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MARKETING IDENTITY

SELF- AND CROSS-PROMOTION WITHIN DIGITAL GAMES

Zdenko Mago

Abstract The exponential growth of online gaming in current digital-gaming sector is causing an increase in the importance of in-game advertising commercial dynamic to the detriment of in-game advertising static forms preferred in the past. Therefore, static in-game advertising found its usability in the field of self- promotion and cross-promotion. The study focuses on a qualitative analysis regarding different ways of how famous digital games developers, publishers and distributors are presenting their brands within digital games considering various forms, explicitness of presentation and integration of self- /cross-promotion in the sphere of digital games.

Key words: Cross-promotion. Digital games. In-game advertising. Self-promotion.

1 From self-reference to self- and cross-promotion

“Self-reference occurs when a text or a sign process, in some respects, refers to itself instead of referring to something beyond the message it conveys.”1 Besides film, media in which self-reference is the most prominent are advertising and digital games. Advertising uses creative devices of self-reference to draw consumers’ attention toward a message. Digital games create their own self-referential worlds apart from the world of referential fact and realities.2 Santaella even claims that digital games might be considered as the epitome of self-reference, because each new digital game tends to refer to the previous one.3 She also distinguishes seven types of self- referentiality in games (see Table 1).

Table 1: Types of self-referentiality in digital games Command, missions and discontinuities Self-reference to game rules and environment. Self-reference via a game (mini-game) within a Metagames game. Metastories Self-reference via a story within the game story. Self-reference via game modes. Some games The personalization of games have been developed based on modes of existing games. Self-reference to digital processing (e.g. loading The game’s materiality screen). Self-reference via relation to other media, Intermediality especially film. Self-reference via game theory that is a theory A game theory of games of games. Source: SANTAELLA, L.: Computer Games: The epitome of self-reference. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 214-217.

1 SANTAELLA, L.: Computer Games: The epitome of self-reference. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 208. 2 NÖTH, W.: Self-reference in the media: The semiotic framework. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 13. 3 SANTAELLA, L.: Computer Games: The epitome of self-reference. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 208.

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SELF- AND CROSS-PROMOTION WITHIN DIGITAL GAMES From the perspective of digital-gaming sector companies and their marketing communication, self-referential character of digital games represents a natural Zdenko Mago environment for presentation of their brands. Self-promotion refers to the concept of a company advertising itself, meaning promoting its brand(s), programs, titles or

Abstract products within its own programs or titles, while a single medium or a part of one is 4 The exponential growth of online gaming in current digital-gaming sector is causing an increase in the advertiser, advertising vehicle and advertising object all in one. Although, most importance of in-game advertising commercial dynamic to the detriment of in-game advertising static companies use to change their roles with each digital game development project. For forms preferred in the past. Therefore, static in-game advertising found its usability in the field of self- example, acts as a game developer in one case, game publisher or promotion and cross-promotion. The study focuses on a qualitative analysis regarding different ways game distributor in other, while all those games do not need to be related in any way. of how famous digital games developers, publishers and distributors are presenting their brands within digital games considering various forms, explicitness of presentation and integration of self- Due to this fact, in the context of digital game developer (publisher, distributor) /cross-promotion in the sphere of digital games. brands self-referring within digital games themselves, it is necessary to mention another term, i.e. cross-promotion. Cross-promotion is defined as an umbrella Key words: concept incorporating several different practices creating different outcomes, while Cross-promotion. Digital games. In-game advertising. Self-promotion. promotion itself crosses some kind of boundaries. Norbäck subsequently defines five individual types of cross-promotion: cross-company, cross-customer, cross-media, cross-product and cross-content.5 In the final analysis, it is difficult or almost 1 From self-reference to self- and cross-promotion impossible to differentiate between various types of cross-promotion, often even self-promotion from cross-promotion. Therefore, in the domain of in-game “Self-reference occurs when a text or a sign process, in some respects, refers to itself advertising both self- and cross-promotion can be considered as one advertising instead of referring to something beyond the message it conveys.”1 Besides film, media concept. Self-/cross-promotion in digital games concerns only certain types of in- in which self-reference is the most prominent are advertising and digital games. game advertising. Advertising uses creative devices of self-reference to draw consumers’ attention toward a message. Digital games create their own self-referential worlds apart from After online gaming had become a domain in digital-gaming sphere, the importance 2 the world of referential fact and realities. Santaella even claims that digital games of static in-game advertising decreased in favor of its more flexible dynamic form. On might be considered as the epitome of self-reference, because each new digital game the other hand, static in-game advertising found its utilization mainly in self-/cross- tends to refer to the previous one.3 She also distinguishes seven types of self- promotion field. According to the content analysis of six console AAA game titles referentiality in games (see Table 1). from 2011, each with different developer and publisher, 79.1 % of all static in-game

