The Indo-European Languages Proto-Indo-European Morphology

Home , Aorist, Augment (Indo-European), Clitic, Infix, Suppletion, Thematic vowel

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The Indo-European Languages

Mate Kapovi

Proto-Indo-European Morphology

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 Mate Kapovi Published online on: 09 Jan 2017

How to cite :- Mate Kapovi. 09 Jan 2017, Proto-Indo-European Morphology from: The Indo-European Languages Routledge Accessed on: 26 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315678559.ch3

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 ἄ-πα-τoρ! ‘orphan(fatherless)!’ (*o-grade) πά-τερ! ‘father!’ (*e-grade) forms: Greek these in suffix the in grades five all Cf. languages. attested early in preserved best are seen even in modern IE languages (e.g., sing appearance of acertain ablaut formwerequitecomplexinPIE.Somealternations ‘it is’ but *h but is’ ‘it glide), the zero grade was *R/R was grade zero the glide), (*ē, grade long *ō), and or the zero grade (*Ø). In the case of *eR in the full grade (*R being lengthened any resonant/ the *o), (*e, grade full the alternations: in were vowels following The shapes. different had have could ending or prefix), a (rarely suffix root, on itsform (either as part of amorphological paradigm or derivational process), a PIE Ablaut is a regular morphonological alternation of vowels in PIE morphemes. Depending ABLAUT tackled onlymarginally throughoutthechapter. strictly part of morphology, are also dealt with in the end, while word formation will be (dealt with in separate chapters of this volume). Non-inflected parts of speech, though not more onPIEitself,ratherthanthedevelopment and situation in separate IE branches are adduced,withthepointofreconstructingPIEformsandparadigms. is The focus can be dealt with here. As a rule, only the most archaic attested forms (even if rare) of those forms. Obviously, not all reflexes and developments in all descendant languages and paradigmsnotontheexact(andsometimesdisputable)functionmeaning meaning. The focus of this short overview will be on the reconstruction of PIE forms PIE. Formsandendingsareusuallyeasier to reconstruct than their functionsandexact guages haveaseparate future tense(thoughnotalwayssynthetic), which didnotexistin appeared also forms morphological new However, later none. in simplified often was languages morphology This morphology. synthetic complex and Proto-Indo-European, aswellallearlyattestedIndo-Europeanlanguages,hadarich INTRODUCTION Mate Kapović MORPHOLOGY PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN CHAPTER 2 *ōm πα-τρ-óς ‘ofthefather

– *m/m –

– e.g., – ̥ 1 , s-enti ‘they are’ (with *h (with are’ ‘they s-enti etc.), depending on syllable structure (p. 31). Thus, we have PIE *h PIE have we Thus, 31). (p. structure syllable on depending etc.), no modern IE language has all the eight cases PIE had, and some have some and had, PIE cases eight the all has language IE modern no ’ (zerograde)

̥ (i.e., *ey (i.e., 1 es-/h

– *oy –

1 s- alternation). The rulesdetermining the ἀ-πά-τωρ ‘orphan’ (*ō-grade) πα-τήρ ‘father’

– *ēy –

– sang

– *ōy –

–

sung in English), but they are e.g., –

– *y/i; – (*ē-grade) most modern IE lan- IE modern most *em

– *om –

– *ēm – 1 es-ti

– Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 fix + suffix + ending). There were also some nouns with reduplication, e.g., *k e.g., + ending). reduplication, with suffix nouns + some fix also were There (root + ending), *pot-i-s ‘lord’ (root + suffix + ending), and *suH-n-u-s ‘son’ (root + suf- potentially (according to their ablaut type) change their ablaut shape (i.e., they could have in *h in of thethematic vowel ino-stems,notunlikeathematic alternation *-e-/-o- qualitative limited very the was stems thematic in alternation ablaut endings and root the in alternation glides syllabic considered be can *i/u and the other stems athematic. All athematic stems can be called consonantal stems (since *unus; eoat stems resonant (*suHn-u-s); sonant clusters con- possible (with structure CVC a had roots verbal/nominal and nominal, verbal, PIE (p. 79–80) (p. *n (like A dative, accusative,vocative,locative,instrumental,andablative. cases eight were traits. There and endings case special some had as fardeclensiongoes,andtheycanbetreatedtogether,like nouns whilepronouns “plural” nominative neuter and verbsagreedwiththeminnumber(butcf.thecuriouscaseof gender withnouns, late addition to thePIEnumber system). Adjectives and pronounsagreed in number and nouns (p. 178). PIE had three numbers inanimate/neuter and animate/common of distinction a only exhibits Anatolian PIE innovation(whichiscontroversial) after theearlysplitof Anatolian branch,since genders three neuter had nominals PIE (post-Anatolian) Late NOUNS 56) and *deywos (p. 49) TE place their change can resonants roots, certain In 62 would have had no prefixes. Words could have more than one suffix one than more have could prefixes. Words no had have would dat. sg. *wl sg. dat. etc.), and the root in *wl in root the and etc.), sū birth’‘give *suH- root verbal the cf. (*suH-n-us, suffixes derivational strictly the > Ved. (*suHn-u-s)can be distinguished from suffixes declension These sky’). ‘cloudy os-Ø we ‘wheel’. eh ‘stone’), stems (*pont-eH-s ‘path’); plosive stems (*(h stems plosive ‘path’); (*pont-eH-s stems necessarily always the same, cf. the different *-n the *-ō(n), cf. *-ē(n), same, suffixal the in always shapes necessarily ablaut not are suffixes declension The *pont-eH-s? or *pon-teH-s as analyzed be to *ponteHs is e.g., word; a of shape morphological/derivational exact the ascertain to impossible is in then-stems(p.77).

‘gives birth’) that form the extended root. It goes without saying that sometimes it sometimes that saying without goes It root. extended the form that birth’) ‘gives te 2 PIE nouns had the following formation: (prefix +) root (+ suffix) (+ suffix) +ending. suffix) (+ suffix) (+ root +) (prefix formation: following the had nouns PIE Many nouns have special declension suffixes directly preceding the case endings. case the preceding directly suffixes declension special have nouns Many O- andeh noun had noun Ø wo’; ot on (pds n suffix); no (*pōd-s, nouns root ‘wool’); -Ø speak of different nominal stems: nominal different of speak M 1 ekˊwosthe in was a

– preserved ̥ - ‘non-’), which were rare (p. 156–157), occurred in some prefix derivatives prefix some in occurred 156–157), (p. rare were which ‘non-’), - stems (*d m-stems K

– these – ̥ apovi k 2 -stems are called thematic stems (after the so-called thematic vowel *-e/o-), to have a root and an ending (even if it was a zero morpheme). Prefixes morpheme). zero a was it if (even ending an and root a have to w ōy, etc.). In athematic stems, all morphemes (root, suffix, ending) could ending) suffix, (root, morphemes all stems, athematic In etc.). ōy,

– p. ć in most early IE languages. The feminine gender is possibly a common can be interpreted as the first part of a compound, in which case PIE case which in compound, a of part first the as interpreted be can 52–54), in most of which the ablaut scheme in the -V- part is attested. h eǵ grade in all the cases (gen. sg. *h sg. (gen. cases the all in e-grade

– this ̥ h k -ō(m)-Ø ‘earth’), and ‘earth’), -ō(m)-Ø w

os ‘wolf’ was always in the zero grade (gen. sg. *wl sg. (gen. grade zero the in always was ‘wolf’ os – p. –

– is called

r- – singular 65, 166). Morphologically, adjectives behaved exactly behaved adjectives Morphologically, 166). 65, tm (*ph stems

– they – stems (*h o-stems

Schwebeablaut – p. – , plural, and dual (the latter often considered a had the same shape in all the cases (the only (the cases the all in shape same the had 34). In thematic stems, there was no ablaut no was there stems, thematic In 34). 2 2 t-ēr-Ø ‘father’), ‘father’), t-ēr-Ø )nep-ōt-s ‘nephew’); and ‘nephew’); )nep-ōt-s 1 stems (*h l-stems ekˊw-o-s‘horse’);

– cf. – tm (*h i-stems ‘floating ablaut’ (cf. Anttila 1969). *dyew-/deyw- in *dyēws (p. 40, (p. *dyēws in *dyew-/deyw- s-stems). Forinstance, the root

masculine, – 1 ekˊwosyo,*h sg. dat. 2 eb-ōl-Ø ‘apple’); laryngeal ‘apple’); eb-ōl-Ø 3 wis ‘sheep’); ew-i-s tm (*h n-stems

– nominative, – eh 2

-stems (*(h -stems – cf. – stems (*neb s-stems eiie and feminine, *pōd-s ‘foot’*pōd-s 2 ekˊm-ō(n)-Ø w e-k genitive, ̥ 2 u-stems 1 k )wl ekˊwōy, w

w Thus, Thus, osyo, l-o-s ̥ h 1 n- h - ̥

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 to the instr.*-b the pl. to abl. dat. gen. acc. voc. *-b *-ms reconstruct some and pl.), nom. + sg. (acc. and *-b and analogy to the nom. du. *-h du. nom. the to analogy --. ifrn acut ae osbe ee eg, n rgnl a. -o bt nt. pl. instr. but *-mos dat. *-b original an (e.g., here possible are accounts Different *-m-). 302) (p. *-s plural the without <-pi>/-φι Greek) in functions other in also (used instr.pl. the has Homeric) and Indo-Iranian, and Greek one finds endings with *-b dat./loc./instr. pl. and dat./abl./instr. du. are of clear postpositional origin. In Celtic, Italic, nom. instr. loc. separately listed are below): endings specific their and stems, other all from most the differed sumed) suffix. The same opposition of thematic/athematic occurs in verbs as well (p. 93). *pn was *pont-eH-s of sg. occur in all forms and types (the one ablaut of the root in one case and another one in another case), though this did not cases in Greek and Slavic. The *-h wolves’ with an ellipsis of the type *wl spread to other stems (otherwise, *-u should be reconstructed as an as reconstructed be should *-u (otherwise, stems other to spread former postpositions). Indo-Iranian points to proto-variants *-b proto-variants to points Indo-Iranian postpositions). former Eng. (> *bi preposition Germanic the to related originally be could This *-m-). (with *-mi instr.OCS < sg.-mь of theseisunclear). relation exact (the here *-m- have Germanic and Balto-Slavic while forms), variant ent athematic gen./instr. sg. gen./instr. athematic pre-PIE) in originally but are distinct and invariant in thelast stage of PIE(ablaut variants are found only in that just were perhaps (and variants ablaut like look *-i sg. loc. and *-ey sg. dat. endings. The the of origin the on speculate to possible is it cases, some ending special In (pl./du.). dat. or (sg.) gen. the to identical was it elsewhere, only inthesg.ofo-stems; a had ablative The certainty. with reconstructed be can nom./acc./voc. p. 69–70. cf. endings athematic For *-eys. pl. loc. masculine *-isu; pl. loc. masculine *-ot; sg. abl. O-stems and theellipsisin Ved. dyā Case endingsdiffered slightly depending on the type ofdeclension and gender(o-stems In neuter nouns, nom./acc./voc. were always the same in all numbers. In the dual, only h h

(y)oh i(s), etc.)

*-ey = gen. *-(e/o)s *-m (m./f.),*-Ø(n.) *-Ø *-(e)h *-i, *-Ø *-s (m./f.),*-Ø(n.) singular y-oh – cf. differed in these endings: neuter nom./acc. sg. *-m; masculine gen. sg. *-syo; sg. gen. masculine *-m; sg. nom./acc. neuter endings: these in differed 1 /-moh

the Vedic type – provisionally, we reconstruct the dat. pl. as *-b for the dat./abl./instr.the for *-b with du., 1

. The nom.du.perhapshasitsoriginintheinstr. sg.(Schmalstieg 1998), h i-s (parallel to the BSl. instr. pl. *-mi-H-s), while Greek (Mycenaean Greek while instr.*-mi-H-s), BSl. pl. the to (parallel i-s 2 The reconstruction here israther provisional. Indo-Iranian points

– cf. –

by), originally a postposition (case endings often appear out of – p. – ̥ t-H-e/os with a different grade in both the root and (the pre- (the and root the both in grade different a with t-H-e/os

́ ‘heaven and earth’ (literary: ‘two heavens’) and the like the and heavens’) ‘two (literary: earth’ and ‘heaven vā 1 Mitrā

. In the gen./loc. du. the *-o-w from *-o-w the du. gen./loc. the In . < *-b < -v ending sg. instr. Arm. the also 68). Acc. pl. *-ns surely derives from agglutinative *-m-s agglutinative from derives surely *-ns pl. Acc. 68). ̥ k w *-b = dat. *-om *-ns (m./f.), = nom. *-su *-es (m./f.),*-h plural *-b os wl ́ s-stems were the most atypical). For instance, the gen. (nom. du.) (. 1 in the dual forms *-ih h h i(s) os/*-mos

oh 1 ‘wolf with a wolf’ > (*wl

P = roto

nom. (n.)

. 2

h (n.),*-Ø(n.) .) as the as i- where other languages have *-b have languages other where i- Váruṇo -I h - in the dat./instr. pl./du. (with differ ndo ending,

-E 1 and *-b (nom. sg.) ‘Mitra and Varuna’ uropean h

os/-mos and the dat. du. as 1 while the endings of the h = dat. (?) *-h = nom. = nom. dual (?) *-u *-h = dat. (?) *-b y-os for the dat./abl. pl. dat./abl. the for y-os o-stems seemstohave h y/moh 1 (e) (m./f.),*-ih h

o-stem variant,and ̥ k i (p. 434–435) and 434–435) (p. i morphology w h 1 os) wl s, (?)*-u (y)oh 1 isassumedby 1 ̥ k /*-moh w oh 1 ‘two h 1 - (or (n.) 1 63 - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 gen. acc. loc. dat. All caseshadthematic*-o-exceptthevoc.sg.,which*-eandazeroending. pl./du. nom./acc./voc. and sg. nom./voc. the in only endings different had nouns neuter and Masculine ‘daughter-in-law’36). *snusos (p. like were alsosomefeminineo-stems adv. vьčer-a ‘yesterday’; l I Ved. PIE pl. TABLE 1.11 Toch.*-ot-i, -ṣ A < connection toHitt.abl.-az possible the but 53), (p. *-d and *-t both from derived be Indic can abl. ending(alsoCIb.-uð) Old and Latin The clear. not is connection exact the though 81), (p. *-eso ending from the usual *-(e/o)s found in other declensions, is usually compared to the pronominal a instr. Ved. PIE nom. sg. TABLE 1.10 *wl (like masculine mostly were O-stems O-stems Thematic stems in theformorending\,|asecondaryadditiontoaending| the paradigm], \an irregular phonological change, analogy, oranon-transparent addition different a with in but form another one from PIE taken the reflecting or function ending {form orendingnotrelated to theoriginal PIE oneorcompletely transformed}, [formor Symbols (usedintablesandlistsofforms) (especially whentherearenoreflexesoftheoriginalforms). TE everywhere forms dual all chapter,reconstruct this not In will stems). we other for *-ow 64 ‘of’ wouldpointtotheoriginalPIEabl. *-ot (though*-odisoftenreconstructedforPIE). voc. abl. GAv. nom. acc. The final -sinOldIndic (in this and other forms) isoften written ḥ (a as - differentfinal sandhi-variant); The

h gn s. nig -so c. lo e. -oiso,Arm. Lep. also (cf. *-osyo ending sg. gen. The M -āi; a c ‘whence’ (adv.); *-o-ns *-o-es *-o-syo K *-o-ey *-o-h *-o-m *-o-ot *-o-y *-o-s

*-e apovi IE O IE O 1 -STEMS (PLURAL) -STEMS (SINGULAR) ć -āy|a g RV -ā RV -\ān -asya OPruss. -as -am -ād -ās -a -e d ‘at home’‘at (adv.)302); (p. a b b -as (<*-os(y)o?). Dor. ὅπω Hom. -oιo o dial. -oνς ἴ -oν Gr. -ος κ -ῳ -ε {-oι} οι Gr. d c ̥ k

w os) or neuter (like *yugom ‘yoke’). There ‘yoke’). *yugom (like neuter or os) domī Lt C ih Goth. Lith. OCS OLat. -osio e < *-ti (p. 462), and OCS preposition OCS and 462), (p. *-ti < -om Class. Lat. ‘at home’‘at gen.); Lat. (synchronically Class. - -os -oi -e o Lt C ih Goth. Lith. OCS OLat. -os {- aĩ} {-i} {-oe} d -ōs e [gen. - {-omь} -oy, HLuw. -as(s)i),different -ъ -ъ -u -e nami -ě -y/-ę a] f [gen. -o] s-s -as -ui -ą - -e - g ù ù ẽ s

d OHG -u {-is} -Ø -Ø -a - ans b otъ f cf. cf.

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 dat. Ven. -bos( in thefossilizedcollocation o.ac/o.p.*-e-h nom./acc./voc. pl. ergative language (cf. 162–164). The ending *-eh ending The 162–164). (cf. language ergative verbs. Forthisreason(andothers),pre-PIEisconsidered by sometohavebeenan the from derives undoubtedly pragmatic useofneuter(inanimate)nouns,whicharerarely thesubjectsoftransitive nouns, neuter in same the always are nom./acc. that fact the and This, (*-om). sg. acc. masculine the as form same the has sg. nom./acc. *-o-m nom./acc./voc. sg. neuter Ved. a instr. PIE pl. AL 1.12 TABLE wl (*toy *-oy nominal Osc. also (cf. *-ōs ending *-o-ot (with abl. contraction after PIE, *o > PIE BSl. *a?). In many languages/branches, the < original *-a-at BSl. < 41) (p. *-ā < by thedevelopmentofLith.gen.-o tracted inPIE,judgingbyoccasionaldisyllabicscansionIndo-Iranian,andperhaps It ispossiblethattheseendingswerestill(atleastasvariantsordialectally)uncon- *-o-om). < (*-ōm pl. gen. and *-o-eys), < (*-ōys instr.pl. *-o-es), < (*-ōs pl. nom. loc. one finds the *-eh neuter nounsisoriginallyacollective,notpluralperse. That iswhyinIElanguages conjunction Slavic the to connected be tentatively can pl. instr. the in *-ey-s and declensions), probably has the additional *-i- from the singular (cf. the simple ending *-su in other cal to the nom. sg. of feminine *eh feminine of sg. nom. the to cal the dat. (and elsewhere) is problematic (p. 63), but *-os is clear from BSl. *-mos BSl. from clear *-b (OCS -mъ,OLatv.Celt. stems), athematic (in -ms),Lat.bus is *-os but 63), (p. problematic is elsewhere) (and dat. the nom. pl.in-a gen. nally collectivesingulars. feature stemmingfromthesaid factthatlaterneuternominativepluralswereorigi- PIE archaic an is and Greek, (sg.)’in run rule (pl.) animals ‘the τρέχει ζῷα τὰ the as Gatha-Avestan, thepluralofneuternounsagrees withverbsinthe3sg. This isknown ilar casesexistinIranian,Greek, Anatolian, Slavic, etc.).InGreek, Anatolian, and BSl./Gmc variant *-mos, IIr. *-b The nom./acc. forms are always the same in neuter nouns. In nouns. neuter in same the always are forms nom./acc. The Two adjacent vowels contracted: dat. sg. (*-ōy < *-o-ey), abl. sg. (*-ōt < *-o-ot), < (*-ōt sg. abl. *-o-ey), < (*-ōy sg. dat. contracted: Twovowels adjacent *-o-b *-o-ysu *-o-eys *-o-om

‘to the children’), supported by IIr.*-b by supported children’), the louderobos‘to IE h i os ‘and’. (p. 275) or Lat. nouns like nouns Lat. or 275) (p. O-STEMS (NEUTER) a 2 - pluralformsformasculinenounsaswell,cf. Av. regularmasculine -\e\bh|yas RV -ām RV I Ved. PIE -eṣu -ais ̥ dev-ā k w 2 ōs ‘those wolves’‘those ōs ‘inhabitants of Nola’) was replaced by the pro- the by replaced was Nola’) of ‘inhabitants núvlan-ús c ́ ñ jánman-‘raceofgods’; h yos; dial. -OI|Σ|\I\ b á -óν -ám sandhi-variant: -āṃs, cf.GAv. sandhi-form [dat. -oις] -ā ́ 2 -ων Gr. -stems. That is due to the fact that the “plural” of “plural” the that fact the to due is -stems. That -\ά\ Gr. P ‘joke’ iocus roto ⇒ -y [dat. -ois] *toy wl *toy Lt C ih Goth. Lith. OCS OLat. -om d Pl -̄; PSl.*-ъ̄ -I 2 Lt C oh Hitt. Goth. OCS OLat. of the nom./acc./voc. pl. is identi- is pl. nom./acc./voc. the of ndo -om -\a ̥

k -E – pl. – w uropean -omъ oy, p. 81). The *-b The 81). p. oy, e -ěxъ (cf.p.502). -ъ d both -\o\ a- -a -a -a h -y-os. The loc. *-i-su loc. The -y-os. OLith. -am\us h o-stems, theneuter iocī andioca(sim- os (CIb.-bos),and

dial. -íesu morphology

-ąs; -aĩs -ų ͂ c -Ø onlyfourtimes e h -/-m- in -/-m- {-e} -am -an 65 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 voc. nom. dat. *-eh of the collective *-eh identification the from originated have could gender feminine new the of emergence bé, p.77,369). Eh in *-ow waslater, possiblyalreadyinPIE,generalizedotherstemsaswell. *-o-u thus *-u, perhaps originally was ending gen.) (and loc. The loc. acc. loc. gen. accidental *-h o.ac/o.(. *-o-yh nom./acc./voc. (n.) this *-eh this gen. **-eh T a.al/nt.(?)*-o-b dat./abl./instr. *-o-h nom./acc./voc. (m.) du. TE 66 TABLE 1.14 *-o-h from (presumably *-ās is probablysecondary),but Avestan< hasgen.-å a p. 369) a instr. Ved. PIE sg. in adjectives: *newos (m.)/newom (n.) and *neweh and (n.) (m.)/newom *newos adjectives: in since theydo not appear there. In late PIE, these stems are correlatedtoo-stems dat. is nowhere attested (*-e- is a thematic vowel). However, the existence of other femi other (*-i-h of endings nine existence the However, vowel). thematic a is (*-e- attested nowhere is Eh laryngealistic and pre-contraction shape. GreekandBalto-Slavic (cf. alsoUmbr. voc. their in basis structural a on reconstructed formally are endings Some etc. *-ā, > *-aā > nom. *-h nom. Hom.νύμφ-ᾰ!; BSl.*-omoh ABLE 1.13

Old Church Slavic and Vedic point to *-ow in both gen. and loc. (the gen. *-s in Vedic < *-ā and Celtic and *-ā < -o Umbr./Osc. also (cf. *-ā to point Latin except languages All 2 2 -stems -stems (whichwerealwaysfeminine)seemtobeapost-Anatolianinnovation, M 2 a m ̥ in the nom., which is then interpreted as older *-e-h !) > *-ām (Stang’sLaw *-ām > !) 2 2 1 ey > *-ah *-eh - (which has a zero ending in the nom.) + general endings: acc. *-eh acc. endings: general + nom.) the in ending zero a has (which - *-eh < *-aw, which is possibly archaic (Beekes 2011:*-aw,(Beekes < archaic 217). -ō possibly loc. is and which *-s) gen. + - *-eh *-eh K *-e(h *-eh *-eh

1 apovi IE O IE EH ; 2 2 b 2 2 -eh -ey 2 cf.pronominalforms -es -m b 2 -i 2 2 adv. ‘insecret’; in the originally athematic word for ‘woman’: *g ) 4 1 -STEMS (DUAL) 2 ć 2 -STEMS (SINGULAR) ay > *-aay > *-āy; loc. *-eh 2 -(s) and *-u-h and -(s) 2 {-āyām} (?) *-o-h (and possessive *-ih -|āy|ās -|āy|ai {-e} -ām *-o-w -ā -ā PIE h (y)oh 1 c 1 withapostposition- 1 s

1 – p. – – p.86; a 2 κρυφ -s, p. 67, 74) indicates a laryngeal. Other cases have cases Other laryngeal. a indicates 74) 67, p. -s, -ᾰ -ᾱ́ν -ᾶς Gr. -ᾱ́ -ᾷ -\ā\bhyā|m 70); gen. *-eh gen. 70); -|ayos a ᾶ -|aii|å [-ayos] c

Ved. dial.‘intwo/half’. b -ā -e 2 , cf.Lat.o-stemgen.sg.-ī) suffix with the b OLat. -ās 2 i > *-ah = nom. p inthenewadessive. a.OSLt.Goth. Lith. OCS Lat. -am -a -\ă -ae -ae -\ōibiiā -|aii|ō GAv. 2 es > *-ah > es -ā 2 2 i > *-ay; instr. *-eh (f.) ‘new’. The post-Anatolian The ‘new’. (f.) b 2 -\ {-ojǫ} -õs [-y/-ę] (p.43),thoughthelaryngeal {-oιιν} {-oιιν} -o -ą -ǫ -ě -ě 2 {-ω} as > *-aas (p. 43) > *-ās; > 43) (p. *-aas > as Gr. -ω w b b enh [-ai-|p|] -oma C Lith. OCS o-stems, butthis 2 [-u] (Ved. jáni,OIr. -u -a -ě -ai - -a à à 2 \ eh c 1 > *-ah (?) pusiáu -ám/-am˜ 1 2 -s with m (not = nom. - ù -os -ai -a -a 2 ah

– - 1 c

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 nom./acc./voc. *deyw-yeh dat. *-ih s ‘son’ and the gen. sg. *ph ‘son’sg. *suHnus gen. in the grade and zero the in ‘father’, instr. loc. devī As already said, in athematic nouns all morphemes (roots, suffixes, endings) could endings) suffixes, (roots, morphemes all exhibit ablaut alternations nouns athematic in said, already As PIE athematicablautdeclension types Athematic stems TABLE 1.16 -ų -o,Lith. (Goth. *-ōm long contracted a to pointing reflexes few a are have we all forms, The gen. ending *-eh so itispossibletoassumethatthiswasalready a PIEchange(atleast insomedialects). d a Ved. PIE nom. pl. TABLE 1.15 usually is this *-e(h as terms, explained laryngeal In voc. the in *-ă to point goddess)) a of (name tursa! a gen./loc. du. acc. dess’ <*-ih p. 65),not*-h dropping beforeapausewithoutlengthening (cf. also Ved. devi! dat./abl./instr. the types had the apophonic alternation *-ih alternation apophonic the had types the gen. S.Gc -o, I. *-b IIr. *-mos, BSl./Gmc Or analogical *-eh

PSlav. ͂ S.*ъ ). , PSl.*-ъ̄ Some IE languages (Vedic, Gothic) show no trace of the original *-n- in the acc. pl., acc. the in *-n- original the of trace no (Vedic,show languages Gothic) IE Some The nom./acc. endings point to *-ay (< *-aī < *-a(h < *-aī (< *-ay to point endings nom./acc. The Two feminine *-ih Twofeminine ´ 1 ; cf.Lith. (like the neuter the (like

-̄. *-ъ̄ *-eh *-eh *-eh *-eh *-eh *-eh 2

2 2 -ey butvr 2 -b IE EH IE EH , seebelow). -b 2 2 -(n)s 2 2 -om h -su -es 1 h i(s) ‘wife’; PIE *wl PIE ‘wife’; patì (e) likeotherfemininestems. os 2 -ow (p. 63); a b 2 2 2 -STEMS (PLURAL) -STEMS (DUAL) ), with the laryngeal coloring the preceding vowel (*-a(h vowel preceding the coloring laryngeal the with ),

