laws 467 Clark, Jim 346 Evangelical 504 Clark, Michael 98, 341 myths and parables 177, 370 Clark, Ossie 180 Rastafarian 447, 448 Clarke, Arthur C. 106–7, 178, 478 see also Catholicism; evangelism; Orthodox Clarke, Dave 520 Christianity; Protestant churches; Salvation Clarke, John Cooper 21, 390 Army Clarke, Kenneth 128, 208 Christie, Agatha 398, 415, 534, 534–5 Clary, Julian 115 Christie, Julie 3, 4 Christie, Linford 38, 38–9, 508 Clash, The 365, 436–7, 447 Chumbawumba 93 class system 107, 500 Church of England see Anglican Church addressed in drama 398 Church of Scientology 98–9 addressed in film 151, 300 Church of Scotland 427 addressed in photography 394 churches civil service 106 architecture 142, 229, 458 and educational achievement 474 conservation 123, 124 as theme of situation comedy 495 racism 12 and tribalism 544 see also American churches; Anglican Church; Classic FM radio 108, 118, 441, 443 Catholicism; Church of Scientology; classical music 107–10 Methodism; Orthodox Christianity; contemporary 31, 110–11, 391, 411, 441 Protestant churches see also conductors; orchestras Churchill, Caryl 153, 190, 266, 399, 400, 405, classical soloists 108, 111–12 464, 528 Clause 28 112, 223, 226 Churchill, Winston 409 Clean Break 400 cinemas 73, 99–101, 192, 195, 444, 491 Cleese, John 114 circus 101–2, 339, 396, 529 Clinton, George 285 cities Clothes Show, The 52, 112, 185 impact of environmentalism 170 clubs 22, 112–13, 144, 260, 370, 411, 449, 520 see also city redevelopment and fashion 184, 244 citizenship 71, 102–3, 238, 500 Coakley, Sheridan 217 City, the coalmining see miners’ strike; NUM and the Establishment 170 Coates, Nigel 114, 183, 455 lager louts 297 Cobbing, Bob 21 Index 587

Cocker, Jarvis 75–6, 93 and choreography 98 Cockney 114, 456 databases and direct mailing 290 Coe, Sebastian 38, 39, 336–7 DTP 163 Coetzee, J.M. 315, 418 MIDI 412, 519 Coggan, Dr Donald 28 see also CD-ROM; faxes, modems and laptops Cohan, Robert 51, 97, 340, 341 conceptual art 385, 483–4 Cold war concert halls 109, 379 and decline of Communist Party 119 concert promoters 121 end of 29, 338, 486, 515 conductors 121–2 Coleman, John 218 see also orchestras Coleman, Nick 185 Congregationalism 427 collage 387 Connery, Sean 73, 122 influence on graphic design 235, 236 Connolly, Billy 479 Collins, Hannah 395, 396 Connor, Steven 373 Collins, Jackie 415 Conran, Jasper 114, 122–3, 183 Collins, Merle 61 Conran, Shirley 415 Coltrane, John 285 Conran, Terence 122, 123, 146, 183, 217 Coltrane, Robbie 114 conservation comedies 114–15 of nature 358–9 film festivals 197 see also environmentalism see also Carry On films conservation groups 123–4 comedy on television 26, 115–16, 495 Conservative governments 124–7 see also alternative comedy; situation comedy arts policies 135 Comedy Store, The 19, 20, 116 education policy 475, 549–50 comics 116, 367, 532–3, 545 financial crises 201 Japanese 283 fostering of commercial climate 118 see also graphic novels housing policy 261 comics culture 117, 545 monetarism 345 commercial radio 117–18, 279–80 and News International 366 national 108, 118–19 and social welfare 500 Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) 62, and trade unions 539–40, 564 119, 439 urban policies 105 Commonwealth Games 39 see also Heath, Edward; Major, John; Thatcher, Communist party 119, 214, 409 Margaret community politics 119–20 Conservative Party 124, 127–30, 131, 228 community theatre 120, 149, 152, 266, 299, 528, attacks on BBC 53 574–5 election campaigns 9, 126, 476, 564 see also agitprop; avante-garde theatre; fringe Eurosceptics 128–9, 171, 213 theatre ideals and ideologies 126, 128 compact discs (CDs) 208, 351 lobbying and corruption 318 computer games Monday Club faction 355 and electro 166 New Right 128, 131, 213, 428, 500, 540 gameboys 221–2 newspaper support 174 and the music industry 351 politicians 13 computer graphics and multimedia 121 and the poll tax 410 graphic design 235–6 Scotland 479 techno 519–20 sex scandals 429, 489 computers Tory Reform Group 213 and art 257 see also black Conservatives 588 Index constitution Cottle, Gerry 102 and democracy 147 Couch, Jane 70 and devolution 119, 357 council housing 260–1, 348 and the Establishment 170 Council for the Protection of Rural England 213 pressure groups and parties 93–4, 239 country music 133–4 constructivism 251, 327, 368 countryside consumer language 130 and rambling 444 consumerism see also rural areas advertising 7, 8 Coupland, Douglas 228 and Conservative government policies 125 Courtauld Institute 134 and designer labels 149 Courtney, Tom 5 encouragement of 500 Covent Garden 48, 134–5, 376, 491, 512 and films 99, 100 Coventry magazines 275 Belgrade Theatre 149, 530, 531 ownership of appliances 27 clubs 113 and the postmodern 419 Coward, Noel 226, 562 and shopping 131, 470–1 Cowie, Vera 415 see also credit cards; globalization and Cox, Alex 99, 135, 201 consumerism; green consumerism crafts contemporary dance see modern dance galleries 89 Contemporary Music Network (CMN) 111 see also ceramics; design convenience stores 130–1, 380 Crafts Council 88, 135 Coogan, Steve 393 Cragg, Tony 463, 484 Cook, Norman 430 Craig, William 276–7 Cook, Peter (architect) 28, 29 Cram, Steve 38, 321, 337 Cook, Peter (comedian) 20, 115 Crawford, Robert 311, 479 Cook, Robin 295 crazes 136 Cookson, Catherine 415, 461 credit cards 136–7, 254 Coolio 446 Creutzfeld-Jakob disease (CJD) 203–4 Cooper, Jilly 109 Crewe, Ivor 107 Cooper, Susan 306 Crick, Bernard 409 Cope, Jonathan 464 Crick, Francis and Maurice Wilkins 137 Coper, Hans 89 cricket 77, 137–40 copyright, and the music industry 351 racism 505 Coren, Alan 324 crime Corman, Roger 197 culture of anti-heroes 490 Cornershop 37 violence 554–5 Cornwall 87 see also joyriding; serial killers and Cornish language 220 crime drama 140–1, 408 see also St Ives Crisp, Quentin 224 corporate identity 131 Croft, Michael 574 corporatism 87, 131, 302, 540, 560 Crosby, Theo 141 corruption companies 322 Crosland, Margaret 57 politicians 126, 129, 233, 318 Crosland, Tony 549 corruption in the City 131–2, 358 Cross, Gillian 307 cosmetics 132 cross-Channel shopping 85, 141 Cosmopolitan 570 Crow, Susan 50 Costello, Elvis 110, 112, 133–4, 365 crusties 68, 141, 447, 449 Index 589

Cullinan, Edward 141–2 Afro-Caribbean influence 14 Cult, The 20 ambient 22 cultural discourse and criticism 174, 229, 244, big beat 56 299, 513 clubs 22, 112–13, 260 advertising 7–8 house 260 feminist 240 jungle 289 ICA 264 new wave 113 and philosophy 392 rave culture 117, 449 cultural studies see media and cultural studies and sampling 471 Culture Club 23, 412, 447 see also disco; discos Cunningham, Merce, dance technique 341, 342 Dance Umbrella 97, 341 Curbishley, Alison 508 Dancer, Barry 256 Cure, The 20, 233, 243 Dandy 532–3 current affairs 142, 234, 441 Dankworth, Johnny 284 Currie, Edwina, novels 415 Dantalion’s Chariot 434 Curtis, David 42, 192 Dark and Light theatre company 64 Curtis, Tony (poet) 312 Darrell, Peter 48, 49 Cushing, Peter 244 Dartington College of Arts 97, 110, 341 Cutler, Sir Horace 230 Dash, Julie 59, 151 cycling 142–3 Data Protection Agency 290 Cyprus 337, 380 Davenport, Ian 385 Davies, John 394 Dabydeen, David 305, 306 Davies, Laura 568 dada, influence 386 Davies, Sharron 515–16 Daddy Boys 227 Davies, Siobhan 341, 342 D’Aguiar, Fred 71, 306, 403 Davies, Terence 86, 145, 193, 194, 224, 225 Dahl, Roald 192, 306 Davis, Carl 51, 109, 111 Daily Express 174 Davis, Idris 312 Daily Mail 174, 479–80 Davis, Jonathan 465 Daily Mirror 339 Davis, Miles 216, 285 Daily Record 479, 480 Dawkins, Richard 145, 389 Daily Star 174 Day, Corinne 514 Daily Telegraph 313, 522 Day, Robin (furniture designer) 217 Dalai Lama 504 Day-Lewis, Daniel 5, 70, 73, 145 Daldry, Stephen 153 daytime television 145–6, 221, 392–3 Damned, The 233, 365, 436–7 Dbango, Manu 15 dance De Vere, Alison 26 and Asian theatre 36 Deacon, Richard 463, 484 and experimental theatre 226, 529 Dean, Christopher 265 Indian 342 Deane, Derek 50 and mime 339 Deardon, Basil 146, 224, 533 television coverage 31, 32 Dearing Report 551 see also ballet; choreography; disco; modern Deep Purple 248 dance Def Leppard 365 Dance Bites 49–50 Deighton, Len 535, 536 Dance, Charles 534 Dekker, Desmond 495 dance music 75, 144, 412 Delaney, Shelagh 190, 370, 527 African 15 delicatessens 146 590 Index democracy 146–7, 233, 388–9, 409 Dineen, Molly 157–8 citizenship and rights 102–3 direct action 119, 152, 169, 262 pressure groups 94, 428 directors 152–3, 464, 527 Democratic Left 119 disability 153–4 Dench, Dame Judi 4, 70 addressed in theatre 299 Denys Lasdun and Partners 147–8, 464, 552 and prejudice 426 department stores 130, 132, 148 disco 144, 154, 154–5, 216, 260, 411 Depeche Mode 113, 519 and jazz funk 285 deregulation new wave 365 media 9 raves 448, 449 stock exchange 201, 375 discos 113, 155–6 trade 172 discount stores 156 Derrida, Jacques 316, 420, 422 Discovery satellite channel 359 Desai, Anita 308 Disley, John 325 Desani, G.V. 271 Disneyland 263 design Dispersed Data 121 fabrics 303 divorce law 156 house interiors 123 Dixon, Fenella 156, 348 shops 123, 141, 491–2 Dixon, Jeremy 31, 156, 348 see also fashion, design; furniture design; DJs (disc jockeys) 156–7 graphic design; industrial design disco and dance music 144, 154 Design Council 123, 135, 148 house music 260 Design Museum 31, 114, 216 pirate radio 398 designer labels 55, 148–9, 293, 451, 508 reggae 453 Deuter 361 scratching 481 Devine, George 527 see also radio DJs devising 149, 266, 531 Dr Feelgood 434 Dewshi, Alnoor 151 Dr Martens 158, 337, 448, 496 Dexter, Colin 415, 535 documentary 157–8 Dhanjal, Avtarjeet 34 drama 266 Dhondy, Farrukh 306 films 43, 59, 150, 151, 193, 558 dialect 150, 450 influence on feminist film 193 Scottish 310–11, 450, 479 photography 394 see also Cockney; Estuary English; Geordies; television 57, 274, 289, 317–18 scouse Doherty, Willie 395 Diana, Princess of Wales 165, 183, 187, 313, 345, Dolin, Anton 168 378, 421, 429, 497 Dollimore, Jonathan 316 diasporan film-makers 18–19, 60, 89, 150–2, 200, domestic violence 158, 500 289 Donald, Chris and Simon 116 Dick, Philip K. 178 Donovan, Terence 393 Dickens, Charles Doors, The 272, 522 film adaptations 166, 297 Douglas, Bill 158 studies 372 Douglas, Keith 309 digital technologies Dowell, Anthony 49, 464 audio tapes 351 Doyle, Roddy 87, 211, 314 broadcasting 118 D’Oyly Carte 377 electronic shopping 167 Drabble, Margaret 57, 370 television 266, 275, 542–3 drama see drama on television; playrights; radio Dillon, Jane and Charles 217 drama; theatre Index 591 drama on television 6, 32, 140, 158–9, 172, 300, eating disorders 164–5, 340, 514 391, 423, 524, 526 Eavis, Michael 373 directors and film-makers 211, 317–18 Echo and the Bunnymen 20, 272, 351 see also crime drama; medical drama Eco, Umberto 262–3, 394 Draper, Derek 318 economics Driberg, Tom 13 Alternative Economic Strategy (AES) 294 drink 159–61, 304 and environmentalism 556 drug culture 161–2, 500 Labour policies 294–5, 296, 362–3 music and club scene 22, 112, 113, 141, 144, see also recession 448, 449 Eddy, Mary Baker 98 drugs, in athletics and sport 39, 140 Edgar, David 17, 399, 527, 528 druids 162 Edinburgh, clubs 520 DTP (desktop publishing) 162–3, 236 Edinburgh Festival and Fringe 31, 109, 165–6, Du Maurier, Daphne 415 214, 329 dub 37, 163, 289, 452, 496 Edinburgh Film Festival 197 poetry 60, 288, 391 Edmonds, Noel 157, 221 Dube, Lucky 16 Edmondson, Adrian 116, 415 Dubuffet, Jean, art brut 361 education the arts 264 Dudley, William 488 and broadcasting 265, 274 Duffer of St George 293 government policies 475, 549–50 Duffy, Brian 393 music 110, 349 Duffy, Carol Ann 312 qualifications 231–2 Duffy, Francis 217 racial discrimination 13 Duffy, Maureen 222, 372 and received pronunciation 150 Dunant, Sarah 372, 565 in Wales 561 Dunbar, Geoff 26 see also adult education; further education Dunblane, school tragedy 541 colleges; school examinations; schools Dunmore, Helen 407 system; theatre in education; universities Dunn, Douglas 311, 404 Edward the Second (folk band) 202 Dunn, Nell 322 Edwards, P. 305 Dunning, George 26 Edwards, Sian 122 Duprès, Maedée 341 Edzard, Christine 166 Duran Duran 23, 363, 412 Elastica 76, 567 Durante, Viviana 464 elderly, the Durrell, Lawrence 370 Dury, Ian 434 abuse of 559–60 DV8 Physical Theatre 98, 226, 341, 529 community arts 149 Dworkin, Andrea 416 see also pensioners Dwoskin, Steve 42, 43 electro 166 Dylan, Bob 310, 459 electronic shopping 167 Elim 167 Eagleton, Terry 164, 316, 328 Eliot, T.S. 404, 421 Ealing Studios 74, 146, 198, 199 Elizabeth, the Queen Mother 345 Eames, Charles 217, 251 Elkington, John 238 Early, Fergus 341, 342 Ellen, Mark 168 Earth Wind and Fire 285 Elliott, Alastair 406 Eastham, George 205 Elliott, John 63, 64 Easthope, Antony 423 Ellis, Alice Thomas 372 592 Index