Table 1: Types of self-referentiality in digital games advertisements presented in analyzed games had more or less intentional self- /cross-promotion character – 56.6 % implicitly, 43.4 % explicitly.6 Additionally, self- Command, missions and discontinuities Self-reference to game rules and environment. /cross-promotion within digital games can take advantage of another phenomenon Self-reference via a game (mini-game) within a Metagames related to games self-referential nature called Easter Eggs which are hidden in-game game. rewards for gamers spending their time by exploring all the game aspects. Rewards Metastories Self-reference via a story within the game story. can take a form of various references especially from pop-culture, including other Self-reference via game modes. Some games games. They are perceived very favourably among gamers and they also maintain The personalization of games have been developed based on modes of great popularity due to which gamers themselves share information about their existing games. locations in games. The point is that gamers tend to consider implemented in-game Self-reference to digital processing (e.g. loading The game’s materiality brand references (even commercial in-game advertising) as Easter Eggs and not screen). advertising, thus advertising effect can be generated without the explicit advertising Self-reference via relation to other media, Intermediality especially film. intent. Self-reference via game theory that is a theory A game theory of games of games. Source: SANTAELLA, L.: Computer Games: The epitome of self-reference. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 214-217.

4 SIEGERT, G. Self Promotion: Pole Position in Media Brand Management. In Media Brands and 1 SANTAELLA, L.: Computer Games: The epitome of self-reference. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): Branding, 2008, No. 1, p. 16. Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 208. 5 NORBÄCK, M.: Cross-Promotion and Branding of Media Product Portfolios. In Media Product 2 NÖTH, W.: Self-reference in the media: The semiotic framework. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): Portfolios: Issues in Management of Multiple Products and Services. New York : Psychology Press, 2012, Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 13. p. 147. 3 SANTAELLA, L.: Computer Games: The epitome of self-reference. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): 6 MAGO, Z.: Implicitný in-game advertising: Nástroj pre self-promotion a cross-promotion v Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 208. digitálnych hrách. In Analýza a výskum v marketingovej komunikácii, 2015, p. 34.

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2 Types of self-/cross-promotion within digital games

Based on the way of how digital games developers, publishers and distributors present their brands within digital games, it is possible to determine three types of self-/cross-promotion: direct, indirect, associative.

2.1 Direct self-/cross-promotion

Direct type of self-/cross-promotion is the most common as well as the simplest form for implementation. It is a visual presentation of a specific game development subject’s brand in form of logotype placement into the game with various explicitness and integration levels. This way of promotion can be applied into a digital game of any size. There are many examples of highly explicit direct self- /cross-promotion. In online game Damned Nation,7 developer´s Fog logo is placed on a cricket bat – the primary weapon in a fight against zombies. Madfinger Games logotype is displayed on TV screens during plane of Dead Trigger 28 version (see Picture 1). Operation director from Tom Clancy’s Splinter : Pandora Tomorrow9 is having a logo on his coffee cup. In one sequence of Forever,10 gamers can find and subsequently throw three frisbees branded by , and Triptych Games.

Picture 1: Madfinger Games logo placed in Dead Trigger 2 Source: MADFINGER GAMES: Dead Trigger 2 (Facebook version). [digital game]. Brno : Madfinger Games, 2014. Author’s screenshot.

7 FOG: Damned Nation (online). [digital game]. Fog.com, 2014. 8 MADFINGER GAMES: Dead Trigger 2 (Facebook version). [digital game]. Brno : Madfinger Games, 2014. 9 UBISOFT SHANGHAI – UBISOFT MILAN: Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow ( Windows version). [digital game]. Rennes : Ubisoft, 2004. 10 3D REALMS et al.: (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : Games et al., 2011.