̥ 2 2 – perhaps – kíe <*wl -om isformallyreconstructed, since, ifwedisregardthesecondary -types can also be reconstructed (PIE *deyw-ih (PIE reconstructed be also can -types -ābhyas -|ān|ām -ābhis (?)*-eh h -āsu yos; -ās -ās

*-eh – for *-eh b PIE BSl. *-eh b r *-b Gr. 2 -b 2 2 ̥ -ih -u k h instance, the suffix was in the lengthened grade in *ph due to the connection of the feminine sg. and neuter pl., neuter and sg. feminine the of connection the to due yoh w dial. -\ᾱ́ω\ν 1 a -ih Myc. -āp dial. -άνς ̥ k 1 {-α {-αί} 2 b h w -ey). Gr. , I. *-b IIr. i, 2 -ih moh ῖ ς} 2 -s ‘she-wolf’ > Ved.> ‘she-wolf’ -s 1 h ; i c c cf.-íe-ji-dvi P 2 -/-yeh h roto s Bl *-miHs; BSl. is, OLat. - {-ārum} -ābhyā|m {-ayos} {- a.OSLt.Goth. Lith. OCS Lat. Ved. -ās -e -amъ īs} 2 -I - in the suffix (Ved.suffix the sg. in dat. - ndo as 2 in definite adjectives with -íe- < *-ayH-. c )ih -E 1 ). The uropean -os [-y/-ę] -a\xъ -ami -y/-ę -ъ c f pooia *sm p 81); (p. *-som pronominal cf. vr d ̥ < *-i(h kī 2 eh e/os, in the full grade full the in tre/os, ´ , p. 236–237); one of one 236–237); p. s, -ama OCS 2 -u -ě OLith. -om\us -stems havethedual

morphology 2 dial. -osu ‘goddess’ > Ved.‘goddess’> 2 ) fromdevī ‘god- -omìs - -ų à ͂ s 2 )) butthen devyái -óm/-õm Lith. -ì -om -os - 2 -o os c tēr 67 <

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 batacn tps sai (cottcardnmc *nók (acrostatic/acrodynamic) static types: ablaut/accent secondary withoutanyrealevidence. reconstructed) that areactually attested in thedaughterlanguagesbutoftenconsideredas *mn and 38) (p. *suHnús of instead **méntis, or **séwHnus like forms, speculative, completely but supposed, the with ates oper often thus and stage, pre-PIE supposed “original” some of rather but PIE, of stage that itusually(atleastunconsciously)triestoreconstructtheablauttypesnotoflatest eral (p. 55–56), and its relation to ablaut patterns. The problem with the standard theory is lems withthisstandardaccount, as wellwiththereconstruction of PIEaccent in gen- accentedness, while the zero grade shouldbeunaccented. However, there are many prob- tual alternations, the usual supposition being that the full (especially *e) grade goes with usually tendstobegeneralizedinthedaughterlanguages. more common in PIE,were also more likely to be preserved, though here one of the types *h with Ved.*ausōs-) (< generalized been usually had grades ablaut PIE nate alter the of one where languages, various in reflexes different from reconstructed be to *ponteHs (e.g., language some in *pn reflexes direct from reconstructed be declension types(ADTs), whicharedifficulttoreconstruct. but in the zero grade in the gen. sg. *suHnows. PIEhad quite a number of complex ablaut *-es/-os/-s, instr. sg. *-eh (whether they were weak like nom. sg. *-s or strong like nom. pl. *-es) pl. nom. like strong or *-s sg. nom. like weak were they (whether the pre-PIE period). Lat. pre-PIE (cf. the suffixes in alternations The ablaut alternations intheroot(whichmayor maynotbeaninnovation incomparisonto can bereconstructed, manystemtypes(e.g.,i-stems,mostr- (immobile root accent); proterodynamic (proterokinetic) *péh (proterokinetic) proterodynamic accent); root (immobile nom. sg. *h PIE declensionsystem, we come to the conclusion that the original pattern was probably TE in the gen. sg. *suHnows, while the ending was in the full grade in the gen. sg. *ph 68 dynamic) *h dynamic) holokinetic/holo (amphikinetic, amphidynamic suffix); to root from ‘fire’ shifts (accent had ablaut variants, i.e., were of the alternating type (thus, whether an ending in an ADT hysterodynamic (hysterokinetic) *ph *ne/ok are always inthezero grade. E.g.,ifwelook at the rootsofthe already mentioned words, full (orlengthened) gradeinsomecasesbutthezero gradeinothers;weakmorphemes Strong (–). weak or (±), morphemes always havethefull(orlengthened) grade; alternating morphemes have the alternating (+), strong either were paradigm nominal a in E) or lesspreserved. somewhat different thanthoseinthestandardanalysis,butusualterminology is more are types ablaut reconstructed the analysis, this In stage). “original” pre-PIE supposed the supposed PIEaccent shifts, with emphasis on the last stage of PIE(and not some heterodox somewhat in comparisontothestandard one because it stresses morpheme alternations and not is that analysis an use shall we here However, ending). to suffix

The standardtheoryusuallyoperateswiththefollowingbasicandneatly organized The standardtheoryof ADTs connects the ablaut types withthesupposedPIEaccen In thecaseofrootalternations, the original ADTs cansometimes, butveryrarely, 2 In our analysis here, we take it that all PIE morphemes (roots R, suffixes S, endings S, suffixes R, (roots morphemes PIE all that it take we here, analysis our In ̥ ewsōs-, *h ewsōs-, tHos ‘path’ can be reconstructed from Ved.from reconstructed be can ‘path’ tHos M a w t- is (+), *h (+), is t- K 2 apovi ewsōs 2 éwsōs 2 usōs-, and *h and usōs-, ć

– gen. sg. *h

2 – gen. sg. *h sg. gen. – ews-/h uṣā 1 ́ /-h s (gen.sg. 2 us- is (±), and *suHn- is (–). Most endings were invariant were endings Most (–). is *suHn- and (±), is us- 1 2 , and perhaps nom. du. *-h us(s)- (byadditional analysis in the context of the whole 2 use/os ‘dawn’, p. 51). However, already in PIE, as far as 2 us(s)é/ós ‘dawn’ (accent shifts from root to ending); to root from shifts (accent ‘dawn’ us(s)é/ós ̥ uṣás), wecanconcludethatPIEhadablautvariants 2 tís (p. 35) (with the accent marked as traditionally as marked accent the (with 35) (p. tís t e r

– gen.sg.*ph pánthās

– e.g., – 2 tré/ós ‘father’ (accent shifts from 1 /-h ‘father’ pater

– pathás – w 1 ts e (cf.OLith.-forthelatter) if one compares Lat. compares one if

stems, etc.) did notexhibit gn s. *nék sg. gen. – 2 wr ̥

). Usually, theyhave – gen. sg. *ph sg. gen. –

– gen. –

– only –

gen. – sg. w s ‘night’ ts gen. sg. gen. patris), aurōra 2 2 tre/os wéns sg. - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 they alternate (cf. the zero suffix in the gen. sg. *me-h sg. gen. the in suffix zero the (cf. alternate they distinguished becausetheydiffer notonlyinwhatmorphemes alternate, butalsoinhow alternating morphemes), while acrodynamic (+ ± and sg. nom. the in + have both (but alternate that morphemes of ber tern What is relevant in an ADT are not onlythe types ofmorphemes but the way they pat- 2) 7) 1) applied toathematicverbsaswell. nature/valency of a morpheme was paradigmatic, not universal. A *mn in alternating and *potis in weak The +, is sg. *h sg. 4) 5) 3) dynamic stems had a zero-grade *-s, while other types had a full-grade *-es or *-os. The meso- and protero-, acro-, sg. gen. the In *-Ø). synchronic (or pl. nom./acc./voc. the in 6) different naming/grouping of the types is always possible. In separate stems (e.g., stems separate In possible. always is types the of naming/grouping different the All athematicstemshadmostly thesameendings(differing inanumber ofcasesfrom Athematic caseendings For slightlydifferent ADTs inrootnouns,cf.p.71. have different opinions.Somenounsmayhavehadcoexisting different ablaut variants. gent later developments, reconstructions are sometimes speculative, and different authors diver and analogies numerous of Because types. three to one find usually can one etc.),

The followingnominal ADTs canbereconstructedforthelaststageofPIE: stems), the differences being in the presence of *-i in the loc. sg. and neuter *-h neuter and sg. loc. the in *-i of presence the in being differences the o-stems),

– e.g., – same morpheme did not have to be the same in all words all in same the be to have not did morpheme same RSE ± pr type b)RSE±+*pont-eH-s holostatic RSE +++*neb RSE +± acr RSE hyster RSE +–+*pot-i-s amphidynamic RSE mesodynamic type a)RSE+±*h holodynamic –, or ± is seen only in these two or three cases, while being irrelevant in others). in irrelevant being while cases, three or two these in only seen is ± or –, 3 n oterodynamic (πρότερος‘infront’) ̥ h odynamic (ἄκρος‘outermost’,δύναμις‘power’)

3 – ±+*p-h – ± -men-s). Additional (sub)types mayalsobepotentially added (cf.p.77),and odynamic (ὕστερος‘comingafter’) two holodynamic types are put together because they differ only in the num- the in only differ they because together put are types holodynamic two

– *suHn-u-s – *h – *me-h (onlyneuter 3 (ὅλος‘whole’) neh (μέσος‘middle’) h -os-Ø 2 (ἀμφί‘onbothsides’) tēr-Ø 2

3 tēr-Ø – gen.sg.*pot-y-e/os‘master -mn 2

– gen.sg.*neb – gen.sg.*suHn-ow-s‘son’ ekˊ-mō(n)-Ø ̥ – gen.sg.*p-h -Ø

s-stems) (στατός‘placed’) – gen.sg.*me-h

– gen.sg.*h

– gen.sg.*pn ̥ tis (p. 35), etc. Thus, the (strong/alternating/weak) the etc. Thus, 35), (p. tis

– gen.sg.*h h 2 -es-e/os ‘sky’ tr-e/os ‘father’ 3 n P ̥ roto h 2 tr 3 ̥ -men-s ‘name’ -s ‘mother’ ̥

t-H-e/os ‘path’ –) and -I 2 ndo ekˊ-mn-e/os ‘stone’ ’ (cf.p.77for*melit) 2 tr proterodynamic (± ± -E ̥ -s, but a full suffix in the gen. the in suffix full a but -s, uropean

– e.g., –

similar analysis

morphology – in – the suffix *-i- was *-i- suffix the the gen. sg. in sg. gen. the

–) type can be i-, are n-, 69 - 2

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 *-s, like *pōds (p. 15), *g forms inthe nom. sg.ofathematic stems. However, the length in formswiththe preserved many explains law This 64). (p. *-ons ending pl. acc. the and 71) (p. *dems sg. gen. the like forms from seen as PIE of stage last the in process, phonological live a not morphonological, was lengthening This 53). p. *-d, of restoration subsequent lengthening might have occurred in some other cases, like in *kˊerd > *kˊēr (with possible < *-er-s (p. 75), *sek 75), *-er-s(p. < monosyllabic lengtheningorCL from*wis-s. either of result a be can 55) ‘poison’(p. *wīs way,e.g. one than more in interpreted be perhaps Stang’s Law (see below) in the acc. sg. like *gʷōm. In some cases, the length can and *pōds, like cases in 54–55) (p. lengthening monosyllabic early Law,Szemerényi’s morphologization and analogical interplay of several earlier phonological processes like in these forms and not after resonants, *y, and *s as well?). Perhaps it is a consequence of only restored be it would (why convincing not perhaps but possible is *-s of restoration analogical then and CL, *-s, of dropping original clear.The completely not is 104), (p. *d (Szemerényi’s Law): CL subsequent with *s, and *y, (*m/n/l/r), resonant suffix-final nouns. matic athe in word-finally occurred processes (CL) lengthening compensatory of number A Compensatory lengtheninginathematicstems eh to analogy PIE, already partially perhaps early, by (presumably *-ōm long a of reflexes Italic, show Celtic, languages in most reflexes while ble Slavic), and Anatolian, In the gen. pl., one can assume an original short *-om on structural grounds (with possi- *-s(-) plural pronominal the (however,cf. ending sg. gen. the unlike endings), case most are (as invariant is but *-es variant sg. gen. the to form in identical is *-es pl. variants inonelanguage(Lat.-is < OLat. -es, togetherwithOLat.us < *-os). The nom. some wecannottelltheoriginalvowel(OInd.-as),andonlyrarelydoesoneseeboth variants accent, ADT, stemtype,dialect,etc.)sincemostlanguageshavegeneralizedoneofthe on depended originally have TE might (it clear not is *-os and *-es of distribution original 70 ing to the final segment of the root, root nouns can also be considered plosive stems plosive considered be also can (*pōd-s), nouns root root, the of segment final the to ing (*kˊērd-Øcluster ‘sky’), Accord - etc. resonant (*dyēw-s ‘heart’), (*pōd-s), diphthong ‘home’), stop (*dō(m)-Ø a in end can nouns root in root The *ped-e/os. sg. gen. ‘foot’, *pōd-s cf. root), the to directly added is ending (the nouns root called are and sg. nom. usually disyllabic in thenom.sg. Those thatdonothaveasuffixaremonosyllabic inthe are and endings and root the between kind some of suffix a have nouns athematic Most Root nouns thematic stems(p.66). (p. 77), *k Law), cf. *dyēm < *-ewm (p. 40, 72), *g (Stang’s *-m final the before dropped laryngeals and glides when occurred also CL after glides, cf. loc. sg. *mn

2 CL occurs with *-h with occurs CL h -stems). e M ǵ h a ō(m) < *-om-s (p. 77), *h

– some – stems (*dō(m)-Ø), etc. Root nouns had a tendency to become less frequent less become to tendency a had nouns Root etc. (*dō(m)-Ø), m-stems K W 5 etwōr< *-or-h apovi h msuiefmnn edn *s rpe i pePE fe a ot or root- a after pre-PIE in dropped *-s ending masculine/feminine The languages have only *-es (OCS -e (OCS *-es only have languages ć w Hōy < *-oy-s (p. 73), *h 73), (p. *-oy-s < Hōy 2 after *n, *r, and *s as well, cf. nom. pl. *h pl. nom. cf. well, as *s and *r, *n, after w ōws (p. 24), *(h 2 (p. 89), and nom. pl. *neb ̥ tēy < *-ey-i (p. 72) and loc. sg. *suHnōw < *-ow-i (p. 73). 2 ekˊmō(n) < *-on-s (p. 76), *h 2 w )nepōts (p. 39), *-ōws (p. 74), and ptcp. *-ōnts ōm < *-owm (p. 71), and *-ām < *-eh 2 ewsōs < *-os-s (p. 79). The same kind of kind same 79). The (p. *-os-s < ewsōs ), some have only *-os (Gr. -oς), in -oς), (Gr. *-os only have some ), h ōs < *-os-h 2 ebōl < *-ol-s (p. 77), *ph 2 (p. 79); and with *-i 3 n ̥ h s-less long-grade 3 mōn < *-on-h < mōn

– p. – o- and 2 -m in 83). 2 tēr 2

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 acc. instr. loc. dat. gen. dat. TABLE 1.18 Cf. p.70forthenom.sg.length. nom. gen. instr. loc. a pl. nom. sg. TABLE 1.17 potis ‘lord of the house’), or *gʷōws ‘cow’ (Ved. δῶ, Arm. Acrodynamic d) c) b) a) no suffixes,rootnounscantentativelybefittedintotheabove ADT scheme): a vowellessroot(p.41)?Rootnounshadthe following ablaut types (although they have stems; e.g., is *kˊwō(n) ‘dog’ to be analyzed as a root noun or as an In atives. or disappear altogether in many IE languages, being replaced with various suffixal deriv- acc. acc. sg. *g sg. acc. gós, Av. cated by Ved.cated ‘front foot’). Ved.trace’, the *‘following < festival’ the after day ‘the Gr.ἔπι-βδ-α (cf. *pd- holodynamic original supposedly the for secondary is *ped- oblique the that is supposition usual The *ped-). Latin and *pod- generalized bhyā namic stemshadamorecomplexablautpattern: Cf.RV ā

ul nm/c.vc *pod-h nom./acc./voc. Dual: ́ RE RE ±+(holodynamic)*dyēw-s RE RE ++(amphidynamic)*pōd-s m). The nom./acc. *pod- (accented in Vedic/Greek) and oblique *ped- stem are indi- + ́ gəˉuš). For the length in *dō(m) or *kˊwō(n) cf. p. 70. Stang’s Law operates in the pas ‘waters’ (6x),togetherwiththesecondary – +(hysterodynamic)*muHs-(s)

tun) some cases, some – w

owm > *g > owm (acrodynamic)*dō(m)-Ø IE ROOT NOUNS(PLURAL) IE ROOT NOUNS(SINGULAR)

nouns had *o in the nom./acc. and *e in other cases, cf. *dō(m) (Gr.*dō(m) cf. cases, other in *e and nom./acc. the in *o Hom. had nouns (by Brugmann’s(by Law pād- *ped-b – gen. – *ped-b *ped-om *pod-n *pod-es *ped-su *ped-e/os *ped-eh PIE *ped-ey *pod-m *pōd-s *ped-i PIE h h i(s) ̥ os s sg. *dems (Ved.*dems sg. w ōm (Ved.ōm it is not clear whether certain nouns are indeed root or suffixal or root indeed are nouns certain whether clear not is it ̥ 1 1 e (r πδ) dt/nt.al *ped-b dat./instr./abl. πóδε), (Gr. (e) gā padás < *pā ́

, Dor. βῶν, Umbr.Dor.βῶν, m,

*padbh|y|ás – gen.sg.*diw-e/os‘daysky’ – gen.sg.*ped-e/os‘foot’

pad\a pa padbhís – gen.sg.*dem-s‘home’ padás pa dán, GAv. də patsú pada padé Ved. padí Ved. ̄ ́ pā da|m ̄ ́ das

́ – p. – t ̄ – gen.sg.*muHs-e/os‘mouse’ ́ \m ̄ ́ P ́ das ‘trampling, rattle’, Av.rattle’, ‘trampling, upa-bd-ás roto 40, 206) and 206) 40, apás. a gáus, Gr. βοῦς) -I ̄ n ndo g , Gr. δεσ-πότης ‘master’ < *dems < ‘master’ Gr.δεσ-πότης , bum) [dat. π\ο\δί] -E Myc. po-de [dat. π\ο\σσ\ί\] π\ο\δóς uropean π\ού\ς Myc. p\o-pi pad- respectively (Greek has πóδα Gr. π\ο\δ\ῶ\ν

πóδας πóδες – cf. – Gr.

– gen. n-stem *kˊw-ō(n) with p. 70. The amphidy- The 70. p.

morphology h sg. *g yoh 1 (Ved. pad- w ews (Ved. fra-bd-a- [abl. pede] p\edem ped|ibus p\edēs pedis p\edēs p\ēs pedum pedī Lat. Lat. 71 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 nom. acc. loc. acc. a Ved. PIE pl. TABLE 1.20 a Ved. dat. gen. PIE sg. TABLE 1.19 In the I-stems the zerogradeinobliquecases. *kˊune/os (p. 41, 56). Holodynamic stems show an *e or *o full grade in the nom./acc. and (Ved. TE 72 nom. voc. process of*-ey-i>*-ēy(p.70). (pre-)PIE a through explained be to is *-ēy sg. loc. The *-eys). to point OHG and (OCS *-oys variant sg. gen. PIE a reconstruct to need no is there and *-ows), < *-auz u-stem -ais andONor. -arareprobablysecondary(byanalogyto (f.) sg. gen. Goth. but *-ey-s). *-y-e/os sg. (gen. versa vice and ending full-grade a by followed was suffix grade with thezero-graderootoriginally had thistypeofendings).Inthegen.sg., zero- (p. 35), *mr instr (m./f.) paradigminIE: of whichtheformergenerally prevailed in later IE languages. The mesodynamic (*-i-/-ey-/-oy-/-ēy-). The *mn in as zero ‘sheep’or gen. dat. loc. instr. ‘day’), voc. sg. *dyew! (Gr. Ζεῦ) or *kˊwō(n)or Ζεῦ) (Gr. *dyew! sg. voc. (Ved.‘day’), Cf.Osc.original(andgeneralized)- Cf.alsotheHitt.generalizednom.pl. -

For the invariant zero grade of the root cf. also *n (Ved.*dyēws cf. stems holodynamic For . M , Gr. Διóς), acc. sg. *dyēm with Stang’s Law (Ved.Stang’sLaw with *dyēm Gr.sg. divás, acc. Διóς), a i-stems (asinthe *-i-b *-i-b *-ey-es *-ey-om K *-ey-ey *-ey-s *-i-su *-i-ns *-i-h *-i-m

̥ *-i-s *-ey *-ēy tis ‘death’ (p. 35), and other nouns in *-tis, etc. (presumably, only the apovi IE I IE I h h /mos i(s) 1 -STEMS (PLURAL) -STEMS (SINGULAR) a b ć -íbh|yas {-īnā -áye -ím -és -ís -íbhis -ā -e -áyas -ī -\ī -íṣu ´ i-stems hadtwoablaut types, mesodynamic andamphidynamic, ́ stems), the root was unchangeable (either full as in *h in as full (either unchangeable was root the u-stems), ̥ ´ tis ‘mind’), while the suffix could be in various ablaut grades ablaut various in be could suffix the while ‘mind’), tis s\ ́ m} eis; Hom. {-ηoς} eš <*-eyes; [dial. dat.-ι|σ|\ι\] dial. -ηϊ b cf.originalOHG(f.)-i

} – gen. – i-stems i-stem -\ 3 diem ewis a\is -ins -Ø -im -s sg. b Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 gen. voc. tuppi ‘claytablet’)andpl.*-ih (Ved.*-i sg. only: nom./acc./voc. the differedin forms though OCSformcouldalsotheoreticallybeduetoanalogythegen.pl.). The neuter forms, while Ved. gen./loc. du. (OCS 63) (p. *-ey-u? < cf. gen. *pot-y-e/os ‘master’ (Gr. πόσιος ‘husband’), *h ‘husband’), πόσιος (Gr.‘master’ *pot-y-e/os gen. cf. dat. sákhāyam, Hitt. *-oy-s (Ved.*-oy-s with secondary-ur,Hitt.zah A unimaginable. not are early runic/earlyOHG- ‘harbor’, OEng. ‘harbor’, portus a Ved. loc. PIE acc. nom. sg. TABLE 1.21 pl. of the root), even when we have no direct attestation for that (unlike the case in *h in case the (unlike that for attestation direct no have we when even root), the of etc. Gr. Ion. Gr. *potis), though acrodynamic + ± ‘guest’ (p. 40), *kˊlownis40), ‘guest’(p. *h 51), ‘hip’(p. - instr below). The mesodynamic(m./f.)paradigmprevailedinlaterlanguages: *dor-u (cf. stems neuter all in not but stems masculine/feminine in The U-stems and u-stemsinthegen.sg.aswell). between difference *-ows : *-eys the (cf. *-ōw from explain to easier is in OCSsynu Loc. *-ēw is also reconstructable (cf. *-ēy in (like *-ow-i pre-PIE from derives *-ōw Loc. etc. adjectives, (Gr. πόσι!), nom. *-y-es (Ved.adj. *-y-es nom. πόσι!), (Gr. o GAv. -ə ī ἰ , OCS -i ών). The scarcely attested amphidynamic paradigm had a weak suffix (*-i-/-y-) in all cases, For the invariant zero grade of the root cf. also *pr also cf. root the of grade zero invariant the For The full grade (*-ey-) of the suffix is found in the gen./dat./loc./voc. sg. and nom./gen. nom./gen. and sg. gen./dat./loc./voc. the in found is suffix the of (*-ey-) grade full The

– other –

. – were – u-stems weremostlyparallel to the One could assume that originally all originally that assume could One ̄ uš; ὄ *-ew-ey *-ow-s ιος), , a.isr/b. *-i-b dat./instr./abl. ), *-u-h *-u-m b *-ow *-ōw *-u-s

cases have the zero grade (*-i-). Dual forms are nom./acc./voc. *-i-h nom./acc./voc. are forms Dual (*-i-). grade zero the have cases amphidynamic (i.e., that the ablaut of the suffix was connected to the ablaut the to connected was suffix the of ablaut the that (i.e., amphidynamic ‘man’; mán-au IE U ‘friend’, Gr.‘friend’, sákhā ἠχώ Hitt. ‘echo’, 1 dat. *-y-ey (Ved.*-y-ey dat. -STEMS (SINGULAR) zah ˘ ˘ iu

c holodynamic + holodynamic OLat. a b ˘ ˘ h iyaš), etc.For*-ih 2 háryos ‘tawny’ < *-y-ow-s is probably analogical to them, (Ved. adj.śúcī‘bright’,Hitt.armizzi‘bridges’). senat h

y/moh ̥ – stems ‘husband’), loc. *-y-i (Gr. dat. o dat. (Gr. *-y-i loc. ‘husband’), pátye Hom. {-εoς} h 2 us ‘thin’ (p. 16), *g 16), (p. ‘thin’ us - ‘loyal’, Gr. Hom. Gr. ‘loyal’, aryás ovs {-ει} -υν Gr. -υς 1 i-stems concerning ADTs. The root was invariant (Ved. -ibhyā| ‘of the Senate’, Osc. Senate’, the ‘of ± + type can also be reconstructed, cf. *-ōy < *-ōy cf. reconstructed, be also can type + ± like **g 3 eg stems with a full-grade root full-grade a with i-stems P i-stems), butthenon-palatal -u (i.e.,notju ) wh roto is ‘snake’(Ved.is 2 (s) f.stemsseep.67. h zah -u {-us} -ūs -\u\ī ost-ey-s (perhapslaterandanalogical) a.OSLt.Goth. Lith. OCS Lat. -um -us -I ˘ ndo ῖ ˘ h !), c m ‘battle’), acc. sg. *-oy-m sg. acc. ‘battle’), aiš vā ), gen./loc. *-ey-ow *-ey-ow gen./loc. |, OCS -ьma), ̥ w tus (Av. gen. sg. *-y-e/os (Ved.*-y-e/os sg. gen. ́ 3 ‘water’, Lat. ‘water’, ri r -E ̥ ew-y-e/os ‘sheep’(Ved.ew-y-e/os h ‘fort’); castr-ous (cf.Lat.castrum uropean 2 {*-ъmь} us ‘heavy’ (p. 39) and other and 39) (p. ‘heavy’ us stem loc. sg. *-ēy above). *-ēy sg. loc. i-stem ὄ -ovi -ъ -ъ -u -u ϊες), , Gr. áhis, pər gen. pl. *-y-om (Gr. *-y-om pl. gen. ə

‘crossing’, Lat. ‘crossing’, tu- morphology – gen. – {-umì} mare Hitt. ‘sea’, {-uj ὄ -\a\u {-ui} ἰ -a

-a ί), - φις – like – -ų ù ũ ũ s è s sg. *dr-ews sg. } voc. sg. *-i sg. voc. ‘serpent’), sákhyur *g ̥ 1 ávyas, (Ved. (Ved. 3 h ewis, ostis - -au - aus -u us 73 i- d d

