ISSN 0974 - 2514

International Journal of South Asian Studies GUIDELINES FOR SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPTS Original papers that fall within the scope of the Journal shall A Biannual Journal of South Asian Studies be submitted by e-mail. An Abstract of the article in about 150 words must accompany the papers. The length of research papers shall be between 5000 and 7000 words. However, short notes, perspectives Vol. 2 July – December 2009 No.2 and lengthy papers will be published if the contents could justify. Notes should be placed at the end of the text and their location in the text marked by superscript Arabic Numerals. References should be cited within the text in parenthesis. Example : (Sen 2003:190) Bibliography should be placed at the end of the text and must be complete in all respects. Examples: 1. Hoffmann, Steven (1990): India and the China Crisis, Oxford University Press, Delhi. 2. Bhalla and Hazell (2003): “Rural Employment and Poverty: Strategies to Eliminate Rural Poverty within a Generation”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.33, No.33, August 16, pp.3473-84. All articles are, as a rule, referred to experts in the subjects concerned. Those recommended by the referees alone will be published in the Journal after appropriate editing. No article shall be sent for publication in the Journal if it is currently being reviewed by any other Journal or press or if it has already been published or will be published elsewhere. e-mail: [email protected] or Madanjeet Singh Institute for South Asia [email protected] Regional Co-operation (MISARC) Centre for South Asian Studies Department of Politics & International Studies Pondicherry University Puducherry, India

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 CONTENTS

ARTICLES Global Economic Crisis and the Implications for South Asia K Venugopal Reddy ... 334 Madrasa Policy in Pakistan: Strategies from Within Sanchita Bhattacharya ... 177 ‘The Hungry Tide’: Rise in Sea Levels in the Sundarbans Due to Global Warming-Induced Climate Change Employee Attrition Management in I. T. Industry in Debabrata Ghosh ... 346 South Asia: Some Evidences from India and Pakistan M Basheer Ahmed Khan ... 195 Culture as a Preferred Strategic Choice for Asian Countries: An International Business Approach India’s Trade Relationship with the Burgeoning R Shanthakumari and A Somalingam ... 357 Economies of South East Asia M Banumathi ... 204 Ethnicity and Ethnic Policies in Pakistan and Myanmar T T Haokip ... 367 Urbanization in South Asia with Special Reference to Bangalore – Its Impacts Between Wisdom and Knowledge: The Politics of Priya Narayanan ... 216 Creativity in a Post-Communist World : Tilo Schabert’s ’Boston Politics’ Today András Lánczi ... 382 Artistic Freedom of Expression versus Communitarian Sentiments - A Case Study Displaced People and their Issues of Human Rights Binu Zachariah ... 228 Somenath Bhattacharjee ... 399

Dealing with Terrorism in South Asia: The Case of India Rajbanshis: The Deprived People of North Bengal Pradeep Kumar Parida ... 411 (In the State of West Bengal) Moumita Ghosh Bhattacharyya ... 242 RESEARCH NOTE Accelerating Growth through Inorganic Means: A Time Like No Other: An Analysis of the Political Lessons from the Asian Region Economies of Eastern Europe since 1989 Surinder Pal Singh ... 427 Joel R. Campbell ... 278 BOOK REVIEW

The Indian Response to the Global Financial Crisis Changing the World Order: India, EU and US – A Trialogue Sumanjeet Singh ... 302 Swati Bhattacharya ... 432

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Madrasa Policy in Pakistan: Strategies from Within India who could face discrimination in the Therefore, in order to answer a simple hands of Hindu majority. The concept of question – what is the nature of state in Sanchita Bhattacharya Pakistan worked like an inspiration for the Pakistan, one can easily say that it is an Islamic Muslims, it was like a promise that they state with severe ethno-cultural disparities. made to themselves. So in a way Pakistan and Islam became synonyms to each other. Islamisation, therefore, has become Abstract The status of Islam in Pakistan has always more or less synonymous with the politics of In the context of present volatile political condition of Pakistan, it can very well Pakistan. The quest for regime survival in be said that, the state has been crumbling over a period of time. Important and been a prime subject matter of Pakistan, and Pakistan is based on the important pillar of serious steps toward survival of democracy are very essential in Pakistan. And in order to proof not only an independent at the same time, Madrasas should be given priority regarding any resource but strong existence in comparison to a Islam. All the regimes have incorporated their allocation programme. The stress should be on implementation and not docu- secular India, Pakistan has always used Islam own colour and characteristic to the process mentation of reports. Generally, the efforts of Government have been restricted as a safety blanket or as a shelter. of Islamisation. Therefore, religious to the policy formulation part. Once the measures are documented in govern- obsession in place of devotion and dedication ment offices, no further effort is being made. Channelisation of allocated re- As projected to be the homeland for is the guiding star of Pakistani politics. Its source and proper monitoring posts in interior regions of the country are re- the Muslims of the region, Islam accordingly been more than sixty years, and fortunately quired. And at the same time, along with these, the Government should organize played an important role in the politics of the or unfortunately enough, Pakistan is still public awareness programmes at various levels regarding the benefits of remod- state. The story of Pakistan politics since its struggling with its religious identity. It did eled Madrasa educational pattern. inception is one of a blatant pursuit of political not achieve the matured stage, where all- self-interests by Pakistani ruling elites round development and improvisation of a disguised in terms of religious discour se. The country is more essential than its religious commitment. The correlation between In the history of human civilization, the Status of Islam in Pakistan strategy of the governing classes (over the Islamisation and Madarsa education lies in the importance of Madrasa education has not been years) was to proclaim Pakistan an Ideological fact that they complement as well as a recent socio-political discourse. Madrasa Islam, is the cause behind the state based on Islam and not a democracy supplement each other. Islamisation can be education remains a core agenda of the Islamic formation of Pakistan as an independent (Ahmad 2000: 168-169). considered one of the reasons behind the world. Interpretation of this form of education sovereign state. It has acted as a driving force proliferation of the Madarsas in Pakistan. But and its reforms are essentially multifaceted in which resulted into Pakistan on 14 August, Pakistan as a state is not homogenous at the same time, Madarsa as an independent character. However, the focal theme of this 1947. Muslims were a minority of 19 per cent in nature. Although the lone feature of unit adds to the progression of Islamisation system of education has differed from time to of the population in British India in 1947 Pakistan is Islam, but there are regional as through its products and followers. The time, which caused the present system of (Qureshi 2005: 87). The fear of majority Hindu well as cultural variations in the country. The process of Madrasa policies, devised by Madrasa education loose its originality in its domination was the main factor behind the ethnic diversities of the country comprises different regimes of Pakistan are as follows: entirety. The purpose of this paper is to highlight Pakistan movement. Surprisingly enough, of Punjabis, Sindhis, Balochs, Tribes of the Pakistan is the only state which came into the Madrasa policy as formulated by various NWFP, Mohajirs and other tribal minorities. The Ayub Regime: Madrasa Policy Begins being on the basis of Islam. It was considered regimes of Pakistan since Ayub Khan’s Due to the so-called Punjabi domination, its Journey ascendancy in late 1950s’. to be the homeland for Muslims of undivided there is a constant tussle in Pakistan’s political as well as economic sectors. The In 1952, there was a review of the state has to face the challenge of ethnic situation of education in Pakistan and a disparity along with religious National Plan for Educational Development Ms Sanchita Bhattacharya is a Research Scholar at Centre for South, Central, South-East Asian and South West Pacific fundamentalism. The image of Pakistan over was devised. Accordingly, the following years Studies (CSCSEASWPS), School of International Studies of Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India. the years has become synonymous with saw the emergence of report of the Sharif E-mail: sanchita_bhat83gmail.com. Islamic radicalism. Commission based on the suggestions of

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several international conferences and 1996 as quoted in ICG Report 2002: 6). By governments used it for their own ends. While concluded agreements with Arab countries, seminars. The recommendations of the Sharif 1959 four wafaqs- or federations of Madrasas- Islam and supposedly Islamic virtues of most importantly Saudi Arabia, for promotion Commission report of 1959 became the basis were organized, along sectarian lines, to defend obedience and docility were constantly taught of Arabic language and Islamic literature in of Pakistan’s educational system in the themselves against the state’s attempts to to the lower classes, the powerful classes Pakistan. As a result, the Madrasa policy got following decade. The Report of the trespass on their autonomy (ICG Asia Report provided their own offspring with a more entangled with the international aspirations of Commission on National Education, 1959 2002: 6).1 modern, secular and democratic ideology to Bhutto. (hereafter Sharif report) was a detailed and prepare them to take powerful positions in the comprehensive report, which can be Given the bleak situation of education social hierarchy (Ali 1992: 121). During The Zia Regime: Process of Madrasa considered the Magna Carta of Pakistan’s in the country, Madrasas have had an Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s tenure, educational policy Intensification educational system (Saigol 2007: 285-286).The increasingly important role to play in the sector. (of which Madrasa policy is a part), planning, Commission’s report was adopted as the During the subsequent years, the government curricula and syllabi, centres of excellence and After Bhutto, Zia-ul-Haq became National Education Policy. The New Education supported the establishment of new Madrasas, Islamic education were placed on the Pakistan’s Head of State. During his tenure, Policy (1969) aimed at minimizing the wide envisioning mosques as valuable players in its concurrent legislative list (shared legislative General Zia played a substantial part in gap between the traditional Madrasa system campaign for universal literacy. As custodians powers between national and provincial encouraging the Madrasa explosion .In doing and the general system of education of tradition and religious knowledge, Islamic assemblies), as a measure of an effective so, he won over the country’s powerful Muslim (Commission on Human Rights 2006). schools cater to the underprivileged, the decentralisation of the sector (Commission on clergy. The process also involved reforming marginalised and the extremely poor and Human Rights 2006). the legal system to establish Sharia-based The first regime which tried to operated as a crucial social protection system. courts (Kfir 2006: 78). During the 1980s, integrate the Madrasa was the military regime In some rural areas, they represented the only The era of Bhutto experienced a leap however, the Madrasa system underwent a of Ayub Khan. The regime was modernist, form of education available. The government’s in number of Madrasas in various regions of complete change. The Zia regime in Pakistan, authoritarian and centrist. Pakistan did not decision to mainstream Madrasas through the Pakistan. “The Bhutto period (1972-77) is in an attempt to gain support from the religious inherit most of the better-known Madrasas newly established Pakistan Madrasa significant in the story of Madrasas. Because groups, began to administer a formalised zakat which had been active in the colonial period Education Board as a means of improving of Ayub’s anti-clergy posture and stress on (Islamic religious tithe) process. Money was and many of which have continued in existence educational standards and stemming the spread modern education, Madrasas had grown now automatically deducted from bank in post-independent India. Therefore, the of radical militant movements had generated minimally from 1960 to 1971, when only 482 balances and dispersed at the local level to Madrasa structure in Pakistan was started much controversy during Ayub’s tenure new ones were set up. The pace picked up institutions deemed worthy of support by from the scratch without any religio-historical (Shaikh 2006: 9). After Ayub Khan, Yahya under Bhutto, and 852 were added by 1979" religious leaders, creating new incentives for lineage. No doubt it was Islam which gave Khan became the Head of State of Pakistan. (Government of Pakistan 1979 as quoted in opening religious schools (Singer 2001: 1). birth to Pakistan. The importance of religious During his tenure, he was so much involved in ICG Asia Report 2002: 7). Bhutto nationalised education is therefore obvious in such a nation domestic politics with reference to the then the education sector but the Madrasas were Zia-ul-Haq’s Islamisation agenda (Zaman 1999: 310-311). Eastern part of Pakistan and its overall exempted and remained autonomous. He also changed the milieu in favour of the religious ramification followed by a regional war attempted to co-opt the Madrasas by offering elite. Madrasa degrees were given In its bid to contain and co-opt the between India and Pakistan. As a result he to grant them the equivalence of public sector equivalence to MA Arabic and MA Islamiyat clergy, the Ayub Government first attempted became ignorant about the prevailing Madrasa certificates and diplomas. The highest degree (Bano 2007: 50). In this regard, the Directive to regulate auqaf property-i.e. non- policies as initiated by his predecessor. of the Deobandi wafaq was placed on a par Principles of State Policy deserve special transferrable religious endowments. Almost all with a Master’s degree in Islamic Studies from mention. The “Directive Principles of State Madrasas were depended on this income to The Bhutto Period: Era of Madrasa a government university, provided Madrasa Policy”, a part of three successive constitutions meet expenses. An Auqaf Department was Co-Option students passed a Bachelor’s level English of Pakistan, speaks of making the teaching of created to regulate shrines and Madrasas and course. Although Madrasa clerics spurned the the Qur’an compulsory for the Muslims and bring religious institutions under state control Education in Pakistan became proposal, Bhutto continued to woo them (ICG of providing facilities whereby they may be by integrating them in the formal sector (Malik increasingly ideological with time. Successive Asia Report 2002: 7). The PPP government enabled to understand the meaning of the

