RESTRICTED FOR DEPARTMENTAL USE ONLY

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES OF CANADA

RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT BRANCH

SALMON DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES,

THEIR PRESENT STATUS,

AND THEIR POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS

TO THE BRITISH COLUMBIA SALMON STOCKS

VANCOUVER, B. C. OCTOBER. 1966 , RESTRICTED FOR DEPARTMENTAL USE ONLY

DEPARTMENT OF FlSHERIES OF CANADA RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT BRANCH

SALM 0 N DEVEL 0 PM ENT TE CH NI Q U ES,

THEIR PRESENT STATUS,

AND THEIR POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS

TO THE BRITISH COLUMBIA SALMON STOCKS

VANCOUVER, B. C. OCTOBER. 1966, ii

CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT vii

1 INTRODUCTION l

2 SALMON DEVELOPMENT TECIIlHQUES 12 1 Hatc;:hery Propagation 12 1 Chinook and Coho Salmon 12 l History 12 2 Recent Advances 13 - Disease Control, Nutrition, Release Practices, Donor Stock 3 Current Program 19 4 Present Status of Hatchery Production 21 - Columbia River Chinook Salmon Hatchery Evaluation Program 21 - Evaluation of the Washington State Chinook and Coho Hatchery Program - Recent Increases in Coho Production by Columbia River Hatcheries 28 2 Sockeye Salmon 29 3 Chum and Pink Salmon 35 4 Summary and Conclusions 43 1 Chinook and Coho Salmon 43 2 Sockeye Salmon 45 3 Pink and Chum Salmon 46 5 References 47 2 Spawning Channels and Controlled Flow Projects 48 1 Introduction 48 2 Assessment of Existing Spawning Channels 50 ) Summary and Conclusions 63 4 Supplemental Information on Existing Spawning Channels and Allied Projects Completed to Date 64 - Nile Creek, Jones Creek, Horsefly Lake, Robertson Creek, Great Central Lake, Seton Creek, Pitt River, Big Qualicum River, Nanika River, Fulton River, Puntledge River, Indian River, Mill Creek, Baker Lake, McNary, Priest Rapids, Carmen-Smith, Abernathy Creek, Rocky Reach, Indian Creek, Auke Creek, Lancha Plana, and Mokelumne 5 References 89 3 Alleviation of Obstructions 92 l Types of Obstructions 92 l Beaver Druns 92 2 Log Jams 93 3 Landslides ·95 · 4 Inadequate Water Flows 97 5 Waterfalls 98 iii Page 2 Fishways 99 1 Types Suitable for British Columbia Conditions 99 2 Operational Assessments 101 3 Existing Installations in the Pacific Northwest 102 - Department of Fisheries of Canada . 102 - Interna ti on al Paci fio Salmon Fisheries Commission 103 - Washington State Department of Fisheries 104 4 Potential Sites 105 - Kakweiken River, Bulkley River, Kispiox River, Nahmint Ri ve:r, Marble River, Cranberry River, Lowe Inlet, Wale Creek, Ain River, Stafford .River, Embly Creek, Adam River, 101.utze River 3 Summary and Con cl uslons 123 4 . Controlled Rearing Areas (Fish 12.5 1 Introduction 12.5 2 Assessment of Resu11;s 126 3 Summary and Conclu:sions 137 4 References 140 Transplantation 141 1 Introduction . 141 2 Results of Transplants 142 l Pink Salmon 142 2 Sockeye Salmon 147 3 Chinook Salmon 151 3 Summary and Conclusions 153 4 References 158 6 Predator Control 159 l Introduction 159 2 Assessment of Results 159 3 Summary and Conclusions 166 4 References 167 7 Lake Fertilization 169 l Introduction 169 2 Assessment of Results 169' 3 Summary and Conclusions 172 4 References 174 8 Selective Breeding 175 l Introduction 175 2 Assessment of Results 175 3 Summary and Conclusions 180 4 Reference.a 182 iv Page 3 THE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT BRANCH'S FORECASTED SALMON DEVELO·PMENT PROORAM 183 4 THE POTENTIAL FOR INCREASED SALMON PRODUCTION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA THROUGH APPLICATION OF DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES 191 APPENDIX v

TABLES No .. Page

1 SUMMARY OF MAJOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS COMPLETED BY THE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT BRANCH, 1949-66 10

2 RELEASES OF SALMON, IN MILLIONS, FROM PACIFIC COAST HATCHERIES, 1957-64 20 3 CHINOOK SALMON CATCHES IN 1964, AND THE ESTIMATED CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE EVALUATION PROGRAM HATCHERIES 22. 4 NUMBERS OF VALID AND POSSIBLY VALID HATCHERY­ :t'iARKED FISH REPORTED IN THE 1965 CATCH UP TO JULY 10 23 5 RELEASES OF MASU, PINK, AND CHUM SALMON, IN MILLIONS, FROM SOVIET HATCHEHITES ON SAKHALIN AND THE KURILE ISLANDS, 1955-58 35 6 FRY-TO-ADULT SURVIVAL RATES REPORTED FOR PINK AND CHUM SALMON INCUBATED IN HATCHERIES IN THE u.s.s.R.

7 FINGERLING-TO-ADUL'r SURVIVAL RATES F'OR PINKS AND CHUMS REARED IN SALTWATER PONDS IN WASHINGTON STATE 40 8 PRODUCTION DATA FOR HATCHERY-PRODUCED CHUMS AND PINKS IN WASHINGTON STATE HATCHERIES, 1957-58 _41 9 A LIST OF SPAWNING CHANNELS, INCUBATION CHANNELS, AND RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PROJECTS CONSTRUCTED TO DATE, 1966 52 10 PRODUCTION FIGURES FOR PINK SALMON AT JONES CREEK, 1955-56 54 11 PRODUCTION FIGURES FOR CHUM SALMON AT BIG QUALICUM RIVER, 1959-65 12 THE 13 KNOWN OBSTRUCTIONS AT WHICH FISHWAYS APPEAR TO BE JUSTIFIABLE, TOGETHER WITH RECORDED ESCAPEMENTS, COST ESTIMATES, AND MAXIMUM POTENTIAL BENEFITS 108 13 BENEFIT-COST RATIOS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR WASHINGTON STATE DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES REARING AREAS 131 vi

No .. Page

14 AVERAGE SURVIVAL RATES (FRY-TO•ADULT RETURN) FOR THE SEVEN BEST WASHINGTON STA'I'E FISH FARMS, AS COMPARED WITH OTHER PRODUCTION FACILITIES 1)2

1.5 SUMMARY OF SOCKEYE TRANSPLANTS AT'J'EMPTED WITHIN THE FRASER RIVER SYSTEM BY THE INr.11ERNATIONAL PACIFIC SALMON FISHERIES CO~fi1ISSION 148 16 SUMMARY OF SOCKEYE TRANSPLANTS AND RETURNS TO FRASER LAKE, KODIAK ISLANDJI ALASKA 150

17 SMOLT CHARACTERISTICS AND ADULT RE'J~URNS, BARE LAKE, ALASKA, 1950-56 171 18 SUMMARY, BY SPECIES, OF PRESENT AND PAST MAXIMUM ESCAPElvfENTS OF MAJOR BRITI8H COLUMBIA SALMON STOCKS, AND THEIR COMPUTED POTENTIALS 195 19 ESTIMATED ADDITIONAL SPAWNING GROUND REQUIREMENTS, COSTS, AND BENEFITS TO THE FISHERY 197 vii

ABSTRACT

This report introduces the subject of salmon enhancement techniques by reviewing the need for such measures in British Columbia, and the major steps which have been taken to dnte. The :main body of the report individually examines available information concerning the present status of the major known salmon enhancement techn'iques; namely, hatcheries, spawning channels and controlled flow, fishways and stream i.mprovement, controlled rearing (fish farming), transplantation, predator and competitor control, lake fertilization, and selective breeding. The tentative conclusions with regard to the applicability of each of these techniques may be summarized as follows:

Hatcheries

Chinook and Coho Salmon Hatcheries in the United States are currently producing significant numbers of chinook and coho. In this connection, an evaluation study of Columbia River hatcheries, which has been in progress for several years, provides the best available informa­ tion, and, while this program will not be completed for several more years, preliminary r0sults tend to support the contention that the Columbia River hatchery program is economically and biologically sound. Furthermore, Washington State hatchery programs, which lack precise evaluation, have nevertheless shown indications that they are on the verge of becoming economic from the viewpoint of commercial production alone, without regard to viii the considerable additional benefits accruing to the sport fishery. It appears that these successEts have been due, largely, to recent advances resulting from research into nutrition, disease control, feeding techniques, water .quality fJ and timing of hatchery releases. As one would expect, some hatcheries are ' more successful than others, but some are proving to be outright failures. Sockeye Salmon There is no evidence that hatchery production of sockeye is economic. The hatchery propagation of this species has received considerably less attention than that for coho and chinooks, and, as a result, the :research that has improved chinook and coho culture has not been extended' to sockeye. Pink and Chum Salmon Currently, hatchery propagation of pink and chum salmon I on a production basis is being undertaken only in Japan and the­ Soviet Union, and the limited available information indicate·s that these countries have been relatively successful in this field. On the other hand, North American programs directed toward these species have been largely unsuccessful.

Spawning Channels and Controlled Flow Projects

Approximately 25 projects of this type are now in service on the Pacific coast, and most were constructed to compensate for fisheries losses which otherwise might have been expected as a result of the construction of hydroelectric damse For the most part, however, these installations are ·Of such ix recent construction that they have not yet experienced adult returns, and proper evaluation of this technique must therefore be held in abeyance pending future developments~ Nevertheless, it has been encouraging to note that fry production resulting from salmon spawning naturally in spawning channels has quadrupled that of the natural streams@ Moreover, it bas been noted that this increase can be doubled if the eggs are cultured in a hatchery to the eyed stage before being planted in the channel. Experience to date has indicated that the average size (and possibly the viability) of channel-produced fry is equal to that of fry produced in natural streams, but greater than that of fry produced in hatcheries$ In addition, limited information from the Jones Creek spawning channel, which has been in operation long enough to have recorded adult returns, has provided grounds for optimism with regard to the potential of this technique. This information is, however, only a fraction of that which will be coming available in the near future when the production channels at Qualicum and Babine Rivers, and Weaver Creek have been in operation long enough to provide data for comprehensive assess­ ments based on adult returns.

Alleviation of Obstructions

Obstructions located on the freshwater migration routes cause heavy losses of salmon by inflicting injuries, mortalities, and delays, and by denying access to good spawning and rearing areas upstream. x

Beaver dams, log jams, landslides, and river diversions are obstructions which receive attention as they occur, or as they are detected. Waterfalls and rapids are the most common major obstructions, and while the Department of Fisheries and the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission have already constructed fishways at many such obstructions located throughout the province, there are many othe1rs which require attention. Preliminary assessments of the many known obstructions indicate that there are 13 river systems on which alleviation of obstructions could be justified. Although somewhat a matter ot conjecture, it appears that the benefits accruing from alleviation of these obstructions could justify the capital outlay of approximately $1, 700, 000 which would be required for fishway construction.

Controlled Rearing (Fish Farming)

Available information indicates that the broad chinook and coho fish farm program undertaken in Washington State has been uneconomic as a production tool but may have been worthwhile when due consideration is given to the value of the information which . has been obtained.. For instance, it has been found that some rearing areas are more productive than others, and that some are virtually worthless. Moreover, fresh-water rearing areas have been far more productive than the more expensive salt-water ones, and . with one or two exceptions, coho production, in terms of outgoing migrants and adult returns, has been much better than that of xi

chinooks. It is now believed that available information concerning this program is such that increasesin efficiencies and cost-benefit ratios can be effected. In this connection, current plans will likely result in the abandonment of some areas, and the improvement of others to the point where this concept could evolve into a worthwhile production technique. A modification of the technique involving supplemental feeding, has produced encouraging results in the production of steelhead trout in Washington State, and this feature rnay be worthy of consideration for salmon as well.

Trans plan ta ti on

With few exceptions, almost all attempts to transplant salmon stocks from one watershed to another have failed to provide a self-sustaining run, although some which have been transplanted in barren systems in Washington State have been maintained entirely by hatchery production. There are no documented reports of successful transplants of chum or coho salmon.

It is generally agreed tha. t transplants are difficult to establish; that they must be attempted only on a large scale; and that they cannot compete with improvement of existing runs as a technique for increasing salmon production.

Predator Control

Available information concerning the benefits accruing to the fisheries resource as a result of predator control measures is limited to the results of a small scattered number of xii eJ::periments which investigated the individual effects on specific si;ocks of salmon of predation by piscivorous birds, fish, marine mammals, and bears. These studies have indicated that while p1~edator control measures cannot now be regarded as a general p1'oduction technique, certain types can be useful for increasing the production from specific stocks. Similar conclusions may be drawn with respect to competitor control measures.

Lake Fertilization

Lake fertilization, which is simply a technique for increasing the available food supply in a lake, and, hence its rearing capacity, has been confined to one small experiment at Bare Lake, Alaska, another in Japan, and a smattering of attempts to increase trout production at various locations. The Bare Lake experiments provide some encouragement as to the future possibilities for this technique inasmuch as the lengths and weights of sockeye smolts were significantly increased by lake fertilization, as was the percentage of smolts which returned as adults. Application of this technique to British Columbia salmon lakes would be very expensive, however, in view of their great depths, high flushing rates, and large surface areas, and it is this cost factor which has caused pilot-plant production studies to be deferred. Furthermore, the high cost, coupled with the complexity of the subject and the lack of specific information xiii

aE1 to the present rearing capacities of lakes, tends to relegate this technique to a relatively low priority, at least for the present.

Selective Breeding

Selective breeding of Pacific salmon with a view to developing desirable characteristics has.been carried out for some years at the College of F'isheries, University of Washington, and som.e noteworthy successes have been achieved in these experiments. This concept has also been applied, either consciously or unconsciously, in virtually every hatchery egg-taking program in the Pacific Northwest inasrnuch as the largest, healthiest­ looking salmon are consistently selected fol" spawn, while smaller, weaker-appearing fish a.re generally retuic>ned to the river to reproduce naturally. While selective breeding of salmon shows some promise for possible future applications at selected locations, the subject is regarded, at this time, as too complex for widespread application as an enhancement technique.

The foregoing review logically leads one to the conclusion that at the present time spawning channels, controlled flow projects, and fishways are the enhancement techniques which offer the best opportunities for increasing salmon production in British Columbia. Moreover, it indicates that hatcheries have now improved to the point where they can play an important .xiv

role~ On the other hand techniques such as controlled rearing9 transplantation, predator control, lake fertilization, and selective breeding a.re not yet regarded as being applicable on a production basis, although, with further research and assess­ ment, each may be expected to make a significant contribution to salmon development programs of the future. The program which the Resource Development Branch of the Department of Fisheries proposes to follow during the next few years is designed to apply the most promising techniques outlined in the preceding paragraph. In this connection, the major specific proposals are as follows: 1. The Babine Lake construction program will connnand the largest single share of the Branch's efforts in the salmon development field for the next five years. At the end of this period Fulton Lake, in the Fulton River watershed and Taltapin Lake, in the Pinkut Creek watershed, will have been converted into storage reservoirs by means of which the flows to these two important sockeye-producing tributaries to the main basin of Babine Lake, can be regulated. Both reservoirs will store water during periods of high runoff for subsequent release during normal low-flow periods, and these augmented discharges will be adequate to fulfill the water requirements in the natural river and in the spawning channels which have been and will be.constructed to substantially increase the available spawning area. When completed, these channels will accommodate 250,000 sockeye spawners which ultimately xv

are expected to contribute an additional 100 million fry each year to the currently under-utilized nursery area of Babine Lake. Likewise, the natural river is expected to

produce greater numbers of fry as a result of flow regulation. 2. Major works planned for the Big Qualicum River include the construction of an additional spawnlng channel and improve­ ment of large areas of the natural fltrerun bed which are not now being utilized because of the compacted gravel and unfavourable hydraulic conditions. It is expected that

these projects will double the pre son t capacity of the system. 3. Detailed surveys are now being carried out with a view to

rehabilitating the pink and chum salmon stocks whi~h are exploited by the Johnstone Strait and Fraser River fisheries. While definite proposals are still in the formative stage, major spawning channels are being planned for one or more specific sites on the Harrison, Vedder-·Chilliwack, or Chehalis Rivera. Additional sites on the east coast of Vancouver Island will also be receiving consideration, and, at the present time, the Tsolum River appears to warrant the highest priority • . 4. Commencing with the 1967 brood, the Branch plans to enter the field of rearing chinook salmon. This project is being. planned as a "pilot plant" study which will utilize hatchery raceways to rear newly-emerged fry from both natural streams and spawning channels. The information which stems from this study and those currently underway in the United States xvi

are expected to determine whether or not this technique will be suitable for widespread application in British Columbia. In this connection, preliminary surveys are being carried out in critical sport-fishing areas such as the Campbell and Cowichan Ri vars so that rapid applications of the hatchery technique can be made if current evaluation studies continue to show a high degree of promise. 5. The stream inventory program which was initiated some years ago will be continued so that pertinent data will be catalogued on all salmon streams, area by area, with a view to establishing an order of priority for stream improvement measures recommended for those locations where they can be . justified economicallyo All major streams on the Queen Charlotte Islands, and many of those on Vancouver Island rhe and in"lower mainland, have now been surveyed. Detailed studies have commenced on the Yakoun River, Q.c.r. 6. The fishway construction program initiated by the Branch in 1949 will be continued in f'uture, and while definite sites have not yet been selected present plans call for the installation of fishways at three, or more, of the following sites: Kakweiken River, Moricetovm Falls (Bulkley River), Kispiox River, Lowe Inlet, Wale Creek, and, possibly, others. 7. In the light of past experience, it is expected that the. major program as outlined in the preceding sections will be augmented by other as-yet-unspecified projects of unusual merit that may warrant immediate action. In this connection, xvii

small fishways, particularly those <>f the steep-pass type, check dams and rock groins to improire gradients of natural rivers, and flood channels to pass excess flows, are improve­ ments which future studies may regard as being worthy of immediate application on specific salmon-producing streams. The Branch's forecasted program, as outlined, has been formulated with the reasonable expectation that future staff expansions and increases in funds will be in line with the trends of recent ye a.rs. Accordingly, further expansion or acceleration of the program, if this is desir19d, can only be achieved by providing con:imensura ta increases in both funds and qualified personnel. Formulation of a long-range salmon, development program, , will be determined largely by the results and recommendations which will be forthcoming :tn •the next few years from programs and investigations now in progress. To this end, the various projects presently underway and those planned for the immediate future must be evaluated to determine the effective­ ness of the techniques, and to provide information for modifications which will be beneficial to ensuing projects. In addition, a wide variety of applied and fundamental research must be carried out to eliminate uncertainties associated with the techniques which are currently being applied, and, more importantly, to bring into use those techniques that are not now considered applicable. Furthennore, the long-range program will xviii

be dependent upon the outcome of future surveys and investigations

of various watersheds and their native salmon stocks 9 and subsequent comparisons of the merits of each with a view to selecting those which offer the most promise for application of development techniques. This compilation of basic data is necessary to attain the proper degree of efficiency in the future programs, and will be accelerated as staff expansions permit. In the absence of specific detailed knowledge of individual streams and their salmon stocks the final section of the report cursorily reviews, by area and by species, the past and present magnitudes of 395 major British Columbia salmon stocks, and postulates that, if through the use of development techniques, the past maximal escapements of each stock could be attained in each year, the potential increased catches would represent a gain in the order of 30 million dollars per year. Further speculation which explores the costs of increasing these stocks by means of spawning channels and hatcheries, concludes that, if these become proven techniques, an extremely large potential could be developed at a favourable benefit-cost ratio. \ ------· ·- - . ------·-· -----·------·-·--

SALMON DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES, THEIR PRESENT STATUS, AND THEIR POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS TO THE BRITISH COLUMBIA SALMON STOCKS

1. INTRODUCTION

The Department of Fisheries of Canada is charged with the responsibility for British Columbia's salmon stocks, which are not only the "back-bone" of the Province 1 a $90, 000, 000-per­ year fishing industry, bu.t also the foundation for an intensive_ saltwater sport fishery. Yet, as important as these fish are to the provincial ·and national economies, and as a recreational resource, their continuing existence is being threatened as ney-er before.

Until about a century ago, the relative abundance of the British Columbia salmon stocks depended solely on their ability to withstand the detrimental effects of such natural­ phenomena as drour;hts, floods, obstructions, predators and disease. Today, these natural enemies are as prominent a.s ever, but they are no longer the only factors limiting salmon abundance - in fact, on some river systems their impact on the salmon stocks is now overshadowed by the threat of such diverse man-made hazards as·industrial pollution, hydroelectric development, gravel removal, denudation of watersheds, flood control programs, irrigation diversions, and a host of others. Moreover, the demand for salmon and salmon products has become so intense that the major stocks, at least, woul('. run the risk of being eradicated in one, or, at most, two cycles if stringent -2- regulatory measures were not implemented to prevent their over­ exploitation by the fishing industryo

To fulfill its responsibilities to the salmon resource, the Department of Fisheries manages the fisheries to ensure that escapements to the freshwater spav..11ing grounds are adequate to maintain the stocks at optimum or near-optimum levels of abundanceo With the exception of the pink and sockeye salmon stocks of the Fraser River sys tern, which fall within the purview of the International Pacific Salmon Fish13ries CorrJmission, the

Department's Resource Development Branch is responsible for the protection of all British Columbia salmon stocks from the harmful effects of industrial imd other 1...;ater-use projects, and for the enhancement of the resource by application of techniques developed throuGh research. It ib this latter responsibility which wil.l be discussed in de tail in this report, . looking to evaluating the current status of the various techniques, and their potential contribution to the British

Columbia salmon fisheries.

Available knowledge is not such that man is able to exert an influence over the rates of survival of salmon while they are at sea; so, aside frorn judicious management of the stocks to provide the maximum sustained yield, efforts directed toward increasing the stocks must be restricted, at least for the time being, to the freshwater staGes of their life cycles in the expectation that increased outputs of fry and smolts will produce substantially r;reater adult returns. The various -3-

known techniques which can be considered for this purpose include: the construction and operation of hatcheries and spawning channels to improve egg-to-fry survival rates; reGulation of stream flows to curtail losses of eggs and fry caused by droughts and floods; alleviation of obstructions to adult migrations to decrease losses stemr.iing from injuries, mortalities, and delays; the construction and operation of rearing facilities for fry produced in hatcheries or spawning channels; transplantation of eggs and/or fry from well- endowed river systems to others where conditions appear to be favourable for augmentation of existing runs or establishment of new ones; implementation of measures to eliminate or control

the losses of salmon fry caused by other species of fish which · prey on, or compete with them; artificial fertilization of those lakes which are currently producing salmon at their full capacity, and thereby increase the available food supply in order that they will be able to support even greater numbers· of rearing salmon; and selective breeding of salmon to develop increased fecundity, greater disease resistances, earlier maturation, larger sizes, and other attributes which would be desirable from an economic viewpoint. Some of these techniques are being employed by the Resource Development Branch in British Columbia, as may be seen from the following review. In 1948, the Resource. Development Branch (formerly, the Fish Culture Development Branch) was reconstituted to include among its major responsibilities the application of stream improvement measures to enhance salmon production, and -4- the development of solutions to the specific fisheries problems posed by industry. To cope with these increased responsibilities in British Columbia a technical staff consistinc of five engineers and three biolocists was established in the Pacific Region headquarters in Vancouver in 1949$ From this relatively modest beginninc; the staff has been expanded incrementally, as required, to meet new challenges; and in 1966 it comprises 23 biologists, 14 engineers, and 43 supporting personnel. During the same period the annual budget of the Branch in the Pacific Region has ris,en from approximately $50, 000 to some $4,000,000. Initially the ac ti vi ties of the Branch were directed primarily toward the alleviation of known salmon.obstructions because fisheries problems posed by industrial developments were then relatively few; the value of hatcheries as a means of improving salmon production in British Columbia was under suspicion; and the value of fishwe.ys as a means of restoring or improving salmon production had been well demonstrated by the success of the Hell's Gate installations. Accordingly, attention was directed toward the use of fishways at obstructions which were known to be limiting salmon production; and an orderly program, based on relative priorities, costs, and other factors, was prepared with a view to completing one major fishway installation each year, commencing with Moricetown Falls on the Bulkley River in 1951. -5-

This program was disrupted subsequently in order that proper attention could be directed toward the many and varied fisheries problems stemming from the industrial boom which occurred in British Columbia in the middle- and late

1950 1 s. Of particular concern were those problems arising from the almost frantic efforts of the hydroelectric power agencies to develop the power potentials of many good salmon­ supporting rivers in order to keep pace with their consumers 9 demands. Many of these proposals ;,have since been deferred or abandoned (e.g. Stamp, Nimpkish, Chilko-Homathko, Clearwater, Nass, Columbia-Fraser, Moran, etc.), but each, at the time of its advancement, had to be regarded as a serious threat to the salmon resource. Accordingly, assessments of industrial proposals, delineation of the fisheries problems they posed, and development of solutions to these problems came to be the major occupation of the Branch during this critical period;< and stream improvement measures, while not being overlooked entirely, had to be deferred until such time as experienced staff came available. By 1960, the Branch had sicnificantly increased its staff and the tempo of industrial expansion, as it affects the salmon resource, had decreased to the point where substantial efforts could be directed towards the improvement of salmon production by application of stream improvement measures. By this time the benefits to be derived from the so-ca.lled artificial spawning channel had been indicated by the Jones Creek development, and the Branch did not overlook its -6~ potential as a possible means of improving salmon production elsewhere. In this connection the Robertson Creek spawning channel was brought into operation in 1961 for the purpose of experimenting with native runs of coho and chinook salmon; and to create suitable conditions for an experimental transplant of pink salmon eggs, looking to the establishment of a self­ perpetuating stock.

At about the same time the Branch was able to direct its attention to the Nanika River, in the headwaters of the

Skeena-Bulkley system where the annual sockeye escapement had suddenly declined from a lonr;-term average of 50:, 000 to only a. few thousand in each year since 1954· Comprehensive surveys and investigations failed to reveal the cause of this decline but· there was no doubt that the application of fish cultural techniques was required, if this valuable stock was to be rehabilitated in the shortest possible time. In this connection, careful consideration was Given to tl1e prospects of employing a spawning channel to receive eyed-egg transplants from other systems, but this was subsequently rejected, principalJy because of the uncertain ties associated with its opera ti on and maintenance under severe winter conditions. Ultimately, a hatchery was constructed near the mouth of the Nanika to accommodate a transplant· of sockeye eggs from 15-Mile Creek in the Babine sys tern in an effort to increase the fry output from the Nanika.

This installation came into full operation in 1962 when it received 11,400,000 eggs, and transplants of the approximately -7- same magnitude have been undertaken in each subsequent year, with the exception of 1965. In 1964, an incubation channel was constructed to receive a relatively small transplant of eyed eggs so that fry produced in this installation could be compared with those from the ha. tchery; as well as to observe the problems associated with the opera ti on of a channel under severe climatic conditions.

In the early 1960's the Branch undertook to develop the fisheries potential of the Big Qualicum River, applying, for the first time on a major scale, the concept that elimination of floods and droughts in a natural river will reduce mortality of developing eggs and fry and result in substantial gains in the annual fisheries production of that river. The Big

Qualicuro project represents the largest single expenditure incurred by the Branch to date, but its expected be·nefits will more than offset its capital cost within a relatively short period of time. The project comprises a darn at the outlet of

Horne Lake (which serves as a storage reservoir), control works, to regulate the rate of outflow frorn the reservoir, a flood channel to convey the excess flows of a major tributary to the sea, and miscellaneous appurtenances. . With these works the flows in the lower eight miles of the river have been regulated since 1963 for the exclusive benefit of salmon production in the natural river.. One spawning channel has already been constructed adjacent to the river and others are being considered, along with improvements to the natural river bed, with a view to -8-

increasing and improving the available spawning area, and hence, the total production from the sys tam. A further application of the spawning channel technique was initiated in 1965 when the Branch, for the first time, constructed a spawning channel for the exclusive use of sockeye salmon. This installation, which is located at Fulton River, a major tributary of Babine Lake, is the first step in a proposed six-year $7, )00, 000 program looking to development of the potential of Babine Lake as a nursery area - this potential being thwarted under natural conditions by the lack of spawning grounds adjacent to the lake. In 1965', also, a spawning channel for the exclusive use of a depleted run of chinook salmon was constructed on the Puntledge River by the British Columbia Hydr6 and Power Authority to resolve one aspect of a ma,j or fi.sh-power problem of long standing; and while this installation is a compensatory· measure, and apparently has no place in a review of salmon development work, it should not be overlooked either because the valuable data and experience it is expected to furnish undoubtedly will be applicable to salmon development work of the future. In this connection it is the first spawning channel. . constructed solely for the benefit of chinook salmon in British Columbia, and the fact that this particular run must hold in the channel for up to three months before spawning affords an excellent opportunity to study not only the holding behaviour of chinook salmon in spawning channels but also the effective­ ness of the channel as a spawning ground for this species. -9-

While spawning channels and flow regulation have

been the major tools which the Branch has employed in recent

years in its salmon development work, the initial program,

involving the alleviation of obstructions, has not been over­

looked. For example, a new-type prefabricated denil fishway

was installed at a falls on the Kakweiken River in 1964 to

provide improved access to extensive upriver spawning grounds,

and to mitigate the delays, injuries, and mortalities which

were being incurred by the several species of salmon native

to this system. Similarly, a contract was awarded in 1965

for the construction of a major fishway and appurtenant works

at Meziadin Falls on the Meziadin River in the Nass system.

This installation, which became operational in June, 1966, was

designed and constructed by the Branch to eliminate the severe

losses sustained in some years by the major sockeye runs to

Meziadin Lake.

Since reformation of the Branch in 1949 the major works constructed in the interests of preserving or increasing salmon production in British Columbia (Table 1) represent a capital

outlay in the order of $5,250,000, exclusive of the substantial

expense associated with biological surveys and assessments, preliminary studies, site investigations, layouts, design, super­ vision or inspection during the construction period, and operation and maintenance. It is not unreasonable to presume that inclusion of these charges would raise the total cost to the order of

$7,500,000; and that conversion to present-day prices would Approx. Capital :tiver Location ImproveMents Completion Year Cost Reason for ~::q:iendl ture

Bulkley !~orice town !"alls Two fishways 1951 80 ,ooo To eli1ninate delays and to r'lltigate losses of soc!-:eye, coho, .9.nrl. chi.nook saL'Tlon as a res'Jlt a:' in.1ur"tes.

Sproat S'l'.lroa t Falls Fishway 1951 To eliminate delays and reduce injuries and loss~s to socl.reve, coho, and chinooh: salrr;(m,

D9.l"I. and fishway 1952 12,000 0arn constructed to prevent saltwater lntl"".J.Sion of sockeye nursery in .3akinaw T.,ake. -:iis~He:~ :Jrovt-ies for passage around daJll. ·-~~~~~~~~+-~~~~~~~~~~--+~~~~~~~~~~~+-~~~~~~~~-+-~~~~~~+-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~----~~~.-~~~--~-~~~~~--~ Babine l:J Miles above Skeena Stream clearance 1Q53 A50,000 To renove the 1951 landslide .that blocked the migration of soc\.i::eye, ccJho, chi nook~ anrl pink salmon. confl·.ience

~Ti:"tpkish !{arrm ts en Falls Ftshway 1953 17,000 To eliminate dela~~s to socke.ve r.tigrati.ons, and to provide i:i:nroved acce~s to U!1Der river.

s ta."lp Stan.p Falls Two fii:Jhways 1955 125,000 ro eli:ninate de~.a:rs, injuries, and '110rtalities incurred by sockeye, coho, and c".lnook Migra.t~on.s. !--~~~~~~~~+-~~~~~~~~~~--+~~~~~~~~~~~+-~~-~~~~~-+-~~~~~~+-~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~--~~~~~~~~~~~--~~--~~~--·----~ r:adjusdis Y.:adjusdis ?alls Fishway 1°55 o,OOJ

Cowichan Skutz Falls Two ftshways 1956 60,000

Haden• Naden !;'alls Two fishways 1957 55 ,000 To provide imPFOVed access at soPJ.e water levela for sockeye a:-i

1961 130,01)0 ~ig~~~~~~:. iMnroved access for. :lnd reduce i.nj·1ries and mortality incurred by coho anrl ~inl< salmon

i----,R~o~b~e~r~t-s_o_n~~~~+-~--~~~~~~~~-+~7S-o-a·-.m-1~·~-~-<-c~h-a_n_n_e~l~~--1-~~~~---,---~~~-----,r--~~~~~-t~T~~--i-d~~~~d--i~~~-d--~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~---~-~~--~-----~~--- ~ 1962 371J,OIJO o nrov e ne~-1 an mpro,;e s;:ia.-..mtn,;:; i;-rounds for chinook and coho salmon~ anrl to cI'eate ~~a~m"lne: grounds for pink salmon transplants.

!3lg Q:ualicu.1Tl ?low and te~nerature 1963 2,000,000 ragulation; 8.nd To improve prod:i-ction of chinook 1 coho, and chi.un salmon in the natural rlv~r by ellninattn.; floods, drou,¥its, and h1£h water ternperatures: anct +o create arJdLtional sriatmlng areas, sna·..:ning charmels

Kakweiken ?alls !'.'i~hway 1964 20,000

1---,t~la-n~i~k-a~~~~~-+~~~~~~~~~~~+-----,,H-a~tc~h~e-'7~-,--~~~~~t-~~~--,-,-~~~-+-~~,---~~~+-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~---~~~~---~~~~~~~~~---~~~--·~--~~-~-~--- 1%4 l')O, 000 incubation channel To a·1:.:;r.ient natural fr;r production by means o:' hatc'.1erv-raised ee;~; transnlants with a v·:ew to rehabilitat:.ni:; tr~e socl-:eye stock. · · ·

!'ulton Spa-..ming c~annel 1965 475,000 To provide addltio!'l.al and in-r-rovert S";JaimLn:;, area for socl:eye salMon as a fir::!t step in a S-ye11.r, 5-millior.. dollar scheme to inrrove the fey 011 t<)'.l t from a tr ea.Ms tri hu tar-y to Babine La;.ce.

Meziadin Meziadin ~alls ~arri.~r dam &­ 1966 751,000 To provide lJ'lrroved access to spawnln~ areas an(l t)1ereb~r rerluce Lni•.1ri.es and mo:-talities incurred by fishway (Estime,te) socke7e mlt=;ra tiona. '

.i;5 251 000

Table I. Summary of major development projects completed by the Resource Development Branch, 1949 - 66. -11-

represent an expenditure in excess of $10,000,000. In addition to these major works the Branch ha.s expended up to $50,000 per year on routine stream clearance projects to remove log jams, small landslides, beaver dams, and other natural obstructions to salmon migration. Turning to the future, it is apparent that the develop­ ment of large blocks of hydroelectric power on the Peace and Columbia Rivers, neither of which supports salmon in Canada, has stemmed the hydroelectric industry's immediate interest in salmon-supporting rivers in other parts of the Province. Wh.ile­ other industries, such as logging, pulp and paper mills, mining developments, and miscellaneous light industries, continue to

present many difficult fisheries problems, the Branch is, never~ theless, in the position where it can continue to assign a sizeable staff to projects which are expected to restore or

increase salmon production. To this end, the Branch is currently pursuing a forecasted development program which calls for annual capital expenditures to prograssi vely increase f'rom approximately $2,000,000 to $4,750,000 by 1971. While subsequent sections of this report describe the details of the forecasted program, and offer some speculation as to the long-range potential of salmon enhancement techniques in British Columbia, it is essential that they be preceded by a thorough review of the various known techniques$ The following section, which constitutes the main body of this report, is intended to fulfill this purpose. -12-

2. SALMON DEVELOPMSNT TECHNIQUES

2.1 HATCHERY PROPAGATION Hatcheries operate on the principle of taking e;::;gs from mature adult fish, incubatinc them under artificial conditlons, and releasing the progeny to the river or lake (or, in some cases, other rivers and lakes) at varying intervals after the egr,s hatch. _In practice, adult salmon, en route to their natural spavrning grounds, are captured and hold to maturity, at which time the females are stripped of their eggs, which are fertilized immediately by milt extruded from the males. The fertilized EF'J~S are then incubated in the hatchery. On hatching, the fFJ may be released immediately, or they may be retained in outdoor rearinE facilities for up to one year. Hatchery propagation of Pacific salmon dates back to the nineteenth century and although the available literature concerning past and present operations is extensive, most of the early material has not been documented; and while it is beyond the scope of this report to conduct an exhaustive study, the following summary outlines the present status of hatchery production of Pacific salmon as defined by available publications and personal communications. 2.1.1 CHINOOK AND COHO SALMON 2.1.1.1 History Hatchery propagation of chinook and coho salmon has been undertaken principally in the States of Washington and -13-

Oregon~ although a small installation was in operation in British Columbia prior to 1938, and a limited program has been initiated recently in California. While the technique was applied for the

first time prior to the advent of the twentieth century 9 assessments of hatchery production have been undertaken only during the last 25 years, and full evaluation studies were initiated only as recently as 1960, so documented results are still quite limitede l1any of these hatcheries were constructed in the popular belief that they represented the answer to declining natural runs, and that they constituted the only known substitute for natural spawning and rearing areas despoiled by industrial development. These early hatchery operations were characterized by large-scale egg-takes, early releases, and indiscriminate transplantations. Moreover, it is now known that many millions of the fish which were released could not be expected to produce substantial adult returns because they were of poor quality as a result of improper diets, poor feeding techniques, inadequate disease-control measures, and a general ignorance of their release requirements. 2.l.le2 Recent Advances The advent of industrialization, and hydroelectric power development in particular, confronted the States of Washington and Oregon with the problem of compensating for the loss of extensive spawning and rearing areas, particularly

those utilized by chinook salmon. With large hatchery programs -14- already in operation, the States looked to combat the problem by increasing the efficiencies of their current hatchery techniques9 As a result, comprehensive studies of all facets of hatchery propagation were implemented9 and while these are still in progress several major advances have already been achieved, as noted in the following: Disease Control Severe disease problems which plagued the early hatchery programs led to the practice of releasing juvenile salmon before a disease decimated the stock. When investigations disclosed that diseases were being transmitted by fish cannery wastes and salmon carcasses, which formed a large part of the hatchery diets, the pasteurization process was introduced to effectively reduce this problem. The development of balanced hatchery diets, which now include an anti-biotic formulation have led to further reductions in nutritional and other diseases. Pathologists and virologists have been attracted to the

st~ffs of F'ederal and State fisheries agencies, and over the past ten years good progress has been made in the development of diagnostic and treatment techniques for the diseases which are known to have caused serious problems. Hatchery staffs are now better qualified in the prevention of disease and the specialists are able to direct some attention to diseases that have caused problems in other countries, but are not yet reported in this country. At least two -15- of these diseases are difficult to diagnose and have no knoim treatment. In an attempt to prevent the introduction of these diseases to North America,, a national disease committee is seeking legislation to effect inspection and certification of imported live eggs and fry.