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2 Types of self-/cross-promotion within digital games It is also possible to create not so explicit direct self-/cross promotion. In Alice Madness Returns,11 gamers can discover Spicy Horse logotype when Alice is in Based on the way of how digital games developers, publishers and distributors shrinked mode called Shrink Sense. This is also the objective of one PlayStation present their brands within digital games, it is possible to determine three types of trophy. , the hero of : Drake's Fortune,12 wears weapon self-/cross-promotion: direct, indirect, associative. holsters with leather straps of his back with letters NDI, an acronym for , Inc. Perhaps the least explicit application of direct self-/cross promotion can be 2.1 Direct self-/cross-promotion found in game . At the beginning of this game local pub Rabennest is located. Its signboard contains a part of logotype (see Picture 2). Direct type of self-/cross-promotion is the most common as well as the simplest form for implementation. It is a visual presentation of a specific game development subject’s brand in form of logotype placement into the game with various explicitness and integration levels. This way of promotion can be applied into a digital game of any size. There are many examples of highly explicit direct self- /cross-promotion. In online game Damned Nation,7 developer´s Fog logo is placed on a cricket bat – the primary weapon in a fight against zombies. Madfinger Games logotype is displayed on TV screens during plane level of Dead Trigger 28 Facebook version (see Picture 1). Operation director from Tom Clancy’s Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow9 is having a Ubisoft logo on his coffee cup. In one sequence of Duke Nukem Forever,10 gamers can find and subsequently throw three frisbees branded by 3D Realms, Gearbox Software and Triptych Games.

Picture 2: Part of Raven Software logo as the pub signboard in game Wolfenstein Source: RAVEN SOFTWARE: Wolfenstein ( version). [digital game]. : , 2009. Author’s screenshot.

2.2 Indirect self-/cross-promotion

Indirect self-/cross-promotion can be characterized as promotion of a specific game developer´s brand by the means of visual presentation or as a visual presentation of other game title from the same developer, publisher or distributor. Although explicitness of indirect self-/cross-promotion is generally lower than the one of the direct type, several explicitness levels can be identified – from relatively explicit to almost associative (see Chapter 2.3).

Picture 1: Madfinger Games logo placed in Dead Trigger 2 13 Source: MADFINGER GAMES: Dead Trigger 2 (Facebook version). [digital game]. Brno : Madfinger For example, magazines with Prince of Persia: Sands of Time on the cover are placed Games, 2014. Author’s screenshot. in Tom Clancy’s Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow14, both games from Ubisoft. Rage15 contains many references to other games from its developer . For

11 SPICY HORSE: Alice: Madness Returns (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2011. 12 NAUGHTY DOG: Uncharted: Drake's Fortune (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : 7 FOG: Damned Nation (online). [digital game]. Fog.com, 2014. Computer Entertainment, 2007. 8 MADFINGER GAMES: Dead Trigger 2 (Facebook version). [digital game]. Brno : Madfinger Games, 13 UBISOFT MONTREAL: Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (Microsoft Windows version). [digital 2014. game]. Rennes : Ubisoft, 2003. 9 UBISOFT SHANGHAI – UBISOFT MILAN: Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow (Microsoft 14 UBISOFT SHANGHAI – UBISOFT MILAN: Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Pandora Tomorrow (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rennes : Ubisoft, 2004. Windows version). [digital game]. Rennes : Ubisoft, 2004. 10 3D REALMS et al.: Duke Nukem Forever (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games et 15 ID SOFTWARE: Rage (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rockville, Shinjuku, Austin : al., 2011. – Square Enix – Media, 2011.

339 MARKETING IDENTITY example a couple of cups and T-shirt with 316 or a short video from Doom17 1993 playing on the rocket launcher aiming display in situations when main character is bored while gamer is waiting without action. Less explicit example is a small Sly Cooper18 logo on the bag of 219 main character that is visible only from specific camera angle. Both games have the same developer and publisher – Sucker Punch Production and Sony Computer Entertainment. Creative but very implicit self-promotion campaign was created for Mafia II.20 Gamers could search the city and collect 159 hidden wanted posters portraying programmers from 2K Czech posing as wanted criminals in period costumes.

In-game arcade machines create a very interesting form of indirect self-/cross- promotion and they are the closest form of what Santaella defines as metagames.21 Essentially, mostly non-interactive arcade machines are placed into the gameplay, while referring to games related to developer, publisher or distributor of a game they are placed in, for example Death Rally22 arcade machine in ’s American Nightmare.23 Most of the time such references focus on previous sequel or whole game series – BloodRayne24 arcade machine in BloodRayne 2,25 : The Third26 arcade machine in Saints Row IV.27 Interactive, respectively playable mini- games are not so common. One of the representative example is pinball machine Duke Nukem: Balls of Steel in Duke Nukem Forever28 (see Picture 3) self-/cross- promoting game itself and game creators via iconic main character and graphics of Duke Nukem 3D29.