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Qur’an and the sunna. These and some other attractive centres of socialisation.2 Through Before establishing a committee upgrading education to bring it at par with the “Islamic provisions” of the three successive their different curricula, knowledge in a number which was to lead the investigations in the DM, formal sector and creating jobs for Madrasa constitutions of Pakistan may be taken to of areas was transmitted to the students. The Zia asked the Ministry of Religious Affairs on graduates, Halepota’s suggestions for represent the points of compromise between income of the DM came from following December 6, 1978 to report on the Ittihad al- improving economic conditions of Madrasas the traditionalists and the modernists (Jawed sources: Madaris.3 It was the awareness of Zia included direct government financial assistance 1999: 68). regarding the need for the reformation of DM, without conditions. The recommended - alms; which raised the demand of an alternative curriculum changes did not alter the domination Under Zia, the activities involving - collections during Muslim festivals, programme following the National Survey of of religious subjects but only suggested Deeni Madrasas (DM) increased in their such as ‘id; 1979. The National Committee for Dini inclusion of some modern subjects at the effectiveness, reflecting the importance of Madaris,4 established in Islamabad on January primary, secondary and graduation levels. The religious schools in society and the role they - income from the properties (shops, 17, 1979, was to draw up proposals with committee’s recommendations could not were to play for the Zia Government. On 2 houses, agriculture land, endowments); reference to the Sargodha Report. Sixteen become law because of clergy opposition. Still, September, 1978, the Ministry of Religious and of the 27 members of the committee were Zia implemented much of the Halepota Report Affairs got informed about Zia’s plan of - small incomes from the adjacent shrines nominated by the Ministry of Religious Affairs and also took other steps to co-opt the surveying the DM. (Sargodha Report 1978: pp.14f as quoted (Ministry of Religious Affairs 1978 as quoted Madrasas. The government directed the in Malik 1996: 131). in Malik 1996: 133). Of them, eleven were University Grants Commission (UGC), in June “…a Team or Sub-Committee should theologians or scholars of religious affairs, with 1980, to draw up criteria of equivalence for proceed to Sargodha and prepare a The above listing was followed by a eight of them bearing the title of mawlana and degrees and certificates from the religious report, in the next three weeks, on number of proposals about how to improve being chairmen of Madaris in urban centres sector. The highest certificates of wafaq Deeni Madrassahs currently the finances of the DM, and their curricula. of Punjab. Others included vice-chancellors boards were conditionally recognized as an established there. This report will be In order to overcome the limitations of the of different universities, some members were MA in Arabic or Islamiyat. Since these prototype of the principle one which DM, suggestions were made for change of from Ministry of Religious Affairs and Ministry concessions were made without a is to be compiled on a nation-wide curriculum along with the introduction of of Education, the Government also nominated corresponding change in the structure and basis” (File no. S 1/1/CMLA 1978 as science and technology. Thus, an integration some members as well. The committee thus system of Madrasas, they boosted the sector quoted in Malik 1996: 130). of the DM students into the formal system had strong representation from the and encouraged its growth across the country of education could be ensured. The first step Government and the ‘ulama’ (15 mawlanas) (ICG Asia Report 2002: 10-11). This survey resulted into the Sargodha would be to establish an All Pakistan and therefore was considered a legitimate body Report. It gives a short historical introduction Education Advisory Board in order to report whose proposals would be accepted both by Among other things Zia-ul-Haq used which is followed by a description of the DM on the DM (Sargodha Report 1978: pp.18f clergy and Government. The members of this the mosques to spread literacy. In 1984-85 the system in Sargodha. The DM education is as quoted in Malik 1996: 131). The report committee eventually became a source of Iqra Centres were launched by the Literacy reported to be spread over 9-10 years, served as a model for the survey of 1979. It legitimating the government policies (Malik and Mass Education Campaign (LAMEC). subdivided into the following three phases: is necessary to discuss it here, as it reveals 1996: 132-133). These centres, established in mosques and which areas were of special interest to the Madrasas, were to teach Urdu. The teacher Preparatory stage 3 years Central Government. It is preceded by the A national survey was conducted was supposed to be an alim or his delegate chronological presentation of the under Zia regime, and the report of the (Rahman 1998: 204). He ‘would have to know Intermediate stage 2-3 years 5 development within the Ministry of Religious committee (The Halepota Report ) proposed Islamic injunctions and act accordingly’ improving the economic condition of Madrasas Final stage 4 years Affairs concerning the DM in order to give (Government of Pakistan Report 1962, as an insight into the administration and the and modernizing them with the aim of quoted in Malik 1996:274). eventually integrating the religious and the Education was free of charge and the events concerning the projected study formal education sectors while “conserving the Alterations introduced in the Madrasa prospects of securing jobs made the DM (Malik 1996: 131). autonomy of Madrasas” (Ibid: 139). Other than education were a component of the larger drive

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for Islamisation of the entire education pattern they comprised 18 per cent of all registered being issued by the foreign ministry after police other in curriculum and the contents of under the Zia government. Stress to an even educational institutions, by 1983 over 40 per and intelligence agencies investigate the education. The Musharraf Government greater extent was on the desire to bring cent were Madrasas — 70 per cent in the front credentials and character of applicants). All represented the first policy attempt by the to education into closer conformity with Islam. line North West Frontier Province. The four provinces were asked to submit reports regulate madarasa, it was the most In doing so, education was affected in five expansion of madarasa graduates conveniently on the functioning of Madrasas with the controversial one, particularly due to US ways. The first was in the area of curriculum. created for Zia a lower class labour force, intention of curbing their autonomy and financial support for the initiative which was There were now required courses in religion which, given few other economic stemming sectarianism. Pledging to reform the seen to be driving the entire endeavor (Shaikh (Islamiyat) from primary through college and opportunities, would readily fight in Afghanistan Madrasa sector, PPP interior minister 2006: 10-11). Also among the stated ESR goals university. Also, other curricula were “revised”, and implement his domestic divide and rule Naseerullah Babar disclosed the government’s was bringing the Madrasa curriculum into the along with textbooks, to bring them into policies (Ziad 2004). intention to introduce compulsory audits, new mainstream of Pakistan’s general education conformity with Islam. The second area was curricula, and registration. However, system through the inclusion of “secular” The Civilian Rule: Status Quo in its female education. The third was a proposal to unfortunately none of these happened (ICG subjects such as science (Kronstadt 2004: 3). Entiretity add Arabic, the language of the Quran, to the Asia Report 2002: 16-17). The Muslim League In the past, Madrasas were registered required curriculum. The fourth was After Zia, Pakistan regained its of Nawaz Sharif was firmly in favour of the under The Societies Act of 1860, a law Islamisation of knowledge. The fifth was a democratic structure with the arrival of Islamiat agenda. It was about to bring in a predating independence for registering broad category encompassing an attempt to Benazir government and restoration of constitutional amendment for the imposition of nongovernmental organizations. With US $255 define behavior that is or not Islamic (Hayes democracy was once again exhibited in the Islamic Shariah before it was thwarted by the million earmarked for a five-year reform 1984: 99). social fabric of Pakistan in 1988. During this military coup in 1999 (Commission on Human program expected to reach 8000 Madrasas, democratic phase, the two major political Rights 2006). The events that caused intense the initiative was an ambitious one and since parties, the Pakistan Muslim League and the Islamisation of Pakistan polity and society, and 2001, several government regulations were Pakistan Peoples Party, ruled alternatively – The Musharraf Regime: Reformist as a matter of fact altered the Madrasa enacted to control religious extremism in twice each – until the 1999 military coup of Dynamism structure, can also be traced to the exterior Madrasas. However, rhetoric was not backed General Pervez Musharraf. The two had reaches of Pakistan. This program somehow Following the coup of 1999, Pervez different levels of commitment to the with comparable action and resistance to got coupled with the Iranian Revolution, the Musharraf came to power. Immediatly after Islamization process initiated by Zia-ul-Haq, reform was widespread. Hiccups in Iran-Iraq war, and the Soviet invasion of his ascendancy, the Government faced a and hence held different perspectives on the implementation can be attributed to a wide Afghanistan also provided an impetus to strange problem of projecting Pakistan as a role and utility of doctrinal contents in curricula. range of factors. While many factors have Islamize the country. This called for a physical modern state, devoid of any religious influenced the lack of success in the reform integration of the Madrasas into the public In 1988, the military handed power to fundamentalism and extremism in front of the process, differences between the education, sector, in the hopes of creating stronger links civilians after a decade of direct rule. Until West. Accordingly, it embarked on the religious affairs and interior ministries over the between the ‘ulema’ and the Zia regime. The the re-imposition of military rule in 1999, none Education Sector Reform Action Plan. The handling of Madrasas, the government’s curriculum was reworked by a ‘National of four elected governments was allowed to administration supported the establishment of reluctance to offend religious political parties Committee for Dini Madaris’ (NCDM) in complete its term, and each change took place the National Commission for Human and US support and funding for the reform, 1979. A policy known as the ‘Ittihad al through overt or covert military intervention. Development (NCHD) which took over however implicit in nature, have much to do Madaris’ served to co-opt the diverse As the Sunni right took on its Shia adversaries, responsibility for education (Ibid 2006). Special with it (Shaikh 2006: 13). ideologies into a singular force under the and sectarian strife spun out of control, the attention was paid within key policy regime’s umbrella cum pocketbook. The ulema Benazir Bhutto government tried to control the formulations, particularly the Education Sector In June 2000, the Pakistani leaders and students brought under Zia’s Madrasas. Benazir Bhutto banned entry of Reforms (ESR) for the reformation of government tried to register every Madrasa. influence produced an army of loyalists. The Arab students and made it compulsory for all Madrasas in order to evolve an integrated The government’s new licensing scheme number of Madrasa students and Madrasas foreign students and their Madrasas to obtain system of national education by bringing Deeni similarly required that the school’s curriculum themselves grew exponentially. While in 1974, a “No Objection Certificate” (NOCs were Madaris and modern schools closer to each include modern disciplines, that they disclose