Nutrition

The nutritionally-balanced "Oregon moist pellet", consisting of 40-percent dry meals and 60-percent wet fish products, is a commercially-manufactured feed which has been in use on a production basis in Oregon hatcheries since 1950, and has since been adopted by most other agencies. Juvenile salmon raised on this diet have demon- strated rapid, uniform growth rates and greater resistances· to diseases.

As a complement to the Oregon moist pellet, a highly- nutritive commercially-manufactured product known as K "Clant' s Food" has been developed as a starting formula, and the combination of these two feeds has been used with notable success in many of the hatcheries. Nevertheless, there is still some controversy among hatchery supervisors with regard to startins formulae. Clarke's food, for example, is not universally accepted in the Northwest, and several hatchery supervisors apparently have good reason to believe that other starting foods show better results.

Studies and observations have provided good information with regard to frequencies of feedings and sizes of food -16-

particles that are required for different size groups of fry. Automatic feeders have been designed that help to standardize this operation. Food costs and quality control still present problems at production hatcheries. Food is the largest cost item in a hatchery operation and those who are not convinced of the value of commercially prepared foods tend to stay with their own formulae which are considerably less expensive. Commercial foods usu9.lly are secret formulations, and there have been suecestions that their ingredients and - quality vary considerably when manufacturers obtain a bargain price on any one of their main ingredients. Release Practices Recent studies have shown that the time of release, as related to the stage of development, is one of the most important factors influencing the survival of hatchery-produced stocks. Current practice in the hatchery propagation of fall chinook salmon calls fol" the release of fry after a 90-day rearing period, at a weight of 90 to the pound~l) This practice is comparable to the natural situation at Big Qualicum River, where recent studies have revealed that many chinook fFJ migrate downstream naturally after a post-emergent stream rearing period of approximately three months. Hatche:r"J propagation of spring chinook salmon has not been as successful as that for the fall chinooks but the -17-

Oregon Fish Commission reports that recent results: a.re encouraging. Coho fry are reared in the hatchery facili tie!s for 12 months prior to their release as yearlings at a weight of 15-20 to the pound.. This size range must coincide with the April and May smoltification characteristics of this species (Personal communication - Hoble, 1966). Since fall chinook juveniles may be released ;after a three-month rearing period it is good economic practice to rear fall chinook and coho salmon in the same facilities·.

I For example, fry rearinc capacities of Washington State I hatcheries are allocated in the proportion of RO percent for chinooks and 20 percent for coho, with all facilities being utilized for the production of coho yearlings after the chinook fry have been released in the spring. Donor Stock The relationship between the donor stock selection · and the success of chinook salmon propagation in hatcheries is neither well documented nor well understood, but the apparent relative success of certain hatcheries, such as the Spring Creel{ and Oxbow installations, is attributed, in part, to the introduction of donor stocks which were amenable to the specific hatchery locations (Personal communication - Zimmer, 196::;). In general, current egg requirements for the Columbia River hatcheries are fulfilled by fish originating from, and returning to, the -18- individual installations. The o~iginal source for all

Columbia River hatcheries stemmed from a transplant, or a series of transplants, and, al though the history of the respective brood stocks is somewhat obscure, it is known that most were obtained from the Spring Creek hatchPry stock which, in turn, was developed from a population native to the Big White Salmon River (Personal communication -

Noble, 1965).

The original chinook salmon broods for each of the

16 hatcheries operated by the Washington State Department of Fisheries outside of the Columbia River watershed. resulted from a transplant from Green River. This, apparently, is basically a natural stock, al though transplants from the Columbia River {probably from Spring Creek) were made many years ago. Cn recent years a high proportion of the egg requirements for the non-Columbia hatcheries has been ta.ken from fish rEiturning to Green River, and, in 1966, the State plans to fulfill all these requirements from this souPce. If the chinook salmon re turns to these ha tche rie s exceed the hatchery requirements, surplus stocks. will be permitted to spawn naturally, in accordar.ce with a policy which apparently has been followed since inception of the hatchery program.

Donor stocks for hatchery propagation of coho salmon are usually taken from populations which. are indigenous to the respective hatchery streams, al though studies -19-

undertaken in Washington State suggest that any stock which is indigenous to the general region will suffice (Personal communication - Noble, 1966)& 2.1.1.3 Current Program On the Pacific Coast, there are currently 56 hatcheries of which 44 are devoted to the production of chinook and coho salmon. All of these produce coho, and, with one exception, fall chinooks, while only 16 include spring chinooks in their programs. Washington State currently operates 24 chinook and coho salmon hatcheries, nine of which are located in the Columbia River watershed. Of the 63 million chinook juveniles which were released from these installations in 1964, 62 milli6n were fall chinooks, 75 percent of which were fingerlings. Twenty-one million coho juveniles were released in 1964, of which 16 million were yearlings.( 2 )

The releases from the four hatcheries operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on the Washington State side of the colurnbia River are discussed in·the following section covering Oregon State releases. Three agencies operate hatcheries in Oregon State: the Oregon Fish Commission operates 16 salmon hatcheries at various locations throughout the State; the Oregon Game Commission incubates salmon eggs in four of its hatcheries; and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service operates four hatcheries on the Oregon side of the Columbia River. The 1964 releases -20-

of juveniles at these installations, together with the four U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service hatcheries on the Washington side, were comprised of 70 million fall chinooks, seven million spring chinooks, and 26 million coho. The above data for spring chinook and coho releases in 1964 were not available and have been estimated on the basis of the 1962 and 1963 figl.ires (unpublished data). The four hatcheries operated by the California Department of Fish and Game play only a minor role in "the hatchery production of salmon on the Pacific Coast, releasing 12 million chinook salmon juveniles ln 1963, but only three million in 1964, all but a few hundred of which were fingerlings. Releases from Pacific Coast hatcheries during the 1957-64 period are summarized by species in Table 2. Age compositions for these annual releases are not available for the whole period, but fall chinooks are generally released as fingerlings, while spring chinooks and coho are released as yearlings. TABLE 2. RELEASES OF SALMON, IN MILLIONS, FROM PACIFIC COAST HATCHERIES IN 1957-6~. Year Fall Chinook Spring Chinook Coho

1957 lJO 7 27 1958 121 7 40 19.59 184 6 27 1960 204 8 20 1961 139 7 ~-5 1962 151 12 65 1963 123 20 60 196!± 135 14 .56 -21-

A text prepared by the Washington State Department of

Fisheries, Fisheries Vol. II (1959), places coastwide capital expenditures for hatchery structures and equipment at 18 million dollars, and operational costs at slightly more than two million dollars per yeare As no date was cited in the publication it is not known how many hatcheries were then in operation, or when the costs were compiled; nor was there any breakdown of the operating costs.

2.1.1.4 Present Status of Hatchery Production

Columbia River Chinook Salmon Hatchery Evaluation Program

Virtually all of the early hatchery programs failed to conduct adequate evaluation studies. Currently, however, a major program, initiated in 1961, is underway to. evaluate the effectiveness of twelve major hatcheries in the Columbia

River watershed. Pending the results of this program, which is expected to be completed in 1969, the United States

Government has placed a moratorium on federal expenditures for hatchery development on the Columbia River system.

Some preliminary results of this program are now available for the broods of 1961 and 1962 from which chinook fry releases were 50.5- and )2.0 million, respectively.

Ten percent of these fry releases were marked by fin-clipping in both years so that they would be readily identifiable at a later date. In this connection, preliminary findings for 1964, as furnished by the Fisheries Research Board of

Canada, which is participating in the evaluation program are set forth in Table 3. -22-

TABLE 3. CHINOOK SALMON CATCHES IN 1964, AND TH3 ii:STIMAT-:::D CONTRIBUTIONS OF TH:C EVALUATIOH PROGRAH HATCHBRIES.

Total Chinook :'.!-;s tima ted Contribution of Chinooks from gvaluation Program Hatcheries Catch Number Percentage

British Columbia 667, 63L~ 55,949 8.38 Troll Fishery

Washington Ocean 162,693 46,035 28.30 Troll Fishery 4 Rr:'2 Oregon Ocean 68,472 ' -- _) 7.09 Troll Fishery Columbia River 169,930 28,136 16.55 Gillnet Fishery

1,068,729 134,972· 12.63

Comparable data from the commercial fisheries in Ala.ska

and California, and from the various coastal sport fisheries

are not yet available, but there are some indications that

sicnificant numbers of hatchery-marked fish have been taken in

these fisheries.

It should be noted that the for8going computed results may be high inasmuch as the:r are basod on "possibly valid", a.s

well as "valid" ha tche r'-J narks.. On the other hand, any inaccuracy

stemming from this source might be offset by the fact that no

adjustment has been made for differential mortality rates,

caused by the marking program, which would tend to make the

estimates too low. In this connection, there are indications

that differential marking mortality could have caused an estimating error in the order of 50 percent. If this is so, -23- it could be that the 1961 hatchery-brood releases contributed some 270,000 age-3 fish to the 1964 commercial fisheryo 'While

it must be stressed that these figures are tentative 9 it is interesting to note that if they are, in fact, valid the

British Columbia portion of the total ca. tch was in t•1e order of 110,000. It should be noted that the foregoing estimates do not constitute the entire contribution of the Columbia River hatchery system to the commercial catch of 1964 because no allowance has been made for the substantial numbers of age-4 fish contributed by the hatchery releases stemming from the 1960 brood stocke The hatcher:r contribution to the 196S' catch has not yet been computed but the recoveries of valid and possibly valid marks, up to July 10, 1965, are presented in Table 4.

TABLE 4. NUMB"CRS OF VALID AHD POSSIBLY VALID HATCHERY-HARKED FISH REPORTED IH THE 1965 CATCH UP TO JULY 10. Brood 1961 1962 1963 Tottl

Alaska Troll Fishery l l

B. c. Troll Fishery 667 321 1 989

B. c. Ocean Gillnet =~·ishery (Narnu & Central B. C.) 1 l Washington Troll Fishery 158 291 449 Washington Sport Fishery 86 95 12 193 Oregon Troll Fishery 12 24 36 Oregon Sport Fishery 7 1 13 California Troll Fishery 1 l

932 737 14 1683 -24-

It is interesting to note tl1at althoui::;h approximately equal numbers of the releases from the 1961 and 19~2 broods were marked, the former were more prevalent in the 19~5 catch, despite their depletion by the 19~1+ catch and escapement. The percentage of 1962-brood chinooks which returned to the hatcheries as two-year-olds was considerably less than 20 percent of that recorded the preceding year for the 1961 brood. Similarly, the data accumulated to date indicate the number of three-year-old returns from the i9r-:i2 brood was less ·than 40 percent of th::lt from the 19'.Sl brood. It must be recognized, therefore, that if no major change occurred with respect to the age of return, the rate of survival of the progeny of the 1962 brood was much .lower than that of the 1961 brood. There are however indications of a good return of the 1963 brood as shown by the presence of a relatively large number of marked two-year-old fish in the 196.5 catch. Al though an economic evaluation of the Columbia River chinook salmon hatchery program is not yet feasible because of the incomplete returns~ some preliminary inferences may be drawn from the returns of 2-, 3- and 4-year_ old fall chinooks from the 1961 brood. In this connection, it is estimated that the 1961 brood from the twelve hatcheries contributed 199,920 fall chinooks which were worth $1,JrS5,000, based on values of $.52/lb for troll-caught fish, $.35/lb for gillnet-caught fish, and $8.87 per sport-caught fish. Operating and maintenance cost of the hatcheries during the production -25-

year was approximately :!;3:)0,000. While the estimated

contribution to the fisheries would have been considP-rably

higher if allowance had been made for a marking mortality of

30 to 50 percent, so, too, would the production costs, if the amortization costs of the installations and equipment had been

added. Final analysis of the procram will include a. proper

economic evaluation based on four brood years (Personal

communication - Zimmer, 1966). These pre limina:F'J calculations

based on only one brood year show that sicnificant numbers of

adult fish are being produced by these hatcheries, and that

the hatchery-produced chinook salmon have comprised major

segments of the catches in certain areas.

Evaluation of the Washington State Chinook and Coho Hatchery Program

Defore the Columbia River hatchery evaluation program

was initiated, the Washington State Department of Fisheries prepared a synopsis of experiments conducted at State-operated hatcheries in an effort to determine their contribution to the

fisheries. ( 3)

On the basis of several of these studies, the minimum

average survival rate from the time of hatchery release until the adult return has been computed at 0.1 and 0.55 percent for

chinook and coho salmon, respectively (Personal communication -

Noble, 1965)e Other computations have likewise indicated that

the average catch-to-escapement ratios for chinook and coho

salmon were 4:1 and 3:1, respectively. The results of these two sets of studies suggest that the average combined rates -26- of ~urvival (catch plus escapement) are 0.)0 percent for fall chinooks, and 2.20 percent for coho. Application of these computed survival rates to the 45. ~ million fall chinook fingerlings and 15. 9 million coho yearlings which were released from Wa.shine;ton State Department of Fisheries hatcheries in 1964 indicates that the theoretical adult returns will be in the order of 227,500 chinoolrn and 349, 800 coho. Tre significance of the.se figures is, perhaps, more evident when they are presented in terms of production and costs for a single hatchery, as may be seen. from the following figures which have been obtained by personal communication (Noble, 1966).

1. The capital cost of a hatchery capable of incubating and rearing two million fall chinoo1c fry was :t250, 000 in 1958 (approximately $400_, 000 at 1966 prices). Such an installation, which is relatively small by present standards, would also be capable of producing an additional 800, 000 coho smolts. 2. The present operating cost of a hatchery of this

size is approximately *50,000 per year. 3. The annual adult returns to the hatchery, based on

the 0.1 and 0.55 rates. of return, '"rould be in the· order of 2,000 chinook and 4,400 coho salmon. 4. The contributions to the commercial and sport -21-

fisheries, using the 4:1 and 3:1 catch-escapement ratios, would be 8,ooo chinook and 13,200 coho salmon, with approximate commercial values of $40, 000 for chinook ($5. 00 per fish), and $31, 600 for coho ($2.40 per fish), for a combined total of *71,600 per year. It should be noted that this calculation makes no allowance for the higher valuation of sport-caught fish. Recently, representatives of the Washington State Department of Fisheries indicated that the operating costs for the 24 State-operated hatcheries, including s'ix on the Columbia River, are in the ordAr of $1,000,000 annually, as against their estimated benefits to the fisheries of approximately $3,000,000 per year (Personal communication - Noble, 1965). Furthermore, undocumented studies suggest that these benefits might actually be considerably greater inasmuch as a high proportion of the Puget Sound sport catch is comprised of these hatchery-produced chinook salmon. In conclusion, it must be recognized that any assess­ ment of the overall production of State-operated hatcheries on the basis of the foregoing estimated rates of survival and exploitation can be regarded as an approximation only, inasmuch as these rates have been derived from extremely variable recovery data accumulated from many locations during a lengthy period., Moreover, it. is to be noted that the assessments undertaken to date by Washington State have been based, in general, on the numerical returns to the hatchery streams, while the contri- -28-

butions to the fishery have been estimated by applying a blanket catch-to-escapement ratio to those returns. This approach is not

as comprehensive as that employed in the Columbia River hatchery

evaluation program, so its reliability undoubtedly will be reduced accordingly.

Recent Increase in Coho Production by Columbia River Hatcheries

As indicated in the 1965 Status Report of the Columbia River Commercial Fisheries (Oregon Fish Commission and Washington

State Department of Fisheries, January, 1966), the returns of ·coho salmon to the Columbia River increased markedly in 1964

and 1965, and this has been attributed primarily to hatchery production. The following is a brief description of the recent ·

trends. in catch and escapement:

- The 250,000 coho harvested by the sport fishery at

the mouth of the Columbia River i.n 1965 ·is the best

catch on record, and is well above the 134,000 taken " in 1964. - The 1965 comn1ercial troll landings for the States of Oregon and Washington totalled 4.5 million pounds and 7.5 million pounds, respectively, each of which constitutes the best catch since 1935· Recoveries of a large number of marked coho indicate: that the

Oolumbia River hatcheries made a substantial contri­

bution toward thes.e improved catches.

- The 1965 gillnet fishery in the Columbia River caught

235,000 coho salmon, totalling 1.87 million pounds, and -29-

while the catch is down slightly from the le94 million pounds taken in 1964, it is approximately triple the 0.53-million-pound annual average of the preceding ten years. - Returns to fourteen Columbia River hatcheries totalled 207,000 coho in 1965 as compared with 226,000 in 1964,

66, 000 in 1963, and 96, 000 in 1962.. Furthermore, record

numbers of coho salmon were counted over Bonneville (?6,032) and The Dalles (17,664) dams in 1965. - In contrast to the excellent returns of hatchery stocks, limited counts of the wild stocks returning to the Columbia system in 196.5 indicated that escapements were well below average. 2.1.2 SOCKEYE SALMON The only known large-scale hatchery program for propagation of sockeye salmon is that which was initiated in British Columbia prior to the turn of the century. The history of this program has been summarized by Foerster. (4) The first sockeye hatchery was established on the Fraser River in 1894, and the number of such installations increased thereafter until; during the period 1921-32, there were ten hatcheries operating in British Columbia, with an average annual collection of approximately 85 million eggsg When considerable doubt was expressed with regard to the effectiveness of these hatcheries, a scientific study· of the relative efficiencies of natural and artificial -30-

propagation of sockeye salmon was ini tia.ted in 1925 at Cul tus Lake, B. c. (S) This study was based on tests of: (1) natural propagation; (2) artificial propagation (hatchery) with

liberation of fry; and (3) artificial propagation with planting

of "eyed" eggs.

In each study year, the egg contents of the entire

population were incubated by one of these three techniques,

and the. efficiencies· of each were determined by relating the

numbers of' seaward-migrating smol ts to the poteI) ti al egg deposition of the parent stock. By 1939, when the study was

discontinued, the following efficiencies, expressed as

percent~ges, had been recorded:

Natural propagation 1.13, 1.05, 3.16 average - 1.78

Hatchery fry liberation 3. 93, 2.38, 1. 71 average - 2.67 Egg planting 0.95, 3.55 average - 2.25 In the light of these figures it was concluded that

in an area such as Cul tus La1ce there was so little difference

between the three propagation techniques that the artificial

ones were neither necessary nor warranted.

It was further pointed out by Foerster that the

average annual egg collections at all of the British Columbia

_ sockeye hatcheries probably represented only about three percen t o f th. e egg capaci. t y o. f t h.e spawning. runs. (4) As a

result of these conclusions all Pacific salmon hatcheries in

Canada were closed in 1935· Recent attempts to propagate sockeye salmon in -31-

British Columbia hatcheries have been largely of an experimental nature. In 1960, the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission established a 3-4 million-egg-:-capacity hatchery on the Pitt River to supplement natural production of sockeye fry in this SJstem. For three years, the respective egg takes were incubated to the emergent-fry stage, and egg-to-fry survivals were generally high (77-92 percent). The fry were not fed prior to th~ir release but they were placed in release troughs from which they could emigrate freely. The hatchery fry; however, were considered to be of inferior quality, as evidenced by the following comments publ.ished in the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission Annual Report ·for 1962. "A physiological and biochemical comparison of the ·fry produced in the hatchery and the fry produced naturally in Pitt River revealed sotne startling differences, all of them indicating that the hatchery fry were significantly inferior. These adverse

differences in the hatchery occurred in spite of incubation in darkness as is the case with naturally 3pawned eggs. Exploratory experiments at the Sweltz¢r Creek Experimental Station into. the. cause or causes of

differences in hatchery and naturally produced soclreye fry in di ca te strongly that a modern hatchery is incapable

of producing a 'normal' fry regardless of how that hatchery may be currently operated." Since 1963, sockeye eggs have been incubated in the -32-

Pitt River hatchery to the "eyed" stage, before being planted in the gravel of an experimental incubation area associated with the hatchery.

In 1960, the Department of Fisheries of Canada constructed a hatchery near the mouth of the Nanika River, in the Morice-Bulkley Ri.ver·system, as ·an emergency measure to accelerate the rehabilitation of the once-valuable sockeye runs which had declined drastically in all years after 1954· The eggs for this prcigram were obtained from 1,5-Mile (Pinkut) Creek, a tributary of Babine Lake, and flown to the hatchery, which could accommodate 12-13 million eggs in its "Heath" vertical-stack incubBLtors. When the eggs developed to the emergent- or near-emergent stage they were transfe.rred to release tanks, having upwelling currents and surface outlets, from which the fry could emigrate freely to the stream during the hours of darkness. Egg-to-fry survival rates during the four years o·f operation were within the range of 55-76 percent, but the hatchery-produced fry, which weighed 17-33 percent less than the naturally-produced migrants in the donor stream, were apparently of inferior quality. Supplemental feeding programs were not employed at the Nanika River hatchery. ·In 1965, _the hatchery operation was discontinued but the facilities were employed to incubate, to the eyed stage, sockeye eggs which were then planted in the gravel of a newly constructed experimental incubation channele -33-

The first significant adult returns from the hatchery operation are not due until 1966 or 1967, so the contributions of this transplant program are still largely unassessed. On the other hand, juvenile assessment studies have indicated that the hatchery program has not produced a measurable increase in the abundance of sockeye smol ts. An experimental sockeye hatchery was constructed by the Fis.heries Research Board of Canada in 1961 on the Skeena River system at Scully Creek, Lakelse Lake, to determine · the causes underlying high mortality of hatchery-raised fey following their release, and to develop counter-measures. Burrows-type vertical-stack incubators with a capacity of 10-15 million sockeye eggs are employed at this. installation. Early assessment studies undertaken during the lake-resident period have been inconclusive, and a final assessment based on adult production awaits the returns from the ocean. Andrew and Geen report that the four-year-old returns from 302,000 eggs taken from the 1949 native Horsefly River sockeye run and reared in a hatchery to the fingerling stage had a survival rate of only 0.13 percent, as compared with 0.55 percent for the major segment of the run which was (6) allowed to spawn naturally. ·The report of the Second Governors Conference on Pacific Salmon (1963) notes that four United States hatcher.ies which propagate sockeye salmon release only some 3 million fingerlings each year. In the same report, Tuttle states -34-

that the Leavenworth National Fish ::Ja tche ry is the only

installation in the United States with a sizeable rearing

·program for sockeye salmon. At Leavenworth, fry are

transferred from the trays to lm tchery troughs, for feeding,

when they reach the free-swimming stage with yolJ{ sacs well

absorbed, and, in early April, they are transferred to outside rearing ponds where they are fed until they are released in

October. Evaluation of the.Leavenworth program by means ·of a mark-and-recovery technique is now underway, but is

not yet complete. This program involved the markinc of one

million sockeye per year (one-third of the tota.l output) for

four years, and sarnplint~ of at least 50 percent. of the adult run (catch plus escapement) for marks. The resul.ts to date

show that $1600 worth of sockeye were produced at an operating cost of $75, 000. As a result, sockeye production at this hatchery has been discontinued and it wiil now be used.for the p1•opagation of coho (Personal communication - Zimmer, 1966). Other information on the returns to be expected from hatchery-incubated sockeye contradicts the above results in that an adult survival rate of 0.5 percent was reported for fingerlings and yearlings released in Washington in 1957~(7) Despite this apparent good survival it must be concluded.

that attempts to raise sockeye salmon in hatcheries have resulted in adult returns below, or, at best, equal to the returns from natural propagation, regardless of whether or -35- not supplemental feeding was employed.

2.1.3 CHUM AND PINK SALMON Large-scale hatchery propagation of chum and pink salmon has been undertaken only in Japan and the Soviet Union. Reporting on Russian hatcheries, Cherniavskaia, (S) 1959, notes that the artificial propagation of chum, pink, and masu salmon on Sakhalin and the Kurile Islands is carried on by 24 fish-cultural stations, which made fr'-J releases, in 1955-59, as shown in Table 5. TABLE 5. HELEASES OF MASU, PINE, AND CHUM SALMON, IN MILLIONS, - FROM SOVIBT HATCHERIES ON SAKHALIN AND THE KURILE ISLANDS, 1955-58.

Year Masu Pink Chum Total

1955 4.4 40.0 90.8 135 .. 5 1956 5.0 82.0 92.4 179.;4 1957 7.3 110.6 79.6 197.5 1958 2.6 81.7 167.5 251;8

Accordihg to the Sakhalin Division of TINRO (Pacific Research Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography), the rate of return of salmon released from hatcheries around

Sakhalin has varied, over a period of years, from 0.9 to 5.5 percent of the actual number released, the average being 2.0-2.5 percent. Table 6 sets forth fry-to .... adult survival rates of chum and pink salmon incubated in several hatcheries in the u.s.s.R. -36-

TABLE 6. FRY-TO-ADULT SURVIVAL RATES REPORTED FOR PINK AND CHUM SALMOH INCUBATED IN HATCHERIES IN THE u.s.s.R.

Survival Rate (~) Location Species 1957 1958

Tako River Autumn Chums (two hatcheries) Pinks

Yasnomorka River (one hatchery) Autumn Chums o.o

Zavetinka River (one hatchery) Autumn Chums 5.1 Kalinimka River (one hatchery) Autumn Chums

At the present time there is no natural spawning in

these four rivers, so all returnine; adults must have stemmed

from the hatchery releases. Ac.cordingly, it has been possible·

to' determine accurately the rates of return for salmon released

from these hatcheries, and these. figures are used by TINRO

as a measure of the effectiveness of the entire hatchery

system.

One transplant of pink salmon eggs, reported by 3 Ch• ern1avsKa1a, . . 1 • ( ) commence d.. · in . 19r:':J'.J J. wi1en\ eggs were trans f· erre d

from the east coast of Sakhalin to the J{alininsk hatchery, on

the west coast of South Sakhalin for acclimatization. The

. 1958 adult return is reported to have represented ·9.6 p0rcent

of the number of fry released.

The proportions of ha tcher;r-propaga ted pinks and churns

taken in the South Sakhalin fishery have increased in recent -37- years. In this connection, hatchery-propa:_:ated autumn chum salmon and pink salmon comprised, respectively, 62. 8 percent and 0.6 percent of the catch during the 1924-52 period, whereas, in 1957 and 1958, 80-85 percent of' the chum salmon, and 10 percent of the pink salmon, were of hatchery origin. The magnitude of this catch may be judced by reports that a fishery operating in the vicinity of the five hatcheries took approximately 1.5 million pounds of autumn chum salmon. Cherniavskaia outlined a seven-year plan for artificial propagation of chum and pink salmon durine the period 1959-65, looking to produce an additional 30,000 metric tons per year. He called for the construction of new hatcheries and expansions of existing ones to develop a capacity of 600 million juvenile salmon. He also suggested that, commencing in 1959, the hatcheries should start to feed large numbers of young fish in tlne expectation that higher rates of return would result. While Cherniavskaia does not describe hatchery techniques, it would appear that the feeding of hatchery fry was not practiced prior to 1959. The following information concerning salmon hatcheries in Japan has been extracted from notes prepared by P. c. Withler of the Flsheries Research Board of Canada during his visit to Hokkaido, Japan, in October, 1964. Approximately 40 salmon hatcheries on the Island of Hokkaido take about 400,000,000 chum salmon eggs and 20,000,000 pink salmon eggs annually. -38-

Although well-documented data are not available it has been estimated that 60 percent of the total escapement of both species are stripped' for hatchery propagation while the remainder spawn naturally, or are taken by poachers (a very serious problem in Japan). Two hatchery incubation techniques were described:

(1) Eggs are incubated in shallow 12-inch square trays, each having a capacity of 2500 eggs, which are stacked in troughs, so that water flows directly between them; and (2) The newer hatcheries use 3urrows-type vertical-stack incubators with 10, 000-egg-capaci ty trays stacked te.n-high. After hatching, the younr; chum salmon are transferred to large gravel-bottomed outdoor feeding ponds from which they apparently are allowed to emigrate freely. Pink salmon fry are not fed becauset unlike chum salmon 9 they apparently do not remain in the ponds to feedo As an example of the feeding techniques employed in Japant chum fry at Sa tsunai hatchery are fed for· six weeks, initially on "Alaska. pollock" eggs, and subsequently on a mixture of pollack eggs, fish flesh1 meat vitamins, and minerals .. A rather unique rearing method is employed at Abashiri hatchery where chum fry are retained in Burrows-type incubators, with a total capacity of 20g000g000 eggs, until their yolk sacs are absorbed. The fry are then released, unfed, into a lagoon opening onto Lake Abashiri, where they remain in the lake -39- for up to three months before migrating to sea, at which time they are 5-6 cm long. The survival rate up to the time of the fry release has been reported at 80 percente Tests of'hatchery success, which were underway at the time of Withler's visit, involved the marking of fry releases from the hatcheries for subsequent. recovery in the coastal fishery and at the hatchery trapping sites. 'While large numbers were being recovered at that time, no attempt was being made to mark wild stocks for comparison with hatchery stocks. . ( 1) The report of the Second Governors. Conference states that the 11 hatcheries which propagate chum salmon in the United States release 13 million fingerlings in an average year, while the only two hatcheries for pink salmon release in the order of 1.4 million fingerlings per year. Attempts to incubate chum and pink salmon in North American hatcheries, without supplemental feeding, have been generally unsuccessful, althou~h the Washington State Department of Fisheries achieved some success when fry were fed for a short time prior to their release. In Washington State, current practice calls for hatchery-.incubated pinks and chums to be transferred to saltwater rearing ponds for feeding. Fingerling-to-adult survival rates for pinks and chums reared in saltwater ponds, as reported by the Washington State Department of Fisheries, are shown in Table 7.<7) TABLE 7. FINGERLING-TO-ADULT SURVIVAL RATES FOR PINKS AND CHUMS REARED IN SALTWATER PONDS IN WASHINGTON STATE.

Minimum Average Survival Species Maximum MinimUI'l Rate for Unmarked Fish from Frv to Adult

Pink (Fingerlings­ Local Stock (Odd year) I -:1-2. 2% Hood Canal ->1-2. Hood· Canal -r=- Sal twater reared) 2% 0 1955 1955 I Imported Stock (Even year).·· l.~ Hood Canal • 82% Hood Canal 195'2 1954

Chum Salmon ~~.3% Samich River -i1-.391& Samich River· .l~ (Fingerlings- 1949 1949 Sal twater reared) ii- The maximum and the minimum values are the same because there was only one experimental lot of fish for each of t:1ese particular categories. -41-

The Washington State Department also reports in the same reference production data for 1957 and 1958 as shown in Table 8. TABLE 8. PRODUCTION DATA FOR HATCHERY-PRODUCED CHUMS AND PINKS IN WASHINGTON STATE HATCHERIES, 1957-58. Total Production No. of Fish 1957 - chums 399,880 x 0.3% Total production of chum 1,200 *Less - Seed Stock 400 Net production 800 1958 - chums 4,478,010 x 0.3% Net production of chum 13,434 -i~Less - Seed Stock 3,876 Net production 9,558 1958 - pinks 684,233 x 1.2% Total production of pinks 8,211 *Less - Seed Stock y.,312 Net production 3,899 * "Seed Stock" represents that number of fish necessary to · produce the spawn needed to effect the plantings as made.

The only British Columbia pink salmon hatchery has been that which was operated by the Fisheries Research Board of Canada at Kleanza Creek on the Skeena River sys tam. Here, Burrows-type vertical-stack incubators and fry-release tanks were used, and the fry, which were not fed, were released at the "swim:..up" stage. Hatchery releases in the years 1957-59 inclusive produced poor adult returns, with fry-to-adult survival rates being much lower than the average which occurred under natural conditions. -42-

The fact that Asian chum salmon apparently feed in

fresh water for a short period before migrating to seag whereas the North American stocks generally migrate directly to sea,

is a major behavioural difference which should be s tu di eel

as this may. account for the apparent success of the chum

salmon feeding program under way in Japan, while North

American attempts at freshwater feeding of chum salmon have

apparently not been successful.

Available information concerning the status of ·artificial propagation of pink and chum salmon can be summarized as follows:

Fry-to-adult survival rates, as reported for two years of operations at five hatcheries in the u.s.s.R. clearly suggest that hatchery propagation of pink

and chum salmon has been successful. It is· felt,

however, that the available information is too sparse

to permit a sound assessment. Apparently, chum and pink salmon production in Japan must rely heavily on hatchery

propagation but documented evaiuation data and operating

costs are not available. Attempts to propagate pink and chum salmon in North

American hatcheries have been largely unsuccessful,

and currently efforts are restricted to a small scale

as an incidental feature of the \."Tashington State

hatchery program. In this connection, the total numbers

of fry produced are relatively small, and hatchery -43-

outputs are apparently determined by the requirements of the fish farm program.

2.1.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 2.1.4.1 Chinook and Coho Salmon While documented information concerning the production from the vario.us hatcheries in the Pacific Northwest is still quite limited, there is little doubt that significant numbers of chinook and coho salmon are now being produced by these installations. Unfortunately, the Columbia River chinook salmon hatchery evaluation procram, which is now underway, is the only comprehensive assessment of hatchery operations yet attempted, and, since it is scheduled to continue until 1969, a complete report on the findings will not be available until at least 1971, although interim reports will undoubtedly be available as the study pro[;resses. The surprisingly high adult re turns from the 1961- brood-year chinook releases are the most encouraging results ever achieved by a hatche~f program for this species. On the other hand, a preliminary assessment suggests that production from the 1962 brood will be less than half that calculated for 1961 {Personal communication - Godfrey, 1965). At the present time, however, cost-benefit ratios for even the 1961 brood cannot be computed inasmuch as catch data are limited to the age-2 and age-3 contributions of the brood, and specific information with respect to the cost of the hatchery system is not available. -44-

Although hatchery production of coho salmon in the Columbia River system is not well documented, the 1964 and 1965 returns were exceptionally high, and this improvement +he~ has been attributed largely tovsuccess of hatchery operations~

Despite the indication that th~ survival figures obtained by the Washington State Department of Fisheries may not be as accurate or comprehensive as those expected from the Columbia River hatchery evaluation program, the personnel of that agency (Personal communication - Noble, 1965) feel · that their figures tend to be minimal. If this is so, the results certainly are encouraging. e Turning to the possibilities for hafhery propagation of chinook and coho salmon in British Columbia, . it· would seem · that implementation of such a program at the present time would be premature in view of the imminence of the results of the evaluation studies under way in the United States, and the near-certainty that these will point out. certain pitfalls which might not otherwise be avoided. This is not to say,· however, that a decision concerning the possible implemen- ta ti on of a hatchery program in British Columbia should be arbitrarily deferred until 1970 or 1971. On the contrary, the progress of the evaluation studies in the United States should be ·followed very closely so that full consideration may be given to the advisability of implementing a chinook and coho hatchery program in British Columbia at such time 5 as the economic feasibility of the American installatio» has -45-

been established with reasonable certaintye It should be pointed out that a hatchery program for the propagation of chinook and coho salmon in British Columbia would have to be undertaken on a large scale in order

to effect noticeable increases in the present stocks.. In this connection, it has already been noted that a $400,000 hatchery, costing $50,000 per year to operate, could contribute 8,000

adult chinooks and 13 9 000 coho to the commercial and sport fisheries; but these increases represent approximately only one percent and less than 0.4 percent of the respective annual harvests of chinook and coho salmon in British Columbiae Accordingly, it would seem that if a hatchery program is to be implemented in this Province the initial efforts, at least,· should be on a modest scale, and these probably should be directed toward increasing adult returns in specific areas where sport fishing predominates inasmuch as the benefit-cost ratios would be more favourable because of the higher valuations which are usually applied to sport-caught fish. 2 .. 1.4.2 Sockeye Salmon In general, hatchery releases of sockeye fry into natural rearing areas have resulted in adult returns below,

or1 at best, equal to the returns from natural propagation regardless of whether or not the hatcheries provided supplemental

feed.. 'While the egg-to-fry survival rate~ for hatchery­ propagated sockeye have been generally high, the fry apparently have been of inferior quality and their freshwater survival rates have been very low. Hatchery propagation, with -46-

feeding to the fingerling stage, might result in improved

production but the value of this technique has not yet been weli

documented. In the light of these findings, it would appear that

the prospects for hatchery propagation of sockeye salmon in

British Columbia are not encouraging at this time ..

It should be pointed out, however, that the soclceye

salmon hatchery propagation results cited in the foregoing were

obtained prior to the recent advances made in chinook and coho

culture, and some of these advances may be applicable as well tq

sockeye cul tu re. Moreover, the priority and magnitude of the

chinook salmon culture program appears to have pre-empted much

of the research which mi[~ht otherwise have been directed toward

sockeye culture. It should be noted also that many of the

apparent failures in sockeye culture occurred during a period

when failures were also prevalent in the culture of other species ..

Accordingly, it may be thn. t the current pessimism with regard t'o

the potential of hatcheries for production of sockeye is not

entirely warranted~

2.1.4.3 Pink and Churn Salmon Hatchery propagation of pink and chum salmon on a larrre scale is being undertaken only in the u.s.s.R. and Japan, and _ while data concerning these operations are extremely limited it

would appear that they are relatively successful. Hatchery

propagation of pink and chum salmon in North America has shown

such a limited degree of success that implementation of a hatchery program for the propagation of these species could not be

justified at this time. -47-

2.1.5 REFERENCES (1) Report of the Second Governors Conference on Pacific Salmon, Washinc;ton State Department of Fisheries" 1963. (2) Annual Reports, Washington State Fisheries Departmento (3) Ellis, c. H. and R. E. Noble. 1959. Calculated Minimum Contribution of Washington's Hatchery Releases to the Catch of Salmon on the Pacific Coast and the Costs Assessable to Hatchery Operations, Vol. 2, No. 2, Washington Department of Fisheries.