Ellis, Ruth 365 and homosexuality 225 Elstree Studios 74, 199 movements against 398 Elton, Ben 19, 115, 116, 415 Estuary English 171, 512 Elwes, Catherine 121, 553 Etchells, Tim 153 EMAP Maclaren 167–8, 242, 275, 520, 570 ethnic minorities Emery-Wallis, Freddie 348 and class 107 employment and crime drama 140–1 Afro-Caribbean immigrants 11 and gay film 224 and equal pay 170 languages 56–7 Indian migrants 268, 493 over-policing 407 job creation schemes 229 and prejudice 426 in the NHS 367 representation in parliament 296 racial discrimination 11–12, 13, 268–9 television 51, 274 sex discrimination 488–9 see also black art; black politics; Indian women 560, 564–5, 566 communities see also labour migration Eubank, Chris 70 Empty Space Theatre Company 44 Eurocommunism, and the Communist Party Encounter 313 119, 214 Enfield, Harry 157 Europe 171–2 Engels, Friedrich 501 and the CBI 87 England, Ruth 91 and Conservative rebellions 128–9, 171 English Heritage 89, 123, 250 eco-labelling 238 English National Ballet 49, 50, 168–9 elections 303 English National Opera 377, 378 Eno, Brian 22, 93, 360 Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) 129, 172 entrepreneurs 169, 210, 269 food and drink legislation 203–4 environment Labour Party policies 294, 295 and chaos theory 92 New Labour policy 363 concerns with cosmetics 132 and powers of British parliament 388 Gaia model 220 Regional Development Fund 74 and global warming 230–1 Thatcher’s views 526 environmentalism 169–70, 408, 500 and trade unions 540 and direct action 152 European culture and economics 556 avant-garde film 197 and green consumerism 238 models for city redevelopment 103, 104 slogan shirts 245 postmodernist theory 216 solar energy 502 theatre 527, 529 see also Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace Eurythmics 99 Enya 87 Euston Films 140, 172 Epstein, Jacob, influence 249 euthanasia 172–3, 334 Epstein, Liliana L. 89 evangelism 167, 173–4, 504 equal pay 17, 170 Evans, Cerith Wyn 42, 192–3, 224 Erith, Raymond 359, 375 Evans, Chris 71, 118, 232, 393 eroticism Evans, Nicholas 69 gay film 224 Evans, Paul 321 photography 395 Evans, Walker 325 Erskine, Ralph 79, 245, 375 Evans and Shalev 31, 510, 519 Establishment, the 170–1 Everett, Kenny 156–7, 443 Church and State axis 28 exegesis 174 Index 593 existentialism, influence 297, 392, 473 fashion (1990s) 184–6 Express Group 174–5 fashion Extemporary Dance Theatre 98 charity shop clothing 93 Eysenck, Hans 175 children’s 186–7 FA Cup 176, 206, 569 designers 33, 52, 55, 122–3, 180–1, 182–3, 184, Faber 401 185, 212, 221, 245, 329, 330, 348, 376, 428, Face, The 183, 184, 200, 236, 353, 548 438, 451, 455, 497, 562–3 facilities houses 176–7 and films 99, 100 Factory, The (theatre) 64 and green consumerism 184–5 Fagon, Alfred 64 lesbian 300–1 Fairbairns, Zoe 372 men 181, 183, 185, 472 Fairport Convention 202 photography 394, 514 fairy tales wedding 187 children’s films 192 see also accessories; Afro-Caribbean youth styles; in literature 177–8 Asian youth styles; body adornment; faiths see Baha’i; Buddhism; Christian Science; designer labels; hats; London Fashion Week; Hinduism; Islam; Jainism; Judaism; Sikhism models; sportswear Faldo, Nick 232 fashions, youth 187–9, 546 Falkland Islands faxes, modems and laptops 2, 189 British military presence 337 junk mail 290 war 29–30, 53, 129, 234, 338 Fayed, Dodi 262, 345 Family Circle 570 Al-Fayed, Mohammed 71, 148, 233, 345 family life Featherstonehaughs 341 breakdown of 258 Fecund Theatre 44 Indian communities 269, 270 Fellner, Eric 73, 571 Pakistani communities 386 feminism photography 395, 395–6 and anti-nuclear protest 373 see also marriage; poverty, families and criticism of fashion industry 181 family planning 177 dance 98 fantasy and science fiction 177–8 early campaigns 170 comics 116, 117 and enviromentalism 169 films 106–7, 197 film-makers 43, 193–4, 200, 291, 423–4 see also science fiction and the new man 363 fantasy football 178 and pornography 191, 416 Fanthorpe, U.A. 403, 404 stance on rape and domestic violence 158, 554 fanzines 178–80, 206, 353–4, 547–8 style 158 Farah, Nuruddin 417 writers 240, 339–40 Farmer, Penelope 306 see also black women’s movement; feminist Farrakhan, Louis 15 theory; women’s movement Farrell, J.G. 371, 418 feminist publishing houses 189 Farrell, Terry 359, 419 feminist theatre 189–90, 215, 226, 299, 528 see also Terry Farrell Partnership feminist theory 7, 190–2, 240, 338 fascism film magazines 199–200 organizations 12–13, 554 French writers 501 see also National front literary criticism 316 fashion (1960s) 2, 55, 82–3, 180–1, 186, 340, 438 and Marxism 191, 339, 501 fashion (1970s) 181–3, 229 media and cultural studies 330, 333 fashion (1980s) 183–4, 201, 245 and socialism 191, 339–40 594 Index

sociology and postmodernism 502 film press 47, 199–200, 201 on the welfare state 560 film reviews 200–1 women in sport 568 television programmes 369 Fenton, George 110–11 film studies see media education Ferrier, Kathleen 166 Film and Video Umbrella 121 Festival of Britain (1951) 388, 425, 504 filofaxes 2, 201 fiction see novel; popular fiction financial crises 201 Field, John 49 see also banks Fielding, Helen 415–16 Financial Times Printing House see Nicholas Fiennes, Ralph 5, 73 Grimshaw and Partners Fierstein, Harvey 226 Finch, Nigel 225 Figes, Eva 371 Finch, Peter 224 Figgis, Mike 73 Fine, Anne 307 film Finlay, Ian Hamilton 311 black companies 59 Finney, Albert 5, 67, 81 children’s 26, 192 Fionda, Pearce 185, 321 and crazes 136 Fish, Stanley 316 crime and violence 490 Fisher, R.A. 360 critics 72, 368–9 Fisher, Terence 244 directors and film-makers 18–19, 23, 40, 67, fishing see angling 69–70, 77, 86, 89, 94, 135, 145, 146, 158, Fiske, John 333 Fitkin, Graham 110 166, 208, 209, 210–11, 239, 262, 288, 289, Fitz-Simon, Stephen 55 291, 297–8, 300, 301, 317–18, 322, 324, Flagstad, Kirsten 378 330, 388, 423–4, 425, 454, 456, 458, Flanagan, Barry 483 459–60, 467–8, 472, 480, 517–18, 525, 553, Fleming, Ian 535 see also Bond films 558, 564, 573–4 Flowers, Adrian 394 documentaries 59 flying pickets 202 experimental 23, 192–3 Foale, Marlon 82, 180, 340 feminist 43, 193–4, 200, 291, 423–4 folk music 110, 133, 202, 410, 431 heritage 99, 100, 250 Follett, Ken 415 horror 244–5 Fonda, Peter 249 museums 344, 356 Fonteyn, Margot 464 producers 437 food 203–4 production and facilities houses 176 Chinese restaurants 95–6 screenplay 106–7 see also delicatessens; restaurants and bars set design 488 Foot, Michael 204, 294, 295 thrillers 533–4 football 176, 204–7, 256 and video 42, 43 and advertising 9 see also actors (female); actors (male); avant- black players 63 garde cinema; BFI; Channel 4 Films; and consumer language 130 comedies; diasporan film-makers fanzines 178–9, 179–80 film awards 4, 18, 47, 59, 81, 84, 166, 192, 194–5, Hillsborough disaster 206, 506, 541 196, 198, 225, 262, 282, 288, 289, 497, 532 and opera singers 378 Film Council 55 and product placement 431 film distributors 195–6, 196 American 99, 195 racism 505 film festivals 54, 194, 196–8, 200, 200–1 skinheads 496 film music 99, 198 supporters’ tribalism 544 film policy 198–9 television coverage 77, 78, 505 Index 595

women’s 568 Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace 81, 84, see also fantasy football 212–13, 274, 359, 373 football pools 54, 207–8, 356 fringe groups 152, 213 Forbes, Bryan 208 fringe parties 214 Forbidden Planet, The 117, 367 fringe theatre 6, 153, 214–15, 527, 562 Forced Entertainment 153, 266, 529 see also agitprop; avant-garde theatre; Ford, Anna 545, 565, 566 community theatre Foreign Office 208, 571 Frink, Elizabeth 215–16 Forkbeard Fantasy (artists group) 149 Frischmann, Justine 567 formalism Frost, David 545 and the avant-garde 42 Frutos, Javier de 98, 342 influence on structuralism 315–16 Fugard, Athol 528 formats 208 Fulkerson, Mary 97, 341 Forster, E.M., film adaptations 145, 335 Fuller, Samuel 197 Forsyth, Bill 115, 209 Fun-da-mental 37 Forsyth, Frederick 415, 534 funk 23, 56, 166, 216, 285, 452, 503, 519 Foster, Brendan 321 see also jazz funk Foster, Jodie 381 Furious Five 445 Foster, Norman 209, 217, 343, 368 furniture design 216–18 Foster Associates 31, 82, 96, 209, 251, 258, 418, further education colleges 218–19, 232 457, 460, 491, 563 see also adult education Foucault, Michel 316, 422, 423, 501 Future Sound of London, The 22 4 Hero 289 Fowles, John 371, 421 Gable, Christopher 49, 50, 51 Fox, Anna 395 Gabo, Naum 327, 510 Fox, James 158 Gabor, Dennis 220 franchise auction 209–10 Gabriel, Peter 16, 27, 360, 564 franchising 210 Gaelic 220, 311 Francis, Dick 415, 536 Gaia hypothesis 220 Francis, Karl 210–11 Gaiman, Neil 116, 236, 237 Frankfurt School 328, 331, 501 Gaitskell, Hugh 368, 384 Franklyn, Carolyn 112, 185 Gale, Patrick 223 Fraser, Ronald 41 Gallacio, Anya 274 Frayling, Christopher 123 Gallagher, Noel and Liam 75–6 Frayn, Michael 399 Galliano, John 184, 185, 221, 321 Frears, Stephen 40, 73, 115, 145, 211, 224, Galloway, Janice 312, 372 534, 571 Galway, James 111 free market 9, 303 Gambaccini, Paul 439 Freehold 44 gambling see betting shops; football pools; Freeman, Robert 393 National Lottery Freemasons 211 game shows 6, 8, 146, 221 freesheets 212, 319, 497 gameboys 221–2 French, Philip 201 Garcia, Russell 256 Freud, Anthony 377 Gardiner, John Eliot 122 Freud, Bella 186, 212, 321 Garner, Alan 306 Freud, Lucian 212, 383, 384, 473 Garrett, Lesley 377, 378 Freud, Sigmund 316, 339, 394, 504 Garsington Opera 377 Friedman, Milton, influence on Thatcher 128, 540 Garvey, Marcus 447 Friel, Brian 399, 400 Gaskill, Bill 152, 464 596 Index

Gaster, Owen 321 Gillman, Clive 121 Gaudier-Brzeska, Henri, influence 249 Gilroy, Paul 59, 188, 224, 229, 328, 332 Gaultier, Jean-Paul 2, 182, 304 Ginsberg, Allen 253, 390 Gavin, Jamila 307 giro culture 229 gay and lesbian writing 222–3, 372 glam 182, 188, 229 gay culture glam rock 23, 230, 244, 363, 428 and bisexuality 58 Glancey, Jonathan 272 disco and club scene 154–5, 519 Glasgow fashion and style 23–4, 82, 243 architecture 273 male drag 227 clubs 260 see also lesbian culture housing development 105, 261 gay film 90–1, 145, 200, 224–5, 284 Museum of Modern Art 383 gay liberation 225–6 theatre 529 and the army 29 Glasgow Film Fund 74 campaign against Clause 28 112 Glass, Philip, influence 110 Gay Pride 58, 144 Glastonbury 162 and the new man 363 Glastonbury festival 76, 373, 459 see also age of consent GLC (Greater London Council) 230, 299, 464 Gay Sweatshop 190, 223, 226, 527 Glennie, Evelyn 111 gay theatre 223, 226, 299, 527 Glitter, Gary 230 GCSEs 226–7, 472 global warming 230–1 Geldof, Bob 51, 71 globalization and consumerism 9, 231 Gems, Pam 215, 528 foodie culture 203 ‘gender-benders’ 68, 182, 227 mass media 237 general elections 9, 126, 227–8, 294, 295, 301, Globe Theatre 231 303, 362, 485–6 Glover, Jane 122 Generation X 228, 431 Glyndebourne Opera 377, 391 Genesis 431 Glyndebourne Theatre see Hopkins, Michael genetics 137, 145, 360 GMW Partnership 419 Gentle, Mary 178 GNVQs 218, 231–2 Geoffrey, Iqbal 34 Godber, John 6 Geordies 228 Godbolt, Jim 284 George, David Lloyd see Lloyd George, David Goddard, Judith 121 Gerima, Haile 59, 151 Godfrey, Bob 26 Ghirardo, Diane 30, 251 Godwin, Fay 394 Giacometti, Alberto, influence 473 Gogol, Nicolai, plays 36, 444 Giannaris, Constantine 225 Goldcrest 72, 73 Gibbons, Dave 237 Goldie 289 Gibraltar, British military presence 337 Golding, William 372 Gidal, Peter 42, 42–3, 192 Goldsmith, Harvey 121 Giddens, Antony 231, 501 Goldsmith, Sir James 324 Gilbert and George 224, 390, 483, 553 Referendum Party 129, 171 Giles, Calum 256 Goldsmith’s College 385, 482, 483 Gill, David 77 Goldsworthy, Andy 379 Gill, Eric, typeface design 236 golf 63, 232, 508, 568 Gill, Peter 223 Gombrich, Ernest 232–3 Gillespie, Kidd and Coia 229 Goodden, Nat 274 Gilliam, Terry 114, 246 Goodhew, Duncan 515 Gillingham, Nick 515 The Goon Show 26, 442 Index 597