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 nom. fte-nlw (Ved. ‘father-in-law’ dat. acc. ‘cheek’ with generalized -nn- < *-nw-), adj. *h * e.g. that), for roots wereoriginallyamphidynamic (even incaseswhere there isnodirectevidence *-w-om (YAv. (YAv.*-w-es nom. ‘knee’), *γονϝί < γουνί dat. (Gr.Hom. *-w-i (Ved. ‘cattle’ *-w-ey dat. ate’), mádhvas, ‘mother’ (p. 45), *d ‘mother’45), (p. μέϑυ ‘wine’, Goth. ‘wine’, μέϑυ like ini (p. 63) (cf. OCS loc. dat./instr./abl. *-u-b dat./instr./abl. ‘wealths’, Hitt.āššū‘goods’),andnom./acc./voc.du.*-w-ih T the zero grade (*-u-). Dual forms are nom./acc./voc. *-u-h nom./acc./voc. are forms Dual (*-u-). grade zero the nom./gen. pl.(the*e-/o a Ved. PIE pl. TE 74 nouns with roots ending in *-H- like *h e’ p 3) *deh 32), (p. ter’ ai se (e. g *swekˊruh sg. (gen. stem namic ‘mother-in-law’(Ved. instr fe atse i nues eg, *med (e.g., neuters in attested often gen. Cf. also the proterodynamic neuter *dor-u-Ø ‘tree’*dor-u-Ø(Ved. neuter proterodynamic the also Cf. of them belong to nouns denoting family relations family denoting nouns to belong them of The R-stems jā OCS in *derw- variant ablaut the cf. type; ablaut ‘paternal uncle’,Hitt.ḫarnauš‘birthingchair’. with Av.(m./f.): type *-ē/ōws holodynamic in a sg. nom. of a evidence some is There γουνί). dat. Gr. for above (see ‘resin, tar sg. gen. BSl.*-miHs; ABLE 1.22 ́ , Gr. γόνυ)/* Gr. nu,

The full grade (*-ew-/-ow-) of the suffix is found in the gen./dat./loc./voc. sg. and sg. the gen./dat./loc./voc. in found is suffix the of (*-ew-/-ow-) grade full The The vestiges of the amphidynamic type (with weak suffix *-u-/-w- in all cases) are cases) all in *-u-/-w- suffix weak (with type amphidynamic the of vestiges The The suffix *-u- is found in a feminine motion ending *-u-h ending motion feminine a in found is *-u- suffix The . M r- a tm are stems -stems, p. 73). Neuters had a nom./acc./voc. sg. *-u (Ved.*-u sg. nom./acc./voc. a had Neuters 73). p. -stems, *dr-ew-s (Ved.*dr-ew-s *-u-b *-u-b ’. The original ablaut pattern of * K *-ew-om (m.) ‘ability’, Gr. Myc. Gr. ‘ability’, (m.) krátvas *-ew-es

*-u-ns *-u-su apovi IE U b dat.pl.δάκρ-υ|σ|\ι\‘tears’; h h /mos i(s) pasuuąm). Itcanbeperhapsassumedthatallu-stemswithfull-grade ǵ synovu < *-ew-ow but probably secondary Ved. -STEMS (PLURAL) enus oiaty acln/eiie on wt a ivrat ot Many root. invariant an with nouns masculine/feminine dominantly 2 ǵ a ć wr hsads rte’ (Ved. brother’ ‘husband’s iwēr n-ew- ‘cattle’, Hitt. ‘cattle’, faíhu h h y/moh ugh G. κρς Lat. ἑκυρός, Gr. śváśuras, ‘jaw’(Ved. śvaśrū -grade distributionisdifferent fromini-stems) -úbh|yas {-ūnā 2 tēr ‘daughter’ (p. 47), *b ‘daughter’47), tēr (p. -úbhis -ávas drós, YAv. -\ū -úṣu (Hitt. 1 (Ved. -ubhyā| ́ \n ́ ́ s m} , OCSsvekry),declinedlikeanormalconsonantamphidy- 2 /s OCS > e/os ) ‘knee’ is controversial is ‘knee’ ganu-, Goth.thematizedkniu) , Gr.hánus, γένυς) m) *aw ‘a’, o. sg. loc. ‘man’), *manw- < (m.) páśve, Goth.mann ‘associate’, Gr. ἱππεύς ‘horseman’, πάτρως ‘horseman’, ἱππεύς Gr. ‘associate’, hiθāuš dial. -υνς dial. -εες c dial.-aus<*-awesPIE*-ewes. ), though this might not be the oldest/only the be not might this though draoš), -ε\ω\ν 3 h ‘knee’), nom./acc./voc. pl. *-u-h pl. nom./acc./voc. ‘knee’), gēnu b ‘oe’ *eˊ ‘ate) gn *weo (Ved. *-w-e/os *pekˊu gen. ‘honey’, ‘cattle’): u Gr. h b ruHs ‘eye-brow’ (p. 48) or *suHs ‘swine’ (p. m ǵ ), gen./loc. *-ew-ow < *-ew-u? *-ew-u? < *-ew-ow gen./loc. |, OCS-ъma), me-tu-wo, older Lat. en-u- , cf. Ved.svekrъve, 1 oh -ove {-ūs} -uum -ibus h a.OSLt.Goth. Lith. OCS Lat. socer, Lith.š -ūs reh (Lat. devár-, Lith. 1

kˊus ‘fast’ (Ved. – gen. – – *ph – < *dervo ‘tree’, Lith. ‘tree’, *dervo < drěvo 2 tēr ‘brother’ (p. 18), *swesōr ‘sis- *swesōr ‘brother’18), tēr (p. genū, Hitt.gēnu)/* 2 1 -ъmь tēr ‘father’ (p. 46), *meh 46), (p. ‘father’ tēr dā sg. * sg. -ъmi -ъxъ -ovъ 1 (Ved. -ū -y (Ved. adj.urvī ́ , Gr. δόρυ, Hitt. Gr.δόρυ, ru, bāhvós ‘arms’ < *-w-ow-s, 2 -s as well, cf. *swekˊuroscf. well, as -s ẽ ǵ ‘body’) and root root and ‘body’) tanúas dieverìs, OCSděverь), ‘sweetness’, Gr.‘sweetness’, mádhu šuras enwe/os ‘of the Sen- the ‘of senatuos pasuuō), andgen.pl. āśús, Gr. ὠκύς), etc. dial. -us\ , OCS-y

{-ūs} – othercaseshave ad *swekˊruh and ) -umìs - {-ų ù -us ms ͂ -iw{e} } (Goth. ´ c ǵ ‘wide’). è 2 on-u- \ (Ved. vásū , Lith.-u tāru) kinnus derv (Ved. -uns - -jus

38). um 2 tēr

2 ), ), à – s

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 PIE *dh mix of the two types ih n nain fl-rd ro (*meh root full-grade invariant an with deduce to impossible is which nounshadtype. For structural reasons, onecan assume that the derivatives it reflexes, the From pl. acc. the in Greek Vedicand between the loc.sg.,instructural analogy tothegen. sg.intheloc.sg.,anddifference in endings the daughter languages in thegen.sg., thedifference between Vedic attested and Greekin different in seen is opposition acro-/hysterodynamic The guages). and Greek patterns, which look original (the ablaut is mostly generalized in other lan- a (H) acc. (A) acc. pl. TABLE 1.24 frequent inthenom.sg.than*o. a (H) gen. (A) gen. sg. TABLE 1.23 * fead-ur Gr. δοτήρ but *deh ‘man’; š 2 nēr ‘man’) can be treated as root nouns root as treated be can ‘man’) nēr

IE R IE R -STEMS (PLURAL) -STEMS (SINGULAR) b Av. Av. ̥ -ns (p.31); *-r *-r *-er-n *-r-om *-er-es

*-r *-r ̥ -b – all ̥ I Ved. PIE *-r-eh *-r-e/os *-r *-er-i *-r-i *-r-ey *-er *-er-m *-ēr (?) *-r -b < *-rah ‘brother’; ‘brother’; *-rah < brāθ-rō ̥ ̥ h -ns -su /mos h ̥ I Ved. PIE -s i(s) ̥ s ‘giver’). Some ‘giver’). monosyllabic words ending in *-r# (like *h ̥ ̥ 1 -h b 1 cf. Ved. {-r ŕ - 3 stems *-tēr/*-tōr nouns were also were nouns *-tēr/*-tōr Nomen agentis tōr > Gr. δώτωρ, Ved. ̥ ŕ - -\r -áras ˉ bh|yas ˊ ̥ ŕ - ̥ n ˉ -ára|m bhis ̥ ˊ ̥ ā n\ ṣu svás-rām ‘sisters’,ná-rām‘men’; -úr -ári ́ -rā -ar -ré m -ā b a }

́ ́ – hysterodynamic a b 2 ē, *b tēr, [dat. -ράσ\ι\] P [dat. -ρί] -ηρ/-ήρ c roto OLith./dial. -έρα -ρóς -ερ Gr. -ρ\ῶ\ν -έρας -έρες Gr. h reh

– in – -I 2 ndo ē, seō, *deh *swesōr, tēr, such cases it is sometimes impos- sometimes is it cases such -\r\em dā a.OSLt.Goth. Lith. OCS Lat. -ris -er -er -rī -er -E ́ (H) and acrodynamic (A) tā; Lat. -r|ibus -ere {-rēs} uropean -\r\ēs è -rum a.OSLith. OCS Lat. s ; d {-erimì} {-erьjǫ} ONor. fǫd-ur,OEng.fad-ur {-ere -|e|re -|e|ri c r -erį -erь dător, gen.sg.-ōrisisa {-eri [-i] OLith./dial. -i } {-erìms} {-erьmъ} {- erimìs} {-erьmi} {-erys {-erьxъ}

morphology -|e|rъ -eri 2 wr * iwēr, {-eryj -r {-eriai} ˜s -|e|r˜ -ė/-ė -eres. r- ẽ è

stems (cf. } ̃ c } ǵ enh {-erių -ers

-eris – that [-ar] 2 1 -ar -ar stēr -rs tōr, d ͂ c è 75 } } Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 nom. acc. nom. ἐνατηρ, OLith. *yen-h wife’: ‘husband’sbrother’s for reconstructed be tentatively can root ing ablaut with type proterodynamic exceptional ending). An full-grade + root (zero-grade dat. (cf. Gr. α points to a zero-ending (*-en-Ø). This is different fromthe zero-ending. original an have not do thus and *-owi and *-eyi older from derived be can *-ōw and Arm. -ων, Gr. (unlike -or, OIr.Lat. cf. in *-ōr < -ur ‘sister’), the usual *-ō(n), there might have also existed a less frequent *-ē(n), cf. the Greek the cf. Lith. ‘herdsman’(but ποιμήν *-ē(n), frequent less a existed also have might there *-ō(n), usual the both that assume to in *-ō(m) in as just best PIE, in occurred *-ō) and is (*-ōn variants it Perhaps later). analogy by *-n-(s) reintroduced have voc. a instr. Ved. PIE sg. TABLE 1.25 a Ved. gen. PIE pl. TABLE 1.26 *h (i.e., PIE in already dropped had *-n final the (*ph root zero-grade invariant an with nouns TE gen./instr.the in while ending sg.), zero-grade + root (full-grade acrodynamic were etc.) 76 acc. ablaut pattern: Masculine/feminine N-stems dat. loc. loc. gen. instr With a younger variant *-on-m dur-ṇā

The length in *-ō(n) < *-on-s is due to Szemerényi’s Law (p. 70). Some believe that . M a ́ *-n mnām ‘ill-named’; *-n ἰ *-en-n *-on-es *-n-om ών ‘age’ *-en-m *-n-e/os *-n *-n-eh ̥ *-n-ey *-ō(n) -b ̥ K *-on -b *-en ̥ h

-su /mos h apovi IE N IE N i(s) ̥ s ̥ 1

a <*h jentė -STEMS (SINGULAR) -STEMS (PLURAL) -abh|yas ć -n\ā\m -abhis 2 -\ā\na|m -anas -ānas eywō(n)); -asu ) stems point to a holodynamic + ± + type with a complex suffixal complex a with type + ± + holodynamic a to point n-stems

-ne -nas – gen.sg.*yn -an -nā -an -ā b < *-ōn, and OCS -y OCS and *-ōn, < -un argamanuš ‘tributes’. b a

̥ ; b [dat. -\o\σ\ι\]

mahim-né ‘greatness’; e older-enes; -|ó|ν\ω\ν -\o\νας piemuõ) -|o|νoς -oνες -\o\να -oν Gr. -ων Gr. d ̥ c -h 2 ter-s (Skr. yātar-).

– see – r- f -inem cf.-o(f./n.); -|i|nis {-am} {- enìms} {-enьmъ} {-inibus} -|i|nī a.OSLt.Gt.Hitt. Goth. Lith. OCS Lat. {-eni [-y] [-ō] stems butLat.-ō -|i|num -ō -in\ēs -inēs a.OSLt.Gt.Hitt. Goth. Lith. OCS Lat. 2 tēr, *d tēr, below.in As c δα < *-ōn-|s|, which would then have to have then would which *-ōn-|s|, < {-enimì} {-enьmь} ῖ μ-ον! ‘god’; {-enyj -en|e -|e|ne {-enimìs} {-enьmi} {-enys {-enьxъ} -|e|ni 2 n -enį -enь g -uõ -\y\ h ekˊmō,*kˊwō *swesōr unlike ‘dog’ loc.sg.(n.)laman‘name’. -\e\ne -|e|nъ ugh -eni 2 tēr, etc.) were hysterodynamic were etc.) tēr, , OIr. -u s-stems (p. 78), the loc. sg. i- and d {-in} {-eniui} adv. α m-stems (p.77).Besides -|e|ñs -| a|n\e {-enų} -\e\ns -enis ẽ è u-stems, where *-ēy } < *-ō(n) in *-ō(n) < e è ἰ } έν ‘always’ < *h } -\a\nuš {-ans} -ans -|i|ns -\a\n -\a\ f 2 n-stems tēr (Gr.tēr 2 -\a\nan -aniš -|a|naš eywen -a|š g - b Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 gen. root and the nom. suffix) and * and suffix) nom. the and root gen. YAv. YAv. gen. sg.).Cf.alsotheadjective*me *h cf. the root noun *dō(m) (p. 71) and the holodynamic (type ±±+) *d ±±+) (type holodynamic the and 71) (p. *dō(m) noun root the cf. Unlike thefrequentr- M-, l-,laryngeal,andplosivestems (⇒ Eng.karma),Gr. ϑέ-μα(⇒Eng. theme), Lat. lengthening (p. 70). For the *-mn * masculine word *(h tēkan, cf. p. 53) YAv. YAv. struct exactly (with many languages often showing only isolatedrelics), theirnumberis struct exactly(withmanylanguages oftenshowing ant in the nom./acc., the other in the oblique cases). Though sometimes difficult to recon- Heteroclites were an ancient class of PIE neuter nouns with suppletive suffixes (one vari- Heteroclitic stems dynamic subtype(Hitt.dat./loc.sg. with the *-it- suffix (cf. Hitt. In the neuter nom. pl., one has to suppose pre-PIE *-on-h pre-PIE suppose to has one pl., nom. neuter the In dynamic laryngeal stem, transformedinmostdescendantlanguagestoaneh Lat. ‘sea’, πóντoς Gr. in *pont- generalized (with table Vedic(Ved.*pont-e/oH-s pattern): ablaut original the preserving H-e/os (Ved. ⇐ *-en-s; OCS *uk (hysterodynamic) e.g., cases, (full-grade) all in *-en- an ablaut variation in thesg.aswell(cf.Lith.-uõbut-enį).Itseemsthatsomenounshad -ānas but acc. pl. -anas could point to the same original pl. Ved.and nom. alone) *-en *-on- in Greek). Generalized BSl. oblique *-en- (which can hardly stem from the loc. sg. Vedic, with theother languages usually generalizing one ablaut grade inmostforms(e.g., stems, one finds just a (potentially root noun) *seh noun) root (potentially a just finds one l-stems, stems as well (‘dog’well *pkˊw-ōnas be can betreated as n-stems originally can *pekˊufrom ‘cattle’ proterodynamic declension: *h en-es (Ved. ukṣánas,OEng.exen p. 52). p. ablaut pattern(p.42)and(dialectal?)*h 66), was *g was 66), attested, Lat. -ων; otherwise but *dō(m) PIE < ‘house’ δῶ Hom. (cf. sg. nom. the in vowel long a after unstable was *-m final the 76), (p. Ved. nom.sg.gnā with secondary *-r secondary with tur ǵ h Stems ending in a stop were rare (cf. the root noun *pōd-s noun root the (cf. rare were stop a in ending Stems Of the rare laryngeal stems, the holodynamic (±±+) word for ‘path’ is easily reconstruc 3 in preserved best is *-on-/-en-/-n-) interchanging (the suffix the of ablaut original The y-em-m n ̥ h ). The neuter word *mel-it ‘honey’*mel-it word (Hitt. neuter The naptō). l wt scnay * secondary with all ziiå 3 -men-s (OIr. gen.sg.anmae;GAv. haxm In the neuter the In though it is unclear whether it was acrodynamic (gen. sg. *(h ̥ (Lat.hiem-) w en-h pathás, cf. generalized *pn

– gen. im-, OPruss. 2 ‘woman’ (OIr. ́ ‘divine woman’, cf. woman’, ‘divine s 2 )nepōts ‘grandson, nephew’ (Ved. stems, the word ‘name’ and other derivatives in *-men- point to a to point *-men- ‘name’in word derivatives the other n-stems, and sg. *d stems, andn-stems,otherresonantstemswerelessfrequent.Form- ̥

s fromr- – gen. – h ǵ emm- < BSl. *inHm-) šeppitt- ‘a kind of grain’) perhaps had a special ±–+ amphi h -m-e/os (Hitt. sg. * sg. ǵ 3 neh h stems) or +±+ holodynamic (gen. sg. *(h sg. (gen. holodynamic +±+ or stems) ̥ ‘oxen’). Some possible root nouns (like *kˊwō(n) ‘dog’) i-, cf. OCS (gen. sg. *-men-s) derivatives cf. also Ved. bé, Ved. ǵ ǵ 3 malitti ǵ h h -mn i-m-e/os (GAv.i-m-e/os sg. gen. ey-ō(m) ‘winter’ey-ō(m) (Gr. ‘snow’, χιών Arm. -h 2 2 mn bt Hitt. but ‘man’ homō ebōl ‘apple’ (Lith.óbuol-as)(p.16). ̥ ̥ -s (p.53,79–80). t- in Gr. πάτoς, OPruss. (Ved. nā gnā jáni-) <*ml-it-ey, cf.CLuw. generalized taknāš withananalogical-n-; Gr. χϑ-ών has the ́ P ‘husband of a divine woman’the divine for a of ‘husband s-páti- G. ɛμώ fr * for χɛιμ-ών Gr. zim-a, ‘bridge’, OCS ‘bridge’, pont- roto ә ̄

n – gen. – ́ sē-men ‘seed’ (⇒Eng.semen),etc. ma, Lat.nōmenGr. g

– nom. 2 < *-en-es < -ins Goth. *-ens, < *-anh < l-s ‘salt’l-s vocalism/ controversial a with -I ndo milit nápāt, Lat. sg. *g sg. -E , Gr. μέλι, Goth. acc. sg. Gr.acc. , Goth. μέλι, pl. *h 2 uropean > *-ōn with a compensatory a with *-ōn > stems zimō) (p.22).Likeinn-stems w w s-ēn ‘ox’ s-ēn tēkan; Arm. n-eh

3 – p. – pintis). An early protero- n(e)h nepōs pǫtь) h 2 e -s (OIr. gen. sg. mná, 15, 60, 70–71). The 70–71). 60, 15, ǵ 2

3 ǵ morphology )nept-s > Ved. h ὄ -mōn (Ved. -ō(m) ‘earth’ -ō(m) (Hitt.

h – nom. pl. *uk pl. nom. – ν\ο\μα)

ey-m-) – p.39)iswidely

– gen. – jiwn, etc.). 2 2 )nep-t-e/os > )nep-t-e/os -stem (p.24, ‘snow’, ‘snow’, jiwn kár-ma ‘act’ pánthās, cf.

mallit-).

– acc. sg. sg. acc. – – gen.sg. sg. *pn sg. nā miliþ) ́ náp- mā). 6 In In w ̥ 77

s- t- – - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 dat. instr. loc. sg. forms are usually reconstructable (*h reconstructable usually are forms sg. Hitt. (cf. abundantly Hittite PIE: in as suppletion actual versial, typesofsuppletion (cf. p.429,437).Somelanguagesinsomecasespreservethe loc. a pl. TABLE 1.28 a *-os nom./acc./voc. sg. 1.27 TABLE TE not so small in total. The most common suppletion type was *-r-/-n-: cf. Ved. 78 gen. the thematic of more one remind suffix, the of alternation ablaut (*-e-/-o-) qualitative only and well) characteristics, such asthe invariant root (though this occursin other athematic stems as ter full grades (+++), like the thematic stems (p. 62) and unlike other athematic stems. Neu- Numerous neuter S-stems of obliquecasesand instr. nom. sg. ablaut pattern, often reconstructed as *seh *peh ‘sun’; Goth. ‘sun’; Lat. ‘water’; (e.g., ONor. vatnbutOEng.wæter variants the of one generalize usually languages descendant Most 33). p. ‘liver’, in-eris Greek (ἧπ-αρ (cf. Indo-Iranian often Ved. 15), p. ‘fire’, o.ac/o.*-ōs gen. nom./acc./voc. dat. x sg. ‘water’, etc. The suppletion *-l-/-n- is attested in the word ‘sun’word the in attested is *-l-/-n- etc. suppletion The (GAv. ‘water’, Cf.Hitt.nepišan; Younger analogicalform:*-es-i; v ə

̄ The originalloc.sg.has*-Ø(cf.p.76for < *sh < ṇg s-stems are considered athematic only because they have no thematic vowel, but their as-n-ás, Hitt. M 2 wr a ̥ ‘fire’, *ye K

2 apovi IE IE S wens), andthere may have been some other, lessfrequent and morecontro- o-stems thanoftheotherathematicstems: ‘fire’; CS ‘fire’; fon butOEng.fȳr

– gen. S-STEMS (SINGULAR) -STEMS (PLURAL) b <*-asbhyas; *-es-e/os ēšh stems (with the *-e/os- suffix) had a unique holostatic ADT with all holostatic with ADT unique a had suffix) *-e/os- the (with s-stems ̄ ̆ *-es-eh ć *-es-b k *-es-ey *-es-b *-es *-es-om *-e(s)-su w ˘ I e.G.(o. a.OSHitt. OCS Lat. Gr. (Hom.) Ved. PIE sg. ἥπ-α-τος ‘liver’ with -α- < *-n ADTs isoftenmorespeculative. r ̥ -ar ‘liver’), though ‘liver’), not always (cf. *seh PIE a h

/mos h 1 i(s) – gen. sg. išh a c b <*-asbhis; Myc.we-te-e -asas -as|i -asā -ase -as -obh|yas -ā|ṃ|si -obhis -as\ām -a(s)su e.G.(o. a.OCS Lat. Gr. (Hom.) Ved. ˘ ‘blood’, Hitt. ‘blood’, a-n-āš d Myc.pa-we-pi‘piecesofcloth’. 1 ‘year’. c esh ‘roe’ but OLith. ‘roe’but ikra [dat. -ε|ϊ|] yák-r b -εος -ος n-stems). 2 b r ̥ ̥ ‘blood’, *wodr ‘blood’, -t

[dat. -εσ(σ)\ι\] – gen. sōl, Goth.sauilbutalsosunno 2 wōl -έ\ω\ν {-εα} ̥ -), and Latin (iec-ur d

– p. 32), while the reconstruction [abl. ‘liver’), sometimes ‘liver’), sg. yak-n-ás pah 2 -w-l- ‘sun’ with a problematic -eris -erī ˘ -us - iš -es|e -er|e|] ˘ wāt-ar h ̥ u-r and coll. *wedōr ‘water’, ‘water’, *wedōr coll. and j ẽ

kno – gen. sg. pah

-er|ibus – {-esa} {-era} -erum ‘liver’). PIE nom. PIE ‘liver’). s gen. sg. wit-en-aš {-esьmь} huuarə -ese -esi -\i\š -\o\

– gen. ás-r ̄

˘ – ̥ ˘ h -k gen.sg. {-esьmъ} {-esьxъ} u-en-aš sg. ioc- {-esy}

– -esъ gen. -išaš Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 particle *ne ‘no’ *ne particle tutd *n structed: be red’)formedfromthesame root. types canperhapsbereconstructed aswell, cf. Ved. *h ákṣi< infrequent, and shorter Other, 104). (p. *-wos- in ptcp. perf. the also Note type. also existed also of the*pod-/ped-distributioninrootnouns(p.71). stems cf. *semh cf. (p. 73).Fortheapparentlynot-so-frequenti-stems nouns in only,unlike masculine the for used is form *-us the that Note ‘heavy’). kaúrus svādús noun can be reconstructed: *h reconstructed: be can noun ending in -κλ *menos *m A π ‘similar’ > Lat. of the nom. pl. *-es-eh Ved. secondary,in canbeseenregularlyin contaminated Avestan*-āh), ‘lights’< (cf.raocå stem nouns (Gr. κῦδος ‘glory’ κῦδος (Gr. nouns glory’) andthatoftengotogether withneuters-stem the first element as in compounds (cf.instead Gr.*-i- κῡδ-ρ-ός ‘glorious’have that but κῡδ-ι-άνειραshort’) ‘bringing men ‘small, ἐλαχ-ύ-ς small’, nimble, weight), (in ‘light ρ-ός of adjectives in *-ro-, *-mo-, *-u-, *-nt- (often occurring with the same root, cf. Gr. ἐλαφ- son’a from ‘having vant- kudos) and stative *-eh stems inadjectiveswasmuchsmaller. Forthemostnumerouso-stems cf. *new-o-s (m.) PIE adjectivesweremorphologicallyidenticaltonouns.However, thenumberofpossible ADJECTIVES suffixal?) *-s,e.g.,*muHs(p.38,71). oko (Ved. Ved. *new-e-h can be reconstructed for *me núogas, OCSnagъGoth.naqaþsHitt.nekumanza). stem laryngeal Aholodynamic ±±+ generalized suffixes, cf. *med cf. suffixes, masculine/feminine forms (as in some nominal stems). There were a number of adjectival rate masculine/feminine/neuter forms (e.g., all thematic forms), while others had identical ishable fame’Ved.ishable > ent suffixes in later languages, i.e., *nog i.e., languages, later in suffixes ent differ with dealing when reconstructed be perhaps may adjectives root Original ‘wide’). Lat. the frequent ῑ ˊ

ων) ̥ heteroclitic adjective heteroclitic A couple of adjectival/adverbial prefixes appearing in compounds can berecon- can in compounds appearing prefixes adjectival/adverbial of couple A acln/eiie hlsai) eiaie i *ē (eie fo neuter from (derived *-ēs in derivatives (holostatic) Masculine/feminine The original nom. pl. *-ōs (from older *-os-h older (from *-ōs pl. nom. original The ǵ

-eh – nouus ‘lambs’ (< PGmc *-ōz-a). Reflexes *-ōz-a). PGmc ‘lambs’(< -āṃsi, andindirectly perhaps inOEng.lombor (n.)), gen. sg. *m sg. gen. (n.)), máhi (n.),Hitt.mēk

‘eye’ (like ‘eye’ gen.sg.očese ‘honor’ uṣás); cf.alsoLat.honōs – f.

– svādvī – 2

-m (Aeol./Dor. adv. ἄγᾱν ‘very much’). Cf. p. 79 for 79 p. Cf. much’). ‘very ἄγᾱν adv.(Aeol./Dor. -m gen. – 2 *piHwerih (f.)

– noua ̥

‘n’ (Ved. ‘un-’ - aurōr- stems cf. *sweh cf. u-stems – cf. – ῆ

ς – *new-o-m (n.) ‘new’(n.) *new-o-m – (Ved. similis (m./f.)