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sources of funding, get permission to enroll subjects such as mathematics, general science, government promised funding of Madrasas the home of the Islamic radicalism; however, foreign students, and stop sending their computers, and English language (ICG Asia that were formally registered with the the attempts at reform have drawn substantial students to militant training camps. Only 4350, Report 2004: 5-6). government. In a more controversial step, criticism from the religious Muttahida Majlis- about one tenth, agreed to be registered and the Pakistani government demanded that e-Amal (MMA). Maulana Fazlur Rehman of In 2002, General Musharraf’s the rest simply ignored the statute. There was Madrasas expel all foreign students by the MMA, who also served as the opposition government in Pakistan promised to reform no incentive to register and no punishment if December 31, 2005. Islamist groups leader, described the move as an attack on Madrasas by cracking down on ones that one did not (Singer 2001: 7). In August 2001, vehemently resisted the government’s “one of the main pillars of Islam.”6 Moreover, preached violence, pushing the remaining ones the Islamabad government created a Pakistan efforts, however, and authorities backed it became clear that the battle over educational Madrasa Education Board (PMEB) to towards moderation and integrating them into down and made public statements indicating reform would continue (Kfir 2006: 78). establish a network of “model Madrasas” and the public school system. Musharraf that they would not use force or shut down A Madaris Reform Project (MRP) regulate others (Kronstadt 2004: 3). The issue announced an initiative, the Deeni Madaris noncompliant madrassas to enforce the was launched and an amount of Rs. 225 million of Madrasa reform is not at all new. However, Ordinance (Voluntary Registration and directives (Blanchard 2006 as quoted in Regulation) of 2002. The reforms included: was accordingly allocated in the Public Sector September 11 sped up the Madrasa reform Curtis 2007: 5). Development Programme (PSPD) 2002-2003 process by introducing massive US aid. More · A five year, $1 billion plan introduced It is difficult to assess the positive for this purpose. Regarding the project, the specifically, the lion’s share of the $300 million in 2003 aimed at including modern, impact, if any, of Pakistan’s own reforms then Federal Education Minister, Zubaida a year of US aid for education goes to secular subjects such as mathematics because the program implemented in 2002 Jalal commented ‘The project will establish registered Madrasas. However, some on syllabi and bringing Madrasas called for voluntary submission to regulations, and strengthen lines of communication Madrasas resist registration in favour of more under the scrutiny of the Education leaving countless Madrasas that chose not to between Madaris and the government. It will autonomy. After the 9/11 Commission Report, Ministry (Peri 2004: 90-91). the US government made reform a top priority, comply. The clergy in Pakistan vehemently also educate 1.5 million students, both male and this centred on three key elements: funding, · A U.S. Agency for International opposed government regulation for fear of and female, and will enable them to continue curriculum change and teacher training Development commitment of $100 “secularization” of their schools. Even those their studies in colleges and universities’ (Mullick and Ruhe 2008). million to rehabilitate public school who agree that Madrasas need reform were (Sareen 2005: 50). (Ibid: 91). extremely reluctant to introduce secular The main objective of the reforms was The PMEB’s mandate is to establish ideas into their curricula (Peri 2004: 92). · A 2002 law requiring Madrasas to to introduce formal subjects (which have model Madrasas and to regulate and approve Musharraf consulted a number of mullahs audit their funding and foreign students otherwise been considered as non-religious conditions of existing seminaries on the on the proposed reform. All the wafaqs to register with the government. The subjects) such as English, Mathematics, recommendations of its Academic Council. (boards) of Madrasas banded together as number of foreign religious students Pakistan Studies, Social Studies and General The PMEB may also grant affiliations to the Ittehad Tanzeematul Madaris-i- had dropped since then from Science at the primary and secondary levels. existing Madrasas in the private sector. This Deenya (Alliance of the Organisations of thousands to hundreds as the At the intermediate level, English, Economics, affiliation did not require registration but was the Religious Schools) to oppose the ordinance government at that time issued and Pakistan Studies and Computer Science were instead an effort to encourage Madrasas to and President Musharraf decided not to sign renewed fewer visas to religious to be taught. The Government also planned to provide both religious and secular education. it (ICG Asia Report 2004: 6). The PMEB’s only significant achievement had students (Ibid: 91). fund the salaries of the teachers to be appointed As part of its reform program, which to teach non-religious subjects. A salary of Rs. been the establishment of three model · Establishing model Madrasas that Madrasas, one each in Karachi and Sukkur in included increasing the education budget, the 4000 would be given to teachers for teaching would provide modern, useful Sindh province and in the federal capital, government proposed new legislation regarding formal subjects at the secondary level and Rs. education without promoting Islamabad. With roughly 300 students enrolled the listing of Madrasas and school prayer. The 10,000 at the intermediate level. The extremism (Ibid: 91). to date, these religious schools teach simplified decision to expel foreign students was a Government also wanted to update the syllabus and modified versions of the standard Madrasa Through the “Voluntary Registration positive development and an indication of of the Madrasas, supposedly 250 years old course, the Dars-e-Nizami, along with and Regulation Ordinance 2002,” the Pakistani attempts to change its reputation as (Ibid: 50-51).

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Many concur that Pakistan could not for Madrasa reforms, primarily to introduce The Project did not have any significant impact control all Madrasas in his District. simply live up to its promises to monitor secular subjects without making it conditional since most Madrasas refused to take the (Ibid: 2). Madrasas and introduce secular subjects into on registration, standardization of the curricula Government’s help (Lakshman 2007: 2). (vii) Accounts of these Madrasas were to the curricula, while shoring up the national or oversight over financial flows. Responding Following the London blast (7/7/2005), be audited by Provincial Audit public education system. The ICG’s to the offer, the five madarsa boards rejected the Pakistani Government took some steps to Department every year and report (International Crisis Group) South Asian any change in curricula but called for additional control the Madrasa education pattern. The submitted to the Minister of Education director, Samina Ahmed, argued on this issue, government support in the form of free steps are as follows: (Ibid: 2). that Musharraf’s government continued to electricity, gas and telephone facilities (ICG receive billions in aid money from the United Asia Report 2004: 9). (i) No Pakistani be permitted to operate (viii) Functioning of these Madrasa would States while having little to show for it. Most be watched by the Local Government According to the then Federal any Deeni Madrasa in a foreign Madrasas remained unregulated, a national agencies. Madrasas were not to Education Minister Zubaida Jalal, the country. All such Madrasa be closed curriculum was not been developed, and the publish any material that whips up government would spend Rs. 1.82 billion (U.S. within two months (Sadiq 2005: 2). government did not stop the abuses of religious sentiments of the public or $204million) over the next five years to reform Madrasas and their most extremist leaders. (ii) No foreign student be permitted to the students (Ibid: 2). Only three model Madrasas exist with 300 the Madrasa sector. At that time, Ms. Jalal study in Pakistani Madrasas in the students, while 1.5 million children still attend said that 16,000 teachers were to be appointed future. No foreigner be allowed an Pakistani officials insisted that unregulated Madrasas. Further-more, very in 4,000 Madrasas to teach non-religious entry into the Madrasa unless he had President Musharraf was serious in his aims little has been done to crack down on the subjects at the primary level, and 12,000 at Government approval for such visit to bring Madrasa curriculum closer in financing of Madrasas (Peri 2004: 92). The the secondary level. The Madrasa Reform (Ibid: 2). substance to that provided in non-religious Project followed the government’s Education schools, with the long-term goal being a repercussions of Musharraf’s inability or (iii) Sanads issued to Alims be temporarily unwillingness to enforce any substantive, Policy guidelines that guaranteed Pakistani curriculum that was nearly identical. In annulled. The holders of these Sanads meaningful change in the archaic but citizens their constitutional right to education Pakistan, the issue of government and/or should appear in respective widespread system of religious education and training, and to evolve an integrated system foreign interference in the operations of Universities, Boards to clear their would be grave (Mushtaq 2007: 1). of national education by narrowing the gap Madrasas has been an extremely sensitive one, between the curricula of madarsas and modern exams. Appropriate certificate, degree in part due to perception that the Pakistani Until January 2004, the Ministry of schools (Ibid: 8). will be issued to those who pass (Ibid: government, at the alleged direction of the U.S. Religious Affairs blamed the lack of progress 2). government, is seeking to interfere with religion on a Madrasa regulatory bill on infighting Five years after its inception, the (iv) The curriculum of Madrasas be brought (Kronstadt 2004: 5). between the government and the opposition. Madrasa Reform Project had been an in line with the curriculum being Since the new Musharraf government took unambiguous failure. While there was far too There had been repeated attempts by followed by the boards, universities as power, there has been a total deadlock over much resistance at the ground level, various governments to unify the syllabi and such. Those who pass will be given the Legal Framework Order (LFO). There ambivalence and a reluctance to implement curricula of religious education, but these could appropriate degree/certificate (Ibid: 2). was only bickering in the parliament (ICG Asia the reforms dominated the state’s agencies and not succeed because, firstly, the Madrasas Report 2004: 6-7). In its first Annual report initiatives. This was best demonstrated in (v) The Ministry of Religious Affairs regard all such attempts as interference by the October 2002, the PMEB noted: Sindh Province and its capital, Karachi. After would register all Madrasas (Ibid: 2). government in religious matters; secondly, most “Misunderstandings about the objectives of the three years of efforts by the Sindh Education of them insist that by introducing modern Board have resulted in non-cooperation of the Department to help “mainstream” the (vi) The Ministry of Education would sciences the religious character of these heads of Madrasas” (Government of Pakistan province’s Madrasas by including secular monitor all Madrasas with regard to Madrasas would be eliminated. The 2002 as quoted in ICG Asia Report 2004: 7). education in them, Islamabad asked provincial administration, technical functions. government of Pakistan could not unify the In January 2004, the government announced education authorities in mid-2006 to return more The EDO (Executive District Officer- syllabus of religious education for the Sunnites a package of Rs.5.7 billion (U.S. $100million) than $100 million in unspent Federal money. Education) at the District level was to and the Shi’ites in the regular schools directly

