Dorn, AW. 2019. Eliminating Hidden Killers: How Can Technology Help stability Humanitarian Demining? Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 8(1): 5, pp. 1–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.743

RESEARCH ARTICLE Eliminating Hidden Killers: How Can Technology Help Humanitarian Demining? A. Walter Dorn*,†

Despite twenty-first-century technological advances by Western militaries for demining and the removal of improvised explosive devices, humanitarian demin- ing relies mostly on mid-twentieth-century technology. While international legal efforts to curb the global use of landmines have been quite successful, constraints on humanitarian demining technology mean that unfortunate and preventable deaths of both civilians and deminers continue to occur. Developing devices and technologies to help human deminers successfully and safely carry out their work is a major challenge. Each phase of the physical demining process (i.e., vegetation clearance, mine detection, and removal) can benefit from the development of demin- ing technologies. However, even with the prospect of “smart” demining technology, the human aspect of supervision remains a crucial challenge. Although current research and development hold promise for the future of humanitarian demining, the barriers to progress in the field are more than technical. The prioritization of military operations, a lack of coordination between governments and humani- tarian actors, a tendency towards secrecy, and an underlying lack of funding are just some of the roadblocks to eliminating the yearly death toll associated with humanitarian demining, in addition to other impacts on post-conflict societies. This paper calls for new ideas, renewed innovation, and new sources of governmental and non-governmental support for this often-neglected aspect of international security.

Introduction limb and property falls to mostly humani- Landmines remain deadly decades after tarian demining efforts. Some research and wars end. They continue to impact some development (R&D) has been initiated since 60 countries around the world. Annual the 1997 Anti-Personnel Mine ban (“Ottawa reporting shows the gravity of the problem: Treaty”) but most of these projects have thousands are killed or injured each year, been unworkable, underfunded, or underex- primarily civilians, of which nearly half are ploited. Technology adoption and innovation children (International Campaign to End have not received sustained support. The Landmines – Cluster Munition Coalition humanitarian community relies primarily 2018). The removal of this threat to life, on mid-century, World War II-type technolo- gies, i.e., primitive hand-held metal detectors * Defence Studies, Royal Military College, CA and bayonet-style tools, to find and remove † Canadian Forces College, Yonge Blvd, Toronto, ON, CA landmines when it should be possible for [email protected] modern technologies, tools, and machines to Art. 5, page 2 of 17 Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers do the work, or at least actively assist demi- conducted initial testing and validation ning efforts. The humanitarian imperative flights (Lisica et al. 2019). Advanced image calls for it. classification and recognition using machine Multi-faceted demining machines — remote learning/artificial intelligence has been controlled or semi-autonomous — should used to identify areas with likely mines (e.g., become available in the future to perform Adlešič and Zobundžija 2019; Krtalić, Racetin some human mine-clearing activities and and Gajski 2018). Once an area is identified improve upon them, making life safer for for clearance, other technologies can then be deminers, and speeding up the demining used. process. Eventually, these “robots” could do each of the three major stages of remov- Preparing the Round: Vegetation ing mines once the demining site has Clearance been located1: preparing the ground (e.g., The clearance of surface vegetation and vegetation clearing, obstruction removal); other obstructions can sometimes be more mine detection (along with other explosive time consuming than the clearance of the hazard detection); and mine removal by landmines and other explosive remnants of excavation or destruction in place (e.g., burn- war (ERW). In one case, the Cambodian Mine ing, freezing, or exploding). Although the Action Centre estimated that 70 percent of all-purpose, entirely autonomous robot may its landmine clearance effort is vegetation be decades in the future, primitive devices removal, due to the difficult terrain and the are already on the market, but they need risks to operators from tripwires, poisonous considerably more development, testing, snakes, and mosquito-borne diseases (Ueno and cost-reduction before they can be widely et al. 2013). Of course, in different sites, there used to carry out one or more of the three may be significant variations in vegetation demining steps once a mine-infested area and ecological complications, e.g., the forests has been identified. of Croatia (Adlešič and Zobundžija 2019). The initial technical survey to find the most The disturbance of local animal habitats also likely locations of mine fields can be greatly needs to be taken into account. aided by technology. Testing work using Remote-controlled machines are begin- unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has started ning to be used more frequently in order to to extend experimentation from basic survey prepare ground for deminers, especially to work (e.g., as part of planning) to examining clear vegetation. These unmanned ground fields with advanced sensors before mine vehicles are getting smaller, more effec- clearance begins (see Table 1). Work done tive, and economical — moving away from by Norwegian People’s Aid, for example, the manned military behemoths that are so

Table 1: UAV Applications for Technical Survey.