16 ID SOFTWARE: Doom 3 (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Los Angeles : Activision, 2004. 17 ID SOFTWARE: Doom (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, 1993. 18 : and the Thievius Raccoonus (PlayStation 2 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony Computer Entertainment, 2002. 19 SUCKER PUNCH PRODUCTIONS: (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony Computer Entertainment, 2011. 20 2K CZECH: Mafia II (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games, 2010. 21 SANTAELLA, L.: Computer Games: The epitome of self-reference. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 215. 22 REMEDY: (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. Garland : Apogee Software, 1996. 23 : Alan Wake’s American Nightmare (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Redmond : Microsoft Game Studios – Remedy Entertainment, 2012. 24 : BloodRayne (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Edison : , 2003. 25 TERMINAL REALITY: BloodRayne 2 (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Edison : Majesco Entertainment, 2005. 26 : Saints Row: The Third (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Agoura Hills : THQ, 2011. 27 VOLITION: Saints Row IV (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Planegg : , 2013. 28 3D REALMS et al.: Duke Nukem Forever (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games et al., 2011. 29 3D REALMS et al.: (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive Software, 1996.

340 MEDIA BRANDING example a couple of cups and T-shirt with Doom 316 or a short video from Doom17 1993 playing on the rocket launcher aiming display in situations when main character is bored while gamer is waiting without action. Less explicit example is a small Sly Cooper18 logo on the bag of inFamous 219 main character that is visible only from specific camera angle. Both games have the same developer and publisher – Sucker Punch Production and Sony Computer Entertainment. Creative but very implicit self-promotion campaign was created for Mafia II.20 Gamers could search the city and collect 159 hidden wanted posters portraying programmers from 2K Czech posing as wanted criminals in period costumes.

In-game arcade machines create a very interesting form of indirect self-/cross- promotion and they are the closest form of what Santaella defines as metagames.21 Essentially, mostly non-interactive arcade machines are placed into the gameplay, while referring to games related to developer, publisher or distributor of a game they are placed in, for example Death Rally22 arcade machine in Alan Wake’s American 23 Picture 3: Pinball machine Duke Nukem: Balls of Steel in game Duke Nukem Forever Nightmare. Most of the time such references focus on previous sequel or whole Source: 3D REALMS et al.: Duke Nukem Forever (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K 24 25 game series – BloodRayne arcade machine in BloodRayne 2, Saints Row: The Games et al., 2011. Author’s screenshot. Third26 arcade machine in Saints Row IV.27 Interactive, respectively playable mini- games are not so common. One of the representative example is pinball machine 2.3 Associative self-/cross-promotion Duke Nukem: Balls of Steel in Duke Nukem Forever28 (see Picture 3) self-/cross- promoting game itself and game creators via iconic main character and graphics of In Doom 330 as well as in Doom31 from 2016 a playable arcade machine Super Turbo Duke Nukem 3D29. Turkey Puncher 3 is located referring with its graphics to the original game from 1993. In this case the level of explicitness is so low that it should be no longer considered as an indirect type of self-/cross-promotion, but as an associative one. By the way, those arcade machines were branded as Nabcon that might be considered as another associative self-/cross-promotion (or parody) referring to two famous arcade game creators – Capcom and . Associative self-/cross-promotion can be defined as brand promotion of a specific game development subject through visual placement of association with its name, logotype or other game title from the same developer, publisher or distributor. It is important to note that associations (as