0.i.) Foerster, H. E. 1954· A Study of the Relative Merits of Natural and Artificial Propagation of Sock:eye Salmon in British Columbia. The Prog. Fish Cult., Vol. 16, No. 2. (5)· Foerster, R. E. 19)6. Sockeye Salmon Propagation in British Columbia. The Biological Board of Canada, Bulletin lTo. LIII.

(6) Andrew, P. J. and G. H. Geen. 1960. Sockeye and Pink Salmon Production in Relation to Proposed Dams in the Fraser River System, International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, Bulletin- XI.

(7) Fishel:'ies Vol. III. 1960. Washington Department of Fisheries.

(8) Cherniavsl~aia, I. K. 1960. The Effectiveness of the Work of J?ish Cultural Establishments in the Sakhalin Region, 1959. F.R.B.C. Translation Series No. 27le Preliminary translation by W. E. Ricker. -48-

2.2 SPAWNING CHANNELS AND FLOW CONTROL.

2.2.l INTRODUCTION

Spawning channels and controlled-flow streams, like

··.,_ hatcheries, are techniques which are designed to alleviate many

of the environmental hazards to which salmon are exposed in

their natural streams. By pro vi dine; favoura.b le depths,

velocities, gravel porosities, controlled flows, and efficient

usage of water, a spawning channel constitutes a compromise

between a natural environment and the extreme artificiality

·of a hatchery. It is this concept which provides grounds for

optimism with regard to the future of the technique. In this

connection, it is anticipated that the high :rates of"production

achieved by some hatcheries can be approached or equalled by

spawning channels without incurring the loss in fry quality

·which is commonly attributed to· the hatchery environment.

This concept was explored in 1950 by the Fisheries Research

Board of Canada at Nile Creek, British Columbia, where.it was

. cl~arly demonstrated that implementation of flow control measures can significantly increase fry survival rates. (l)

The first opportunity for application of this concep1;_

occurred in the early 1950 1 s when the Department of Fisheries

of Canada was confronted with the problem of maintaining a

pink salmon run to Jones Creek, in the lower Fraser Valley,

which was then being threatened with extinction by the

imminent construction of a hydroelectric development. After -49- investigating all possible alternatives, including a hatchery and a schedule of minimum flows in the natural river, the Department decided that a controlled flow spawning channel offered the best promise for success. This channel, which was subsequently constructed by the power company to specifications laid down by the Department of Fisheries, was completed in time to accommodate the 1955 run of pink salmon whose for- bears had spawned in the Jones Creek stream bed which was no longer re.liable for reproductive purposes because of the (2) change wrought by the hydroelectric development. Early experience at the Jones Creak installation soon confirmed that fish will spawn in such artificial streams, and that the improved incubation conditions they provide can result in fry survivals much higher than those recorded in natural. streams. These encouraging signs came at a time when construction of hydroelectric power developments in the Pacific Northwest was at its peak, and fisheries agencies were desperately strivfng to develop methods of offsetting anticipated losses to the salmon stocks of a large number of streams. At that time, also, hatchery propagation was being severely criticized because of numerous recorded failures, and large-scale transplantations of eggs from one natural stream to another were being restricted by physical problems associated with high stream flows and compacted stream-bed gravel. For these-reasons the favourable results obtained at the.Jones Creek project rapidly led to widespread acceptance of the -50-

spawning channel technique.

In the ensuing 11 years spa1rminr; channels have been

cons true ted in California, Oregon, v;ashington, British Columbiag

and Newfoundland, while several others have been proposed for

application at multiple-use water projects, and consideration

is now being given by others to the po ten ti al of spawning

channels for species other than salmon. As it would appear

that spawning channels 1t.':i.ll be employed in future for the

development and expansion of the salmon resource, a review

·of the experience amassed to date would be advisable at this

time in order to develop an insight into the potential of this

technique, and its possible application for enhancement of

the British Columbia salmon stocks.

2 •. 2. 2 ASSESSW3HT OF EXISTIHG SPA',frTrJC;. CHAN!nLs

To date, 19 spm-rr1ing channels and one flow control project have been constructed to accommodate the various species of spawning salmon and/or to incubate their progeny~

These channels vary in siz.e, purpose, and, of cou1"se, location;

and these variables, coupled 1.oJith short operating histories, incomplete adult return data, and the r-elati vely small numbers

of fish involved, severely impede bioloc;i cal and economic evaluations of the spawn inc channel technique. Despite these

limi tatioris the spaHning channels constructed to date have provided a weal th of basic data which severs to indicate the potential. of this technique as a production toolo -51-

Table 9 sets forth the particulars of the spawning channels and related environmental control projects which have been constructed to date. Most of these works\were built either to compensate for spawning ground losses caused by industrial developments, or to create experimental facilities for assessment of the technique as a possible solution to salmon problems posed by industrial projectso Only the Big Qualicum River flow control project and the Fulton River and Weaver Creek spawning channels have been constructed for the express purpose of increasing salmon production; and inasmuch as each of these projects is of such recent construction that they have not yet experienced an adult return it will be some years before they can. be fully

assessed. In the meantime 1 the value of the spawning channel technique as a practical development tool can only be conjectured on the basis of the preliminary results accruing at the production channels, and by interpretation of the results being obtained at channels which were constIUcted for other purposes. In the absence of more precise data, it is believed that the following review of experience gained at the Jones Creek spawning channel supplemented by the wide variety of pertinent additional information derived from the other installations, serves to indicate the potential of the spawning channel technique. The construction features of the Jones Creek spawnins TABLE 9. A List of Spawning Channels, Incubation Channels and Related Environmental Control Projects Constructed to Date - 1966

Project Type or River Location Purpose Principal Size Year Project S;'Z:stem s:12ecies (Sg, Yd! Const.!:!:!cted /Jones Or. Spawning Fraser British Compensatory Pink 2,200 1953 Channel ColUlllbia /Robertson Cr. Spawning Somass British Experimental Pink-Coho 10,000 1960 Channel Columbia

/ Nanika Incubation Bulkley British Experimental Sockeye 1,100 1964 Channel Columbia Fulton #1 Spawning Babine British Production Sockeye 16.ooo 1965 Channel Columbia

. Puntledge Spawning Courtenay British Compensatory Chinook 2,300 1965 1 Channel Columbia /Weaver Cr. Spawning Fraser British Production Sockeye 20, 000 1965 Channel Columbia Indian R. Spawning Indian Newfoundland Compensatory Atlantic .1,200 1963 Channel Salmon McNary Spawning Columbia Oregon Experimental Chinook 5,130 1957 Channel Carmen Smith Spawning McKenzie Oregon Compensatory Chinook 1,330 1960 Channel Abernathy Cr. Incubation Columbia Washington Experimental Chum-Chinook 2,000 1960 Channel Rocky Reach Spawning Columbia Washington Compensatory Chinook 2,200 1961 Channel Priest Rapids Spawning Columbia Washington Compensatory Chinook 16,600 1963 Channel Mill Creek Incubation Sacramento California Experimental Chinook Small 1956 Channel Lancha Plana Spawning Sacramento California Experimental Chinook 490 1960 Channel MokelUJ11ne Spawning Sacramento California Compensatory Chinook 15,100 1964 Channel Indian Or. Spawning Alaska Experimental Pink 1,800 1961 Channel

Nile Cr. Flow Control Nile Creek British Experimental Chum-Pink 265 1950 Columbia Big Qualicum Flow Control Big Qualicum British Production Chum 7 Miles 1963 Columbia Horsefly Lake Upwelling Fraser British Experimental Sockeye 710 1953 Spawning Bed Columbia Great Central Upwelling Somass British Experimental Sockeye 55 1960 Lake Spawning Bed Columbia Baker Lake Upwelling Baker Washington Compensatory Sockeye 1,660 1955 Spawning Bed Tsolum R. Flow Control Courtenay British Improved Pink 1964 Columbia Access Auke or. Improved Auke Creek Alaska Experimental Pink 62 1963 Streambed channel and the initial operating schedule are described in

the literature (2), (3). This channel has now supported six

generations of pink salmon, the inputs and outputs of each

.being shown in Table 10.

The salient feature of these results is the

consistently hich fry survival rate, which ranges between

27.8 and 63 percent, with an average of 43 percent. In three

generations this high rate of survival appears to have been

responsible for increasing the adult return from a low of 400

· spawners, following severe losses due to construction of the

hydroelectric development, to.3000-5000.spawners, which approxi­

mates the capacity of the channel. These striking increases·

in adult returns must be qualified, however, by. the fact that

runs such as that to Jones Creek, which are exploited by

the Fraser River fishery, represent such a small fraction

of the total Fraser River stock that variations in the fishing

patterns can create wide fluctuations in the escapements to·

the in di vi dual spawnine streams. Another signi f'ican t feature

of these data is that the highest rates of fry survival were

recorded in those years (1959 and i96)) which followed

immediately after the spawning gravel had been rernoved, cleaned,

and replaced. In all other years, including 19)),· the gravel

porosity had been reduced as a result of silt accumulation,

al though some superficial cleanine; by scarification was carried

out in- 195'7, 1961, and 1963.

A fUrther point of interest concerning 1961, the -54- the year of lowest survival, is the indication that the spawning density or the distribution of spalomers was not optimal. In this connection the average spawning density of this run was very close to the one square yard per pair - which is generally recognized as being suitable for pink salmon@ On the other hand, it was observed that the spawners were not uniformly distributed throughout the channel, and it may be that this was responsible for the comparatively low survival rate in that year. TABLE 10. PRODUCTION FIGURES FOR PINK SALMON AT JONES CREEK, 19.55 - 1966 No • Spawning Total No. above Eggs Deposited of Counting above Counting Fry Percent Year Spawners Fence Fence~· Out;eut survival 1955 400 400 428,000 158,436 37.0 1957 1456 1056 947,000 363,169 38 .. 4: 1959 2604 2119 1,519,000 958,581 63.0 1961 5088 4388 3,789,300 1,055,176 27.8 1963 3500 2806 2,913,800 l,055,383 36 .3 1964 3000 2088 2,17.5,200 1,370,000 63.0 -~ Based on 1700 eggs per female

In sumrna.ry, the operations at the Jones Creek channel have shown that an average egg-to-fry survival rate of 43 percent can be achieved with natural-spawning pink salmon native to the watershed; that variations in the spawning and incubation conditions can raise or lower this average survival rate; and that the fry are sufficiently viable to at least maintain the -55-

stock and support an intensive fishery.

The data obtained at the other 18 channels constructed to date generally support the fry survival data recorded at

Jones Creek, as evidenced by the fact.that the average egg~ to-fry survival rate for the 27 recorded natural spawnings of all species in all channels is 35 percent. In the 12 recorded instances in which eggs were brought to the eyed stage before being planted in the channels, survival to the fry

stage has been as high as 95 percent, with the average being · 75 percent. On the other hand the survival rates recorded for­

several of' the 27 natural spaWnings in the channels did not exceed the ranges which have been recorded in the natural

streams. Some of these seemingly low survival rates can be explained readily while others can be explained with reasonable

confidence. In one or two cases, however, available data is

insufficient to provide a reasonable explanation of the low survival rate. The Mokelumne channel, which compensates for natural

chinook spawning areas inundated by an irrigation dam in

California, illustrates how low survival rates can sometimes be explained quite readily.. In its first year of operation _ this well" designed channel recorded only an eight percent

egg-to-fry survival rate, while that of its experimental forerunner (Lancha Plana), . located on the same river and acconnflodating the same stock, was 55 percent. When local officials dewatered the channel in an attempt to explain this -56- substantial difference they found .5100 yearling steelhead trout which apparently had entered the channel along with the chinook adults the previous fall. As all of the steel­ head stomachs that were subsequently sampled contained chinook fey, there is no doubt that a major portion of the progeny of the 178 female chinook spawners was lost to predation. Another example of an explainable failure appears in the records of the Priest Rapids spawning channel, on the Columbia River, where a 31..:percent fry survival rate was recorded with chinook salmon in the first year's operation­ despite greater-than-expected siltation of the channel bed. In the second year, however, the fry survival rate dropped to 11 percent, and subsequent studies by a siltation expert have since confirmed that an extremely heavy silt load had been deposited throughout the length of the channel as a result of wind action over terrain that had been b.roken during con­ struction of the nearby Priest Rapids hydroelectric project. Still another example is that of the Seton Creek spawning channel, on the Fraser River system, where the pink fry survival rate dropped from 55 percent in the first year of operation to 22 percent in the second year •. As a result of a subsequent investigation, this decline in efficiency has now been attributed to the second-year failure of a gate at the channel entrance 'Which allowed twice the desired number of spawners to move· into the channel, resulting in over-spawning and the low survival rate. -57-

While the low survival rates discussed in the foregoing are largely attributable to initial operational shortcomings which are solvable, comparable experiences at McNary and Rocky Reach spawning channels are not so readily explainable. Both of these installations, which are adjacent to mainstem hydroelectric developments on the Columbia River in Washington State,. were stocked with a mixture of two spawning races of chinook salmon taken from the nearby fish­ ways. One was an upriver race, while the other was a local ·race whose mainstem spawning grounds had been inundated by the power development, and neither was therefore racially adapted to the environmental conditions imposed by the location

of the spawning cham;iel. As a result, nitrogen gas disease arid· the high water temperatures which occurred during .the incubation period are believed to have been responsible for the low fry .

survival r~tes recorded at both installations. The design criteria for spawning channels have not been researched as fully as one might expect for such a new technique. This apparent deficiency may be explained, in part, by the fact that incubation conditions in the Robertson Creek channel, one of the earliest installations, were so good that almost all of the eggs which were planted in 1959 survived. There are indications, however, that spawning successes could be improved by altering basic designs. For example, experience has shown that spawning salmon might prefer somewhat higher velocities than those provided in most existing channels, and -58-

that modified designs might improve the distribution patterns and survival rates of spawning adults. It must be recognized, however, that these improvements could be achieved only with reduced rates of utilization of the· available spawni!lg areas and flows. Future research programs therefore should probably be directed toward the development of techniques which would ensure uniform distribution and spawning under non-preferred conditions without any accompanying decreases in fry viability and fry production per unit area. It appears also that fry production rates could be substantially increased through the application of improved desil ting techniques and gravel cleaning methods. These techniques are now being developed through an intensive program of research by Federal agencies in the United States, and some progress is being made. Applied research can, perhaps, be best approached at the present time by treating each channel as an experiment, so that careful assessments, observations, and measurements for each success or failure will provide not only a wealth of information but also direction as to the. course that formal experimentation should take. There does not appear to be any direct evidence that low egg-to-fry survival rates have been caused by deficiencies in basic design criteria such as channel slope, water velocity, water depth, gravel size, gravel depth, etc., although this may not be true of appurtenances such as fish trapping devices, desilting basins, and intake structures~ It should also be pointed out that at least one high survival -59-

rate has been recorded at every channel constructed to date, and that each of the five species of Pacific salmon has ·recorded a high survival rate in channels constructed under the presently accepted basic design criteria. The first major environmental control project to be undertaken for the exclusive benefit of salmon pro due ti on was that at the Big Qualicum River in British Columbia, where, since completion of the project in 1963, river flows can be completely controlled .and water temperatures partially con;.. ·trolled, throughout the lower seven miles of this major salmon· river. Elimination, or, at worst, mitigation of the effects of

freshets and droughts on spawning salmon, eggs, and fry. is expected to substantially increase. the salmon stoclcs of this system. Table 11 shows pre-control and post-control statistics for chum salmon (the principal species), commencing with 1959, the year in which detailed studies began.

TABLE 11. PRODUCTION FIGURES FOR CHUM SALMON AT BIG QUALICUM RIVER 2 ,1959-65. Potential Percent Egg Brood Adult Egg Deposition Fry Output Percent Year .Count Retention ~Millions l ~Millions l Survival 1959 83,500 24.5 128.9 17.7 13 .7 1960 47,491 5 .. 0 73 .. 7 3.7 5.0 1961 10,421 4.4 20.1 3 .4 . 17.0 1962 34,465 5.5 54.3 4.9 9.1 1963 27,897 2.7 52.4 13.2 25.2 1964 24,410 2.8 39.8 9.8 24.~5 1 1965 13,147 21.1 6.3 30 .. 0 1 Preliminary Estimate. -60-

Fry survival rates in the four years immediately preceding implementation of flow control averaged 11 percent while those in the following three years of flow control averaged 27 percents Likewise 1 significant increases were also recorded for chinook and coho fry. The first adult returns from fry produced under the controlled flow regimen are not expected until the fall of 1966. A third type of environmental control project is represented by a series of artificial spawning beds constructed by the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission in 1953 at Horsefly Lake on the Quesnel River system in British Columbia. Here, salmon eggs are incubated and hatched in prepared gravel beds through which the water supply wells up from an underlying grid of perforated pipes. Egg-to-fry survival rates for planted- and naturally-deposited eggs have ranged from 20 to 68 percent, with the average being 51 percent~ This technique was also employed by the Washington State Department of Fisheries in 1955 to offset losses of sockeye lake-spawning areas which otherwise were expected to occur when a new power development raised the levels of Baker Lake. The 15,000-square-foot artificial spawning beach which was constructed for this purpose has provided egg-to-fry survival rates ranging from 43 to 71 percent. A review of all available information concerning

existing spawning channels, incubation channels 1 and flow control projects clearly indicates that their egg-to-fry -61-

survival rates are considerably better than most of those of natural streams. In this connection, spawning channels can quadruple the rate of fry output from salmon spawning in natural streams, and, if the eggs are stripped, fertilized, and "eyed" before being planted in channels, the gains can be more than sevenfold. Moreover there are good indications that both of these survival rates are minimal, and that incre.ased experience with this technique will result in even greater benefits. On the other hand, there is no assurance that these gains in fry production will produce commensurate increases in the numbers of returning adults. In this connection, the disappointing results of large expensive hatchery programs ha.ve understandably cast suspicion on all artificial techriiques. Nevertheless, studies undertaken at Nanika and Pitt Rivers and Abernathy Creek have shown that, in comparison with hatchery fry, spawning channel fry are significantly larger ._., and physically more similar to native fry. Logically, one might therefore infer tbat these similarities exist also with respect to behaviour and conditioning inasD1Uch as the basic environmental factors of spawning channels are more closely identifi.ed with natural streams than they are with hatcheries. The additional requisite information concerning the comparative viability of fry is expected to come from studies currently under way at. Big Q,Ualicum River, Babine Lake, Abernathy Creek, and Grays Harbour. In this respect preliminary studies at the Big -62-

~ualicum River show that channel produced fry were smaller than river produced fry in 1964 and larger in 1965~ Some additional information concerning adult returns to Jones Creek provides encouragement with respect to the future of the spawning channel technique. In this connection, calculations made by the International Pacific Salmon Commission on the basis of the combined results of the 1957, 1959, and 1961 brood years indicate that adult production from Jones Creek was 2.5 times greater than that from the main Fraser River. While this rate of return from Jones Creek appears to .have declined in the interim, the numbers of adults returning to the main Fraser are not available for comparative purposes. Experience to date indicates that the evaluation of spawning channels as a production technique will be a slow difficult task which must depend, for the time being, on the reasonable assumption that channel fry will produce adult returns at approximately the same rate as natural fry. Whether or not this assumption is valid will be indicated, in time, by the viability studies and fry-marking programs currently under way at the Big Qualicum River and Babine Lake projects. Irrefutable evaluation will be dependent upon the development and perfection of a technique for marking small newly-emerged fry, although consistent increases in the numbers of adults returning to several production channels would serve much the same purpose • -63-

2.2.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS To date, nineteen spawning channels and several related environmental control projects have been constructed to acco:mroodate Pacific salmon. Most of them were built principally for experimental purposes or as compensation for expected losses resulting from specific hydroelectric projects. Three of the projects (Big Qualicum, Weaver Creek, and Fulton River) are production channels. The average egg-to-fry survival rate, as calculated from all available records of salmon spawning in channels, is 35 percent. Similarly, calculations show that the average survival rate of eyed eggs planted in spawning channels has been 75 percent. In most cases., the lower-than-average fry survival rates which have occurred in spawning channels can be attributed to operational failures, and to mortalities caused by stocking the channels with transplanted fish which are not racially adapted to the new environmental conditions. The effectiveness of spa"Wning channels as a production technique cannot be ascertained unti 1 such time as evaluation studies, based on adult returns to production channels, have been carried out. In the meantime, the limited available information in di ca tes that the quality of channel.;..produced fry, ·· as determined chiefly by length-weight measurements, compares favourably with that of fry produced in natural streams, and is significantly better than that of fry produced in hatcheries. -64-

Similarly, the evidence from Jones Creek indicates that the increased rates of fry survival in the spawning channel have produced sufficient numbers of adults to rebuild a small native run of pink salmon despite intensive exploitation by the fisheries. 2.2.4 SUPPLEMENTAL INFORJV.IATION ON EXISTING SPAWNING CHANNELS AND ALLIED PROJECTS The following section summarizes tne pertinent details of the various spawning channels, incubation channels, flow control projects, and upwelling spawning beds constructed to date and provides a list of references. Nile Creek: In 1950-51, the Fisheries Research Board of Canada assesse,d the effects of flow control on the rates of survival of naturally- and artificially deposited salmon eggs in a small side channel of Nile Creek on Vancouver Island. (l) The egg-to-fry survival rate in the controlled flow sections was 12 percent higher than that in the uncontrolled stream. Jones Creek Spawning Channel: The. Jones Creek spawning channel which was completed in 1954, was constructed to accommodate a spawning run of up to 6000 pink salmon and lesser numbers of chum and coho salmon. This installation constitutes the answer to the problems posed by substantially reduced flows on the natural spawning grounds as a result of a newly constructed upriver hydroelectric diversion. <2 ) -65-

The channel is 2000 feet long by 10 feet wide and it is lined to a depth of 12-18 inches with graded spawning gravel ranging in size from t to l! inches. Baffles, installed at 100-foot intervals throughout the length of the channel, regulate the water depth and velocity, which at the normal operating flow of 20-30 cfs, are in the ranges of 1-2 feet and 1-2.5 fps, respectively. A di version fence, constructed across the natural stream bed, near the mouth of the creek, leads adults to ·the channel entrance. Flows in excess of channel requirements· are bypassed via the natural creek bed. Characteristic of the Fraser River pink salmon runs, the Jones Creek stock spawns in the odd-numbered. years only. Since 1955, some of the pink salmon returning to Jones Creek have spawned downstream of the diversion fence, but most have utilized the channel, and the spawning populations have increased from a low. of 400 fish in 1955 to more than 5000 in 1961.(3) In 1963 and 1965, the adult returns were 3500and JOOO respectively. Prior to 1959 silt which had accumulated in the gravel of the spawning channel was removed periodically by scarifi­ cation and flushing. By 1959, however, the gravel had to be removed, screened, and replaced. While the localized scarification and flushing methods were em.ployed again in 1961 and 1963, the gravel had to be removed, cleaned, and replaced once more in 1965. -66-

Since commencement of operations in 1955 pink salmon egg-to-fry survival rates have ranged from 29 to 63 percent, with the highest being recorded immediately after the gravel had been screened and replaced in 1959 and 1965, and the 6f lowest in 19., the year of :maximum escapement ;. The observed locations of spawning redds have indicated that the preferred spawning areas are located along the margins of the channel and immediately upstream of the drop-structure baffles. Operating problems have related primarily to icing conditions, which caused scouring of the gravel and erosion of · the dykes, and siltation. Horsefly Lake Artificial Spawning Sed: In 1953 the International Pacific Salmon.Fisheries Commission constructed a 90 x 17-foot upwelling-type spawning bed for sockeye salmon at Horsefly Lake, B. c.<4) It consists of an 18-inch blanket of spawning gravel, ranging in size from it inches down_ to heavy sand, overlying a grid of perforated pipes which are the means by which the upwelling water supply is introduced. The depth of water on the spawning bed was maintained at two feet. The area was divided into three discrete sections so that varying rates of percolation could be imposed to compare the results. It was found that egg survival improved as the rate of flow increased, and that the overall egg-to-fry survival rate was 46 percent. A second spawning area, constructed in 1955, consisted of eight sections, each 20 feet by 40 feet, in which -67-

two types of gravel were laid to a depth of 14 inches. Two rates of flow (100 and 500 mm per hr) were imposed, and water temperatures were controlled by pumping as required, from

intakes situated 3.5, 50, and 82 feet below the lake surface a Experiments undertaken during the 1955-58 period failed to disclose any consistent difference between the survival rates of green eggs, eyed. eggs, and those which were deposited naturally. Egg-to-fry survival rates during the 1955-58 period varied between 20 and 68 percent, the average being 51 percent. · These experiments have shown that sockeye wi 11 spawn effectively in facilities of this type and that their egg-to-fry survival rates can greatly exceed those of natural spawning areas. Robertson Creek Spawning Channel: Robertson Creek, which was a natural secondary outlet from Great Central Lake in the Stamp River system on Vancouver Island, was converted to a spawning channel by the Department of Fisheries in 1959.(5)

The channel is 2500 feet long by 35 feet wide, and at an operating discharge of 100 cfs the 3/4- to 4-inch graded spawning gravel is covered by l} feet of water flowing at an average velocity of l! fps. Eyed pink salmon eggs, which were transplanted· from other systems to the Robertson Creek spawning channel between 1959 and 1964, have· achieved survival rates ranging from 57. to. 95 ·percent. (b)(7) The survival rates of eggs taken from north coast donor stream were consistently lower than those -68- from south coast streams, and it may be that temperature was a major c.ontributing factor •. In this cc;rnnection, water temperatures at Robertson Creek were consistently 6 - 10°F warmer than all donor streams during the early and middle incubation periods, and, as one would expect, the downstream migrations at Robertson Creek were three to· four weeks in advance of those in the donor streams. Comparisons of fry produced in the donor streams with those from the Robertson Creek channel have favoured the natural systems. With the exception of 1963 and 1965, the pink salmon- adult returns resulting from the series of transplants have been disappointing. In 1963, 4133 adults returned to the channel to spawn and more than 600 spawned elsewhere in the river system, or were taken in the fishery.(S) In 1965, 1546 adults returned to Robertson Creek, and some 300 were accounted for in other parts of the system. These two significant returns represent fry-to-adult survival rates of 0.1 and 0.01 percent. Excessive pre-spawning mortalities have occurred whenever holding and spawning temperatures have remained in excess of 64°F. The 1963-64 egg-to-fry survival rate for natural deposition ~as 38 percent. Observations of redd distribution patterns have revealed that the areas immediately upstream from holding pools and simulated riffle areas are preferred by the fish. Spawning density has been in the range of 0.9-11.5 square yards per redd. -69-

Adult chinook salmon, transferred fron1 the Stamp River to Robertson Creek in 1961 and 1964, suffered heavy pre-spawning mortality :which has been attributed to high water temperatures in the channel and injuries sustained at the trapping site. Spawning distribution records show that there was a preference for areas adjacent to holding pools and channel margins. Velocities and depths at selected redd si tea were in the range of 1.72-2 .68 fps and 1.30-1.93 feet, respectively. Average area of the redds was 9.1 square yardso The egg..;to-fry survival rates were 54 percent in 1962-63, and 52 percent in 1964-65. All of these observations were recorded with low densities of chinook salmon spawnera. In each year since 1961 adult coho salmon, which have· been trapped in the Stamp River, have been trucked to Robertson Greek for release into the channel, but high pre-spawning mortality, associated with extended holding periods at water temperatures of up to 20° higher than that of their natural· environment, has seriously limited potential production. Plots of redd distribution reveal a pronounced preference for channel margins and the areas immediately adjacent to the holding pools., and these localized concentrations, coupled with wide variations in the maturation dates of individuals, result in serious overspawning. The introduction of floating or suspended covers over the spawning al:'eas did not significantly influence redd distribution• A preference for t.he margins of simulated riffle areas has been demonstrated and the average redd size was 3.7 square yards. Fuller utilization of the non-marginal -70- spawning areas was achieved by installation of a longitudinal mid-channel gravel berm. A single assessment revealed an egg-to-fry survival rat~ of 33 percent. Great Central Lake Artificial Spawning Bed: An. experimental beach-spawning area for sockeye ·salmon was constructed by the Department of Fisheries in 1960 at Great Central Lake, Vancouver Island, to assess the potential of this type of facility as a replacement for natural bea,ch­ spawning areas which might become unproductive if plans to convert the lake into a storage reservoir were implemented.(?)_ The facility was constructed on a submerged portion of an extensive alluvial fan, portions of which are utilized by a race of beach-spawning sockeye. The artificial spawning bed consisted of a 50- by 100-foot grid of perforated plastic pipes overlain by 12-18 inches of graded river gravel. The water depth varied from five feet at the inshore side to in excess of 50 feet at. the of.fshore side.. Water was delivered to the gravel bed at an average rate of 0.01 gal/sq ft/min. Under natural conditions, the relative spawning density (number of spawners per unit of area) was fairly constant throughout the years 1957-59. Sub~equently a signi- ficant increase in spawning density was noted in the artificial beach area despite a JO percent reduction in the spawning population. Furthermore, when a dam and diversion pipe were constructed at the apex of the alluvial fan in 1961 to intercept and divert a major portion of the groundwater flow to the natural -71-

spawning areas, observations revealed a 60-percent reduction in the spawning density on the natural beach, and a five­ fold increase in the spawning population utilizing the artificial beach. Sub-gravel oxygen concentrations in the artificial beach were 10-11 ppm. The survival rate of eyed eggs planted in the artificial beach was consistently in excess of 95 percent. The operational efficiency of the sub-gravel percolation system was tested by means of dye releases. In this connection, ·underwater observations indicated that a density dif'ference, caused by the temperature difference .between the percolating water supply and the overlying lake water, inhibited the emergence of dye-marked water from the spawning .beach gravel until it had descended to a depth where the temperatures were approximately equal. The significance of these observations is evident from the fact that spawners demonstrated a preference for redd sites located in the lowermost 30 to 40 feet of the spawning beach. Seton Creek Spawning Channel: In 1961, the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission constructed a spawning channel at Seton Creek, near Lillooet, B. c., to augment pink salmon production· in that system. ( 9 l The channel is 3000 feet. long by 20 feet wide, and is lined to a depth of 16 inches with graded !.;. to 4-inch spawning gravel. The average velocity in the spawning area is ll fps at the operating discharge of 40 cfs. An egg-to- -72- fry survival rate of 52 percent was recorded when the average spawning density was in the order of two square yards per fema.le 9 as compared with. only 22 percent when the average density was one square yard per female.(lO) Construction of a second channel to accommodate· an additional 20,000 pink salmon is planned for 1966. Pitt River Incubation Beds: Two upwelling type incubation beds, having a total area of 6460 square feet, were constructed by the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission in 1963 at Seven-Mile Creek, Pitt River, B. c., to accommodate plants of sockeye eggs. Eyed eggs planted in 1963, 1964, and 1965 recorded egg­ to-fry survival rates of 76, 89, and 84 percent, respectively,· and the quality of the fry so produced compared favourably with that from natural production.(lO) Big Qualicum River Controlled Flow Project: In 1963 the Department of Fisheries completed construe tion o:f major works at. Big Qualicum River, B .c. 11 for the purpose of regulating the natural flow for the benefit of salmon production. In this connection, the works are capable of eliminating major floods and extreme low .flows in the natural river, and water temperatures can be regulated in the summer and ear1y·ra11.(ll) The Big Qualicum River supports native runs .of chum, coho and fall chinook salmon, and in order to properly assess the impact of the flow control project on each~ their freshwater survival rates were measured in the four years -73- iromediately prior to establishment of controlled flow. Chum salmon egg-to-fry survival rates ranged from 5 to 17 percent, the average being 11 percent during the four years of natural conditions. These compare unfavourably with the 25 .2, 24 .5 and 30 percent recorded in the three years immediately following implementation of flow control. In terms o.f potential egg deposit ion, comparable­ sized coho spawning populations produced fry emigrations of 0.6 percent before implementation of flow control, and 9.6 ·percent afterwards. In tbree pre-control years, the egg-to-fry survival -rates of chinook salmon ranged from 0 .2 percent to 7 percent, as compared with 19.8 and 12 percent with flow control. The highest survival rate was accompanied by a reduction in size of fry and earlier migration. To date, there has been no clear indication that coho smolt production has been improved as a result of increases in the minimum summer discharges. (l2 ) Consideration is now being given to increasing. potential production by effecting i:inprovements to the existing spawning grounds, and by developing additional spawning areas at selected sites. Big Qualicum River Spawning Channel: In 1963, the Department of Fisheries constructed a supplementary spawning channel adjacent to the Big Qualicum, River ·to increase the productive potential of the chum salmon runs; and to provide an experimental facility for comparative -74- studies of production obtained from artificial and natural environments. The channel is 2000 feet long, with a bottom width of 18 feet. It has seven holding pools, each 60 feet long by 4! feet deep, which are located at intervals of 200-300 feet throughout its length. The channel is lined with a 24- inch blanket of graded gravel which ranges between 3/4 and 4 inches. At the normal operating discharge of 60 cfs, the average maximum water depth over the spawning gravel is l~ feet, and the average maximum velocity is 2.0 fps. Observations and records of chum salmon spawning success during the channel's three operating seasons are of considerable interest.(l3) For instance, in 1963 and 1964, the percent egg retention was significantly higher in the spawning channel than in the river. The 2.7:8.7 percent differential recorded in 1963 has been attributed to excessive competition among late run fish for the preferred spawning - areas due to constricted time of entry. High instantaneous spawning density was not a contributing factor in 1964, however, and although examinations were not made there is a possibility that disease contributed to the high pre-spawning mortality and consequent 39 .4 percent egg retention compared with a "normal" retention of 2.5 percent in the river. In 1965 egg retention was insignificant in both the spawning channel and the river .. During-the initial operating season the egg-to-fry survival rate in the channel was 49.3 percent, as compared with 26.1 -75- percent in the river. This pattern was reversed in 1964, how­ ever, when channel survival was only 6.9 percent, while that in the river was 24.5 percent. This low rate of survival in the channel may have been caused by the very noticeable two-year accumulation of fine silt and detritus in the section of charm.el which was used by chum salmon in 1964. In both 1963 and 1964 spawning densities in the channel and river did not differ significantly. Preliminary analysis of length-weight measurements taken during the main fry migration period in ·1964 disclosed that river-produced fry were significantly larger and heavier than those from the channel, however, the reverse was true in 1965. In both years comparisons of the mean weights of the 40-mm modal group showed that channel- produced fry were heavier. In 1964, eighty-four chinook salmon were permitted to spawn in a discrete section of the spawning channel in which the original spawning gravel had been replaced with cle.an gravel. Pre-spawning mortality for the holding period, which averaged three weeks, was 10 percent. The egg-to-fry survival rate in this section was 42 percent. Eyed pink salmon eggs obtained f.rom other streams were

transplanted to the! Big Qualicum channel in 1963 and 1964·. ! The unexpectedly lok egg-to-fry survival rate of 20 percent, which was recorded for the 1963 transplant, has been attributed to operational problems which caused heavy deposition of silt over a major portion of the transplant area. The egg-to-fry -76- survival rate increased to 47 percent in 1963-64, but comparisons of recipient stream (channel-produced) fry with those of the donor stream show that the former are significantly smaller. In both years the downstream migration occurred in the channel considerably earlier than that in the respective donor streams. The adult return from the initial transplant and subsequent downstream migration of 1.2 million fry was 100 fish. Nanika River Incubation Channel: The Department of Fisheries of Canada constructed an experimental incubation channel adjacent to the Nanika River, B.C., in 1964, to accommodate transplants of sockeye eggs. (l4) This installation, which is 1000 feet long by 10 feet wide, is· designed for a discharge of 15 cfs. Eyed eggs, taken from the Babine system, were buried 8-10 inches beneath the surface of the i-2-inch graded gravel in order to measure egg-to-fry survival rates and compare fry quality with those of t~ donor stream and the Nanika River native stock. This installation also a:f'forded an excellent opportunity to assess problems associated with operation of controlled flow channels under severe climatic conditions. The eyed egg-to-fry survival rate during the first incubation period was 84 percent, and while the quality of the fry was found to be slightly inferior to that of the fry pro­ duced 1n the donor stream, it was significantly better than that of fry produced in the Nanika hatchery. No serious -77- operational problems were encountered as a result of the harsh winter conditions. Tsolum River Supplementary Flow Project: In 1964 the Department of Fisheries constructed a small storage dam at the outlet of Wolf Lake in the headwaters of Headquarters Creek, a major tributary of the Tsolum River, Vancouver Island. Water impounded by the dam during periods of high runoff can be released at a uniform rate to provide an additional 25 cfs in Headquarters Creek and the Tsolum River ·during low-flow periods when adult pink salmon are migrating and spawning. To date, these supplementary flows have eliminated delays to the migrations and improved spawning conditions in· . . (15) .· the upper Tsolum River and Headquarters Creek. . Construction of· a supplementary spawning channel and/or the creation of additional storage capacity in Wolf Lake are currently receiving consideration. Fulton River Spawning Channel!