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controlled by the government either. The Bhutto period experienced two option but to follow reform strategies for the Madrasas. Right from the time of Ayub Khan Consequently, the students become sensitized facets of Madrasa policy. The first being, Madrasas. Several reform policies include- to the Civilian Governments of 1990s, the to their religious denomination quite early in domestic sector, where Madrasas were not Education Sector Reform (ESR), Voluntary Government was busy in intensification and their education (Masud 2002: 240). only exempted from the tide of the famous Registration Regulation or the Deeni Madaris spread of Madrasas, considering it to be a Furthermore, the Pakistani ministries of Nationalisation process but at the same time Ordinance, Madaris Reform Project etc. component of the political propaganda, i.e. Education and Religious Affairs worked with the Madrasa degrees were given equivalence Interestingly enough the Musharraf “Islam under danger or threat”. The effort the Commission on Higher Education in 2006 with mainstream degrees. Secondly, in the Government formulated Madrasa policies on was to make the common population religiously to compile a White Paper focusing on a international segment, agreements with Arab an annual basis. Since 2000, there have been conscious and devoted towards Islam and national-curriculum and teacher-training countries caused exhilarated Islamisation efforts for improvisation with the coming of political application of it as well. programme promoting pluralism and patriotism having intense consequence on the Madrasa every year. This is a unique trend of military But, the scenario changed drastically within a framework of Islamic values for both education. regime. The effort to include secular subjects (as very well understood) Post 9/11. Pakistan public and private schools. For example, the in the curriculum, restricting the flow of foreign If we examine the Zia Period then it becoming the frontline state had its bearing on mission statement declared that it is “the aim students, introducing computer training and becomes very apparent, that at every step the Madrasa policy. And for the first time, the of the state of Pakistan to provide equal and laboratory oriented subjects, stress on the need while following the Madrasa policy, the policies vis-à-vis Madrasas were reform ample opportunity to all its citizens ... preparing for English as a medium of instruction etc, religious sentiments were taken into account. oriented rather than Islam-centric. The him/her for life, livelihood and nation-building”. shows Government’s overt interest in The ulema were constantly consulted, as Zia measures, Post 9/11 were in the direction of The government had also instituted registration, reforming the system. But at the same time, could not afford to disregard their presence. positive state interference with introduction of albeit voluntary, to monitor the Madrasas. no one can deny the existence of a strong These ulema in turn became the inseparable state controlled Madrasas and regulatory Inducements come in the form of school religio-fundamentalist section in Pakistani part of policy making procedure. The bodies. supplies — computers, books and more politics, which is very much eager to Islamize madarsas became a kind of “survival kit” for (Mullick and Ruhe 2008). the entire state. Pakistan, as a state lacks stability in Zia and his Regime. its domestic politics. The international and In Pakistan, the quality of education Therefore, the chronological study of The analysis of Civilian Rule in interior dynamics of the country are extremely in general, is also on decline, in spite of the the Madrasa policies provides a Pakistan (1988-1999), states that no path unstable and as a result, like all other aspects, developmental steps taken by the Government. multidimensional aspect to the Institutional and breaking improvement occurred in the Madrasa policy went through self- It becomes vital that the country should have Governmental initiatives. There is a direct co- Madrasa sector. Both Benazir and Nawaz contradictory phases. On one hand, there was a coherent education policy with a modern relation between intensification of Islamisation Sharif were too busy in establishing a rapport a blind period of Islamisation in the Madrasa Madrasa system as an integral part of the and proliferation of Madrasas. The focal thrust with both military and the religious faction, that structure and on the other, the ongoing decade secular super-structure. of majority of policies however kept on none could afford to take any drastic saw high dose of liberal ideas being forcefully changing from spread and proliferation of A Pragmatic Assessment measures. The perennial tragedy of Pakistan injected into the religious institution. Madrasas (during Bhutto and Zia) to their is the dominance of religion over reason. If a In case of Pakistan, religion is the modernisation and diversification (as Majority of the Government reform government wants to be in power, it has to most important prop of every Government, prescribed by Musharraf Government). policies are associated with the aspect of make compromise with the aspect of religion. whether civilian or military. The leaders have However, the official policies are International Terrorism and its alleged link with used religion to unify the more or less diverse In case of Musharraf, it can be said compartmentalizing Madrasas and not trying the madarsas. But strangely enough, if we provinces of the country. Interestingly enough, that, the event of 9/11 did put tremendous to assimilate them into the mainstream (hypothetically) side line this situation, then apart from the religious factor there is no pressure to remodel and reform the Madrasa educational structure. The Governmental plan what will be the driving force behind Madrasa similarity in the Pakistan state. The Madrasa structure (at least in papers). Post 9/11, regarding Madrasa education can be divided reform? Unfortunately, the answer will be is nothing but an outlet through which Islam Pakistan became a frontline nation for into two phases: Pre 9/11 and Post 9/11. In negative. This shows ‘lack of commitment’ has been percolated into the social stratum of America’s ‘War Against Terror’ and as a the first phase, there was dominancy of from the part of Pakistan as a state towards Pakistan. result Musharraf Government had no other orthodox approach while dealing with the the betterment and welfare of its citizens. What

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is necessary is a change within the thinking hand, the less fortunate ones are struggling with of allocated resource and proper monitoring Khan’s commission for Madrasa reform in the pattern of the policy makers. It is high time; ignorance. Along with the Madrasa reform posts in interior regions of the country are 1960s. they should look into the matter more policy, the Government should also formulate required. And at the same time, along with 6. The government agreed to allocate 2.73 percent of pragmatically and come up with innovative and coherent education policies. In the first place, these, the Government should organize public Pakistan’s GDP to education in 2005-2006, with feasible solutions for the Madrasa reform if there are good secular schools with proper awareness programmes at various levels Education Minister Javed Ashraf Qazi placing strategy. geographical distribution, the need of Madrasa regarding the benefits of remodeled Madrasa substantial emphasis on primary education. “4 education will be minimised. In that case, educational pattern. percent of GDP will be reserved for education in Conclusion Madrasas will only cater to those who are next budget.” Daily Times, December 31, 2005. It can be said that “hope” will be the Madrasa is one of the oldest surviving seriously into religious study. The rest (who only word to describe the Madrasa strategy in institutions of human history. Unfortunately, its go to madarsa only because they have no other Pakistan. Otherwise, negative connotation can References popularity level is diminishing and in the recent option) will definitely decide on for secular never help the state to cross the hurdle of past it has become the face of evil in schooling, given an option. Ahmad, Zafar (2000): Islam and Muslims in South Asia, Islamic fundamentalism along with popular International politics. But, the original character Delhi: Authors Press. In a better perspective, the Madrasas ignorance. We can only hope that the present of Madrasa education was all encompassing. can be very well used by Government Government will take serious measures to Ali, Mubarak (1992): Understanding Pakistan, Lahore: It was a school for enlightenment and not establishments as a tool to spread religious as modify and transform the age-old character Progressive Publishers. ignorance. However, over the ages, Madrasa well as western education to the masses. of Madrasa, as an educational institution. Bano, Masooda (2007): “Beyond Politics: The Reality lost the secular nature and imbibed the role of Accordingly, such a strategy can result into of a Deobandi Madrasa in Pakistan”, Journal of a religious educational institution. There is balancing of religious and secular issues. But, Islamic Studies, 18(1): 43-68. nothing wrong or offensive in the overall Notes as discussed above, neither the military, nor Blanchard, Christopher,M. (2006): “Islamic Religious structure of Madrasa. It just needs better 1. These are: the Wafaq al-Madaris al-Arabia (Sunni the civilian Government is concerned about Schools, Madrasas: Background,” Congressional equipments to deal with the fast changing world Deobandi); Tanzim ai-Madaris al-Arabiya (Sunni common people (a typical feature of Third Research Services. Quoted in Lisa A. Curtis (2007), of the 21st century. Barelvi); Wafaq al-Madaris al-Shia (Shia); and Wafaq world country). Therefore, Madrasas are only “Extremist Madrassas, Ghost Schools, and U.S. al-Madaris Al-Salafiya (Ahle-Hadith (Salafi). Almost considered as religious institutions suited for Aid to Pakistan: Are We Making the Grade on the The most pertinent question in front 95 per cent of officially registered Pakistani Madrasas 9/11 Commission Report Card?”, [Online: web] of Government establishment of Pakistan is the less-fortunate section of Pakistani society, are affiliated with these four wafaqs. The Jamaat-e- Accessed on 2 Aug. 2008 URL: http:// preservation and side by side remodeling of deprived from modern education. Islami created the Rabita al-Madaris, the fifth union nationalsecurity.oversight. house.gov/documents/ the Madrasas. The idea of Madrasa abolition of Madrasas, in the late 1970s. In the context of present volatile 20070509164319.pdf. is not appreciable. On the contrary, there is a political condition of Pakistan, it can very well 2. Sargodha Report of September 28, 1978, Islamabad dire need of revamping the system. Being an Commission on Human Rights (2006): “Right to be said that, the state has been crumbling over (unpublished), pp. 13f; the report did not specify Islamic state, Pakistan cannot afford to do Education Pakistan”, [Online: web] Accessed on 8 a period of time. Important and serious steps the kind of job. without Madrasa education. Therefore, Aug. 2008 URL: http://www.franciscans toward survival of democracy are very coherent educational policy demands better 3. After Pakistan was established the ulama tried to international.org/docs/ statement.php?id=417 essential in Pakistan. And at the same time, form an umbrella organization, but the Ittihad al- allocation of resources and inclusion of secular File no. S 1/1/CMLA (1978). Quoted in Jamal Malik Madrasas should be given priority regarding Madaris did not achieve any influence and infact subjects in the Madrasas, by which the poor (1996): Colonization of Islam, New Delhi: any resource allocation programme. The stress now ceased to exist (Malik 1996: 132). section of the society can also afford good Manohar Publishers. should be on implementation and not education. 4. The committee comprised representatives of the documentation of reports. Generally, the efforts Government of Pakistan (1979): Report of the National religious elite, intellectuals as well as Committee for Deeni Madaris, Ministry of One of the major problems of Pakistan of Government have been restricted to the representatives of the state. is the huge gap between ‘haves’ and ‘have policy formulation part. Once the measures Religious Affairs, Islamabad. Quoted in ICG Asia nots’. The people with better educational outlet are documented in government offices, no 5. Named after its Chairman, Dr. A.W.J Halepota, an Report (2002), Pakistan: Madrasas, Extremism are gaining all the advantages; and on the other further effort is being made. Channelisation educator who had also been associated with Ayub and the Military, Islamabad/Brussels.