(like Sophocles), or Lat. g *eeeo (Ved. *menese/os sg. – svādú –

– p. –

h PIE *h PIE – nouum -y-os (p. 31), *h 31), (p. -y-os ; Ved. 2 (Ved. pī śrávo . 2 1 54; cf. the famous PIE collocation *kˊlewoscollocation n PIE famous the cf. 54; etc. are secondary. The distribution of suffixal *-os-/-es- reminds - verbs (cf. Gr. ἐρυϑ-ρ-ός, OCS , Gr., ἡδύς can be reconstructed as well: *piHwō(n) ‘fat’ (Ved.‘fat’ *piHwō(n) well: as reconstructed be can 1 uṣā su-men-ēs ‘well-disposed’ (Ved.‘well-disposed’ su-men-ēs ‘son’), etc. The etc. ‘son’), putrás G. - Lat. ἀ-, Gr. a-, , OCSnovъ

ǵ ́

. s andGAv. ušåwithanalogical ˊ –

-h varī, Gr. π . 2 2 simile (n.),OIr dus (m.)– *sweh (m.)– dus ews-ōs-Ø (< *-os-s, p. 70) ‘dawn’ (Gr. Aeol. α ‘dawn’(Gr.Aeol. 70) p. *-os-s, (< ews-ōs-Ø , Gr. Hom. κλέος ἄφϑιτον), *h ἄφϑιτον), κλέος Gr.Hom. ákṣitam, 2 -s (m./f.) nebo). There arealsorootnounsendingin(originally

– ἡδ|ε| – 1 rud

mn’ G. έο ‘prt) Gek names Greek ‘spirit’), μένος Gr. ‘mind’, mánas – nova – h

ῑ ˊ -r-os (p. 19), *-went- ‘having . ‘having *-went- 19), (p. -r-os Cerēs (goddess). A ῖ – gen. – ειρα). As α

w – *me -s ‘naked’ (cf. Ved.(cf. ‘naked’ -s ̥

– ἡδύ; – návas ǵ in-, Goth.un-OIr. an-;zerogradeofthe P -h roto . samail ‘likeness’ (f.) (cf. also Hitt.

2 – novo – -e/os (Gr. Hom. ἀγα- ‘greatly-’), acc. sg. sg. acc. ‘greatly-’), ἀγα- Hom. (Gr. -e/os sg. ǵ 2 dwih 2 -h

is a name for a pattern Caland Systemisanameforpattern , p. 70), which cannot be explained as – návā – cf. Lith. cf. can be seen, some adjectives had sepa- -I 2 honōris withgeneralized -ōs- forthe (n.) ‘big’ (Gr. μέγας (m.) ndo , Lith.na 2 (f.) rъd-r-ъ ‘red’, and Lat.

-E – návam –

sald – *sweh – uropean

, Gr. εὐμενής) from εὐμενής) Gr. sumánās, holodynamic (±±+) 3 2 ek l-is (m./f.) l-is u-) ũ , Gr. γυμνóς, Lith. Lith. γυμνóς, Gr. nagnás, ù stem adjectives in *-ēs. *-ēs. in adjectives s-stem | w s j

-s-Ø (neuter) with OCS as , Gr., νέος – sal – gen. – 2

du (n.) ‘sweet’(n.) (Ved.du – nau

̥ morphology -d 1 \ su- ‘good’47, su- (p. \ ‘sweet’; Goth. Goth. ‘sweet’; dì\

g . sg. *h sg. – *semh –

wh | .’ j

| à – νέᾱ – itom ‘imper itom (Ved.

, p. 32). For , p.32).For rub-ē-re ‘to – μέγα pī ˊ 2 ὔ van-, Gr. us-s-e/os feminine s-stems) ως, Lat. ως, ⇒

palh 2 – νέoν, – s-stem l-i (n.) l-i (n.) putrá- Eng. Eng. ˘ (n.), (n.), -i-š 79

– – - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 tives (cf. Eng.man-ly, PIE did not have general, special adverbial suffixes for derivation from nouns and adjec ADVERBS (Lat. the mentioned suppletive adjectives are just *bel-/mel- (cf. p. 17) ‘better’ and *min- ‘smaller’ used adverbially, cf. the neuter adjectival *me adjectival neuter the adverbially,cf. used in OCS sg. Goth. νυκτός, Gr. in sg. gen. the by the forms are widely diverse in IE languages; cf., e.g., the adverbial ‘by night’ expressed structed directly for PIEsincethistypeofadverbformation was veryproductive,and cases (all except the vocative) were used adverbially. However, not a lot can be recon- dobrъ Ved. ἀγαϑóς ger’ < *dleHg < ger’ *kr κρέσσω\ν\ < (Ion.) ‘strong’Gr. κρατύς cf. from positive, *kret-yōs the < ‘stronger’ in root zero a with adjectives from even root full a (Ved.oblique cases some in *-yes- probably ‘farther’) tālis Lat. adverbial cf. *-is, also perhaps ‘better’, bolje OCS ‘hostile’, TE *h cf. 80 pronouns (*k pronouns (positive) meaninginadjectives(Lat.dexter, Gr. δεξίτερος ‘right’, Ved. OIr.‘biggest’, māximus *-is-m dialectal/innovative and *-yos-, comp. the with pairing ‘sharp’), tig-m-á- batists ‘best’; made from a full-grade root and not from the positive, cf. Ved. (Ved. *-is-t(H)o- suffixes superlative complex in ‘greatly’, Gr. μέγα ‘very much’, ONor. uttamás ‘highest’, Lat. forms, which usually differ from language to language, cf. for ‘good’ for cf. language, to language from differ usually which forms, suppletive finds often one ‘big’) ‘small’, ‘bad’, (‘good’, adjectives frequent/basic for that is Armenian comparative. An interestingbutnotcompletelyclearphenomenoninIElanguages Hitt. cf. comparative/superlative, a as functioned have might adjective PIE unmarked an cases *-tm (Skr Goth. *-yōs (m./f.) (Lat. (m./f.) *-yōs was suffix comparative(-like) widespread most The languages. later in suffixes superlative comparative/ regular became which of some adjectives, -ishinsmallish, of meaning the Eng. modified that to etc.) (similar suffixes derivation of number a had apparently It have. languages IE modern and later that comparison paradigmatic full-fledged the have not did PIE Comparison ofadjectives sām-), etc.

̥ . M -t-o-, cf. σοφώτατος ‘wisest’), pairing with the comp. *-tero-. It is possible that in some purú ‘abundantly’, Gr. πολύ ‘much’, Goth. minor, OCSmьniiGoth.minniza). ‘greater’). The complex suffix *-tm suffix complex The ‘greater’). mahattaras ‘the greatest (lit. great) of the great gods’, and p. 438 for the the for 438 p. and gods’, great the of great) (lit. greatest ‘the šallayaš šiunaš šalliš

1 ƕaþar), later yielded the comparative in and Greek Indo- (σοφώτερος ‘wiser’) a – sumenēs

– βελτ – bolii ( K apovi ‘by night’. Neuter forms (in the nom./acc. sg.) are generally often generally are sg.) nom./acc. the (in forms Neuter night’. ‘by noštьjǫ w

h oteros ‘which (of two)’ > Ved.two)’> (of ‘which oteros lučii ῑ ˊ – oblique – ‘long’ < *dl < ‘long’-yos- fromdīrghás ων

ri’ *bd a’, sm- hl’ G. μ- Lat. ἡμι-, (Gr. ‘half’ *sēmi- day’), *‘bad < ‘rain’ dъždь – p. 79), *dus- ‘bad’(Ved.*dus- 79), p. –

senio\r\, arch.Lat.-ō\r\OIr.‘older’) siniu ), Goth.goþs ć – βέλτιστος – optimus ‘best’, Gaul. name nice-ly ‘nearest’). The suffix *-ter-o-, originally used in contrastive ‘nearest’). nessam *-ter-o-, contrastive suffix in The used originally *-is- (OCS oblique (OCS *-is- ). Instead, various (usually singular) nominal and adjectival (with other variants), Lat. variants), other (with

– batiza , the acc. sg. in nahts, theacc.sg. Ved. náktam,andtheinstr. mjǫk ‘much, very’, Hitt.

– batists, OIr - ‘dearer’, Goth. ‘dearer’, dražь\š\- duṣ- , Gr. πóτερος, OCS πóτερος, Gr. katarás, -), with +±+ holodynamic paradigm and and paradigm holodynamic +±+ with -yas-), ̥ Hg ǵ , Gr. δυσ-, Goth. δυσ-, Gr. , h Uertamocorii ‘highest warriors’; in Greek filu ‘much, very’; OCS ‘newest’, Gr. βέλτιστος, Goth. Goth. βέλτιστος, Gr. ‘newest’, náviṣṭhas ‘more’, Goth. ‘more’, magis ̥ h t-u-s; Ved. 2 -os. The zero-grade *-is- also appeared appeared also *-is- zero-grade The -os. (p. 79) used as anadverb (Ved. ̥ -H-o- oftenyieldedasuperlative(Ved. . maith bonus

– *-yos – – drā ferr

mekk|i ‘very, greatly’), or ́ – ‘very long; lon- long; ‘very gh|ī|yas-

melior , cf. Gr. δυσ-μενής Gr. cf. tuz-, –

(n) (Lat. (n) deg. Cognatesamong ‘better’), and and ‘better’), batiz\a\ – ‘better – ‘upper’) and úttaras ‘upper’) ‘less’, OPruss. OPruss. ‘less’, mins ‘which’, ‘which’, kot\o\ryi

mъnogo ‘much’, – from téj-iṣṭh-a- from optimus, OCS sēmi-, OEng. , OCS melius, OCS ’

– ‘best’ – ̥ -Ho- (Lat. -Ho- (Lat. Iranian Iranian máhi Gr. -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 nъ| to the adj. *new-o-s ‘new’, etc. The later verbal augment *h inally perhaps a loc. sg.; *nu sg.; loc. a perhaps inally many casesratherdifferent (due tocopiousinnovation). The personal pronouns are rather difficult to reconstruct since the attested IE systems are in Personal pr adjectives, sometimeshadtwo(m. gen. pl. in Latin (p. 67). Non-personal pronouns, which have different gender forms, like pl. nom. the in *-o-es original of instead *-o-i cf. mixed, often forms nominal and nominal preserve thedeclension, while the nounsdonot).Inhistoryof IE languages, pro- languages IE present-day many English, in situation the to opposite is (this cases eight 77–78). p. of use English the cf. ‘one’89); *som- (p. of grade zero the be to thought usually endings, the before *-sm- element the feature also pronouns non-personal of (gen./abl./dat./loc.) cases sg. m./n. oblique 63). The p. *-om, nominal (cf. *-som pl. gen. and *-es), nominal gen. sg. m./n. *-(e)so (cf. nominal nal declensions): nom. sg. m. *-Ø (cf. nominal *-s), nom. sg. n. *-d (cf. nominal *-Ø/m), one, except for five special different endings (apparently, not all appeared in all pronomi- nominal the as endings same the mostly had declension pronominal The 52). *V-,p. cf. initial for possible theoretically always *HV-is course, (of V CV,or usually VC, were roots pronominal roots, type CVC had always which verbs, and nouns/adjectives Unlike PRONOUNS pl. *to-y-som, p. 86). Many basic pronouns had suppletive forms (cf. heteroclitic nouns often spreads already inPIEtotheoblique cases aspart of the enlarged stem (e.g., gen. (nom. sg. *tu ‘you’ om) wih ee ihr o-xset r ls lkl, noaie n l languages all lack ofseparatevocativeforms isnotstrange,andtheablativesameasgenitive in innovative likely, less or, non-existent either were which forms), innovative-looking different, have languages (all cases loc./instr. reconstructable of lack structable, form and often syncretic (like gen./dat./acc. pl. *nos ‘us’); and apparently by the *me); e.g., *d ‘below’, dolě etc. Fortheadverbialuseoflocative, cf. Lat.temere ‘blindly’ (< *‘in the dark’), OCS the middle’,Gr. κρυφ cf. p.91;foradverbialcompoundprefixeslike*h near’, Gr. ὑπό/ὕπo ‘(from) under’, Lat. under’, ‘(from) Gr.ὑπό/ὕπo near’, (Ved.under’ ‘below; *(s)upo cf. adverbs, and postpositions both probably an adverb. an probably A did exist; for *-d Lat. (Ved.over’ ‘above; *(s)uper(i) and ‘under’) Some apparently non-derived (or not easily analyzable) adverbs can also be reconstructed, Some apparentlynon-derived(ornoteasilyanalyzable)adverbscanalsobereconstructed, this one, |, Goth./OIr.ně|, -stems in Latin/Greek/Balto-Slavic (p. 65), or 65), (p. Latin/Greek/Balto-Slavic in o-stems super ‘over, above’, Goth. by the existence of clitic forms clitic of existence the by h ǵ the Romance languages, and Macedonian/Bulgarian h yes (p. 53) ‘yesterday’ (Ved. Personal pronouns, unlike other pronouns and nouns, did not have all seven/ all have not did nouns, and pronouns other unlike pronouns, Personal which one, etc. In the plural (and dual) masculine/neuter forms, the nom. *-i- onouns ‘good’, etc.; for the instrumental, cf. instrumental, the for etc.; ‘good’, dobrě Ved. h e, *-r, and pronominal adverbs generally, cf. p. 89. For numerical adverbs, ‘and, but’, ‘and, nu, Hitt. nu

– gen.

ῆ few postpositions few ‘insecret’ sg. *teb ̄ ̆ (n) ‘now’(n) (Ved. ufar ‘over, above’, OIr. h (p.66),OCSvьčera‘yesterday’ (p.64),etc. e) or complete suppletivity (nom. sg. *h o-stem *-osyo, otherwise *-es/-os), nom. pl. m. *-i (cf.

f., n.),sometimesthreeforms(m.,n.). hyás, Gr. χϑές, Lat. – sometimes – ‘under, below, up to’, Goth. ‘under,below,to’, sub up (p. 104–105) were originally probably adverbs or or adverbs probably originally were 104–105) (p. |ki| ‘now’, etc. ‘now’, nun nu P ‘above’, Gr. ὑπέρ/ὕπερ ‘over, above’, above’, ‘over, ὑπέρ/ὕπερ Gr. ‘above’, upári roto ̄ ̆ ́ , Gr., Lat. νυ/νῦν, 1 su- ‘good’,cf.p.79–80. -I as the only existing, or at least recon- least at or existing, only the as -rum instead of the older -um in the ndo ‘over’). Some for adverbial ‘over’). suffixes 7 They werecharacterizedbypartial her| -E

1 – p. – e (p. 6, 95, 161) was originally uropean ī |, OIr. |in|

– where ‘by day’, ‘by dívā 54–55), usually connected connected usually 54–55), nun| ‘up to, upon, above, above, upon, to, ‘up úpa c |, OCSny|

morphology -dé, Alb. personal pronouns ‘under’, OIr. ‘under’, uf 1 e ǵ ‘I’ madhyā | and CS ně| andCS dje), orig-

– acc. sg. – acc. sg.

like – the – ́ ‘in 81 fo

–

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 dat. gen.

The element *- speculative. highly admittedly is that but *mo-i, clitic perhaps and am, OLith.dat.mani show different endings). Here, we tentatively reconstruct PIE *-i, languages on the basis of (all Ved. reconstruct to difficult is ending the sg., dat. accented person 2nd the in one non-derived (*h oblique caseshadbothstressedandclitic forms. without any specific different function/meaning, which may have existed in PIE),cf. in Hitt. have existed may which function/meaning, different specific any without existence of two(even three) parallel forms may not be as strange as it might seem (even acc. nom. 1 sg.‘I’ suffixes, andendingsarenotalwayseasilydistinguished reconstructed formsarenotalwayscompletelymorphologicallytransparent(i.e.,theroot, The 54–55). (p. lengthening facultative exhibited forms monosyllabic Many instead. used pronouns personal of forms person 3rd TE in mostnominaldeclensionsanyway. LikemanyolderIElanguages,PIEhadnoseparate 82

nom. 2 sg.‘you’ cognates (PIE*me-t?)butaremorelikelyseparateinnovations. Lithuanian, and Old Church Slavic). In the ablative, Ved. possible that *moy had a variant *mey (which would be a more ready pre-form for Latin, h 1 g poon hwd h spltvt o *h of suppletivity the showed pronoun sg. 1 The later to

(p. 93). Thus, it is perhaps better to assume that this *h this that assume to better perhaps is it 93). Thus, (p. *-me pl. 1 *-m, sg. 1 eventive verbal nonetheless with *me- but pronominal glottogonic, of connection the persuasive, with accord in not is this However, *m-. not 48), (p. gen. dat. acc. the initial *h initial the acc.

is ‘me’), and Gr. ɛ

ūk andukel a the initial *e- in the nom. However, *h *tub *toy (clitic)> V *tewe > V Goth. ik,Arm. *h *h *toy (clitic)> V teb{ě}, OPruss.tebbe(i)} *tu *te *moy (clitic)> V *h *me- *moy (clitic)> V *mene > V OPruss. *me *twe tū ), Goth.þu,OIr.\duAlb. tú(alsotu-ssu),Arm. K 1 1 1 ̄ ̆ ̄ ̆ (clitic)>Gr. (Dor > e e e ̄ ̆ apovi (accented/clitic) ǵ ǵ ǵ ̄ ̆ h 1 > V ǵ -i > Ved.-i Ved. - in the nom. (where *h (where nom. the in - -oh Ved.> -Hom >GAv. as-cīt h ǵ -i > Ved. máhy|a(m)|,Lat. h , mie|n|, Goth.mi|k|OIr. mé 2 ed. tvā - inthedat.isusuallythoughttobesomekindofparticleoriginally. Itis ‘I, myself’. ukila Hitt. ‘I, oblique myself’. >Gr. ɛ ed. táva,OCSte\beLith. t(u)|vám|, GAv. tū, Gr. (Dor./Aeol.) τύ, Lat. ć ed. má\m\a,YAv. 1 e ǵ ̓ )|; *teb túbhy|a(m)|; - in stressed forms (cf. acc. ɛ e\s\ ́ ) and two with suffixes, the *-oh |m|, GAv. ϑβā,Gr. σέ ed. te,GAv. tōi,Lat. ed. te,Gr. (Dor./Lesb./Ion.) τoι, OCSti,OLith. ̓ γώ, Lat.egō,Ven. ed. me,GAv. mōi,Gr. μoι,OCS mi, OLith. ed. me,GAv. mōi,Lat.mī|s| ̰ (1x),Slav. *ja ahám, GA .) τέ,Lat. > Ved. mana, OCSmene mā, GAv. mā, Gr. |ɛ 1 e v. azə

ǵ t\ē\, OCSęOPruss.tie|n|,Goth. þi|k h – demonstrative/anaphoric – , not *e not , -i > -i Av. ˝ (e.g.,BCMSjȃ),OLith.e\š\,Hitt.\ū\k mih{ī} (Umbr. meh{e}),Arm. ego ̄ m, Gr. ɛ Gr. m, tī|s tav-, Toch.B 1 m- would formally also work for PIE.Like m- wouldformallyalsowork ǵ amm- (cf.acc.ammuk ‘me’), Arm. ta , has to be reconstructed in that case) or case) that in reconstructed be to has , Three nom.formsarereconstructable, i bii|ā|, Lat.tib{ī}(Umbr. tef ̓ μέ but clitic μɛ) would point to *h 1 e ̓ γ\ώ\ν, Slav. *jazъˈSlav. OCS γ\ώ\ν, (e.g., ǵ (o. ad m (biu) The (oblique). *m- and (nom.) - 2

1 ̓ – e.g.,ingen.*mene‘ofme’). oneperhapsbeingdialectal. The m- is innovative is m- |μέ, clitic μɛ, Lat. mád and OLat. ti, Toch.B ci tū, OCStyLith. pronouns (p. 85) were were 85) (p. pronouns t(u)|we |i|nj

– an – mēd are formal mē, OCSm\ę\ t analogy to analogy {e}), OCS ù (OPruss. i- (cf. azъ), 1 m- -y-

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 ahm-a dat. gen. *tewe and dat. *me dat. and *tewe gen. had a nom. *ti nom. a had (Hitt. (CLuw.nom. the in *-te). *ti- pl. show languages Anatolian are marginally suppletive (these areprobablyultimately somehow related to theverbal2 The forms are in many ways parallel to those of the 1 sg. The stems *tew-/tu-/tw- and *t- that the dat. had a non-clitic *n non-clitic a had dat. the that impossible not is Avestan.It and Greek of basis the on reconstructed be can original *-me the root?) of reduplication (or suffix a acc., stressed the In reconstructable. be to seem *-mes ending verbal the to analogy (p. 93). The to acc. *(n due innovation an be also could it though dual), nom. 1 pl.‘we’ unstressed formsweredistinguishedintheacc. perhaps aninnovation (by analogy to nouns).Unlike the 1 sg.pronoun,the stressed and gen. acc. nom. 2 pl.‘you’ (apparently, this *-sm- had nothing to do with *-sm- in non-personal pronouns, see below). as in other similar personal pronouns forms (cf. acc. *me acc. (cf. forms pronouns personal similar other in as 54–55), (p. lengthening monosyllabic to points nom. the in reflexes Hitt. long and short of both vocalism the of origin the be to thought often is *tu- mun- by possible early analogy), while other languages point to a more regular *teb length. Ved. dat. (Lith. ‘we’*mes consider to prone is one considerations, these of Because forms. verbal pl. 1 in gen. acc. pl. pronominal and verbal forms (p. 94), while *n dual the cf. *we- For *-es. plural additional the with *wey-es to point Germanic/Anatolian and *-om additional usual the has Indo-Iranian since such, as attested really not is *wey the nom. and *-s(-), presumably a variant of the nominal pl. *-es, in other cases). The form acc. The suppletive forms were *we- and *no-/n and *we- were forms suppletive The

m ), which is difficult to explain as innovative so some think that PIE originally PIE that think some so innovative as explain to difficult is which tu-), i biiā, Gr. Aeol. ἄμμ-ι(ν), Goth.

– p. ẽ *wo *we-y(-es) > *we-y(-es) Hitt. šumm\ā\|š|(<*usmās) *wo *wo *u-s-we > *yū-s > V *no *no *n n\oūs|an|, Alb. ne/na *no Hitt. anz\ā\|š| (also archaic*mes?,seebelow) s ̥ , Arm. -s-me > -s-me ̄ ̆ ̄ ̆ ̄ ̆ 63), i.e., from *me- as in the 1 sg. pronoun (cf. also verbal 1 sg. *-m) and *-me- ̄ ̆ ̄ ̆ ̄ ̆ -s (cli -s (clitic) -s -s (clitic)> V -s (clitic)> V -s (clitic)> V -s (clitic)> V túbhya(m) withtu-lookslikeanarchaism(cf.OCS ̄ ̆ (cf. Kloekhorst 2008: 112–115),2008: Kloekhorst (cf. original supposed the though nom. Anat. mek tic) > Ved.> tic) ed. yū|yám|,GAv. yūš , OCS\vyLith. Goth. \izwi|s|, MW \chwi \; us-me > Ved. y|ušm\ā | Ved. ̥ s)me- is an unlikely source for *mes. For the gen./dat., only clitic forms c ) an archaic dialectal by-form (with *we- often considered originally originally considered often *we- (with by-form dialectal archaic an ) Ved. > Ved.> na asm\ā ǵ ed. nas,GAv. nə ed. vas,GAv. və ed. vas,GAv. və ed. vas,GAv. vå(<*vās),Lat. h vay|ám|, GAv. i). The usual dat. ending *-ey in Lat. in *-ey ending dat. usual The i). nas, GAv. nə (< *nās), Lat. nas, GAv.*nās), (< nå ́ \|n|, YAv. ̥ , Av. s-m- withanunreconstructableending(cf. Ved. Av. asm-é, ), but this can also be a later analogy to the acc. uns-(is)), butthiscanalsobealateranalogytotheacc. ahma (GAv. ə ̄ ̄ ̄ (<*nas),OCSn\y\,Hitt.- ̄ va|ēm|, Goth. (<*vas),OCS v\y (<*vas),Lat. (< *nas), Lat. *nas), (< ̥ ̥ P - with plural endings (the pronominal *-i in in *-i pronominal (the endings plural with - s- is often derived from *m roto -I ndo ̄ ), Gr.hmā), (Aeol.) wei|s|, Hitt. jũs, Goth.jus uos|trum|, OCSvasъ uōs, OCSv\y\,OPruss.wa|ns ̄ ̆ -E nos|trum|, OCS and *t(w)e and nōs, OCSn\y\,Hitt.-našAlb. uropean ) and *tu- in oblique cases oblique in *tu- and tī) mъně ‘to me’, Latv. dial. ‘I’. The existence of existence The ‘I’. ūk tibī, OPruss. ́ \|n|, Gr. (Aeol.) ὔμμɛ, |, Toch.wē|š|, B naš, Alb. ̄ ̆ ), nottoalaryngeal

morphology ̥ s- (cf. the nominal s- (cf.thenominal α μμɛ, nas|ъ|, OPruss. na Goth. tebbe(i) we{s} h - (cf. uns, is 83

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gen./dat. sva|yám|, Gr. ἕ, Pamph. ϝhε), clitic *se (GAv.*soy gen. clitic dat. *seb did not have a nom. it sg. and had an initial *s- that instead of *t-. Cf. gen. *sewe except (OCS pronoun, personal sg. 2 the to identical was ‘self’ pronoun reflexive The Reflexive pronouns The formsareparalleltothe1du.,andsuppletivestems onesinthe2pl.forms. formally reconstructed, though theirantiquity is notbeyonddoubt(the formsoftendiffer be can pronouns, reflexive and personal from derived pronouns, possessive singular The Possessive pronouns pronoun wasoriginallyusednot onlyforthe3sg.but1and2aswell. ing plural *-i. The laryngeal length of the gen./dat./acc. clitic (with the dual ending *-h ending dual the (with clitic gen./dat./acc. *-i. the plural of ing length laryngeal The difficult toaccount for. Thenom.formisthesameas the pluralone,exceptformiss- acc. nom. 1 du.‘ustwo’ reduplication oftheroot.Cf.Katz1998for*-me/-we. original an dual) the in seen (also *-we this consider we if archaic looks but Goth.izwis *-me, shows again acc. stressed The form). dual the (cf. likely not but 54–55), (p. ening length monosyllabic the of instead possible theoretically is *yuHs laryngeal a only,so *ū long a with attested is *-s) nominal has pl., 1 the unlike (which, nom. The *u-. older (oblique). *wo-/u- A and (nom.) *yu- TE are forms suppletive The pl. 1 the of those to parallel ways many in are forms The 84

form (*n acc. stressed the in length zero-grade the and *-s(-)), ending plural the having for except is proven by consistent long reflexes, parallelism to the plural forms (which are the same and long reflexes. If one were to reconstruct *weh (p. *-we- du. 1 verbal the also Cf. pl. 1 the in as same the much are forms suppletive The gen./dat. acc. nom. 2 du.‘youtwo’ also intheacc.sg.*t-we(butthismaybe*tu-e,cf.nom.*tu). found is *-we this think Some reflexes. the to according plural), the in *-me prevalent parallelism to the plural forms. In dual forms, the stressed acc. has only *-we (unlike the *ōH from *oH. The reconstruction of the gen./dat. clitic is due to the supposed structural

94).

a We reconstructthenom.formwithmonosyllabiclengthening becauseoftheshort ̥

h h

i (YAv. / h|uuāuuōiia K 1 -). The clitic was probably *no *wo-h *no-h *n *we *no-h *wo-h *uh *yu apovi ̥ h ̄ ̆ ̄ ̆ 1 1 > V > V -we > Ved. y\uv{ā -we > Ved. āv{ā 1 1 1 1 (clitic) (clitic) ć (clitic) (clitic)> Ved. vā ed. yu|vám|,OCS\vy,Lith. ed. vā ), clitic dat. *soy (GAv.*soy dat. clitic hōi),