Technical Survey Role Description Assist in planning of Selection of appropriate tool; selection of the best technical survey demining operations path; analysis of environmental conditions of terrain; identification of likely mine locations Monitor demining Monitor mine action operation progress, estimate completion date, operations, report on progress documentation progress and completion Map demolitions and identify Completion documentation, identification of possible patterns for patterns future survey work Source: Based on senseFly (2016: 5). Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers Art. 5, page 3 of 17 costly to transport, maintain, and operate hunters and beachcombers. One truly sig- that they frequently go unused in humani- nificant advance in recent decades was the tarian demining (Smith 2017c: 1). addition of electronic filters to reduce the Mini-flails are a promising new machine “ground noise” of these field-deployed in demining and small “area preparation devices. But even so, the problems with this machines” are also arriving on the market.2 technology are many: they can be set off by One remote-controlled vehicle, known as an virtually any kind of magnetic metal, includ- area preparation tractor, is based on an Italian ing from the numerous metal fragments vineyard tractor, with added armour and or debris that litter former conflict zones; blast-resistant wheels (Smith 2017b). It can the metal detectors produce many false- clear vegetation far in front of manual dem- positive signals (false alarms) and occasion- iners and is powerful enough to climb hills ally also produce dangerous false-negative but small enough to manoeuvre between signals (especially for deeply buried mines, large trees, while continuously removing where the metal remains undetected). They vegetation and small trees. The vehicle has cannot reliably detect all mines, especially the added advantage of knocking the fuses those with minimum metal, at all necessary off fragmentation mines (or initiating them), depths.3 As a result, much more innovation thereby reducing the hazard for the clear- is needed. ance teams that follow. They are designed for A major source of potential innovation is humanitarian demining applications specifi- the recent progress in military demining and cally, rather than military applications, i.e., improvised explosive device (IED) detection. they are not designed to withstand anti-tank Over the past two decades, Western militaries mines (Smith 2017c). have made considerable efforts to deal with Another useful tool is the excavator like the major challenges of IEDs, which were the Arjun Demining System, that rakes causing the deaths of so many soldiers. NATO through the soil to a depth of 20 cm using nations prioritized three major pillars to a back hoe. Most mines can be seen by the their counter-IED work: “Defeat the Device,” operator as they drop from the raised rake “Attack the Networks,” and “Prepare the and are moved with the rake (GICHD 2012). Force,” supported by a robust intelligence Although it does not completely eliminate process (NATO 2011: fig. 1.3). This com- the threat of mines — deminers examine and bined effort places the emphasis on major hand rake the ground to search for additional advances in technology, including minia- mines — it is regarded as exceptionally cost- turization, reliability, geomatics (i.e., inbuilt effective humanitarian demining equipment GPS), ergonomics, and ground-compensating (Smith n.d.). technology. These efforts have saved many soldiers’ lives. Mine Detection: Finding Hidden Another significant development is Killers ground penetrating radar (GPR). This detec- Once vegetation is cleared, deminers must tion technology is the nearest to standard painstakingly check every square centimetre deployment in humanitarian demining. In of the ground to a minimum UN-mandated dual-sensor devices, after a metal-detector depth of at least 20 cm with almost complete sends an alert (usually an audio squeal), the certainty, sometimes specified as in excess of deminer can turn on GPR. The GPR-head 99.5 percent (United Nations Mine Action sends electromagnetic (radio) waves into the Service [UNMAS] n.d.). ground and the reflected-wave intensity gives Basic metal detectors have, since World a sense of the size and rough shape of the War II, been a standard tool for mine detec- detected object. Metal clutter can usually be tion. They have induction coils at the end of disregarded. Resolution has historically been hand-held rods, like the ones used by treasure quite poor and GPR imagery and readouts Art. 5, page 4 of 17 Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers required user interpretation, which carries on the market.5 They have been demon- its own risks.4 strated in field tests and praised for their Recent technological developments have capabilities and increases in productivity built on decades of experience to decrease by by organizations such as The HALO Trust an order of magnitude the false alarm rate, (Boshoff and Cresci 2015; The HALO Trust giving rise to the hope that “hand-held detec- 2011), while other advances continue tors are moving to the point where they can apace with related technology (Sato 2019). discriminate what the detected object may However, these advanced devices are expen- be” (Peyton et al. 2019: 31). Further research sive and are mostly purchased by military has started to make feasible lower-cost, forces, which have different needs and priori- lightweight, multi-band radars used in con- ties. Humanitarian deminers must do more junction with metal detectors to “see” small than cross a minefield to reach a military objects buried at close range (Šipoš, Malajner, objective; they have to dig up all the mines and Gleich 2019). Issues remain around and explosive hazards in an area while posing radar head and power requirements adding little or no risk to themselves, as their objec- weight, cost, and technological complexity tive is to completely clear the mined land. to the hand-held device. Nevertheless, they Militaries have found that dual- and can prove cost-effective by reducing false multi-sensor detectors have been very use- alarms, increasing clearing speed, and reduc- ful against the modern IEDs, given that the ing the clearance cost per square metre. IEDs generally have small amounts of metal, When deployed on vehicles, GPR systems which provide the first indications of a buried can be more powerful and allow side-scan- threat, before the GPR or other sensors are ning as well as vertical scanning, thus increas- used to find the much larger buried plastic ing the resolution to a level that can reliably elements of the device. detect anti-tank mines or IEDs. Hopefully, As indicated in Table 2, humanitarian vehicle-mounted anti-personnel mine detec- deminers need to ensure that the land can be tion systems for real-time 3D subsurface declared “clear” (with virtually 100 percent visualization will become user friendly and certainty) for civilian use, including for inten- commercially available. That technology has sive farming. Before returning the ground to probably already been developed for the US locals, deminer chiefs often walk the ground military, but such devices remain highly clas- themselves to show locals that the ground is sified and restricted to the military domain. safe. Despite these challenges, some hand- Newer, more exotic detection technologies held dual-sensor detectors are already will likely be deployable one day, but these