Gordimer, Nadine 305 Greig, Noel 226, 531 Gordon, Douglas 273, 274 Grenfell, Joyce 256 Gordon, Richard 83 Grey, Beryl 49, 50 Gormley, Antony 233, 484 greyhound racing 54 gothic Griffiths, Trevor 399, 527 romance 460, 461 Grigg, John 57 style and subculture 233, 243 Gropius, Walter, influence 342 Gould, Bryan 295 Grossman, Lloyd 246 government inquiries 233–4, 562 grunge movement 75, 249 Gowan, James 362 Guard, Candy 27 Grade, Michael 32, 90, 391 Guardian, The 240, 319 Graef, Roger 157–8 Guardian Group 240–1 graffiti 14, 234, 253 Guest, Val 533 Graham, Billy 173, 504 Guildhall School of Music and Drama 349 Graham, Martha, influence 340 Gulf War 30, 126, 338 Graham, Paul 395 and hyperreality 420 Graham, W.S. 311 poetry 406 Gramsci, Antonio 328, 331–2, 409 Gunn, Thom 223 Granada 31, 234–5 Gunnell, Sally 38, 508, 568 Grand National 54, 235, 259 Gupta, Sunetra 373 Grant, Hugh 5, 73, 235, 365 Gupta, Sunil 395 Grant, Rob 178 Gupta, Tanika 35, 36 Granta 313 Guy, Barry 111 graphic design 235–6, 384 graphic novels 236–7 Habermas, Jürgen 328 Grateful Dead 253 Habitat 123, 217 Gravesend, civic centre 348 Hachette 242 Gray, Alisdair 311, 371, 372 Hadid, Zaha 82, 377 Gray, Marianne 57 Hague, William 130, 370 Greaves, Tony 302 Haile Selassie, Ras Tafari 447 green belts 237–8, 262, 381 hairstyles 242–4 Green, Benny 284 Haitinck, Bernard 134 Green Candle Dance Company 342 Halas, John 26 green consumerism 170, 238, 408 Haldane, J.B.S. 360 and fashion 184–5 Haley, Alex 15 Green movement, and direct action 152, 169 Hall, Peter 153, 464, 465 Green Party 169, 239 Hall, Radclyffe 222 Greenaway, Peter 42, 193, 200, 239, 324 Hall, Stuart 59, 92, 244, 328, 331, 332, 563 Greenberg, Clement 484 Halsey, A.H. 501 Greenblatt, Stephen 316 Hamed, ‘Prince’ Naseem 70 Greene, Graham 324 Hamilton, Julyen 98 Greene, Hugh 53 Hamilton, Neil 318 Greenham Common 240, 373 Hamilton, Richard 236, 384, 394, 413 Greenpeace see Friends of the Earth and Hammer Horror 200, 244–5, 534 Greenpeace Hammersmith Ark, London 245, 375 Greenwich Hammond, Roger, films 42 architecture 90 Hamnett, Katharine 183, 245, 321 Millennium dome 114, 460 shops 114, 491 Greer, Germaine 240, 316, 565 Hancock, Herbie 216, 285 598 Index

Handmade Films 73, 245–6 Henley Regatta 249, 462, 470 Hansen, Ashia 63, 568 Henman, Tim 525 Happy Mondays, The 352 Henri, Adrian 335, 390 Hardy, Thomas 401, 404 Henry Moore Institute 31 Hare, David 35, 215, 299, 399, 527 Henson, Jim, The Muppet Show 84, 192 Hare Krishna 246, 252 Hepworth, Barbara 249–50, 368, 510 Harle, John 112 Hepworth, David 168, 520 Harpers and Queen 246–7, 301, 570 Herbert, W.N. 311, 479 Harris, Bob 414 heritage 250–1 Harrison, George 245, 252 churches 24 Harrison, Tony 21, 153, 404, 405, 406 drama 266 Harrod, John 377 films 99, 100 Harrods 148, 291, 470, 491 National Lottery funding 356 Harvey Court, Caius College, Cambridge see Shakespeare 231, 263 Martin, Leslie; St John, Colin Heron, Liz 41 Harvey, Daniel 317 Heron, Patrick 510 Harvey, Jonathan 529 Herron, Ron 29 Harvey, Mick 553 Heseltine, Michael 127, 562 Harvey, Silas 574 Hewish, Antony and Martin Ryle 251 Harvey Nichols 247 Hewitt, John 309 Hatoum, Mona 274, 317 Hewlett, Jamie 116 hats 184, 247 Hickox, Richard 122 Hattersley, Roy 295, 296–7, 415 high-tech, architecture 209, 251–2, 258, 272, 368, Hawking, Stephen 247–8, 346, 389 382, 491, 563 Hawkins, Matthew 342 Highland Games 252 Hawksmoor, Nicholas, influence 147, 361 Hilfiger, Tommy 293 Hawtrey, Charles 83 Hill, Damon 347 Hayek, Friedrich August von, influence on Hill, Geoffrey 402, 403, 404 Thatcher 128, 540 Hill, Graham 346 Hayes, Isaac 445 Hill, Jimmy 205 Hayward Gallery 31, 197, 291, 343, 395 Hill, Paul 394 Head, Tim 395 Hiller, Susan 553 health policies and the NHS 248 Hillingdon Civic Centre see Robert Matthew films 23 Johnson-Marshall and Partners Thatcherite reforms 126, 128, 239 Hilton, Matthew 217–18 Healy, Jeremy 260 Himid, Lubaina 317 Heaney, Seamus 278, 309, 310, 402, 403, 404 Hinduism 252–3, 270, 492–3 Heath, Edward, governments 124–5, 128, 214, hip hop 14, 56, 59, 166, 216, 253, 289, 398, 411, 450, 539–40, 560 445, 481, 503 Heath, Stephen 423, 481, 482 and poetry 21, 61 heavy metal 248–9, 365, 411 and raves 448 Hebdige, Dick 92, 187–8, 331 hippies 253–4, 426, 496 Hedley, Philip, community theatre 152 comic culture 116 Hegley, John 21, 391 drug culture 161 Hello! 570 and fashion 181, 230 Hell’s Angels 248, 249, 459 image 239 Hemmings, David 81 influence of Buddhism 78 Henderson, Ewen 89 influence on style 23, 23–4, 141, 182 Henderson, Nigel 361 long hair 243 Index 599

rock bands 230 Hong Kong support for animal rights 262 and British Citizenship Acts 71 Yippie movement 490 British military presence 337 hire purchase 254–5, 487 handover to China 29, 96 Hiro, Dilip 35 immigrants from 95–6 Hirst, Damien 385, 485 Hooper, Ewen 574 Hislop, Ian 221, 324 Hooper, Nelle 430 history 53, 83, 255, 255, 315, 328, 511, 519, 532 Hopkins, Anthony 73, 365 Hitchcock, Alfred 399, 533, 534 Hopkins, John 63 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) 18, 223 Hopkins, Michael 251, 258 see also AIDS Horden, Richard 258–9 Hobbs and Mullberry 186 Hordern, Michael 158 Hobsbaum, Philip 311 Horkheimer, Max 231, 328, 501 Hobsbawm, Eric 255, 328 Hornby, Nick 416 Hobson, Dorothy 332 Horner, John 198 Hobson, Harold 530 Horovitz, Michael 21 hockey 63, 256, 265, 568 horse racing 54, 235, 259 Hockney, David 46, 224, 256–7, 383, 384, 413, Hoskins, Bob 114, 246, 324 463, 464 hostages 259 Hodder, Stephen 343 house 22, 37, 155, 260, 272, 353, 411, 437, 519, Hodgkin, Dorothy 257 520, 541 Hodgkin, Howard 385 club culture 113 Hoggart, Richard 244, 328, 330–1, 563 and DJs 157 holidays see tourism and raves 448 holistic medicine 257–8 House of Commons 388 Holland, Jools 414 House of Lords 24–5, 388–9, 437, 460 Hollinghurst, Alan 222, 372 housing 105, 260–2 Hollywood 100, 245 architecture 79, 147, 156, 258, 327, 329, 361–2, Holmes, Kelly 63 419, 425, 458, 498, 504 Holocaust, literature 403 green belts 237–8 Home Service, The 202 racial discrimination 12, 13, 268–9 homelessness 56, 107, 229, 258, 294, 424, 512 sale of council houses 128 Channel 4 programmes 90 housing associations 261 television drama 318, 560 Houston, Penelope 201 homeopathy 258 Houstoun, Wendy 98 homosexuality Howard, Michael 71 addressed in theatre 528 Howard, Robin 97, 340 Anglican Church’s stance 504 Howe, Darcus 51 Channel 4 Hoyland, John 385 films and programmes 90, 90–1 Hoyle, Fred 262 Clause 28 112 Hubbard, L.Ron 98 in crime novels 535 Huddersfield, Contemporary Music Festival legislation 225 109, 111 literature 41 Hudson, Hugh 100, 262, 437 and men’s fashion 181 Hughes, Langston 289 painting 257, 384 Hughes, Ted 307, 401, 402, 407 sexual binaries 58 Hulanicki, Barbara 2, 55, 180, 181 see also gay culture; gay film; gay liberation; Hull Truck Company 6 outing Hulme, Keri 314, 418 600 Index

Human League, The 113, 166, 411 Independent, The 479, 522 Hume, Basil 86 see also Mirror Group Hume, Gary 385 Independent Film-Makers’ Association (IFA) Humphreys, John 441–2 42, 193 Hunt, James 347 independent production 267, 275–6, 335 hunt saboteurs 26, 169, 262 Index Limited 85–6 Hurt, John 86 Indian communities 56, 267–71, 386 Husserl, Edmund, influence 316 see also Asian communities Hutcheon, Linda 421 Indian culture, music 37 Huxley, Elspeth 305 Indian languages 269, 271–2, 386 hyperreality 262–3, 420, 514 Indian literature see literature, Indian Indian music, influence 361 Ibrahim, Abdullah 15 indie pop 20, 272, 352, 413, 437, 448 ICA (Institute of Contemporary Arts) 264, 384 industrial buildings 272–3 black theatre 64 industrial design 148, 251, 273 industrial disputes, policing 407 exhibitions 79, 361 industry, immigrant workers 11–12, 268, 269 experimental film 193, 195, 197 infertility, Warnock Report 556–8 experimental theatre 527 infotainment 273 ice skating 264–5 Ingrams, Richard 324, 389 Idle, Eric 114 Innes, Christopher 43 Ikoli, Tunde 64 Innes, Hammond 415 Illuminations 265 Inspiral Carpets, The 352 Imagination 285–6 installation art 151, 273–4, 317, 485 immigration and immigrants intellectual life see cultural discourse and Afro-Caribbeans 11 criticism; cultural studies; feminist theory black politics 61 International Broadcasting Trust (IBT) 274 Chinese 95–6 Internet 189, 274–5 and citizenship 102 electronic shopping 167 Conservative policies 214 feminist studies of 191 controls 13 junk mail 290 demonstrations and riots 457 and the music industry 351, 353, 354, 412 Eastern European Jews 286 poetry publishing 406 Indians 252, 268 and the postmodern 419 Irish 279 and rave culture 449 Japanese 283 and techno 519–20 Muslims 280 IPC Music Publishers 275 Pakistanis 386 IPPA, AIP and PACT 275–6 and racism 355, 457 IRA (Irish Republican Army) 277, 337 teaching of Arabic 28 bombing campaigns 554 Thatcherite policy 128 films about 146 see also labour migration monitoring of by secret services 486 imported television 91, 265–6 Iraq improvisation 266–7 arms sales to 234 avant-garde dance 97 Operation Desert Storm 338 fringe theatre 215 see also Gulf war physical theatre 396 Ireland 87, 276–9, 279 see also devising films about 288, 318 Ince, Paul 505, 506 Gaelic 220 Index 601

nationalism 276, 494 Jainism 282 see also Irish communities, etc.; Northern Ireland Jam, The 344, 434 Irigaray, Luce 501 Jamaican culture see Afro-Caribbean communities; Irish communities 279 reggae; ska Irish culture 278, 279 James, P.D. 415, 535 music 134 James, Sid 83 playwrights 399, 400 Jameson, Fredric 420, 421 see also Celtic tradition Jamie, Kathleen 312, 479 Irish News 369 Japanese communities 282–3 IRN (Independent Radio News) 279–80 Japanese culture Iron Maiden 365 architecture 96, 491 Irons, Jeremy 73, 534 comics and graphic novels 236, 237 Ironside, Janey 180 manga 237 Isaacs, Jeremy 280, 376, 391 Jarman, Derek 42, 99, 193, 224, 284 ISCON see Hare Krishna Jarry, Alfred 26, 399 Iser, Wolfgang 316 Jarvis, Robin 307 Isherwood, Christopher 223 Jason, David 5, 159 Ishiguro, Kazuo 372, 418 Jauss, Hans Robert 316 Islam 28, 280–1, 355, 387, 426, 492–3 jazz 284–5, 285, 286, 410 Isle of Man 87, 220 and blues 68 Isle of Wight, rock festival 459 and classical music 110, 112 Israel, and the Jewish community in Britain 287 early mod style 188 ITA (Independent Television Authority) 52 as influence 289, 360–1, 519 ITV (Independent Television) and poetry 21, 390 advertising 10 on radio 441 arts programming 31 and reggae 452 Broadcasting Act (1990) 76–7 see also jazz funk; jazz soloists daytime television 145–6 Jazz Couriers 284 documentaries and biography 57 jazz funk 216, 285–6 film funding 73 jazz soloists 286 franchise auction 209–10, 267 Jefferson Airplane 253 independent production 267, 276 Jehovah’s Witnesses 286 news 365 Jellicoe, Ann 120, 152 use of American programmes 265 Jencks, Charles 418, 418–19, 526 see also Granada; Mersey Television; Thames Jenkins, Roy 57, 295, 302, 485 TV; TV-am Jennings, Humphrey 197 Jethro Tull 431 Jackson, Colin 38, 38–9 Jewish communities 286–8 Jackson, Glenda 4, 211, 282, 439 Jewish culture Jackson, Jennifer 50 films 197, 553 Jackson, Michael 412 Yiddish 574 Jackson, Millie 445 Jeyasingh, Shobana 35, 98, 342 Jacobi, Derek 70, 166 Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer 308, 334–5, 373, 418 Jacobsen, Art (furn des), influence 217 Joachimides, Christos 463 Jacques, Brian 307 Jodrell Bank radio telescope 322 Jaffrey, Madhur 274 Joffe, Roland 288, 437 Jaffrey, Saeed 35 John, Elton 301 Jagger, Mick, films 99 John, Errol 64 Jah Shaka 453 John Madin Design Group 348 602 Index