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Government of Pakistan (1962): Report of the Committee Ministry of Religious Affairs (1978): O.O. No. 370/ Sargodha Report (1978): Ministry of Religious Affairs, Accessed on 18 Sep. 2006. URL:http:// set up by the Governor of West Pakistan for Scey/78, Islamabad. Quoted in Quoted in Jamal Islamabad. Quoted in Jamal Malik (1996), www.brookingsonline.org/views/papers/singer/ Recommending an Improved Syllabus for the Malik (1996), Colonization of Islam: Dissolution Colonization of Islam, New Delhi: Manohar 20020103.htm Various Darul Ulooms anf Arabic Madrassas in of Traditional Institutions in Pakistan, Lahore: Publishers. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (1999): “Religious West Pakistan. Quoted in Jamal Malik (1996), Vanguard Books. Shaikh, Amen (2006): Warring ideologies: The use of Education and the Rhetoric of Reforms: The Colonization of Islam: Dissolution of Traditional Mullick, Haider and Jonathan Ruhe (2008): “Are education policy to control religious Madrasa in British India and Pakistan”, Institutions in Pakistan, Lahore: Vanguard Books. madrassas producing Pakistanis?”, [Online: web] fundamentalism in Pakistan, Paper for Master of Comparative Studies in Society and History, 41(2): Government of Pakistan (2002): Pakistan Madrasa Accessed on 2 Aug. 2008 URL:http:// Public Policy, Crowford School: The Australian 294-323. Education Board: First Annual Report, Islamabad, www.dailytimes.com.pk/defa University. Ziad, Waleed (2004): “Madaris in perspective”, [Online: p.3. Quoted in ICG Asia Report (2004), Unfulfilled ult.asp?page=2007\10\02\story_2-10- Singer, P.W. (2001): “Pakistan’s Madrassahs: Ensuring web] Accessed on 2 Aug. 2008 URL: http:// Promises: Pakistan’s Failure to Tackle Extremism, 2007_pg3_3. a System of Eduaction not Jihad”, [Online: web] www.geocities.com/ziadnumis/thenews. Islamabad/Brussels. Mushtaq, Najum (2007): “The Seige of the Red Hayes, Louis D. (1984): “Islamization and Education in Mosque”, [Online: web] Accessed 1 Aug. 2007. Pakistan”, Asia Pacific Community, winter: 96-105. URL:http:// www.albiomonitor.com/0707a/ redmosque.html ICG Asia Report (2002): Pakistan: Madrasas, Extremism and the Military, Islamabad/Brussels. Peri, Sarada (2004): “Madrassas Rising: Education, Security, and U.S. Relations with Pakistan”, The ICG Asia Report (2004): Unfulfilled Promises: Subcontinent, 2(5): 87-94. Pakistan’s Failure to Tackle Extremism, Islamabad/ Brussels. Qureshi, Saleem M.M. (2005): “Pakistan: Islamic Ideology and the Failed State?”, in Veena Kukreja Jawed, Nasir Ahmad (1999): Islam’s Political Culture, and M.P. Singh (eds.) Pakistan Democracy, New York: Oxford University Press. Development and Security Issues, New Delhi: Sage Kfir, Isaak (2006): “The Paradox that is Pakistan: Both Publications. Ally and Enemy of Terrorism”, The Middle East Rahman, Tariq (1998): “Language, Religion and Review of International Affairs, 10(1): 7-14. Identity in Pakistan: Language-Teaching in Kronstadt, K.Alan (2004): “Education Reform in Pakistan Madrassas”, Ethnic Studies Report, XVI Pakistan”, CSR Report for Congress, December: 1-6. (2): 197-214.

Lakshman, Kanchan (2007): “More Muscle to the Sadiq, M. Afzal (2005): “Parallel Education System”, Madrassa”, [Online: web] Accessed on 22 May [Online: web] Accessed on 18 May 2007 2007. URL:http://kashmirherald.com/main. URL:http://pakistantimes.net/2005/08/26/ php?t=OP&st=D&no=281. oped3.htm.

Malik, Jamal (1996): Colonization of Islam: Dissolution Saigol, Rubina (2007): “Glories of the Past, Aspirations of Traditional Institutions in Pakistan, Lahore: for the Future: Time as a Dimension of National Vanguard Books. Quoted in ICG Asia Report Education in Pakistan” in Krishna Kumar and (2002), Pakistan: Madrasas, Extremism and the Joachim Oesterheld (eds.) Education and Social Military, Islamabad/Brussels. Change in South Asia, New Delhi: Orient Longman.

Masud, Muhammad Khalid (2002): “Religious Identity Sareen, Sushant (2005): The Jihad Factory: Pakistan’s and Mass Education” in Johan Meuleman (ed.) Islam Islamic Revolution in the Making, New Delhi: Har- in the Era of globalization, London: Routledge. Anand Publications.

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Employee Attrition Management in I. T. Industry in South Asia: the loss suffered by the organizations whose Similarly, the software industry in Sri employees left them will be greater than the Lanka is still in its infancy. But the industry Some Evidences from India and Pakistan gain of the organizations receiving them, as has shown highest growth rates in the last five there would require some cycling time as well years. The revenue earned by the software M Basheer Ahmed Khan for these turned over employees to contribute exports has grown to Rs.55 million in 2000 to the newly wedded employers. This cost from almost a zero in 1996 (Channa 2006). needs to be worked out to understand the over The situation of IT industry in Bangla Desh is Abstract all loss of the economy. presented in a paper by Syed Munir Khasru. Employee attrition has a major cost in industry in every country of the world. Various strategies are used to retain employees in industry the world over to The South Asian Industrial Background According to it, “Software is one of reduce the Financial and non-financial costs. South Asia has countries which the most talked about but unexploited industries In South Asia, the major industrially have some common heritage and their struggle for economic development centers in Bangladesh. Last two decades have seen developed nations are India and Pakistan, around several strategies they use including the strategies for employee lot of initiatives, both in public and private followed by Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. management. The unity in diversity is perceptible among the different countries sector, to stimulate growth in this sector. like India, Pakistan, Bangaladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Afghanistan According to FIEO, “despite all its natural and Although some successes have been achieved, which belong to the SAARC grouping. Among these countries, India and Pakistan human resources, the SAARC grouping is one Bangladesh lags far behind other South Asian to a great extent and Sri Lanka to a lesser extent have industrial development deficient in capital. Industrially too, it is only worth considering and a review of the practices of human resources management India which can be said to be an advanced countries like India and Sri Lanka in terms of in these countries are of interest. The evidences available from studies using nation in this region with Pakistan following at employment and revenue generation in the secondary data of employee attrition management can be seen from a common a distance. Most of the rest of the members software industry” (Khasru Nov-Dec 2006: perspective to gain insights about the application of scientific theories of human have yet to cut their teeth industrially. Again, 31-39). So far as Maldives is concerned, resources management in the context of South Asia in general and India and with the exception of India and to some extent efforts are being made to evolve an IT Pakistan in particular. Pakistan, the whole group is largely dependent infrastructure to help the Youth. As per the on outside sources for its capital goods and report of International Development Research technology” (FIEO News July 2009). Centre, a “ project to formulate the National IT Policy was a collaborative effort between Introduction practice it does affect the economy However, within the SAARC grouping India UNDP Maldives and the National Centre for substantially in many ways. It directly affects is an industrial and software giant which can Employee attrition is an issue of Information Technology of the Ministry of the organization in operation in terms of in a cooperative environment provide significant concern to all organizations. Transport and Communication. The project ran reducing productivity, reducing profits through considerable help to the other countries in the Employee attrition has come as a major into delays due to the unavailability of local delays in projects, and high costs in training grouping. Dasho Bap Kinga, Vice President, challenge for the organizations ever since the consultants to work on the project as well as and development of new employees. It also Bhutan Chamber of Commerce and Industry large scale operations of the information the change in government structure in July affects the economy indirectly by plan changes and BCCI’s SAARC Desk Chief, in an technology industry the world over have 2005, which dissolved the former Ministry of of the affected organization, reduction in interview with Amitabha Sen, opined that “India become dominant and impacting the economic Communication, Science and Technology and efficiency and other unseen factors. The being a Software giant can help Bhutan in growth of the organizations. Though employee transferred the communications functions to advantage obtained by the organization which terms of technical know-how, expatriate skills, turn over would appear to be not of great etc. The main goal is the promotion of e- the newly formed Ministry of Transport and utilizes the services of the turned – over impact on the argument that employee who governance & promotion of private sector Communication.” In Nepal also, the employees can not consolidate into additional leaves one organization contributes to the participation. BCCI’s suggestion to the development of IT industry is not very advantage to the economy as a whole because economy through another organization, in Bhutanese government would be to build their significant. The situation of the IT industry in human resource capacity. Fiscal concessions Nepal is narrated by Pradeep Chand. As per to this nascent sector could boost the growth the report “Few years back, Information Dr M Basheer Ahmed Khan is Professor and Dean of School of Management, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry. of IT industry in Bhutan”. Technology industry was on a roll all over the