́ |m (1x),GAv. vā,OCSvěOLith.ve|du|,Goth.wit > Ved. nā|u|,Av. hwawya/, OLat. ́

m}, GAv. ə frequent ́ m} ́ |m|, OCSva, Toch. Bnom.we|ne ̄ ̆ (Lat. ̄ ̆ h ad hoc 1 ̄ (like pl. *no əāuuā, Goth.ug{kis} sē, OCSs\ę\, OPruss. sie|n|,Goth.sik|).The nā , Gr. (nom./acc.)νώ,OCSna jù|du sib{ei}, OCS 1 assumption is that *yu- stems from the from stems *yu- that is assumption , OLith.ve-duandGoth.wi-twouldbe , Gr. οἱ, OCS οἱ, Gr. hōi, ̄ ̆ s), butnolanguage distinguishes seb{ě}, OPruss. ), acc. *swe acc. si), sebb{ei}), se\be), ̄ ̆ (Ved. 1 - ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 you/the addressed)’, and *(h and addressed)’, you/the (near ‘that *kˊi-*s-/t- are me/speaker)’, demonstratives (near main) ‘this probably (and stems isabitspeculative, since thesechangeeasilyinlanguages. The threebest-attested the of semantics the of reconstruction exact The 160. p. cf. one (like English this/that), A number of demonstrative pronominal stems can be reconstructed Demonstrative pronouns svás, Gr. ὅς). acc. well-attested stems are *(h are stems well-attested Av instr loc. sta <*s-t-od; OCS GAv. |ἐ|μóς, (Gr. *m-o-s languages): specific in non-pronominal endings arefromo-/eh a nom. sg. TABLE 1.29 gen. dat. abl. (near him)’ (OCSonъ,Lith. guages, or Japanese a three-way system of demonstrative pronouns (like Lat. than others.Consideringthenumberofattested stems, itisprobablethatPIEhad attestations, thePIEdeclensionisnotclear. languages preserveallofthem,cf.OCS reconstructable demonstrative stems (anumberofscenariosarepossible),thoughsome (f.), OIr. cé,Arm. Here isthedeclension(n. f. there’ (*kˊey-?),there’ Alb. (hi)-c (cf. Lat. also etc.), ‘today’, himma daga In sg./pl. always m. ‘herself’). The *s- appears only sa-psa in ‘herself’). the nom. sg. m./f.; all other forms have a *t-. The *-o-/-e- that appears after *s-/t- in the sg./pl. is apparently a thematic vowel. The vowel. thematic a apparently is sg./pl. the in *s-/t- after appears that *-o-/-e- The The suppletive forms are well attested in *s-o (m.) *s-o in attested well are forms suppletive The For the pronoun *kˊi- ‘this’ (also *kˊo-?), cf. OCS . . . hō ), *tw-o-s ‘thy’*tw-o-s (Ved.mojь), *t-o-sm-ōy *t-o-m *t-o-sm-ōt

*t-o-sm-i – hā – *t-o-y-? *t-e-so *s-o

IE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN*SO–*SEH – tat –

OldLithuanian. – *t-e-h – *s-eh *t-o-d e-h e-h e-h eh PIE *t-o-d e-h

–*t-e-sy-

– *t-o-y- 1 –*t-o-sy-

2 2 2 –*t-e-sy- (?) –*t-o-sy- -ey 2 -es -es ̰ , -i

– f. Gr.ὁ a sa, Hitt.kāš(CLuw. zāš) 2 2

-m –

– n. kore/sore/are si-vjet

–

– ἡ – and m./n. sá(|s|)

tám tásmāt tásmai tás|ya =

téna – τó – ‘this year’. Owing to differences in languages and partial and languages in differences to Owing year’. ‘this )e/ow-o-s ‘this’(Ved.)e/ow-o-s m., exceptinthenom./acc.anddu.): tásmi|n 1 an

tásy{ām} – tā )ey-/(h

Ved. ̄ ̆ – sā

à

– táyā – – tásyās – tásyai ́ tvás, GAv. ϑβə s m ‘the’, CIb. ‘the’,

tásyās – f. , Arm. ́

– tád ), correlated with three persons, and not a two-way

– tád – 1 (when just two forms);

)e- ‘that (near him/over there)’. The somewhat less somewhat The there)’. him/over (near ‘that )e- \tъ 2 -stems (except for masculine loc. *-i, not *-oy). not *-i, loc. masculine for (except -stems sь, ovъtъonъ(suppletiveacc. ). It is not clear why there were five different five were there why clear not is It na). t\o\{g} těmь tomu tomь tъ (?) so P

– \ – tǫ – roto OCS

̄ ‘on this side’), Gr.side’), this ‘on cis (ἐ)κε – toj

, Gr., σός, Arm. kī t\a – to – to

– t

– to

mə (n.), PGmc *xi PGmc (n.), – – to ) and *(h and avás, OCSovъ) \oję \i \ǫ \i -I sь (m.) sa ̄ ndo ) and *me/oy-o-s ‘my’ (Lat. ‘my’ *me/oy-o-s and )

– *s-eh –

– soð tam{ b 2 Lithuanian has noneuter, cf.OPruss. -E –*TOD (SINGULAR) tamui \ t{õ}

t{uõ} t\ uropean – hic/isteille and most IE lan- à , Toch.B è si | 2 } s| Lith. (f.)

–

– tą k c – \ (f.)

– – c ̴ t{õs} to\j\{ t{aĩ} ), *sw-o-s ‘own’*sw-o-s (Ved.o), ̄ ̆ ‘he’, Goth. ‘he’, (OEng.hē t\ t\ą́

– *t-o-d (n.) ‘that’(n.) *t-o-d – (cf.

à – – some

\ b è se (n.),Lith.

morphology } se

þan i). – sā – þamma ῖ sa better attested -νος 2/3 þis |a

– so

)e/on- ‘that )e/on-

– te –

– Goth. – þi ‘that one ‘that þo

– þ – þat|a , OLat. \zos šìs

– þat meus, \izai

– šì 85 |a

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 instr nom. loc. acc. dat./abl./instr gen./loc. nom./acc./voc. du. TABLE 1.31 the nom.togen./dat./loc./instr. pl.(andinstr. sg.). *kˊi-).(from from cf. alsoCIb.soisumandHitt.kinzan spread have to seems *toy- This (p. 64–65). For gen. *-som (often changed to *-sōm, as in the nominal *-om/-ōm, p. 70), guages generalized the originally pronominal ending *-oy in the nominal a dat. pl. TABLE 1.30 TE Ved. 86 the pl.stem). (otherwise *toy- to point Slavic Church Old Vedicand both though unclear, are forms OPruss. gen. with a simple *t- plus endings (e.g., the gen. *t-eh gen. the (e.g., endings plus *t- simple a with and dat.) have generalized *toy- in both m./f. in the gen./dat./loc./instr. (cf. the Lat. f. gen. |istārum); gen. f. Lat. the (cf. gen./dat./loc./instr. the in m./f. both in *toy- generalized have dat.) *smih Hom. Gr. šī-, appear, on the basis of Indo-Iranian, to have *-sy- instead (connected to *si- ‘one’ > Hitt. dat. also OPruss.dat.stesmu (with *s- + *t-), CIb. dat. with a special development of *-sm-, OPruss. -sm-, Goth. -mm-) appears after the root, cf. (Ved.*-sm- element the abl./dat./loc., masculine the In elsewhere. Ion. τέο) probably points to a gen. in *-e-so, replaced by thematic *-o- and other endings þat-a probably proves the neuter ending was *-d (not *-t). Germanic (and Slav. Greek declension of thepronounisotherwiseinnovative, with allnominal endings. Goth. BSl. *-miHs; BSl.

The nom. and gen. have pronominal endings. From forms like *toy, many later lan- later many *toy, like forms From endings. pronominal have gen. and nom. The . M instr.Greek) (and Lithuanian in gen.); masculine the in (as *tes- with Gothic in sg.); < *doma (with *doma < dma , Gr.sá, Goth. and ὁ, a 2 ‘one’ *t-o-y-som stans; *t-o-ns *t-o-y-su *t-o-y *t-o-y-b mos *t-e-h K (n)s *t-o-y-b es *t-o-y-b .

apovi IE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN*SO–*SEH IE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN *SO–*SEH e

h b b

PIE cf.OPruss.steison; – *t-e-h

– p. 89). In Old Church Slavic, *tosy- is replaced with *toy- (as in the pl. the in (as *toy- with replaced is *tosy- Slavic, Church Old In 89). p. – AV AV

– *t-e-h h – *t-e-h 2 h – *t-e-h – *t-e-h ἴ -som /mos 2 2 α, -su -b

h – *t-e- i(s)

– *t-e- h (cf. Av.táis *t-o-h h besides μία, cf. Beekes 1988: 81; or perhaps from older *-smy- from *-smy- older from perhaps or 81; 1988: Beekes cf. μία, besides i(s) / ć

– 2 2 2 2 2 - - a - 1 (m.) *t-o-y-ow , with no ending, are archaic (cf. also *ey below), though the though below), *ey also (cf. archaic are ending, no with sa, d- as in téṣ\ām

tébhis t\ā – *t-o-yh PIE tāiš andLith. té téṣu tébh|yas h ́ \n y/moh

– tā f tā OLith.-mus;

Ved. – tā ́

bh b – tā – tā

́ – s tā ‘thou’, p. 438). The f. gen./abl./dat./loc. sg. forms sg. gen./abl./dat./loc. f. The 438). p. ‘thou’, du |yas

́ 1 s 1 – tā (f./n.) ́ ́

́ su s

– tā bhis – \ām ́ ́ taĩs) isinnovative; g cf.adjectival- ty ti tā (m./f.)

́ – t (m.) těmi těmъ OCS t\ā těxъ těxъ \ t\áyo|s y\ ́ \bhyā|m somui (with generalized *s-), and Arm. Ved.

– – c 2

– es instead of *tesy-eh of instead es ta té ta (f./n.) c aize, -aizo. OldChurchSlavic (and Gothicinthe 2 2 –*TOD (PLURAL) –*TOD (DUAL) tuos t{aĩs} tíems tuõs { ti è ẽ t\ų˜ Lith. }

– tóms – tõs – tą το το

– tomìs \ – Gr. τώ ῖ ῖ e tos{ {ν} {ν} s ́ , OCS/Lith. -m- OCS/Lith. -sm-, d

è f } o-stems aswell ta (m.) 2 þ\iz{e} þans es). The instr.es). The þai

– þos

Goth. OCS těma – þos þaim toju

česo, Gr. –

– þ\izo tě

– þo

(f./n.) – þo d cf. g Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 f./n. andacc.).Fortheacc.m.cf.alsoGr. Cypr. OIr. perhaps, though a bit speculatively, *ey-Ø with a pronominal zero-ending (Ved. ative *yo- in Balto-Slavic), and OIr. gen. gen. acc. instr. a pl. TABLE 1.33 aii| variant *ey-/i- appears in the nom./acc. sg. and *e- elsewhere. For the nom. cf. also GAv. m. The cases. some in secure less and difficult more reconstruction the and different is pattern a PIE acc. nom. sg. TABLE 1.32 *(h mentioned already thing dat. {-je}; she, it’,cf.aboveforon-;the original forms are seen inthedeterminate adjective endings -i < *-jь, {-ja}, abl. {eieis}; loc. loc. dat. nom. instr ‘this here’; Contracted to *ōns; Many forms are parallel to those of *s-/t- (cf. above), but the nature of the suppletion suppletion the of nature the but above), (cf. *s-/t- of those to parallel are forms Many well as anaphorically (used there)’ (over ‘that for pronoun The The dualformshavethenominalendings,withoblique*-oy-asinplural. ə 1 ̄ . m )ey- (zero-grade(*h é g ), occurring together with a younger *i-s (with nominal *-s and zero-grade *i- as in the | ‘this’ <*jь; *i-m f *e-o-ns originalformsindeterminateadjective - *e-y-su *e-y *e-sy-e-h *e-sy-e-h *e-sy-e-h *e-sy-e-h *ey (*i-s) *e-sm-ōy *ey-? *e-sm-ōt *e-y-b *i-h *e-sm-i *e-h *e-h *e-y-b *e-y-som *e-so b

*e-h

– *i-h OLat.

h – f. IE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN*EY IE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN*EY – *e-h ‘he/she/it’ (cf.Germ.er s 2 *e-h *i-d

2 2 PIE –

a – *e-h -b -b *i-d – *e-h – (?)

2 – h

-som *e-h /mos h – ī h h 2 i(s)

2 2 2 /mos | i(s) -ey

– 2 2 -es -es -m

m ei|s (1x); – -i – – 2 b -es

BSl. *-miHs; |

–

2 –

2 – 2 ‘this’, n. b – -(n) -su

– im| asmí|n ay|ám 1 )i-) and*(h asmā asmái c as|yá

ám| ‘that one; he/she/it’; |im|\ā which – eṣ\ā enā |imé ebhís īt

id – { Ved. ebh|yás

̰ ́ eṣú

‘it’; Lith. |j id t ́ – ́ –

– ayā – asyā \n |ám – asyā c – asyái ābh

|ám Plautus (also \eī\|s|), OLat. \eei asy{ā Ved. i|yám – |imā imā

|imā |imā – – ās – ābhís – āsú

– sie |imā |yás ́ a é ́ m} ́ ́ ‘he’ ́

s ́ ́ s \ā m} 1 – a pras t oiia fnto) a suppletive has function) original its perhaps was

́ )e- (n.=m.,exceptinnom./acc.): – s

́ \m – es); –

́ s –

–

| – |

ìs ‘he’ is ji, -jęja. e{ō} s i OLat. im b OHGes(n.). {eum} d |

P {eam} – í from *e-syo-s; e|ius \eōs {ea} ‘she’ \eī roto [dat. {iis e{ī} Lat. ἴ

ν; theacc.f.isstructurallyreconstructed. – – | e c

e{ā}

Lat. d – – (*IS)–*IH (*IS)–*IH

\eae – id – \ea \ea

| – \eās d \eārum – ì

-I – ‘she’ (this pronoun mixes with the rel- id

ed ndo \ }] c

e – ‘it’. The archaic nom. m. form was –

-E {onъ e \|s|; cf.SouthPicene loc. je{g}o uropean i jemu jemь 2 2 imь {ję –*ID(SINGULAR) –*ID(PLURAL) g {oni d

– OLat., cf. Osc. eisun|k|; – ona {jǫ OCS

– ję

OCS

– jejǫ

imъ – je\i

ona – je imi ixъ ixъ – je\ję f – ony }

–je} }

– ono \i }

– referring – –

morphology ja – \ins ei|s in| is \iz{e} imma esme/in; a| , perhaps ay-, perhaps

– is – |ijos –

|si – Goth. |ijos Goth. i \im to some- to

– i|ja i\zos

– i

– \ – it e OLat.

\zai – |ija i\zo – – f |a ‘he, |ija it|a 87 h

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 The interrogative pronoun for ‘who, what, which?’ has the root *k Interrogative pronouns while Gothichasasecondary “de-contracted”, are forms Latin the sg., acc. the to analogy by well) as pl. nom. the to *k Hitt. GAv. pl. Ved. ), dat. *k dat. ƕis), whom/what?’ (GAv. North Čak. Lat. ‘who?’ of opposition the cf. ‘which?’, (adjectival) second the ‘who/what?’, originally The relative pronoun is reconstructed as *y-o (m.) Relative pronouns nouns aswell. (n.)), etc. Sometimes simple interrogative pronouns were probably used as indefinite pro- Goth. acc. pl. is difficult to reconstruct inal *-i), parallel to *to-y- (see above), though synchronically it made no difference. The TE 88 table forms apparently parallel those of the demonstrative *so, cf. the gen. *k gen. the cf. *so, demonstrative the of those parallel apparently forms table ‘what, which?’(GAv.‘what, kas), OCSkъ-to(obliqueko-Lith.k The indefinite pronouns were derived from the interrogative ones. One patternwas One ones. theinterrogative *k from cf. doubling, derived were pronouns indefinite The Indefinite pronouns rogative pronominaladverbs,cf.p.89. ‘anyone’, GAv.‘anyone’, cid reconstruct, mainly because the relation of the two stems is unclear (*k to easy not is declension The PIE). in already (perhaps altogether innovative/secondary is *k forms (p. 105), cf. *k cf. 105), (p. (Lat. cf., e.g.,theacc.sg. Ved. *k kám< (with the oblique suppletive *k suppletive oblique the (with which’ the whom/what?’, OCS GAv. ἥ

– ὅ, –

w w The *ey- appearing in the plural is not the *ey of the nom. sg. but *e-y- (with pronom- o- from the nom./acc. *k -e-h same declension as *so as declension same M (all ‘what?’). The relation of *k of relation The ‘what?’). (all kuit ‘whoever’), *k ‘whoever’), quisque ciš, Gr. τίς, Lat. -cīt

a ), etc. It is unclear whether separate *k separate whether unclear is It etc. ƕamma), – as OCS

(sometimes thought to be a thematization of the demonstrative *i-, p. *i-, demonstrative the of thematization a be to thought (sometimes 2 – ké, GAv. (f.) > Ved. ̰ (pronominal particle), Gr.particle), (pronominal Lat. τί, quid K *k kȁ, OCSkyi < *kъ-jь). Alternatively, it can be supposed that the thematic *k | (< *jь) (< i|že apovi w w -o-sm-ōy ‘to whom?’‘to -o-sm-ōy (Ved. -o- and *k ‘what?’ and ‘what?’ w w os-k < *k kōi < is-k ć kā kascīt ko{ cah| w w ́ quis, Hitt. , GAv. ‘anyone’, Arm. ‘anyone’, e (Ved. ca káś is ‘whoever’ (Lat. ‘whoever’ is kat

g – w ii| } ̰ ‘which?’, OPruss. ‘which?’, ), Lat.quod w -i-. Cf. *k ̰ ‘every, any’), etc. The other one was adding the particle *k particle the adding was one other The etc. ‘every,any’), ja| o ā o-y but GAv. ‘of whom?’), *k , Gr. Ion. τέο, early Lat. ‘which?’, and Slav. *čь ‘what’ and *kъ ‘which’ (Croat. (Croat. ‘which’ *kъ and ‘what’ *čь Slav. and ‘which?’, quod

w – *seh – kā, Goth. že| o-), thoughtheyareformallyeasilyreconstructable.Forinter w od-k ins (withi-asinmostforms). w

– kuiš (all ‘who?’); *k e- in alternation with the nom./acc. *k nom./acc. the with alternation in e-

– V je| w w 2 w < *k o-m butLat.quem,Hitt.kuin<

e (Lat. cf. p. 535), CIb. 535), p. cf. že| (for -o-s (m.) > Ved. edic seems to have a secondary – *tod (p. 85–86). Cf. Ved.Cf. 85–86). (p. *tod – à ƕo). Cf. also *k s caiias, OLat. (all ‘who?’); *k ‘who?’); (all , Goth.ƕas kásmai, GAv. kahmāi,Umbr. pusme,OCSkomu ), *k quisquis, Hitt.kuiš), w i- and *k and i- , Slav.quid, Čak. (Croat. *čь ‘whatever’, Goth. ‘whatever’, quodque w -e-sm-ōy (OCS

qu\ – *y-e-h w w kás ‘who, which?’ (GAv. sandhi-form w -i-d (n.) > Ved. < *k quēs < o- is not clear; perhaps the first was was first the perhaps clear; not is o- -o-so (Ved. kás| ok w o -i-s (m./f.) > Ved. \ |i|u| c ‘what’, Goth. ‘what’, ka ‘someone’ 2 s (f.) čemu ‘to what?’), etc. existed |, OCSčeso ‘of what?’, Goth. w io|s (acc. sg. iom,dat. ey-es), but the reconstruc-

w – *y-o-d (n.) ‘who/what/ yás -, which shows up in two -, which shows up intwo cid ‘any’ (see below),

im- (that later spread y – p. – w – yā – -o-d (n.) > Ved.> (n.) -o-d w | i-m ‘whom?’; nom. i-m ‘whom?’; nom. w a w ), čȁ, cf.OCSčь-to), o- and *k i-, and the oblique i-, andtheoblique ‘each, every’‘each, ƕah os-k , GAv. kah| ná-\ ́

440), *k 440), ‘what?’ (cf. ‘what?’(cf. ƕa – yád w k id (Ved. káś \ is ‘no one’,

w , Gr.ὅς , 87), with 87), w -e-so ‘of ‘of -e-so i-/k w ii| is-k w ā quis ey-, ey-, kád ‘of ‘of w w w o- o-

– e e -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 cut correspondences exist. Cf. *k Cf. exist. correspondences cut The pronominaladverbsarerather diverseintheIElanguages,andnotalotofclear- Pronominal adverbs dial. kat\a\r or lessdirectreflexes),leavingoutthemanyproblematicissues,are: PIE clearly had adecimal system. The reconstructed main cardinal numbers (withmore NUMERALS Alb. ku-r‘when?’, Arm. u-r‘where?’,etc. ‘whence?’ < *k , cf. Gr. adj. πóσος < *k < πóσος adj. Gr. cf. pet, Goth. *k iomui), Gaul.dugiionti-io There are a number of pronominal adjectives, cf. *h cf. adjectives, pronominal of number a are There Pronominal adjectives antiquity/originality oftherelative*yo(cf.alsop.166). the doubt some However, texts. attested first the after Slavic) of part in (as sometimes nal roots with the suffix *-r: Lat. (p. 87), cf. Gr. ἐν-τóς, Lat. w 1. *h 1. stem, p. 32) > Ved.> 32) p. (i-stem, ‘three’(m.) *tr-ey-es 3. . *k 4. 2. *d(u)w-o-h 2. - has taken over the function of the relative *yo- (e.g., in Anatolian, Tocharian, Italic), čet\yre OLat. cetheoir ambō), alsoOCSoba,Lith.ab ), etc.; *tisres (f.) (< *tri-sr-es, (< (f.) *tisres etc.; triṣú), urV- (p. 52) > Arm. Lith. ‘alone’) ъ ékas; OPers.aiva ‘one’, Gr. Cypr. oιϝoς ‘only’, p. 49); *sōm (m.) ‘one’ (OCS acc. sg. corn’), OPruss. (i-stem pl.)> Ved. trī,Gr. τρία,OCStri (f./n.), Lat. (f./n.), d(u)vé cf. Lat. wise *-b wise Goth. sama‘same’ (*som-) *k (-áu), Gr. Hom. δύω, Lat. Toch. A aljis, OIr. aile 1 w w stem), *-eh ‘one’(o-stem), oy-n-o-s (m.) to-s fu’ m) (r- (m.) ‘four’ etwor-es etwor-h à tr\ oinos s , OIr. ceth(a)ir, Arm. ‘which’,andcf.p.55,80),etc. ‘once’), cf. Ved.‘once’), sem-el ỹ wu; *d(u)w-eh ; *k h w \ -o-h s, Goth.þreis , OIr.trī o-d

1 – *sm-ih – 2 (m.) ‘two’ (cf. p. 54 for Lindemann’s Law; Lindemann’s for 54 p. (cf. ‘two’ (m.) (cf. Slav. * Slav. (cf. , Lith.|víenas w (n.)> Ved. catvā etwōr (n.) < *-orh h 1 e-n) and *k , Toch.B ‘both’ (Goth. ‘both’ (f./n.), Lith. (f./n.), duae (f.),OCSdъvě ‘who serve’, OPhryg. k 2 in-tus ‘inside’ for the suffix *-tos; similar forms from pronomi- (f.) (Gr.μία, Arm. (f.) c aṙ-; *k w 2 -ih otyos) from *k from otyos) alyek (with different suffixes suffixes Ved. different (with ainan, Goth.ainsOIr. óen duo, OCSdъvaLith.d w 1 e/o-ti ‘how many?’ (Ved. quō-r ‘why?’, Lith. (f.)(eh w w tm p 2) Ved. > 23) p. stem, u-d b ́ ete-sr-es (f.) (< *k č ), *k ), ri, Gr. τέττ\α\ρα) ù { c 2 ork (*h }), *h ai}), ´ (p. 70) > Lat. sa-kŕ h , Arm. e ‘where?’ (Ved.‘where?’ e 2 w c -stem du.), *d(u)w-o-yh , Toch.B oteros ‘which of the two’the (OCS of ‘which oteros 2 e-b ̥ 2 ‘once’t (*sm r- (f.), *-o-m (n.) > Gr.ο > (n.) *-o-m (f.), P ˝nъ ‘other ˝nъ ı w h stem) > Ved.> stem) roto 2 erek oh ent-b ‘from here’ from *i- from here’ - (p.88); ‘from Ved. i-tás , cf. p. 86 for *si-) for 86 p. cf. mi, ios. Inmanylanguages, theinterrogative 1 ?), Ved. c , Gr. τρɛῖς, Lat. τρɛῖς, Gr. tráyas, , Toch.B -I h ; oblique/compound *k oblique/compound śtwer; oh qu\attuor, Goth. \f 2 ndo ku-r elyos ‘other’(Gr.elyos Lat. ἄλλος, w ù 1 etwer-sr-es?) > Ved. ’ < *h ’< , OIr , Gr. ἄμφω, Lat. Lat. ἄμφω, Gr. (Toch. Bantapi, ̥ -), Gr. ὁμός ‘one and the same’, Gr.the -), and ‘one ὁμός ‘where?’, Goth. ̃ ; cf. Gr. πóϑεν Gr. cf. kúha, OCS kъde; catvā (f.), Toch.(f.), Advì -E ubhā káti, YAv. uropean . dóu,Arm. ; *tr-ih tisrás, OIr. teoir; , cf. loc. *tr-i-su (Ved.*tr-i-su loc. cf. tr\ai, 1 ́ eyn-, OCS ́ (*Hu-b G. έταρς OCS τέττ\α\ρɛς, Gr. ras, stem du.) > Ved.> du.) o-stem 1 (n.)(o-stem du.) > Ved. ἴ

νη ‘the ace on dice’, on ace ‘the νη ca – *sem –

morphology h oh i erku (p. 433–434), ti, Lat.