Johns, Tony 398 Kapoor, Anish 34, 224, 291, 484 Johnson, B.S. 371 Karajan, Herbert von 121–2 Johnson, Edward 236 karaoke 283 Johnson, Linton Kwesi 60, 61, 288, 391 Kaur, Perminder 34 Johnson, Paul 90 Kavanagh, Dan 58 Johnson, Robb 202 Kay, Jackie 61, 64, 312, 403, 479 Johnson-Marshall, Robert Matthew 348 Keays, Sara 489 Johnston, Brian 139 Keeler, Christine 489 Johnston, Jennifer 310 Keenan, Brian 259 Johnstone, Keith 152, 266 Keiller, Patrick 193 Joint Stock 35, 153, 266, 299 Keita, Selif 16 Jonathan Cape 401, 435 Kelman, James 229, 310, 311, 314, 372 Jones, Aled 378 Kemp, Lindsay 44 Jones, Allen 384, 413, 483 Keneally, Thomas 315 Jones, David 312 Kenichi, Ohmae 231 Jones, Glyn 312 Kennedy, A.L. 312 Jones, Grace 23 Kennedy, Charles 302 Jones, Gwyn 312 Kennedy, Nigel 111 Jones, Jim 504 Kennedy, Sarah Ann 27 Jones, Mark 56 Kenny, Sean 488 Jones, Stephen 183, 184, 247 Kenward, Betty 246 Jones, Terry 469 Kenyon, George 348 Jonsson, Ulrika 221, 545, 566 Kerr, Deborah 194 Joolz 20, 390–1 Kershaw, Andy 439 Jordan, Neil 87, 194, 246, 288, 534 Keskidee Arts Centre 64 Joseph, Jenny 402 Keynes, John Maynard 31, 499 Joseph, Keith 424 Keynesian orthodoxy 125, 294, 345, 429 Joshi, Abhijat 36 Khan, Keith 34, 36, 317 journalism 83, 427, 429 Khan, Naseem 59 literary magazines 313 Khan-Din, Ayub 35, 36 women 565, 569 Kidd, Jodie 514 journals see black press; film press; magazines; Kidjo, Angelique 16 music press Kidron, Beeban 291, 565 Joy Division 272 Kiely, Benedict 309 Joyce, James 278, 421 Kiff, Ken 385 joyriding 288–9 Killip, Chris 394 Judaism 286–7 Kincaid, Jamaica 306 Julien, Isaac 42, 151, 193, 194, 224, 289 King, Phillip 463, 483 Jung, Carl Gustav, influence 316, 504 King, Stephen 415 jungle 22, 37, 113, 155, 272, 289, 437, 449, 471, Kingswinford, Broadfield House Glass Museum 31 520, 541 Kinnock, Neil 213, 295, 296–7, 337 junk mail 289–90 Kinsman, Rodney 217 Kipling, Rudyard 401–2 Kagyu Samye Ling Tibetan Centre 78 Kirby, Jane 223 Kali Theatre 36 Kitaj, R.B. 256–7, 413, 463, 473 Kane, Sarah 401, 529 Kitaro, 361 Kani, Wasfi 122 Kitzinger, Sheila 94–5 Kanté, Mori 15 Klein, Calvin 148, 182, 293 Kaos Theatre 396 Klein, Carola 43 Index 603

KLF 22 and News International 366 Knapp, Peter 377 in opposition 228, 362 Knightsbridge 291–2 policy on homelessness 258 Knorr, Karen 394 politicians 13, 204, 282 Knowles, Tony 307 Tribune Group 213 Knox, John 190, 427 winning of 1997 Koltai, Ralph 488 election 129–30, 228 Kool and the Gang 285 see also Militant; New Labour Kool DJ Here 445 Labour Party black sections 61, 296–7 Koons, Jeff 413 Lacan, Jacques, influence 316, 328, 422, 423, 482 Koshino, Michiko 185, 321 Lacey, John 483 Kossoff, Leon 383, 383–4, 473 Laclau, Ernesto 328 Kraftwerk 166, 519 ‘lads’ and ‘lager louts’ 297 Kramer, Larry 226 Laine, Cleo 284 Krantz, Judith 415 Laing, R.D. 297 Krier, Leon 359 Lamba, Juginder 34 Kristeva, Julia 316, 422, 423 Lamming, George 305, 370 Kristol, Irving 313 Landmark Trust, The 123 Kubrick, Stanley 193, 292, 478 Landon-Smith, Kristine 36 Kureishi, Hanif lang, k.d. 133 film adaptations 40, 115, 151, 224, 308 Lange, Dorothea 325 novels 222, 372 language plays 35 Afro-Caribbean patois 14, 60, 71 Kushner, Tony 226 English 71–2 Kuti, Fela 15, 16 Gaelic 220, 311 and philosophy 392, 511 La Plante, Lynda 534, 535 political correctness 408 LaBelle 216 Scottish 479 labels 293 structuralist theory 512–13 alternative and indie music 20, 249, 272, 289 teaching centres 71 alternative poetry 21 Welsh 56 see also designer labels see also acronym groups; bilingual Labour governments communities; British Black English; dialect; and consumerism 130 Indian languages education policy 549 Lansley, Jacky 341 minimum wage proposal 424–5 Lanyon, Peter 510 Winter of Discontent 129, 540 Lapotaire, Jane 4 see also Callaghan, James; Foot, Michael; Larkin, Philip 370, 401, 404, 537 Kinnock, Neil; Wilson, Harold La’s, The 351 labour migration 293–4 Lasdun, Sir Denys see Denys Lasdun and Partners see also immigration and immigrants Latham, John 484 Labour Party 294–6, 539 Latham, William 121 abandonment of Clause IV 296, 358, 362 Lauren, Ralph 183 and education policy 476 Laurie, Hugh 415 Gang of Four 485 law courts 297 and Heath’s Conservative governments 124 Lawrence, D.H. Lib-Lab pact 302 film adaptations 224, 282 and the media 408 Lady Chatterley’s Lover 372, 416, 489 move to the Right 129, 358 Le Carré, John 535–6 604 Index

Le Corbusier, influence 147, 342, 343, 361, 362, Lewis, Denise 508 425, 509 Lewis, Lennox 70 Le Grice, Malcolm 42, 43, 193 Lewis, Susan 317 Leach, Bernard 88–9, 510 libel, defamation and privacy 301–2 Lean, David 297–8, 397 Liberal Democrat Party 228, 302–3, 486 Leary, Timothy 253 Liberal Party 302–3 LEAs (Local Education Authorities) 6, 298–9, alliance with SDP 129, 485–6 474, 475, 531 lampooning by Spitting Image 84 Leavis, F.R. 299, 315, 331 Liberty 303, 348 LeBlanc, Keith 166 libraries Lebrecht, Norman 110, 122 architecture 209, 348, 563 Lecoq, Jacques 396, 529 Barbican Centre 52 Led Zeppelin 248, 431 BFI 54–5 Lee, Albert 133 British Council 72 Lee, Christopher 244 licensing laws 159, 304, 455 Lee, Spike 15, 18 Lightning Seeds, The 351 Leeds Lima, Ray 15 Henry Moore Institute 31, 346 Lindberg, Christian 111–12 International Film Festival 197 Lindisfarne (folk band) 202 Opera North 377 Linehan, Graham 254 West Yorkshire Playhouse 153 lingerie 304, 451 Leeds Animation Workshop 43, 193, 200 Linx 285–6 Leeds School of Art 249 Lippard, Lucy 455 Leeson, Bill 93 left-wing theatre 17, 299–300 literary criticism 164, 563 Leggett, Mike, films 42 and readership 449–50 Leigh, Mike 67, 115, 194, 266, 300, 565 see also literary theory leisure 515, 538 literary festivals 69 see also shopping, recreational literary magazines 312–14 Leitch, Maurice 309 literary prizes 57, 305, 310, 314–15, 371, 418 Lejeune, C.A. 201 literary theory 299, 315–17 Leland, David 300 and chaos theory 92 Lennon, John 161 structuralism 513 Lennox, Annie 23, 183, 227, 567 see also exegesis Leonard (hair stylist) 243 literature Leonard, Tom 21, 311, 479 African 305 lesbian chic 300–1 Caribbean 305–6 lesbian culture and bisexuality 58 children’s and teenage 306–7 country and western 133 Indian 307–9, 373 dance 98 Northern Irish 309–10, 372 and feminist publishing 189 Scottish 310–12, 372, 479 influence on style 23–4 translation 311 and sadomasochism 469 Welsh 312, 372 theatre 527 see also autobiography; novel; poetry; post- Lessing, Doris 178, 305, 371 colonial writing; postmodernist writing Lester, Richard 99, 193, 194, 301 Littlewood, Joan 152, 153, 190, 527 Letchworth 237, 364 Littlewoods 207, 325 Lévi-Strauss, Claude 513 live art 64, 226, 317 Lewis, C.S. 177, 370 Lively, Penelope 372 Index 605

Liverpool Longley, Michael 309, 403 Albert Dock 104, 250, 519 Lonrho Affair 322 city-centre housing development 261 Loose Tubes 286 clubs 113, 144, 157, 260, 449, 520 Lord, Peter 27 Philharmonic Hall 379 Lord’s Stand see Hopkins, Michael Tate Gallery 31, 519 Lorimer, W.L. 311 see also scouse Losey, Joseph 42, 224, 322, 533 Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts 349 Louis, Morris, influence 385 Living Marxism 409 Love 253 Livingstone, Ken 230 Lovegrove, Ross 217, 218 Lloyd George, David 499 Lovell, Bernard 322 Lloyd Webber, Andrew 528 Lovelock, James 220 Lloyds’ building see Rogers, Richard Lovesey, Peter 535 Loach, Ken 67, 159, 194, 197, 199, 200, 201, Lowe, Nick 434 317–18, 560 Lowry, Roy 275 lobby groups 318 Luard, Nicholas 324 local councils 108, 318–19 Lubetkin, Berthold 32, 147, 342 local government 128, 303 Lukács, Georg 328, 501 see also GLC; LEAs Luther, Martin 433 local history 255 Lydon, John (Johhny Rotten) 188 local press 319–20 Lymon, Frankie (Jr), films 150 local radio 21, 168, 320, 393, 443 Lyne, Adrian 73, 437 Lochhead, Liz 21, 311, 479 Lyotard, Jean-François 420 Lockwood, Margaret 439 Lyttelton, Humphrey 284 Lodge, David 86, 371, 421 Logan, Nick 275 Maal, Baaba 16 Logue, Christopher 21 MacBeth, George 21 London McBurney, Simon 153 and 1990s fashion 185 MacCabe, Colin 423, 481–2 architecture 251 McCabe, Patrick 87 city-centre housing development 105, 261 MacCaig, Norman 311, 479 clubs and discos 113, 144, 155, 260, 520 McCarthy, John 259 Docklands development 31, 104, 418, 419, 458 McCartney, Paul 93, 161, 250, 329 Ministry of Sound 144, 260 McCartney, Stella 321, 329 Swinging sixties 23, 82–3 McColgan, Liz 321, 326 see also GLC; Knightsbridge; Notting Hill MacColl, Ewan 202 Carnival; Soho MacCormac, Richard 323 London Contemporary Dance Theatre 340 McCormick, Donald 57 London Fashion Week 185, 321, 330, 497 McCullin, Don 393 London Festival Ballet 48 McDermid, Val 223 London Film-Makers’ Co-operative (LFMC) MacDiarmid, Hugh 310–11, 479 42, 193 MacDonald, Julien 321 London Review of Books 313, 314 MacDonald, Trevor 366 London Underground 323, 388, 512, 563 McDowell, Andie 262 London Weekend Television (LWT) 234 McEwan, Geraldine 70 London Women’s Film Group 193 McEwan, Ian 314, 371 Long, Richard 273, 321, 379, 483, 484 McFadyen, Jock 385 long-distance runners 321–2 McGee, Wes 133 see also marathons McGough, Roger 307, 335, 390 606 Index

McGovern, Jimmy 159, 490, 534 satirical 324 McGowan, Cathy 181, 340 science fiction 478 McGrath, John 153, 329, 527 style 183, 184 McGregor, Ewan 73 women’s 246–7, 570 McGregor, Joanna 112 see also fanzines; music press; special interest McGregor, Wayne 98 magazines; teen magazines; top-shelf McGuckian, Medbh 310 magazines McGuigan, Barry 70 Magnum 324–5 McGuinness, Martin 494 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 252, 504, 542 McHale, Brian 21 Mahon, Derek 309 McIlvanney, William 372, 536 mail order 325, 487 MacInnes, Colin 370, 525 and catalogue shopping 85, 207 Macka B 453 Maitland, Sara 372 McKean, Dave 237 Major, John, governments 126–7, 128–9, 131, 357, McKellen, Ian 86, 112, 291 362, 560 McKenna, Stephen 385 Major Road (theatre group) 149 MacKenzie, John 324 Makeba, Miriam 15 MacKenzie, Peter 225 Malcolm X 18, 355 McKinney, Joyce 489 Malcolm, Derek 197, 201 McLaren, Malcolm 2, 182, 212, 224, 378, 525, 562 Malik, Art 308 McLaren, Norman 367 Maliphant, Russell 98, 342 MacLaverty, Bernard 310 Malthus, Thomas 177 Maclean, Alistair 415 Man Mela 35, 36 McLean, Bruce 19, 390 MacLean, Sorley 311, 479 Manchester MacLennan, Robert 302 Airport development 239 MacLennan, Sue 97, 341 Bridgewater Hall 379 McMillan, Ian 391 dance music and clubs 113, 144, 260, 449, 520 MacMillan, Kenneth 47, 48, 49, 50, 464 housing development 105, 261 McNamee, Eoin 310 Museum of Science and Industry 31 MacNeice, Louis 309, 443, 479 Northern soul clubs 112 McNeill, Janet 309 People’s History Museum 31 McPherson, Conor 400 Royal Exchange Theatre 530 McQueen, Alexander 185, 321, 330 Salford Quays 104 McWilliam, Candia 312 Manchot, Melanie 389 Mad Professor 452, 453 Mandela, Nelson 23, 546 Madden, Deirdre 310 Manic Street Preachers 93, 437 Madness 75, 272, 434, 495, 546 Manning, Jane 111 Madonna 184, 246, 412 Mansell, Nigel 347 magazines Mapfumo, Thomas 15–16 advertising 8 marathons 325–6, 336 black press 62 Marcuse, Herbert 501 and book marketing 69 Mark, Louisa 452 consumer 275 Markandaya, Kamala 373 fashion 394, 555 Marke, Alan 91 film 193 marketing girls’ 187 and advertising 8 male fashion 183 and globalization 231 publishing 167–8, 275, 532–3 heritage 263 Index 607

junk mail 290 May, Derrick 519 product placement 430–1 May, Fiona 39 Markova, Alicia 168 Mayall, Rik 116 Marks & Spencer 131, 325, 380 Maybury, John 42, 193, 224 Marley, Bob (and the Wailers) 243, 447, 452 Maze Prison 329 Marowitz, Charles 44, 215 Meadowcroft, Michael 302 marriage 326, 511 Medak, Peter 330 feminist campaigns against 191 Medalla, David 317 Indian communities 269–70 Medawar, Peter 330 Pakistani communities 386, 387 media see also family life advertising 8 Mars-Jones, Adam 223 audience research 40–1 Marsden, Taijana 89 conglomerates 242 Marsh, Ngaio 415, 534–5 deregulation 9 Marshall, Stuart 225 and the Establishment 170 Martian Poets 327, 404 industry 8, 350–1 Martin, Alan 116 transnational companies 9 Martin, Eamonn 321 media and cultural studies 330–3, 563 Martin, George 352, 430 advertising 7 Martin, Leslie 327, 368 and chaos theory 92 Martin, Rosy 395 writers 244 Martinez, Odaline de la 122 media education 55, 192, 333–4, 344 Marxism 327–8 medical drama 334 and feminist theory 191, 339, 501 medicine film magazines 199–200 immunology 330 and history 255, 532 see also holistic medicine; homeopathy literary criticism 164, 316, 563 Meek, Joe 430 media and cultural studies 330, 331 Mehta, Roy 34 and social welfare 499, 500 Mellor, David 126 and sociology 500–1 Melly, George 284 Marxism Today 327, 409 Melody Maker 353, 363 Masekela, Hugh 15 men Masonic Order see Freemasons as consumers 8 mass communications theory 330–1 fashion 181, 183, 185, 472, 497 Massey, Jamila 35 and unisex styles 23 mathematics 389 see also new man Matheny, Pat 110 mentally ill people Mather, Rick 29, 329, 455 abuse of 559–60 Mathias, Roland 312 and class 107 Matthews, Arthur 254 Mercer, Kobena 193 Matthews, Sir Stanley 204 Merchant-Ivory Productions 73, 99, 100, 151, Matthison, Trevor 59 194, 250, 308, 334–5 Matumbi 452 Mersey Poets 21, 335, 480 Matura, Mustapha 64 Mersey Television 335 Maupin, Armistead, novels 223 Methodists 173, 335–6, 444, 445 Maxwell, Glyn 407 Meyer, Andy 42 Maxwell, Robert 324, 339 Meyer, Laverne 49 Maxwell-Davies, Peter 111 MI5 and MI6 336 608 Index