The Fulton River spawning channel was constructed by the Departm.ent of Fisheries in 1965 to augment the sockeye fey production in the Fulton River, the major tributary to the (16) main basin of Babine Lake, B. c. This installation constitutes the first stage of a major program looking to developing the full potential of Babine Lake as a sockeye nursery. In this connection, a lack of suitable adjacent spawning areas, coupled with inadequate flows, is regarded as the major reason why the main lake basin is currently under- -78- utilized by rearing sockeye. The channel is 4900 feet long by 30 feet wide. It has eight holding pools, J-6! feet deep, which are located at intervals of 150-330 yards along its length. A 16-inch depth of !-4 inch gravel has been provided in the spawning sections .. At the normal operating discharge of 75 cfs, the average depth and velocity are 1.6 feet and 1.7 fps, respectively. While the channel was not completed in time to accommodate the 1965 sockeye escapement, 1.2 million eggs were taken from Fulton River during the spawning period, eyed in "Heath-type" incubators, and planted in the channel. Interim samplings indicate less than 5 percent mortality to the eyed stage and a further mortality to fry migration of approximately 15 percent.· The location of the redds of a small number of coho which spawned in the channel in 1965 reveals that there was a t'he. strong preference .for the areas adjacent tovupper and lower holding pools. Puntledge River Spawning Channel: In 1965, the B. C. Hydro and Power Authority constructed a spawning channel on the Puntledge River, Vancouver Island, to accommodate the upriver run of spring chinooks. This installation, which conforms to specifications laid down by the Department of Fisheries resolves one of the major fisheries problems caused by a hydroelectric development. The Department is also responsible for the technical operation of this facility .. ( 17 ) . ( 18)' ( 19 ) -79-

This channel which is 840 feet long by 25 feet wide, has four holding pools, each approximately 25 feet square by 8! feet deep, which are located at the upper and lower ends, and at two intermediate points. The spawning sections between the holding pools are lined with 24 inches of 3/4-6-inch graded gravel. Water is delivered to the channel, via a floor diffuser, from electric pumps which draw from the river. The norm.al operating discharge of 100 cfs provides an average velocity of 2.5 fps and an 18-inch depth of flow. In 1965, eighty-seven percent of the spring chinook - escapement to the Puntledge River entered the facility. Ninety­ one percent of these 236 fish survived the three-month holding period, and successfully spawned, despite high water temperatures wh.ich ranged up to 70°F during the holding period. The early-migrating fry vacated the channel in March, 1966, but relatively large numbers of fry remained in the channel to rear, and moved seaward in late June. A sampling method based on the mark and recapture of migrating fry failed to provide a valid estimate of fry survival due to the tendency of dye-marked-fry to remain in the channel to rear. Weaver Creek Spawning Channel: In 1965 the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission constructed a controlled flow spawning channel at Weaver Creek, a tributary of the Harrison River, B. C.(2l) This channel is designed to provide a stable silt-free spawning environment for up to 20,000 sockeye, more than a thousand chums, and several hundred pink and coho salmon. The 9000 x 20 foot -80- channel is lined with 16 inches of graded gravel ranging in size between i and 2 inches. At the designed operating discharge of 20 cfs, average velocity in the spawning reaches is 1.2 fps. Approximately 4000 sockeye spawned in the channel in its first season, and the highest spawning densities were observed in the upper and lower sections. The fry survival rate for the first year's operations have tentatively been estimated at 54 percent. Indian River Spawning Channel: A spawning channel was constructed by the Department of Fisheries in 1963 to accommodate Atlantic salmon escapements to Indian River, Newfoundland.( 22 ), (23) The channel is 1100 feet long by 10 feet wide, with holding pools, 3-6 feet deep, located at both ends and at intermediate points. The channel discharge is maintained at JO cfs during the spawning period, providing water depths which vary between 0.7 feet and 2.5 feet, and velocities from 0.5 fps to 1.4 fps. The spawning gravel was screened to remove all particles passing through a l-inch mesh. In the first season of operation 113 fish entered the facility, held for about JO days without incurring any losses, arid spawned successfully at water temperatures ranging from 41 to 50°F. The well-distributed redds were located in areas where pre-spawning velocities and depths ranged from 1.0 to 2.27 fps, and 0.5 to 1.3 feet, respectively. The -81- average redd area was 1.9 square yards. Egg mortality during the early winter was less than four percent. Mill Creek Incubation Channel:

A controlled flow incubation ch.annal, designed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to evaluate the effects of physical factors on incubating fall chinook eggs, has been in operation at Mill Creel{, California, since 1953.(24), (25).

Removal of silt from the gravel, regulation of flows 9 and installation of a silt settling basin at the head of the channel have resulted in a tenfold increase in the subgravel seepage rate .. Likewise egg-to-fry survival. rates in the channel h.ave averaged 40 percent, compared with an average of less than four percent in the natural stream. Baker Lake Artificial Beach-Spawning Area: Preliminary experiments undertaken by the Washington State Department of Fisheries resulted in the construction of a 15,000-square-foot upwelling~type beach-spawning area for· sockeye salmon at Baker Lake, W~shington. Adults are trapped downstream of the Baker hydroelectric dam for transport by . truck to the spawning area located at the upper end of Baker Lake. Since commencement of these operations, the calculated egg-to-fry survival rates have increased from 43 percent 'to 71 percent. ( 26 ) McNa!'Y Spawning Channel: The McNary spawning channel, constructed in 1957 on the Oregon shore of the Columbia River, immediately below -82-

McNary Dam, to facilitate research on the production of fall chinook in an artificial environment, is operated by the . . (26) (27) Washington State Department of Fisheries~ ' The channel is 2100 feet long by 22 feet wide, with resting pools located at 175-foot intervals. A 15,000-square­ foot holding pool, having an upwelling water supply, is located at the upstream end of the channel. The spavming gravel, which is JO inches deep, is within the range of !-3 inches. The channel discharge of 60 cfs is supplied by pipeline from the McNary Dam reservoir. Since commencement of operations the channel has been annually stocked with "local" and "upriver 11 fall chi nook salmon. Water temperatures in excess of 6o°F are common throughout the· holding, spawning, and early incubation periods 9 and these are believed to have been instrumental in causing excessively high (up to 78 percent) pre-spawning mortality in the upriver races of fish, and for reduced egg-to-fry survival rates, which have ranged :from 6.2 percent to 54 percent. Pre-spawning mortality associated with blindness caused by a supersaturation of gaseous nitrogen in the pumped water supply has been rectified. Observations have shown that egg-to-fry survival rates are significantly reduced when imposed spawning densities are such that over~spawning occurs. Observed locations of redds reveal that there is a preference for the areas adjacent to the holding pools and along the channel margins when the channel is not stocked to capacity. Redds have measured 6-13 square -83-

yards in area, and wjter velocities at selected redd sites have been in the order of 1-2.5 fps, while water depths have been in the order of 1.2-1.7 feeto Available reports indicate

that fewchinooks wn in the upwelling holding pool.

Priest Ra Channel: The Rapids spawning channel, which was constructed to acco .. · odate the fall chinook salmon whose spawning areas were inundated by the Priest Rapids and Wanapum Dams on the Columbia Rive , cormnenced operation in September 1963 under the direction lr the Washington State Department of Fisheries. (20) Upstieam migrants are trapped by facilities installed in the fis~ways at the dams and transported to the channel, which is 6obo feet long by 25 feet wide. It is divided into 24 conctete-lined spawning sections, each 225 feet in length, by drop sJructures and resting pools. A JO-inch layer of 3/4-4-inch lpawning gravel overlies the concrete lining of the channel. Water is supplied to the channel by . means of' a pipeline ~rom the fore bay of the nearby Priest Rapids hydro developlent. The normal operating flow of 100 cfs provides for an average velocity of 2 .3 fps in .the channel. A concrete-lined holding pool, having a surface area of approx­ iinately 30,00Q square feet, and an overhead sprinkler system to curtail jumping activity, has been provided at the upstream end of the channel. Water temperatures during the holding, spawning, and early incubation periods frequently exceed 6o°F but pre- -84-

spawning mortality of females during the first season of operation represented only 13.6 percent of the female pop­ ulation. This favourable development has been attributed to the prophylactic effects of periodic applications of

malachite green at concentrations of l ppm. In 1963-64 spawning distribution was relatively uniform throughout the length of the channel, but 76 percent of the plotted redds were adjacent to the channel margins.

The egg-to-fry survival rate in 1963-64 was 31 percent, but it is believed that this figure would have been considerably higher if it were not for the high water tempera- tures which occurred during the spawning and incubation periods, and the accumulation of windborne sand and silt in and on the spawning gravel during the late incubation period. Carmen-Smith Spawning Channel:

The Carmen-Smith spawning channe~which is located on the McKenzie River, Oregon, immediately below the Trail Bridge regulating dam, was constructed by the Oregon State . • • (28) Fish Commission in 1960, and is still operated by that agency. This channel, which is 24 feet wide, has been de­ signed to accommodate 100-200 spring chinook spawners in its 500-foot length. Holding pools are located at its two extremities and at the mid-point. The 30-inch layer of spawning gravel ranges in size from !-4 inches. The 90-cfs flow which is maintained during the holding and spawning periods provides for an average velocity of 2.0 fps and a -85- depth of 18 inches on the spawning grounds. A velocity barrier in the river diverts all migrants into the spawning channel. Water temperatures during the holding, spawning, and incubation periods have not exceeded 48 0 F, and pre-spawning losses have been minimal. Egg-to-fry survival rates have ranged from 11 to 42 percent. A significant number of the returning adults have been unexplainably reluctant to move from the lower holding pool into the spawning channel proper. Moreover, annual siltation of the spawning areas is regarded as a serious limiting factor.

Abernathz Creek Incu~ation Channel: An incubation channel, 10 feet wide by 1800 feet long, was put into operation by the U .s. Fish and Wildlife Service at·Abernathy Creek, Washington, in 1960. Reports for the 1960-61 and 1961-62 operating years reveal that the egg-to- fry survival rates for eyed chum salmon eggs averaged 94 percent. (26 ) Rocky Reach Spawning Channel: The Rocky Reach spawning channel, constructed in 1961 at Turtle Rock Island in the forebay at the Rocky Reach Dam on the Columbia River l' is operated by the Washington State _Department of Fisheries which stocks it with mixed races of fall chinook salmon.(29), (30).

The channel comprises four spawning riffles, 225 .feet long by 22 feet wide, which are separated by concrete lined resting pools. The spawning gravel is less than six inches in -86- diameter. During the spavming period, the operating discharge of 68 cfs, which is pumped from the forebay of the Rocky Reach hydroelectric project, maintains velocities on the spawning areas of l.0-2.3 fps. Water temperatures during the holding, spawning, and early incubation periods commonly exceed 60°F. Female pre-spawning mortality, which is believed to be associated with high water temperatures, was 56 percent in 1962-63, the first year of full operational assessment, and 96 percent in 1963-64, despite periodic treatments of malachite green at a concentration of 1 ppm. Egg-to-fry survival rates - have ranged petween 11 percent and 42 percent. These rates of survival are thought to have been caused by high water temperatures and nitrogen gas disease. Indian Creek Spawning Channel: In 1961, the University of Washington, College of Fisheries, Fisheries Research Institute, constructed a spawning channel for pink salmon in Indian Creek, AlaskaJ31 ) This installation, which is 1200 feet long by 15 feet wide, is equipped with a settling pool at the upper end. Flow-control works have not been provided, and flows in excess of the 1)0 cfs capacity of the channel spread out over the bordering 40- to 50-foot flood plains. Average velocity in the spawning area is 1.0 fps at a discharge of 5 cfs and the graded spawning gravel ranges from 3/4 to six inches. In 1961-62 the average spawning density was 1.46 females per square meter, at channel discharges ranging from -87-

5- to 150 cfs. While the estimated egg survival rate to the pre-hatching stage was 94 percent, excessive floods, and resultant bedload deposition, are believed to have been instrumental in reducing the egg-to-fry survival rate to about 12 percent. (32 ) In 1962-63, spawning density increased to 4.4 females per square meter, which represents a potential deposition of 7500 eggs per square meter, but preliminary

estimates indicate that the total mortality to the hatching stage was 90 percent. , Auke Creek - Improved Spawning Area: In 1963, the U. s. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries reconstructed a 280-foot length of Auke Creek, Alaska, into an improved 20-foot-wide spawning area for pink salmon. ( 32 ) The improvements related primarily to alterations in the stream gradient and the provision of suitable spawning gravel. Flow-control works have not been provided but the stream discharge is fairly stable.

Lancha Plana (Mokelumne) Spawning Channel: An experimental fall chinook spawning channel, located on the Mokelumne River, California., approximately six miles downstream from Pardee Dam, was constructed in 1960 to test the spawning channel technique as a possible solution to the fisheries problems posed as a result of the proposed Camanche Dam. This small channel was the forerunner of the Mokelumne Spawning Channel. -88-

The test channel was 219 feet long by 20 feet wide, with a holding pool located at its upstream end. During the spawning period the flow was maintained at 54 cfs, providing a depth of 1.5 feet and an average velocity of 1.9 fps. The spawning gravel, which was within the size range of 1-6 inches, was laid to a depth of JO inches. Fish which were trapped 30 miles downriver and transported to the site incurred relatively high pre-spawning mortality and this has been partially attributed to local pollution. Despite losses sus- tained by the emergent fry as a result of this same pollution, · the egg-to-fry survival rate was calculated to be 53 .5 percent. The Mokelumne Spawning Channel: The Mokelumne Spawning Channel was constructed on the Mokelumne River, California, to compensate for Chinook spawning grounds which were alienated in 1963 by completion of the Comanche irrigation dam. The channel is 6800 feet long · by 20 feet wide, with a 36-inch lining of gravel in the size range of' 3/4-4- inches. The average spawning flow of' 69· cfs provides for a depth of 1.5 feet and a velocity of 2 fps. From a first year spawning population of 184 males and 178 females, only 73,540 fry were counted out of the channel. This represents a survival rate of only eight percent, and subsequent investigations have determined that this was caused by predation of 5100 one- to two-year-old steelhead which had entered the channel with the adult salmon. Stomach analysis showed that all steel:head were feeding on salmon fry.(34) 2.2.5 REFER8;NCES (1) Wickett, W. P. 1952. Production of Chum and Pink . Salmon in a Controlled Stream, Fish. Res. Bd. of Canada, Prog. Rapt. of the Pac. Coast Stns. #93· (2) Hourston, W. R. and D. MacKinnon. 1957· Use of an Artificial Spawning Channel by Salmon. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 86. 1956.

(3} I1acKinnon, D., L. Edgeworth, and R. E •. McLaren. 1961. An assessment of .Jones Creek Spawning Channel, 1954-1961. The Can. Fish Cult. No. 30. 1961. (4} Andrew, F . .J. and G. H. Geen. 1960. Sockeye and Pink Salmon in Relation to Proposed Dams in the Fraser River System. Int. Pac. Salmon Fish. Comm. Bulletin XI. 1960. (5) Lucas, K. C. 1960. The Robertson Creek Spawning Channel. Can. Fish Cult. No. 27. 1960.

(6) MacKinnon, D. 1960. A Successful Transplant of Salmon Eggs in the Robertson Creek Spawning Channel. Can. Fish Cult. No. 27. 1960. ('7) Department of Fisheries of Canada. Prog. Rep., Fish Culture Development Branch, Pacific Area. 1962.

(8) Boyd, F. C. 1964. Return of Pink Salmon to Robertson Creek Shows Promise of Success. Can. Fish Cult. No. 32. 1964. (9) Anonymous. 1959. A Plan for an Artificial Spawning Channel for Pink Salmon at Seton Creek. Int. Pac. Salmon Fish. Comm. and Can. Dept. of Fisheries. 1959. ( io) Andrew, F. .J. Personal communication. (11) Glay, C. H. and R. A. Fahlman. 1962. The Big Q,ualicum River Fisheries Development Project. The B. c. Prof. Eng. Vol. 13, #12. 1962. (12) Lister, D. B. and C. E. Walker. The Effect of Flow Control in Freshwater Survival of Churn, Coho and Chinook Salmon in the Big Q,ualicum River. Department of Fisheries of Canada, 196.5.

(13) File Report. Department of Fisheries of Canada, · December, 196.5. -90-

(14) File Reports. Department of Fisheries of Canada, 1964, 1965. (15) File Reports. Department of Fisheries of Canada, 1964, 1965.

(16) File Reports. Department of Fisheries of Canada 11 1965. (17) Anonymous. 19,58. The Fisheries Problems Associated with the Power Development of the Puntledge River, Vancouver Island, Department of Fisheries of Canada, 1958. (18) Anonymous. 1962. Brief Outlining of the Need for Fish Protective Facilities at the Puntledge River Hydroelectric Development. Department of Fisheries of Canada. 1962. (19) Angus, H. F. Report of the Puntledge River Connnission, 1962. (20) Meekin, T. l'C". 1965. Priest Rapids Fall Chinook Salmon Annual Report for 1963-1964. Washington State Department of Fisheries. (21) Anonymous. 1964. Proposed Spawning Channel for Weaver Creek Sockeye Salmon. Int. Pac. Salmon Fish. Cormn. 1964. (22) Anonymous. 1963. Annual Report of the Department of Fisheries of Canada. 1963. (23) Anonymous. 1963. Report of the Atlantic Salmon Co-ordinating Committee for 1963. (24) Gangmark, H. A. and R. D. Broad. 1956. Further Observations on Stream Survival of King Salmon Spawn. California Fish and Game Vol. 42 #1. 1956.

(25) Gangmark, H. A. and R. G. Bakkala. 1960. A Gompara­ ti ve Study of Unstable and Stable (Artificial Channel) Spawning Streams for Incubation of King Salmon at Mill Creek. California Fish and Game Vol. 46 #2. 1960. (26) Report of the Second Governors Conference on Pacific Salmon, Seattle, Wash. 1963. Washington State Department of Fisheries. (27) Chambers, J. s. 1961, 1962, 1963. Research Relating to McNary Supplementary Spawning Channel. Washington State Dept. of Fisheries Res. Div. Annual Reports. 1961, 1962, 1963. -91-

( 28) Carmen-Smith Artificial Spawning Channe 1 Evaluation Study. Progress Reports, Oregon State Grune ComrnG 1961-1962. (29) Chambers, J. S. and T. K. Meekin. 1963. ·Rocky Reach Fall Chinook Spawning Channel. Annual Report. Washington State Dept. of Fisheries Res. Div. 1963-1964. (JO) Meekin, T. R. 196). Rocky Reach Fall Chinook Spawning Channel. Annual Heport. Washington State Dept. of Fisheries Res. Div. 1963-1964.

(Jl) !face, R. E. 1961. Hydraulic Design and Construction Details of Salmon Spawning Channel Improvement Areas on. Indian Creek, and Harris River. Washington State Coll. of Fish. F.R.I. Cir. #145·

(32) McNeil, W. J. 1962. Status of Research on the Improvement of Salmon Spawning Beds in Alaska. Manuscript Rept. 62-14. 1962. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Bureau of Connn. Fish.~ Auke Bay, Alaska.

{33) Menchen, R. s. 1961~ The Mokelumne River Artificial Spawning Channel Experiment 1960-1961 Spawning Season. California Dept. of Fish and Grune, Marine Res. Br., Report 61-J.

(34) Groh, F. II. 196). Annual Reoort lfokelumne Fish Installation Resources Agency of California Dept. of Fish and Game. -92-

2.3 ALLEVIATION OF OBSTRUCTIONS· Obstructions located on freshwater migration routes can severely curtail salmon production because of the injuries, mortalities, and delays they inflict on the spawning runs4l Moreover, some obstructions are completely impassable to all salmon, and spawning is therefore confined to those areas down­ stream of the obstruction, with the result that the utilized areas may be overcrowded, while suitable areas upriver lie unused because of their inaccessibility. 2.3.l TYPES OF OBSTRUCTIONS Beaver dams, log jams, landslides, low flows, and waterfalls are the salmon obstructions most frequently encountered in the natural rivers of British Columbia. While waterfalls, which are usually the most difficult and expensive to alleviate, are discussed in some detail in this section, the other types of obstructions are, nevertheless, worthy of rention. 2.3.1.1 Beaver Dams Beaver dams can restrict salmon production by creating blocks to further ascent; by inflicting injuries and mortalities, as fish, seeking an avenue around the obstruction, become entangled in the maze of branches; and by inundation of good spawning areas lying immediately upstream. On the other hand, beaver dams can, under certain circumstances, enhance salmon production by regulating the rate of runoff to the river down­ stream (in effect, evening out the discharge); and by creating ponds which are ideally suited for rearing of coho. -93-

If a particular beaver dam is deemed to be detrimental to salmon production permanent remedial measures cannot be effected easily. For instance, mere breaching of the dam will provide temporary relief only, because the beaver colony will repair the damage very quickly. Extermination of the colony is out of the question for obvious reasons. Experimental installations, involving the use of culverts and wire-mesh fencing to maintain openings through beaver dams, met with only limited success in the State of Washington, inasmuch as beaver colonies will not tolerate any large permanent openings through their dams. Accordingly, control measures in British Columbia and elsewhere are still restricted to the maintenance of breaches in the beaver dams during the periods of salmon migration. Fortunately, beaver dams are not a major factor influencing salmon production in British Columbia as a whole, although they can be of critical importance in some individual streams. For instance, the Sutherland and Morrison Rivers, in the Babine Lake watershed, and the Yakoun River, on the Queen Charlotte Islands, are typical sites which require continual attention for the purpose of maintaining access for salmon, although it is hoped that permanent solutions will be developed in due course. 2.3.1.2 Log Jams Logs, lodged in the banks and bed of a stream, create obstructions to the passage of other logs and debris, trapping them as they arrive, and eventually forming a log jam, which -94- ultimately can result in a blockage of salmon migrationsa Some log jams encountered in British Columbia are enormous, with lengths of up to a half-mile not being uncommon; and those that occur in reaches which are utilized by salmon for spawning purposes will reduce the available spawning area accordingly. In some instances log jams can disrupt the normal flow patterns of the stream, but this is not always undesirable from a fisherles viewpoint. Log jams can sometimes be beneficial by preventing the shifting of gravel beds in streams having steep gradients. Moreover, the impoundments created by log jams can constitute an improved habitat for those species which rear in freshwater before going to sea. For example, the Fish and Wildlife Branch of the Department of Recreation and Conservation recently decided against the removal of a log jam at the outlet of Chilliwack Lake on the grounds that it benefited the rearing of ateelhead trout. In view of the foregoing, each log jam must be assessed individually to determine whether or not it is detrimental to salmon production. Those that constitute obvious blocks to salmon migrations should be promptly removed, as, indeed, the Department has been doing for years. Others of a more subtle nature require careful examination, extending, perllaps, over several years. Known log jams which are receiving such examin­ ation are those located on the Awun, Mamin, Yakoun, and Copper Rivers,- and Mathers Creek in the Queen Charlotte Islandsf the Koeye River near Namu, and the Chemainus River on Vancouver Island. -95-

While log jams can be important factors influencing salmon production in some watersheds, removal of all those which obstruct or interfere with the spawning stocks would not be noticeable in the overall economy of the salmon industry on this coast. 2.3.1.3 Landslides In mountainous country such as the coastal region of British Columbia, landslides are not uncommon, and frequently they engulf rivers causing obstructions to salmon migrations and inundation of spawning grounds. From a fisheries viewpoint the most notable slide in recent times occurred at Hell's Gate on the Fraser River in 1913. Removal of this slide proved to be out of the question and it continued to present a serious obstruction to salmon migrations until 1945, when the first of the existing fishway complex was constructed by the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission. The measure of the success of these installations has been well documented. A rock slide which occurred on the Babine River in 1951 created a near-impassable obstruction to the major sockeye . runs and other species which spawn in the upper reaches of' the Babine· system. By the time the obstruction was discovered in mid-summer of 1951 it was too late to initiate measures to aid the migrations which were then in progress. Moreover, the slide was so lnaccessible and of such gigantic proportions that the Department bad to construct some 50 miles o:f' road to provide -96- vehicular access to the site, and this was achieved only in time to undertake token measures to assist the 1952 migrations~ By the spring of 1953, however, all of the loose slide material (150,000 cubic yards) had been trucked from the site, and the river bed had been restored to a gradien~ which permitted salmon to ascend the reach without difficulty in 1953 and subsequent years. Construction of the access road and complete removal of· the slide cost approximately $850,000. If this action had not been taken, elimination of the Babine runs, which are the nucleus of the Skeena River fishel"'I/, would have been a near­ certainty, and the annual loss to this fishery could easily have exceeded the capital coat of the remedial measures. An enormous slide of some 10 million cubic yards or bank material engulfed the Chilcotin River for a distance of approximately 2000 feet, just as the 1964 sockeye migration to Chilko Lake was approaching the site. This slide apparently dammed the river, interrupting the flow for a period of several hours, until the impounded waters overtopped the "dam". Fortunately, the slide was composed of easily-erodible granular material, and within about 10 days the river had eroded a new channel which proved to be negotiable by salmon. By 1965, the new channel had become stabilized and no further problems are expected. A gigantic slide of earth and rock which occurred on the Tatiltan River in the spring of 1965 created an impassable obstruction to chinook salmon and the major sockeye population -97- of the Stikine River system.. When efforts to create suitable avenues through the slide. met with failure an emergency helicopter airlift was implemented by the Department to convey more than 10,000 of the blocked 1965 migrations around the obstruction. Further attention was directed toward this problem in 1966 looking to developing a permanent solution .. Slides are not a major factor influencing salmon production in British Columbia, although they can create catastrophic situations when they occur on a major migration route. While there are many potential slide areas alongside important salmon rivers, preventive measures are impracticable, and the responsible fisheries agencies must therefore be pre­ pared t.o implement corrective action as each slide occurs. 2.)'.1.4 Inadequate Water Flows

Inadequate depths of flow can impede spawning migrations~ and in those instances where they recur at frequent intervals it may be necessary to channe.lize the flow into a more conri·ned section, as was done by the Department on the Kitsumgallum River to provide improved access to important sockeye salmon spawning grounds. Channelization was undertaken also on Maria and Chehalis River sloughs in the lower Fraser valley with apparent success, resulting in the extension of the spawning distribution· of coho and chum salmon populations. Other known sites which could be improved by channelization are Nicomen Slough and . sections of Inches Creek. -98-

Diversion of water from one channel to another can be employed effectively to improve salmon productione For instance, prompt restoration of normal flows in Phillips River and Teaquahan (Eva) Creek, which were interrupted in the fall of 1965 when floods caused these streams to follow new courses, constituted positive steps toward the rehabilitation of the natural spawning grounds, and the assurance that losses stemming from dehydration of the heavily-seeded spawning grounds would be minimal. Such measures have to be implemented quickly and effectively when emergency situations arise, but, aside from this consideration, they have little application in the develop­ ment of a program to improve salmon production in British Columbia. 2.3.1.5 Waterfalls Waterfalls and rapids, which are usually caused by erosion-resistant rock outcrops in stream beds, are the most common types of major obstructions encountered in the coastal streams of British Columbia. This type of obstruction may be classified as "impassable 11 or upartial ", the former being or such intensity that all salmon are denied access to the upper river, whereas the latter inflicts injuries, mortalities, and delays which deplete the spawning populations and impair spawning efficiencies. In some instances, their impact on the salmon resource can be alleviated quite simply through judicious use of explosives and rock-removal equipment; frequently, however, it is necessary to resort to the construction of -99- fishways, or fish-ladders, as they are often calledj to create alternative routes which can be readily negotiated by salmon~ 2.3.2 FISHWAYS 2.3.2.1 '.l)pes Suitable for British Columbia Conditions Of the many different types of fishways which have been developed and installed with varying degrees of success throughout the world there are three which are regarded as being best-suited to British Columbia conditions. The weir-type, which has been employed extensively at ·the Columbia River dams in the United States and elsewhere, consists of a series of vertical partitions installed at fixed intervals throughout the length of a specially-constructed channel or flume in such a way that water drawn from the river upstream of the obstruction flows over the tops of successive partitions, each slightly lower than its predecessor, creating a series of step-like pools which salmon can ascend with ease. Weir-type fishways can be employed most effectively in those· situations where water levels are relatively constant through­ out the migration period; otherwise, they require constant attention to ensure that they are operating properly--the depth of flow over the weirs being restricted to a very small range beyond which adjustments are required. The vertical-slot fishway, like the weir-type, creates a series of pools and drops, but its flows are discharged f~om pool to pool via one or more (depending upon the size of the run to be passed) narrow vertical slots which extend to the full -100- height of the partitions. All fishways constructed to date by the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commissionj and most of those constructed by the Department in British Colwnbia in the last two decades. are of the vertical-slot type because they are self-adjusting throughout their designed operational ranges. This is a particularly useful attribute in view of the flashy discharge patterns of most coastal streams, and the relative isolation of most of the existing installations. The denil-type fishway is essentially a short straight section of flume in which baffles of various shapes and sizes have been affixed to the sidewalls and floor in such a way that the energy of the water passing through the central open section of the structure is largely dissipated in turbulence caused by

the baffles 1 leaving a narrow longitudinal zone of relatively low-velocity flow which permits salmon to ascend without undue difficulty. This type is particularly suitable for passing smal~­ to medium-sized runs around relatively isolated obstructions­ which do not warrant expenditures for fishways of a more conventional type. Denil-type fishways can be installed at DD.lch steeper gradients than most other types, so, for a given height of obstruction, they can be substantially shorter, and this is reflected accordingly in the construction costs. Recent developments in the State of Alaska have generated some optimism within the Department with respect to the possible use of pre-fabricated denil-type fishways--the so-called steep-pass fishway--at small obstructions in British Columbia -101- where the high costs of access for construction equipment preclude installation of conventional types of fishways. In 1964, an aluminum test structure, pre-fabricated in Vancouver, was transported in sections by helicopter to a falls on the Kakweiken River, tributary to Thompson Sound, where it was bolted together and installed to assist salmon over the obstruc­ tion. Observations undertaken during the 1965 migrations were encouraging, and, while additional assessments are still required, it now appears that steep-pass fishways can be applied effectively for conservation of salmon in British Columbia. 2.3.2.2 Operational Assessments Precise evaluations of the individual contributions of specific fishways to the various fisheries are difficult because: (1) most spawning migrations intermingle with other stocks on the fishing grounds and identification of the individual catches from each poses such problems that the expense of so doing could not be justified, regardless of the results; (2) the magnitude of most salmon runs varies greatly from year to year, and from cycle to cycle, for reasons which often defy explanation, and any increase in the size of the total stock, following completion of a fishway, would not necessarily be indicative of the worth of that particular installation; and (3) there is no way of knowing, for comparative purposes, what the current status of the stocks would have been if the fishway had not been constructed. ~102-

The effectiveness of individual fishway installations usually can be roughly assessed in the field simply by observing the relative ease with which the fish locate the entrance and ascend through the structure. If there is no undue "build-up'' in the day-to-day accumulations of fish downstream of the obstruction it may be safely inferred that the fishway is ful­ filling its intended function. On the other hand, more accurate assessments usually entail implementation of tagging programs, involving the attachment of numbe1red tags to salmon, downstream of an obstruction, for subsequent; recovE1r•y upstream, to determine the incidence of injuries and mortalities, and the duration of delays. Tagging programs are costly, however, in terms of time, staff, and funds, and while many. obstruotions are assessed by this means before fishways are installed, few have been subjected to such close scrutiny thereafter. 2.3.2.3 Existing Installations in the Pacific Northwest - Department of Fisheries of Ganada Since its reformation in 1949 the Resource Developmedt Branch (formerly, the Fish Culture Development Branch) of the Department of Fisheries of Canada has expended some $1,350,000 in capital costs for the construction of fishways at 13 major obstructions in British Columbia, as detailed in Table l (Introduction). All of these are classified as partial obstruc­ tions, and it is to be noted that while the Branch is not averse to the installation of fishways at impassable obstructions its efforts to date have been confined to the partial type because -103- the benefits accruing from the elimination or alleviation of injuries, mortalities, and delays are obi1ious, whereas the mere (J provision of access vround impassable obstructions does not guarantee that salmon will utilize the upriver reaches. More­ ove1r, alleviation of some impassable obstructions cannot be justified on economic grounds because downriver spawning areas are not being utilize.d to their full capacity at the present time. - International Pacifi.c Salmon .Fisheries Commission The International Pacif'ic Salmon Fisheries Commission·· has been responsible for the construction of a number of major fishways on the Fraser River system to facilitate the passage

I of large runs of pink and sockeye salmon at obstructions posed by falls and rapids. The Commission's i.nitial undertaking in this field was the construction, in 1945-46, ~f' the two main fishways at Hell's Gate.. These were fol.lowed' closely by two large fishways at Bridge River Rapids on the Fraser River near Lillooet, and five smaller ones at Farwell Canyon on the Chilootin River, approximately 10 miles. upstream from its confluence with the Fraser.. Subsequently, several high- and low-level fishways were constructe,d at Hell's Gate to facilitate .fish passage at water levels beyond the operating range of the initial installat·ions, and two fishways were installed at

Yale Rapids on the Fraser River downstream of Hell 1 s Gate to alleviate delays and losses which were occurring at certain water levels .. -104- The Commission's decisions to proceed with these various works, which represent a capital outlay of several million dollars, have been substantiated by the results of extensive tagging programs undertaken before and after their constructione While it has already been stated that a fishway's contribution to the fishery is difficult to define in absolute terms because of many vagaries and intangibles, it is significant to note that in the two cycles following completion of the Hell's Gate fishways the commercial catch of sockeye salmon increased from 6,478,000 in the period 1947-50 to 18,246,000 in the period 1951-54. More­ over, the Commission reports that the fishways at Hell's Gate removed the obstruction to pink salmon migrations with the result that runs which historically spawn above Hell's Gate are recovering rapidly. It may be safely inferred that these installations also facilitate the passage of the smaller runs of coho and chinook salmon which spawn in the upper Fraser River watershed. In summary, the Commission estimates that the benefits accruing_ from alleviation of the Hell's Gate obstruction, coupled with improved management of the stocks, have averaged $8,000,000 per year in the period 1949-62. - Washington State Department of Fisheries The extraordinary success of the Hell's Gate fishways did not go unnoticed elsewhere, and, in 1952-53, the State of Washington initiated a major construction program. looking to improving salmon production by alleviation of obstructions. By 1957, expenditures considerably in excess of $1,000,000 had been incurred for. the construction of several fishways at -105- impassable obstructions on the Deschutes River to provide access to good upriver spawning grounds for chinook salmon; a $300,000 fishway at Granite Falls on the Stillagu mish River to extend the distribution of pink, coho, and chin ok salmon; a $325,000 structure at Sheppard Falls on the Wind iver to extend chinook salmon distribution; a $100,000 fishway lt the upper falls on the Klickitat River to extend the distrifution of coho and fall chinooks; a major fishway on the Cedar R:n..ver to open up 15 miles of inaccessible river; and a $188,000 st~ucture on the Kalama River to provide access to an additionall25 miles of river. State estimates indicate that the increased es apements in 1957 which could be attributed directly to these fa1ilities were worth $59,000 to the commercial fisher

Columbia streams. While many obstructions have already received attention; the list has, by no means, be1en exhausted, but each must be studied- in detail to determine whether or not remedial measures could be justified on economic and other grounds. In this connection, alleviation of obstructions by means of formalized concrete fishwa.ys, constructed in rock excavations (as moat of them are), are extremely expensive, and the high cost of providing access to the site often renders such projects uneconomic. On a more optimistie note, however, experience to date indicates that air-lifted pre-fabricated steep~pass fish- ways may be economic at some remote obstructions where costs have hitherto been regarded as pr•ohibit:1ve, principally because of access costs. Inso.far as the future is conceJ•ned 1 the Branch will continue to recommend alleviation of fish palilsage at those ' obstructions where such action can be justified on the basis of costs, expected benefits, and other .factors. For reasons cited in the foregoing attention will be directed primarily toward partial obstructions. Economic appraisals of individual obstructions and their impacts on the commercial and sport fisheries must give

.due recognition not only to the passage of fish, which, by itself, is no guarantee that the stocks will increase, but also· they must evaluate such other factors as: (1) are the accessible reaches of the stream currently being utilized to their capacity? (2) if sockeye salmon are being obstructed, are there lakes -107- upstream of the obstruction, and, if so, what are their capacities for rearing young sockeye? (3) regardless of the species how much additional spawning area would be made available? (4) if coho and chinook salmon are present what additional rearing areas would be provided? and (5) is alleviation of the obstruction the best method of improving salmon production in the system, or are there alternatives (e.g. spawning channels, hatcheries, etc.) which offer better opportunities for success? The Department's submission to the Royal Commission on Canada's Economic Prospects (Gordon Commission) in 1956 listed 98 British Columbia streams having obstructions to salmon , migration. Three of these have been alleviated, 25 have obstruc­ tions at their mouths, which render them barren of salmon, and,· in the light of current information it appears that alleviation of obstructions could be justified on only 13 of the remaining 70 streams, at this time, although there is no doubt that others will be proved up in future. Table 12 sets forth the particulars of these 13 obstructions, the maximum spawning populations recorded in recent years, and the estimated maximum potential benefits which could result from their alleviation. The latter have been computed on the basis of the estimated spawning and rearing capabilities of the individual systems, converted to adult catches by means of long-term coastwide catch-escapement ratios, which are not always valid for specific applications. I DETAILS OF USEABLE AREA MAXIMUM SPAWNING POPULATION ESTIMATED MAXIMUM POTENTIAL BENEFIT, WITH OBSTRUCTION ABOVE OCCURRING THREE OR MORE TIMES COST OF FISHWAYS IN NUMBERS OF I RIVER ! TRIBUTARY TO 1---.----+-0~B~ST_R-,-U_CT_IO_N--1 SINCE 1934 FISHWAY(S) SALMON PER YEAR MILES HEIGHT MILES SQUARE1---~--~-----~---l FROM IN SOCKEYE. CHINO()( COHO PINK ! CHUM MOUTH FEET 5JfAM ~l~E SOCKEYE CHl~K COHO PINK CHUM I KAKWEIKEN THOMPSON SOUND 2 10 6 0.5 1,500 400 I 10,000 75,000135,000 $175,000 2,200 1,200 : - j1,t7o,oool - $ I I ' BULKLEY SKEENA RIVER 45 12 45 37.0 50,000' 10,000 25,000 20,000 - 175,000 191,400 - ! - ' 960,ooc1 - 1 1--K_1_sP_1_o_x __r--s_K_E_E_N_A_R_1_vE_R __ -+--_4_0___,1--1_0_-+--_2_0---1_9_.o_r--10_,_00_0_:_1_,5_o_o_~ 1 _1_,5_o_o-+-7-5,_o_oo-+--1_,5_0_0--r-:$~1_00_,_o_oo--+_5_o,_oo_o_,r-7,-5__ 00_,_;_1_1,_25_o--r----~1--_-