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world. There was an insatiable demand for IT countries. Usually, the developers do not IT Industry in India as versatile in exploiting the global guys from many developed nations so it started directly get the outsourced jobs.” (Chand opportunities that cropped up during the same The Information technology industry a trend among Nepali students to pursue their 2006). period. It in fact lagged far behind other in India is relatively new and is in its infant career in the field of Information Technology. countries in using information technology as a Thus a review of the industrial sector stage in spite of the leaps it made in the last And, so as to meet their requirements, catalyst for its economic revival. Pakistan’s in general and the IT industry in particular one decade or so. Notwithstanding the size of numerous colleges, providing various degrees policies have not been conducive enough to among the countries of the South Asia the industry, the growth rate it achieved in the in IT related courses, mushroomed out. BIM, become an effective information technology SAARC grouping gives the clear picture of 90’s and the later decade has caught the global BCA, BCIS, BCIT and many more were all player though it too had the global scenario the predominant position of India and the attention. According to the National the outcomes. But soon the global IT market open to it. Some of the acute problems faced distant following by Pakistan. The rest of Association of Software and Services saturated and the graduate IT students did not by Pakistan can be enumerated as massive the grouping through a cooperative effort Companies, the worth of the software get as welcoming atmosphere as they had brain drain, serious shortage of software can help the entire region by maintaining the industries catapulted to 5.7 billion US. The dreamt of. At present there are mainly two developers and programmers in latest stability of the industry in the two countries industry has seen a spurt in the domestic classes of IT jobs in Nepal - Software technologies, inability of Pakistani firms to tap which have advanced with the industrial market as well as a steady growth in the export application development and web and penetrate lucrative foreign markets to infrastructure building in the software field. market. In the early 2000, the quinquinnial development. In respect of Software provide the IT industry with needed band-width As human resources management is compound annual growth rate of export Application Development, besides few self- and communication capabilities of international important in the stabilization and growth of earning from software industry was 62.3%, employed programmers, there are very few standard at competitive prices, lack of industry in general and soft ware industry in while that of the domestic revenue was 46.8% established software developing houses in entrepreneurial skills and managerial know- particular, some evidences are gathered in rupee terms. Again according to Nepal. The market is extremely diminutive as how of IT professionals, lack of actual and from the Employee Attrition Management NASSCOM statistics, 185 of the Fortune 500 well. IT has been best implemented only in practical government policies and support for in Industry in South Asia more specifically companies outsourced their software the banking sector (specially in major ones like the IT industry, serious problems in securing relating to India and Pakistan. requirements to India during 1999-2000. In Standard Chartered, Nabil, Nepal Investment, financing and credit, unwillingness of local spite of the narrowing wage gap between Himalayan and Laxmi). There are only very Some Past Research Work business managers to pay appropriate prices Indian software professionals and the few other production houses like Golchha that for locally developed software, lack of As industrialization advances, and professionals from the developed world, wage have good Information system. Government incubation and start-up companies, low many new organizations emerge, there is a cost of software is one of the reasons for this itself is lagging behind in the use of information computerization of the government and its likelihood of high employee turn over. This growth. At the same time, Indian professionals technology. Departmental stores and travel departments etc. The country is continuing to is because, the new organizations will employ have been performing well in the international agencies also contribute a small fraction to the face these problems even now. As such the techniques to head hunt or body lift the competition. Indian policies have helped in demand of IT services. There not much of size/turnover of the software segment of the employees of other already established creating a large pool of software professionals outsourced jobs available in this sector of IT industry is US$ 25 million in the domestic organizations by offering career who are able to provide quality products at a in Nepal. segment and US$ 15 million worth in export advancements and multiple job opportunities. relatively low cost. The national economic sector. The software segment of the IT As there are more web related jobs This negative “Spill-over effect” of policies have also helped this growth. However, industry has about 500 organizations. Most of (both internal and outsourced), web expanding industrial growth (Sahu and Gupta due to the international exchange rates and these single proprietorships or companies with development appears to have the larger share. 1999) is experienced in all economies. That other economic factors, Indian software single person shows. There are also a few There are highly qualified programmers and is why motivating the employees and professionals provide a good 40 % to 60% cost medium to large size organizations which are designers in Nepal who are ready to grab managing attrition is of strategic importance advantage for those organizations outsourcing part of the other Pakistan business houses. projects at minimal pay rates. This is one of to industries. Retaining productive and high their software needs to India. the main reasons that large volume of web performing employees committed to the IT Industry in Pakistan The software industry employs about related projects are dumped in Nepal from organizations is of significant corporate 5,000 programmers/professionals. The industry USA, UK, India and many other European strategic advantage. (Mark and Sockel 2001). Pakistan has not been as quick and is facing a serious shortage of quality technical

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and marketing professionals caused by the are the drive of IT usage due to globalization, challenge of human resources management in professionals and 12 managerial level staff massive brain drain of high-level professionals government drive for documentation providing all economies, be it Indian or Pakistani. Some responsible for the human resources and IT trainers in the needed technologies. The growth opportunities, entertainment potential interesting findings on the attrition related activities were drawn as a sample. As per industry can carry out the following effectively of IT and the internet, relatively low issues were brought out by different studies, the study, the mean age of the sample was if it envisions for an action plan. Perhaps such development cost in Pakistan, consumer which put together will give a perspective 27 years and the mean length of service was an action plan can be in the areas like system awareness and empowerment through IT and about the situation in South Asia. Some of reported as 18.3 month. The study was analysis and design, switching design of the internet. the findings are quoted here in the context carried out with the help of questionnaire hardware and software, ISP’s software of the ongoing discussion. The ‘Retention containing open-ended and close ended programming, implementation of ASPs, To gain from these opportunities, the Strategies in the Indian IT Industry’ were responses. The results of the study are given manufacturing and assembly of hardware, Pakistani government has to decide and studied (Ghosh, Piyali & Geetika 2006). 36 in table 1 and table 2. internet after sales service, e-commerce implement the right course of action and continue with firm commitment to succeed in system maintenance services, data ware Table 1: Reasons for Leaving the Former Organization of Work housing, marketing of hardware and software, the global scenario. For all these, a commitment human resource management of the IT sector, to human resources management becomes Percentage of Reasons Description communication infrastructure, human resource pivotal. the firm training and mobilization of personnel. To It can thus be seen that considering Compensation The amount of money paid to an employee, 50 achieve these, certain unconventional and India and Pakistan as the only big players in including health care benefits, allowance for strategically correct policies are to be designed the IT industry in South Asia, their situation of conveyance, etc. and implemented. Effective top managers with managing employee attrition is of significant the right mix of vision and managerial interest. They need to not only retain their Career Development The ability for one to advance with in the 27.3 Opportunities company, by available opportunities competence are needed besides huge amounts human assets within the country, but also strive of financing in domestic resources and foreign to retain the assets within the organizations Job Dissatisfaction The dissatisfaction perceived by any one from 27.3 exchange. What is favourable for that country through appropriate policies of managing his job is the existence of some opportunities. These employee attrition. opportunities can be seen in the areas like Job Itself The actual responsibilities and profile of an 22 development of packaged software, quality Major Findings of Similarities and employee in a job training and development of specialized human Differences in Indian and Pakistani Reputation of the Reputation of the company as per market 22 resources, re-engineering and computerization Employee Attrition Issues company analysis opinion of employees, etc. of government/public sector and private sector organizations, installation of network (LANS, In the given competitive labour market Others Factors like training and development. Shut 9.1 WANS etc), E-Info switch over to Urdu as a environment all over the globe with more and down of earlier company worked with., etc more players entering the market which is computer language, development of call Source: Prepared from the data reported in Ghosh et al (2006), op. cit. centers, reorganization and growth of open and encouraging, employee attrition has communications infrastructure, foreign become a common feature. In India, the Chief exchange earning potential, utilization of Mentor of Infosys Technologies Ltd. remarked According to this study, the reasons money paid to them as compensation inclusive available educated human resources pool, in 2005 that “our assets walk out of the door for employees leaving the previous job are of healthcare benefits, allowances for unlimited e-commerce potential, global and each evening. We have to make sure that they compensation, career development conveyance etc. The inability to advance domestic internet explosion, world-wide growth come back next morning”. This conveys the opportunities, job dissatisfaction, job itself, within the company due to lack of opportunities of distance learning and education, social seriousness of the issue of employee attrition reputation of the company and other factors. was considered as reason by 27.3%. Another reforms and lowering of cultural barriers due and the necessary managerial strategies to For example, 50% of the employees left the 27.3% reported that the job was dissatisfying to the use of the internet. Other opportunities ensure that attrition is addressed as a major previous job because of lower amount of for them. For yet another 22%, there was a

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Table 2: Reasons for Enabling the Employees to Stay on in the present Organization a good increment policy. A high professional in both the countries aspire for these through environment is the motivator for 73.68%. Good the expression of their specific motivators as Percentage of Reasons Description attitude of boss/seniors influences 71.05%. to what will retain them in an organization. the firm Foreign training is expected by 71.05%. Good Most of the motivators are within the gamut career path is the motivator for another of these 6Ps of personnel management. The Job Satisfaction Satisfaction perceived by an individual 41.7 71.05%. Availability of policies like health/life Human Resources Management specialists in his/her job insurance are expected by 65.78%. Over all should realize this and advise the organizations Career Development The ability for one to advance with in good appraisal system is the requirement of to have their HR policies designed around 33 Opportunities the company, by availing opportunities 65.78%. Job security motivates 63.15%. Good these aspects, whether in India or in Pakistan. position/designation in office motivates another The secondary data collected and presented Job Security Security perceived by an employee in 63.15%. Strongly jelled team is the motivator here can be brought under the human resource the present job, vis-à-vis the 12.5 for 60.52% and empowerment is expected by management dimensions and knitted together uncertainties in the job market 57.89%. This study is interesting in that it as a common possibility in the South Asia works out the scores of the motivational context. More over, in a globalized Others Factors like training and development, factors, motivational variance and motivational environment, human aspirations and challenging projects, good working 12.5 frequency and correlations among them are requirements are expected to reach an area conditions and lucrative compensation worked out. The study also concludes that of commonality in spite of cultural differences. package. Imperative Motivational factors Framework Human resources experts need to weave a Source: Prepared from the data reported by Ghosh et. Al. (2006), op. cit. (IMFF) can be applied in any country and in policy that will help the organizations and their any industry, more so the IT industry. employees to pull together to gain in the world of competition and opportunities. Human mismatch of the job profile and the employee present company itself. For another group of Conclusion profile. 22% judged their perception of the 12.5%, factors like training and development, resources management is a challenge in both the reputation of the company in the market as challenging projects, good working conditions It is always better that an organization countries and identification of specific factors that the cause of their exit. For another 9.1%, and lucrative compensation packages are endeavors to reduce the attrition of its motivate and enable retention will help the HR factors like lack of training and development, important for their remaining in an organization. employees to the extent possible by adopting managers to pay attention to these. Managing closure of the previous company have also led appropriate strategies. In the South Asian Employee Attrition is a challenge during all In the case of Pakistan, different them to take up a new job. context, the economic development of all the business cycles. Evidences on the identified evidences are available. In a study of “A countries is a challenge as all of them are still factors that retain and motivate employees and The same study looked at the issue Framework to Identify the “Motivational developing nations with different levels and designing appropriate human resources from another angle as well. The study factors” of Employees: A Case Study of rates of development. Among them India and management policies will help the organizations instrument investigated as to what will enable Pakistan IT Industry” (Bhatti, Ahsan and Sajid Pakistan have greater opportunities given their to perform effectively and contribute to the employees to stay on. According to 41.7%, it 2008) the question of what motivates the strengths in the IT industry of these countries. economic development of the individual nations is the satisfaction perceived by the individual employees in IT industry was investigated. The IT industry is a nascent industry in all these and through that the entire region which is in the job that glued him to the job and the study operationalized the conceptual models countries, but both India and Pakistan have essential for the regional stability. company. For 33% of the employees, career of motivation theories and empirical primary the possibilities to achieve greater growth due development opportunities in terms of their data was collected. With data collected on to their domestic and export requirements and The author is thankful to Dr S. C. Sahoo, possibility to move up in the career ladder are larger number of factors that motivate human resources potential. The 5 Ps of Human Former Professor and Head, Dept of a reason that will tie them up with the company. employees, it was found that 92.10% get resources Management are pay, perks, Business Administration, Utkal University, 12.5% employees were concerned about the motivated by availability of perks like car, lap promotion, position and power. Perhaps one Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, for his helpful job security and if an organization can provide top, medical allowance etc. For 86.84%, good more can be added as perpetuity in comments on an earlier draft and job security, the employees will stick on in the salary package is required and 8.94% expect employment. The employees of the IT sector appropriate guidance.