Michael, George 351 influence on punk 182 middle-distance runners 336–7 and rockers 459 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig 342, 343, 361, 498 and skinheads 496 Miles, Robert 541 MOMI (Museum of the Moving Image) 47, 54, Militant 214, 295, 337 344, 367 the military monarchy 170, 344–5, 426 and the Establishment 170 see also royal family see also armed forces and police monetarism 125, 294–5, 345 military clothing 337 Monkhouse, Bob 115 military conflict 337–8 Monnington, W.T. 462 Miller, Beatrix 183 Monstrous Regiment 190, 266, 527 Miller, Frank 236 Montague, John 309 Miller, Jonathan 20 Monty Python’s Flying Circus 20, 26, 53, 84 Millet, Kate 316, 338 films 114, 245, 246, 357 Milligan, Spike 115 Moorcock, Michael 178, 371, 415, 478 Mills and Boon 415 Moorcroft, David 321 Mills Beaumont Leavey Channon 343 Moore, Alan 236, 237 Milner, Deborah 321 Moore, Brian 309, 372 Milton, John, on censorship 87 Moore, Dudley 20, 115 mime 43, 215, 338–9, 396, 529 Moore, G.E. 392 miners’ strike (1984–5) 126, 295, 405, 540, 554 Moore, Henry 249, 250, 345–6, 483 Minghella, Anthony 443 Moore, Oscar 223 Mingus, Charlie 285 Morgan, Edwin 21, 311, 479 Mirren, Helen 4 Morley, Dave 332 Mirror Group 339, 427, 570 Morning Star 119 Mirza, H.S. 67 Moroder, Giorgio 155 Mishkin, Lee 26 Morrice, Norman 48, 49, 341 Mistry, Dhruva 34 Morris, Chris 442 Misty in Roots 447, 452 Morris, Desmond 346 Mitchell, Adrian 21, 390, 403 Morrison, Jasper 217 Mitchell, Juliet 339–40 Morrison, Stanley 236 Modahl, Diane 39, 63 Morrissey 93 models Morrow, John 309–10 1960s 180, 186, 340, 514 Mortimer, Bob 221 see also supermodels Mortimer, Carole 460 modern dance 48, 49, 340–2 Moseley, Oswald 12 see also choreography Moss, Kate 329, 514 modernism Moti Roti 35, 36 architecture 82, 96, 329, 342–3, 359, 361, Motionhouse 529 375, 419 motor racing 346–7 influence of constructivism 327 Motors, The 365 literary theory 315 Mouffe, Chantal 328 and postmodernism 420, 421 Mountbatten, Louis, 1st Earl Mountbatten of writers 421 Burma 277 mods 14, 23, 112, 155, 344 Moving Being 529 drug culture 161 Moving Picture Mime Show 339 fashion and style 23, 82, 181, 185, 187–8, Mowlam, Mo 329 188, 244, 340, 546 MTV (music television) 347–8, 412, 414 films 99 Muir, Jean 183, 348 Index 609

Mujuru, Ephat 16 musicians see classical soloists; jazz soloists; Muldoon, Paul 310 orchestras Muller, Sophie 99 Muslim Parliament 61–2, 354, 387 multiculturalism 467 Muslims 268, 270 and Afrocentrists 15 and the Rushdie Affair 466–7 Channel 4 television 64 see also Islam; Nation of Islam in schools 281 Mutabaruka 60 theatre 36 multimedia 265, 435–6 Naipaul, V.S. 305, 308, 417, 418 see also digital technologies Namibia, peacekeeping operation 338 Mulvey, Laura 42–3, 193–4, 481, 482 Namuth, Hans 385 municipal buildings 342–3, 348 Nanak 492–3 Munro, Ronald Fraser 317 Napier, John 488 Munsch, Robert 307 Nash, David 379 Murdoch, Iris 370–1 Nash, John 264 Murdoch, Rupert 80 Nation of Islam 15, 355, 426 see also News International National Curriculum 227, 281, 333, 355, 472–3, Murphy, Dervla 543 475, 560 Murray, Charles 424 National Federation of Music Societies (NFMS) 110 Murray, Charles Shaar 275 National Film and Television Archive 47, 54–5 Murray, Yvonne 321 National Film and Television School 74, 199 Museum of Science and Industry 31 National Front 61, 102, 214, 355–6, 376, 457, 505 museums National Gallery 31, 418, 419 film and television 344, 356 National Lottery 54, 356 modern art 31, 383 arts funding 31 see also Design Museum; MOMI; National and conservation 123, 124 Museum of Photography, Film and effect on football pools 207–8 film funding 73, 74, 195–6, 199 Television; Victoria and Albert Museum funding of classical music 108, 379 music funding of theatre 530 Celtic tradition 87 and Royal Opera House 135 Scottish 166 sales of tickets 367 see also ballet music; classical music; dance sports funding 38, 256, 506, 508 music; pop and rock, etc. National Museum of Photography, Film and music colleges 349 Television 356 music hall, influence 5, 94, 115 National Parks 18 music industry 349–52 National Theatre 35, 153, 343, 396 and cinema 99 National Trust 123, 213 classical music 107–8, 110 National Union of Students (NUS) 214 dance music 144 National Viewers and Listeners Association and formats 208 (NVLA) 357 and labels 352–3 nationalism 329, 355 and MTV 347 Ireland 276, 494 and the music press 354 and Thatcherism 128 rock and pop 412–13 see also Scottish nationalism; Welsh nationalism music labels 352, 352–3 nationalist parties 357 music press 75, 168, 353–4, 363, 411 nationalized and privatized industries 294, 295, fanzines 179, 353–4 358, 429 see also IPC Music Publishers NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) 337 musicals 528 Natural History Museum 31 610 Index nature 358–9 music 113, 272 broadcasting 39–40 poetry and music 21, 390 Naylor, Doug 178 New York Dolls 436 Nazareth, H.O., documentary films 150 Newby, Eric 543 N’Dour, Youssou 15, 16 Newcastle upon Tyne Neale, Jonathan 223 civic centre 348 Neame, Ronald, films 4 Morden Tower poetry readings 405 Neave, Airey 277 see also Byker Housing Needle, Jan 306 Newell, Mike 100, 224, 365 Neeson, Liam 73, 86 news neo-classicism 359–60, 513 agencies 38, 455 neo-Darwinism 360 television 365–6 Nepthali, Amali 64–5 News International 77, 313, 366, 399 Neurarkar, Richard 321 News of the World 339, 479 new age movement 360 Newson, Lloyd 98, 341 newspapers 174–5, 240–1, 339 and enviromentalism 169 advertising 8 fashion and lifestyle 184, 243–4 Asian 269 new age music 360–1 black press 62 new age religions 173, 504 and book marketing 69 new age travellers 239, 243–4, 449 Northern Irish 369–70 new brutalism 261, 343, 359, 361–2, 497, 552 and politics 129, 408 New Dance 97, 98 Scottish 479–80, 532 New Labour 230, 296, 303, 362–3 tabloid press 301 and architectural projects 114 theatre criticism 530–1 lobbying and corruption 318 Welsh 561–2 rise of 127 see also freesheets; local press New Left Review 244, 327, 339 newsstands and newsagents 366–7, 380, 416, 503 new man 8, 363 NFT (National Film Theatre) 47, 54, 193, 344, New Musical Express 353, 363 367 New Order 113 Ngakane, Lionel, films 150 New Review 313 Ngcobo, Lauretta 417 new romantics 363 Ngugi wa Thiong’o 305 fashion and style 23, 182–3, 184, 229, 243, 562 NHS (National Health Service) 367–8, 559 music 411 medical dramas 334 New Statesman 313 reform 500 New Statesman and Society 409 see also health policies and the NHS new technologies Nice Style Pose Band 390 DTP 162–3 Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners 368, 492 feminist studies of 191 Nichols, Grace 61, 71, 305, 307, 417 graphic design 235–6 Nicholson, Ben 249, 327, 368, 510 and the music industry 351 Nicholson, Emma 303 and the newspaper industry 366, 374 Nicholson, Mavis 565–6 and publishing 435–6 Nicholson, Winifred 368 see also computers; Internet; transmission Nicolson, Annabel 42 technologies; viewing technologies Nilsson, Birgit 378 new towns 103, 363–4 Nobbs, David 415 new wave 365 Nobel Prizes 220, 251, 257, 309, 314, 330, 372, magazines 179 402, 403, 467, 471, 504 Index 611

Noble, Adrian 465 nuclear and arms industries and protesters 152, Noon, Jeff 178 213, 234, 239, 240, 254, 373–4 Norberg, Anna 89 see also Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament Normal, Henry 21, 391 (CND) Norman, Barry 201, 368–9 nuclear deterrence 337 Norman, Jessye 378 nuclear disarmament Norrington, Roger 122 Labour Party support 295 Morris, Christopher 423 Liberal Democrat support 303 North, Robert 341 NUJ (National Union of Journalists) 374, 524 North East London Polytechnic 193 NUM (National Union of Mineworkers) 202, North of England 369 539–40 North Sea oil 357 see also miners’ strike Northampton, Town Hall 348 Numan, Gary 155 Northern Ballet Theatre (NBT) 49, 50, 51 Nunn, Trevor 528 Northern Ireland Nureyev, Rudolf 49, 464 Arts Council 31 Nuttall, Sonja 321 British troops 30, 337–8 Nyman, Michael 110 creation of 276–7 films about 199, 210, 288 Oakley, Ann 41, 501 government 277 Oasis 75, 75–6, 93, 272, 544 government inquiry 234 Oban, George 452 local education authorities 298–9 Obree, Graeme 143 new towns 364 O’Brien, Denis 245 O’Brien, Edna 461 newspaper reporting and photography 394 Observer 479 peace process 329, 363 O’Connor, Hazel 99 photography 395 O’Connor, Sinead 244 political parties 547 Odone, Cristina 565 schools system 477 office buildings 209, 217, 245, 258, 343, 359, terrorist prisoners 329 362, 375, 419, 457 ‘troubles’ 277–8, 309, 494 official secrets and D-Notices 87, 375–6 see also literature, Northern Irish Ofili, Chris 385 Northern Irish press 369–70 O’Hare, Christopher 224–5 Northern Soul 112, 155, 161, 370, 502–3 Ohio Players 216 Norton, Mary 192 oi 376, 496 Norwich, Sainsbury Centre for the Visual Arts Okri, Ben 305, 315, 418 251, 259 Old Vic theatre 153, 464 Notting Hill Carnival 370, 452 Oldfield, Bruce 376 novel 370–3 Oldman, Gary 73, 565 African 305 Olivier, Laurence 5, 194, 464, 530 Asian 308 Olympic Games 38, 39, 256, 265, 336, 470, 508 and autobiography 41 Ondaatje, Michael 418 Caribbean 305, 306 Ongala, Remi 16 children’s and teenage 306 Onuora, Oku 60 Northern Irish 309–10 Onwurah, Ngozi 194 Scottish 310, 311, 312 op art Welsh 312 fashion 23, 180 see also fantasy and science fiction; graphic painting 384–5, 456–7 novel; popular fiction Open Space Theatre 44, 215 612 Index

Open University 7, 549 Parallax Films 67, 73 opera 31, 102, 376–8, 391 Park, Nick 27, 84, 115, 388 see also Royal Opera House Park Trolley 352 opera singers 378 Parker, Alan 73, 99, 192, 194, 201, 388, 437 Orb, The 22 Parker, Kayla 27 orchestras 108, 109, 111, 378–9, 441 Parker-Bowles, Camilla 344 see also conductors Parkinson, Cecil 489 organic art 34, 379–80 Parkinson, Michael 392 Organization of Women of African and Asian parliament 127, 228, 388–9, 457, 472 Descent (OWAAD) 66 and democracy 147 Orthodox Christianity 380 and the Establishment 170 Orton, Joe 222, 224, 226, 398, 527 and pressure groups 428 Orwell, George 26 women 565 Osborn, Frederick J. 237, 364 Parmar, Pratibha 66, 151, 194, 224 Osborne, John 226, 370, 398, 456, 527 Parr, Martin 394 Osibisa 15 Parsons, David 193 O’Toole, Peter 5, 194, 464 Parsons, Gram 133 out-of-town shopping 105, 380–1, 514 Parsons, Talcott 501 outing 226, 381 Pärt, Arvo 110 Outrage! 226 Parvez, Ahmed 34 Outram, John 359, 375, 381–2, 419 Patten, Brian 307, 335, 390 Ove, Horace 150, 151 Patterson, Glenn 310 Ovett, Steve 38, 39, 321, 336, 337 Patwardhan, Anand 151 Owen, Agnes 372 Paulin, Tom 310 Owen, David 295, 302, 485, 486 Paxton, Steve 97 Oxford Playhouse 530 Peake, Mervyn 370 Oxford Revue 20 Pears, Peter 166, 377 Oxford University Press 401 Pearson, Andrew 321 Oyster Band, The 202 Peck, Ron 224 Oz 547 Ozbek, Rifat 185 Peel, John 156–7, 157, 439, 443 Penrose, Roger 389 Packard, Vince 7, 231 Penrose, Sir Roland 264 Packer, Kerry 138 pensioners 389, 560 Page, Ashley 49, 50 People Show, The 44, 149, 215, 266, 396 Page, Tim 393, 394 Perahia, Murray 111 painting 34, 45–6, 212, 256–7, 368, 383–6, 453, performance art 43, 64, 317, 389–90 456–7 performance poetry 21–2, 335, 390–1 and experimental film 193 see also black performance poets Neo-Expressionism 46 performing arts on television 391 prizes 383, 385, 456 Perpetual Motion 44 see also Royal Academy; School of London; Perry, Mark 179, 547 Tate(s) Pet Shop Boys 99 Paisley, Ian 277, 547 Peters, Ellis 535 Pakistani communities 280, 386–7 Petit, Roland 48 Palace Productions 73 Pevsner, Nikolaus 361, 425 Palin, Michael 246, 415 Phaophanit, Vong 273–4 Pankhurst, Christabel 170 Pheloung, Barrington 51, 111 Paolozzi, Eduardo 361, 387–8 Philippou, Nick 6 Index 613