\ idwor (reshaped 1 trēs, OCStrije we (f.);cf.like- ‘uni- in-o-rogъ ƕa-r ‘where?’, ?) kot\o\ryi cátasras, OIr. (n.) (Gr.ἕν, (n.) quot, Bret. w twr d(u)vā , Lith. alius, 2 sam- ̥ (n.) C-/- 89 ́

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 ubr 2–9 3–9 ec wr pras ae h sm wy s 11, f *treyes- cf. 11–19, as way trih same the made perhaps were etc. 31–39, 21–29, numbers The etc. *-(d)kˊōmt467), from p. Toch.be cf. Bt\äryaka(Toch.could well, ka B- as be ‘two-hand’, cf. Goth. originally ‘two tens’, and ‘hundred’ is derived from ‘ten’ (‘ten’ itself is usually thought to ‘twenty’is for word The etc.). ‘sister’, *swe-sr- ‘woman’(cf. as interpreted often *-sr-, semantics or usage.In3and4,Indo-IranianCeltic point tofeminine forms with ably made by the pattern ‘one-ten’, ‘two-ten’, etc., cf. *dwoh cf. etc., ‘two-ten’, ‘one-ten’, pattern the by made ably TE 90 duvā (d)kˊomth (originally *-(d)kˊōmt*-h (originally of loss the with reconstructions are: provisory The discern. to difficult sometimes is pattern original The suffixes. thematic variant) one in least (at compounds with*-(d)kˊm were perhaps but reconstruct to difficult are 900 to 200 from (disregarding the different suffixes with the root *h root the with suffixes ‘one’different the for (disregarding forms two The gender. distinguished and declension had 1–4 numbers Only

The ordinal numbers were derived from the cardinal ones (except ‘one’) with various with ‘one’) (except ones cardinal the from derived were numbers ordinal The 5. *penk 5. 6. 5. *penk 5. 4. *k 4. *tr 3. 2. ‘second’ cannotbereconstructed (alllanguageshavedifferent roots) 10. *dekˊm10. 7. *septm 100. *kˊm100. *wīkˊn20. 1. *pr 1. 9. *h 8. 1000. * 1000. 2 (d)kˊomth M ́ , Gr. δώδεκα, Lat. Gr.δώδεκα, daśa, *sw/s/wekˊs‘six’ > Ved. *h a OCS č|etvrьtъ,Lith.ktvir Gaul. suexos),Arm. *pęstь (BCMSpȇst),OEng.f tr\ , Toch.Arm. inn, AB septem, Lith.sept{ ǵ Arm. t\asn, Toch. B\śak tysę/ǫ\šti, OPruss.acc.pl.tūsimt{ons},Goth.þusundi(Eng.thousand) B > Lat. Dor. ϝίκατ\ι\, Lat. Goth. fimfta-,Toch.B Goth. ahtau,OIr. ocht fimf, OIr. cóic,Arm. OCS sъto,Lith.šim h ̥ 1 esl- ‘one thousand’); dial. *tuHs-(d)kˊmdial. thousand’); ‘one esl- w 3 ̥ -/tri-t-y-o-s ‘third’ > Ved.‘third’> -/tri-t-y-o-s parwe(-ṣṣe); Lith.pìrmas,Goth.f ẽ newn h ekˊtō(w)Ved.> 45) ‘eight’(p. 2 twr \ ‘thirty’ > Gr. τρι\ᾱ K 2 čias; Gr. τρί\τ\ος,Goth. ǵ -w/m/t-o-s ‘first’ (< ‘foremost’) > ‘first’ > -w/m/t-o-s ‘foremost’) (< Ved. ̥ ̥ w apovi h w ̥

tom < *dkˊm< tom ̥ -y/t-o-s ‘fourth’ > Ved.‘fourth’> -y/t-o-s ̥ , Gr. Aeol. χελλιοι (Lat. Ved.‘thousand’Gr.> χελλιοι esl- |sa-hásram, Aeol. e ‘five’e > 24) (p. Ved. ‘seven’ (loanword from Semitic *šabʕ-at-um, p. 29) > Ved. ‘in front of’, *pr prae ‘infrontof’, -t-o-s ‘fifth’ > Gr. πέμπτος, older Lat. older πέμπτος, Gr. > ‘fifth’ -t-o-s tih 2 ̥ ‘ten’ (p. 34) > Ved.> ‘ten’34) (p. ‘thirty-three’ (lit. ‘three-thirty’) > Ved. ‘nine’ (p. 35) > Ved. 1 < *dw-i(h < ć ̥ ynì}, Goth.si\ ̥ handus ‘hand’ < *kˊomt-). The numbers from 11 to 19 were prob- uīgintī t-o-m ‘hundred’t-o-m > 34) Ved.(p. t- (cf.Gr. dial.-κατ-ιοι, Lat.-cent-ī ̃ ta\s\, Goth.hunda,CIb.kantomToch.B ñu vec hing, Alb. ˊ 1 )-dkˊm . The decades 30–90 were made with *-(d)kˊomthwith made were 30–90 decades The duodecim. |n \κοντα, Lat. piṅkte , Arm. , Gr.ṣáṭ, Dor. Lat. ϝέξ, c (p.440), Toch. B , OW uceint ̥ t-ih ̥ tas, OEng.f ̃ , Gr. δέκα, Lat. Gr.δέκα, dáśa, þridj\a h tr , Gr.páñca, Lat. πέντε, náva, Gr. ɛ ȳ ̥ 2 t|ī >Gr. παρά/πάρα‘beside’) u\t tur|ī st 1 , Toch.pesë, A b ´ ‘twenty’ (du.) > Ved.‘twenty’> (du.) |yas, YAv. \ c u aṣṭā \ (p.440), Toch. Bokt ´ trīgint \ |yas, YAv. n

2 \ \, OIr. secht ?), the old collective of *dekˊmof collective old the ?), , Arm. ru\ma\; Gr. Dor. πρ ́ ), Gr. ὀκτώ, Lat. ὀκτώ, Gr. (-áu), ̓

|ν|νέα, Lat.

| ̥ \ā\, OIr. trícho,Arm. ē|orþ\a\, Toch.B t-ih s ϑritiia- kas k pū c 2 p , Toch.san, A tu sex, Goth.saíhsOIr. chwech, sé(W (literary *‘strong hundred’) > OCS > hundred’) *‘strong (literary 1 ́ ä quinctus, OCSpętъLith. ‘fore, first’, OCS first’, ‘fore, rvas tráyas-tri|ṃś\at\, etc. The hundreds oy-) perhapshadslightlydifferent n i , Gr. τ|έ|ταρτος, Lat. τ|έ|ταρτος, Gr. riia-, , Arm. decem, Goth.taíhunOIr. deich , B , Gr.śatám, |ἑ|κατόν,Lat. , Lat. qu\īnque, Lith.penk{ì},Goth. noue\m\, Goth.niun,OIr. noí pi ). vi|ṃśatí\s\, YAv. s ewt ; 1 tertius, OCS tr\etii ᾶ cf. *pn -dekˊm τος śtarte c wiki n , Toch., A octō, Lith.aštuo{nì}, kante eresun (p. 440–441), (cf. adverbs *preh ̥ saptá, Gr. ἑπτά, Lat. ̥ (t) ‘twelve’ > Ved.‘twelve’> (t) k w < *smih < mī-lle -stis ‘fist’ > PSl. ̥ (t), cf. *tri-h cf. (t), s prьvъ, Toch. p a visa t quārtus, peñktas, centum, i , Lith. ti, Gr. 2 2 2 -i n n - - 2 , ,

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 less complex systems found in Anatolian languages arian, buttoasmallerextent),thisreconstructedsystemwas verydifferent fromthe Old Indic. However, as became apparent after the discovery of Anatolian (and Toch- so-called Greco-Aryanmodelandtherichverbalmorphologies of(mainly)Greekand more soforreconstructedlanguages(likePIE). even and (like Vedic) languages dead to comes it when difficult more even is this that often hard and controversial even when it comes to living languages, so it is no wonder for different possible reconstructions. Generally speaking, analyzing verbal systems is imperative). Thus, the PIE system is more difficult to reconstruct, and there is more room tive, optative), Hittite has only two of each (active, middle; present, preterite; indicative, subjunc- imperative, injunctive, (indicative, moods five and future), perfect, imperfect, ), *tris ‘thrice’*tris var), (Ved. cátur, Lat.qu\ater)canalsobereconstructed(cf. Arm. others laterinthetext): (post-Anatolian). PIE for reconstructed is exactly what of nature fluid the in results then This 194). (p. both of innovative (e.g.,losingthesubjunctiveandoptative),orsome kindofcombination the resultofpost-AnatoliancommoninnovationsinlatePIE, toconsider Anatolian as discrepancies these interpret to how is problem basic The IE. of traces ofthesubjunctiveandoptativemoodsthathavetobe reconstructedfortherest systems nominal earliest the than congruent less much are languages IE attested early in the reconstruction of the PIE verbal system. First of all, the verbal systems of the ries were present in what phase of PIE. There are a number of reasonsfordisagreement catego what clear always not is it although difficult), more is forms specific of function here task primary the is (which paradigms and forms specific e.g., while e.g., of the The reconstructionofthePIEverbalsystemismorecomplexthan VERBS The earliest, traditional reconstructions of the PIE verbal system were based on the Multiplicative adverbial numerals *dwis ‘twice’*dwis numerals adverbial Multiplicative (Ved. The followingPIEverbalcategories can bereconstructed (we willmention possible 9. *h 9. person number 7. *(s)(w)ekˊ(s)-t-o-s6. ‘sixth’ > Ved. 8. *h 10. *dekˊm10. *septm-o-s ‘seventh’ > Ved. OPruss. \š Toch. A Toch. Bśkante;*dekˊm Toch. Bñunte nominal system. There is some concord when it comes to the reconstruction of

3 1 ẽ – sometimes – ekˊt-ow-o-s >Gr. newn štas : 1st,2nd,3rd : singular, dual,plural Vedic has three voices (active, middle, passive), five tenses (present, aorist, (present, tenses five passive), middle, (active, voices three Vedichas ̥ , OPruss.uschts(<*ukˊstos), Goth.saíhst\a\,Toch.B t-o-s ‘tenth’ > Gr. δέκατος, OCS δέκατος,Gr. ‘tenth’ > t-o-s ̥ -t-o-s ‘ninth’ > Gr. ἔνατος, OCS \devętъ OCS ἔνατος, Gr. > ‘ninth’ -t-o-s ṣ ; *septm septmas; pt a nt it is Early PIE (with Anatolian) and sometimes it is Late PIE Late is it sometimes and Anatolian) (with PIE Early is it , Gr.trís, Lat. τρίς, ὄ \γδ\ooς, Lat. ̥ -H-o-s > Ved. daśamás,Lat. ̥ -t-o-s > Ved.> -t-o-s sapt\amás, Gr. ἕβδ|ο|μος, Lat. , Gr.ṣaṣṭ|hás, Lat. ἕκτος, oct\ ), *k ter, OIc.þris-var), ā\uus P saptát|has, Lith.septi roto desętъ, Lith. -I ndo

– for , Lith. -E , Gr.dvís, Lat. δίς, decimus instance, Anatolian shows no uropean

– p.441). dešim sextus, OCS\šestъLith. deviñtas, Goth.niund\a\,

– determining – w sept|imus, OCSsedmъ eturs ‘four times’‘four eturs (Ved.

̃ – to – tas, Goth. s n kaste tas

morphology consider them as them consider , OHGsibunt\o\, bis, OIc.tvis- taíhund\a\, the exact the 91

– - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 *h (a thematicaparticular vowelwas kindofthem)andend-particles. Cf. verbalformslike root and an ending (even if a zero morpheme). Some forms also had derivational suffixes *steh structure: root (+ affix) (+ thematic vowel) + ending (+ particle). A particle). following (+ ending the + vowel) had thematic (+ forms affix) (+ verbal root structure: PIE 42). (p. *kan- like exceptions were there though well be used forgeneral statements, future, past, etc. This was undoubtedly the case in PIE as for events inreal presenttime (which isitsprimaryandprototypical role) butcanalso stand only not does often languages world in “present” the called traditionally is What Present occur inspecificlanguagesorcases). the thematic vowel *-e/o- between stems and endings and with no ablaut alternation) and and alternation) ablaut no with and endings and stems between *-e/o- vowel thematic the the usageofpresentinPIE here. of specifics the into get cannot we However, instances). some in least (at forms present TE 92 vowel + ending), *b ending), + vowel struct the imperfective (“present”) *stisteh optative, subjunctive, and imperative and subjunctive, optative, and therestofmoodsfunctioned as separate simple formations (there was onlyone ent andaoristhadseparate middle forms. The (active or middle) indicative is unmarked, the eventivesystemonly(thus,perfecthadnomiddleandmoods).Bothpres- eventive (as opposedtoperfect, i.e., stative). The categories of voice andmoodexisted in as together grouped are aorist/perfective and Present/imperfective three). all form could ally thought to be the “basic” ablaut grade (p. 43), cf. *b cf. 43), (p. grade ablaut “basic” the be to thought ally in Anatolian andwerepossiblypost-Anatolian. dual (andspecialformationslikethematic presents orreduplicated perfects) didnotexist aorist, etc. as in Vedic or Greek. The present/aorist opposition, optative, subjunctive, and future endings); i.e., there were no separate forms for the subjunctive present, subjunctive aspect), as aspects(thepresentbeingimperfective, the aoristperfective, and theperfect stative formations. What were traditionally regarded as tenses are now most often interpreted Things aremostlystraightforward whenitcomestonumber, person,voice,andnominal 1 (and 2) pl. and 1/2/3 du. present *-s and *-n, and the 1 pl. middle *-d middle pl. 1 the and *-n, and *-s present du. 1/2/3 and pl. 2) (and 1 *-u present, (the *-i were particles verbal major particle. The one than no clearfunction, somewereprobablyfacultative, and someformscouldhavehadmore verbal forms. Somewereasortofsecondary markers for acertain category, othershad from theroot*yug-/yewg-). yoking’ am ‘I *yu-ne-g-mi (cf. infix an also was there and nouns, in than frequent more matic vowel + ending + particle). Reduplication (cf. *d (cf. Reduplication particle). + ending + vowel matic

There were two basic present conjugations (similar to noun declensions): thematic (with 1 All verbal roots had a CVC structure (with possible clusters possible (with structure CVC a had roots verbal All I hd seil ls o prils ht ee tahd fe edns n oe finite some in endings after attached were that particles of class special a had PIE voice aspect nominal mood s-te ‘you (pl.) are’(pl.) ‘you s-te *b ending), + (root (the imperative particle), and *-o and *-r (the middle particles). Minor ones were the M

– for – 2 m ‘I stood up’ stood ‘I m a 8 withthesystembestpreservedin(early)Greek. Thus, forPIEwecanrecon- : : active,middle indicative,imperative,optative,subjunctive : K present,aorist,perfect instance, having no separate future tense, PIE surely had to “replace” it with it “replace” to had surely PIE tense, future separate no having instance,

apovi verb

forms ć h

owd – the – : participles(andverbaladjectives,nouns) h -ey-e-me-s ‘we are waking (somebody)’ (root + suffix + the- + suffix + (somebody)’(root waking are ‘we -ey-e-me-s stative (“perfect”) *stestoh (“perfect”) stative

– though – h er-e-te ‘you (pl.) are carrying’are (pl.) er-e-te‘you thematic + (root 2 mi ‘I am getting up’ in the case of the latter also with special with also latter the of case the in 2 e ‘I am standing’ (not all verbs all (not standing’ am ‘I e h e-d h er- (p. 40), *d 40), (p. er- h eh

– the – p. – 1 -mi ‘I am putting’) was putting’) am ‘I -mi hic 52–53), with *e usu- *e with 52–53), perfective (“aorist”)

verb had verb

& nunc,particle), h h 2 h (othersalso eh 1 - (p. 45), (p. - to have a have to Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 1 sg. 1 sg. 3 sg. 2 sg. a 3 pl. 2 pl. f a TABLE 1.35 TABLE 1.34 *b like pl.), in *Ø and sg. in *e alternations ablaut with and stems, the after right endings (with athematic of *-i; 3 sg. 1 pl. 2 pl. 3 pl. also *-s or *-n (also sometimes in the 2 pl.) 2 the in sometimes (also *-n or *-s also Some endings(especiallyathematicones)hadahic 95–97). (p. aorist the with shared are (pl.) *-nt- *-te, *-me-, (sg.), *-t- *-s-, *-m-, endings thematic) partly (and differed. Athematic originally forms singular the while *-nt-), *-te, (*-me-, plural the in endings same/similar the had verbs athematic and Thematic (pl.)’. endings were: PIE). thematic in The already facultatively/dialectally (perhaps languages many in *-onti existing variants is unclear. The athematic 3 pl. *-enti was replaced early on with thematic developments arepossible). Their originaldistribution,exactformation,andnumberof (Lat. -mus, OCS -mъ, Goth. -m Ved.(Ved.*-mesi -mas,Cz.me), (Gr.*-men -masi), (Slav.*-mo -μεν), Att. *-mos -mo), particles *-s or *-n, and the present particle *-i in some languages): *-mes (Gr. Dor. -μες, with together *-me/o, variants ablaut had ending (the existed have to seem variants ous numer stems), thematic in (like pl. 1 the In *-i. particle present the had endings Most pl. some originallyathematicendings.HereisthePIEparadigmwithreflexes: the non-ablautingthematicformsusuallywin,butwithincorporationofatleast languages, IE later In primary). really not are they (though “primary” called traditionally 1 pl. 2 sg. reflexive-mė-si, tė-si <*-mē,*-tē(cf.perhaps therare Ved. scansion-māintheaor. 1pl.). Cf. Toch. A -äc; With a younger variant *-onti; Athematic presents had a full grade (*h grade full a had presents Athematic f *h Slav. also*sętь(>Mac.ce),OCSdadętъ; 1 s- me/o(-s/n-(i)) *h *h *h *h *h

1 1 *-o-me/o 1 (-s/n-(i)) s-ent-i IE THEMA IE A e(s)-s-i I Ved. PIE *-o-nt-i *-e-h 1 es-m-i *-e-te *-e-s-i *-e-t-i *-o-h es-t-i 1 s-te PIE *-o *-e b Dor. -oμες; THEMATIC PRESENT 1 -i 2 a a TIC PRESENT smási st|ha sánti ásmi ásti ási c Slav. also *-ešь; b alsosmas; -āmas(i) -at|ha -ā|mi -anti Ved. c b -asi -ati h Hom. ε er-e-te ‘you are bearing (pl.)’ but *h (pl.)’but bearing are ‘you er-e-te , -ei Ht. -\w (Hitt. *-meni ), Dor. ἐντί ἐστέ ἐστί ε Gr. εἶ ἰ μί c alsosthá-na; ἰ μέν Dor. -oντι -oμεν d -ει|ς| -ετε -ε|ι| -ein West and(modern)SouthSlavic; Gr. -ω g 1 accented-

es-) in the sg. and a zero grade (*h grade zero a and sg. the in es-) {sumus – the – s\unt P |jeste |estis { b roto sum} a.OSOih oh Hitt. Goth. OLith. OCS Lat. s jest\ъ est sjes{i} es d d endings with these present particles are are particles present these with endings |jesmъ } Umbr. sent;

& nunc -I -imus -ete -iti|s -unt a.OSLt.Goth. Lith. OCS Lat. weni; ndo \ s\ǫtъ -is -it -ō eni), etc. (in some cases, different jesmь -E h -teni. particle *-i, while the 1 pl. had e uropean f -e\š\{i} e with middle *-oy (p. 99) instead -\e\mo esm{ì} |esm\ -ǫt\ъ -et\ъ |est\ { es{ì} - -\ǫ\ ẽ ẽ d sti} sti è è e \ c \ e 1 d-te ‘you are eating eating are ‘you d-te

morphology |eš\uwani {sijum} {sijuþ} idaš\ sind -\a\m\e\ im ist -\a\te is -\a\ -ì e

-a reflexive ù – most – e f 1 f s-) in the s-) inthe ēšmi ēšši ēšzi a\nzi h often often -íe-si; -and -am -iþ -iþ -is -a 93 - g Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 (usually with different affixes simplified: and non-exhaustive is here list The reconstruct). to difficult meaning a with or it out both thematicandathematicpresentconjugationswereformedinnumerousways the 2du. < *-o (together with -eñc < *-onti) thematic present. no ablaut. differenthad in Anatolian vowels thematic bare be thus would sg./pl. 3 the in perfect ending *-h ending perfect 3 du. 1 du. a TABLE 1.36 *-V no the reflexes point to *-ō, which is interpreted as *-oH (on the assumption that there were TE 94 Toch.*-e-nu); (< B-ä-ṃ in the 3 sg. again on Greek/Balto-Slavic (with analogical thematic *-o in Lithuanian) and *-e laryngeal); a to points accent (the Lithuanian and *-s) + *-esi from not (if Greek on 2 du. the last stage of PIE. The heterodox thematic reconstruction *-eh reconstruction thematic heterodox The PIE. of stage last the in already ones athematic-influenced younger with coexisting perhaps differentendings, trast to what is usually reconstructed, one can suppose that thematic stems originally had *-eti, *-onti (attested in most languages), with the endings as in athematic stems. In con- though Cf. Toch. B-teṃ<*-ton-V;

The formation of the present stem is much more diverse than in other verbal forms The endingsofthedual(athematic/thematic)arenoteasilyreconstructable: Cf. the pronoun *we pronoun the Cf. sg., 1 the In *-e-. had forms other the and *-o-, thematic had pl. 3 and pl., 1 sg., 1 The thematic M a ̅ sěděti, Lith.sėdė *-eh Ved. > from *peh Hitt. *g mānáyati ‘honors’); (e) *-skˊ- (PIE *pr Lat. > ‘think’ *men- from think’ somebody ‘make ey-e- many IElanguages) *h ‘works’ from ‘works’ sō-- fo *wp ‘le’; d *e- causatives/iteratives *-ey- (d) ‘sleep’); *swep- from *swōp-y-e # typeendings in fact speculative. The usual reconstructions for the 2/3 sg. and 3 pl. are *-esi, are pl. 3 and sg. 2/3 the for reconstructions usual The speculative. fact in w 2 e r K ̥ ǵ h 1 *-(e)-tHV-(s/n)

nēwah *-(e)-te/o-s/n - statives (PIE *sed-eh (PIE statives - - >Lat. 3 apovi

IE PRESENT DUAL *-(o)-we-(s) -e- ‘devour’ > Ved. – rā a ro-tm (f PE *we PIE (cf. root-stems (a) PIE ́ ˘ 3 yati, OCS lajǫ,Lith. - ‘drink’ > Ved. ˘ h ć 2 - from *newos ‘new’); (h) *-(e)s- (Lat. e and middle *-h middle and e agō ‘Idrive’; ‘work’ and rare causatives like Lat. like causatives rare and ‘work’ ápas- 9 ) and further as *-o-h as further and ) ´ ̄ ̆ a ‘us two’‘us du. Ved. 1 for by 84) influenced (p. perhaps is -tha pl. 2 ‘to sit’); (g) *-eh (g) sit’); ‘to ti 10 b cf. Av. *-o in the 3 pl. on Lithuanian (where sg. (where Lithuanian on pl. 3 the in *-o

– some -(a)thas -(ā)vas ENDINGS -(a)tas -uuahi; giráti, OCSžьrǫ); (b) reduplicated stems (PIE *pi-ph Ved. píbāmi, Lat. also desiderative *-s-, whichbecame the new future in

1 – cf. -e- ‘to be seated’ from *sed- ‘sit’Lat. seated’*sed- > be from ‘to -e- 2 b (e) with a specific derivational meaning, others with- c cf.perhapsUmbr. 2pl.imp. Beekes 2011: 260. The original thematic endings lóju; also in denominatives like Ved.

– p. 98–99), which is frequently reconstructed, frequently is which 98–99), p. – 2 - factitives (PIE *new-eh (PIE factitives - 2 ̥ kˊ-skˊ-e- ‘ask’ > Ved. ǵ (onthebasisofsupposedrelation to the -(ε)τον -(ε)τον h bibō); (c) *-y- suffix (PIE *leh e, *b -e-, Gr. h er-e- above; with zero-grade PIE gerō ‘I carry’ < *h -(o)s -(a)v\a -(e)v\ě -(e)ta -(e)te C ih Goth. Lith. OCS eta-to <*-tā. pr ‘I put to sleep’ < sleep’ to put ‘I sōpiō ‘I remind’, Ved.remind’, ‘I moneō ̥ 1 ccháti i in the 2 sg. is based

= 2 -e- ‘to make new’make ‘to -e- >

pl.) and pl.) -(a)ta , Lat. 11 PE *mon- (PIE 2 sedēre, OCS c ǵ 2 -y-e- ‘bark’ -es-e- from poscō); (f) Toch. A-e apasyáti 3 -ts -e-

–

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 the PIE adverb *h adverb PIE the attached to thebeginningofform(Ved. a-, Gr. ἐ-, Phryg./Arm. (limitedly) Armenian have a so-called augment in the past tenses (including the aorist), has noaorist (which is perhaps not an innovation). Greek, Indo-Iranian, Phrygian, and perfect is generally lost there except for traces in Balto-Slavic and Armenian). Anatolian tions; in Germanic it is lost; in Slavic, Armenian, and Albanian it is preserved (while the perfect. InItalicandCeltictheaoristmerges withtheperfectintonewpreterite forma- and aorist the both preserve to branches only the are Indo-Iranian and pres./aor.).Greek Gr.(cf. in well -μεν as aorist the in endings present original the generalized later guages of thepresent and aorist endings (cf. Ved. pres.-mas(i)butaor. -ma),while many lan - thus are actually unmarked (unlikethepresentones). Vedic“secondary”) preservesthecomplete opposition called (traditionally aorist the in endings The dual). present the to the root (often of those verbs that have a reduplicated athematic present), with the *e the with present), athematic reduplicated a have that verbs those of (often root the to aorists areoftenconsideredsecondary). Itisformedfromtheendingsattached directly sigmatic/thematic (while archaic most the considered often is but only Slavic) Church 3) The root-aorist 2) om (ih r ihu dfeet connotations) different without or (with forms matic (a)-(c). One verb could have had more than one coexisting primary present etc. root verbal the of meaning the changed that suffix a with (derived formations secondary and meaning) derivational exact no with suffix a with 1) feature). the aoristforPIEaswell(whereitmayhavebeenatmost afacultative or dialectal *g the present (particularly not the present and aorist. However, the aorist did not have particles attached to endings as in in theathematic present (p.93),pointingprobablytoacommonpre-PIEoriginofthe The PIE aorist denoted perfective aspect. Its endingswerebasically the same as those Aorist see p.99–100. PIE verbwashastobereconstructedwordby(cf.LIV).Forthemiddlepresent thematic formations were originally athematic. What the exact formation of a specific Lat. walk’, ‘I βαίνω

One can distinguish primary (derived directly from a verbal root without a suffix or Unlike thenumerouspresentformations,aoristhadonlythese basicformations: w athematic m

– or – ̥ thematic aorist sigmatic aorist root-aorist -skˊ-e-(Ved. (Ved. kr stems (PIE *de/i-deh (PIE stems “Narten-presents” with long root, cf. Ved. *yu-n(e)-g- ‘yoke’*yu-n(e)-g- > Ved. from a noun or adjective root). The primary ones are all athematic and the- and athematic all are ones primary The root). adjective or noun a from

̥ – n

– root[sg. is attested in Indo-Iranian, Greek, and Armenian (perhaps partially in Old ómi (a) root-stems (cf. PIE *h PIE (cf. root-stems (a)

1 ‘goes, comes’, Gr. βάσκε! ‘come!’) and *g and ‘come!’) βάσκε! Gr. comes’, ‘goes, gácchati – root[zerograde]+thematicvowelendings ‘Imake’,kr

e ‘at that time’. Some linguists reconstruct the augment as part of part as augment the reconstruct linguists Some time’. that ‘at e – root[longgrade]+*-s-endings ‘I come’). It is possible, even likely, that some assumed some that likely, even possible, is It come’). ‘I ueniō

– fullgrade,pl. 3 - ‘give’ > Ved.> ‘give’ - ̥ n yunákti hic uthá

& nunc ‘you(pl.)make’) , pl.yuñjánti

– zerograde]+endings 1 es- above or *h or above es- P *-i), except in the dual (but different from different (but dual the in except *-i), , Gr. δίδωμι); (c) *-n(e)- infix (PIE infix *-n(e)- (c) δίδωμι); Gr. dádāmi, roto dāṣṭi ‘waits’ < *dēkˊ-ti); (b) reduplicated

cf. – -I ndo ); (d) *-new-/-nu- suffix *-new-/-nu- (d) , Lat.iungō);

rm *g from -E 1 uropean ey- ‘go’ > Ved.‘go’> ey-

– e.g., –

w *wid-o-m

*deh *wē m ‘o cm’ both come’ ‘go, em- e-), whichstemsfrom causative, iterative, causative,

morphology ǵ 3 -m h -s-m

– pl.*dh , Gr.εἶμι; émi, w ̥ m ̥ -y-e- (Gr. 3 -me 95 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 1 sg. 3 pl. 3 pl. 3 sg. tionally zero grade in *b in grade zero tionally ἔϑηκα with secondary -κα, 1 pl. ἔϑεμεν, Arm. 3 sg. 3 sg. 2/3 by-st-ъ‘were/was’. n 1 sg. vowel (likeinthepresent),and endings: attested inthe Vedic middle). *e-grade (which would then be generalized in Greek and the had originally pl./du. the TABLE 1.38 veyed’ fromvez- < *we a 1 pl. 2 pl. 2 sg. TABLE 1.37 verbs inGreek): TE grade in the sg. and the zero grade in the pl. (the original ablaut is preserved in some 96 not theoriginal endings (uēxī a 2 sg. < *sth conquered’; from ji-; 1 pl. a long-graderoot,thesuffix*-s-,andendings: ‘became’, etc. Vedic and Homeric Greek, one can also find augmentless aorists like Ved. 2 pl. < *g < ̥ Simplified to *wē to Simplified Asyllabic becauseofStang’s Law(cf.p.70); < *-n t, Av.< -at