32 16 ID SOFTWARE: Doom 3 (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Los Angeles : Activision, 2004. well as advertising effects) are generated in gamers’ minds. The explicitness level 17 ID SOFTWARE: Doom (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, 1993. of this type is very low, therefore identification of “self-/cross-promotion” content is 18 SUCKER PUNCH PRODUCTIONS: Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus (PlayStation 2 version). not simple without a considerable gaming experiences and digital-gaming sector [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony Computer Entertainment, 2002. awareness. Text associations were used in game inFamous 2.33 In the New Marais city 19 SUCKER PUNCH PRODUCTIONS: inFamous 2 (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony center, local cinema announcement board contains currently playing film titles as Computer Entertainment, 2011. 34 20 2K CZECH: Mafia II (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games, 2010. puns referring to other games. For example Hey, Low Reach ( Reach) , Latch It 21 SANTAELLA, L.: Computer Games: The epitome of self-reference. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): and Skank (Ratchet and )35, Little Big Unit (LittleBigPlanet)36 etc. Not all game Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 215. references had the same developer, publisher or distributor as inFamous 2.Visual 22 REMEDY: Death Rally (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. Garland : Apogee Software, 1996. 23 REMEDY ENTERTAINMENT: Alan Wake’s American Nightmare (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Redmond : Microsoft Game Studios – Remedy Entertainment, 2012. 30 ID SOFTWARE: Doom 3 (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Los Angeles : Activision, 2004. 24 TERMINAL REALITY: BloodRayne (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Edison : Majesco 31 ID SOFTWARE: Doom (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rockville : Bethesda Softworks, Entertainment, 2003. 2016. 25 TERMINAL REALITY: BloodRayne 2 (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Edison : Majesco 32 MAGO, Z.: Implicitný in-game advertising: Nástroj pre self-promotion a cross-promotion v Entertainment, 2005. digitálnych hrách. In Analýza a výskum v marketingovej komunikácii, 2015, p. 31. 26 VOLITION: Saints Row: The Third (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Agoura Hills : THQ, 33 SUCKER PUNCH PRODUCTIONS: inFamous 2 (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony 2011. Computer Entertainment, 2011. 27 VOLITION: Saints Row IV (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Planegg : Deep Silver, 2013. 34 BUNGIE: Halo: Reach ( 360 version). [digital game]. Redmond : Microsoft Game Studios, 2010. 28 3D REALMS et al.: Duke Nukem Forever (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games et 35 : Ratchet and Clank (PlayStaion 3 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony al., 2011. Computer Entertainment, 2002. 29 3D REALMS et al.: Duke Nukem 3D (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive 36 : LittleBigPlanet (PlayStaion 3 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony Software, 1996. Computer Entertainment, 2008.

341 MARKETING IDENTITY association was purposefully used by BioWare in Mass Effect 237 to promote its new title Dragon Age II38 released less than two months later than for PlayStation 3. At the beginning of Mass Effect 2, gamer obtained free sci-fi version of medieval armor from Dragon Age: Origins39 with the red dragon (a main visual motive of Dragon Age: Origins used on the cover and posters) on the chest.

Another form of associative self-/cross-promotion is hidden, respectively secret room in a visual style of other game. Rage40 offers to gamers total of three secret rooms – original , 41 Doom42 and Wolfenstein 3D43 – all from id Software, with the aim to support associations with previous gaming and commerce successes. Similar link to previous products is missing in game Dying Light44 where a hidden secret room Easter Egg – Super Mario Bros.45 – is located. However, there is no explicit relation between Dying Light and Super Mario. In Duke Nukem Forever46 three unique helmets from other games are placed, but only Borderlands47 has the meaning regarding self-/cross-promotion because of the same game creators. Halo: Reach and Dead Space48 shares with Duke Nukem Forever only gaming platforms and genre. A borderline case of associative self-/cross-promotion is parody. In general parody has no promotional intention, yet experienced users can almost always identify the source. Thus such implementation, essentially classic Easter Egg, unwittingly generates advertising effect, even in case it would promote competitive games or their creators. During the game The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings49 gamer can find a corpse dressed in white robe with hood lying on broken wooden cart with hay. This situation refers to the game Assassin’s Creed50, especially its most famous game mechanic – the ability to jump from towers with safe landing into cart with hay, but the game neither its creators have no relation to Witcher 2. Parody message is: “Assassin’s Creed is dead, here is the Wither”, unintended advertising message might sound: “Play also Assassin’s Creed, it is a similarly good game.”

37 BIOWARE: Mass Effect 2 (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2011. 38 BIOWARE: Dragon Age II (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2011. 39 BIOWARE: Dragon Age: Origins (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2009. 40 ID SOFTWARE: Rage (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rockville, Shinjuku, Austin : Bethesda Softworks – Square Enix – Aspyr Media, 2011. 41 ID SOFTWARE: Quake (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, 1996. 42 ID SOFTWARE: Doom (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, 1993. 43 ID SOFTWARE: (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. Garland : Apogee Software, 1992. 44 TECHLAND: Dying Light (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Burbank : Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, 2015. 45 R&D4: Super Mario, Bros. (NES version). [digital game]. Kyoto : Nintendo, 1985. 46 3D REALMS et al.: Duke Nukem Forever (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games et al., 2011. 47 GEARBOX SOFTWARE: (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games, 2009. 48 EA REDWOOD SHORES: Dead Space (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2008. 49 CD PROJECT RED: The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Warsaw : CD Project, 2011. 50 UBISOFT MONTREAL: Assassin‘s Creed (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rennes : Ubisoft, 2007.