NAHMINT . ALBERNI INLET 3 CANYON 12 3.3 3,500 1,500 35,ooo t 50,000 7,000 : 16,200 - i I 0,0~ $ ! MARBLE QUATSINO SOUND 3 14 7 6.0 1,500 7,500 15,000 750 750 75,000 41,0oO 3,000 ; 5,000 - 1------+------+------i1-----+---+---t------t---+---·-+---+-----t~$,----+---1----r!----r-I---+---- 1--C_R_A_N_BE_R_R_Y_t--N_A_S~S_R_1_v_E_R_....,...--+ __10...... 1--_1 2_-+--_4_0---1----r------+-PR_ES_E_N_T~P_R_Es_EN_T-+-----+-----+-~1_25_,_o_oo-+----+- 5,ooo .i=~,ooo I- _- l - __ TIDE- $ I I ' LOWE LOWE INLET WATER 8 4 4.2 _5,000 - 3,500 - - 100,000 22,700 - I - ' - I - 1--w-A_L_E---r--R-~-C-E_Y_l_N_LE-T----+-~-~-/-~--10--+---1-o---1--1.-o-+---4-oo-+--_--+--3-,-~-o-+--1,-5-o-o+-3-~-o-o-+-$,--1-5-,0-0-0+6~001-t~f- ~·

AIN MASSET INLET · 1- 2¥2 13~(3) 10 6.3 7,500 - 3,500 35,ooo 75,000 $160,000 34,2001 - ~o,2oor-=-j' --~--~

STAFFORD LOUGHBOROUGH INLET I CANYON 12 LO - I 00 400' 5,000 1,500 $ 75,000 - l - ! 9,600 I 25,000! 1,500 1------+-----'------+---l----+---+---+------t---+--~I---+----+------... - ---"-. -t---·--+-- ---+-- - EMBLY GRAPPLER SOUND X1~~R 8 4~ 12.0 -- 3,500 15,000 3,500 $ I00,000 - i - I 3,500: I 5,000' 3,500 1------r------1---1--~--+---+---+-----1----+---+---+-----t""-=--·-r-----+--- --r \ t

ADAM JOHNSTONE STRAIT 5 20 12 - 200 400 3,500 35,000 3,500 $ 250,000 - i 1,000 1 4,aoo ! 70,0001 - t------+------1---1-----+---+---+-----t---+---+---+-----ti-o------+-- ·-· r- - .. i j -· KHUTZE KHUTZE: INLET 4 25 4 - 1,500 3,500 35,ooo, e,ooo s 250,000 - ! 1,000 I 3,600: 3s,ooo! 4,ooo j I I J 142Y2 I I I I $ I . . I TOTALS +2- I 10sY2 1 80.3 ?6,100 30,900180,4001297,250 167,250 1,710,000 348,100! 25,7001109,15012,27~ 19,000 CANYONS

I. Assumed that one square mile of lake is capable of produc·ing 12,000 adult sockeye. Catch - escapement ratio = 1.5 : I. 2. Basis for computations of chinook benefits varies - see text. Catch­ escapement ratio = 3 : I. 3. Where detailed information is racking coho b.enefits are computed on basis of 300 spawners per mile of stream and lake, with calch-'escapement ratio of 3: I. 4. Pink salmon b.enefits compured mainly on basis of area of additional gravel beds and catch - escapement ratio af 2 : I. Table 12. The 13 known obstructions at which fishways 5. Basis for computation of chum benefits varies - see text. Catch­ appear to be justifiable, together with recorded escapement ratio = I : I. escapements, cost estimates, and maximum potential . benefits. -109-

For the purpose of this report the sockeye-producing potential of lake systems currently supporting this species has

been somewhat arbitrarily established a1~ 12,000 adults per

square mile of lake surface. This premise stems from extrapo~ lation of data furnished in reports of t;he University of Washington and the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission. In this connection, the 10·-year average spawning population for Lakes Aleknagiak, Nerka, Beverly, Kulik, ·shuswap, and Chilko is in the order of 6000 per square mile; but these include interior lakes, which tend to pr<>duce at a higher rate than most coastal. one.a, and it ha.s therefore been assumed that the potentials of the systems under review wi 11 be somewhat lower, say 5000, which, at a 1.5.:1 catch-escapement ratio, indicates a total potential production of approximately 12,000 adult sockeye per square mile of lake surface .. The maxinru.m potential coho production has been estimated on the basis of data being accumulated at Big Quaiicum River and elsewhere, which indicates that coho fry rear principally along the margins of rivers and lakes, so that rearing capacity is more closely identified with the length, rather than the area of a stream. Furthermore, there are preliminary indications . that two smolts can be reared per each yard of stream length, which works out to approximately 3500 per mile of stream and/or. lake. With an average adult return to the system of eight percent of the smolt output, some JOO spaWners could be expected, whichg at a catch-escapement ratio o.f 3 :1, represents a contribution -110-

to the fishery of 900 adults per mile_ of stream or lake. In the absence of more accurate data, which can only be obtained by means of intensive multi-year surveys and investigations of the individual river systems and their current stocks, the approach outlined in the foregoing serves to indicate, in terms of potential increases in catches, the comparative worth of the various works cited in the Table. It must be emphasized, however, that the :maximum potential benefits, as computed, could be misleading inasmuch as they are based on the premise that the spawning and rearing capabilities of these­ sy stems will be fully developed simply by alleviating the obstructions. Obviously, this approach constitutes a gross over-simplification of the problems because it disregards such factors as exposure to multiple fisheries, intensities of these fisheries, management problems, uni'avourable water levels, reluctance of the stocks to extend their distribution; pollution, imperfect operation of the fish passage facilities, and a host of others which will tend to reduce the actual benefits to something

considerably less than the indicated values. Since the~ impact of these outside influences is virtually impossible to estimate in even the grossest form, the following comments and observa­ tions must always be borne in mind whenever cost-benefit

relationships are being scrutiniz~d. - Kakweiken River Mitigation of the delays and injuries incurred in some years by the salmon migrations attempting to surmount the -111-

obstruction posed by two falls on the Kakweiken River can be expected to produce substantial additional adult returns. The problem at the upper falls was partly alleviated by the install­ ation of a steep-pass fishway in 1964. The encouraging results obtained to date indicate that additional .facilities are warranted at the upper falls and that comparable action is warranted at the lower falls. Alleviation of this dual obstruction could double the sockeye and chinook escapements, providing for an additional annual catch of 2200 sockeye and 1200 chinooks, asstiming catch-­ escapement ratios of 1.5:1 and J:l respectively. No increase is predicted for the coho stock because this species is more , I tolerant to delays, and present escapements may be adequate to produce sufficient progeny to utilize the fuil rearing capacity of the system., The major benefit stemming from alleviation of these obstructions would be reflected in the pink salmon catches. In this connection, pinks (and chums) have spawned above the obstructions when favourable water levels permitted them to do so, and inasmuch as the estimated 275,000 square yards of spawning gravel in the upriver watershed is capable of supporting .660,000 spawners (1.2 females per square yard) an ultimate additional catch of 1,170,000 fish (2:1 catch-escapement ratio)· ·i could be predicted. No increase is predicted for chum salmon because this species is less likely to extend its distribution., -112-

If they should do so, however, any increase would be at the expense of the pink salmon, so the net benefit would be virtually unchangedQ Factors weighing against realization of these potential benefits are: intensive exploitation by several commercial fisheries located along the migration route; extremely variable flow conditions in the stream; and less-than-perfect operation of the fishways. - Bulkley River (Moricetown Falls) Two vertical-slot fishways constructed by the Department in 1951 at Moricetown Falls on the Bulkley River have facilitated the passage of major upriver runs of sockeye, ohinook, and coho salmon which spawn and rear principally in the Morice River system. Moreover, alleviation of this obstruction, followed by· the elimination in 1960 of another located downstream at Hagwilget Canyon, has made the upriver reaches accessible to pink salmon as well, as evidenced by the fact that spawning escape­ ments in the order of 20,000 have been recorded in recent years upstream of Moricetown Falls. This tendency for pinks to readily extend their distribution to the areas upstream of Moricetown Falls provides grounds for optimism with regard to the future of this stock. In this connection, the available spawning gravel could accommodate an estimated 500,000 pink salmon--some 480,000 more than the recent escapements, which, at a 2:1 catch-escapement ratio, represents a potential benefit to the fishery of 960,000 .fish. It has been noted, however, that pink salmon tend to "hold" below Moricetown Falls for extended periods and this -113-

prolonged exposure to an intensive native Indian gaff fishery results in heavy losses not only because of the catch, but also because of injuries. This delay at the falls has been attri­ buted to difficulties·in locating the entrance to the fishways, and it is felt that construction of an additional fishway,

together with some modification of the E~xisting ones, will· do much to alleviate this problem. These suggested improvements ,could also be expected to reduce the losses incurred by sockeye salmon, so that Morice Lake, in time, might produce as many as 12,000 adult

sockeye per square mile, for a t•otal of !~O, 000 adults. With an assumed 1.5 :1 catch-escapement ratio, 266,400 would be· available to the fishery, and this.represents a potentialI benefit of 191,400. While these estimates must be regarded as overly optimistic, the watershed is quite capable of producing many more fish than it has in recent years. It is to be noted, however, that, in addition to the intensive native .fisheries at Moricetown and lesser ones elsewhere on the system, fish homing to the Bulkley system are believed to be heavily exploited in Southeastern Alaska (Noyes Island) and Northwestern

_ British Columbia o Moreover, fulfillment of the indicated potential pre-supposes virtual elimination of the obstruction and this is a near-impossibility regardless of the magnitude of the expenditure for improvements and additions to the existing fishway system. -114-

- Kispiox River Sockeye, chinooks, and coho have been observed annually in the upper reaches of the Kispiox River despite an obstruction in Kitwangulf Canyon, some 40 miles from the mouth. Until recently, however, spawning ground surveys and observations at the obstruction were severely restricted because of the remote­ ness of the watershed and the attendant problems of access. Recent construction of a logging road has done much toward improving this situation and it is expected that more reliable data will be forthcoming in the immediate future. In the mean-· time, for the purposes of this report, the estimated potential benefits stemming from alleviation of the obstruction must be regarded as indicative only. In line with the basic criteria, one could conclµde that the nine square miles of lake area could produce 108,000 adult sockeye (12,000 per square mile), which, at a 1.5:1 catch..i1 escapement ratio, provides for a catch of 65,000 fish, or some 50, 000 more than the system has probably cont ribut·ed in any ot the last 30 years. Similarly, improved access at the obstruction might be expected to increase the chinook catch by some 7500 fish annually. In this connection, the maximum reported escapement of 7500 apawners represents a catch of some 22,500 fish (J:l catch-escapement ratio), but alleviation of the obstruction probably would result in only moderately improved catches because it appears that the obstruction is not severe for this species. Accordingly, it has been assumed that the upper 20 miles of river -115-

could accommodate 2500 additional spawners, which, at a catch­

escapem.ent ratio o:f 3 :1, represents a potential bene:fit of 7500 :fish.. ·The coho potential has been estimated on the basis that a 50 percent extension of the spawning and rearing area would produce a corresponding improvement in ·t;he spawning escapement, which at a catch-escapement ratio of 3:1, could be expected to produce an additional 11,250 coho for the fishery each year. No increases are predicted for pinks and chums. Major factors militating against realization of the estimated potentials are: heavy exploitation by the commercial - fisheries of Southeast Alaska and the Skeena River, and the possibility that the severity of the obstruction is less than indicated. Nahntlnt River An obstruction located three miles, from the mouth of the N'ahmint River alienates the upper 5.5 miles of the main river, a lake (some 5.5 miles in length), and a tributary stream which may be accessible to saimon :for some seven miles. Alleviation of this obstruction would extend coho distribution to this additional 18 miles of system, and, in line with the basic criterion of 300 spawners per mile, and a 3:1 catch-escapement ratio., a potential benefit of 16,200 coho might be expected :for

the fishe~ .. Chinooks and chums would not be expected to ascend beyond the lake, so the benefits accruing to these species will be less than those for coho. Nevertheless, the potential -116- benefits to the fishery have been estimated to be in the order of 7000 chinooks and 13,000 chums on the basis that the stream­ bed area opened up to these species would be approximately doubled, although corresponding increases in production could not be expected because the gravel deposits upstream of the obstructions are somewhat limited. Realization of these estimated potentials will be dependent upon whether or not alleviation of the obstruction will lead readily to the distribution of spawners throughout the accessible area; the impact of varying flow conditions in the river and its tributary; and the intensity of exploitation by the co.rm:nercial and sport fisheries. - Marble River Three falls located in the lower five miles of the Marble River impede salmon migration to varying degrees depending upon the prevailing water levels. One, located near the mouth, obstructs pinks and chums, while the uppennost falls, at the outlet i'roru the lower lake, constitutes an obstruction to all species at low water levels. The middle i'alls, which is regarded as the most serious obstruction, impedes fish passage at all water levels, and it is this site only that is being considered at this time. Alleviation of the middle-falls obstruction could be expected to improve sockeye salmon production from the currently under-utilized lake system. In this connection, the lakes should be capable of producing a total return of 72,000 adults, of which -117-

43,200 could be cropped by the fishery for a potential additional benefit of 41,000 fish. Only moderate benefits would be provided for chinooks because many are able to surmount the obstruction

now, and the main improvement would be related to reductions in injuries and mortalities$ On this basis it has been estimated that if the additional escapements will migrate through the lower lake, an additional 1000 spawners could be accommodated, which, at a 3:1 catch-escapement ratio, represents a potential gain of 3000 fish for the fishery. Coho, li]ce the chinooks, surmount the obstruction at favourable wa·ter levels, and since the former migrate at a time when wa·ter levels fluctuate greatly one might expect that the percentage passing the obstruction would be high in comparison with other species. Accordingly, potential benefit to the coho fishery will be rela1:;iveiy minor, perhaps in the order of 5000.

Realiz~tion of the potential benefits as cited will bg dependant upon such diverse factors as: the influence of low­ oxygen-containing waters, caused by pulp mill effluent, along the migration routes through Quatsino Sound; the impact of possible pollution stemming from mining developments in the upper watershed; the efficiency of the contemplated fishway; and the . rate of exploitation by the commercial and sport fisheries.

~ Cranberry River The Cranberry River, a tributary of the Nass, provides good spawning and rearing areas for chinooks and coho, and while the escapements to the spawning grounds have not been enumerated -118- because of the size and the relative inaccessibility of the water­

shed, both species are known to be present in the system~ Alleviation of an obstruction some ten miles from the mouth would open up an additional 40 miles of river for spawning and rearing of these two species, and, on the assumption that the sy· stem is capable of producing 900 adult coho per mile for the fishery, a potential additional benefit of 36,000 fish per year is indicated. Comparisons with other known chinook­ producing streams of comparable size and characteristics indicates that the additional 40 miles of stream should be capable of producing 5000 chinooks per year for the fishery. Full development of this estimated potential will be dependent upon the magnitude of .the native stocks, which appear· to be low at this time; the maintenance of adequate flows in the river; and the intensity of exploitation by the commercial fisheries of southeast Alaska and northwest British Columbia. If the present stocks are low, as suspected, the indicated potential might not be realized for many years. - Lowe Inlet A small drainage system tributary to Lowe Inlet comprises several small lakes, one of which now supports sockeye spawners, while another, located further upstream is popQlated with kokanee, suggesting.that it once supported sockeye. An obstruction near tidewater impedes the migrations of sockeye to the system, and its alleviation can be expected to provide for substantial increases in the sockeye catch. The lowermost lake in the system -119- has a surface area of 1.3 square miles, and the 1963 alleviation of an obstruction on the stream connecting it with the upper lake is expected to result in sockeye utilizing this additional 2.9 square miles of lake area. Total available lake area is, there­ fore, 4.2 square miles, which, at a rate of production of 12,000 adults per square mile, might be expected to produce 50,400 fish, 20,200 of which would be required for spawning, while the remaining J0,200 could be assigne1d to the fishery for a potential benefit of 22,700. The 12 miles of access:ible st1"oam in this ·system should be capable of supporting 300 coho spawne1:-s per mile, or a total of 3600, which is approximately equal to the maximum recorded escapements. Nevertheless, alleviation of this obstruction will be of benefit to this species in years of unfavourable water levels, although it is not possible to assign an estimated value. at this time because of a lack of basic data concerning the frequency and impact of these unfavourable water levels. - Wale Creek Serious fisheries losses have been incurred repeatedly at the obstruction on Wale Creek, with the result that the stocks are now at an historic low level. Alleviation of the obstruction might be expected to result in the rehabilitation of the sockeye and coho stocks, but the existing populations of pinks and chums may be too low to expect any substantial increases in the fore­ seeable future. Assuming a production rate of 12,000 adult sockeye per square mile of lake, the system could contribute 7200 to the fishery, for a potential benefit of 6600 fish. -120-

The system should also be capable of producing 900 coho per mile for the fishery, or some 9000 fish, which is approximately equal to the estimated catches corresponding to the ma.xiimJ.m recorded escapements. It is to be noted, however, that because of deteriorating conditions at the obstruction recent escapements (and, probably, the catches) have been extremely low, and could be expected to continue to remain so. Accordingly, the potential benefits of alleviating this obstruction have been estimated at approximately equal to the theoretical capability of the system, or 9000 coho. - Ain River Three obstructions on the Ain River, between the lake outlet and Masset Inlet, ·seriously impede salmon migration throughout a wide range of water levels. Alleviation of these obstructions could result in Ain Lake producing at the rate of 12,000 adult sockeye per square·mile, for a total of 75,600, of which 30,200 would be required for spawning, leaving 45,400 available to the fishery. This. represents a potential benefit of 34,200 fish. The 23 miles of lake and stream located above the obstructions might be expected to produce for the fishery 900 adult coho per mile, or a total of 20,700, for a potential additional benefit of 10,200. No increases are predicted for pinks and chums because most of the stream area is upstream of the lake .. Development of the indicated potential will be dependent upon the impact of commercial fisheries operating in -121-

Southeast Alaska and the Queen Charlotte Islands, as well as a native Indian personal-use fishery which operates at the mouth of the river. - Stafford River The obstruction located one mile from the mouth or Stafford River virtually confines spawning and rearing to the lower reaches, and the creation of improved access would open up an additional 12 miles of spawning and rearing area which should be capable of producing for the fishery at the rate of 900 adult coho per mile, or 10,800 fish, which represents a potential benefit of 9600. Some increases in the pink and chum stocks might also be expected, but their utilization of. the upper reaches is more uncertain, and the potential :benefits have therefore been estimated on the basis of comparisons with the production from adjacent streams with similar characteristics. Realization of these potential benefits will be dependent upon the intensity of exploitation by the commercial fisheries and the willingness of the individual species to extend their distribution beyond the obstruction. - Embly Creek A falls situated within the range of tidal influence in Embly Creek, one of three streams rising in Huaskin Lake, constitutes an obstruction of varying intensity depending upon existing water levels. In this connection, losses of pink salmon have been estimated, in at least one year, at as high as 80 percent of the total migration, although this was an unusual -122-

occurrence. Estimates of the available spawning areas and lengths of stream available for rearing purposes indicate that the system is capable of sustaining a fishery with catches equal to the magnitude of the maximum recorded escapements. - Adam River The extensive spawning and rearing.areas lying upstream of the obstruction on the Adam River have not yet been fully assessed but it appears that the creation of improved access will result in worthwhile additional .catches for the fisheries. The relatively small population of chinooks now utilizing this water­ shed suggests that the production of this species is being inhibited, al though the underlying reasons are not known, and the potential benefit to the fishery has therefore been rather arbitrarily set at 1000 fish, which may be overly optimistic. The benefits accruing from increased production of coho are more certain, however, and, on the basis of 900 adults for the fishery for each mile of stream, an annual catch of 15,JOO might be

predicted, f'or a net potential benef'i t of' 4800. This could be considerably greater if the upriver tributaries are used exten­

sively by this species. The additional spawning area upstream of the obstruction is capable of supporting a pink salmon popu­ lation of the magnitude of the maximum recorded escapement, which, at a 2 :1 catch-escapement ratio, represents a potential benefit of 70,000 fish. No increase is predicted for the chum salmon stock· because this species is not currently utilizing the accessible stream area to its capacityo -123-

- Khutze River Improved access to the four miles of stream above the obst, ction might produce an additional 1000 chinooks per year for theI . fishery, and, assuming coho adult product i on at 900 per mile of stream for the fishery the potential net benefit for this spectes might be in the order of )600 fish per year. A 50 percJnt improvement in the pink and chum catches has been fore-, castj although this figure is more tentative'than those for the othel species because present production may not be inhibited by tie available gravel areas in the accessible reaches of the stream .. 2.).1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

I Beaver dams, log jams, landslides, inadequate depths of flow, waterfalls, and rapids are the obstructions most frequently encountered by salmon migrations in British Columbiao Experience to date indicates that alleviation of some, obstructions produces substantial benefits for the commercial and sport fisheries, provided that each is carefully assessed beforehand to ensure that such action is fully justified from all viewpoints. In this connection, careful study might disclose that the obvious benefits stemming from the removal of certain partial obstructions such as beaver dams and log jams will be offset by losses of a more subtle nature such as diminutions of rearing area, undesirable shifting of spawning gravel, and loss of flow control. Moreover, the costs associated with the alleviation of many known obstructions cannot be justified on economic grounds. -124-

Waterfalls and rapids are the only obstructions which can be readily incorporated into a long-range program for enhancement of the British Columbia salmon stocks.. While others undoubtedly will be proved up in future, at the present time, only lJ of the 98 known obstructions of this type are regarded as being economical and practical undertakings; and extrapolation · of the extremely limited available data indicates that the estirnate.d cost of $1,700,000 for fishways at these sites could be justified by the benefits accruing to the .fishery. While there appears to be overwhelming support for the early implementation of a program of remedial measures at these 13 obstructions, it must be recognized that the actual benefits accruing to the fishery will fall considerably short of the estimated potential benefits as shown in Table 12 •. In this connection, such factors as intensities of exploitation, intermingling of stocks, imperfection of remedial :measures, reluctance of some stocks to extend the_ir distribution, pollution, and others will be working against the realization of the full potential, although available knowledge is not such that it is possible .to state to what degree. Nevertheless, there is reason to believe that alleviation of most, or all of the 13 ob st ructions could be justified on economic and . other grounds at such time as they are each subjected to detailed study~ -125-

2.4 CONTROLLED REARING AREAS (FISH FARMS) 2.4.1 INTRODUCTION Many coastal streams produce far greater numbers of coho and chinook fry than they are capable of rearing to the smolt and fingerling stages, respectively; and it is becoming increasingly more evident that those which enter salt water before completing the required period of stream residence are lost to production. If this is, in fact, true, the significance of the stream residence period is enormous. For example, it would then be known that the Qualicum River adult chinook run stems from only 30, 000-40, 000 stream-reared fry, despite the fact that, in some years, ten times this many fry leave the stream shortly after emergence,, presumably to die in the ocean .. The situation is apparently similar for those coho fry which do not rear for a full year in the stream. While prevailing conditions and the physical configurations of the estuaries undoubtedly greatly affect the survival of these unreared fish it appears that the adult production of these two species could be substant~ally increased if suitable economic ways could be developed to rear much greater numbers of fzn..J in fresh water. One, of the most recent developments looking to increasing rearing capaci tie-s of salmon streams has been the so-called "fish farm" or controlled natural rearing area - a technique which has been used for centuries in various countries of the world to rear a variety of fishes native to the warm and temperate waters. Large-scale application of the technique to -126-

salmon was begun in 1957 by the Washington State Department of Fisheries and this was followed on a more cautious, limited scale by the Oregon State fisheries agencies. Unlike natural streams, rearing ponds provide a slackwater environment inasmuch as they are formed either by da:rmning a small stream or by conversion of an existing lake. Rearing pond practices differ from hatchery rearing in that food is generally not provided at the former and space is much more confined in the hatchery raceways. In general, rearing ponds are poisoned to eliminate fish which prey on, or compete with the s.almon before marked chinooks which have undergone a short period of feeding in the hatchery are introduced for a 90-day rearing period. As they are allowed to leave the ponds, presumably as seaward migrants, they are counted. In some cases, they have to be forced to leave either by lowering pond levels, by seining, or by other means. Marked cohos that have been rearing in hatcheries are then released into the ponds .where they continue to rear until the following spring when they migrate to sea as smolts. 2.4.2 ASSESSMENT OF RESULTS Virtually all available information concerning the . rearing-pond technique comes from Washington State, where, by 1°96.5, a total of 32 controlled natural rearing areas, encompas­ sing both f.resh- and salt water environments were in operation .. All competitors and predators are removed from these pools in order to devote their entire capabilities to the production of' salmon. Coho and chinooks are the principal species although -127- experimental plants of pinks and chums have also been made. Data from the 24 fresh water ponds and the eight salt water ones show strikingly high, as well as very low, fry-to-migrant survival rates. The average respective survival rates for coho and chinooks in the fresh water installations have been 34 and 11 percent while those in salt water have been 46 and 21 percent.(l) Unfortunately, the high juvenile survival rates have not always resulted in correspondingly high adult returns. It is also evident that while salt water installations have recorded higher juvenile survival rates for both coho and chi nooks, adult re turns from the outputs of the fresh water ponds have been far more successful, both numerically and in frequency. For instance, in 1963, the adult returns from the fresh water ponds were approxi;.. mately double those of similar-sized salt water installations, and the 1964 returns indicate an even greater difference.( 2 ) Since inception of the fish farm program, some nine years ago, Washington State has operated a total of 42 installa- tions which cost over one million dollars. Only 21 of these have recorded adult returns, and only seven have had any numerically significant and/or consistent returns.f3) These results, which have been disappointing from a production stand- point, have been reviewed in an economic evaluation of the program which revealed a return of only 14 cents for every dollar spent. (4) The report clarified the status of the program and provided much needed guidelines for future programming, when it concluded that: -128-

"l. If the program is viewed as a single uni t 9 the ratio of benefits to costs is so low that controlled natural rearing, under current methods, must be regarded as economically unfeasible • • • 2. Fresh-water rearing areas show more favorable benefit-cost ratios than salt-water (rearing areas) . • • 3. Experience in selected areas has been sufficiently promising to support a finding that research aspects of the pror;ram require continuation at some level of operation • . • some hope of economic feasibility pan be obtained. by closing down operations in areas where production is demonstrably low • 4. Experience to date suggests that under the best of circumstances, a controlled natural-rearing program is unlikely to meet the full test of economic feasibility without some effort to enhance natural productivity 5. . .. optimal utilization of the Department's financial resources and manpower devoted to salmon enhancement requires comparison of incremental costs and benefits from all alterna- tive techniques • . . 6. • .. it would take a very large differential in physical productivity to justify expansion of controlled natural rearing of chum and pink, both -129-

of which are relatively low valued in the commercial usaee and contribute comparatively little to the sport fishery • • • 7. The desirability of maintaining operations at least in the best controlled natural-rearing areas would be strengthened if 'excess' hatchery fish were available • • • " The report also stated that: "Further detailed analysis of production potentials of individual areas is required before program direction can be effectively developed." These conclusions have resulted in consolidation of the State's fish farm proeram, with more concentrated efforts being directed toward the best producing areas, and recommenda ... tions for each rearing area have now been advanced. These are based on benefit-cost ratios, and on biological and physical observations. (5) It is apparent that most rearing ponds require fertilization or supplemental feeding in order to increase their production, and that the physical and biological characteristics of each will determine the practicality of such methods. Areas where production is low, and improvements cannot be devised, have been recommended for abandonment. Other ponds presently in production will lend themselves to production-improvement methods. As new methods and procedures must be proved before they can become a part of the rearing program, certain ponds, which are not suitable for experimentation, but which could benefit from -130-

methods proved elsewhere, will be inactivated until they can be

justified economically.

Several fresh-water rearing ponds have been recommended

as planting sites for those coho fry which are in excess of

hatchery-rearing capacities. These sites are sui.table for summer

rearing of those coho which must be released from the hatcheries each spring.

Some fresh- and salt-water rearing areas are not

suited for coho rearing, and it has been recommended that these ·receive pd.ants of chinook, chum, or pink salmon in an attempt to

determine the economic and biological feasibility of programs

for these species.

Currently, only a few of the fresh-water rearing

installations are regarded as biologically and economically sound, and the,se apparently will be retained as production uni ts under the management of the State's Hatchery Division. Applic&­ tion of new production-improvement methods in these areas are expected to result in improved benefit-cost ratios. The recommendations for the existing fish farms are summarized in Table 13. In this connection it should be pointed out that "total" benefit-cost ratio reflects all costs to be considered in a complete economic evaluation, whereas the "new" benefit-cost ratio looks at the rearing areas in the light of salvage value, i.e., now that they are in existence what out-of­ pocket costs will be required for operation and maintenance, fish supply (hatchery cost-figures), and administrative overhead. TABLE 13. BENEFIT-COST RATIOS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS, FOR WASHINGTON S'rATE DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES NATURAL REARING AREAS. Area Benefit-cost ratios Recommendations Total New

Freshwater Areas Alexander-Heins 0.45 0.47 Retain Alexander for coho; abandon Heines. Anderson 0.01 0.13 Abandon. Black 0.14 0.20 Abandon. Blue Creek 0.39 0.55 Retain for chinook only. Campbe11·::­ Retain for chinook only. Capi tor::- Retain for chinook only. Chinook'•:• Retain for chinook only. Cranberry 0.04 0.39 Pending on negotiations. Cle Elum 0.23 0.30 Inactive.

I Dickey 1.63 2.12 Develop...... Easton 0.15 0.21 Inactive. w I-' Erdman 0.24 0.90 Retain for experimental coho rearing. I Johnson 0.05 0.12 Retain for chinook or chum only. Melbourne 0.76 1.02 Retain for production and experimentation. Newhalem 0.71 0.78 Retain as a planting site for surplus fry. Nile 0.18 0.24 Retain for hatchery development only. Pleasant 0.34 1.59 Retain for fry plants. Salmon Creek 0.14 0.43 Retain for production and experimentation. Titlow Pond 0.24 0.28 Retain for production and experimentation. Tucannon 0.06 0.09 Retain for hatchery development only. West 0.85 1.36 Retain for production and experimentation. Saltwater Areas Crockett{~ Retain for chinook. Kennedy's 0.03 0.21 Inactive. Keyport 0.36 O.l.Ll Retain for chum and pink plants only. Kingston 0.08 0.24 Retain for chinook. Little Clam 0.13 0.32 Inactive followins present studies. Maylor 0.17 0.24 Abandon. Titlow Lagoon 0.10 0,20 Retain for exp~riment~l p]'.'odu_ction~ Whiteman' s 0.06 0.56· Retain for experimental production. *Not used for coho rearing. -132-

The more successful aspects of the program are illustrated in Table 14, which compares the adult returns to the seven best Washington fish farms(J) with those to the Washington State hatcheries}6 ) Japanese hatcheries, (7 ) and the University of Washington experimental program. (S)

TABLE 14. AVERAGE SURVIVAL RATES (FRY-TO-ADULT RETURN) FOR THE SEVEN BEST WASHINGTON STATE FISH FARMS AS COMPARED WITH THOSE OF OTHER PRODUCTION FACILITIES

Program Chinook Coho Chum Pink Sockeye

Washington Hatcheries .10 .55 .1 .3 Japanese Hatcheries .3 .J University of Washington returns .89 .73 .12 Capitol Lake .76 . 93 Black Lake .67 Alexander Lake .71 Melbourne Lake 1.50

Ringold Pond ~ Kennedy's Lagoon .26 .56 Key Port Lagoon .17

The Capitol Lake rearing facilities, which serve as the best example for proponents of fish farms, has produced chinooks at a much higher rate (.76 percent) than the hatcheries (.1 percent). The 14 million chinook fry released from Capitol Lake in the five-year period from 1957 to 1961, produced an adult return of' approximately 96, 000 in the period 1960 to 1964. -133-

Survival rates for the five-year period ranged from .146 percent to 1.06 percent, the average being .76 percent.(6 ) Adult returns of coho salmon to Capitol Lake in 1960, 1963, and 1964 were 908, 4536, and 1289. These stemmed from fry plants made in 1958, 1961, and 1962, for which the respective survival rates were computed at .17, 2.0, and .64 percent, the average being .93 percent. Although no coho plant was reported in 1960, a return of 2358 coho adults was recorded in 1962. The only other chinook rearing area which has shown encouraging results is Ringold Pond - a fresh-water area, which one year produced a chinook return of .33 percent, or somewhat greater than three times that of the averar;e hatchery return.

While the initial plant~ undertaken in 1962, resulted in an adult return of 335 three-year-old chinooks in 1964, Ringold Pond cannot be regarded as successful at this time because of its short operational period. The rearing areas vhich have recorded encouraging adult returns of coho are Black, Alexander, and Melbourne Lakes, where average rates of return have been .67, .71 and 1.50 percent. Black Lake has recorded four consecutive returns, from 1961 to 1964, of 1200, 130, 450 and 178 adults, or 1.9, .37, .30 and .12 percent. While tho average return has been an encouraging .67 percent, there has been a disappointing trend toward progressively fewer. returns, despite the increasing · numbers of fish released. -134-

Alexander Lake, which commenced operations in 1962, has experienced a return of 700 coho adults from a planting of 99,000 fry, for a .71 percent survival rate. Melbourne Lake, the first Washington State fish farm, began operations in 1957, and after eight years of coho fFIJ plantings, it has recorded adult returns in only 1960 and 1964. The respective returns of 3960 and 1172 in those years represent an adult return rate of 2.0 and .9 percent. Cranberry Lake is worthy of mention because of its consistent, but dwindling, adult returns during the period 1961 to 1964. n1e successive returns of 2350, 2032, 705 &nrl 374 represent rates of .22, .56, .21 and .09 percent respectively, the average being .27 percent. Key Port and Kennedy Lagoon salt-water rearing areas are noteworthy because, in addition to coho, pink, sockeye, and chum rearing has been attempted. No pink or sockeye re turns resulted from the single plants made in Kennedy's Lagoon, but it has recorded chum returns from 1960 to 1964 numbering 100, 400, 90 and 63 from plantings undertaken in 19)8, 1959 and 1961. The 100 churns which returned in 1960 were three-year-olds from the 1958 brood-year, but no four-year-olds were reported in 1961. Since no plant was made in 1960 the 90 chums which returned in 1963 are also assumed to have been three-year-olds from the 1961 plant. The rates of return for 1958, 1959 and 1961 are thus estimated to have been .018, .04 and 1.70 percent, respectively, the mean being .56 percent. It is to be noted, however, that the wide varian0e in these rates of return, together with the -135-

small numbers of returning fish, makes this mean rate of survival suspect, pending the collection of additional information. Fairly substantial chum returns of 5000 and 1033 fish were recorded at Key Port in 1962 and 1963 from plantings made in 1959 and 1960, and the plantings were resumed in 1963. The contribution of pond-reared chinooks to the Washington State salmon fisheries is not known, but. the coho contribution has been totalled at 58, 000 cohos for the entire period in which the fish farms have been in operation. In 1964.11 the fish farms contributed approximately 8000 coho, or .8 percent of the annual catch. The State of Oregon '.s natural rearing program, involving both salt- and fresh water controlled areas at five ponds and two lakes, has not been in operation long enough to have experienced adult returns.(9) The Lint Slough salt-water rearing area at Waldport appears to be providing considerable basic information with respect to environmental requirements for rearing both steelhead and salmon under controlled conditions. This work is being carried out by the research section of the Oregon Game Commission in conjunction with graduate students at

Oregon State University. Similar work is being carried out at Whistlers· Bend, Hemlock, Medco No. 1, and Medco No. 2 ponds, and the Oregon Fish Commission is evaluating a small impoundment

on the Columbia River. Both groups emphasize the point that research must precede production. -136-

Probably the most successful application of the rearing pond technique has been achieved by the Washington Grune !)apartment which uses ponds, as an adjunct to hatchery operations, (10) to produce steelhead smelts. These operations are reported to have low capital costs, low production costs, and a high rate of return of adults. For example, a 27-acre slough of the Skagit River, which was converted into a controlled rearing pond at a cost of $43,000, produced 190,000 steelhead migrants in the best year of· its four-year operating period. These downstream migrants, which were 6-9 inches long with an average weight of· 6.7 to the pound, were produced at a cost of $.59 per pound. Adult returns stemming from the first full p1•oduction of the rearing pond provided 37 percent of the Skagit River sp·ort catch in the 1963-64 season, and, on the basis of the total catch of 34,900 steelhead (punch card data) it has been estimated that 12.4 percent of the smolts survived to enter the catch in that one season. The management procedure for .natural rearing ponds calls for them to be stocked with 10-15 thousand fingerlings per acre whenever these hatchery-raised fish have attained a weight of 100 per pound. Dry pelleted food is broadcast, by means of a mechanical feeder mounted on a motor boat, at intervals throughout the rearing period. Migration occurs in April and May and is usually completed by the first of June. Residual

.fish~ which, to date, have averaged about three percent of the total production, are then eliminated by an application of rotenone, and the pond is prepared for the introduction of the next rearing group.· -137-

For comparison of survival rates, 20,000 hatchery­ raised steelhead, averaging 6.5 per pound, were marked and released into a major steelhead river a short distance above the outlet of a natural rearing pond, while an equal number of smolts which were reared in the pond were also marked by fin-clipping as they emigrated from the pond. Subsequently, a creel check of the adult sport catch recorded that the contribution of the natural rearing pond was double that of the hatchery. The calculated catch of rearing-pond stock was 6.5 percent of the number released, which represents a re turn of nearly three pounds of fish for every pound mich was reieased.