Table 2: Comparison of Military and Humanitarian Deming.

Military Demining Humanitarian Demining Purpose Rapid military passage (e.g., breaching Long-term restoration of land for mine fields) civilian use Timing During war/conflict After war/conflict, during reconstruction Clearance goal 70–90% Virtually 100% Devices Heavy vehicles (e.g., with flails, rollers, Primarily metal detectors, handheld (current usage) and excavators), advanced technology prodders, simple tools (including multi-sensor detectors, vehicle-borne and handheld) Source: Adapted from Furihata and Hirose (2005: 338). Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers Art. 5, page 5 of 17 are not yet mature or cheap, nor simple from researchers, some technologies have enough for widespread use in humanitarian not yet proven their utility or practicality, for demining applications. Some technologies example, infra-red imaging, X-ray backscat- may never be practicable. The drawbacks of ter, acoustic/seismic reflection or vapour many R&D technologies include complex- sensing. A larger set of detection methods ity and high cost for a market with a limited is provided in Table 3. For multi-sensor customer base. Furthermore, despite claims systems, the various outputs can be fused

Table 3: Mine Detection Technologies.

Method Maturity6 Cost and Benefits Concerns/Problems Complexity Metal detector In use Low Much experience High false alarm rate (debris); minimum-metal mines hard to detect Ground Available Medium Gives size and shape Poor resolution Penetrating Radar commercially info; increases clutter- (fuzzy images); extra (GPR) rejection rate weight; danger of mischaracterizing a mine Dual sensor (metal Available Medium Gives useful info See above detector + GPR) commercially before excavation Infrared (passive Medium Medium Lightweight; useful Poor resolution and or active) term for initial survey, ground penetration; especially used at effect dissipates night quickly over time Millimeter wave Long term Medium Subterranean imagery Interpretation difficulties; water anomalies Acoustic/seismic Medium High Ultrasound penetrates Slow, high false-alarm (including term very wet heavy rate ultrasound) ground, 3D imagery Magnetometer Near term High Deep detection Only detects ferrous materials UAV platform Near to long Medium-high Potentially accurate Remains unproven term source of information and experimental before excavation; speed Trace explosive (vapour) detection Trained dogs In use Medium-high Proven accurate and Significant training dependable needed; only justifiable in a long- term programme Other animals Medium High Potentially accurate Unproven as yet; term difficult to train; undependable; difficult to interpret

(Contd.) Art. 5, page 6 of 17 Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers

Method Maturity6 Cost and Benefits Concerns/Problems Complexity Chemical sensors Medium High Widely used in High false alarm rate; (including term industry for other slow analysis; remote biosensors) applications analysis increases error and time Bulk explosive detection7 (using nuclear sources) X-ray backscatter Medium High 2D images Shallow soil and X-ray term penetration fluorescence Thermal neutron Near term High Better for anti-tank Limited depth activation mines penetration; large device; loss or theft of radioactive sources Nuclear Long term High Clutter does not cause TNT not as well quadrupole false alarm detected as RDX; resonance interference from radio waves; bulky Source: Review of the literature and based on similar tables (Bruschini and Gros 1997; Ghaffari et al. 2004; Sato 2006; senseFly 2018). for automatic target recognition, using spe- especially to clearly indicate the threat; as cial signal-processing techniques, including a result, mine-sniffing dogs, although they fuzzy logic, neural networks, and 2D/3D tex- may be friendly, are often neither cheap nor ture analysis. The devices could eventually easy to work with. Experiments are under be miniaturised in a handheld device or a way to use free-running dogs equipped with small vehicle. Some sophisticated sensors are GPS, cameras, and radio contact for technical already used in military vehicles. And com- surveys of large areas (Bold 2014: 12–14; mercial mining for precious minerals already Lisica and Muftić 2019). employs an array of useful technologies that could be adapted, including handheld X-ray Mine Removal: Extraction or fluorescence devices. Explosion? Various innovative sensor technologies While the military can tolerate the risk that have been explored for humanitarian demi- not all mines are removed, humanitarian ning, including those that use animals as deminers work to a significantly higher stand- sensors. Attempts to use bees, although ard. They seek to clear a field of all explosive once ridiculed, have shown limited potential hazards, including mines and any other ERW (Hadagali and Suan 2017; Simić et al. 2019). (Habib 2007: 152). When a metal object is Rats as sensors, on the other hand, proved detected, the standard procedure in humani- to be more hype (Fears 2017; Kalan 2014; tarian demining is to start digging some dis- Sullivan 2015) than practical (DeAngelo tance (e.g., 20 cm) from the mine at an angle 2018; Fast et al. 2017; Smith8). By contrast, of less than 30 degrees to the ground (ibid.: dogs have long been effectively used in 167). Simple devices such as handheld gar- demining but they are time-consuming to den shovels, rakes, and prodders are used. To train, difficult to maintain, and quite expen- overcome ground friction, both hands are fre- sive.9 While dogs can detect many explosives quently used to gently push and scrape, while reliably, they have to operate in the work- being careful not to set off the mine on the ing context, with training reinforced daily, approach. The loosened soil is scooped away, Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers Art. 5, page 7 of 17 and prodding/scraping continues until the making the deminers’ jobs easier, safer, and standard detection depth is reached. The dem- faster — and help give them better control of iner then starts to move the prodder slowly their future. forward towards the location discovered by It is equally important to avoid a highly the mine detector and indicated by a marker expensive “military” approach that applies (e.g., a bright “casino-chip” plastic marker). the most high-end and high-tech “solutions” The mine is exposed using hand tools that but rather to organically develop tools that “detect” the mine by feel at angles less than humanitarian deminers can work with. Andy 30 degrees so as not to push on the mine’s Smith states from experience: “We should top pressure plate. This is dangerous work start from where the recipients are, then that could eventually be done by machines. help them move towards where they want The dangerous process of lifting a mine to be. That does involve using computers could also be done by autonomous or user- and sophisticated equipment — but step-by- operated robots in the future (Hemapala step and respecting their priorities rather 2017). Of course, lifting pressure-operated than just imposing ours.”10 This is echoed in mines must be done with extreme care, espe- the literature as well: “The ‘robotic solution’ cially if the mine includes an anti-lift device becomes a[n] engineering job’ dependent on or is booby trapped, e.g., with a grenade ‘imported devices where the know-how is not underneath whose pin has been removed available. The increasing cost of the sophisti- so it will detonate shortly after the mine is cated devices incorporated in to the robotic lifted. A hook is sometimes placed (gently) devices making very high initial investment under the far side of the mine before it is and low return on investments. […] Mainly “pulled” from a relatively safe distance using robots work well for clean and reliable tasks” a hook-and-line system to trigger any booby (Hemapala 2017: 3–4). trap. But this remains dangerous and risk- Small improvements to simple demining intensive work. Typically, when a mine has tools can be remarkably effective, such as been safely lifted, it is then moved to a demo- long-handled ergonomic rakes, but these lition pit, where demolition charges are used can be complemented with more advanced to detonate and destroy it. technologies and, in some areas, replaced by them (Furihata and Hirose 2005). It is not a Not Machines versus Humans, but case of human versus machine but one of Machines Serving Humans machines increasing human efficiency and To be sure, there are clear benefits of using effectiveness, as well as safety and security. human deminers. They have a learning and The traditional “mechanical assistance” in computing capacity combined with self- humanitarian demining should expand to preservation instincts that far exceed the include “technological assistance” as well. world’s best computerised robots at present. This would be an integrated solution, with Deminers are mostly from the local popula- all components (animals, insects, devices, tion in a post-conflict environment; these and humans) working holistically. non-combat jobs enable them to support themselves, their families, and their