Phillips, Caryl 64, 305, 417, 443 see also black performance poets; Mersey Poets; Phillips, Peter 256–7 performance poetry philosophy 44, 53, 392, 414, 449, 467, 468, 482, poetry anthologies 404 511–12, 556 poetry in the 1970s 404–5 and literary theory 315 poetry in the 1980s 327, 405–6 and scientific thought 477 poetry in the 1990s 406–7 and sociology 501 poetry slams 21–2, 407 Phoenix festival 121, 459 police 407–8 phone-ins and chat shows 392–3 at football matches 507 Photek 289 at Notting Hill Carnival 370 photography 393–6 and the miners’ strike 554 and animation 26 powers under Public Order Act 457 exhibitions 52 racism 13 fashion 394, 514 and raves 448 from space 358, 393 and the secret services 486 surveillance 515 and graphic design 235 Thatcher’s policy 526 and painting 45 see also armed forces and police and sculpture 484 political consumerism 238, 408 see also Magnum political correctness 306, 408, 426 physical theatre 152, 266, 339, 396, 527 political publications 408–9 physics 220, 247–8, 477 politics 409–10 Pickard, Tom 21, 405 cause-oriented 170 Pickering, Lionel 212 corruption 318 Pickles, Wilfred 392 and democracy 147 Pienkowski, Jan 307 and feminist theory 190–1 Pigbag 286 and folk music 202 Pillot-Bidon, Pierrot 102 fringe groups and parties 213–14 Pine, Courtney 285, 286 hippie ideology 253–4 Pinewood Studios 74, 199, 397, 444 Ireland 277–8 Pink Floyd 99, 253, 434 and theatre 299, 329 Pinker, R.A 500 see also black politics; community politics; lobby Pinnock, Winsome 64 groups Pinter, Harold 42, 224, 399, 527 poll tax 126, 129, 410, 428, 526 Piper, Keith 121 direct action against 152, 457 pirate radio 117, 156–7, 320, 397–8, 439 Pollard, Ingrid 395 Pitter, Ruth 404 Pollini, Maurizio 111 Place Theatre, The 340, 342 Pollock, Jackson 385 Plaid Cymru 357, 490 PolyGram Filmed Entertainment 73, 74, 195 Planer, Nigel 116 Polystyrene 189 Plath, Sylvia 402, 407 Polytechnic of Central London 394 playwrights 64–5, 300, 329, 398–401 Pompidou Centre 29, 32, 251, 460 poetry 401–4 pop and rock 410–13 Caribbean 306, 405 1960s 180, 284, 340, 361 children’s 307 clubs and dancing 112–13 gay writing 223 films 99 Northern Irish 309, 310 Japanese culture 283 Scottish 166, 311–12, 479 jazz influence 285 Welsh 312 music press 353–4 614 Index

producers 430 literary theory 450 radio 156–7 media and cultural studies 330, 333 venues 109, 121 and sociology 501 see also Britpop; glam rock; indie pop; MTV; Potter, Beatrix 192 music industry; progressive rock; psychedelic Potter, Dennis 32, 159, 246, 399, 423 rock; pub rock; punk rock; women in rock Potter, Sally 43, 193, 194, 195, 423–4 pop art 236, 257, 384, 387, 413, 483 pottery see ceramics; Crafts Council pop television 91, 99, 157, 414, 521 Pound, Ezra, influence 404 Popper, Karl 414–15 poverty 424, 499, 500, 559 popular fiction 415–16 and class 107 see also romance; thrillers, detective and spy and economics 556 writing families and 94, 424–5 population films addressing 288 cities 104 and giro culture 229 and family planning 177 and homelessness 258 Indian communities 267–8 photography 395 pornography 416, 432 and situation comedy 495 feminist campaigns against 191, 416, 559 soul music 503 Internet 275 Powell, Dilys 201 photography 395 Powell, Enoch 11, 63, 124, 214 see also top-shelf magazines Powell, Jonathan 235 Porter, Kevin 41 Powell, Michael 397, 425, 534 Porter, Peter 403 Powell and Moya 323, 425 Portishead 93 power dressing 183, 184, 425–6 post-colonial writing 306, 307–8, 315, 416–18 Pratchett, Terry 178, 371, 415, 478 and gay film 224 prejudice 11–12, 426 literary criticism 316 see also age discrimination; racism; sexism media and cultural studies 333 Presbyterianism 426–7 postmodernism Prescod, Colin 150 architecture 359, 418–19, 491, 513, 526 Presley, Elvis, influence 459 critics of 164, 460 Press Association 427 and dance music 144 Press Complaints Commission 427–8, 454 design 216 Press Council 427–8, 429 and fashion 183, 184, 244 Pressburger, Emeric 397, 425 MTV 347 pressure groups 428 and recreational shopping 491 agitprop 17 retro 455 theatre 266 civil liberties 93–4 postmodernist theory 419–21 community politics 119–20 attacks on Marxism 328 corporatism 131 and eco-criticism 92, 169 environmental issues 169–70 and history 255 Thatcherite policies 128 literary theory and criticism 164, 315 and welfare state 559 media and cultural studies 330, 333 see also campaigns and sociology 501–2 Preston, Denis 430 postmodernist writing 421–2 Pretty Things, The 434 post-structuralism 422–3, 513 Price, Antony 428 and feminist theory 191–2 Price, Nick 232 and history 255 Primal Scream 21 influence on Marxist criticism 316 Prince 412 Index 615

Prince of Wales’s Institute 429 Puff Daddy 446 Pritchard, Rebecca 400 Pukwana, Dudu 15 privacy 429 Pulp 75, 75–6 and Press Complaints Commission 428 Punch 324 Private Eye 178, 236, 324 punk rock 14, 189, 202, 411, 414, 431, 434, 436–7 privatization 429–30, 453 anti-fashion 2, 181–2, 182, 188–9, 562 Labour policies 129 clubs 113 public services 9, 130, 132, 231 drug culture 161 Thatcher government programme 125, 128, fanzines 179, 547 213, 358, 526, 560 and film 99, 224 utilities 9, 231 image and style 23, 68, 132, 181–2, 187–8, see also nationalized and privatized industries 224, 243 producers 21, 430 and indie music 272 product placement 8, 430–1 influence of reggae 447 progressive rock 155, 411, 431–2, 434, 436 new wave 365 promotions 432 and oi 376, 496 Proms concert 109, 111, 391, 441 and poetry 390 Propellorheads 56 and politics 229 Prophet, Jane 121 and two-tone 546 Propp, Vladimir 513 puppetry see cartoons and puppetry prostitution 432–3 Purvis, Libby 565 protest songs 37, 202 Puttnam, David 262, 336, 437, 458 Protestant Churches 173, 380, 433 Pym, Barbara 372 see also Anglican Church; Presbyterianism Protestantism, Northern Ireland 276, 369, 547 quangos 106, 120 psychedelic art, and graphic design 236 Quant, Mary 2, 132, 180, 186, 303, 304, 340, 438 psychedelic rock 272, 431, 434, 496 Quay, Brothers 26–7 psychiatry 297 Queen 378 psychoanalysis approaches to literary theory 316, 328 Raban, Jonathan 544 media and cultural studies 7, 330 Rabin, William and Marilyn 43, 193 psychology 175 Race, Ernest 216–17 pub rock 434, 436 Race Relations Acts 14, 61, 119, 439 Public Enemy 445–6 racism Public Image Limited 436 addressed in poetry 288 public schools 434–5, 450 addressed in theatre 64, 528 background of Conservative politicians 128 against Afro-Caribbean communities 11–14, 37 and the Establishment 170 and black feminism 66 publishing and black politics 61 censorship 376, 469 and British Citizenship Acts 71 collaborative projects 41 and legislation 71 Internet 406 National Front 355 large concerns 167–8, 242 in police force 407, 554 and product placement 431 protest songs 37 promotion and literary prizes 314 and riots 271, 554 see also black literature press; black press; book skinheads 188 marketing; DTP; magazines; underground stop-and-search law 332, 457 press and fanzines; women’s press towards Chinese communities 96 publishing trends 435–6 towards Indian communities 268–9 616 Index

violence 12–13, 370, 426 and pirate radio stations 117–18 writers against 244 and techno 520 see also anti-semitism; Race Relations Acts; rave culture 448–9 sport, racism in Ravenhill, Mark 6, 400 RADA (Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) 300, 439 Rawls, John 449, 500 Radcliffe, Paul 321 Ray-Jones, Tony 393 Radclyffe, Sarah 73 Rea, Stephen 5, 67 radio Read, Sir Herbert 264 chat shows 392, 393 Read, John 346 classical music 108, 441 Read, Robin 70 education 7, 442 readership 449–50 and the music industry 350 Reading Festival 121, 459 pop and rock music 156–7 received pronunciation 60, 150, 450 and popular classics 51 recession 126, 450–1 soap operas 442, 498 Reckford, Barry 63, 64 women presenters 565 Records, The 365 see also local radio Red Hot Polkas 202 Radio 1 118, 397, 406, 439–40, 440, 442 Red Ladder 17, 149, 529 Radio 2 118, 406, 440, 440, 442 Red or Dead 158, 185, 451 Radio 3 108, 118, 406, 441, 443 Red Pepper 409 Radio 4 366, 392, 441–2, 442, 443 Red Wedge 229 cricket coverage 139 Redgrave family 4, 158, 194, 254, 451 poetry reading 406 Redgrave, Steve 462 Radio 5 178, 442, 568, 569 Redhead, Brian 441–2 radio comedy 20, 26, 442–3 Redmond, Phil 335 radio DJs 157, 439, 443 Redwood, John 129 see also DJs Reece, Alex 289 radio drama 6, 443–4 Reed, Carol 194 Radiohead 75, 93, 522 Rees, Nigel 234 Rai, Dominic 36 Reeves, Vic 221 Raine, Craig 327, 404, 406–7 refugees RAJAR (Radio Joint Audience Research) 41 Asians from East Africa 252, 268 rambling 444 from Far East 95, 96 Rampling, Danny 260 Reger, Janet 304, 451 Ramsey, Sir Alf 205 reggae 14, 16, 22, 71, 202, 398, 411, 447, 451–3, Ramsey, Michael 28 495, 496 Randall, Paulette 64 and dub poetry 288 Rank 72, 73, 195, 397, 444–5 and gay film 224 Rankin, Robert 478 and jungle 289 Rantzen, Esther 566 and poetry 21, 60, 390 rap 37, 61, 216, 224, 412, 445–6, 481 and punk 437 Rastafarianism 14, 15, 71, 243, 446–8 and skinheads 188, 376, 496 Rattigan, Terence 226, 398 regional assemblies 119 Rattle, Sir Simon 122 regions rave 22, 75, 184, 411, 448 and arts funding 31 clubs and venues 113 devolution 31 drug culture 162 and history 255 film music 99 and the NHS 367 and jungle 289 and tribalism 544 Index 617

Rego, Paula 453 Riot Grrls 23, 75, 547–8 regulation 453 riots and civil disobedience 457 regulatory bodies 454 Asian youth 271 Reich, Steve 110 black communities 13, 61, 288 Reid, Christopher 327, 403 cities 103 Reid, Jamie 436 policing 407 Reid, June 151 Rippon, Angela 366, 565 Reisz, Karel 42, 193, 454, 456 Ritchie, Ian 31, 457–8 religion Riverdance 279 opposition to euthanasia 173 Robbins Report 548–9, 552 and science 477–8 Robert, Keith 478 see also churches; faiths Robert Maguire and Partners 458 Renaissance Films 73 Robert Matthew Johnson-Marshall and Renaissance Theatre Company 70–1 Partners 348 Rendell, Ruth 415, 535 Roberts, Kate 312 restaurants and bars 146, 455 Roberts, Michèle 372 architecture and design 123, 329, 455 Robertshaw, Simon 121 Japanese 283 Robinson, Bruce 115, 246, 254, 458 Retake 151 Robinson, David 201 Retallack, John 6 Robinson, Heath, influence 84 retro 182, 184, 455, 562 Robinson, Helen 182–3 Reuters 455 Roche, Billy 400 Review 313 rock festivals 21, 458–9 Revolutionary Socialist League 214, 294 rock music see pop and rock Rhodes, Gary 204 rockers 187–8, 344, 459, 520 Roddick, Anita 56, 132, 169 Rhodes, Lis 43, 192, 193–4 Rodgers, Bill 295, 485 Rhodes, Zandra 2, 182, 184, 303, 455 Rodgers, W.R. 309 rhyming slang 456 Roedelius, Hans-Joachim 361 Rhys, Jean 306 Roeg, Nicholas 99, 193, 200, 246, 445, Rhys-Jones, Griff 115 459–60, 534 rhythm and blues, influence 188, 248, 285, Rogers, Peter 83, 114 495, 502 Rogers, Richard 29, 96, 209, 251, 273, 343, 368, RIBA (Royal Institute of British Architects) 323, 375, 460, 463, 563 456, 509 Rogers, Su 209, 460 Rice, Anne 415 Rohdie, Sam 481 Rice-Davies, Mandy 489 Rolling Stones 133, 434, 502 Richards, J.M. 361 romance Richardson, Mark 508–9 literature 415, 460–1 Richardson, Miranda 73 teen magazines 520–1 Richardson, Peter 114–15, 116 romanticism, and nature 358–9 Richardson, Tony 3–4, 42, 194, 454, 456 Rose, Jacqueline 191, 340 Richon, Olivier 394 Rose, Justin 232 Ricochet 98 Rosen, Martin 26 Rie, Dame Lucie 89 Rosen, Michael 307 Rigg, Diana 181 Rosengard, Peter 116 Riley, Bridget 384–5, 456–7, 464 Rosenthal, Norman 463 Riley, Joan 305, 373 Roslin, Gaby 566 Rimmington, Stella 336, 486 Ross, Jonathan 91 618 Index