2.4.3 sm~1MARY AND CONCLUSIONS As a production technique, the controlled natural rearing area cannot be regarded as a success at this time. An

economic evaluation has proved that, when viewed as a single unit1 the Washington State rearing program has been an unprofitable investment. Nevertheless, there have been some encouraging.signs. For instance, the Capitol Lake project appears to be producing significant numbers of chinook salmon adults, and if the success of that project could be duplicated in other critical sport fishing areas, application of this technique could become an extremely profitable venture. Similarly, a few of the coho production' uni ts appear to be on the verge of economic production» and, -certainly, the recommendations resulting from the evaluation study will, if follo~ed, provide considerable additional informa­ tion with regard to the possible future of this technique. -138-

There can be no doubt that biological assessment of controlled natural rearing areas lags behind construction and operation, and that there is a definite need for research to determine why some areas produce while others do not. Such action has, of course, been recommended and will apparently be carried out. There are also some indications that additive techniques such as fertilization and supplementary feeding may be employed to provide additional benefits. It is generally agreed that while the Washington · St'S..te program has been expanded too rapidly, the concept is worthy of investigation and should be pursued. 'The Washington Game Department, which appears to have had considerable success with the rearing of steelhead trout, concludes from its work at Barnaby Slough, on the Skagit River, and Blue Slough, on the Stillaguarnish River, that natural rearing ponds can be employed effectively to produce excellent steelhead smolts. In this connection, it is to be noted that the capital costs of rearing ponds usually are much lower than those for hatchery facilities of similar capacity; that their flow requirements can be only a fraction of those needed for hatchery operations; and that the use of supplemental feeds can increase the rate of production achieved wi t;h natural food alone by ten times or more. Full control of predators and competitors is advisable in order to sustain a high rate of production.· If the pond cannot be drained, residual fish must be removed before it is restocked. It has also been round that stocking with -139- fingerlings which weigh in at less than 100 per pound can increase the rate of production of smolts. The natural type of environment provided by rearing ponds produces migrants which, more typically, move seaward of their own volition, and some experimental evidence shows that survival to the adult stage may be greater than that for hatchery­ reared smol ts. In British Columbia, it appears that studies are required to determine the fates of newly emerged chinook fry and underyearling coho that apparently migrate to salt water prema~ turely, and if it should be proved that these fish do not contribute to the adult production, serious consideration should then be given to controlled natural rea1.,ing ponds and other alternatives as a possible means of offsetting these losses. -140-

2.4.4 REF'ERENCES (1) Noble, R. E. 1963. Natural rearing areas of Washington State Department of Fisheries. Report of .2nd Governors Conference. (2) Washington Department of Fisheries mimeo report. 1965. Preliminary report on the Department of Fisheries fish farm program. (3) Washington State Department of Fisheries Annual Reports. 1957-1964. Crutchfield, James A. and Kenneth B. Kral, Lloyd A. Phinney. 1965. An economic evaluation of Washington State Department of Fisheries controlled natural-rearing program for coho salmon. State of Washington, Department of Fisheries, Research Division. (5) Phinney, Lloyd A. and Kenneth B. Kral. 1965. Supplemental report on Crutchfield's report cited above. (Writ ten from a biological standpoint) (6) Noble, R. E. 1965. Personal communication discussing a review of hatchery and fish farm programs, Washington State, Department of Fisheries.• {7) Moore, Milo, Ken McLeod, and Don Reed. 1960. Fish farming, Fisheries :Management. Fisheries: Washington State Department of Fisheries Volume III. (8) Donaldson, Lauren R. 1964. Salmon returns to the horning pond. Research in Fisheries Cont. No.· 18t~ University of Washington, College of Fisheries. Fisheries Research Institute. ·

(9) Oregon State Ga.me Commission, Annual Reports of the Research Division. (10) Millenbach, Cliff. 1965. A management program for steelhead trout. A~paper presented to the 95th Annual Meeting, American Fisheries Society, Portland, Oregon, 1965. 2.5 TRANSPLANTATION 2.5.1 INTRODUCTION Many rivers in the Pacific Northwest, which appear to be capable of supporting salmon, are not doing so, while others, which are productive in some years on a cyclical basis, are likewise barren of salmon in the intervening years. These phenomena have given rise to a great deal of research and experi­ mentation during the last s'everal decades, based on the rather intriguing concept that if these voids in the natural distribution of the five species of Pacific salmon could be filled the benefits accruing to the commercial and sport fisheries would be enormouso With this thought in mind, investigators logically have regarded transplantation of salmon stocks as a eood risk inasmuch as salmon "home 11 to the s trearns of their origins, and surplus eggs and fry usually are available from overstocked spawning streams and hatcheries. Accordingly, experiments unde~­ taken to date have ranged from large-scale successive transplants of eyed eggs to the mere release of surplus hatchery fry into barren streams. While all five species of Pacific salmon have been transplanted, studies undertaken to date have been devoted primarily to sockeye and chinook salmon because of their high economic value, and to pink salmon because their fixed two-year life cycle and "blank-year phenomenon" make it an excellent subject for transplant experiments. Coho and chums have not been assigned a high priority because the former already have extremely widespread distribution, while the latter have a -142- relatively low value and fairly widespread distribution.

Furthermore, productions stemming from coho and churn transplants have been virtually impossible to assess because they are obscured by the productions of the native populations. For these reasons the following discussion will be confined solely to transplants of pink, sockeye, and ch.inook salmon.

2.5.2 RESULTS OF TRANSPLANTS

2.5.2.1 Pink Salmon Neave's summary of the history of pink salmon trans­ plants presents an extensive tabulation of results, and discusses the possible methods by which "off-year" runs might be established in areas where single-line dominance prevails. For the most part, the following inforrna ti6n has there fore been drawn from Neave 1 s report. ( 1 )

Transplants to barren areas outside the natural range Alevins and fingerlings cultured in U.S.S.R. hatcheries on Sakhalin and the Kamchatka peninsula,· in the Pacific dralnage, were transplanted to the I(ola peninsula, in the Arctic drainage, during the brood-years 1956~59. ·Releases of 3.)- and 6. O million alevins in the first two years,· respectively, failed to produce.­ any adult returns. On the other hand, the release of 15 million fingerlings .from the 1958 brood produced a return of approxi­ mately 70~000 adults, although a similar release the following year produced only a few hundred. The 1960 adult returns failed to produce fry naturally or in hatcheries, and natural and artificial propagation of the small adult return in 1962 was also unsuccessful. These failures have been attributed to a later-than-optimum spawning time which prevented the eggs from

developing sufficiently to withstand the extremely low tempera­ tures which prevail during the late fall and winter. The 1961-

brood adults which spawned earlier than the even-year broodsg are reported to have been more successful in both natural and artificial reproduction. Some adults are reported to have

returned in 1963 but an overall estimate of numbers is apparent;:L-y not available.

Eggs, transplanted to the State of Maine from Alaska in the even year, and from Washington State in the odd year, during the period 190.5 to 1917, resulted in releases of hatchery­ raised fry ranging from 400,000 to 7.9 million, and, in a few instances, several hundred thousand fingerlings were planted. While no adult returns were recorded from tb.e even-year trans­ plants, several thousand are reported to have been produced from the odd-year transplants (1913-17 broods). Eggs were collected

from the returning adults from 1919 to 192.5, but by 1927 the adult return was extremely small and hatchery propagation was discontinued.

Sizeable &~ipments of eyed eggs from the Indian (1959 brood), Glendale (1962 brood), and Lakelse (1964 brood) Rivers in British Columbia have been planted in the North Harbour River~ Newfoundland, where the resultant fry migrations of 95 thousand in 1959, and 2.1 million in 1962, produced only one returning adult in 1961 and 47 known returns in 1964. The adult return from the J.5-million-egg transplant in 196!t- is due in 1966. -144-

Transplants to non-barren areas within the natural range to establish off-year runs During the period 1914 to 1932 Alaskan stocks were transplanted to Puget Sound in attempts .to establish even-year runs. Annual releases of up to 30 million hatchery-raised fry and 7 million fingerlings failed to produce adult returns to the streams of release, but it would seem that little effort was expended to determine the actual escapements. These transplants were resumed during the period 1948 to 1956 usinc stock from Lakelse River, British Columbia, which were reared to the fingerling stage prior to release. These releases, which ranged from 57,000 to 707,000, failed to establish a self-sustaining run in Puget Sound. Alevins and fry from.the 1931- and 1935 brood-years of Tlell River stock were released at McClinton Creek, Masset Inlet, Queen Charlotte Islands, in an attempt to establish an off-year run. Plants of 878,000 in 1931, and 506,000 in 1935 produced returns to the stream of only one and six adults, respectively. The 1954 transplant of 2.6 million eyed eggs from the Lakelse River stock, in the Skeena River system, to the Jones Creek spawning channel, in the Fraser River system, produqed 1.1 million migrating fry, and a return to the channel of 2800 adults. An emigration of 321,000 fry produced by the 1956 natural deposition of two million eggs and a plant of one million eyed eggs from Lakelse, resulted in the return of one hundred adults to the channel in 1958, and only one or two in 1960. It is to be noted, however, that the returns in 1956 and 1958 -145- were probably subjected to an unusually high rate of exploitation by the Fra~er River sockeye fishery. Transplants to barren areas within the natural range An odd-year run, maintained entirely by hatchery propagation, has been established at Finch Creek, in the Hood

Canal area of Puga t Sound, from H33, 000 fingerlings which were taken from the 1953-brood Dungeness River stock (Puget Sound) and planted in Finch Creek after being reared in saltwater to a size of 104 per pound. Since the first return of 1958 adults in 195'5 the run has maintained itself, as evidenced by the 1963 return of 6600 adults. The average rate of l"eturn, from egg to adult escapement, over a ten-year period, has been 0.47 percent, or approximately four times greater than the the ore ti cal require­ 2 ment to maintain the run. ( ) With the exception of the 1961 brood, the marine survival rate, as related to the adult escape­ ment, has averaged 0.9 percent9 with a range of 0.5- to 1.3 percent. By contrast, even-year transplants to Finch Creek from the 1952- and 195L~ Lakelse River broods have failed to develop a run despite the fact that rearing methods comparable to those employed for the odd-year transplants were used. Approximately 150, 000 saltwater-reared fingerlings were released from each brood at a size of 120-130 per pound. Transplants to the Department 1 s Robertson Creek spawning channel on Vancouver Island were initiated in 1959 to establish a run in the Somass River system, which was barren of -146- pink salmon except for a few recorded in the lower river. Odd- year transplants from Indian River, Burrard Inlet, have produced adult returns of 130 (1959 brood), 4700 (1961 broo4), and 1850 (1963 brood). These returns when expressed as percentages of the total fry emigrations, represept survival rates of .008-,

' 0.1-, and .02 percent, respectivel~. The survival rate for the I ! 1961 brood was exceptionally high !for what was most likely a first-generation return. Even-year transplants to Robertson

! Creek from Tsolum River, Vancouver! Island (1960) and Atna.rko River, central B. c. coast (1962),i produced adult returns of I i 240 and 100, respectively, which r~present fry-to-adult survival

! rates of • 03- and .,002 percent. Transplants from the Atn arko I I River and Bear River, Vancouver Isi and, were undertaken at ! Robertson Creek in 1964, and the aP.ult returns from each will be ' I identifiable by the one-month diff~rence in the spawning times of the two races. This two-race a~proach may also provide

i valuable information with respect to the effects of the high temperatures which prevail in Robertson Creek during the early i incubation period. Transplants of stocks d~awn from the Cheakamus River (Howe Sound} and the Bear River (J~hnstone Strait) were carried out at Big Qualicum River in 1963 ~nd 1964. The resultant I output of 1.25 million fry from the 1963 Cheakamus River brood resulted in the return of 75 adults to the Qualicum in 1965. Returns from the 1964 transplant of the later-running Bear River stock are not due until the fall of 1966. 2.5.2.2 Sockeye Salmon Many sockeye salmon transplants were attempted in the Fraser River system before the Department's hatchery system in British Columbia was closed down in 1937, but there is no evidence to indicate that any of these efforts produced a run

which maintained itself by natural propagation. (J) From 1950 to 1962, the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission carried out eyed egg transplants, almost annually, to various barren spawning areas in the Fraser River system, several of which supported sockeye salmon prior to the formation of the Hell's Gate obstruction. The results and details of these trans- plants are summarized in Table 15. In only two locations, Middle Shuswap River and Portage Creek (Seton Lake), have these efforts produced self-sustaining, or increasing populations. A small population of 100-300 spawners was native to Portage Creek prior to the transplantation program and there may therefore be' reason to doubt that the transplant has been wholly responsible for the increase in adult returns, which, in 1962, amounted to 12, 000 spawners. On the other hand, spawning escapements of the other three year-classes, which· were not affected by the trans­ plant, remained at a low level (i.e. less than 300 spawners) up ·to 1963, according to the local Fishery Officer's spawning ground reports. As a result of the generally low success recorded to date, the Commission has temporarily abandoned attempts to

transplant sockeye to barren areas. (4) The Alaska Department of Fish and Game has attempted to transplant sockeye salmon to the Paul's and Fraser Lake systems TABLE 15.. Swnmary of Sookeye Transplants Attempted within The Fraser River System by The r.P.s.F.c. Size of Transplant Reoipient Donor Brood EY~d Adult Stream Stream ..!!!!:... Eggs Fr;y Fingerling Return Upper Adiµns Seymour 1950 667,000 205 ( '54) Unknown ( '5a ) II 85 ( '62) 1955 0 " 1956 l (Possible Straying to Momioh River ) II 1957 520,000 0 II 1959 900,000 100 Taseko 1960 702,000 162 Harbour Creek Taseko 1959 600,000 0 (Upp er Adams )

Middle Shuswap Lower Adams 1954 1,396,ooo 499 ( 158) II Ii 457 ('62) 1959 620,000 0 II II Lao La Hache 1954 15,ooo 0 II Anders.on " 1950 193,000 0 Salmon (Shuswap) Seymour 1954 Unlmown 0 Barriere Raft 1956 316,000 23 1957 550,000 335 " (+38 natural spawners ) II 1960 1,083,000 251 (+23 natural spawners )

II Fennel Creek 1959 490,000 439 (Barriere Lake (+27 natural spawners ) llWX" Creek Forrar 1956 318,000 (Nadina Laked 0

Recipient Donor Brood EY"ed Adult Stream Stream ~ Eggs Fingerling Return Portage Lower Adams 1950 300,000

Smolt Output Horsefly Lake Horse.fly 1953 131,000 247 River 1955 280,000 Un Im own 1956 311,000 269 1957 J,259,000 21,537 1958 J,OOJ,000 Not Reported

Scotch Creek Seymour 1962 1,023,000 Due in 1966

Eagle 1962 2,757 ,400 Due in 1966

Source: International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission Annual Reports - 1954 and 1957-64. -149-

on Kodiak Island, both of which have lakes situated upstream of

impassable falls. Eyed eggs were transplanted to streams flowing

into these upper lakes during the 1951-56 period, and fishways

were constructed at both obstructions during the same interval·.

While Paul's Lake supports a native sockeye population,

Laura Lake, which is situated further upstream was inaccessible until completion of a fishway at an impassable falls. In 1956,

however, 500 adult sockeye passed through the fishway into Laura

Lake, and by 19;58 the number had increased to ?400. As no · further information has been published on adult returns to the

system, it is not clear as to whether or not the adult returns

to Laura Lake resulted primarily from the transplant, from a

distribution extension of the Paul 1 s Lake popula. ti on, or from a

coillbination of both.

The results of the Fraser Lake transplant are somewhat easier to interpret as this system did not support native anadro­ mous or residual (kokanee) sockeye prior to transplantation.

R. R. Parker of the Nanaimo Biological Station, quoting from a persona1 . communica. t•ion ()) f .rom personne· 1 o f th e Al as k a Depar t men t

of Fish and Game, reported th!at the 1965 escapement to F'raser

Lake was approximately 5000 fish. Prom the limited inforrnation

available (Table 16) it would appear that the transplanted

population is gradually increasing and that the transplant shows promise of being relatively successful. -150-

TABLE 16. SUMMARY OF SOCKEYE TRANSPLANTS AND RETURNS TO FRASER LAKE, KODIAK ISLAND, ALASKA (b)

Recipient Donor Eyed Egg Adult System System Year Plant Return

Fraser Lake Karluk Lake 1951 200,000 II 1952 513,000 " 1953 1,000,000 1954 Number Unknown " 1955 320,000 Red Lake 1956 500,000 1957 500 1958 76 1963 2,0005

The Department has attempted to rehabilitate the native Nanika River sockeye population by means of transplants from Pinkut Creek, a tributary of Babine Lake, to a hatchery located on the Nanika River. Large-scale transplants of eggs, carried out annually since 1961, have resulted in fry releases from the hatchery ranging from 3.9 million in 1961 to 7.9 million in 1964. _An additional 1. 2 million fry which were produced from the 1964 brood, in an adjacent incubation channel, were of a higher quality than the hatchery-pr?duced fry, and it has there­ fore been decided that the hatchery will be relegated to the role of an eyeing station, with all fry production occurring in the channel. Evaluation of the transplant 1 s contribution, in terms of the returning adult populations, is just beginning. · -151-

2.5.2.3 Chinook Salmon

Some adult spring chinook salmon, migrating to upper

Columbia River spawning areas, were trapped each year at Bonneville Dam from 1955 to 1961, for transferral to Carson hatchery on the Wind River, a lower Columbia tributary, (7 ) with

a view to establishing, by means of transplants, a race which could take advantaee of improved access created by the recent construction of fishways in the Wind River system. The progeny

of these adults were raised at .the hatchery for release to the Wind River as one-year-old smolts. Annual releases of smolts

have ranged from 261, 000 to l, 017, 000. ·The first significant

returns were recovel'.'.ed in 1960.and 1961, when 854 ~nd 1032 adults, respectively, we re enu:mera te d at the Shipperd Falls fish way. The po'tential egg depositions of these returns were sufficient to

replace the number of eggs taken at Carson hatchery in the brood year four years previously.

The Washington State Department of Fisheries has ·transplanted Green River fall chinool{ stock in order to establish runs which are being propagated by a number of state hatcheries . . . . (8) . in the Puget Sound area. Many of the. hatcheries are located· on streams which apparently have not supported natural runs of

. fall chinooks. A population which homes to the College of

Fisheries ·hatchery at the University of Washington has also sten:nned from a successful transplant of Green Rivet> hatchery 9 stock. ( ) Adult returns to this hatchery have continuously increased since 1955, with third-generation escapements in 1963 and 1964 amounting to 800 and 3000 adults, respectively. -152-

Al though highly successful in Puget Sound11 Green River stock has not produced returns from attempted transplants to hatcheries located on the Olympic Peninsula. (lO) While it has become standard hatchery practice to release to nearby non-producing streams those ohinook fry which are in excess of the hatchery's rearing capacity, there are no records of this procedure having established a self-sustaining. population. Attempts to produce adult chinook salmon from fry planted in controlled natural rearing areas (fish farms) using both salt- and fresh water, have been almost wholly unsuccessful. The lone exception is the Capitol Lake-Deschutes River fish farm which recorded an adult return of approximately 2.5, 000 in 1964, with prior escapements consistently numbering several thousand. since 1948. (ll)

Transplants of chinook salmon to New Zealand were initiated in the late nineteenth century, and by 1900 a run had been established in the Waitaki River on the east coast of the (12) . South Island. In the following 20 years, this population spread naturally to a number of adjacent rivers, but attempts to extend their distribution further by artificial propagation were not successful. In this connection, transfers of eyed eggs to rivers on the west coast of the South Island, and to the North Island, failed to yield results. Reports for the period 1956-59 mention a chinook fishery in only one river system, with an . (13) annual catch ranging between 150 and 3000 fish. It is also stated in these reports that the abundance of chinook salmon has -153-

seriously declined as a result of hydroelectric and irrigation developments on several important rivers. 2.5.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Transplants of pink salmon to rivers, both within and outside of their natural range, have failed to establish a self­ propagating run. This applies to spawning areas within the coastwide distribution of pink salmon, which have not, in recent times, supported natural runs, and to areas where single-line dominance prevails. Nevertheless, an odd-year run, maintained entirely by hatchery propagation, has been established at Finch Creek in Puget Sound, Washington. For five cenerations, this run, which originated from Dungeness River (Puget $ound) stock; has experienced an average survival rate, from egg-to-adult es·capement; of 0.47 percent, which is approxima. tely four times greater than the theoretical requirement to maintain the run. The latest reported escapement was 6600 in 1963. A similariy low degree of success has been. achieved with transplantation of sockeye salmon. Eyed-egg transplants, undertaken by the Intema tional Pacific Salmon 1',isheries Commission in a number of attempts to introduce this. species to most barren streams with seemingly good sockeye potential in the - Fraser River system, appear to have been even moderately success- . . ful only at Portage Creek (Seton Lake) II where, after a transplant of 300,000 eyed eggs in 1950, the escapement increased successive­ ly over three generations to approximately 12,000.in 1962. There are also indications of success at Fraser Lake on Kodiak Island, -154-

Alaska, where eyed-egg plants, begun in 1951, reportedly have produced adult returns of approxima·tely -,5000 in 1965. Results obtained to date from chinook transplants have been better than those recorded with .either pink or sockeye salmon. All successful transplants within the natural range of the chi nooks have involved hatchery propaga·tion during part or all of the freshwater phase. Transplants of Green River stock · are reported to have been responsible for the establishment of runs to a number of Puget Sound hatcheries, which are operated by the Washington Department of Fisheries (Samish, Minter Creek, Hood Canal, Issaquah), and to the University of Washington. A run, with escapements consistently numbering several thousand, has also been established with Green River stock at Deschutes River, near Olympia, Washington, where reproduction from the egg to the emergent-fry stage is maintained by hatchery culture. It is significant to note that annual plants of emergent-size fall chinook fry, liberated from hatcheries into a large number of Puget Sound streams which have not supported natural runs, have failed to produce any significant adult returns. Plants of chinook fry into controlled rearing areas in Puget Sound have also experienced low levels of success and, in many instances, fry survival to the emigration stage has been negligible. The pink salmon transplants to Robertson Creek and Big Qualicum River, Vancouver Island, and to the North Harbour River, Newfoundland, are too recent to provide conclusive evidence as to Wiether or not they have been successful in terms -155-

of. adult production. The same applies to the Department's sockeye salmon transplant to the Nanika River, in the Skeena- Bulkley system. Without the aid of artificial propagation methods, transplantation of runs within their natural range shows little promise as a production tool, al though experience in Washington State suggests that chinook transplantation, combined with hatchery propagation, is much closer to becoming a production tool than is transplantation of pink or sockeye .. The poor - results achieved from releases of transplanted fry into natural environments indicate that the early freshwater rearing require­ ments of juvenile fall chinooks are quite specialized, and that hatchery rearing to the "90-day stage" apparently overcomes many I of' the deficiencies of foreign environments. It appears from the review of work undertaken to date in the transplantation field that "gambles" normally cannot be expected to produce the desired economic returns, and that the transplantation technique must.be regarded as a complex subject which will require much greater efforts in future, than those in the past, in order to develop a better understanding of these complexities. Furthermore, it must be acknowledged that donor stocks have evolved for countless generations by natural selec- tion for characteristics favourable to the environment of its spe

militate against the success of transplants. There are, however9 -156- substantial production gains to be realized by the successful use of transplantation for the following purposes: to establish sockeye runs to lakes in the Fraser River system which are not now· producing anadromous sockeye; to establish off-year pink runs in systems where only a single year class now prevails; and to introduce chinook salmon to key sport-fishing areas. The possibilities for success in these areas can be enhanced only by the application of substantially increased efforts along the following lines: 1. In contrast to past; transplants, where the choice of donor stock has too often been dictated by the availability of surplus eggs, the racial charac­ teristics of the donor stock should be matched with the environmental characteristics of the receiving stream. Locically, the attributes of the stock required for the reoeivine stream should be defined, and a search should then be initiated to locate a stock having these same attributes, or attempts should be made to develop such a stock by artificial selection. 2. Since perfect matching cannot be expected, massive transplants are obviously required in order to take advantage of the genetic variations that exist in any stock of fish, and thereby provide a good nucleus for a self-perpetuating run. 3. Adult returns from transplants must be used to best advantage in order to develop even greater returns in future generations. -157-

4. Apply new concepts, not yet researched, such as cross-fertilization of first- and second genera­ tions, storage of sex products from 11 on-years 0 to

start "off-year" runs in the same stream~ modifi­ cations of the environment of the receiving streams, etc. At present, it appears that efforts directed toward the extension of existing runs, that are presently below their productive capacity, offer greater opportunities for success than those directed toward transplantations to bar.ren streams. -158-

2.5.4 REFERENCES (1) Neave, F. 1965. Transplants of pink salmonq Fishe Res. Bd. Can. Manuscript Rept. (Biol.) Noo 830. (2) Noble, R. E. 1964. Status of pink salmon artificial propagation in Washington State. Report of the 1964 Northeast Pacific pink salmon workshop and . contributed papers. W. J. McNeil, (ed.), Manuscript Rept. No. 64-5. u. s. Fish and Wildlife Service, Auke Bay, Alaska. (3) International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, Annual Report, 1960. (4) International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, Annual Reportj 1964. (5) Personal communication. D. F. Lall, Kodiak Dis tric-t Management Biologist. (6) Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game Annual Reports, 1951-58. (7) Zimmer, P. D., R. J. Wahle and E. M. Maltzeff. 1963. Progress Report, spring chinook transplantation study, 1955-61. U. s. Fish and Wildlife Service Spec. Sci. Rept. Fisheries No. 443. (8) Personal communication. R. E. Noble, Assistant Supervisor of Hatcheries, Washington State Dept. of Fisheries. (9) Research in Fisheries, 1964. Contribution No. 184, College of Fisheries, U. of Washington, Seattle. (10) Washington Dept. of Fisheries Annual Report, 1959. (11) Washington Dept* of Fisheries Annual Report, 1964. (12) Hobbs, D. F. 1948. Trout fisheries in New Zealand. New Zealand Marine Department Fisheries Bull. No. 9.

(13) Report on Fisheries, New Zealand Marine Department9 1956-59. -l-59-

2.6 PREDATOR CONTROL 2• 6.1 INTRODUCTION Eradication of those birds, anims!s, fish, a:Qd aa.Pi.l1e

mammals which prey on salmon has often been mentioned s.11 a means of improving salmon production, but the problems of ilnpleme.nting and executing such programs can be many and costly. For instance,

trout and other sport fish prey heavily on young salmon and salmon eggs, but any attempts to eliminate these predators wou1d tinder- s tandably meet with s t:t>ot.1g opposi tiot1 which requires t1o ex.p1£t.t111tiot1. ·aiil:liiar :rlel:l.aonittg oati be applied in connection with game birdtt · and game a.tt1rna.1s. Perhaps the only na tura1 anemias that cotlid be eradicated without incurring public outcria a are the prada to:tiy stocks of coarse fish, arid, indeed; this could produce worthwhile benefits in a number of watersheds where their depredatiotls a:re pa:r>ticularly severe, but to do so gives taisa to the questiott d.d

to how the coatase fish can be eliminated eoonontlca11y on a larg~ sea.le without exposing salmon and trout to the same hazardl3; Furthermore, the removal of adult.predators in a system rna.y allow an increase in production of their own young which may nullify the value of the original removal.

2. 6. 2 ASSESSMENT OF RESUUI1S While available literature cites numerous predator control studies undertaken on the Pacific and Atlantic coasts, these, for the most part, have been confined to highly localized areas, whereas predator control measures would have to be applied on a broad scale to have any noticeable effect on the salmon -160- production in the Province as a whole, as will be noted from the following discussion. Predator control programs undertaken to date in Canada have been directed primarily toward piscivorous birds on the Atlantic coast and piscivorous fish on the Pacific coast. The only program currently underway on the Pacific coast is one which is aimed at controlling the depredations of seals, sea lions, and beluga whales in the State of Alaska. A review of the literature clearly reveals that losses of adult salmon to predators can be significant. For instance, Shuman found that Jl percent of the pink salmon entering Moraine Creek, Alaska, were killed by bears before they had spawned, and that, in tenns of potential salmon production, this represented a loss of $1800 per bear. (l) On the other hand, Thorsteinson concluded that black bear predation on pink salmon at Olsen Creek 2 was not significant. ( ) Accordingly, it would appear that the impact of bear predation on salmon varies from locality to - locality, although it must be noted that comparative results are lac~ing inasmuch as there are no reports of a bear control program ever being undertaken for the benefit of salmon. Seals have an adverse effect on the salmon fishery in Alaska and British Columbia, where they not only consume free- swimming salmon but also interfere with the nets and remove salmon from the troll-lines and gillnets of the fishermen. A control program undertaken by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game calls for the shooting of seals by government hunters, or, as at Copper River1 they are bombed with dynamite. This program -161- has been moderately successful as evidenced by comparative observations of the seals' activities during the'" p~riods when the hunters were on du~J and when they were not, which showed that as soon as the hunters departed the seals immediately moved back into the fishing areas. (3 ) The Copper River bombing program· has reduced the seal population to a level at which peripheral influx appears to be relatively low. Nevertheless, it is felt that pressure must be maintained on the seal population to prevent their recovery, and that shooting, in particular, has little residual effect.

Studies of the sea lion population in Alaska has produced estimates tb.at salmon trollers lose three fish per boat per day in the outside waters of Southeastern Alaska. (3)

Beluga whales constitute such a serious threat to the seaward migration of sockeye smelts in the Kvichak River, Alaska, that a program was initiated i.n 1957 to keep these animals out. of the river, where most of the predation occurred, by chasing them down to the mouth by means of a fast motor boat. ·when the program was repeated in 1958, dynamite was exploded neat' the whales in an effort to scare them from the area, and it is believed that these combined efforts were successful in saving ( 3) most of the sockeye smelts of that year. ·

Most piscivorous bird control experiments have been concerned with Atlantic salmon and their principal predators, the American merganser, Mergus merganser, the red-breasted merganser, Mergus serrator and the kinc;fisher, Megaceryle alcyon.

According to White, (4) young salmon comprise up to 91.5- and -162-

87. 2 percent, respectively, of the diet of these mergansers and kingfishers. Lindroth calculated that adult mergansers in Sweden required 400 grams of fish per day, half of which consisted of salmon and trout parr. ()) On the Cowichan River, in British Columbia, it was found that the red-breasted merganser fed largely upon salmon eggs during the period mid-December to mid- January, as evidenced by the fact that stomach analyses disclosed . d {6) an average o f 41 sa lm on eggs per b ir . A major program to assess the depredations of pisci­ vorous birds on Atlantic salmon was conducted on the Pollett River, New Brunswick, throughout the period 1942 to 1950• This study measured the rates of survival of hatchery-reared under­ yearling Atlantic salmon prior to and during implementation of. the predator control program; and it is pertinent to note that these measures enhanced parr production by 366 percent, and smol t production by 400 percent. In this connection, a releas~ of 249,000 unneryearlings in one year, prior to initiation of the control program, produced 12,000 parr after one year, and

5000 smol ts after two years; whereas an average annual release of the same magnitude during four years of predator control resulted in an average annual production of· 4L~, 000 parr, and 20,000 smolts. (7 ) It is interesting to note also that a notice­ able increase in the sculpin populations was observed during the predator control years, al though no efforts were made to measure the extent. White described a similar predator control program, involving the same principal predators, which resulted in the -163-

estimate that 880,000 young salmon and trout were consumed

annually by mergansers and kingfishers on the Margaree River, Nova Scotia. <4) One year of predator control on the Margaree

River was accompanied by a 222-percent increase in the smolt output (1834 to 4065), and this increase in smolt production was 8 followed by an increased adult return in 1940. { ) It has been

suggested that there may be an inverse relationship between

river discharge and predation intensity, with the effectiveness of the bird predators increasing with decreasing discharge. Foerster and Ricker describe a piscivorous fish control experiment undertaken at C1iltus Lake from 1935, to 1938, in which 10, 130 squawfish, 2300 trout, 760 dolly va,rden, and ·

720 lake-residing coho salmon were eliminated by means of a gi'.l.lnettine program. This operation reduced the squawfish, trout, and dolly varden populations to 13.0, 38.0 and 32.0

percent, respectively,, of the pre-control levels. Sockeye fry~ to-smelt survival rates subsequently il'}creased from 1.8- to' 7.8 percent for natural fry, from 4.2- to 8.9 percent for hatchery­ liberated fry, and from 3 .6- to i3 .5 percent for fry produced from eyed-egg plantings, for an average rate of survival for alJ groups of 7 .2 percent, which represents more than a threefold 9 ·increase. ( ) It was later suggested that the probable output of 1937 sockeye smolts from Cultus Lake was increased by 2.4 m:i.llion as a result of the control experiment, and that there were ·

indications that the percentage of smol ts returning as adults increased after predator control. (lO) -164-

Pink and chum fry are exposed to predation not only during their downstream migrations, but also as they enter into the sea. Bakshtanskiy lists trout, S. trutta, stickleback, and herring, Clupea harengus harengus, as predators encountered during the migration of pink and chum fry to the White and Barents Seas in the Soviet Union~(ll) Thorsteinson observed extensive predation of pink salmon fry, by herrine, as the former entered the estuary of Sashin Creek, Southeast Alaska, where it was found that approximately 64 percent of feeding herring had consumed fry, the average number per stomach being 18. (l2 ) No attempts have been made to reduce herring predation on pink and chum salmon fry. The impact of othe1• species of fish which prey upon· young salmon has not been studied extensively, although studies at Hooknose Creek indicate that sculpins and coho smolts, preying upon pink and chum salmon fry at an average rate of 1.5 and 2.0 fry per fish per day, respectively, (l3) could remove up to 80 percent of a small emerging fry population. Two studies in Alaska, which have shown that young Pacific salmon constitute only 2.8-9.0 percent of the diet of dolly varden, conclude that these char usually are not serious predators. (l4)(l5) Narver and Dahlberg.report that sculpins, which prey on young salmon, are over 13 times more numerous than sockeye fry in the stomachs of dolly varden taken at Chegmik Lagoon, Alaska. (lb) The poisoning of lakes with a view to eliminating those species of fish which prey on, or compete with juvenile sockeye warrants careful investigation as a po_ssible means of -165-

increasing the output of soclceye smol ts from some British Columbia lakes. This technique has been employed effectively for enhancement of resident trout populations, but it is to be noted that the problems associated with comparable programs for ·the benefit of salmon appear to be much more complex. In this connection, the trout programs have been undertaken only on small lakes where all stocks of fish were exterminated by the poison, and after the concentrations haddiminished to a safe level, the lakes were restockedwith hatchery-reared trout. In the case of salmon, however, the poison would have to be either toxic only to species other than salmon, or of short-term effectiveness so that it could be applied in periods when salmon losses would be minimal. Otherwise, the lake would have to be restocked, and this would introduce the problems discussed in the Transplant section of this report. Other major foreseeable problems are the high costs associated with poisoning of large deep sockeye-producing lakes, opposition.from anglers and conservationists if sport fish are involved, and objections from local water-users such as residents drawing water from lakes for domestic use, resort owners, and industry. Nevertheless, there.· is reason to believe that lake poisoning is a technique which ·can be employE:td effectively in some instances to enhance salmon production in British Columbia, although much more research will be required before it can he applied with certainty as to the results. -166-

2.6. 3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS It will be seen from the foregoing that, in general, very little conclusive research has been undertaken with respect to the relationship between salmon, in all life stages, and their predators; and it would seem that this subject should be investigated in more detail looking to the possible implementation of predator control measures to enhance salmon production in British Columbia. Available information clearly indicates, however, that while predator control programs may be useful for limited selective application on certain streams, implementation of such measures on the broad scale necessary to effect a notice­ able increase in the British Columbia salmon stocks probably will prove to be impracticable because many of the predators are valued highly by others with diverse interests, the costs of initiating and continuing such a program would almost certainly be prohibitive, and, in many instances, insurmountable problems could arise in connection with the development of selective­ control measures which will affect only the predators. -167-

2.6.4 REFERENCES

i (1) Shuman, R. F. 1950. Bear depredation on red salmon populations in the Karluk River system. Jdur. of Wildl. Management Vol. 14(1), p.1-9.

(2) Thorsteinson, F. V. 1965. Some aspects of ~ink and chum salmon research at Olsen Bay, Prince William Sound. U. S. Fish. and Wildl. Serv. Manusqript Rept. 65-3· (3) Alask:a Department of Fish and Grune. Annual Rep t. (1957) No. 9, p.)0-)9. Annual Rept. (1958 )I No. 10, p.91-102.

(4) White, H. C. 19)9. Bird control to increase! Margaree River salmon. Fish. Hes. Bd. Can. Bull. No. 58, 30 pp.

Lindroth, A. 1954· I1ergansers as salmon andj trout ~redators in the River Indalsolveri. Inst. pf Fish. Res. Orott"oningholm, Fish. Bd. Sweden An. Riept. No~

36, p.126-133. . I

( 6) Munro, J. A. and W. A. Clemens, 19)9. The fiood' and br•eeding habits of the red-breasted mergansier in B. c. Jour. Wildl. Management No. 3(1) p.46-)3. • I I I (7) Elson, P. F. 1962. Predator-prey r~lationsh~ps between fish-eating birds and Atlantic salm:on. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bulle 133, 87 pages.

(8) Huntsman, A. G. 1941. Cyclical abundance an:d birds

versus salmon. Jour .. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. , Vol. 1 5(3), p.227-235. ! I I (9) Foerster, R. E. and W. E. Ricker. 1942· The! effect of reduction of predaoeous fish on survival! of young sockeye salrnon at.Cultus Lake. Jour. Fish. Res. ·P~l. (10) Foerster, R. E. 1954. On the relation of adult salmon (O. nerka) returns to known smelt seaward migrations. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Vol. 11, p.339-350. (11) Bakshtanskiy, E. L. 1964. Effect of predators on the young of O. gorbuscha (Walb.) and O. keta · (Walb.) in the White and Barents Seas. VoprosY-Skhtiologii Vol. 4 No. l(JO), Moscow, p.136-141, Transl. joint Publ. Res. Ser. No. 24431. U. S. Dept. of Co:mm. Office of Tech. Ser. -168-

(12) Thorsteinson, F. V. 1962. Herring predation on pink salmon fry in a Southeastern Alaska estuary. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 91(3}, p.321-323.

(13) Hunter, J. G. 1959. Survival and production of pink and chum salmon in a coastal stream. Jour1;. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Vol. 16, 1,)·335-886. (14) Lagler, K. F. and A. T. Wright. 1962. Predation of the dolly varden, S. malma on young salmon, .2!_ spp in an estuary of S.E. Alaska. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. Vol. 91(1), p.90-93.