commu- Towards “Smart” Demining Machines nities. They can bring in a real income (albeit Eventually, smart technology should advance often shamefully small) to help stimulate the to the level where it could do much, although local economy and so promote wider peace- not all, of what a human deminer does. building efforts. Humanitarian demining The devices would need to be human-con- funding should include the local beneficiar- trolled or supervised from a distance, with ies and help to empower them. Appropriate the machine doing the dangerous, labour- mine clearance machines, coupled with intensive work, and suffering the risk of proper operator training, can do that by explosions; the person removing and fixing Art. 5, page 8 of 17 Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers damaged devices would be far out of the area course, input from deminers at each stage of of danger. the R&D process should be sought. One system envisioned by the author would work on an overhanging boom or rail Conclusions: The Need for Innovation that extends along an area to be demined, Given that the advanced systems and tech- e.g., a stretch alongside a road, and then nologies described above may run into systematically moving further into the field, problems in some difficult field conditions, row by row. The first device on the boom or the preliminary or prototype devices could rail would cut and remove all vegetation up be used for the easier demining projects at to a certain height. first. The devices could cover soft homoge- The second device (possibly a multi-sensor nous ground containing few obstacles where detector built into the first device) would detection and removal are easier. As the pinpoint the mines or suspicious items technology matures, future models could be in the ground, including by subterranean deployed to areas containing more complex viewing from different angles on the boom. mixtures of landmines, shrapnel, anti-tank The precise areas would then be marked mines, unexploded ordnance (UXO), aban- by spray-painting or by dropping (lightly) doned explosive ordinance, and IEDs. They brightly coloured plastic chips. In addition, could be designed to withstand different cli- positions would be recorded by the com- mates, and work in difficult soil and terrain. puterized system using a differential-GPS or Given the range of possibilities, one might another accurate coordinate recorder. The wonder what has inhibited technological pro- third device on the boom or rail would be a gress so far. Factors include: prioritization of sophisticated extractor, which would dig into military missions (e.g., in Iraq/Afghanistan); the earth much as a human deminer would, military secrecy and information classifica- employing highly tactile sensitivity. It would tion (of both R&D and deployed systems); remove earth until the mine or metal object lack of multi-year funding for humanitar- is exposed and then, after a human gives the ian demining; the small niche market for go ahead, the machine would sound a warn- humanitarian demining that produces lit- ing to those around and slowly remove the tle profit; the inability to move from R&D mine or other explosive hazard. This type of to practical commercial devices; a bureau- envisioned system would mirror a suite of cratic short-term approach to cost-efficiency; already-operational technologies and tools over-hyped proposals that did not live up in use. If the machine encounters a sophis- to expectations; cynicism of innovation by ticated problem as it progresses, it should those convinced their current practices are be able to signal a human to examine the entirely sufficient; governmental/humani- problem, e.g., a deminer viewing the area by tarian actors not sharing information; and remote-controlled cameras on the device. an inclination to avoid experimentation or To verify that a thorough job has been being innovative. done, the fourth device on the boom could Importantly, the robotics and artificial do the quality assurance (QA). It could use intelligence revolution is just beginning to sensors to detect if another mine had been be felt and understood in human society buried beneath the first. The QA sensor could more generally. Many potential uses have also scan the lane and conduct tests at selec- recently become visible and commercially tive points. It could apply pressure to the viable, from autonomous vacuum cleaners ground to test that no unexploded mines to advanced UAVs, but much more is still remain. Only then could a lane be declared to come. Demining is an area where such successfully “cleared” before the demin- products can be life-saving. Since 2005, the ing machine is moved one lane forward. Of US military has developed and deployed very Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers Art. 5, page 9 of 17 sophisticated technologies for IED detection focused on humanitarian demining dedi- and removal that have saved soldiers’ lives in cated an issue to the topic (Risser 2018). Iraq and Afghanistan. Remote-control robots Various humanitarian demining groups have like the “TALON” series of unmanned ground evaluated and tested UAV systems under systems have figured significantly in military operational conditions (Cruz et al. 2018; operations (Wells and Deguire 2005) — and Gottwald, Docci, and Mayer, 2017; senseFly Hollywood depictions11 — with cutters and 2016; Wade 2016). Some have even devel- grabber assemblies to help deal with IEDs oped applications using UAVs themselves for and UXO, as well as options for a range of the extraction of mines (Mine Kafon 2019; other such tools, e.g., GPR (Chemring Group UAV Systems 2016). As the development of 2019b). Many of these technologies could be experimental work continues, gradual recog- used or modified for humanitarian demining nition of UAV technology by the UN Mines — some already are (Fardoulis et al. 2018), yet Action Service as a viable tool has been seen many technical details remain highly classi- as well (UNMAS, 2018: 30). fied. However, there is bound to be some Other R&D possibilities that can be spillover as the companies producing the explored are fluorescent bacteria (Meurer et military hardware look for new markets. al. 2009) and novel animal-based detectors There is additional reason to be hopeful: (e.g., involving a mongoose [Nanayakkara et the emphasis on demining R&D is returning al. 2008]). While many of