342 MEDIA BRANDING association was purposefully used by BioWare in Mass Effect 237 to promote its new All aforementioned self-/cross-promotion types can be also combined. Within title Dragon Age II38 released less than two months later than Mass Effect 2 for singleplayer mode of Deus Ex: Human Revolution,51 gamers can find several posters PlayStation 3. At the beginning of Mass Effect 2, gamer obtained free sci-fi version of promoting anime content titled “Square Enix Final Fa[obscured text] XXVII” that medieval armor from Dragon Age: Origins39 with the red dragon (a main visual obviously refers to the popular gaming series developed and published motive of Dragon Age: Origins used on the cover and posters) on the chest. by Square Enix – publisher of Deus Ex: Human Revolution. The reference to developer is direct, the title Final Fantasy (even obscured) represents indirect type Another form of associative self-/cross-promotion is hidden, respectively secret and associative type is represented by the effort to degrade text readability and by room in a visual style of other game. Rage40 offers to gamers total of three secret parodying title, because Final Fantasy XVII have not (yet) existed. So far the last game rooms – original Quake, 41 Doom42 and Wolfenstein 3D43 – all from id Software, with of this series – Final Fantasy XV 52 – was released in 2016. the aim to support associations with previous gaming and commerce successes. Similar link to previous products is missing in game Dying Light44 where a hidden secret room Easter Egg – Super Mario Bros.45 – is located. However, there is no Conclusion explicit relation between Dying Light and Super Mario. In Duke Nukem Forever46 three unique helmets from other games are placed, but only Borderlands47 has the Along with film and advertising, digital games belong to media in which self- meaning regarding self-/cross-promotion because of the same game creators. Halo: reference is the most prominent. This self-referential character represents Reach and Dead Space48 shares with Duke Nukem Forever only gaming platforms appropriate environment for presentation of digital-gaming sector companies’ and genre. A borderline case of associative self-/cross-promotion is parody. In brands. But the variability of these companies’ roles in digital games development general parody has no promotional intention, yet experienced users can almost process causes the issue that within digital games it is difficult to differentiate always identify the source. Thus such implementation, essentially classic Easter Egg, various types of cross-promotion or even to draw a line between self-promotion and unwittingly generates advertising effect, even in case it would promote competitive cross-promotion. For this reason in the context of digital games development games or their creators. During the game The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings49 gamer subjects brand self-referring, self- and cross-promotion can be considered as the can find a corpse dressed in white robe with hood lying on broken wooden cart with same concept using static in-game advertising. According to the analysis of games, hay. This situation refers to the game Assassin’s Creed50, especially its most famous self-/cross-promotion can be implemented into digital games taking direct, indirect game mechanic – the ability to jump from towers with safe landing into cart with hay, and associative form in various ways with different explicitness and integration but the game neither its creators have no relation to Witcher 2. Parody message is: levels, from a simple placement of company logo into gaming context, through “Assassin’s Creed is dead, here is the Wither”, unintended advertising message might magazines, posters, secret rooms and in-game arcade machines referring to related sound: “Play also Assassin’s Creed, it is a similarly good game.” games, to the references based on associations with text, graphics and motives of game creators and their games. In-game self-/cross-promotion can also take advantage of the fact that gamers tend to consider such implementation as popular Easter Eggs, not advertising, thus the advertising effect can be generated even without the explicit advertising intent from the company’s side. Additionally, gamers 37 BIOWARE: Mass Effect 2 (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2011. like exchanging and sharing locations of Easter Eggs meaning that they themselves 38 BIOWARE: Dragon Age II (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, contribute to the functioning of self-/cross-promotion effect. Finally, theoretical basis 2011. concerning self-/cross-promotion within digital games can be applied in terms of 39 BIOWARE: Dragon Age: Origins (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic future research design with the aim to determine the extent of brands recognition Arts, 2009. 40 ID SOFTWARE: Rage (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rockville, Shinjuku, Austin : and perception of various methods of self-/cross-promotion implementation. Bethesda Softworks – Square Enix – Aspyr Media, 2011. 41 ID SOFTWARE: Quake (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, 1996. 42 ID SOFTWARE: Doom (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, 1993. References: 43 ID SOFTWARE: Wolfenstein 3D (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. Garland : Apogee Software, 1992. 2K CZECH: Mafia II (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games, 2010. 44 TECHLAND: Dying Light (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Burbank : Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, 2015. 3D REALMS et al.: Duke Nukem Forever (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato 45 NINTENDO R&D4: Super Mario, Bros. (NES version). [digital game]. Kyoto : Nintendo, 1985. : 2K Games et al., 2011. 46 3D REALMS et al.: Duke Nukem Forever (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games et BIOWARE: Dragon Age: Origins (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : al., 2011. Electronic Arts, 2009. 47 GEARBOX SOFTWARE: Borderlands (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games, 2009. BIOWARE: Dragon Age II (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : 48 EA REDWOOD SHORES: Dead Space (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2008. Electronic Arts, 2011. 49 CD PROJECT RED: The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Warsaw : CD Project, 2011. 51 EIDOS MONTREAL: Deus Ex: Human Revolution (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Shinjuku : Square 50 UBISOFT MONTREAL: Assassin‘s Creed (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rennes : Ubisoft, Enix, 2011. 2007. 52 SQUARE ENIX: Final Fantasy XV (PlayStation 4 version). [digital game]. Shinjuku : Square Enix, 2016.