(15) Roos, J. F. 1959. Feeding habits of the dolly varden, S. malrna (Walb.) at Chignik, Alaska. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. Vol. l38(L~), p.253-260. (16) Narver, D. W. and M. L. Dahlberg. 1965. Estuarine food of dolly varden at Chignik, Alaska. Trans. -Am. Fish. Soc. 94 {L~), p .405-408. . -169-

2.7 LAK~ FERTILIZATION 2.7.1 INTRODUCTION The pond culture of fish in many parts of Asia has employed the technique of fertilization for many centuries. This technique more recently has been applied to temperate species reared in small ponds by commercial growers, notably in Denmark, with the result that significantly increased production was recorded. Fertilization is aimed at increasing the supply of nutrients required ~or the development of phytoplankton populations, which form the basis of the aquatic food chain. Increased abundance of phytoplankton, in theory, leads to an increased production of intermediate forms (zooplankton), which, in turn, may increase the production of fish. There is no question that this is exactly what happe.ns in pond culture with simple well-known food chains, and closely controlled conditions. In salmon-producing lakes, however, simplicity, control, and knowledge are all missing, and the definition of fertilization is therefore- an over-simplif'ication when applied to lakes to increase salmon production. On the other hand, there may be some sockeye lakes whose chemical­ physical- and biological environment are simple enough to achieve success with this technique, although knowledge in this field is presently limited. 2.7.2 ASSESSMENT OF RESULTS The only documented attempts to increase salmon production by this means were undertaken by the U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries at Bare Lake, Alaska, and by Euguchi et al -170-

(Hokkaido Fish Hatchery) at Lake Skikotsu, Hokkaido, Japan. While the results of the latter are not readily available the details of the Bare Lake works are of considerable interest. Bare Lake was fertilized periodically in the years 1950 to 1956 in an attempt to accelerate photosynthesis and, through the normal processes of the food chain, thereby increase the avail al> le food supply for juvenile sockeye salmon. The cost of fertilizing Bare Lake, which has a surface area of 120 acres and a mean depth of 13.12 feet, to develop optimum concentrations of phosphates and nitrates, worked out to be approximately $J.JO per acre per annum. The addition of the fertilizer was accom- panied by an immediate increase in the photosynthetic rate, ranging from 2. 7 to 7. 0 times the normal rate, al though the phosphate and nitrate levels fell to an undetectable level a few days later. (l)

A further report on this program recorded a progressive increase in the length and weight of two-, three-, and f'our..:year­ old sockeye smolts during the years 1950 to 1956, as shown in Table 17. The trend reversal in 1956 has been attributed to the unusually prolonged- and severe winter conditions which prevailed in 1955, while the increase in the percentage of smol ts re turning as adult spawners has not been explained, although it was felt that larger smelts may have been less subject to predation after they reached the ocean. Several applications of the fertilization technique looking to increasing the trout stocks in lakes and ponds, for -171-

TABLE 17. SMOLT CHARACTERISTICS AND ADULT RETURNS, BARE LAKE, ALA.SKA, 1950-56

Average Year of Average Fork Weight of Number of Number of

1950 73.2 3.35 10,199 333 3.26 1951 82.2 4.83 4,503 205 4.55 1952 80.5 4. 59 8,620 457 5 .30 1953 90.2 6.54 5,058 399 7.89 1954 93. 7 8.23 12,189

1955 97.2 8.99 2i~, 100 19.56 97.0 8.23 6,525

the benefit of anglers, have been accompanied bY subsequent • ' . • (3) (4)(5) improvements in trout growth. In other cases, however, . ( 6) the beneficial effects apparently have been negligible, and, in some instances, fertilization has actually proved to be . . ( 7) detrimental to fish populations. Macrolek has suTimlarized many of the theoretical and practical aspects of the lake fertilization technique, and. the following excerpts are deemed to be particularly noteworthy in this review.

"As aquatic habitats increase in size and depth they become more complex and less practical to fertilize. The average fish yield in lakes is only a fraction of that in culture ponds. Besides dimensional drawbacks, features of lakes that discourage fertilization are lack of control, established populations, non­ drainabili ty, thermal stratification, and indefinite harvest. -172-

Fertilizers cause a general increase in water productivity and various indexes, both biological and chemical have been applied to measure their effects. Enrichment may not aid the desired end of fish yield because of undesirable changes; lowered pH, toxicity, oxygen depletion or diversion of nutrient matter into ( 8) nuisance animal and plant growths. 11 Many of the features of lake fertilization, as cited in the foregoing, apply to British Columbia lakes, but perhaps the most significant is the dimensional drawback. In this connection, it is noted that most Fraser River sockeye-rearing - lakes are comparatively large ranging in size from Cultus Lake (1550 acres) to Shuswap Lake (76,500 acres) with a mean area of 27, 000 acres, and a mean depth of 200-300 feet in the larger (9) onese These authors also estimate that the cost of fertiliz- ing these lakes would be much more expensive than the $11.00 per acre per application calculated for fertilization of the Norrig . (10) Reservoir.

2. 7. 3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION . Current knowledge of both the costs and expected benefits of lake fertilization techniques to enhance salmon production in any British Columbia lake is so limited that, at present, a specific program could only be justifieq. on the basis of its research value. It should be pointed out, however, that increased knowledge of the dynamics of lake environments may make this technique more applicable in future. It is also possible that, in future, small lakes may afford the opportunity to rear large numbers of sockeye by use of a combination of -173- techniques such as predator and competitor control, modification of the invertebrate species in a food chain, and fertilization.

This will depend upon the amount and direction of future basic and applied research. -174-

2.7.4 REFERENCES (1) Nelson, P. R. and w. T. Edmondson. 1955· Limnologi­ cal effects of fertilizing Bare Lake, Alaska. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull. 102, Vol. 56, pp.415-436. (2) Nelson, P. R. 1959· Effects of fertilizing Bare Lake, Alaska, on growth and production of red salmon (O. nerka). U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Fish Bull. 159, Vol. 60, pp.)9-86.

(3) Weatherby, A. and A. G. Nicholls. 19)5. The effects of artificial enrichment of a lake. Australian Jour. of Mar. and Freshw. Res. Vol. 6 (J), pp.443-468.

(4) Smith, M. W~ 19)5. Fertilization and predator control. to imp1•ove trout angling in natural lakes_­ Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 12 (2), p.210.

(5) Smith, M. W. 1956. Further improvement in trout angling at Crecy Lake, New Brunswick,. with predator control extended to large trout. Cn. Fish. Cul. (19), pp.13-17.

(6) Smith, M. \J. 19)2. Fertilization and predator_ control to improve trout production in Crecy Lake, New Brunswick. Can. Fish Cult. 13, p.33-39. (7) Ball, R. A. 19)0. Fertilization of natural lakes in Michigan. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. Vol. 78, pp.145-155.

(8) Macrolek, J. A. 1954· Artificial fertilization of lakes and ponds. A review of the literature. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Special Sci. Rept. 113, 41 pages. (9) Andrew, F. J. and G. H. Geen. 1960. Sockeye and pink salmon production in relation to proposed dams in the F'raser River System. Bull. XI, Int. Pac. Salmon Fish. Comm. 1960. (10) Hasler, A. D. and W. G. Einsele. 1948. Fertilization for• incr•easing production of natural inland waters. Trans. 13th North Amer. Wildlife Conf. pp.527-555. -175-

2.8 SELECTIVE BREEDING 2.8.l INTRODUCTION

The appeal of selective breedine as a technique for enhancing the production of Pacific salmon undoubtedly stems from its successful application in the field of agriculture.

Numerous analogies can be drawn in connection with the improved production of domestic food animals as a result of startling and profitable modifications developed throu.Gh genetic manipulation over the pa.st few years. It follows that if fisheries science were to envision an agricultural-type cultivation of salmon stocks selective breeding would play an import;ant role. At present, however, British Columbia is many years away from artificial propagation of the total salmon crop,· and selective breeding must there fore be looked at with low priority as a production technique, but with somewhat higher priority from a research standpoint.

Washington ·and Oregon, with their large hatchery complexes, can show much greater justification for programs of selective breeding for both production and research purposes. 2.8.2 ASSESSMENT OP RESULTS

Review of the literature reveals that most of the

I work on selective breeding of Pacific salmon hjs been confined to experimental programs, most of which have been undertaken at

I the College of Fisheries, University of Washington, by, or under the direction of, Dr. Lauren Donaldson. References to this topic were reviewed in a report submitted by Dr. Donaldson to i (l) t. d th e S econ d Grovernors C on f erence on P aci·r· ic sa mon. .s ugges e -176- guidelines and objectives for selective breeding are set forth in this report and examples of stock selection practices currently employed in hatche~J operations are civen. It is emphasized that goals and objectives of selective breeding programs must be well defined before the techniques are put into practice. Some of the characteristics which are regarded as useful objectives are early age of maturity, resistance to disease, increased fecundity, rapid growth rate, late spawning adults, and early age of migra- tion (one-year-old steelhead migrants). Other characteristics such as oil content, flavour, colour and texture which are of especial interest to the processor are not discussed in the literature. In general, documentation of results of selective breeding programs is lacking in published literature. There are, however, some indications that the desired results can be 2 realized. For instance, an experiment, initiated in 1955, ( ) recorded the returns from the eggs of eight age-three female chinook salmon out of a group of' 48 which were cultured in a hatchery to the fingerling stage, at which time they were marked by removal of the adipose fin. Fifty-one percent of the total adult return consisted of three-year-olds of the same weight as normal four-year-olds, and their averaee fingerling-to-adult survival rate was 3.5 percent, compared with 0.1 percent for the normal four-year-old adults. Several experiments directed toward· the development of desirable characteristics by means of selective breeding techniques have been attempted, and some which experimented with -177-

• (3)(4) trout have been at least partially successful. It must be

emphasized, however, that all of these experiments were dependent

upon hatcheries for incubation and rearing. WI th this reserva­

tion, it is interesting to note that, as a result of selective

breeding, the egg contents of ma tu re female trout have been more

than doubled, and that sexual maturity has been developed at

age-two instead of the normal age-three. ~lhile size, strength,

hardiness, resistance to disease, ability to convert food, and

rapid growth have all been enhanced by selective breeding, their

value in terms of survival and production of adults has not been

assessed. It should be noted, too, that the selective breeding

principle is already inherent in most ha tche1~y operations

inasmuch as egg- and sperm requirements are drawn from those

fi'sh which are selected because they exhibit the desired charac­

teristics to the greatest degree. In ceneral, documentation of

this hatchery selection is lackini:~ in the literature, although·

trend lines are apparently indicated at the Eagle Creek, Spring

Creek and College of Fisheries hatcheries, where selection

methods have been used for some time. It appears, however, that

all experiments involvinc selec·tive breeding of salmon have been

of too short duration to establish, with certainty, that specific

·practices can be adopted in hatcheries to produce significant

improvements in such factors .as survival rate, disease resistance,

and fecundity. It is not possible to even guess the number of. genera- tions that would be required be fore an increase in any of the

desired traits could be measured with statistical significance. -178-

This would depend not only on the natural variability encountered, and the size of s tocits involved, but also upon the degree of selection exercised, and the environmental conditions encountered by each stock after release. Another seemingly important consideration is the relationship of one characteristic to another in the selection process. For example, does close breeding for fecundity result in reduced viability of progeny? Is the gene tic make-up of the salmon well enough known to insure that a program designed to increase a desirable characteristic will not, in effect, result in a progressive increase in an undesirable, or lethal character­ istic? Or, conversely, is lack of attention to selective breeding exposing the fish to th'e hazards of developing unfavourable or lethal characteristics which could eliminate the run? Clearly, these are questions which can only be answered by research. It appears that at the present time some use is being made of the selective breeding technique to adapt specific stocks of salmon to hatchery conditions more rapidly. There are some who postulate that by selecting the best fish from returning stocks, while releasing the poorer specimens to spawn naturally, hatcheries can prove that they are a worthwhile alternative to natural production. · Al though they are not well documented, there are some examples which suggest rates of adaptation of salmon under altered environmental conditions. For example, the Issaquah sockeye run, originating from Baker Lake stock in 1932, has developed a spawning season approximately two months later than -179- the parent stock. The size of this run declined sharply from the level of first return after transplantation, but it has now recovered to the extent that it is of comparable magni,tude to that of the initial return. The size of fall chinooks at Spring Creek has apparently increased over the years, although no data on size were collected in earlier years. Moreover, the charac- teristic of homing to a spring has developed in the Spring Creek run, although the number of generations required for these adjustments is not known. Hybridization experiments are being carried out along two lines, by the Washington State Department of Fisheries. One series deals with th.a crossing of species, while the other deals (5) with crossing of races.

Hybrid ch~1m-pink. studies were carried out in 1961 at the Hood Canal hatchery when approximately 250,000 pink eggs were fertilized with sperm from three- and four-year-old male chums. Both the egg-to-fry and fry-to-adult survival rates were high, and 2955 two•year-olds .returned in 1963, while 332 three­ year-olds returned in 1964. Both the two-year-old- and three­ year-old lines were stripped and fertilized, but fry survival was very low. The small number of fingerlings so produced are being reared in the Bowman Bay salt-water station until mortali­ ties deplete the entire stock, While the original hybridization experiment was repeated on a similar scale in 1963, information on the adult returns is not yet available. The progeny of the cross-breedings exhibited both chum- and pink characteristics, with the two-year-old adults -180- having more typical pink characteristics than the three-year­ olds. The majority of the hybrid rep roduc ti ve organs were well developed, but eggs within the individual females demonstrated extreme size variations. The studies on racial crossings are being carried out on fall chinooks at Nemah, Willapa, and Simpson hatcheries, principally to increase the adaptation rates of transplanted stocks. Fall chinook eggs from Puget Sound (presumably, from the Green River hatchery) are being crossed with sperm from the local stocks of each of the three hatcheries. Approximately equal numbers of nhybrid" and local stock fry are being marked and released. Returns to date are approximately equal in numbers, but it is, of course, too early to determine the success of the program. 2.8.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION If any conclusions may be drawn from the few well­ documented selective breeding investigations undertaken to date, they are: 1. While selective breeding shows indications of being of value in future salmon propagation programs, the subject is too· complex for wide­ spread application as a salmon production technique at this time.

2. Two lines of research are indicated: first, ~ · basic study of salmon genetics should be undertaken to ensure that future close-breeding for desired characteristics will not destroy a stock, or -181- eliminate several generations of experimental selection; and second, an applied study is required to document the effects of present or planned selective-breeding practices carried out at salmon hatcheries. An important aspect of such work is the need for continuity of experi­ ments, a characteristic that has apparently been lacking in hatchery programs of the past. -182-

2.8.4 REFERENCES (1) Report of the Second Governors Conference on Pacific Salmon, Seattle, Washington, 1963. Washington State Dept. of Fisheries. (2) Donaldson, L. R. and D. Menasueta. 1961. Selective Breeding of Chinook Salmon. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 90(2):203-204. (3) Donaldson, L. R. and P. R. Olson. 1957. Development of Rainbow Trout Brood Stock by Selective Breeding. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 85:9)-101. (4) Fisheries Bulletin 107. California Dept. of Fish and Game.

(5) Annual Reports, Departmen. t of Fisheries\ Washington State (principally Rept. No. 74, 1964J· -183- 3. THE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT BRANCH'S FORECASTED SALMON DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

The foregoing detailed review of salmon enhancement techniques, as they have been applied to date, supports the contention that spawning channels, controlled flow projects. and f'ishways currently offer the best opportunitiEJS tor increasing salmon production in British Columbia. Moreover, it indicates that, despite past experience, hatcheries have now improved to the point where they can also play an important role. On the other hand, the rest of the described techniques; namely, cont:t-olled rearing, transplantation, predator control, lake fertilization, and selective breeding, are not yet applicable on a production basis, although, with further research and assess­ ment, each is expected to make a significant contribution to .future resource development programs• For the time being, the development program of the Branch must therefore be dependent upon.these three techniques that appear to be effective on a production basis. To this end, the Babine Lake salmon development program, the Big Qualicum River project, and others will be continued in the immediate future. The Babine Lake program envisages the conversions of Fulton Lake, on the Fulton River system, and Taltapin Lake, on the Pinkut ·c15-Mile) system, into storage reservoirs in which lake inflows in excess of fisheries requirements downstream will be impounded for subsequent release during those periods when augmented discharges can be expected to result in improved production of salmon. For instance, the tenfold increase in -184- minimum discharge contemplated for the Fulton River not only will result in substantial improvements in the spawning conditions in the natural river but also it will provide auf ficient flow for diversions into the spawning channels which are being constructed to create additional high-quality spawning areas. Comparable facilities and improvements are planned for the Pinkut system. The initial phase of the six-year Babine program _became a reality on October 15, 1965, when the first of several spawning channels to be constructed on the Fulton River was brought into operation on schedule. This installation provides an.additional 166,500 square feet of spawning grounds at a capital cost of $477,000. Construction of the tunnel and control works for regulation of outflows from the Fulton Lake reservoir will be initiated in the summer of 1966. Concurrently, flow control works will be constructed at Pinkut Creek, and a road will be constructed to provide access to the spawning channel site.

In 1967, the Pinkut Creel~ spawning channel (Stage 1), ! . which will provide an additional 396, 000 square feet of spawning . area, will be constructed. Moreover, at the Fulton River. site. work will be continued in connection with the flow-regulating works, and clearing of the shores of the reservoir may be I initiated. In the following year (1968), construction will be· initiated on Stage 1 of a second spawning channel at Fulton River, which will ultimately furnish an additional -185-

130;000 square feet of spawning area; the reservoir clearing program will be continued at Fulton Lake; and the pipeline to connect the lake outlet with the spawning channel will be installed. Concurrently, the Pinkut Creek spawning channel (Stage l) will be completed. The Fulton Lake storage dam will be constructed and placed in service in 1969, and work will be continued in connection with the second spawning channel. At Pinkut Creek, construction of the Stage 2 spawning channel will be initiated. It is now foreseen that with completion, in 1970, of the second-stage spawning channels at Fulton River and Pinkut Creek, the six-year construction phase of the Babine Lake development program will come to a close. By that time, however, it may be that further work will be undertaken if the comprehensive surveys and assessments now underway result in recommendations for modifications to, or extensions of the original program. Implementation of the Babine program as now envisaged will cost an estimated $8,000,000 at 1966 prices. The works constructed under this program are expected to enhance conditions for spawning and incubation in the natural rivers; and they will provide some 1,562,500 square feet of additional spawning areas capable of accommodating 250,000 sockeye spawners which ultimately are expected to contribute at least an additional 100 million fry to the Babine Lake nursery each year.

As of this writing 9 the Babine program is expected to be the Branch's major undertaking in the rehabilitation and -186-

development field for the next folill' years ti> Other proje ots, currently underway, will continue to warrant considerable attention, however, and, in some instances, expansions, modi• fics.tions, and refinements of present plans may be implemented. For instance, additional spawning channels have already been designed for the Big Qualicum River project, and consideration is being given to the suggestion that cleaning of the gravel and alteration ot the stream gradient in specific areas of the natural Qualicum River would improve the existing spawning grounds, and, hence, the egg-to-fry survival rates. Another matter which is, and will be, receiving priority is the rehabilitation of the pink and chum salmon stocks exp.loited by the Johnstone Strait fishery. In this conneotion, · comprehensive investigations have been initiated in an effort to determine the cause of their decline; and systematic surveys of all spawning streams which contribute to this fishery are be_ing pursued with a view to locating suitable sites for spawning channels .or other rehabilitative measures. To date, most attention has been directed toward the spawning streams in the lower Fraser River valley, with the result that specific sites on the Harrison, Vedder-Chilliwack, and Chehalis Rivers have been selected for detailed studies, and it is now envisaged that one major spawning channel will be completed in this area within five years. It is expected that this program will be continued in future, not only in the Fraser Valley but also on the east coast of Vancouver Island and on the opposite mainland streams. At -187- present, it appears that a spawning channel for Tsolum River pink' salmon is a high-priority requirement. In due course, it is foreseen that the Branch will be in a position to advance definite recommendations for rehabilitative measures which it will be prepared to then undertake. The Branch will also be continuing its stream inventory program with· a view to cataloguing all salmon-supporting streams in British Columbia. To date all salmon streams in the Queen Charlotte Islands, where there have been recent serious declines in the stocks, have been inspected with a view to recording details of obstructions; the probable costs of rene dial measures; the. magn:i;,tude ·of existing and historic runs; the probable ultimate ,Potential of the individual streams, with and without artificial assists; and other pertinent data. This program will be extended to streams on Vancouver Island and the mainland, and when the data so obtained are assessed definite recommendations will be advanced in order of priority for stream improvement measures at those locations where they can be justified economically. Such recommendations are expected to form the framework of the Branch's long-range development program. Insofar as major works are concerned, the foregoing outline constitutes the foreseeable rehabilitation and develop­ ment program of the Branch. It should not be regarded as the complete program, however, because such matters as routine stream clearance operations, fishway maintenance and improvements, operation of existing installations, and unforeseeable·develop­ ments {e.g. landslides, changes in river courses, etc.) will -188-

continue to require considerable attention in the future, as they have in the past. Moreover, some relatively modest projects, not described in the .foregoing; will be receiving further studyj and it is conceivable that some of these will warrant innnediate attention as these studies are completed.

For instance 1 the effectiveness of a small-scale flow regula­ tion scheme undertaken in 1963 at Wol.f Lake in the headwaters of tll.e Tsolum River might well dictate that .f'ull-scale develop• J!l.8nt should be proceeded with without delay. Similarly, the initial success of the prefabricated fishway installed at the Kakweiken River in 1964 has clearly indicated in its first .f'ull year of operation that this relatively inexpensive type of device .can be applied at other si tea where costs of conventional­ type fisl1lr1ays have been prohibitive; and the various sites where

it may be applied will be fully explored in future. Furthermore JI. many of the key streams which are now producing significant ,salmon runs will be surveyed with a vi.ew to increasing the total spawning area and providing special prqtected areas for enough apawners to :maintain the runs in the event of catastrophic freshets. This would be carried out by techniques such as. check· dams and rock groins to improve stream gradients, and flood channels to convey flood waters around choice spawning sections. Another important concept which has been receiving consideration in recent years concerns the salt water sport species. While progress in this field bas been retarded somewhat pending the results o:f the large-scale research program being -189- carried out in the United States, and the Department's studies at Robertson Creek and Qualicum River projects, there are preliminary indications that a pilot plant operation of a ohinook hatchery rearing station or incubation channel could be justified in one of the key sport fishing areas. Similarly, consideration is being given to the relocation of large numbers of chinook and coho fry which move seaward immediately after emergence, in view of the suggestion that these migrants may not be contributing to the fisheries. Feeding and rearing these same fry is also a definite possibility for a large-scale study_ in the near .future. The salmon development program outlined in the preceding sections contemplates full utilization of the present· Resource Development Branch staff, together with projected. future additions in line with the trend of recent years. Accordingly, expansion and/or accele ration of the program could, be accomplished only by means of such additional increases in staff and funds as are required to attain the objective. If intensification of the present program is desired, there is ample reason to believe that the opportunities are there, and that, with an enlarged budget, they could be exploited by means of a revised program based on the Branch's assessment of relative priorities as determined by comparisons of local needs, cost-benefit ratios, probabilities of success, and other related factors. On the other hand, an expanded, or accelerated program would not be born the instant that additional funds and staff are announced. On the contrary, it would probably be at least -190-

two years be!'ore works beyond those contemplated by the current program could be initiated.. In this connection, the additional staff and a portion of the additional funds would !'irst have to be utilized for detailed assessments of potential development sites, and those that warrant more careful scrutiny would then liave to be studied in detail to determine which technique, or combination of techniques, holds forth the most promise at each individual site .. · Once this has been decided, detailed plans and cost estinla. tes would have to be prepared, and, if the latter were favourable, construction could then proceed. The benefits, of course, would not be realized until some years after completion of the construction stage. -191-

4• THE POTENTIAL FOR INCREASED SALMON PRODUCTION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA THROUGH APPLICATION OF DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES.

Future expansion of the British Columbia_salmon resource will depend heavily upon the effectiveness of development techniques and the individual potentials of the various stocks; and both of these factors will have to be studied in considerably more detail before it will be possible to decide, with reasonable certainty, as to whether or not specific development proposals will be successful. At the present time, spawning channels, controlled flow projects, hatcheries, and fishways are regarded as the most promising of the known development techniques, and it appears that production facilities, employing these techniques, could be justified at certain locations, although each would then have to be studied in detail to evaluate their individual contributions in terms of adult production. In this connectioni each installation should be regarded as somewhat of an experiment, with assessment programs being designed to measure their individual degrees of success or failure. Additional research of a more .fundamental nature would be of particular value if it is designed to uncover deleterious effects that may·be introduced along with the improvements. Comparisons of fry quality, times of emergence, and performance are examples of studies which are urgently required at this point in the history of spawning channels and hatcheries. Moreover, some physical and hydraulic studies of spawning channels -192- are required in order to devise efficient methods for desil ta.tion of water supplies and cleaning of gravel; and studies of channel configurations could lead to the development of a design which would result in improved distribution of spawners. Similarly, studies of fishway designs might produce rewards in the form of cost reductions which could convert some currently unattractive or marginal fishway sites into economically attractive proposals. These studies, and others of a similar nature, should be, and are, in fact, being carried out by the Resource Development Branch to the extent that available staff and funds permit. This work will increase as the construe tion of additional projects is completed, and it appears that substantially increased efforts in this field could be utilized to good advantage .. Fundamental research on the animal and its environ­ ment is also required to .facilitate future development of the resource. This basically involves specialized studies in ·the fields of genetics, stream and estuarial ecology, physiology, pathology, limnology and oceanography, nutrition, and behaviour. It is most important that this research be directed specifically toward acquiring information that will improve the effectiveness of the various development techniques. For example, the selective breeding technique cannot develop without specific genetic studies; the transplantation technique requires matching of donor stock characteristics to the environment of the recipient stream through application of -193- knowledge in the fields of ecology and genetics; the roles of pathology, physiology, and nutrition are well known in hatchery propagation but further research in these fields is required; and the future of lake fertilization and controlled rearing will depend largely upon limnological and oceanographic studies. Under the present allocation of responsibilities in Canada these studies, and others like them, do not fall within the purview of the Resource Development Branch. Some research in these fields is being carried out by United States agencies, but, again, research is running far behind development effortse While evaluations and research are important, increased effectiveness of the known development techniques is probably as dependent upon the acceleration of surveys and investigations of individual watersheds and their native salmon stocks in order to formula. te a priority scale for selecting those stocks which offer the most promise for application of development techniques. Insofar as fishways are concerned, there are 13 of the known obstructions in British Columbia at which it appears that fishways could be justified on economic and other grounds. In this connection, available evidence indicates that the estimated cost of $1,700,000 for con­ struction of fishways at these 13 obstructions could be offset by the increased returns to the fisheries. -194-

Consideration of the various possible sites for application of the other development techniques to specific stocks of salmon inevitably leads one to the conclusion that

the greatest gains can be achieved by increasing established

stocks of salmon to their past levols. Furthermore, it. follows

that if these stocks were of a major size in recent times the opportunities they present are much more promising than those associated with the attempted build-up of vestigial

stocks that have shown no recent evidence of significant production. With this concept in mind, the escapements to all British Columbia streams have been examined for major salmon stocks which, at some time during the 25 years prior to 1960, were larger than they are at present. For this purpose, a major salmon stock was somewhat arbitrarily defined as one having a "past maximum escapement" (the average of the three highest escapements recorded during the 1939·59 period) in excess of 20,000 pinks or chums, 10,000 sockeye

or coho, or 5000 chinook. These stocks are listed by area, stream, and species in the accompanying Appendix. While it must be recot,rnized that ea.ch of these stocks, and their respective spawning streams, must be studied - in detail before their potentials can be estimated with reasonable confidence, it is interesting to speculate on their capabilities. To this end, the potential contribution of each of the 395 stocks listed has been computed as shown in the Appendix. In this connection, these estimates pre- -195- suppose that the present level of each stock can be increased to its past maximum; that the present level of each stock is the average of the escapements from 1960 to 1965; and that the past maximum is the average of the three highest escape- ments during the 1934-59 period~ While it is realized that this approach leaves much to be desired because it disregards such important factors as over-escapements and dominant cycles, it appears, at the present time, to· be the only logical means of obtaining a broad indication of the potential for development techniques. If this approach is, in fact, reasonably valid the past maximum escapements, less the present escapements, multiplied by the catch-to-escapement ratios, defines the potential increased catch. While estimates for the individual stocks are presented by species, stream, and area in the Appendix, Table 18 summarizes the computed potentials of all 395 stocks. TABLE 18. SUMMARY, BY SPECIES, OF PRESENT AND PAST MAXIMUM ESCAPEMENTS OF MAJOR BRITISH COLUMBIA SALMON STOCKS, AND THEIR COMPUTED POTENTIALS. Indicated Potential EscaEentent Increased Catch Species Present Past Difference Pieces Dollars Pink (Even) 3,605,370 8,120,600 4,.51.5,230 9,030,460 4,966,753 Pink (Odd) 2,777,000 5,066,000 2,289,000 4,578,000 2,517,900 Chum 1,284,310 5,485,000 4,200,690 4,200,690 5,460,897 Chinook 105,300 210,300 165,000 495,000 2,722,.500 Coho 549,592 1,839,600 1,290,008 3,870,024 9,288,058 Sockeye 1,872,305 4,260,400 2,388,095 3,.582,143 8, 059-, 822 -196-

Inspection of the Table reveals that if, through the application of some technique, including management of the fisheries, the past maximal escapement of each stock could be attained in each year, there is reason to believe that the potential increased catches would represent a gain in the order of 30 million dollars per year. If progressive deterioration of the natural spawning· grounds is responsible for the present stocks being lower than the past maxima, and if it can ·be assumed that management and regulation of the various fisheries cannot correct the situa­ tion, it logically follows that salmon development techniques may be called for; and it is interesting to explore the costs of increasing these stocks by these means. The capital costs of existing spawning channels, converted to 1966 prices, have varied from $12 •. 00 per square yard, in the lower mainland and the east coast of Vancouver Island, to $31.50 per square yard in the more remote northern and coastal areas; and, for the purpose· of the following calcu­ lations, an average capital cost of $22.50 per square yard has been assumed. Table 19 shows the estimated construction costs of new spawning grounds to accommodate the potential increases in spawners, and compares the benefits to be expected with various. operating efficiencies. In this connection, the estimated benefits, as shown, are based on various assumed capabilities of spawning channels to provide adult returns; that is, the first column shows the estimated benefits ·to the fi_shery if TABLE 19. ESTIMATED ADDITIONAL SPAWNING GROUND RE~UIREMENTS, COSTS, AND BENEFITS TO THE FISHERY Estimated Annual Benefits to the Estimated- Cost of Fishery for Various Rates of Potential Spawning Area New SEawning Grounds Production, as Related to Increased Reg,uired Equivalent that of Natural Streams Species Escapement Sq .yas .7pr. Sq.yds. Capital Cost Annual Cost ~qual Double Trlp!e

Pink Both years 2,496,600 1.0 1,248,300 28,086,750 2,808,675 2,746,260 5,492,.520 8,238, 780 Even year 2,296,610 1.0 1, 148,305 25,836, 862 2,583,686 1,263,136 2,526,272 3,789,408 Odd year 1,004,500 1.0 502, 250 11,300,625 1,130, 062 552,476 1,104,952 1,657,428 Chum 4,200,690 2.0 4,200,690 94,515,525 9,451,552 5,460,897 10,921,794 16,382,601 Chinook 165,000 7.0 577,500 12,993,750 1,299,375 2,722,500 5,425,000 8,167,500 Coho 1,290,000 3.5 2,257,500 50, 793, 750 5 ,079,375 9,288,058 18,576,116 27,864,174 Sockeye 2,388,095 1.5 1, 791, 071 40,299, 103 4,029,910 8,059,822 16,119,644 24,179,466

263,808,365 26,380,836 30,093,149 60,166,298 90,279,357 -198- spawning channels produce at a rate equal to that of natural streams, whereas the following two columns present the estimated benefits to be expected if channels produce at a rate which is double or triple that of natural streams. For example, the average fry survival rate in spawning channels has been in the range of 30 percent, as compared with only 10 percent in the natural streams, and if it can be assumed. that this increase in fry production is accompanied -by corresponding increases in the _adult returns the benefits would be as stated in the third column. It should be noted that for the purpose of computing annual benefits for pink salmon, the stocks have been separated, by streams, into those having even-year runs only, odd-·year runs only, and those having both even- and odd-year runs. In the latter case it is considered that a spawning channel would serve both cycles. The total capital cost of spawning channels to accom­ modate the potential additional escapements has been estimated at approximately 264 million dollars. While it would be pointless to attempt benefit-cost analyses until such time as each stock has been studied in detail and f'urther information comes available with respect to the rate of adult returns to spawning channels, it is interesting to note that the potential benefits at the three levels in the minimum range of spawning channel production rates could range between 30 and 90 million dollars per year. It should be noted, however, that these estimated benefits make no allowance for loss of revenue -199- incurred by the fisheries in the initial operating years to provide the increased escapements necessary for adequate seeding of the new spawning grounds. In general, the annual operating and maintenance costs of spawning channels have averaged two percent of the capital costs. An additional two percent, which will probably decrease to approximately one percent after a few operational years, should be provided for study and evaluation of the new channels$ When considering the potential increase of chinook and coho salmon it is imperative that the rearing capacities of the individual streams be known, because it may be that many of the 14 chinook streams and 65 coho streams listed in tlte Appendix a.re not capable of rearing the increased numbers of ~ fry resulting from the estimated increase« in escapements. In such oases, hatcheries are regarded as the logical alternative to spawning channels. If a program of hatchery propagation of chinook and coho salmon was to be initiated immediately, it would appear that it should commence with a pilot-plant operation, situated in a critical area where sport fishing predominates. Then, if the early indications stemming from this pilot-plant program, together with the results of the hatchery evaluation studies currently underway in the United States, corroborate the belief that hatcheries are valuable for the economic production of these species, consideration could be given to a hatchery program of almost any size. With this thought in mind it is -200-

interesting to speculate as to the probable costs and returns of a production hatchery in British Columbia. The more recently constructed hatcheries in the United States have been designed to produce approximately 5 million fall chinook fingerlings and 2 million coho smolts. The capital cost of a hatchery of this size would be 1-1.5 million dollars at 1966 prices. Washington State experience reveals that the estimated contribution to the fishery would be 20,000 chinooks and 38,000 coho (based on 0.1 and 0.55 percent returns, and 4:1 and 3:1 catch-to-escapement ratios for chinooks and cohos, respectively). At this rate of return, a capital investment of approximately 75 million dollars for, say, 60 hatcheries, would produce a return of chinooks and coho worth approximately 12 million dollars per year; and, in line with Washington State experience, the annual operating and mainten­ ance cost probably would be in the order of 10 percent of the capital cost, or some 7.5 million dollars per year. Comparison of these hatchery costs with those of spawning channels producing con1para.ble numbers of chinook and coho indicates that capital costs of hatcheries are somewhat

higher, and that their annual operating and maintenance costs . are at least three times higher. In this connection, it should be noted that the foregoing comparison may be overly conserva­ tive as it is based on the minimum levels of spawning channel production; that is, that spawning channels produce adult returns at a rate which is no greater than that of an average stream. APPENDIX

POTENTIAL INCREASE IN ANNUAL CATCH AND VALUE OF SAU-tON BY AREA AND STREAM AND S PEG IES le CRITERION FOR LISTING STREAMS Stream included if past maxima exceeds: 20,000 pink or chum 10,000 sockeye or coho 5,000 chinook 2. PRESENT ESCAPEMENT - Average escapement in 1960-65 period

3. PAST MAXIMUM ESCAPBl·E~NT - Average of three highest escapements in l 93L~-59 period.

4. INDICATED POTENTIAL - PAST MAXIMUM ESCAPEME:Wr - PHESENT ESCAPEMgwr x CATCH: ESCAPEMENT RATIO. Catch/Escapement Ratios: Chinook 3:1 Pink 2:1 Coho J:l Chum 1:1 Sockoye 1.5:1 5. INDICATED VALuE = INDICATED POTEN':::1IAL X SPECIES VALUE Chinook ~.50 Pink 0.55 Coho 2.40 Chum 1.30 . Socl{eye 2. 25 6. For pink salmon which occur in both even and odd years in the same stream the magnitude of the lareest cycle is considered as the indicated annual potential. In streams where only one cycle exists (.eyen or odd year) the indicated annual benefit is tabled as one-half that of the cycle year. AREA 1 (North Queen Charlotta Islands) Indicated Annual EscaEement Potential Pa.st Stream SEe.cies Present Maxima Diff., Numbers Value Ain R. Ch tun 5 ,l+OO 75,000 69,600 69,600 $ 90,480 Ain R. Pink (3-..ren) 3,000 48,000 45,000 45,-000 24,750 Awun R. Ch tun 3,500 35,000 31,500 31,.500 40,950 Awun R. Pink (Even) 11,000 57,000 46,000 46,000 25,300 Datlaroan R. Pink (Even) 45,000 100,000 55,000 55,000 30,250 Lignite Cr. Pink (Even) 7,000 48,000 41,000 41,000 22,550 Marnir .. R. Pink (Even) 28,000 100,000 72,000 72,000 39,600 Mc Clinton Cr. Pink (Even) 2,300 35,000 32,700 32, 700 17,985 Naden R. Pink (Even) 72,000 100,000 28,000 28,000 15,400 Naden R. Soclrnye 5,500 16,000 10,500 15.750 35 ,J-1,)8 Naden R. Chum 21,000 48,000 27,000 27~000 35,100 Yakoun R. Pink (Even) 154,000 800,000 646,000 646,000 355,300 Yakoun R. Coho 5,000 28,000 23,000 69,000 165,600

Summary Pink (Even) 322,300 i,288,000 965, 700 965' 700 531, 135 Chum 29,900 158,000 128,100 128,100 166,530 Coho 5,000 28,000 23,000 69,000 165,600 Sockeye 5,500 16,000 10,500 12a750 351l;1;J8, Total 1,178,.550 898, 703