today’s R&D pro- after the diversion away from humanitarian jects are “blue sky” projects that may never support after 9/11 and the Afghanistan- reach the field during the funding cycle, Iraq missions. In recent years, new initia- some of them will reach maturity. This gives tives and programmes have been launched. new hope that technology may yet come to The UN Department of Peace Operations the service of humanitarian demining. Long- (which includes the UN Mines Action Service term R&D investments can pay real dividends or UNMAS) has accepted the recommenda- because the landmine and UXO problem tions of the Panel of Experts on Technology remains so serious. Civilian technologies and Innovation in UN Peacekeeping, which have produced some fruitful detection and include new demining technologies, espe- foliage clearance devices. Smartphone and cially to enhance the mobility of peace- common GIS (like Google Earth) have helped keepers (UN 2015). The European Union in imaging, data analysis, visualization, and is supporting R&D programmes to exam- precise clearance marking for demining. ine wide-ranging technologies, including But the detection and extraction aerial drones for survey work, GIS, robots, technologies are slower to come online, seem- multi-sensor detectors (including animals ingly “stuck in the mud.” Devices mentioned and biomimicry), vapour sensors, and earlier show promise but need encourage- small/miniaturized demining machines ment and multi-year funding. Unfortunately, (European Union 2016). NATO’s Science for “[m]any promising technologies have not Peace and Security Programme is support- been exploited due to the lack of available ing activities in Partnership for Peace nations funding. Although funds may exist, there (NATO 2016). Japanese engineers have been is currently no formal mechanism to link pioneering “intelligent” robots for demining donors to technology opportunities, and vice for some time (Habib 2008: 42–44). versa” (UNMAS 2013: sec. 9). To complete the UAV applications will continue to advance laboratory-to-field R&D cycle, prototype field quickly in their sophistication and demin- testing by established deminers is a much- ing applications, moving from experimental needed validation step, but R&D risks, high trials to dedicated field tests (senseFly 2016: and often multi-year financial commitments, 5). One of the major academic journals and policy constraints pose significant Art. 5, page 10 of 17 Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers hurdles (ibid. 9). Despite the best efforts of urgently needs to be strengthened. Mine academic and non-governmental organiza- action specialist Andy Smith sums it up: “We tions, and biennial workshops organized by need young ideas, young idealism, young GICHD, there is still a need for an organiza- enthusiasm — and, of course, some old and tion able to test devices independently and hard money”.15 publish impartial results, as well as to set proven standards. The Landmine Monitor Notes annual reports could consider developments 1 Locating and deciding to begin demining in technology, something it has avoided activities includes socio-economic impact doing for the last decade (from 2009 through studies to determine areas that are pre- 2018 it made no mention of technology sumed affected by mines and where related to demining operations). However, demining would be most beneficial to the Croatian Centre for Testing, Development the local population, gathering data and Training, at its annual International and information to identify likely mine- Symposium on Mine Action, does publish fields, and reviewing accident reports, specific advances in demining technology satellite photographs, etc. (The HALO R&D in its International Symposium on Mine Trust n.d.). This pre-demining activity, Action Book of Papers (HCR-CTRO 2019). And known as “non-technical survey,” has while the Ottawa Treaty encourages states been greatly improved by technology, parties to share demining technology, espe- including satellite and airborne surveil- cially through the UN,12 those efforts have lance, modern geographical information petered out in recent years.13 systems (GIS) such as ArcGIS and services Increasingly, advanced database such as Google Earth, although gaps technologies coupled with data collection remain (Schmitz et al. 2018). It is then tools, including sensors on devices — the augmented by “technical survey,” which “Internet of Things” revolution — will enhance includes physically assessing for mines the full spectrum of demining efforts, includ- in a defined area. That is “a process using ing integrating mapping, data collection, physical intervention that might include analysis, and modelling. Tools developed spe- machines or breaching by manual demin- cifically for the mine action community have ers” (The HALO Trust n.d.). started to make an impact (Vikström and 2 Mini-flails reduce risks by setting off Kallin 2018), with the GICHD Information booby-traps, trip-wires, fused and even Management System for Mine Action being simple-pressure mines. Andy Smith used in 47 countries (GICHD 2019). Finally, (2015b) comments: “Before it was demining accident records need to be fed invented, the most common cause of into a centralized, open database to derive deminer death was the bounding frag- lessons about safety, to improve indus- mentation mine. A mini-flail can break or try technologies and practices, and enable initiate these before the deminers have detailed research and study.14 to go near, removing undergrowth and so The need to clean up mines and other ERW making the demining process both faster will remain far into the foreseeable future, and safer.” with new mines and IEDs still being planted. 3 Andy Smith, Emails to the author, 20–24 Even cleaning up the landmines currently in May 2015. the ground would take many decades at the 4 Andy Smith, an expert mine action current pace, while accidental deaths would specialist, writes: “Variations in ground continue. R&D into new technologies and density give false signals when the ground better equipment will require iterative devel- has wet patches, rocks, tree roots or voids. opment and refinement over the years. The The density change between ground and connection from R&D to field application air makes it difficult for GPR to reliably Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers Art. 5, page 11 of 17