343 MARKETING IDENTITY

BIOWARE: Mass Effect 2 (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2011. BUNGIE: Halo: Reach ( version). [digital game]. Redmond : Microsoft Game Studios, 2010. CD PROJECT RED: The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Warsaw : CD Project, 2011. EA REDWOOD SHORES: Dead Space (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2008. EIDOS MONTREAL: Deus Ex: Human Revolution (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Shinjuku : Square Enix, 2011. FOG: Damned Nation (online). [digital game]. Fog.com, 2014. GEARBOX SOFTWARE: Borderlands (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : 2K Games, 2009. ID SOFTWARE: Doom (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, 1993. ID SOFTWARE: Doom (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rockville : Bethesda Softworks, 2016. ID SOFTWARE: Doom 3 (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Los Angeles : Activision, 2004. ID SOFTWARE: Quake (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, 1996. ID SOFTWARE: Rage (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rockville, Shinjuku, Austin : Bethesda Softworks – Square Enix – Aspyr Media, 2011. ID SOFTWARE: Wolfenstein 3D (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. Garland : Apogee Software, 1992. INSOMNIAC GAMES: Ratchet and Clank (PlayStaion 3 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony Computer Entertainment, 2002. MADFINGER GAMES: Dead Trigger 2 (Facebook version). [digital game]. Brno : Madfinger Games, 2014. MAGO, Z.: Implicitný in-game advertising: Nástroj pre self-promotion a cross- promotion v digitálnych hrách. In Analýza a výskum v marketingovej komunikácii, 2015, Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 30-38. ISSN 1339-3715. MEDIA MOLECULE: LittleBigPlanet (PlayStaion 3 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony Computer Entertainment, 2008. NINTENDO R&D4: Super Mario, Bros. (NES version). [digital game]. Kyoto : Nintendo, 1985. NORBÄCK, M.: Cross-Promotion and Branding of Media Product Portfolios. In Media Product Portfolios: Issues in Management of Multiple Products and Services. New York : Psychology Press, 2012, p. 139-168. NÖTH, W.: Self-reference in the media: The semiotic framework. In NÖTH, W., BISHARA, N. (eds): Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., 2007, p. 3-30. RAVEN SOFTWARE: Wolfenstein (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Los Angeles : Activision, 2009. Author’s screenshot. REMEDY: Death Rally (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. Garland : Apogee Software, 1996. REMEDY ENTERTAINMENT: Alan Wake (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Redmond : Microsoft Game Studios, 2012.