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References (2008): “A Framework to Identify the India’s Trade Relationship with the Burgeoning Motivational Factors of Employees: A Case Study Bangladesh Association of Software and Information of Pakistan IT Industry”, WSEAS TRANSACTION Economies of South East Asia Services (BASIS) (2006): BASIS Software Product on COMPUTERS, Vol-7,No-6, pp.837-846. Catalog 2006, BASIS, Dhaka. M Banumathi Porter, M. E. (1980): Competitive Strategy: Techniques Bhargava, Sunita Wadekar (1993): “Software from India? for Analyzing Industries and Competitors, The Free Yes, It’s for Real,” Business Week, 18 January, p. 77. Abstract Press New York. In order to reduce India’s over dependence on the European and American Chandrasekaran, V (1996): “Business Quality- The Premchander (1997): “Indian Software Industry: A markets and to take advantage of the surging economies of many of the East Cutting Edge,” Management Review, January- Diagnostic Analysis,” Management Review, Asian Countries, the Government of India formulated the Look East Policy in the March, pp. 12-20 January-March, pp. 11-19. year 1991. A historical review: The United Kingdom accounted for a lion’s share of India’s foreign trade in the pre-independence period. A policy of market Economic Survey: 2000-2001 (2001): Government of Richard A Scorce (2008): “IT Staff Management diversification was thereafter adopted, with gratifying results. Considerable India, New Delhi, p.22 Techniques for Improved Recruiting and trade developed with the other West European countries and the USA, substantially Evans, Peter (1992): “Indian Informatics in the 1980’s: Retention”, Journal of Business and Public Affairs, Vol-2,No-1, pp.1-10. reducing the level of India’s dependence on the UK. A special trading The Changing Character of State Involvement,” arrangement was concluded with the erstwhile USSR which took the position of World Development, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 1-18. Siwek, Stephen E. and Harold W. Furchtgott-Roth number one trade partner of India in the 1980’s. In all this development, South Ghosh, Piyali and Geetika (2006): “Retention Strategies (1993): International Trade in Computer Software, East Asia was left untouched. The astounding economic growth achieved in the in the Indian IT Industry”, Indian Journal of Quorum Books, Westport. 1970’s and 1980’s by the South East Asian countries did not make much difference economics and business, December 1. to India’s export trade. Developing strong trade relationship with the burgeoning Soonhee Kim (2005): “Factors Affecting State economies of this region was desirable not only from the economic point of view, Heeks, Richard (1996): India’s Software Industry: State Government Information Technology Employee but also from the political. In a paper under the captioned title, it is proposed to Policy, Liberalization and Industrial Development, Turnover Intention”, American Review of Public make a critical evaluation of the results achieved so far and also to outline the Sage Publications, New Delhi. Administartion, Vol 35, No-2, pp137-156 future prospects. Info Tech Consulting Inc. (1992): India’s Software & Steven G. Westlund and John C. Hannon (2008): Services Export Potential & Strategies, Parsippany, “Retaining Talent-Assessing Job Satisfaction Facets New Jersey. Most Significantly Related to Software Developers Introduction of its trade before independence, today Turnover Intentions”, Journal of Information accounts for no more than 5 % of India’s Information Technology Action Plan-III (1999): India’s foreign trade took a Technology Management, Vol-20, No-4, pp1-15. exports and 4 % of its imports. Trade is spread Government of India, April, New Delhi. westward orientation during the colonial over a large number of countries, with no Kopetz, Hermann, “The Software Market: Emerging Syed Munir Khasru (2006): “An Overview of the Software period. The British rulers looked at India, as country accounting for more than 18 % share. Trends,” in Software Industry: Current Trends and Industry in Bangladesh”, The Cost and Management, indeed at all their colonies, as a source of raw Vol. 34 No. 6, November-December, pp. 31-39. Likewise, dramatic changes have taken place Implications for Developing Countries, United materials for the growing industries in their Nations Industrial Development Organization, Vienna. in the commodity composition of the country’s Terence R.Mitchell,Brooks C.Holtom and Thomas W. country and as a captive market for their trade. At the time of independence, roughly Mark A. Huselid and Nancy E Day (1991): “Organizational Lee (2001): “How to Keep Your Best Employees: manufactured products. Things started Commitment, job Involvement and Turnover: A Developing an Effective Retention Policy”, changing after independence. Diversification 75 % of the country’s exports consisted of Substantive and Methodological Analysis”, Journal Academy Journal of Management executive, Vol- of trade and also significant changes in the agricultural commodities and industrial raw of Applied Psychology, Vol 76, No-3, pp380-391. 16, No-4, pp.96-109 commodity composition of trade started taking materials but today manufactured goods account for nearly 80 % of its exports. Mowery, David C. (ed.) (1996): The International Vijayan, Jaikumar (1996): “In Depth: Look Out, Here Comes place. The UK, which accounted for the bulk Computer Software Industry: A Comparative Study India,” Computerworld, 26 February, pp.101-4. of Industry Evolution and Structure, Oxford University Press, New York. Zielenziger, Michael (1995): “By Design: India’s Software Houses Lure Foreign Money”, Far Dr M Banumathi is an Assistant Professor of Department of Humanities and Management, BITS-Pilani Goa Campus, Muhammed Wasim Bhatti, Ali Ahsan and Ali Sajid Eastern Economic Review, 10 August, pp. 64-65. Goa. E-mail: [email protected].

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 IJSAS 2(2) 2009, pp.204-215. ISSN 0974 - 2514 205 India’s Trade Relationship with the Burgeoning Economies of South East Asia Banumathi 206

The above transformation, which is South East Asian: Indonesia, Malaysia, service sector dominates and Myanmar which, remain a predominantly agricultural country, all largely due to deliberate policy measures Singapore, Thailand, Myanmar, Philippines and because of its closed economy, continues to the others are fast industrializing their economies. adopted in the last 50 years, is commendable Vietnam. As our trade with Laos and indeed. But a great disappointment is that Cambodia is very small, these two countries Table 2 : Contribution to GDP, Percent India’s share in world trade plummeted during have been omitted. Agriculture Industry Services this period: from more than 2 % in 1947, the Country Economic Profiles of the Countries 1990 2007 1990 2007 1990 2007 country’s share in world trade slipped steadily, Indonesia 19 14 39 47 42 39 standing at 0.8 % today. The simple message It is necessary to understand the from this is that the growth rate of India’s structure and growth of the economies of these Malaysia 15 10 42 47 43 43 exports has been far below that of most other countries, in order to appreciate their potential Singapore 0 0 34 29 65 70 countries during this period. Due to a variety as India’s trade partners. Thailand 13 11 37 44 50 45 of reasons including its inward-looking Table 1: Population and GDP economic policies, India failed to make use of Myanmar 57 46 11 17 32 36 the growth opportunities provided by the Population GDP Per Philippines 22 14 35 32 44 54 in Millions Capita in burgeoning world trade. Country (Year: PPPD Vietnam 39 20 23 42 39 38 2007) (Year:2007) The year 1990 marked a watershed India 31 18 28 29 41 53 in Indian economic policy. As part of the Indonesia 224 4931 (for comparison) process of economic liberalization and Malaysia 27 14256 Source: World Bank World Development Indicators, 2008. integration with the world economy, India Singapore 5 37360 started adopting policy measures and action Thailand 66 10678 The decline in the share of agriculture International Trade plans to raise its share of world trade. The Myanmar 59 2193 and the increase in the share of industry and current Foreign Trade Policy aims at doubling services may be noted. The decade beginning with 1990 India’s share in global trade to 1.5 % by the Philippines 89 5918 year 2009. One of the several government Vietnam 85 3836 Table 3: Annual Average Percentage Growth initiatives formulated in 1991 for the purpose India 1134 3190 Export Trade Import Trade of achieving this goal is the Look East Policy (for comparison) Country 1980-1990 1990-2004 1980-1990 1990-2004 which aims at enhancing the country’s Source: Asian Development Bank-Outlook 2008. Indonesia -1.3 6.5 2.6 3.2 diplomatic, cultural, economic and trade Of the seven countries in the list, one relations with the countries of South East Asia. (Singapore) belongs to High Income Group, Malaysia 8.6 9.3 7.7 7.2 These countries in our backyard have seen another (Malaysia) belongs to Upper Middle Singapore 9.9 7.5 8.0 5.5 remarkable growths in economy and trade in Income Group, two (Thailand and Philippines) Thailand 14.0 8.8 12.7 5.2 recent decades and could have provided us belong to Lower Middle Income Group and Myanmar -7.6 16.7 -4.7 14.8 with vast opportunities for exchange of goods remaining three (Indonesia, Myanmar and and services, The Look East Policy, however, Vietnam) are Low Income countries, the Philippines 3.9 13.6 2.9 8.8 is a highly potent instrument for growth in category to which India belongs. Vietnam NA 15.8 NA 13.7 India’s foreign trade, though late in coming. Structure of Economy India This paper attempts to assess India’s 7.3 9.7 4.2 10.3 (for comparison) trade with seven of the countries which are As may be seen from Table 2 given classified by Asian Development Bank as below, with the exception of Singapore in which Source: World Bank World Development Indicators, 2006.