_!REA 2 (Central and South ·Queen Charlotte Islands) Athlow Cr. Chum 2,000 83 ,ooo 81,000 81,000 105 ,300 Botany Inlet Ch tun 17,000 22,000 5,000 . 5, 000 6,500 Canoe Pass Cr. Chtu}l 3' 000 35,000 32,000 32,000 41,600 Copper R. Pink (Even) 66,ooo 100,000 34,000 Copper R. Pinlc (Odd) 44,000 90,000 li.6,000 92,000 50,600 Copper R. Sockeye 19,000 28,000 9,000 13,500 30,375 Copper R. Coho 15,000 22,000 1,000 21,000 50,l+OO Chadsey Cr. Churn 400 35,000 34,600 34,600 44,980 Deena R. Pink (Even) 31,000 92,000 61,000 61,000 33,550 Deena R. Chwn 15,000 35,000 20,000 20,000 26,000 Ronna R. Pink (Even} 5,000 28,000 23,000 23,000 12,650 Honna R. Chum 12,000 22,000 10,000 10,000 13,000 George Bay Cr. Chum 15,000 35,000 20,000 20,000 26,000 Kaisun R. Pink (Even) 71,000 100,000 29,000 29,000 15,950 Lagoon Bay Cr • Chum 20,000 52,000 32,000 . 32,000 l+l,600 Long-Arm R. Chu.m 10,000 92,000 82,000· 82,000 J,06,600 Mathus Cr. Pinl{ (Even) 31,000 91,000 60,000 60,000 33,000 .:Mathus Cr. Coho 5,000 12,000 7,000 21,000 50,400 Mathus Cr. Chum 11,000 25,000 24,000 14,000 18,200 Mercer Cr. Chum 7 ,ooo 35,000 ·28,000 28,000 36,400 Otard R. Pink (Even) 5,000 35,000 30,000 30,000 16,.500 Oyster Cove Cr.Chum 15,000 42,000 27,000 27' 000 35,100 Pallant Cr. Chum 15,000 6),000 48,000 48,000 62.~oo Pallant Cr. Pink (Even) 41+,000 100,000 56,000. 56,000 30, 00 Pallant Cr~ Coho 4,000 19,000 15,000 45,000 108,000 AREA 2 (Continued) Indicated Annual Esca:eernent Potential . Past Stream S£ecies Present Maxima Di ff. Numbers Value

·Reilly Cr. Pink 1,000 46,000 i5,000 i5,000 24,750 Salmon R. Chum 10,000 75,000 5,000 5,000 84,500 Security In. Pinl<: (Even) 1,000 28,000 21,000 21,000 11,550 Skeda.ns Cr. Pink (Even) 56,000 80,000 24,000 24,000 13,200 Slatechuck R. Churn 10,000 35,000 25,000 25,000 32,500 Tlell R. Pink (Even) 1,000 70,000 63,000 63,000 34,650 Tlell R,. Coho 29,000 45,000 16,000 48,000 115,200 Windy Bay Cr. Pink (Even) 5,500 100,000 94,500 94,500 5111915

Summary Pink (Evon) 329,500 870,000 540,500 506,500 278,575 Pink (Odd) ~,ooo 90,000 46,000 92,000 50,600 Churn 1 2,400 686,000 523,600 523,600 680,680 Coho 53,000 98,000 . q.5, 000 135,000 . 32l~, 000 Sockeye 19,000 28,000 9,000 lJ.200 J0 1 J72. Total 1,270,600 1,364,230

AREA J (Nass River) Quinimaas R. Pink (Odd) 47,000 100,000 53,000 106,000 58,300 Quinimaas R. Pink (Even) 31,000 70,000 39,000 78,000 42,900 Toon R. Pink (Even)· 18,000 28,000 10,000 20,000 11,000 Toon R. Churn 1,400 50,000 42,600 42,600 .55,380 Iliiance Cr. Chum 7,500 28,000 20,500 20,500 26,650

Surm:nary Pink (Even) 49,000 98,ooo 49,000 98,000 53,900 Pink (Odd) 47,000 100,000 53,000 106,000 58,300 Chum 14,900 78,000 63,100 6.J.100 821 0.JO Total 267,100· 194,2.30

AREA !J.: (Skeena Ri var Babine R. (Upper) · Sockeye 1.56,671 211,600 54,929 82,394 185,385 Babine R. (Lower) Sockeye 88,000 100,000 12,000· 18,000 40,500 Bear R. Chinook 7,900 35,000 27,1.00 81,300 . 447,l.50 -15-Mile Cr. So eke ye Presently under development Fulton R,. Sockeye Presently under development Grizzley Cr. So eke ye 15,000 28,000 13,000 19,500 43Jl875 Humpback Bay R.Pink (Even} 2,166 28,000 25,834 25,834 14j)208 Kispiox R. Pink (Odd) 250,000 300,000 50,000 100,000 5511000 Kispiox R. Pink (Even) 46,000 75,000 29,000 AREA 4 (Continued) Indicated Annual. EscaEement Potential · Past Stream SEecies Present Ma.xi ma Di ff. Numbers Value

Kispiox R. Coho 2,000 19,000 17,000 519 000 $ 122,400· Kitwanga R. Pink (Even) 78,000 100,000 22,000 Kitwanga R. Pink (Odd} 116,000 lJ0,000 14,000 28g000 15.,400 Ki twanga R., Sockeye 300 46,000 45,700 6811550 154,238 Ki twa.nga R. Coho 300 46,000 4511700 137,100 329,040 Lakelse R. Pink (Odd) 252,000 300,000 48,000 Lakelse R. Pink (Even) 445,000 683,000 238,000 476,000 261,800 Lakelse R~ Sockeye 12,000 12,000 Lakelse R.. Coho 27,000 35,000 8,ooo 24,000 57,600 Morice R.. Coho 2,000 15,000 13,000 39,000 93,~00 Morice R. Chinook 5,ooo 1),000 10,000 30,000 165,000 Moore Cove Cr. Pink (Even) 56,ooo 70,000 14,000 Moore Cove Cr. Pink (Odd) 55,000 75,000 20,000 40,000 22,000 Morrison Cr. Sockeye 17,000 35,000 18,000 27,000 60,750 Nanika R~ Sockeye 4,000 6i,ooo 60,000 90,000 202,500 Oona R~ Pink (Even) 9,000 2,,000 19.POOO 38,000 20,,900 Oona R. Pink (Odd) l~, 000 22,000 18,ooo Pierre Cr .. Sockeye 31,000 62,000 31,000 46,500 104,625 Shawatlans Cr. Sockeye 3,000 12,000 9,000 13,500 30,375 South End Cr. Sockeye 1,000 28,000 21,000 31,500 70,875 Twin Cr. Sockeye 10,000 15,000 5,000 7,500 16,875 Tahlo Cr. Sockeye 9,000 17,000 8,ooo 12,000 21,000 Williams Cr. Sockeye 9,000 35,000 26,000 39,000 87,750

Summary Pink {Even) 636,166 984,000 347,834 539,834 296,908 Pink (Odd) 677,000 827,000 150,000 168,000 92,400 Chinook 12,900 50,000 37,100 111,300 612,150 Coho 31,300 115,000 83,700 251,100 602,640 Sockeye 361,971 665,600 303,629 Y:22.hllli la02tb27!±6 Total 1,525,678 2,628,846

AREA !2 !Grenville-PrinciEe) Alpha Cr. Pink (Even) 5,000 22,000 17,000 17,000 911350 Curtis In. Cr. Sockeye 19,000 19,000 Devin (Mink Trap)Lk. Sockeye ~,ooo 22,000 113,000 27,000 60,750 Kumealon R. Pink (Even) 2 ,ooo 10,000 42,000 84,000 46,200 Kumealon R.. Pink (Odd) 47,000 75,000 28,000 - Lowe Lakes Soclteye 1,000 12,000 ~,ooo 7,500 16,87.5 Turtle Cr. Pink (Even) 4,000 50.,000 46,000 46,000 25gJOO AREA 5 (Continued) In di ca ted Annual - Escapement Potential Past Stream s;eecies Present Ma;dma Di ff. Numbers Value Summary Pink (Even) 37,000 142,000 105,000 147, 000 $ 80, El50 Pink {Odd) 47,000 75,000 28,000 So eke ye 30,coo 53,000 23,000 ~!t.200 77.622 Total 181,500 15811475

AREA 6 ~Butedale) Bear R. Pink (Odd) 27,000 48,000 21,000 Bear R. Pink (Even) 8,000 35,000 ?-7,000 54,000 29,700 Bear R. Chum lJ,000 62,000 ~9,000 49.,.000 63;700 Bish Cr. Pink (Odd) 5,000 92,COO 7,000 174,000 95,700 Bish Cr. Pink (Even) 8,ooo 83,000 75,000 Bish Cr. Coho 112 22,000 21,888 65,664 157,594 Blee Cr. Pink (Even) 26,000 26,000 0 0 0 Brim Cr. Pink (Even) 9,000 28,000 19,000 19,000 10,450 Carter R. Pink (Even) 12,000 35,000 23,000 23,000 12,950 Dala R. Pink (Even) 2,000 78,000 76,000 152,000 83,600 Daia R. Pink (Odd) 1,000 22,000 21,000 Evelyn Cr. Pink (Even) 7,000 92,000 85,000 170,000 93,500 Evelyn Cr. Pink (Odd) 3,000 62,000 59,000 Evelyn Cr. Coho 4,000 15,000 11,000 33,000 79,200 Evelyn Cr. Sockeye 1,000 12,000 11,000 16,500. 37,125 Pooh Cr. Pink (Even) 4,000 92,000 88,000 88,ooo 48,400 Foc'h Cr. Chum 700 28,000 27,300 27,300 35,i90 Foch Cr. Coho 1,)00 12,000 10,500 31,500. 75, 00 Giltoyees Cr. Pink (Even) 2,000 92,000 90;000 Hlo, ooo 99,000 Giltoyees Cr. Pink (Odd) 700 28,000 27,300 Giltoyees Cr. Chum 2,000 42,000 40,000 40, OOQ. 52,000 Giltoyees Cr. Coho 1,000 18,ooo 17,000 51,000 122,~00 Gorilla Cr. Churo 2,000 28,000 26,000 26,000 33, 00 Green Inlet R. Pink (Even) 23,000 29,000 6,000 6,ooo 3,300 Green Inlet R. Chum 7,000 2~,000 17,000 17,000 22,100 Hughes(Deer)Cr.Pink (Even) ~00 2 ,ooo 27,600 55,200 30,360 Hughes(Deer)Cr.Pink (Odd) 00 28,000 21,200 Indian R. Pink (Odd) 39,000 48,000 9,000 9,000 i, 9t.;Q:;) Indian R. Coho 3,000 15,000 12,000 36,000 8 ,400 Kemano R. Pink (Even) 35,000 92,000 57, 000. Kemano R. Pink (Odd) lJ,000 80,000 67,000 134,000 73,700 Kama.no R. Chum 23,000 62,000 39,000 . 39,000 50,100 Ke ma no R. Coho 3,000 35,000 32,000 96,000 .230,400 Khutze R. Pink (Even) 11,000 35,000 24,000 Khutze R. Pink (Odd) 11,000 48,000 37,000 7l~, 000 40,700 Khutze R. Chum 4,000 29,000 25,000 25,000 32l)500 Kildala R. Pink (Even) 4,000 92,000 88,000 176,000 96,800 Kildala R. Pink (Odd) 600 22,000 21,400 Kil tuish R. Pink (Odd) 2,000 26,000 24,000 2l~, 000 13,200 I\il tuish R. Chum 3,000 92,000 89,000 89,000 115,700 AREA 6 (Continued) Indica~ea iiiDiiil EscaEement Potential . Past Stream Species Present Maxi:ma Di ff. Numbers Value Kiskosh R. Pink (Even) 23,000 92,000 69,000 138, 000 $ 75,900 Kiskosh R. Pink (Odd) 29,000 60,000 31,000 Kiskosh R. Coho JOO 13,000 12,700 38,100 91,440 Ki timat R.. Pink {Even) 109,000 133,000 24,000 Ki timat R., Pink (Odd) 3,000 100,000 97,000 194,000- 106,700- Ki ti:mat R. Chu:m 10,000 i5,000 35,000 35,000 45,500 Ki timat R. Coho 8,000 3,000 75,000 225,000 540,000 Ki timat Ro Chinook 7,300 7,500 200 600 3,300 Ki tkiata Cr. Pink (Odd) 87,000 98,000 11,000 11,000 605,000 Ki tkia ta Cr., Pink (Even) 75,000 75,000 Ki tlope R.. Pink (Even) 75,000 92,000 17,000 Ki tlope R. Pink (Odd) J,000 50,000 !~7, 000 94,000 .51,700 Kitlope R. Sockeye 65,000 108,000 43,000 6~,500 145',125' Ki tlope R. Chum 12,000 70,000 58,ooo 5 ,ooo 75,~00 Ki tlope R., Coho 6,000 70,000 64,000 192,000 460, 00 Kwasee R. Pinlc (Even) 1_+00 35,000 34,600 34,600 19,030 Nalabeela Cr. Pink (Even) 44,000 J..~4, 000 Price Cr .. Chum 10,000 35,000 25,000 25,000 32,500 Quaal R. Pink (Even) 137,000 166,000 29,000 Quail R. Pink (Odd) 137,000 233,000 96,000 192,000 105,600- Quail R. Chum 6,000 42,000 36,000 36,000 46,800 Quail R. Coho 11,000 35,000 24,000 72,000 172,800 Scow Bay Or. Pink ( H.:ven) 20,000 35,000 15,000 Scow Bay Cr. Pink (Odd) 31,000 is,ooo 17,000 34, 00.0 18,700 Soda. Cr. Pink {Odd) 20,000 2,000 42,000 42,000 23,100 Tala Moosa Cr. Sockeye 300 22,000 21,700 32,550 73 238 Tsaytis Cr. Pink' (Even) 250 78,000 77,750 77,750 42:862 Tsa.ytis Cr. Chum 750 35,000 34,250 34,250 44,.525

Summary Pink (Even) 635,050 1,587_,000 951,950 1,173,550 645,5.52 Pink (Odd) 135,100 664,000 528,900 982,000 .517, 100 Chu:m 93,450 594,000 500,;;50 500,550 650,715 Chinook 7,300 7,500 200 600 3,300 Coho 37,912 318,000 280,088 840,264 2,016,63i Sockeye 66,300 142,000 75,700 11.2.220 222.~s Total J,610,514 4,088,789

AREA 1 (Bella Bella) Gull chuck Head Cr. Chum 6,000 57,000 51,000 51,000 66,300 Howyete Cr. Chum 6,000 35,000 29,000 29,000 37,700 Howyete Cr. Pink (Even) 20,000 27,000 7,000 7,000 3,850 Kainet R. Pink (Odd) 100.000 100,000 - Kainet R. Chum 40 000 80 000 ~o,ooo ~o,ooo 52,400 Kainet R. Pink (Even) 41;000 ioo;ooo 9,000 9,000 32,450 AREA 7 (Continued) Indicated Annual EscaEement Potential · Past Stream s:eecies Present Maxima Diff,. NUll'lbers Value Klatse R. Pink (Even) 23,000 80, 000 57,000 $ Klatse R. Pink (Odd) 18,000 92,000 74,000 148,000 81,400 Klatse R. Chum 5,000 80,000 75,000 75,000 97 jJ500. Kwakustis R. Pink (Odd) 7,500 28,000 20,500 41,000 22,550 Kwakustis R. Pink (Even) 9,000 22,000 lJ,000 Kwakustis R. Chum 5,000 35,000 J0,000 30, 000 39,000 Neekas R. Pink (Even) 28,000 80,000 52,000 Neekas R. Pink (Odd) 43,000 100,000 57,000 214,000 62,100 Neekas R. Chum 16,000 100,000 84,000 84,000 109,200 Nootka R. Chum 30,000 35,000 5,000 5,000 6,500 Salmon Bay Cr. Pink (Even) 17,000 35,000 18,000 38,000 9j900 Salmon Bay Cr. Chum 2,300 35,000 32,700 32,700 42,510 Vala Cr. Pink (Odd) 7,000 28,000 21,000 21,000 llj550

Summary Pink (Even) 138,000 3~,000 206,000 164,000 46,200 Pink (Odd) 175,500 341 ,ooo 172,500 32i1 000 178,200 Chum 110,300 457,000 3lt6, 700 ~Lb 1 700 !!502710

Total 83L~, 700 675,110

AREA 8 (Balla Coola) Atnarko and Bella Coola Pink (Even) 1,010,000 1,583,000 573,000 1,146,000 630,300 Atna.rko and Bella Coola Pink (Odd) 290,000 450,000 160,000 Atnarko and Bella Coola Sockeye 45,000 75,000 30,000 45,000 101,250 Atn a.rko and Bella Coola Chum· 50,000 75,000 25,000 25,000 32,500 Atnarko and Bella Coola Coho 55,000 75,000 20,000 60,000 144,000 Atnarko and Bella Coola Chinook 23,000 35,000 12,000 36,000 198,000 Dean R. Pink (Odd) No data Dean R. Coho No data Elcho Harbour Cr. Pink (Odd) 4,000 30,000 26,000 26,000 14.11300 Elcho Harbour Cr. Chum 3,000 22,000 19,000 19,000 24,700 Kimsquit R. Sockeye 2,000 15,000 13,000 19'::::> ·"'oo 43,875 Kimsquit R. Chum 50,000 62,000 12,000 12,000 15,600 Koeye R. Pink (Even) t9,000 100,000 . 51, 000 102,000 5611100 Koeye R. Pink (Odd) 1,000 100,000 39,000 Koeye R. Sockeye 200 15,000 llh300 22,200 49,950 Ko eye R. Coho 4,000 17,000 13,000 39,000 93,600 AREA 8 (Continued) Indicated Annual EscaEement Potential · Past Stream SEecies Present Maxima Di ff. N'umbers Value Summary Pink (Even) 1,059,000 1, M33, ooo 624,000 2,1oi,ooo $ 630,861 Pink (Odd) 355,000 580,000 225,000 2 ,ooo 14,300 Chum 103,000 159,000 56,ooo 56,000 72,800 Chinook 23,000 35,000 12,000 36,000 198,000 Coho 59,000 92,000 33,000 99,000 237,600 Sockeye 47,200 10.5,000 57,800 86.700 192.012 Total 3,007,700 1,348,636

AREA 9 tRivers Inlet)

Asklum R.. So eke ye 11,000 35,000 2~,000 36,000 81,000 Cheo R.. So~keye 14,000 22,000 ,ooo 12,000 21,000 Dallac R. Sockeye 90,000 100,000 10,000 15,000 33,750 Genessee R. Sockeye 2i1 000 35,000 11,000 16,500 37,125 Indian R. Sockeye 4 ,ooo 83,000 37JOOO 55,500 124,875 Nookins R. So eke ye 16,000 19,000 3,000 4,500 10,100 Quap R.. So eke ye 45,000 7),000 30,000 45,000 101,250 Shumahalt R. Sockeye 75,000 75,000 Waukwa.sh R. Sockeye L~8, ooo 100,000 52,000 78,000 175,500 Whonnock R. Sockeye 70,000 82,000 12,000 18,000 40,500 Whonnock R .. Chum H3,ooo 50,000 32,000 32,000 41,600

Summary Chum 18,000 50,000 32,000 32,000 41,600 Sockeye 439,000 626,000 187,000 280 1 ~00 6J1.1~ Total 312,500 672,725

AREA 10 (Smiths Inlet) Dela.bah R. Sockeye 12,000 35,000 23,000 34,500 77,625 Naki te R. Sockeye 5,000 35,000 30,000 45,000 101,,250 Smokehouse (Giluck) R. So eke ye 2),000 35,000 10,000 15,000 33, 750

Summary Sockeye 42,000 105,000 63,000 91± • .500 2122622 Total 94,)00 212sr625 AREA 12 (Alert Bay) Indicated Annual EscaEement Potential Past Stream SEecies Present Maxima Di ff. Numbers Value Adams R. Pink (Even) 13,250 83,000 69,750 69,750 $ 38,362 Ahnuhatti R. Pink (Even} li,ooo 28,000 li,ooo ii,ooo 7fj 100 Ahnuhatti R.. Chum ,600 3.5,000 2 ,400 2. ,ioo 31+, 320 Ahnuha t ti R. Coho l,Boo 15,000 13,200 39, 00 95,040 Glendale R. Pink (Even) 33,000 61,000 28,000 56 9 000 30,800 Glendale R.. Pink (Odd) 105,000 12.5,000 20,000 Glendale R. Chum 24,000 28,000 4,000 4,000 .5,200 Kakweiken R. Pink (Even) 31,000 48,000 17,000 34,000 18,700 Kakweiken R. Pink (Odd) 43,000 56,000 13,000 Kakweiken R. Chum 39,000 66,000 27,000 27,000 35,100 Kakweiken R. Coho 21,000 ~6,600 25,600 76,800 isi,320 Keogh R. Pink (Even) 59,000 3,000 24,000 48,000 2 ,400 Keogh R. Pink (Odd) 18,400 28,000 9,600 Keogh R. Coho 5,900 19,000 13,100 39,300 9l~, 320 Kingcome R. Pink (Even) 16,!iOO 41,000 24,600 24,600 13,530 King come R. Chum 13,500 35,000 21,500 21,500 27,950 Kingcome R. Coho 16,000 66,000 50,000 1)0,000 360,000 Klini Klini R. Chum 37,500 41,000 3, _r)OO 3, r500 4JP.550 Klini Klini R. Coho 5,100 12 .• 000 6,900 20,700 49,680 Klini Klini R. Chinook 8,200 ·15,000 6,800 20,400 112,200 Kokish R. Coho 1,500 15,000 13, '.)00 40,500 97,200 Mackenzie R. Sockeye 2,,700 12,500 9,900 14,700 33,075 Nawhi tti R. Pink (Even) 8,ooo 35,000 27,000 21,000 14,850 Nawhitti R. Sockeye 5,000 11,000 6,ooo 9,000 20,250 Nimpkish R. Sockeye 101,000 118,000 17,000 25,500 .57,375 Nimpkish H. Chum 23,000 100,000 77,000 77,000 100,100 Nimpkish R. Coho 21,800 28,000 6,200 18,!:00 44,640 Nimpkish R. Chinook 9,000 15,000 6,000 lB,ooo 99,000 Quatse R. Pink (Even) 16,000 69,000 53,000 53,000 29,150 Quatse R. Coho l+, !300 12,500 7 ,.700 23,100 55,440 Salmon Arm Stn. Coho 2,300 12,500 10,200 J0,600 73, lW-0 Viner R. Chum 37,500 75,000 37,.r>oo 37,500 48,750 Wakeman R. Pink {Even) 7,000 21,000 14,000 14,000 7,700 Wakeman R. Pink (Odd) 35,000 35,000 Wakeman R. Coho i,JOO 15,000 10,700 32,100 7'7,040 Waterfall Cr. Pink (Even) 1 ,ooo 28,000 10,000 20,000 11,000 Waterfall Cr. Pink (Odd) 18,000 28,000 10,000 Waterfall Cr. Chum 9,700 21,000 11,300 11,300 14,690

Summary Pink (Even) 215,650 497,000 281,350· 560,350 198,192 Pink (Odd) 219,ioo 272,000 Churn 192, 00 401,000 208,200 208,200- 270,660 Chinook 17,200 30,000 12,800 38,400 211,200 Coho Bl+, 500 241,600 157,100 471,300 1,131,120 Sockeye 108,700 141,.500 32,800 !±91200 11011100 Totsl 1,327,450 1,9219872 ,------~- --~- -- --

AREA 13 (Qua thi a ski ) Indicated Annual Esca.Eement Potential . Past Stream SEecies Present Maxima Diff. Numbers Value Bear R. Pink (Even) 59,000 100,000 41,000 41,000 $ 22,550 Campbell R.. Pink (Even) 1,000 38,000 37,000 37,000 20,J50 Campbell R. Churo 1,000 50,000 49,000 49,000 63,700 Campbell R~ Coho !)OO 51,000 50,500 151,500 363,600 Campbell R~ Chinook l~, 000 9,300 5,300 15,900 87 ,450 Curnsack Cr. Coho 400 19,000 18,600 55,800 133, 920 Grassy Cr., Pink (Even) 15,000 62,000 47,000 47,000 25,850 Heydon Bay Cr. Sockeye 300 35,000 34,700 52,050 117 ,113 Homathko R .. Chum 4,000 83, 000 79,000 79,000 102,700 Homathko R. Coho 3,500 62,000 58,500 175,500 421,200 Homathko R. Chinook 4,000 10,000 6,ooo 18,ooo 99,000 Orford H. Ch ma 8,000 83,000 75,000 75,000 97 ,500 Orf'ord R~ Coho 2,000 15,000 13 ,ooo 39, 000 93,600 Phillips R .. Pink (Odd) 43 ,ooo 62,000 19,000 Phillips R. Pink (Eifen) 9,000 3.5; 000 26,000 52,000 28,600- Phillips H. Sockeyc 2,000 15,000 13,000 19,500 43, 875 Phillips R. Chum J,000 52,000 49,000 49,000 63,700 Phillips R. Coho 2,,000 12,000 10,000 30,000 72,000 Q.uatam R. Chum 11000 70,000 69,000 69,000 89_,700 Quatam R. Coho 1,000 19,000 18,000 54,000 129,600 Salmon R. Pink (Odd) 20,000 28,000 8,000 8,ooo 4,400 Salmon R. Chum 2,000 281000 26,000 26, 000 33,800 Salmon R. Coho 5,000 15,000 10,000 30,000 72,000 Southgate R. Chum 5,000 83' 000 78,000 78,000 101,400 Southgate R5 Coho !~, 000 15,000 11,000 33,000 79,200 Southgate R. Chinook 5,ooo 10,000 5,000 15,000 82,500

Sunnnary Pink mven) 84,000 235, 000 151,000 625,000 97,350 Pinh (Odd) 63,000 90,000 27' 000 8,000 4,400 Chum 21+, 000 449,000 425 ,ooo· 425,000 552,500 Chinook 13,000 29,300 16,300 48,900 268,950 Coho H3,,hOO 208,000 189,600 56B,Boo 1,365,120 Sockeye 2,300 50,000 47,700 712550 1602988 Total 1,747, 250 2,449,308

AREA 19: (Comox) Englishman R. Chum 2,000 75,000 73,000 73,000 94,900 Oyster R. Pink !Odd) 2,500 35,000 32,500 ... Oyster R. Pink (E'len) 23, 000 100,000 7'7,000 154,000 84, 700 Oyster R. Chum 600 48,000 47,400 47,400 61,600 Oyster R. Coho 9,000 35,000 26,000 78,000 187,200 Punt ledge R. Pink (Ev·en) 2,580 21,600 19,020 Punt ledge R. Pink (Oid) 10,000 37,000 27 ,ooo 54,000 29, 700 Punt ledge R. Churn 39,000 75,000 36,000 36,000 469800 ~ - ' Puntledge R. Coho 8,ooo 28,000 20,000 60,000 14411000 Big Qualicurn R.Chu.rn 39,000 100,000 61,000 61,000 79,300 Big Qualicum R.Coho 2,500 35,000 32,500 97,500 234,000 AREA 14 (Continued) Indicated Annual Esca.Eement Potential _ Past Stream SEecies Present Maxim.a Di.ff,. Numbers Value Littls Qualicuni R.. Chum 35,000 100,000 65,000 65,000 $ 84,500 Little Qualicum R. Coho 5,,ooo 14,000 9,000 27,000 64,800 Tsolmn R~ Pink (Odd) 28,000 100,000 72,000 144,000 799200 Tsolum R., Pink (Even) 20,000 789000 56,000 Tsolum R .. Chum 500 62,000 61,500 61,S'OO- 79,900 Tsolum R. Coho 9,000 35,000 26~ 000 78,000 187 ,200 Tsable R .. Chum 3,000 35,000 32,000 32,000 ~1;600 Tsabla H.. Coho 200 12,000 11,800 35,400 4,,960

Summary Pink (Even) 45,580 199,600 154,020 154,000 84,700 Pink (Odd) 40,soo 172,000 131,500 198,000 lOB,900 Chum 119~100 495,000 375,900 375,900 488,670 Coho 33,700 159,000 125 ,300 . 375.900 902,160 Total 1,103,800 l,,584,l~30

AREA 16 (Pender Harbour - Westview) Deserted R. Pink (Odd) 12,000 72,000 60,000 60,000 33,000 Deserted R. Chum 5,000 35,000 30,000 30,000 42,000 Okeover R. Chum 200 35,000 3L~, 800 34,800 459200 Sakinaw Lk. SockeyP. 4,000 28,000 24,000 36,000 . 81,000 Skwakwa R. Pink (Odd) 95,000 133,000 38,000 38,000 20,900 Skwakwa R. Chum 2,000 48,,000 46,000 46,000 59,800 Skwakwa R. Coho 2,000 10,000 8,000 24,000 57,600 Slia.mmon R. Churn 5,000 48,000 43,000 43, 009 55,900 Theodosia R. Chum 3,000 35,000 32,000 32,000 41,600 Toba R. Pink (Odd) 32,000 62,000 30,000 .· 30, 000 16,500 Toba R. Chum 5,ooo 75,ooo 70,000 70,000 91,000 Tob.a R. Coho 11,000 35,000 24,000 72,000 172, 800 Tzoonie R. Pink ( O:ld) 3;000 70,000 67,000 67, 000 36,850 Tzoonie R. Chum 17 ,ooo 35,000 18,000 18,000 23,400

Summary Pink (Odd) 142,000 337,000 195,000 195,000 107 11250 Chum 37;200 311,000 273, 800 273, 800 355,940 Coho lJ,000 45,000 32,000 96,000 230,l+OO Sockeye 4,000 28,000 24,000 362000 811000 Total 600,800 774,590

AREA 17 (Nanaimo Bush Cr. Chum 2,000 62,ooo 60,000 60,000 78,000 Chemainus R. Chum 3,500 90,000 86,500 86,500 112,~-50 Holland Cr. Chum 411500 35,000 30,500 30,500 39,650 AREA l:Z ( Con ti nue d ) Indicated Annual EscaEement Potential Past Stream S,Eecies Present . Maxima Di ff. Numbers Value Nanaimo R. Chum 1,400 83,000 75,600 75,600 $ 98,280 Nanaimo R. Coho 1,500 35,000 33,500 100,500 241,200 Uanaimo R. Chinook 900 12,500 11,600 34, 800 191,400

Swnmary Chuin 17,l-t-OO 270,000 252,600 252,600 328,380 Chinook 900 12,500 11,600 34,800 191,400 Coho l,5'00 ·. 35, 000 33,500 1001200 2!!1.200 Total 387,900 760,980

AREA 18 ~Cowichan) Cowichan R. Chum 51,000 100,000 49,000 t9,000 63,700 Cowichan R. Coho 53,000 75,000 22,000 6,000 158,400 Cowichan R. Chinook 4,000 28,000 24,000 12,000 396,000 Koksilah R. Coho 10,000 22,000 12,000 36,000 86,400

Summary Chum 51,000 100,000 49,000 49;000 63,700 Chinook 4,000 28,000 24,000 72,000 396,000 Coho 63,000 97,000 34,000 102,000 2W11800 Total 223,000 704,500

AREA 19 (Victoria) Goldstream R. Chum 5,500 35,000 29,500 29,500 38,350

Surmnary 5,500 35,000 29,500 29.200 J61J20 Total 29,500 38,350

AREA 20 (Juan de Fuca Strait) Demainiel Cr. Chum 6,ooo 22,000 16,000 16,000 20,800 Demainiel Cr. Coho 2,200 12,000 9,800 29,400 70,560 Gordon R. Coho 5,000 22,000 17,000 51,000 122,400 San Juan R. Coho 32,000 32,000 Sooke R. Chum 22,000 35,000 13,000 13,000 16,900

Summary Chum 28,000 57,000 29,000 29,000 3711700 Coho 39,200 66,000 26,800 801 !J:OO 1921960 Total 109,400 23011660

AREA 25 (Nootka) Indicated Annual Esca;eemont Potential . Past Stream SEecies Present Maxima Di ff. Numbers Value Big Espinosa R.Chum 5,200 35,000 29,800 29,800 $ 38,740 Big Zeballos R.Chum 6,500 90,000 83,500 83,500 108,600 Burman R. Pink (Even) 38,000 38,000 Conuma R. Chum 10,000 35,000 25,000 25,000 32,500 Inner Basin R. Chum 17,000 35,000 18,000 18,ooo 23,%00 Tsowwin R., Chum i2, 000 28,000 16,000 16,000 20, 00

Summary Pink (Even) 38,000 38,000 Chum 50,100 223,000 172,300 172 1 JOO 22~1990 Total 172,300 223,990

AREA 21 ( ~ua tsino) East Cr. Pink (Even) 3,124 77,000 73,876 73,876 40,632 Koprino R. Pink (Even) 13,000 78,000 65,000 65,000 35,750 Macjack R. Chum 100 28,000 27,900 27,900 36,300 Mac.jack R. Coho 700 12,000 11,)00 33,900 81,360 Mul'1a t ta R.. Coho 3,000 20,000 17.000 51,000 122,400 Marble R. Coho 1, Jl~O 17,000 15,660 46,980 112,752 San Josef Cr. Coho 1, OL~O 20,000 18,960 56,880 '136, 512

Summary Pink (Even) 16, 12L~ 155,000 138,876 138,876 76,382 Chum 100 28,000 27,900 27,900 36,270 Coho 6,080 69,000 62,920 188 1 z60 !d:2J.02!d: Total 355,536 565,676

AREA 28 (Howe Sound)

Cheakamus R. Pink (Odd) 206~000 333,000 127,000 127,000 69,850 Cheakamus R. Chum 21,000 48,000 27,000 21,000 35,100 Indian R. Pink (Odd) 114,000 142,000 28,000 28,000 15,400 Indian R. Chum 3,000 i8,ooo 45,000 45,000 58,500 Squamish R. Pink (Odd) 68,000 2 6_,000 198,ooo 198,ooo 108,900 Squamish R. Chum 10,060 100,000 89,940 89,940 116,922 Squamish R.. Coho 17,000 75,000 58,000 17~,ooo 417,600 Squamish R .. Chinook 12,000 28,000 16,000 4 ,ooo 264,000 AREA 28 (Continued) Indicated Annual EscaEemont Potential · Past Stream SEacies Present Maxima Di ff. Numbers Value

Summary. Pink (Odd) 3W3, ooo 7!~1, 000 353,000 353,000 $ 194~ 150 Chum 34,060 196,ooo 161,940 161,940 210,.522 Chinook 12,000 28,000 16,000 40,000 264,000 Coho 17,000 75,000 58,000 17~!:. 000 Y:l7.600 Total 736,940 1,086,272

AREA 29 (Praser River)

Adams R. Sockeye 237, 731~ 566,700 328,966 493,449 1,110,260 Birkenhead R. Sockeye 56,000 100,000 44,000 66,000 1~8,500 ni rkenhead R. Coho 3,000 28,000 25,000 75,000 1, o,ooo Bowron R. Sockeye . 10,300 35,000 24,700 37,050 83,363 Chehalis R. Pink (Odd) 23,000 75,000 52,000 52,000 28,600 Chehalis R. Chum 26,000 75,000 49,000 4_9, 000 63,700 Chilko R. Sockaye 137,000 350,000 213,000 3'19,500 718,875 Chilliwack R. Pink (Odd) 243,000 175,000 32,000 32,000 17,600 Chilliwack R. Chum 28,000 is,ooo 20,000 20,000 26,000 Chilliwack R. Coho L~2, 000 2,000 20,000 60,000 l~l-1-,000 Driftwood R. Sockeye 15,000 39,000 24,000 36,000 1,000 Dust Cr. Sockeye 2,500 lJ,000 10,500 15,750 35,438 Forfar Cr. Sockeye 3,900 35,000 31,200 k6,800 10.5,300 Gluskie Cr .. So eke ye 1,700 ~.J, 000 41,300 1,950 139,388 Harrison R. Pink (Odd) 253,000 3 o,ooo 107,000 107,000 ·58,850 Harrison R. Chinook 6,000 35,000 29,000 87,000 478,500 Harrison R. Chum 29,000 70,000 41;000 l~l, 000 53,300 Kazchek Cr. Sockeye 3,JOO 12,500 9,200 13,800 31,050 Kuzkwa Cr. Sockeye i,ooo 19,000 15,000 22,500 50,625 Kynock Cr. Sockeye ,500 ~3,000 36,500 54,750 123,188 Little R. Sockeye. 3~ 1 000 3,000 49,000 73,500 165,375 Middle R. Sockeye 3· , 000 240,600 202,600 303,900 683,775 Nadine R., Sockeye 8,400 46,000 37,600 56,400 126,900 Okanagan R. Sockeye 13,000 45,000 32,000 L~8, ooo 108,000 Raft R., So eke ye 6,500 20,000 13,500 20,250 L~5,563 Seymour R. Sockeye 32,000 100,000 68,000 102,000 229,500 South Allouette R. Pink (Odd) 500 35,000 34,500 34,500 18,950 South Thompson R. So eke ye 12,000 63,000 51,000 ·76,500 172,12.5 Swel tzer C1... Pink (Odd) 7,000 i2,000 35,000 35,000 19,250 Sweltzer·cr. Sockeye 20,000 1,000 41,000 6i,500 138,375 Svsltzer Cr. Chum 3,000 62,000 59,000 59,000 76,700 Thompson R. Pink (Odd) . No data Upper Pitt R. Sockeye 18,ooo 56,000 38,000 57,000 128,250 Vedder R. Pink (Odd) 17,000 83,000 66,000 66,000 36,300 Vedder R. Chum 6,ooo 35,000 29,000 29,000 37,700 Weaver Cr. Sockeye 6,ooo 35,000 29,000 43,500 97,87.5 AREA 29 (Continued) Indicated Annual Escapement Potential . Past Stream Species Present Maxima Di ff. Numbers Value Summary Pink (Odd) 443,500 770,000 326,500 326,500 $ 179,550 Chum 92,000 290,000 198,ooo 198,ooo 257,400 Chinook 6,ooo 35,000 29,000 87,000 478,500 Coho u5,ooo 90,000 45,000 135,000 324,000 Sockeye 665,734 2,005,800 1, 340, 066 _2_,0_1_0_._0_9 __9 _....4...... 5_22_,_7 __ 2 __3 Total 2,756,599 5,762,173 Roct:• DUHAMEL, r.•.s.c. Queen·• Printer and Controller of StaUonery Ottawa, 1966 (72)