The thematic aorist hasazero-grade root (preserved in Vedic and Greek),thematic f as *steh also Cf. - ‘con (věsъ Slavic Vedic,Church in Old attested well is sg./pl. the in grade long The The sigmatic aorist, very productive in late PIE and later languages, was formed from M h 2 reb -n a ̥ t h -, etc.), and Latin, where some perfect forms preserve the ablaut and *-s- but *-s- and ablaut the preserve forms perfect some where Latin, and etc.), -, K

apovi IE SIGMATIC IE ROOT-AORIST ̥ t; *wē *wē *wē *wē *wē d *wē cf. the original ἔ-στη-ν ‘stood’ < *steh ‘stood’< ἔ-στη-ν original the cf. ǵ 2 ‘to’ (Ved. ‘stood’ m h PIE ǵ s probably already in PIE (p. 53); (p. PIE in already probably s d ć ǵ ǵ ǵ ǵ < *ácchantsta ‘have seemed’, from seemed’, ‘have *ácchantsta < ǵ h h h h h -s-me -s-s h -s-n -s-m -s-te -s-t ̥ *deh ̥ ǵ t a *dh *deh *dh *deh *dh h h -, PIE uh AORIST 3 3 3 basъ ‘jabbed’ from 3 -me -m -n -te 2 3 3 -s - ‘be’: 3 sg. *b sg. 3 ‘be’: - -t ̥ ‘I conveyed’‘I from t a G. ση) *d ἔστην), Gr. ásthām, |ávākṣ{ur} |áprākṣam |ácchānta |ájaiṣma |ayā\s |aprāṭ b Ved. cf.ápām ‘has drunk’; b h c d uh e < *b bod- < 2 b , Gr. ἔφῡ, (?) OCS (?) t (Ved.ἔφῡ, Gr. ábhūt, ‘has sacrificed’; from sacrificed’; ‘has < *we < ueh- 2 chand-; -m; |ád{ur} |ad\āma ed), etc. The root wasperhapsexcep- sth\āta |ádās dām |ádāt Ved. e cf. the more original (Homeric) ἔστ-αν (Homeric) original more the cf. b e |ἐ|ζεύξ|α|με|ν| h cf. Av. od |ἔ|ζευξ{ας} c |ἐ|ζεύξ|α|τε h c |ἔ|ζευξ{ε} |ἔ|ζευξα|ν| < *b cf.theoriginala-bhūv-an< eh |ἔ|ζευξα h ǵ -, Gr. 1 h ‘u’ (Ved. ‘put’ m -, etc.). Some believe that grěsъ ‘rowed’ from -at ̰ < *-n < < *Hya < yaj- ̥ t; f cf. perhaps OCS bhūt, Hom. φῦ adhām, Gr. |ἔ|δo{σαν} |ἔ|δω{κα} |ἔ|δω{κας} věs|om{ъ} |ἔ|δω{κε} ǵ |ἔ|δoμε|ν| -; |ἔ|δoτε věs|ъ věste OCS by). In věsę Gr. c ‘have greb- f h uh 2 d - e

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 3 sg. 2 sg. TABLE everywhere, Latin verbs like PIE marking of tense/mood so it was left out, which is perhaps a structure of PIE origin mā ceding fully marked verbs or after the prohibitive imperative particle *meh pre- following when tense/mood for unmarked verbs originally were they that seems It called often are Greek Homeric/early Vedic, meaning) and Gatha-Avestan,in found “timeless” a in used (sometimes imperfects and aorists Augmentless tives). tense of the imperfective aspect stem (the present being the present tense of imperfec It isidentical to thepresentexcept thatithasaoristendings. This wouldthenbethepast pres. ptcp. *-i, not the pres. *b pres. the not *-i, ptcp. pres. 1 pl. τον; 3*-(e)-te-h -(ε) Gr.Ved.> -(a)tam, *-(e)-to-m 2 Ved.> -(ā)va, OCS-(o)v\ě\; *-(o)-we 1 brackets): in is vowel thematic in Vedic/Greek(the endings present dual the of those differedfrom ous verb. tense (or stative) meaning in other languages as well as languages other in meaning stative) (or tense present a have forms perfect original Some 309). p. standing’(cf. ‘is ἕστηκε dead’, ‘is the state of the subject (this occurs less commonly also in R in Homeric Greek (with relics in Classical Greek) the perfect expresses the meaning of (‘I died’). In most later IE languages, it has developed into a regular past tense. However, became resultative (‘I have died [and I [and died have (‘I resultative became tive (expressing states like ‘I am dead’) at one stage, perhaps partially already in late PIE, cated the stative aspect. The frequent,andplausible, assumption isthat the original sta- The “perfect” originally (whether in the last phase of PIE or in pre-PIE) most likely indi- Perfect 101–102). Forthemiddleaoristseep.100. (Ion.) ἦα < (?) PIE *(h PIE (?) < ἦα (Ion.) a etc. Thematic aorists are often secondary, and exact correspondences are few researchers are correspondences exact and secondary, often are aorists Thematic etc. the zero grade, cf. also Gr. aor. ἔφυγον, ἔτραπον from pres. φεύγο ‘I run’, τρέπω ‘I turn’, ‘I yearn for’), or the Germanic the or for’), yearn ‘I 3 pl. 2 pl. 1 sg. had areduplicatedcf. Ved. aorist, Cf. Arm. Some alsoreconstructimperfect Cf. also Gr. ἤλυϑε, OIr. ́ , Gr., μή, Alb. may have used the injunctive forms like *b like forms injunctive the used have may 1.39 egit ‘found’; 12 This is typologically very similar to the Bantu consecutive (cf. Nurse 2003: Nurse (cf. consecutive Bantu the to similar very typologically is This

consider all (or most) of them as secondary/innovative. PIE may also have also may PIE secondary/innovative. as them of most) (or all consider IE THEMA IE 2 *wid-o-me *wid-o-nt *wid-o-m *wid-e-t *wid-e-te m > Ved. -(a)tām,Gr. -(ε)την(<-(ε)τᾱν). ‘do not!’, ‘do Arm. mo *wid-e-s PIE b cf.alsoaugmentless TIC AORIST 1 e)-h a luid < PIE *h 1 es-m meminī ‘I remember’ (cf. Goth. h eronti, afterthepresentwasalready markedonaprevi- ̥ praeteritopraesentia ; Ved. forPIE,basedonGreekand Vedic, cf. Ved. ā ávocam, Gr. εἶπον < *(h mi). Inbothcases,there was noneed for redundant |ávidam |ávidāma *|á|vidata | vidam. |ávidas

1 |ávidat á|vidan am dead am lud , Gr. ἔφερον < (?) PIE *(h PIE (?) < Gr.ἔφερον ábharam, Ved. h et ‘went’, which can hardly be secondary. For P roto b now]’), and finally in post-PIE preterite post-PIE in finally and now]’), h eront ‘they are carrying’ without the without carrying’ are ‘they eront -I ndo class(p.400). The PIEperfectis

– like – -E |ε| uropean ̥ 1 |ε| gveda), cf. Homeric τέϑνηκε |ε|ἶδον |ε|ἶδον |ε|ἶδες e)-we-wk ἴ man ‘thinks’ and Gr. μέμονα |ε|ἶδε δομε|ν| Gr. ἴ *woydh δετε

morphology 2 w e ‘I know’ almost know’ ‘I e -o-m ‘I said’. The 1 ‘not’ (> Ved. 1 injunctives. e)-b dvigom ́

sam, Gr. h dvižete – some – er-o-m. dvigъ dvigǫ dviže dviže OCS

– e.g., {ъ} 97 - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 2 du. 1 du. 1 pl. 3 pl. 2 sg. 2 pl. 3 sg. the ablaut alternation in the root (*o-grade in the sg., zero grade in the pl. the in grade zero sg., the in (*o-grade root the in alternation ablaut the larly in Vedic, sometimes in Germanic), and special (athematic) perfect endings (*-h cf. Hitt.pret.- though the latter is often overly emphasized. The 1 sg. *-h sg. 1 The emphasized. overly often is latter the though a TABLE 1.40 *Ce- but also *CV-, cf. Gr. λέ-λοιπα but Ved. with someremainingtraces. lian (albeit in different form than in Indo-Iranian/Greek) TE preserved in Indo-Iranian, Greek, Italic/Celtic (mixed with aorist), Germanic, and Anato- 98 (elsewhere we find the pres./aor. *-te). The variants in the 3 pl. are not clear archaic Vediclooks in but only attested is possible) also theoretically is (*-o *-e pl. 2 the pres./aor.;the in as same the is *-we du. 1 the and *-me pl. 1 The *-e). form palatalization sg. 1 pret. OIr. the in seen is *-e sg. 3 the ‘I have made’ < *k made’< have ‘I Anatolian (p. 187), and indirectly in the lack of Brugmann’s Law (p. 40, 206) in Ved. *-e, *-me, *-e, *-r *-e, *-me, *-e, has made’ < *k < made’ has 3 du. 1 sg. Gr. πέ-ποιϑα ‘I am persuaded’ (from πείϑω ‘I persuade’), Lat. persuade’), ‘I πείϑω (from persuaded’ am ‘I πέ-ποιϑα Gr. formally closesimilarityofendings,iscontroversial(p.187). ferent endings. The exactrelationofthePIEperfectto Anatolian ḫi-present,inspiteofthe chose’ ‘I/he precisely, ‘Iaminthestateofhavingseen/knowing’): know’seen’‘I have (or,> more ‘I was development PIE) (already apparent The 49). (p. form) reconstructable and plausibly has a stative (in later languages present) meaning such ‘know’, derived from *weyd- ‘see’only the is (it reduplication no has *woyd-/wid- ǵ Goth. sing’), ‘I ‘he has enjoyed’ and some(early)Greekforms. The ablautalternationincludestheaccentshiftin Vedic (jujóṣa sure). The ablaut alternation is attested regularly in Indo-Iranian, in Germanic “strong” verbs, Italic, and Celtic. In PIE it may have been present in almost all forms (though we cannot be ‘sings’), etc. Reduplication was regular in Indo-Iranian and Greek, and sporadic in Germanic, ‘I know’*woydh ‘I < Cf.OCSisolatedvědě usr

The PIE perfect endings were close to both the pres./aor. active and middle endings, endings, middle and active pres./aor. the both to close were endings perfect PIE The The usualperfectformationhadpartialreduplicationoftheroot(originallyperhapsonly h bs-tetd efc fr i te n ta i rte aberrant rather is that one the is form perfect best-attested The ̥ . M Anatolian showsnospecialperfectstem(cf.p.187forpossiblereduplication),justdif- a K

– apovi tta; IE PERFECT curon c ‘I called’(from ‘I haí-hait w

phonetically*witst(H)-(p.54). – *wid-tH-(?) e-k *woyd-th *woyd-h *wid-t-(?) ̥ /-ēr). For reduplication cf. Ved.cf. reduplication For /-ēr). *wid-r jujuṣúr *wid-me *wid-we *woyd-e ć w *wid-e ‘we chose’‘we Verner’s(with Law w e-k PIE or-e (an open syllable). The opposition of the 1 sg. *-a < *-h < *-a sg. 1 the of opposition The syllable). open (an or-e ̥ w /-ēr or-h 2 2 e ‘they have enjoyed’) and Germanic “strong” verbs, cf. OEng. e c a b c 2 e (aclosedsyllablebecauseof the laryngeal)butcakā 2 e-y (withhic ‘to call’), OIr. call’), ‘to haitan vid|ath[úr] vid|at[úr] vid\úr vidmá véttha vidvá véda véda Ved. vidá ‘I asked’ but 3 sg. 3 but asked’ ‘I gád ri-réca < *le/i-loyk

‘I went’(from ‘I ja-gama *-i); & nunc

– p. – 20, 393) < PIE *( PIE < 393) 20,

– elsewhere, 2 e is attested directly as b ‘I sang’(from ‘I ce-chan phonetically *woytsth phonetically ἴ ‘I sang’ (from sang’ ‘I ce-cinī w \σ\{ᾱσι} oἶσ\ϑ\α ἴ ἴ -h σ{τε} δμε|ν| oἶδα oἶδε Gr. 2 e from *leyk ‘he asked’ (with (with asked’ ‘he gáid

the – it was lost, usually

ǵ – preserved – ‘goes’), ‘goes’), gácchati u)

– cf. ǵ efc form perfect owse w - ‘leave’), - ‘leave’), Hitt. pret. Hitt. pret. 2 e, *-th 2 e (p. 54), (p. e

in -ḫḫa in – *( – cakara wit wit wit\uts wit ́ 2 ‘he ‘he ra Goth. waist e and e and canid witu wait wait regu- canō cēas {un} {uþ} |um ǵ 2 u) e, e,

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 1 pl. 2 sg. p 9–3 it Iai pret nig (f Lt 1 g -ī sg. 1 Lat. (cf. endings perfect Italic into 92–93) (p. have endings perfect been influenced byoriginal the aorist onesThe in a*-s?). number of languages.pl. The intrusion ofnom. the present *-i nominal the to identical possibly (and *-me/o-s present the in as same the perhaps is forms pl. 3 some in *-s (?) (?)). particle The 3 pl. made’); (?)GAv. cikōitər TABLE 1.41 - Av. - 3 sg. < *-th researchers, somedialects have thehic lian, Italian, Celtic, Armenian, Tocharian, Phrygian, Venetic), posited asoriginal by many (in *-o particles: both the two present and aorist) and by *-r (only in typified the present). Instead was of *-r (attested in It Anato- difficult. rather is which of reconstruction the both the present/aorist and perfect endings (though the latter is usually overemphasized), are’ <*-so-y)and Armenian (withinnovativemediopassiveforms). exceptions ofBalto-Slavic(whichpreservestracesinactiveendings,cf.OPruss.assai ‘you notable the with Greek), and Indo-Iranian, Anatolian, in preserved best is opposition middle (the : active middle PIE the preserved families Most ‘wears’). *wes-tor PIE < wešta but non-middlemeaning(cf. Ved. śáye,CLuw.zīyari < PIE *kˊey-or ‘lies’; Ved. ‘one goes’). Some verbs (called deponent or the othername,mediopassive).Italsomayhavehadanimpersonalfunction(cf.Lat.ītur (Italic, Germanic),itseemsthatthePIEmiddlealsohadfunctioninsomecases(hence Since thePIEmiddleyieldedapassivevoice(cf.Goth.gibada ‘is given’) in some families andsometimesreciprocal(cf. Ved.wash myself’) vádete‘twoofthemtalktoeachother’). ‘I λούομαι (Gr. reflexive thus was meaning The myself’). (for) unbind ‘I λύομαι Gr. (cf. action the by affected is it that or benefit her or his for action an doing is subject the that indicated middle the while (something)’), unbind ‘I λύω Gr. (cf. subject the by state) (or functional PIE middle is rather speculative. The active typically expressed a simple action poly - definitely the of meaning concrete sort). the a of of reconstruction active The sidered active all were seen have we The middle (medium) voice stands in opposition to the active voice (the present/aorist forms Middle (mediopassive) perfect-like) PIE. In the 2/3 sg. and 3 pl., variant endings can be reconstructed (present/aorist-like and to-Slavic, Albanian), which is likely secondary but possibly a dialectal feature already in 1 sg. 2 pl. struction ofthepresent(primary)middleendings(boththematic andathematic): ēr, olderLat.-ēr-e (with a secondary particle *-i) for *-ēr (from original *-er-s?, cf. p. 70); The middle had special endings ar 2 e-y) pointstotheolderstative(“present”)meaningofperfect. ə *-me-(s)-d , probably Ved., *-(s)-d *-(ē)r-o *-h *-t-o-r *-nt-o-r *-th *-s-o *-o-r I Ved. PIE

2 IE MIDDLEPRESENT

e-(r) 2 – their – e-r h we a b h h 2 original function/distribution is not clear. Here is a tentative recon- tentative a is clear.Here not is function/distribution original -mah\e -ur, andHitt.rare-ar for *-r -dhv\e -r\e -nt\e -s\e -t\e -\e\ -\e ə š (andperhaps Ved. -urandLyd.*-r for -rś) c

– the – -με(σ)ϑα perfect had no active/middle distinction but can be con- be can but distinction active/middle no had perfect

(dial.) (dial.) – for -ντo\ι\ -|μ|α|ι| (dial.) -το\ι\ -σο|ι| -σϑε Gr.

& nunc d e the middle present and middle aorist ) had exclusively middle endings media tantum)hadexclusivelymiddleendings P { -\ w\ašta mt\ä\|r| - {-mmar} -nd\a {-mur} {-da} {-or} -minī roto -ntur a.Gt.Or oh Hitt. Toch. B OIr. Goth. Lat. -tur -re *-y (Indo-Iranian, Greek, Germanic, Bal- ̥ } (cf. also NPhryg. δακαρ(εν) ‘they have -I {-nda ndo - tar -nd\a -thar -d\a -z\a *-h < -ei early < -E -id } f uropean -th\er {-mar} {-ur} -ar ̥ -s (cf.also Ven. -ers

-anta(r|i|) {-ntär} morphology -ta(r|i|) {-tär} -tum\a -\t\ä|r -ta(r|i|) -ta\r 2 e-y, 2sg.-is-tī

– similar , Hitt. váste, Hitt. -( ˘ h -a(r|i|) ) ˘ h a(r|i|) g 99 to

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 *-mes-d nouns *-r perf. and pres./aor.*-nt- pl. 3 the for *-e; PIE. Othersthinkthatvariant endings pointtotwo different originalcategories in already there been have must they but *-o), ending sg. 3 the in perhaps originating *-o (with innovative be to thought sometimes are *-nto(r) *-to(r), *-so, endings ent/aorist-like ending). However, it is not impossible that *-r was facultative or dialectal in PIE. The pres- they believetobesecondary(stemmingsupposedly, nottooconvincingly, fromthe3pl. 1 sg. reflexes isPIE*sek - originally probably normal verbal suffixes (like many others that existed in the in existed that others many (like suffixes verbal normal originally probably distinction but canbeconsideredindicative h peetars frs e ae en ee l idctv (h pret a n mood no had perfect (the indicative all were seen have we forms present/aorist The Subjunctive - reconstruct *-h TABLE 1.42 dial. *-y). Ved./Av.*-y). dial. *-h to point would -i a TE a 100 ‘you lie’; - 2 sg. reconstruct *-d reconstruct -σϑε), perhaps accidentally, reminds one of the pres./aor. *-te and perf. *-e; some, however, struct *-th 3 sg. ferred to 2 pl. *-(s)-d optional *-(s)-, attested in Greek/Hittite, is perhaps related to the pres. *-mes and then trans- (the forms finite verbal all in attested ending the is *-me- pl., 1 the In distinction. meaning but the ending *-to and one with the ending *-o, etc.). Ved. forms like expressed something that the speaker thought was uncertain, a future action with aslight 94–95) p. 2 pl. 3 pl. 1 pl. Cf. Phryg. Cf. Av. -sa. mmar) areremodeledbyanalogytotheactive. A may be from the old du. *-we-(s)-d du. old the from be may w- in Hitt. -wašta vahi, Av. aor.*-d pl. 2 -vadi). The The endings were probably mostly the same as the present ones but with no *-r (i.e., *-r no with but ones present the as same the mostly probably were endings The For the 1 sg. (best preserved in Anatolian) cf. thematic pres. *-h pres. thematic cf. in Anatolian) preserved (best sg. 1 the For These aretheaorist(“secondary”)endings:

(pass.) ‘is called’‘is (pass.) bruve original possible a to point perhaps would facts other some and M

– p. a e h Cypr. κει-τοι‘helies’; h

2 -τoρ; 2 o(r) for the middle); for the 3 sg. pres./aor. athematic *-t- and thematic pres./perf. 77–78). Some linguists reconstruct the PIE forms without the particle *-r, which wasoriginallythepresentendingand*-me-d K that only later became full-fledged moods. The PIE subjunctive probably PIE subjunctive The moods. full-fledged became later only that

IE MIDDLE AORIST apovi b 2 h also variant *-(ē)r-o-r?; o(r) for the middle); for the 2 sg. pres./aor. *-s- and perf. *-th wo (cf.Luw. -tuwa-ri).Manylaterendings(likethe1pl.Lat. mur, OIr. *-me-(s)-d *-(s)-d w ć *-nt-o *-th *-s-o *-r-o *-t-o -e-tor ‘follows’ > Ved. sácate,Gr. ἕπεται,Lat.sequitur,OIr. sechithir. h *-h PIE *-o we), and *-d 2 2 h e we h h 2 f cf.OIc.heite‘Iamcalled’ <*-aiPIEdial.*-oy; -ata, nta h -dhva|m -th\ā\|s| h h -mahi we is unique to the middle, though the final *-e (cf. Gr. (cf. *-e final the though middle, the to unique is we -ra|n Ved. 2 c -ta cf. Av. isprobablysomekindofparticle. As intheactive, -a -i a 2 (unlike the present *-h present the (unlike ā ̊ ŋhā ̥ of asort). The subjunctive andoptative were /-ēr (the *n/r here reminds one of heteroclitic heteroclitic of one reminds here *n/r (the /-ēr i rē ‘they are sitting’ < *āsārai < *-ēr-oy;

-με(σ)ϑα thematic {-μην} -σϑε -ντο -σο Gr. -το h h 2 h present with many media tantumpresentwithmany (cf. Ved. 1 du. pres. h 2 theaoristending. oh Hitt. Toch. B {-mai} brūté ‘calls (for himself)’ -ta|i -mte -nte 2 -te -t e(r)). Perhapsthe 1 pl. 2 and perf. *-h perf. and g cf.Luw. -tuwari 2 e (somerecon- 13 -dum\a\|t| -anta|t(i)| -wašta|t - -vahe, aor. ˘ (one with (onewith -a|t(i)| h d Arc. κει-οι present |at(i)| -ta -ta 2 e (some e (some

– Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 2 pl. 3 pl. 3 sg. (present/aorist) semantics. The formsofthematic verbsare: in later languages. Ifvariants existed already in PIE,theyprobablycarried no special ondary endings.Bothprimaryandsecondaryendingscanbeincertain cases aorist could have used generic, and not present, endings) could point to originally sec- du. -va), parallelism to the optative, and structural reasons (a mood unmarked for present/ endings might be expected as well. However, some Vedic endings (1 pl. -ma, 3 pl. primary other Thus, “thematic”. were forms subjunctive all that fact the with accord in 3 pl. 2 pl. 2 sg. jugation); ‘I will yoke’; will ‘I 2 sg. 3 sg. syllables there). actually archaic). The contraction wasprobably post-PIE(Gatha-Avestan still has two a 1 pl. 1 sg. TABLE 1.44 *-h primary/present) (thematic only shows sg. 1 The (either mixed or facultative). Vedic has a curious mix of primary and secondary endings. a 1 sg. TABLE 1.43 *h (e.g., reservation RV); clear. not These aretheformsofathematicverbs: is suffix subjunctive a as functions it) to identical formally morpheme a (or vowel thematic the Why thematic. become forms athematic the and *-o-o-) *-e-e-, (with tive subjunc- the in thematic” “doubly become forms thematic already the where indicative, qualitative pattern. the presents the“thematized” of in away The subjunctiveforms thus (and probably etymologically) identical to the thematic vowel andfollowed the same formally was *-e-/-o- suffix endings. The present/aorist + *-e-/-o- suffix + grade full the simple was subjunctive the of formation The Latin. in tense future the yielded 1 pl. Also *-e-h Also Also *-e-e-h Also *-ee- contracted to *-ē-, and *-o-o- to *-ō- (others believe that It. -ē- in all persons is It. that believe (others *-ō- to *-o-o- and *-ē-, to contracted *-ee- It isnotclearwhethertheendingsinPIEwereoriginally primary, secondary, orboth d cf.Hom. g with-t<*-ti,cf.Osc.fakiiad‘makes’ <*-t. 1 -i? (p. 93–94); (p. -i?

d 1 IE A IE THEMA cf.vahāsi; -i? (p. 93–94); (p. -i? ἴ -ο-μεν ‘wewouldgo’ fortheoriginalshort*-o-; *b *h THEMATIC SUBJUNCTIVE h er-o-o-me(/o-(s/n)) *b *b 1 *b es-o-me(/o-(s/n)) *h *h *h *b *b h h *h h *h 1 er-e-e-s-(i) er-o-o-nt-(i) er-e-e-t-(i) 1 1 1 esoh h es-e-s-(i) es-o-nt-(i) es-e-t-(i) h er-o-o-h er-e-e-te 1 1 e PIE PIE es-o-h es-e-te cf. ‘wishes’ϑελη‘has’, Thess. εχη Arc. (?); *-ēt < TIC SUBJUNCTIVE b also *-e-e? (p. 93–94); (p. *-e-e? also b 2 also *-e-e? (p. 93–94); (p. *-e-e? also ‘I suppose/guess I suppose/guess ‘I 2 2 b a b a P ásā|ni váhā|ni ásat|ha váhāt|ha bhárāma bhárāt(i) roto bhárās ásas(i) ásāma ásat(i) c

ásan vahān Ved. ‘I speak’(-ā 13x in ‘I cf. the older ending in brav-ā will be’). will Ved. c cf. older c -I

d c ndo 2 (unlikeintheoptative), which is e ‘I may shine/praise’, GAv.shine/praise’, may ‘I arc-ā Thus, it is understandable that it that understandable is it Thus, futuretense. -E uropean Gr. (Hom.) φέρωμεν ἔ\ω\μεν φέρωσι φέρητε φέρῃ φέρῃς φέρω ἔ\ω\σι ἔ\η\τε ἔ\ῃ\ς Gr. ἔ\ῃ\ ἔω f future tense (3rd/4th con- (3rd/4th tense future

e morphology

– root – fer\ēmus fer{ ferēti fer\ feret Lat. ferēs erimus eriti erunt Lat. yaojā -n, 1 eris erit erō am} e\nt 101 |s f g |s in | e Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 generic (“aorist/secondary”)endings: 2 pl. out’; were made of the zero-grade root, an alternating suffix (sg. *-yeh mood inGermanic and Italic, and the imperative in Balto-Slavic. The athematic forms PIE, post-Tocharian (p. 91–92, 455). The PIE optative yielded the (so-called) subjunctive be’). An athematic and thematic optative existed, though the latter was perhaps very late 2 sg. 1 pl. 3 pl. o/ъ, *-ě the suffix *-oyh suffix the 2 sg. a TABLE 1.46 Latin. The zero-grade *-ih a 1 pl. 1 sg. TABLE 1.45 *h (e.g., speaker the of wishes the expressed probably optative The TE Optative 102 3 pl. 2 pl. ‘will you(pl.)pleasesay!’ 3 sg. 1 sg. *h matic optative had a full-grade root + thematic vowel *-o- + suffix *-ih suffix + *-o- vowel thematic + root full-grade a had optative matic *-n aorist the (not present athematic the from *-ent was ending pl. 3 The 468). p. hear’, might want’), and Tocharian‘I (opt.klyauṣ-i-m (pres. Gothic seated!’), (pl.) imp. (dial. Lithuanian (pl.)!’), ‘give Church Slavic(imp.dad-i-te! (“aorist”) endings: 3 sg. *b ‘eat!’ < *h < ‘eat!’ athematic Cf.theOCSimp.ěžd-ь! 1 The lackofqualitative ablaut of thethematic vowel isconspicuous.Inmostlanguages, The ablaut scheme, typical forathematic paradigms, is preserved in Greek and esyeh

h uh d imperative; M 2 - ‘be’; - ˝ a 1 te wouldpointto alaryngeal. t (withsecondary*h *b *b *b *b K *b