detect small objects in that area. False 12 The Convention on the Prohibition of the alarms encourage the user to make spu- Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer rious assessments; and accidents have of Anti-Personnel Mines and On Their occurred when military deminers have Destruction Anti-Personnel Mines Treaty trodden on a mine that they had detected (1997), in Article 6, on International but had chosen to ignore because of the Cooperation and Assistance, Paragraph GPR” (2015b). 2: “Each State Party undertakes to facili- 5 Examples of handheld dual-sensor tate and shall have the right to partici- detectors on the market include, e.g., pate in the fullest possible exchange of “Groundshark” by Chemring (2019a); equipment, material and scientific and the “Minehound” series by Vallon (2019), technological information concerning HSTAMIDS from the US Army (US DoD the implementation of this Convention. 2019), and ALIS (Sato 2018). The States Parties shall not impose undue 6 The “maturity” column gives an indica- restrictions on the provision of mine tion of the time-span until the technol- clearance equipment and related tech- ogy might be incorporated into practical nological information for humanitarian application. purposes.” Then in Paragraph 7(b): Each 7 These bulk explosive detectors use radio- State Party shall provide “the financial, active sources to bombard the ground technological and human resources that with radiation. They require heavy shield- are required for the implementation of ing. There is also a risk of losing radioac- the [mine clearance] program.” In Article tive sources to terrorist groups in conflict 11, on Meetings of the States Parties, the zones who might seek to make a “dirty signatories commit to “meet regularly in bomb.” order to consider […] 1(d) The develop- 8 Andy Smith, Emails to the author, 20–24 ment of technologies to clear anti-per- May 2015. sonnel mines.” 9 The first humanitarian dog programme 13 While the International Test and started in 1989 in Afghanistan/Pakistan Evaluation Program for Humanitarian (under Op Salam) in conjunction with Demining, with a secretariat in Brussels, UN Development Programme and the UN is now closed, an important role con- Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and tinues to be played by the Swiss-based Pakistan. Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA) GICHD. Organisations like the Centre for further pioneered the use of demining Testing, Development and Training and dogs in the mid-1990s. After a disappoint- the Croatian Mine Action Centre are a ing and costly programme in Angola, NPA kind of “halfway house” to test and coor- established its Global Training Centre for dinate humanitarian demining efforts. Mine Detection Dogs in Bosnia in 2004 The Demining Technologies Information (NPA-GTC/MCC 2012). The Norwegian Forum (DTIF), launched by Canada, the Agency for Development Cooperation European Commission and the United found that “more than 25 organisations States and joined later by UNMAS, GICHD, worldwide currently use mine detection and a number of nations, once provided a animals [dogs]” (Norwegian Agency for “systematic, multi-disciplinary opportunity Development Cooperation 2009: 42). for the identification of demining technol- 10 Andy Smith, Emails to the author, 20–24 ogy gaps, for the synergistic exchange of May 2015. ideas, for collaborative international pro- 11 For instance, the 2008 movie The Hurt gramme co-ordination and planning and Locker depicts the remote-controlled for the review of progress in the mine tracked TALON USG for the investigation action technology area. […] Regrettably, the of IEDs. DTIF is no longer functioning” (UNMAS Art. 5, page 12 of 17 Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers

2015). Fortunately, the NGO Find a Better including as a member of the UN’s 2014 Way continues to work with various UK Expert Panel on Technology and Innovation universities to explore better landmine in UN Peacekeeping. His two most recent detection and removal methods (Find a books are Air Power in UN Operations: Wings Better Way 2019). for Peace (Ashgate, 2014) and Keeping Watch: 14 A database on deminer injuries is Monitoring, Technology, and Innovation in UN available, although reporting is voluntary Peace Operations (UNU Press, 2011). Further and far from complete (Global CWD biographical info and publications can be Repository 2019). Some have argued that found on the website www.walterdorn.net. the humanitarian demining community ought to recognize a duty of care for its References deminers and provide detailed records Adlešič, Đ and Zobundžija, Z. 2019. The of incidents globally (Smith 2017a), as Utilization Potentials of Demined Forest others have done in specific former con- Areas in the Republic of Croatia. In: Book of flict zones (Debač 2016). Papers, 16th International Symposium “Mine 15 Andy Smith, Emails to the author, 20–24 Action 2019”, Šlano, Croatia, 8–11 April May 2015. 2019, 52–55. Available at: http://www. ctro.hr/en/publications/category/34- Acknowledgements simpozij-protuminsko-djelovanje-book-of- Thanks are due to the Hon. Lloyd Axworthy, papers [Last accessed 21 August 2019]. who suggested and encouraged this inquiry. Bold, M. 2014. Tools and Technologies The paper benefitted greatly from com- Benefitting Mine Action Effectiveness. munications with Andy Smith, a UK-based Presentation at the Geneva International mine-action specialist with much practi- Centre for Humanitarian Demining, Geneva, cal experience in demining. Assistance and Switzerland, 12 November. Available feedback on the paper is much appreci- at: https://www.gichd.org/fileadmin/ ated from Dave McCracken (deminer based GICHD/what-we-do/events/CCW/ADS_ in Thailand), Ryan Cross (Vancouver-based Technology_CCW_Nov_2014_Final.pdf researcher), Robin Collins (World Federalists [Last accessed 14 June 2019]. Canada), Paul Hannon (Mines Action Boshoff, C and Cresci, C. 2015. The HALO Canada), Danielle Stodilka (Toronto-based Trust and HSTAMIDS. The Journal of Con- chartered chemist), Mikael Bold (GICHD), ventional Weapons Destruction, 12(1): and other experts at UNMAS and GICHD. article 43. Available at: https://commons. The statements, views, and any errors in the lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol12/iss1/43 paper are solely the responsibility of the [Last accessed 12 June 2019]. author. Funding from the Canadian Pugwash Bruschini, C and Gros, B. 1997. A Survey Group is much appreciated. of Current Sensor Technology Research for the Detection of Landmines. In: Competing Interests Proceedings of the International Workshop The author has no competing interests to on Sustainable Humanitarian Demining. declare. International Workshop on Sustainable Humanitarian Demining Zagreb, Croatia, Author Information on 29 September, 18–27. Walter Dorn is professor of defence stud- Chemring Group. 2019a. Groundshark. IED ies at the Royal Military College of Canada Detection Products. Available at: https:// (RMC) who is based at the Canadian Forces www.chemring.co.uk/what-we-do/sen- College (CFC). As an “operational profes- sors-and-information/counter-explosive- sor” he participates in field missions and hazard/ied-detection [Last accessed 11 the work of international organizations, June 2019]. Dorn: Eliminating Hidden Killers Art. 5, page 13 of 17

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How to cite this article: Dorn, AW. 2019. Eliminating Hidden Killers: How Can Technology Help Humanitarian Demining? Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 8(1): 5, pp. 1–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.743

Submitted: 18 July 2019 Accepted: 12 August 2019 Published: 03 September 2019

Copyright: © 2019 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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