Rosselson, Leon 202 Rushton, Willie 324 Rosso, Franco 150 Russell, Bertrand 392, 467 Rotello, Gabriel 381 Russell, Ken 86, 99, 224, 282, 284, 340, 467–8 Roth, Tim 73 Russell, Willy 159, 399, 400 Roud, Richard 201 Russian art Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 358 constructivism 251 rowing 249, 461–2 propaganda posters 235 Rowland, R.W. (Tiny) 148, 240 Russian formalism see formalism Roxy Music 230, 428 Rwanda, peacekeeping operation 338 Roy, Arundhati 308, 418 Ryle, Gilbert 392, 468 Roy Hart Studio 44 Ryle, Martin see Hewish, Antony and Martin Ryle Royal Academy (RA) 31, 209, 456, 462–3 Royal Ballet 47, 48–9, 49–50, 97, 134, 464 Saatchi & Saatchi 9 Royal College of Art 180, 192–3, 217, 249, 256, Sackur, Stephen 313 464 Sadler’s Wells Royal Ballet (SWRB) 48, 134 Royal Court 152, 464, 527, 528 sadomasochism 469 avant-garde theatre 43 and body adornment 68 black and Asian theatre 36, 64 and punk anti-fashion 189 gay drama 226 sailing 469–70 left-wing theatre 299 Sainsbury Centre, Norwich see Foster Associates royal family 170, 249, 344 Sainsbury’s 131, 380 debate over privacy 301, 429 St Ives 509–11 photography 393 artists 250, 368 scandals 489 Leach pottery 88–9 Tate Gallery 31, 509–10, 511, 519 see also monarchy St Martin’s College of Art 193, 482, 483–4 Royal Festival Hall 168, 327 sales 470–1 Royal National Theatre 5, 148, 226, 464–5 Salford, high-rise housing 261 Royal Opera House 31, 48, 50, 134, 156, 280, Saltire Society 166 356, 376–7, 391, 464 Salvation Army 471 Royal Shakespeare Company 5, 31, 35, 70, 153, sampling 56, 144, 412, 471 300, 465, 562 San Francisco, hippie lifestyle 253 Rubasingham, Indu 35, 36 Sanderson, Tessa 568 Rubens, Bernice 372 Sands, Bobby 329, 494 Rubin, Jerry 490 Sandys, Duncan 322 Ruddock, Osbourne 163 Sanger, Frederick 471 Rudet, Jacqueline 64 Sankofa Black Film Workshop 43, 151, 193, 194, rugby league 77, 256, 465–6, 505, 506 224, 289, 571 rugby union 77, 256, 465, 466, 507 Sarah, Duchess of York 165, 301 Run DMC 445, 446 Sasha 157, 260 Runcie, Robert 28 Sassoon, Vidal 180, 243 rural areas satellite broadcasting see cable and satellite agricultural buildings 18 satire conservation 123, 238 alternative comedy 19 see also countryside films 246, 292, 330 Rusedski, Greg 525 television shows 115 Rushdie, Salman 151, 271, 308, 314, 315, 417, Saunderson, Kevin 519 418, 421 Saussure, Ferdinand de 422, 512–13 Rushdie Affair, the 281, 372, 387, 426, 466–7 Savage, Lily 71, 227 Index 619

Savile, Jimmy 523 Scottish Arts Council 31, 49 Savile Row 472 Scottish culture Sawhney, Niwtin 37 early Edinburgh Festival Fringe 166 Sayers, Dorothy L. 415, 534–5 film 197, 209 Sayle, Alexei 19, 115, 116 painting 383, 385 Scandinavian architecture, influence 343, 361 preservation of 252 Scargill, Arthur 202, 295 see also literature, Scottish Socialist Labour Party 214 Scottish language 479 Scarman Report 13–14 Scottish Local Authorities (SLAs) 298 Schaffer, Frank 364 Scottish nationalism, theatre 329 Schaufuss, Peter 49, 169 Scottish Nationalist Party (SNP) 357, 479 Schiandri, Max 143 Scottish Opera 377 Schlesinger, John 3, 4, 194, 224, 472 Scottish press 479–80, 532 Schnabel, Julian 385 Scottish Theatre Ballet 49, 51 school examinations 226–7, 355, 472–3, 475–6 scouse 480 school league tables 472, 473 scouts and guides 480–1 School of London 383, 473–4 Scovell, Edith 406 schools system 355, 434–5, 474–5, 560 scratching 481 Schreiner, Olive 305 Screen and screen theory 199, 318, 333, 423, 481–2 Schwarzkopf, Elisabeth 378 Scruton, Roger 482, 500 science 477–8 sculpture 34, 215–16, 233, 249–50, 273, 291, philosophy of 414 321, 345–6, 387–8, 482–5 radio programmes 441 SDP (Social Democratic Party) 129, 228, 302, and science fiction 178 485–6 see also astronomy; biology; chaos theory; Searle, Ronald 256 chemistry; physics Second Stride 98 science fiction 478 Second World War 283 novels 106–7, 371 secret services 486–7 see also fantasy and science fiction see also MI5 and MI6 Scorsese, Martin 197, 357 security see official secrets and D-Notices Scotland 87 Seething Wells 21 agitprop theatre 17–18 Selecter, The 272, 495, 546 Crafts Council 135 self-service 487 devolution 119, 357, 363, 379 Selvon, Sam 305 Gaelic 220, 311 semiotics, and screen theory 481–2 Highland Games 252 serial killers 487–8 historic buildings 124, 250 and crime dramas 140 new towns 364 Serota, Nicholas 463 rave culture 449 Serpentine Gallery 274 see also Scottish culture, etc. set design 488 Scotland on Sunday 479 Seth, Roshan 35 Scotsman 319, 479 Seth, Vikram 308, 373, 543 Scott, Fred 217 sex Scott, Paul 308, 371, 418 and AIDS 18 Scott, Ridley 74, 194, 197, 437, 480 attitudes addressed in film 300 Scott, Ronnie 284 Channel 4 television programmes 90 Scott, Tim 483 in crime novels 535 Scott, Tom 311 industry 502 Scott, Tony 74, 480 phone lines 537 620 Index

in teen magazines 521 Shilling, David 247 top-shelf magazines 537 shipbuilding, Clyde 214 Sex Discrimination Acts 488–9 shoplifting 490 Sex Pistols 99, 182, 189, 436, 525 shopping 84–5, 470–1, 487, 497 sex scandals 4, 429, 489 designer labels 148–9 sexism fashion outlets of the 1980s 183–4 and black feminism 66 and green consumerism 238 in music industry 567 recreational 491, 514 in police force 407 and surveillance cameras 515 in sport 569 see also catalogue shops; credit cards; sexuality delicatessens; department stores; discount addressed in films 151, 423 stores; electronic shopping; hire purchase; addressed in theatre 299, 529 out-of-town shopping; shops; supermarkets black women’s movement 65–6 and malls feminist theory 191, 240 shops, architecture and design 96, 114, 141, 491–2 media and cultural studies 333 Short, Clare 416 and the novel 372 showjumping 492 and photography 395 Shrimpton, Jean 340, 514 and queer theory 316 Siddiqui, Nahid 98 and sado-masochism 188–9 Sidmouth, folk festival 202 and styles 24 Siefert, Richard 343 see also bisexuality; gender; homosexuality; Signorile, Michelangelo 381 transsexuals Sikhism 252, 268, 270, 271, 492–3 Seymour, David 324 Silkin, Jon 313–14 S4C 76, 84, 391, 489–90, 561 Sim, Alastair 256 Shabazz, Menelik 150 Simmel, Georg 500 Shah, Eddie 212 Simmons, James 309 Shakatak 285–6 Simple Minds 20 Shakespeare, William Simpson, Ian 343 film adaptations 166 Simpson, Tommy 142 theatrical productions 4, 36, 65, 70–1, 190 Simson, Kirstie 98 see also Globe Theatre Sinclair, Andrew 371 Shalev, David see Evans and Shalev Sinclair, Clive 169 Sham 69 437 Sinfield, Alan 316 Sharma, Madhav 35 Singh, Talvin 37 Sharma, Partap 35 single parents 94, 424, 493, 500, 560 Sharpe, Tom 372, 415 Sinn Féin 276, 277, 369, 494 Shaw, George Bernard 114, 278, 439 Siouxsie and the Banshees 189, 233, 437 Shaw, Sandie 340 Siriol Productions 192 Sheffield Sirk, Douglas 197 clubs 260 Sissay, Lemn 391 Crucible Theatre 528 Sisters of Mercy 233 International Documentary Festival 198 situation comedy 5, 114, 247, 494–5, 561 Sheffield Film Co-op 193 animation films 27 Shelley, Mary, influence 177 radio 443 Sheppard, David 174 60ft Dolls 352 Shepperton Studios 74, 192, 199 ska 14, 272, 289, 495–6, 546 Sheridan, Jim 70 and mods 188, 344 Sherman, Martin 223, 226, 528 and skinheads 188, 376, 496 Index 621 skinheads 14, 344, 496 Socialist Worker 327, 408–9 fashion and style 158, 187–8, 188, 243, 337 Socialist Workers Party (SWP) 214, 408–9 influence on punk 182 Society for the Promotion of New Music music 188, 376, 411, 495, 546 (SPNM) 111 Sky 77, 80 sociology 244, 500–2, 560 see also BSkyB Softley, Ian 99 Slade 75, 230 Soho 502 Slade School of Art 192 Solar School, Wallasey 502 Sleeper 76 Solti, George 134 Slits, The 189 Soseki, Natsume 282–3 Sloane Rangers 99, 183, 291, 496–7 soul 166, 398, 431, 502–3 Slocombe, Douglas 73 clubs and dancing 112 small ads 8, 497 influence of 230, 285, 519, 546 Small Faces, The 75, 344, 434 and reggae 452 Small, Millie 451, 495 and skinheads 496 Smith, David 483 see also Northern soul Smith, Delia 204 South Africa, novels about 371 Smith, Graham 394 South African music see Afropop and African music Smith, Iain Crichton 311, 479 South Bank see Denys Lasdun and Partners; Martin, Leslie Smith, Janet 98, 341 Souyave, Maggie 256 Smith, John 296, 362 Souza, Francis Newton 34 Smith, Maggie 4, 497 Soviet Union Smith, Martin 89 collapse of 119 Smith, Mel 115 and the Communist Party 119 Smith, Michael 60 Soyinka, Wole 305 Smith, Paul 185, 321, 497 Space 22, 351 Smith, Richard 384 Spacemen Three 20 Smith, Robert, films 115 Spandau Ballet 363 Smith, Tommy 285 Spark, Muriel 86, 311, 371 Smith, Wilbur 415 special interest magazines 503–4 The Smiths 21 Specials, The 272, 495, 546 Smithson, Alison and Peter 32, 156, 261, 361, 362, Spectator 313, 409 497–8 Spence, Basil 348, 504, 552 Smythe, Reg, character of Andy Capp 228 Spence, Jo 394, 395 Snaith, Yolande 97, 341 Spencer, Herbert 500 Snowden, Anthony Armstrong-Jones, Earl of, Spender, Stephen 313 photography 393 Spice Girls 91, 136, 567 soap operas 5, 64, 90, 91, 159, 234, 266, 335, Spiegelman, Art 237 498–9 Spielberg, Stephen, films 273 in advertising 9 Spink, Ian 97, 341 and medical dramas 334 spiritual leaders 504 radio 442 Spiteri, Sharleen 567 studies 332 Spitting Image 84, 115, 344 social welfare 493, 499–500, 559 sport socialism funding 38, 356 and feminist theory 191, 339–40 in public schools 435 and the Labour Party 294, 296, 358, 362 racism in 63, 140, 505, 506 Plaid Cymru 357 on radio 442 622 Index

see also black sportsmen and women; under and history 255 different sports literary theory 315, 450 sport on television 39, 77, 78, 91, 206–7, 505–6 and philosophy 392 sports stadia 506–7 and post-structuralism 422 football ground tragedies 541 and sociology 501 sportswear 14, 184, 253, 507–8 Style Council 373 sprinters 508–9 Suede 75 Sproxton, David 27 Sugarhill Gang, The 253, 445 Spycatcher case 87–8, 376 Sulter, Maud 395 Squeeze 365 Summer, Donna, disco music 155 Stafford-Clark, Max 153, 464 Sun 339, 366, 408, 416, 479 Stamp, Terence 81, 534 Sun Myung Moon 504, 548 Stand 313–14 Sunday People 339 Stansfield-Smith, Colin 348 Sunday Post 532 Stapleton, Olaf 178 Sunday Telegraph 522 Steadman, Alison 300 Sunday Times 233, 479, 522 Steedman, Carolyn 41 Sunderland Steel, David 1, 302 civic centre 348 Steel Pulse 447, 452 National Glass Centre 89 Steeleye Span 202 Super Furry Animals 352 Stella, Frank 385 Supergrass 76 Stephen, John 82, 180, 181 supermarkets and malls 105, 491, 513–14 Stephenson, Roger 343 architecture and design 323, 491 Stevenson, Anne 406 discount shopping 156 Stewart, Jackie 346 promotions 432 Stewart, Rod 244 see also out-of-town shopping Stewart, Steve 183 supermodels 514–15 Stirling, James 31, 343, 359, 362, 419, 509 surrealism Stoke-on-Trent influence on graphic design 235, 387 clubs 113, 370, 449 influence on sculpture 345 community theatre 152 Surtees, John 346 Stone, Lawrence 511 surveillance 515 Stone Roses, The 351–2 Sutcliffe, Rosemary 306 Stonehenge 162 Sutherland, Joan 378 Stooges, The 436 Sutton, Marian 321, 322 Stoppard, Tom 399, 443, 527 Suzuki, D.T. 559 Storey, David 370, 465, 527 Svankmajer, Jan 26–7 Stratford-on-Avon 152, 263 Swales, Rosie 543 see also Royal Shakespeare Company Sweet, The 230 Straw, Jack 71, 296 Swift, Graham 371 Strawson, Peter Frederick 511–12 swimming 63, 515–16, 568 Street-Porter, Janet 512, 521 Swinton, Tilda 194, 390 street selling 512 Syed, Alia 151 Strider 341 Sykes, Christopher 57 strikes 539, 540 see also miners’ strike T-Rex 75, 230 Strindberg, August 399, 558 table tennis 517 structuralism 512–13 Tabrizian, Mitra 394 and the avant-garde 42, 43 Tafari, Levi 391, 447 Index 623