*b IE A IE THEMA h h b h h er-o-yh er-o-yh apovi *we h h er-o-yh er-o-yh er-o-yh er-o-yh PIE e 1 ‘I would be’ (*b THEMATIC OPTATIVE - yields (or reflects just like) *-oy-. However, *-oy-. like) just reflects (or yields - *-ě in acute Slavic the *h *h *h ǵ *h *h *h h - ‘convey’, cf. the old ending in Av.ending old the cf. ‘convey’, - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ć s-yeh s-yeh s-yeh 1 1 1 -ent -me s-ih s-ih 1 1 -m -te s-ih PIE -s -t ̥ TIC OPTATIVE 1 1 1 -ent -me 1 1 -te 1 -s -t -m 1 es-); b a 1

- canalsobeseenin Vedic (middleopt.bruv-ī- ‘talk’), Old bhav\eya|m vah\ey{ur} h Skr. bhareta c uh subjunctive; w wl’ c. a. subj. Lat. cf. will’, ‘we wil-ei-ma bharema bhaves bhávet 2 - ‘be’); Ved. a a f cf.OPruss. sy\ā b a sy{úr} sy\ā syā 1 Ved. syā syā ‘give!’); ed-y- (alsodažd-ь! d withsecondary-t<*-ti,cf.oldest ́ \ma ́ ́ \ta m ́ ́ s t

φέροι{μι} φέροιμε|ν| φέροιεν φέροιτε φέροις baraiiən; φέροι wedais! ‘lead (sg.)!’; Gr. ̥ t), based on Latin/Greek. The the- The Latin/Greek. on based t), c c cf. Arc. εξελαυνοια ‘I would drive would ‘I εξελαυνοια cf. Arc. Gr. (Hom.) εἶμε|ν| ε ε εἶεν εἶτε ε ἴ ἴ bǫdě{mь} ἴ ην ης 1 baíraim\a berěm\ъ! η berěte! -, pl. *-ih OCS beri! beri! b cf.OCS g w may ‘we uel-ī-mus cf. OLith./dial. d f 1 g syeh ‘remain sēdźīťe! sied e 1 -), and mostly with-d<*-t. 1 ‘if only’ < only’ ‘if eša 1 ‘ would ‘I m - + generic + - baírain|a baíraiþ baírais baírau baírai sīm{us} Goth. sãkaite! OLat. sīt{is} sie sien\t siē siem ˝ me/ \t \s d

c Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 3 pl. 2 sg. 3 pl. 3 sg. 3 pl. a 2 pl. TABLE 1.48 d 2 pl. TABLE 1.47 3 sg./pl. The athematicformswere: the in *-u particle the by characterized was and pl., 2/3 and sg. 3 the in endings eventive The imperative, easily reconstructable, had forms only for the 2nd and 3rd persons. It had Imperative abl. sg. (p. 63) of the pronoun *tod ‘that’, meaning originally ‘from that > after that’or after > that ‘from originally meaning ‘that’, *tod pronoun the of 63) (p. sg. abl. a 2/3 sg.,2pl. TABLE 1.49 identical insomecases(like*h a ‘let himgive’,CIb. 2/3 sg.,2pl. zero-grade root,asusualintheathematicstems. The thematicformswere: 3 sg. (future) command(*h ably a particle). Except for the *-d 2 sg. Cf.OCSi-d\i! ‘go!’, Usuallyjust2sg.; ag-‘drive’ (PIE*h epp-‘take’ (PIE*h The 2 sg. is either the full-grade endingless root or the zero-grade root plus *-d The ending *-tōt (often reconstructed as *-tōd) is usually explained as originally an originally as explained usually is *-tōd) as reconstructed (often *-tōt ending The The 2 sg.hasazero-ending (cf. alsoOIr. beir!). The 2 pl.imp. seems to have been There werealsospecial future imperative forms that express themeaningofadelayed

IE THEMA IE A IE FUTUREIMPERATIVE *b *b *b *b h h er-o-nt-u h *h er-e-t-u THEMATIC IMPERATIVE PIE *h er-e-te ta-tuz ‘hemustgive’;only2/3sg.inLatin. *h 2 b h 1 e ‘thou shalt regard’; shalt ‘thou *h er-e ep-). *h 1 ǵ 1 y-ent-u PIE 1 ey-t-u v\ěžd-ь! ‘know!’; i-d -); 1 1 i-te ey *-(o)-n(t)-tōt h *b 1 b i asiffromafull-grade*-t-ow? TIC IMPERATIVE itōt ‘golater!’): *h a h er-e-tōt PIE 1 i-tōt 1 ite, *b bhárantu bhárata bháratu bhára h Ved. i form,thesingularhasfull-gradeandplural the b c usedasregularimperative for the 3sg.; cf.śru-dhí! ‘hear!’ for -dh-; yántu Ved. etu ihi itá h erete) tothe2pl.pres./inj. b c vittā Ved. P roto ́ t a b φέρετε φέρε -I Gr. ndo Gr. ἴ ἴ τε ϑι -E uropean dial. -ντω φέρετω c < *h cf.ástu< Gr. ἴ τω c agite age Lat. Lat. \ ī\te ī a

morphology d cf.arch.Lat.da-tōd 1 es-tu fortheaccent; euntō, aguntō baír\adau baír[adau] app\antu baíriþ h Goth. agitō itō i (prob- Lat. baír ēptu ītte Hitt. ēp īt d |n d 103 d b d Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 left’, cf.Goth.nounberusjos ‘parents’); f. *wid-us-ih ness’) archaic old IE languages (Anatolian, Vedic) predominantly had postpositions, which is Eng. (cf. verbs of independent originally were prefixes verbal as well, cf. the Lat. preposition declensions), which often function as verbal prefixes (modifying the meaning of the verb) lost or simplified with languages IE younger in role important more even an have to are Latin, Greek, Old ChurchSlavic, or Gothic) predominantly have prepositions (which (like languages IE older some and modern Most 80–81). (p. adverbs as also functioning A considerablenumberofpostpositionscanbereconstructedforPIE,withsomethem POSTPOSITIONS suffix *g standing’, Lat.status ‘set’; cf. OCS nesъši, Lith.lìkusi), n. *weyd-wos (Gr. ε tetd eg, *sth e.g., attested, word formation) to verbal finite forms. The zero-grade verbal adjective in *-to- is widely there were also some verbal adjectives and nouns, lessdirectly connected (in the realm of Lat. OCS φερóμενος; that is sucked’); athematic *-m athematic sucked’); is that knowing’ (Ved. of state the ‘in *weyd-wōs holodynamic ±±+ m. suffix): (*-wos- ticiple was ans-stem inf. -tum), cf. Lat. supine -tum, OCSsup.tъLith.dial. tų, Ved.sup. a Lat. (cf. as *-t-u-m verbs): used motion (after been have might nouns *-t-u-s the of sg. acc. The ‘stepping’). βάσις perfect. The present active participle had the *-ont- suffix (with no thematic vowel no thematic (with *b holodynamic suffix +±+ m. *-ont- it): the before had participle active present The perfect. tives, andverbal nouns. The participles were thoseoftheactivepresent,middle,and adjec verbal participles, had but infinitive no had PIE languages, IE later many Unlike Non-finite verbforms from *-nt-+*-tōt-. the same ending (probably from older *-Ø-tōt, *-et-tōt, *-ete-tōt), and the 3 pl. was made TE had pl. 2 and sg. 85). 2/3 (p. The *tosmōt actually was form pronominal the but like, the 104 *b n other perfect participles were originally reduplicated (cf. Ved. ja-ghan-vā tives in *-n-o-s (cf. Ved.(cf. *-n-o-s in tives the athematic stem *h stem athematic the n (Ved. ‘killed’) kunanza fer\ēns, OCSberyGoth.baírands; Lith. ‘known’; cf. also *pl also cf. ‘known’; ̥ t-ih ẽ šanti Besides the three participles, embedded paradigmatically in the PIE verbal system, wh h

er-o-mh en- ‘beat’). alumnus ‘nursling’) 2 M (f.)(Ved. satī

bh *-t- was present also in the in also present was *-t- – oblique – a )

– gen. a rantī K 1 n-o-s ‘carrying for himself/carried’for ‘carrying n-o-s (Ved. apovi , Gr. φέρoυσα Gr. , sg. *b v\idvā *wid-us- (Ved.*wid-us-

nesomъ, Lith.n – gen. – cubi-tum uēnerunt ‘they went to sleep’, OCS 2 ´ , Gr. Dor. ἔασσα). The present middle participle was a simple tos pae’ (Ved. ‘placed’ -t-o-s ć ̥ h h er-ont-yeh 1 1 ́ |ṃs-, GAv.Gr.ε v\īduuå, s-ōnt-s ‘being’(Lat. s-ōnt-s nos

– f. sg. *b sg. vinnás besidesvittás

– p. 37) of a similar function are not as widely attested. The attested. widely as not are function similar a of 37) p. – *-mh

– cf. – ̥ h ad ‘to, toward’ and h 2 er-n ‘having carried’, Lith. carried’, ‘having viduṣ-, OCSnesъš- -es (OCSberǫšt{ę},Lith. 1 ẽ ‘finding’) The perfect par perfect The nos (Ved.‘finding’) vidāná-/vídāna- stem verbal noun: *g noun: verbal i-stem 1 n-e-h šamas pro-strъtъ ‘spread’, Goth. ̥ p. 38 for “laryngeal breaking”, OCS breaking”, “laryngeal for 38 p. h t-e/os (Ved.t-e/os er-ōnt-s ‘carrying’ (Ved.‘carrying’ er-ōnt-s 2 ἰ (cf. Lat. sadn, ete’ G. ττς ‘placed, στατóς Gr. settled’, ‘standing, sthitás ‘being carried’; CLuw. carried’; ‘being δóς). neš\ą ‘guilty’ < *‘he who is’, OCS is’, who *‘he ‘guilty’< sōns Unlike the participle of *woydh ‘found’; OCS ‘found’; ̴ ); f. *b f. bháratas, Lat.ferentis); \s; cf. Hitt. ἰ δώς fēmina ‘woman’ < *d ad-ueniō ‘I come to’. However, these 2 bháram\ānas, YAv. (Ved. vidúṣī, Gr. Hom. ‘knowing’; Goth. ‘knowing’; w m n ̥ -t-i-s ‘going’-t-i-s (Ved. ẽ ‘being’but ašanza (active!) šančios nasiþs ‘saved’). The adjec- , Gr. φέρων, Lat. φέρων, Gr. bhár\an, znanъ, OEng.ge-cnāwen come to),andsomemore idǫ lovi-tъ ‘I go to hunt’. ‘combed’; cf. ‘combed’; kišama- ) (cf. p. 67). Cf. also h eh weitwo ́ berǫ\šti; Lith. |ṃs- from PIE barǝmna-, Gr. 1 lìkus-‘having mh ἰ δυ h 1 2 er-ont-ih ), *h sy), gátis, Gr. neh e (p.98), ‘wit- |ds ῖ o-stem: α, 2 OCS ‘she 1 s- - - 2

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 monosyllabic lengthening subordinate clauses (or that they were at least rare) Not alotofconjunctions can be reconstructed. It isanoldidea that PIE hadalmost no CONJUNCTIONS endings (p.63). originally postpositions, and some of them were not completely transformed to proper W Hitt. and *wl and προτί, OCS προτί, cf., e.g., *(h e.g., cf., examples ofreconstructedpostpositions(laterbecomingprepositionsinmanylanguages) ositional (like Latin, Greek, OldPersian), cf. Lat. prepositionally, etc.). Some postpositions can be found in languages that are mostly prep- also some prepositions, or that at least some postpositions could have also been placed mostly heldtohavebeenthecaseinPIEaswell(thoughitispossiblethat there were This reminds one of the pres./inj. (p. 97) and instr. sg./nom. du. ellipsis (p. 63). As in As 63). *k ‘that’, (p. *yod (like forms pronominal some languages, later ellipsis du. sg./nom. instr. and 97) (p. pres./inj. the of one reminds This is nom.), cf. Ved. one other (the voc. actually is form first the only vocatives be should what connecting sacrifice!’ when and well), Rg-Vedagods as In the Greek with in ‘come (rarely ca yákṣi conjunctions connected phrases, verbs,andsentences aswell,cf. Ved. ā of earth’, gods’, and men Ved.(both) of ‘father τε ϑεῶν τε cf. going’ is that man man’‘the going of ‘the instead (e.g., participles through mainly conjunctions are *-k are conjunctions were stable. independent clauses The twobest-knownindependent-clause reconstructed tions) is mostly innovative in later IE languages. However, not even the conjunctions in as conjunctions. This means that the syntax of the subordinate clauses (and its conjunc from’ (Ved. ápa, Gr. ἀπό/ἄπo, Lat. appear in postpositions like *-ti, *-b *-ti, like postpositions in appear second word second the after (placed enclitics were these languages, IE modern in ‘or’ ‘and’and Unlike t). when’, Lat.quod‘(in)that;because;though’,Hitt. p. 88–89) p. m, OIr. ro- forth’, Lat.prō ‘in front of, before’, OCS used twice with slightly different meanings (*wl meanings different slightly with twice used and Mitra Varunainvoke ‘I ca [lit. Varuna-and]’. be could they languages, modern in As Rōmānus ‘the Senate and people [lit. people-and] of Rome’, Ved. *ne-k the best known of which is the negative particle *ne Particles are usuallyshortandunaccented. Several particles can bereconstructed for PIE, PARTICLES ; for the negative *nek negative the for -p, Goth. -h, Hitt. -kku; the relative pronoun *yo-, p. 88–89), verbal nouns, and likely pronominal forms used ‘not?’, Alb. nekku w e ‘and not’‘and e (Lat. ̥ k w ‘for it rains (either) by night or by day’. These day’. by or night by (either) rains it ‘for várṣati vā dívā hí vā náktaṃ ōs-k ). As already said, PIE (mostly plural) case markers, like instr. *-b probably functioned as conjunctions already in PIE, cf. Ved.cf. PIE, in already conjunctions as functioned probably prot-ivъ‘against’ 1

)en ‘in’ (Gr. ἐν, Lat. ἐν, ‘in’(Gr. )en – one – w e h Vā 1 ekˊwōs-k could call them postpositive particles), cf. Lat. cf. particles), postpositive them call could ́ yav Índraś ca. Índraś yav w e ‘and’ (Ved.‘and’ e ‘not, and not, also not’, CIb. not’, also not, and ‘not, neque ‘not’). A nuk

– p. w e ‘both wolves and horses’), cf. Gr. (Hom.) πατὴρ ἀνδρῶν πατὴρ Gr.(Hom.) cf. horses’), and wolves ‘both e

– Slav – 54–55) ‘or’ (Ved./GAv. in, OPruss. ab, Goth.afEng.of), etc. There are a few suffixes that

. , Gr. τε, Lat. ca, GAv.τε, Gr. -cā, . also *protь) from *pro from *protь) also .

. ā . i, *-r(i), cf. *pro-ti ‘towards’ (Ved.‘towards’ *pro-ti cf. *-r(i), i, prohibitive particle prohibitive ́

‘O Vayu [voc.] and Indra [nom.], come!’[nom.], VayuIndra ‘O and yātam [voc.] pro-, Lith.pra- ‘through’, Goth. P roto , Goth./Eng. en, ‘(both) of heaven and heaven of ‘(both) ca gmáś ca diváś ̥ k w -I ̄ ̆ e cf. below) and *-we and below) cf. e w ‘no(t)’ (p. 54). Cf. also the compound kuit ‘because’,etc. ‘with me [lit. me-with]’. As me-with]’. [lit. me ‘with mē-cum ndo ōs h ōs 14 and expressed those constructions vā, Lat.-ueCIb.-ueToch.B -E 1 ekˊwōs-k *meh uropean ‘nor,neither,not’, nekue and ̄ ̆ (Ved.‘before, Gr.πρό prá, w od ‘which’, *k ‘which’, od ), *h in, OIr. i), -que, CIb.-kueOIr. -ch, 1 (Ved. mā w Mitráṃ huve Várun e ‘wolves and horses’and ‘wolves e Senātus populus-que Senātus

morphology ̄ ̆ (with optional ́ ́ devébhir yāhi devébhir práti, Gr. epic , Gr.μή, Arm. , ‘because; yád fra-, Eng.fro- 2 epo ‘(away) epo h w i, were also id ‘what’ id

– but – � wa- 105 aṃ

– -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3 are justmine. Mužek and Marul Kuljiš for valuable comments on the first draft of the chapter. Of course, all the mistakes particles that had integrated with verbal forms already in PIE in already forms verbal with integrated had that particles verbal the (cf. forms certain after often appear can particles the cases, some In ‘that’). personal pronouns, cf. Gr.cf. pronouns, personal ἔγω-γε ‘I’ veys of differing views on specific reconstructions). An overview of reconstructed PIE reconstructed of overview An reconstructions). specific on views differing of veys sur short and references useful (with 2015 Olander or 2006, Ringe 1995, Sihler in e.g., languages, and branches specific on handbooks in found be can morphology PIE of tion ing too extensively with less important minutiae. A languages orthereconstructions of all nominal athematic stems), whilesometimes deal literature but alsooften not toodetailed (e.g., he doesnotlist the paradigms in separate IE to references his for useful very is Meier-Brügger2003 stems. athematic nominal all for not toodetailed in thePIEsectionand,forinstance,doesnotprovideseparateparadigms is 2010 Fortson 1985). Beekes in presented is is, it as such inflection, nominal on take sometimes idiosyncratic, though some of hisheterodox views are very interesting (his in someinstancesdated,asistobeexpected. The reconstructionsinBeekes2011 are on problems,aswellanextensive (pre-1990)bibliography. However, hisviewsare logical forms inseparate IElanguages,oftenprovidingcommentary ondifferent views morpho- of reflexes numerous of explanations helpful very with detailed, rather is 1996 Szemerényi ones, recent more those Of segments. many in concise often is morphology the of overview their morphology,though and phonology both with deal 56–57) p. (cf. (or eventothe nominal and verbal parts separately). Most PIEcomparative grammars no modernone-volume monographs dedicated to the whole ofPIEmorphology as such immense is morphology PIE of problems specific on literature The FURTHER READING TE Toch.mi, A/B 106 imperative of *meh ple emphatic particle *g many irregular correspondences, is *way ‘alas, woe!’ (Gr. οὐαί, Lat. οὐαί, (Gr.woe!’ ‘alas, *way is correspondences, irregular many the laughter onomatopoeia in IE languages (PIE *ha ha?): Skr. etc.). In some cases, the usual sound lawsclearly do not apply (for obviousreasons),cf. Gr.ā, Lat. ἆ, struction provisory. Many of them are really simple, like *ā ‘ah!’ for surprise or pain (Skr. development can beirregular, andcognatescanbeaccidental, which makestheirrecon- rare phonological and phonotactical characteristics. In historical view, their phonological As usual,interjections areoftenonomatopoeic and canhave otherwise non-existent or INTERJECTIONS Goth. au-k‘also’),Hitt.acc.sg. or exclamation (sometimes used with vocatives) *ō ‘oh!’ (Gr. ὦ, Lat. , W Goth. wai, *e PIE where o), > *ew (with alas!’ oh, ‘o, otherwise hasnodiphthongeu)andSkr. aho Slav. ̄ ̆ hew (or *eHew?) is reconstructable. A : I Note:

of other particles can be reconstructed, but often the meaning is not too clear M ha ,Eng. a

would like would K apovi ā, Lith. gwae, Arm. mā, Alb. , etc. In others, it (partially) does (partially) it others, In etc. ha , to thank David Mandić, Thomas Olander, Petra Šoštarić, and my students Matija students my and Šoštarić, Petra Olander, Thomas Mandić, David thank to 1 ć -, cf. Hitt. reduplicated wh à e/o (Ved. , Goth. mo, cf.p.97)canalsobereconstructed, originally perhaps the vay). ), *ay for surprise or pity (Skr.pity or surprise for *ay o), ha, tu-k ‘you’ (p.181),etc. gha, OCSže-gointhegen.sg.m.pronounsliketogo

– dat. –

perhaps less mi-mm(a)- ‘refuse’ (Kloekhorst 2008). A sg. ἔμοι-γε,sg. sg. acc. Goth.

lot trivial reconstruction, but still with of information on the reconstruc-

– cf. – Lat. ha , Gr. ἅ ἅ, Lat.

e, – p. – , Gr.ai, α ‘ah, alas!’‘ah, ēheu (Latin

– however – 92), like *g/ like 92), ō, OIr. á, ‘me’mi-k also (but uae, GAv. vaiiōi, ἴ , Lat. a, Eng.oh , there are there ,

ai, etc.), – cf. ǵ hahae, e

after cou- the - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3

Schumann 2014). NOTES works andchaptersinthisvolumeonseparateIEbranches. 1986); Rix verbal reduplication (Niepokuj 1997).Furtherreferencesareavailable inthementioned mentioned already (the moods the 1996); Stempel 1978, (Jasanoff middle 1993 (Harðarson aorist the tem: sys- verbal the of parts specific with deal monographs following controversial. The very though well, older as Watkinsmuch insightful Jasanoff2003. The still and is 1986 1969 system. Fordifferent famousapproachestopre-PIEoriginsoftheverbal system, cf.Rix verbal PIE the reconstructing in etc.) middle, optative, injunctive, origin, present/aorist excellent short, problem-based overview ofthecurrentissues(theGreco-Aryanmodel, handbook onPIEverbal formation, although it hasitsperks.Clackson2007givesan give a useful overview of the verbal systems invarious IE branches. LIV isanestablished system are more numerous than works on the nominal system. Hewson (and alsotheCalandSystem).MonographsconcerningvariousaspectsofPIEverbal branches with a number of eminent scholars taking part. Rau 2009 deals with the decades obviously dated; the Gvozdanović 1991 collection provides a survey of numerals in all IE recent takes on PIE personal pronouns). For numerals, Szemerényi 1960 is still useful but more for 2006 Kapović and 1998 Katz (cf. implausible rather are reconstructions his but gives anoverview ofthematerial andearlier literature concerning personalpronouns, (Neri articles of collection a and 2004) (Matasović monograph recent a in tackled is nouns andadjectives (withtheirstems)isavailable in NIL. The problemofPIEgender thematic; Bendahman thematic;

6 1 7 2 8 3 9 4 5

PIE * **-(i)jā) < *-ijь < PSlav. *-ьjь < PIE *-ey-ŏm (e.g., the pl. (o-andā-stems)-ā < PSlav. *-ъ̄< PIE *-ōm/-eh gen. (BCMS) Neo-Štokavian the cf. Slavic, of) (part in preserved possibly is *-ŏm This did This most cases(p.70). The *-mdidnotdropintheStang-form*g Hitt. -uš The PIEreconstructionheremostlyfollowstheoneinKapović 2006. With furtherpossible*-m-cognatesin English terminology aeois f efcie fr rdtoa “oit) n ipretv (o traditional (for “present”). imperfective and “aorist”) traditional (for perfective of redefined aspectually categories with confused be may imperfect and perfect categories PIE One mustbeawarethatnotall (but areassumedaccordingtootherattestedforms). (and sometimes also here) are also not always actually attested as such in the texts are alwaysattested. Some actual forms usuallycited in fullparadigms in handbooks with theloc.sg.*-t-ēy). in infinitives reflexive Latvian the cf. *-ēy, sg. loc. acute accent on some (non-contractional) long-grade endings as well (e.g., in points toalaryngealisnotcompletely compelling, since Balto-Slavic exhibits the The claim Cf. Matasović2004:173–176. The original The ǵ omb mayindeedpointto*-ms,not*-ns(cf.,e.g.,Kloekhorst2008:929). not occur in the gen. pl. ending *-ōm, because this was originally *-om in *-om originally was this because *-ōm, ending pl. gen. the in occur not that the Lithuanian original acute accent in the 1 sg.- h ōm buttheold distribution of the thematic *-ōm (< *-o-ŏm, *-eh *-o-ŏm, (< *-ōm thematic the of distribution A

recent 1993 is ratherunfortunate because the traditionally reconstructed monograph covering the IE dual is Fritz2011. Schmidt 1978

– reduplicated); – i-stem gen.pl.

– root – the endingsofwordsusuallytaken as examples aorist; Drinka 1995 Drinka aorist; P Tocharian (p.456). roto the perfect (di Giovine 1990/1996a/b); the 1990/1996a/b); Giovine (di perfect the cŕvī ‘worms’

– sigmatic; – w ōm (p.71)either.

2 morphology w -ŏm) and athematic and -ŏm) ù r ̥ meyŏm).

(reflexive -úo-si) (reflexive & Bubeník Cardona 1960 Cardona zúbā ‘teeth’ < i-stem 1997 107

& – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:30 26 Sep 2021; For: 9781315678559, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315678559.ch3

TE 108

Beekes, Robert S.P.Robert Beekes, Clackson, James2007,Indo-European Linguistics. An Introduction 1960, George Cardona, Bendahman, Jadwiga 1993,Derreduplitzierte Aorist indenindogermanischen Sprachen, Raimo Anttila, REFERENCES Gvozdanović, Jadranka (ed.) 1991, (ed.) Jadranka Gvozdanović, Fritz, Matthias 2011, DerDual im Indogermanischen. Genealogischer und typologischer Fortson, Benjamin W. IV 2010, 1995, Bridget Drinka, 1996b, Paolo Giovine, di di Giovine, Paolo 1996a, di Giovine, Paolo 1990,Studio sul perfetto indoeuropeo. Parte I: Lafunzione originaria Hermann, Eduard 1895, “Gab es im Indogermanischen nebensätze?,” 1993, Axel Jón Harðarson, Beekes, Robert S.P. Beekes, Hewson, John Hewson, 13 10 14 12 11 Press, Berkeley–Los Angeles Heaven [PhDdissertation] Hänsel-Hohenhausen, Egelsbach–Cologne–New York Amsterdam–Philadelphia parative Indo-European Linguistics,JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany, f Vergleich einergrammatischenKategorie imWandel, Winter,Heidelberg Wiley-Blackwell, Malden–Oxford Time Hypothesis,InstitutefortheStudyofMan, Washington, DC Calamo”, Roma fetto all’internodelsistemaverbaleindoeuropeo, Editrice“IlCalamo”,Roma Glottoantropologici dell’ Università di Roma “La Sapienza”–La libreria Herder, Roma del perfetto studiata nella documentazione delle lingue storiche, Dipartimento di Studi sity Press,Cambridge–New York Sprachwissenschaft derUniversität Innsbruck,Innsbruck lin–New York honor ofEdgarC.Polomé,MoutondeGruyter, Berlin:73–87 Jazayery, Mohammad A. gleichende Sprachforschung Theory, Typology,Benjamins, Amsterdam Diachrony,

u (p. 358,372–373). ‘says’conjunct -beir *b < stative (besidesthemiddle). e.g., Cf., It ispossibletoconnectthe*-ey-(e)-(zero*-i-)suffixwith*-y-e-originally Cf. Pinault1992:153–154. Cf. Hermann1895. imperfect and the Old Irishabsolute Such injunctives r SprachwissenschaftderUniversit M a Robert S.P.Robert K apovi Oettinger 1976, Rix 1986, 1988, Kümmel 1996 for the reconstruction of reconstruction the for 1996 Kümmel 1988, 1986, Rix 1976, Oettinger

& Bubeník, & 1969, ć

1985, 1988, “The 1988, could have been the basis for the making of the Indo-Iranian/Greek

The Sigmatic Aorist inIndo-European: Evidence for theSpace- Proto-Indo-European Schwebeablaut 2011 Studio sulperfettoindoeuropeo. ParteII:Laposizionedelper The Indo-European Thematic Aorists, Yale University, New Studio sul perfetto indoeuropeo. Parte III: Indici The Origins The

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