344 MEDIA BRANDING

BIOWARE: Mass Effect 2 (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood City : REMEDY ENTERTAINMENT: Alan Wake’s American Nightmare (Microsoft Windows Electronic Arts, 2011. version). [digital game]. Redmond : Microsoft Game Studios – Remedy Entertainment, BUNGIE: Halo: Reach (Xbox 360 version). [digital game]. Redmond : Microsoft Game 2012. Studios, 2010. SANTAELLA, L.: Computer Games: The epitome of self-reference. In NÖTH, W., CD PROJECT RED: The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings (Microsoft Windows version). BISHARA, N. (eds): Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., [digital game]. Warsaw : CD Project, 2011. 2007, p. 207-218. EA REDWOOD SHORES: Dead Space (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Redwood SIEGERT, G. Self Promotion: Pole Position in Media Brand Management. In Media City : Electronic Arts, 2008. Brands and Branding, 2008, No. 1, p. 11-26. ISSN 1403-0462. EIDOS MONTREAL: Deus Ex: Human Revolution (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. SPICY HORSE: Alice: Madness Returns (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Shinjuku : Square Enix, 2011. Redwood City : Electronic Arts, 2011. FOG: Damned Nation (online). [digital game]. Fog.com, 2014. SQUARE ENIX: Final Fantasy XV (PlayStation 4 version). [digital game]. Shinjuku : Square GEARBOX SOFTWARE: Borderlands (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. Novato : Enix, 2016. 2K Games, 2009. SUCKER PUNCH PRODUCTIONS: inFamous 2 (PlayStation 3 version). [digital game]. ID SOFTWARE: Doom (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, San Mateo : Sony Computer Entertainment, 2011. 1993. SUCKER PUNCH PRODUCTIONS: Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus (PlayStation 2 ID SOFTWARE: Doom (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rockville : version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony Computer Entertainment, 2002. Bethesda Softworks, 2016. TECHLAND: Dying Light (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Burbank : ID SOFTWARE: Doom 3 (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Los Angeles : Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, 2015. Activision, 2004. TERMINAL REALITY: BloodRayne (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Edison ID SOFTWARE: Quake (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. New York : GT Interactive, : Majesco Entertainment, 2003. 1996. TERMINAL REALITY: BloodRayne 2 (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. ID SOFTWARE: Rage (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rockville, Shinjuku, Edison : Majesco Entertainment, 2005. Austin : Bethesda Softworks – Square Enix – Aspyr Media, 2011. UBISOFT MONTREAL: Assassin’s Creed (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. ID SOFTWARE: Wolfenstein 3D (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. Garland : Apogee Rennes : Ubisoft, 2007. Software, 1992. UBISOFT MONTREAL: Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (Microsoft Windows INSOMNIAC GAMES: Ratchet and Clank (PlayStaion 3 version). [digital game]. San version). [digital game]. Rennes : Ubisoft, 2003. Mateo : Sony Computer Entertainment, 2002. UBISOFT SHANGHAI – UBISOFT MILAN: Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Pandora MADFINGER GAMES: Dead Trigger 2 (Facebook version). [digital game]. Brno : Tomorrow (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Rennes : Ubisoft, 2004. Madfinger Games, 2014. VOLITION: Saints Row: The Third (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Agoura MAGO, Z.: Implicitný in-game advertising: Nástroj pre self-promotion a cross- Hills : THQ, 2011. promotion v digitálnych hrách. In Analýza a výskum v marketingovej komunikácii, VOLITION: Saints Row IV (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Planegg : Deep 2015, Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 30-38. ISSN 1339-3715. Silver, 2013. MEDIA MOLECULE: LittleBigPlanet (PlayStaion 3 version). [digital game]. San Mateo : Sony Computer Entertainment, 2008. NINTENDO R&D4: Super Mario, Bros. (NES version). [digital game]. Kyoto : Nintendo, Contact data: 1985. Mgr. Zdenko Mago, PhD. NORBÄCK, M.: Cross-Promotion and Branding of Media Product Portfolios. In Media University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava Product Portfolios: Issues in Management of Multiple Products and Services. New York : Faculty of Mass Media Communication Psychology Press, 2012, p. 139-168. Námestie J. Herdu 2 NÖTH, W.: Self-reference in the media: The semiotic framework. In NÖTH, W., 917 01 Trnava BISHARA, N. (eds): Self-reference in the Media. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., SLOVAK REPUBLIC 2007, p. 3-30. [email protected] RAVEN SOFTWARE: Wolfenstein (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Los Angeles : Activision, 2009. Author’s screenshot. REMEDY: Death Rally (MS-DOS version). [digital game]. Garland : Apogee Software, 1996. REMEDY ENTERTAINMENT: Alan Wake (Microsoft Windows version). [digital game]. Redmond : Microsoft Game Studios, 2012.

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