Tagg, John 394 and fashion 52, 181, 185, 247 Tagore, Rabindranath 35, 271 film-makers 40 Tait, Margaret 517–18, 565 and heritage 250 Talawa Theatre Company 65, 153, 527 independent production 176, 267 Talbot, Brian 237 nature programmes 359 talk shows 518 see also phone-ins and chat shows performing arts 391 Tamasha 35, 36 and product placement 430 Tamla Motown 112–13, 188, 370, 502–3 satire 19 Tangerine Dream 22, 519 set design 488 Taoism 558 telethons 154 Tara Arts 35–6, 215 Wales 489–90 Tate(s) 30–1, 45, 134, 509–10, 511, 518–19 women presenters 565–6 architecture 156, 419, 508 see also action series; black television; breakfast tattoos see body adornment television; cable and satellite; comedy on Tawadros, Gilane 224 television; daytime television; drama on Taylor, A.J.P. 328, 519 television; imported television; pop Te Kanawa, Kiri 378 television; sport on television; viewing Teardrop Explodes 272, 351 technologies; under different channels Tebbitt, Norman 293 television exports 523–4 techno 37, 155, 260, 272, 353, 437, 519–20 television licence 524 clubs 113 television unions 524–5 and jungle 289 Temba Theatre 64 and rave culture 75, 448 Temple, Julian 525 and trance 541 Temple, William 28 technology see high-tech; new technologies Tennant, Emma 372 teds 112, 182, 188, 520 tennis 39, 46, 63, 505, 508, 525–6, 564, 568 teen magazines 168, 353, 520–1, 570 Terfel, Bryn 378 teenage and youth programming 521 teenyboppers 522 terrorism Têtes Brulées, Les 16 IRA campaign 277 telecommunications Islamic fundamentalism 426 and the music industry 350–1 Terry Farrell Partnership 526 and photography 393 Terry, Quinlan 359, 375 see also transmission technologies Tesco 380, 432 Telegraph plc 522 Tetley, Glen 48, 97, 341 teletext 522–3 Thames TV 172, 210, 526 Teletubbies 136, 430 Tharoor, Shashi 373 television Tharp, Twyla 50 advertising 10–11, 90 Thatcher, Margaret 125, 127, 129, 213, 245, animation 26, 84 338, 489 awards 47, 159, 512 see also Thatcherism and the British film industry 73, 99 Thatcherism 103, 125–6, 127, 129, 362, 526 broadcasters 39–40 and the BBC 53 chat shows 392–3 broadcasting policy 210 children’s 27, 84, 523 and Conservative Party ideology 124, 128 cookery and food programmes 204 economic policy 345, 450–1, 513 current affairs 142 fashion and consumerism 183, 184 documentaries 59, 157–8 free market and advertising 9 educational programmes 7 globalization and consumerism 231 624 Index

and the poll tax 410 Times, The 366, 522 and pressure groups 428 Times Literary Supplement 313 privatization programme 125, 128, 218, 358, Tinniswood, Peter 5, 415 429–30 Titmuss, R.M. 499–500 and social welfare 500, 560 tobacco industry 537 theatre 527–9, 562 Todd, Richard 314 and circus skills 102, 396 Tolkien, J.R.R. 177, 370, 415 comedy 19, 166 top-shelf magazines 324, 416, 537–8 costume design 123, 284 Torah, the 286–7 directors 70–1, 152–3, 211, 329 Torvill, Jayne 265 and heritage films 100 Touré, Ali Farka 16 improvisation 266 tourism 538 regional 338, 528, 529, 530, 531 and heritage films 100 Scottish 166 and hyperreal environments 263 set design 257, 284, 396, 488 Japanese 283 see also actors (female); actors (male); agitprop; town planning 539 Asian theatre; avant-garde theatre; black and green belts 237–8 theatre; community theatre; devising; housing 260–2, 327 feminist theatre; fringe theatre; left-wing impact of environmentalism 170 theatre; physical theatre; playwrights; see also new towns youth theatre Towns, Colin 286 theatre critics 530–1 Townsend, John Rowe 306 Théâtre de Complicité 153, 339, 396, 529 Townsend, Sue 344 theatre in education (TIE) 528, 531 Toyah 243 Theatre Workshop 152, 190, 266, 299, 527 Toynbee, Polly 145 theme parks 263, 444 trade unions 428, 539–40 Therapy 437 and agitprop 17 Theresa, Mother 504 Blair’s policies 129 Theroux, Paul 544 corporatism 131 Thesiger, Wilfrid 543 Heath’s policies 124 Thomas, Craig 415 and the Labour Party 294, 296 Thomas, D.M. 372 strikes 202, 457, 564 Thomas, Dylan 311, 312, 443 and the SWP 214 Thomas, Edward 404 Thatcherite policies 126, 128, 295 Thomas, Gerald 83 in Wales 336 Thomas, Gwyn 312 women’s campaigns 489 Thomas, Iwan 508–9 see also NUJ; NUM; television unions Thomas, R.S. 312 tragedies 540–1 Thompson, Edward Palmer 150, 328, 532, 563 trance 520, 541–2 Thompson, Emma 4, 194, 200, 532, 565 Trangmar, Susan 395 Thompson, Gladstone 274 transcendental meditation (TM) 542 Thomson 532–3, 545 transmission technologies 542–3 Thomson, Derick 311 transsexuals 543 Thorn-EMI 72, 73, 99 travel writing 313, 543–4 Thorpe, Jeremy 302, 489 Travelling Opera 377 thrillers, films 197, 533–4 Treacy, Philip 247 thrillers, detective and spy writing 415, 534–6 tribalism 68, 544 Thwaite, Anthony 401, 406 tribute bands 544–5 time shares 536 Trickster 396 Index 625

Trimble, David 547 magazines 246 Trollope, Joanna 378 sporting events 249 Trotskyism see Militant urban areas see city redevelopment Trow, M.J. 535 Ure, Midge 51 Tucker, William 483 Tudor, Antony 48 Vadim, Jean 553 Tuffin, Sally 82, 180, 340 Valois, Ninette de 464 Tufnell, Miranda 97, 341 Van der Post, Laurens 305 Turner Prize 265, 273, 274, 291, 395, 396 Vanbrugh, John, influence 361 Tushingham, Rita 3–4 Vanderbilt, Gloria 182 TV-am 71, 210, 526, 545 Vaughan, Johnny 71 Twiggy 69, 186, 243, 340, 514 Vaughan Williams, Ralph 198 2000AD 116, 117, 545 Velvet Underground, The 436, 469 two-tone 272, 495, 545–6 Verma, Jatinder 35–6, 153, 224 Tynan, Kenneth 399, 530 Victoria and Albert Museum 88, 394 typography, design 236 video and avant-garde film 42, 43 U2 51, 134, 279 and the British film industry 73 UB40 447 and the music industry 351, 412, 567 Ulster Unionists 128, 278, 547 and television 554 writers 309 video art 121, 273, 485, 553 Ultravox 155 Video Recordings Act 553 underground press and fanzines 547–8 Vietnam war see also fanzines newspaper reporting and photography 394 unemployment 294, 450, 499 protest 253–4 and class 107 Vietnamese, refugees 95, 96 and giro culture 229 viewing technologies 9, 10, 553–4 and labour migration 293 Vincent, Robbie 398 North of England 369 violence 554–5 and poverty 424 Asian 426 and youth culture 161–2 and male power 432 Unification Church 504, 548 and the media 357 unisex see androgynous/unisex look mods and rockers 459 Unit One 327, 368 Northern Ireland 277 United Nations (UN), peacekeeping operations 338 police 490 United States of America see American churches; racial 12–13 American culture skinhead cults 188, 496 universities 548–51 teds 520 sociology 501 see also domestic violence; riots and civil use of Internet 274 disobedience; WAVAW see also adult education Virago 189 University Boat Race 462, 517, 551–2 Virgin 169 university building 147–8, 229, 323, 327, 329, 343, radio 118, 440 359, 362, 457, 458, 498, 504, 508, 552, 563 Virgin Vision 72, 73 University of the Third Age 7 Visage 363 Unsworth, Barry 372 Viz 116, 324, 533 upper class Vogue 183, 340, 514, 555 and the Conservative Party 128 Volcano 266, 529 and the Establishment 170 Vorderman, Carol 221 626 Index

Wade, Virginia 525, 568 Watson, Paul 157–8 Wah 351 Watts, Alan 558–9 Wainwright, Alfred 444 Waugh, Auberon 246 Waite, Terry 259 Waugh, Evelyn 372 Wakeley, Amanda 321 WAVAW (Women Against Violence Against Walcott, Derek 403, 406 Women) 559 Wales 87 Wax, Ruby 566 Arts Council 31 Way, Anthony 378 devolution 119, 357, 363 Wearing, Gillian 317, 396 films about 210 Webb, Beatrice and Sydney 499 Methodism 336 Webber, Andrew Lloyd see Lloyd Webber, Andrew new towns 364 Webber, Tristan 321 television 489–90 Weber, Max 106, 500, 554 see also Welsh International Film Festival, etc. Wedgewood 88 Walker, Alexander 201 Weedon, Chris 191 Walker, John 385 Weeks, Jeffrey 41 Walker, Murray 347 Weir, Judith 111 Wall of Sound 56 Weldon, Fay 189, 372 Wallinger, Mark 317, 385 welfare state 499, 559–61 Wallis, Alfred 510 Conservative government policies 124, 213 Walsh, Jill Paton 306 and public buildings 342, 361 Walter, Bruno 166 Welfare State International 120, 149, 529 Walters, Julie 400 Weller, Paul 51, 373, 525 Walton, William 198 Wells, H.G. 178, 198 Welsh, Irvine 229, 310, 311 Wanamaker, Sam 231 Welsh International Film Festival 197 Wandor, Michelene 190, 372 Welsh language 56, 357, 490, 561, 561 Wangford, Hank 133 Welsh literature see literature, Welsh Waplington, Nick 395 Welsh National Opera (WNO) 377 Wapping, newspaper industry dispute 366 Welsh nationalism 357 war see military conflict see also Plaid Cymru Warburg Institute 134, 232 Welsh press 561–2 Ward, Barbara 556 Welsing, Frances Cress 15 Warhol, Andy 42, 385, 518 Welwyn Garden City 237, 364 Warner, Deborah 153 Wemba, Papa 15 Warner, Marina 371 Wentworth, Richard 484 Warnock, Mary 556–8 Wesker, Arnold 398, 527 Warnock report 1, 556–8 Wesley, John 173, 335–6 Wassoulou Sound, The 16 West End 6, 153, 226, 338, 502, 527, 562 Waterhouse, Keith 415 West Indians see Afro-Caribbean communities Waterloo terminal see Nicholas Grimshaw and Westall, Robert 306, 307 Partners Western Theatre Ballet 48, 49 Waterman, Pete 430 Westland Affair 129, 562 Waterson, Norma 202 Westwood, Lee 232 Watkin, David 73 Westwood, Tim 398 Watkins, Peter 43, 194, 197, 199, 200, 558 Westwood, Vivienne 2, 182, 184, 185, 212, 562–3 Watkins, Vernon 312 Wham 412 Watson, Ian 178 Whitbread, Fatima 568 Watson, James 137 White, Edgar 64 Index 627

White, Edmund 223 Wollen, Peter 42–3, 193–4 White, Gillian 89 WOMAD 15, 564 White, Hayden 422 women Whitechapel Art Gallery 217, 361, 483 artists 34, 79, 396 composers 111 as Whitehouse, Mary 53, 357 consumers 8 Whitelaw, Billie 399 in crime drama 140 Whiteread, Rachel 273, 484–5 detective novelists 536 Whitley, Richard 221 eating disorders 164, 165 Whittaker, Michael 181 employment patterns 560, 564–5, 566 Who, The 188, 344, 436 and equal opportunities 488–9 Wigan, clubs 112, 370 film-makers 27 Wigmore Hall 111 Greenham Common 240 Wilde, Oscar 6, 158, 226, 278 photography 396 Wildhearts, The 437 portrayed in film 3–4, 89 Wilding, Alison 484 power dressing 425–6 Wilford, Michael 31, 509 proportion of MPs 128 Wilkie, David 515 punk performers 189 Wilkins, Maurice see Crick, Francis and Maurice and shopping 491 Wilkins as single parents 424 Wilkinson, Chris 258, 563 in theatre 527, 528 Williams, Kenneth 83 violence against 158, 554, 559 Williams, Owen 342 see also feminism Williams, Rachel 58 women in the arts and media 565–6 Williams, Raymond 316, 328, 331, 513, 563 women in business 566 Williams, Shirley 86, 295, 485 women in parliament 565, 566–7 Williams, Val 395 women in rock 189, 567–8 Williamson, Aaron 21 women in sport 568–9 Williamson, Judith 7 women priests 86, 504, 569 Williamson, Matthew 321 Women’s Institute (WI) 569–70 Williamson, Nicol 5 women’s movement 65, 193 Willis, Ted 63 critique of sociology 501 Wilson, Colin St John 327, 563 early campaigns 170, 566 Wilson, David 93 influence on style 23–4 Wilson, Elizabeth 300 see also black women’s movement; feminism Wilson, Harold, governments 171, 294, 549, 560 women’s press 570 Wilson, Richard 274 Wood, Victoria 115 Wilson, Robert Liam 310 Woodrow, Stephen Taylor 390 Wimbledon 525, 564 Woods, Tiger 232 Windsor, Barbara 83 Woolf, Virginia 57, 421, 424 Winfrey, Oprah 566 Woolley, Richard 43 Winner, Michael 564 Wordsworth, William 358, 402 Winslet, Kate 200, 330 working class Winter of Discontent 125, 129, 201, 295, 540, 560, betting culture 54 564 concepts of 107 Winterson, Jeanette 41, 222, 291, 372 decline of 126 Wiszniewski, Adrian 385 films about 370 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 392 Geordie culture 228 Wogan, Terry 392, 440 housing 261 Wolf, Ahmad and Rita 36 and the Labour Party 128 628 Index

publishing 189 XTC 365 and youth culture 188 Working Title 73, 74, 192, 571 yachting 573 Workshop Declaration 42, 60, 193, 571 Yates, Paula 71, 414 world music see WOMAD Yates, Peter 573–4 World Service 53, 142, 443, 571–2 Yeats, W.B. 278, 401 World Wide web Yes 431 book marketing 69 Yiddish 574 electronic shopping 167, 487 York, Peter 496 fantasy football 178 York, Early Music festival 109 worship see churches Yorke, Rosenburg and Mardall 552, 574 wrestling 572 Young, Kirsty 91, 565 Wright, Billy 329 Young, Murray Lachlan 22 Wright, Frank Lloyd 379, 460 youth television 521, 574 Wright, Kit 307 youth theatre 574–5 Wright, Peter (ballet director) 49 Yugoslavia, peacekeeping operation 338 Wright, Peter (former secret agent) 376 Yuppies 2, 183, 201 Wright, Steve 440 Wu-Tang Clan 446 Zaidi, Ali 36 Wyndham, John 178 Zappa, Frank 110, 431 Zen Buddhism 558–9 X6 Collective 97, 341 Zephaniah, Benjamin 60, 65, 391, 403, 405, 447 X-Ray Specs 437 Zionism 287