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showed a remarkable expansion of foreign Integration with world economy Table 5: Direction of Exports (% of Total) trade of these seven countries, all of them with few exceptions showing growth rates much The indicators given in Table 4 go DMCs* China Japan USA EU to demonstrate the high level of integration Country above the world average, partly reflecting their 1990 2002 1990 2002 1990 2002 1990 2002 1990 2002 of the national economies with the global liberalized economic and trade policies. Table Indonesia 18.4 30.3 3.2 5.1 42.5 21.1 13.1 13.2 12.0 13.9 3 illustrates the point. economy. Malaysia 40.0 37.8 2.1 5.6 15.3 11.3 16.9 20.2 15.4 12.4 Table 4 : Integration with Global Economy Singapore 34.7 43.9 1.5 5.5 8.8 7.1 21.3 15.3 15.0 12.5 Trade in goods as % of Net Foreign Direct Thailand 19.3 28.7 1.2 5.2 17.2 14.5 22.7 19.6 22.7 14.8 GDP Investment as % of GDP Country Myanmar 49.0 50.5 8.1 4.8 6.9 3.8 2.3 13.2 6.9 13.8 1990 2007 1990 2007 Philippines 14.2 26.5 0.8 3.9 19.8 15.0 37.9 24.7 18.5 18.1 Indonesia 41.5 43.6 1.0 0.3 Vietnam 25.3 18.0 0.3 6.4 13.5 14.6 0.0 14.9 6.8 24.2 Malaysia 133.4 172.9 5.3 -1.4 India (for 11.3 16.4 0.1 4.2 9.3 3.8 15.1 22.9 27.7 22.9 Singapore 307.6 348.2 15.1 7.3 comparison) Thailand 65.7 119.3 3.0 3.2 Source : Asian Development Bank Outlook 2004 Myanmar 5.6 NA 0.7 NA * DMCs stand for Developing Member Countries of ADB. Philippines 47.7 75.3 1.2 -0.4 Vietnam 79.7 157.3 2.8 9.3 It may also be seen from the above · trade with China has registered an table that India has slightly increased its share impressive rise, reflecting perhaps the India 13.1 33.5 0.1 1.4 of exports to the Developing Member role of many of the countries under (for comparison) Countries of ADB. Its performance with the study as suppliers of components or Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2008. South East Asian countries under study will parts to the manufacturing industries be dealt with in a later section of this paper. of China.(The Economist Oct 2004). It needs to be noted that the rates of countries registered a remarkable growth in Conclusions from Part II India’s Trade Policy Towards and Volume growth in both foreign trade and foreign direct exports to China; (b) Japan as an export of Trade With South East Asia investment of the South East Asian countries destination showed a marked decline in The presentation made above in this for outstripped those of India, whose own importance; (c) exports to Developing Member part of the paper clearly establish that Till the beginning of the last decade, performance has not been insubstantial during Countries (of Asian Development Bank) · the economies of the group of seven India’s efforts to promote its foreign trade were this period. showed impressive gains. The USA and EU, countries under study have undergone focused on the west, mainly Europe and the the traditionally important export destinations USA. Even the diversion of markets was taking Direction of trade much liberalization and increased for these countries were losing their degree of integration with the global place mainly in these regions. Historical importance, the exports of the major Between 1990 and 2002, very economy; connections were an important reason for this. significant changes took place in the direction exporters of this group of seven countries Besides, it was these regions which were able of exports of the seven countries under study. (Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand) · the foreign trade of the countries in to meet the capital goods and technology The most significant changes were: (a) registering decline. Table 5 given below question have not only grown at a requirements of India during the period of its reflecting their own growing manufacturing shows the destination-wise export share of the vigorous rate but also have undergone rapid industrialization. The external trade of industry and the pull of the great manufacturing seven countries to the different destinations, significant changes in their the South East Asian countries were also west- power house that is China, every one of these illustrating the above points. composition and direction; oriented, again mainly due to historical reasons,

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with the possible exception of Singapore which India at the second ASEAN-India summit held Trends in Foreign Trade of Seven Countries has all along been a major centre of entrepot in October, 2003 in Bali, Indonesia. The Indonesia M alays ia trade. Six of the seven countries were colonies agreement envisages liberalization of trade in 5000 4000 4500 3500 of European powers. The only country which gradual stages, culminating in the n 4000 3000 3500 2500 did not come under any colonial power was establishment of free trade by the year 2012. 3000 2500 2000 Thailand. India also committed to aligning its peak tariffs 2000 1500 1500 1000 to East Asian levels by 2005. 1000 500 Values in USD millio USD in Values 500 Value s i n U SD m illi on Myanmar was a province of British 0 0 India till its independence in 1948. The present Simultaneously India is engaged in 1991-92 1992-93 19 9 3 - 9 4 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 20 0 0 - 0 1 2001-02 2002-03 20 0 3 - 0 4 2004-05 2005-06 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 Malaysia was a British colony from 1794 until upgrading its trade relations with selected Year Year

1948. Vietnam was a French colony for long. members of the ASEAN on a one-to-one basis. Exports Imports E xports Imports Indonesia was ruled by the Dutch from 1816 A Framework Agreement for creation of a to 1945. And Philippines, which carries the Free Trade Area between India and Thailand Sin ga po re Thailand 10000 25 00 name of the Spanish King Philip, was a was signed in October, 2003. In terms of this 90 00 80 00 20 00 Spanish colony till it was transferred in 1898 agreement India agreed to reduce its import 70 00 60 00 15 00 following the Spanish-American war to the US duties by 50 % by April, 2004 on a Early 50 00 40 00 10 00 who ruled it till its independence in 1946. it Harvest List of 84 items. Negotiations for 30 00 20 00 500 Val ue s in USD mi ll ion concluding a Comprehensive Economic Co- 10 00 million USD in Values was towards the end of the 1970s that the 0 0 countries in the region started organizing for operation Agreement with Singapore are 199 1-9 2 19 92-9 3 19 93-9 4 199 4-95 199 5-9 6 19 96-9 7 1997-98 199 8-9 9 19 99-0 0 2000-01 200 1-02 200 2-0 3 2003-04 2004-05 200 5-0 6 1991-92 1992 -9 3 1993 -9 4 19 94-95 19 95-96 1996-97 1997-98 199 8-99 1999-00 2000-01 200 1-02 200 2-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005 -0 6 increasing economic co-operation among underway. Year Year themselves. The conclusion of Preferential Exports Im p o rt s Exports Imports India has taken several other initiatives Trading Agreement (PTA) among the ASEAN to deepen its economic relations with countries members in 1979 was a major step in this Myanmar Vie tn am in the region. These include the Mekong- direction. 70 0 800 Ganga Co-operation and BIMST-EC, which 60 0 700 600 50 0 500 It was not until 1992 that India provides the framework for cooperation 40 0 400 30 0 established special relationship with the between India and five South East Asian 300 20 0 200 Val ues i U n SD m ill io n ASEAN. In that year India was accepted by countries, viz., Bangladesh, Indonesia, 10 0 Val ue sUSD in mi100 ll io n ASEAN as a Special Dialogue Partner in the Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand. 0 0 19 91 -92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 19 95 -96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 19 99 -00 20 00 -01 2001-02 20 02 -03 20 03 -0 4 2004-05 2005-06 trade, investment, tourism and science and 19 91-9 2 1 992 -93 19 93-9 4 1 994 -95 19 95-96 1 996 -97 19 97-98 1 998 -99 1 999 -00 200 0-01 2 001 -02 200 2-03 2 003 -04 200 4-05 2 005 -06 The policy measures and new Year technology sectors. The position got upgraded Year initiatives taken by India have resulted in a Exports Im p o r t s Exports Imp orts in the year 1996. In July, 1996 India was significant increase in the two-way trade admitted as a member of the Asean Regional between India and the seven countries in Vie tn am countries and imports from each of them Forum which is concerned with matters 800 question (Table 6). The values of merchandise 700 registered an impressive increase between relating to security. A milestone in relations 600 1991-92 and 2005-06, although the rising trend trade over the period 1991-92 and 2005-06 with 500 with ASEAN was reached when India- each of the seven countries, year wise, are 400 was interrupted in varying degrees in the three ASEAN summit meeting was held in Phnom 300 given in the Annexure- I to this paper. The 200 years starting with 1998-99. These were the Penh in November, 2002. The relationship was Val ue sUSD in mi ll io100 n graphs shown below illustrate the trends. 0 years of the South East Asian financial crisis taken a step higher with the signing of a which had a severe impact especially on 19 91 -92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 19 95 -96 1996-97 1997-98 19 9 8-9 9 19 99 -00 20 00 -01 2001-02 20 02 -03 20 03 -0 4 2004-05 2005-06 Framework Agreement on Establishment of It may be noted from the above that Year Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. Free Trade Agreement between ASEAN and both India’s exports to each of the seven Exports Imp orts The two-way trade crossed USD 4 billion in

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the case of Singapore, USD 3 billion in the Table 6: India’s Trade with South East Table 7: List of Major Commodities Exchanged case of Indonesia and Malaysia and USD 1.5 Asia (In USD million) billion in the case of Thailand. Trade with the Year Exports Imports Exports from India Imports into India remaining four countries, with whom the trade 1991-92 1026 1326 Gems and Jewellery Vegetable oils was negligible in 1990-91, has also grown Iron and Steel Electronic goods significantly. 1992-93 1247 1283 1993-94 1679 1158 Oil meals Wood and wood products Problems and Prospects 1994-95 1904 1996 Electronic goods Organic chemicals In assessing the performance of 1995-96 2708 2745 Drugs and pharmaceuticals Transport equipments India’s trade with South East Asia in general Dyes Non-electrical machinery and with the seven countries under study in 1996-97 2855 2977 particular, the stupendous difficulties faced by 1997-98 2470 3607 Manmade yarn and fabrics Pulses India should be borne in mind. Till the 1980’s, 1998-99 1618 4316 Other metals Ores and metal scraps apathy was mutual. For the South East Asian 1999-00 2225 5090 Inorganic, organic and agro chemicals Coal countries, India was a difficult country because of its slow pace of economic reforms, lack of 2000-01 2865 4063 consistency in policies, indecisive and lethargic 2001-02 3450 4398 view was demonstrated by the devastating component manufacturers in Thailand will enjoy bureaucracy and a high level of corruption. 2002-03 4602 5160 financial crisis which gripped many of the advantages to such an extent that Thailand will As far as India was concerned, the fast pace 2003-04 5801 7437 ASEAN and some other Far Eastern countries turn out to be the low-cost base for Indian of globalization and economic liberalization in in the late 1990’s. As a result, trade and other automobile manufacturers and others to import 2004-05 8394 9109 the ASEAN group of countries were not economic exchanges between the two sides both components and finished products like something suited to India. The validity of this 2005-06 10439 10607 were far below potential. steering assemblies. (Tom Yam Swamp by Arindan Mukherjee, Outlook 18 Oct. 2004). The tariff differential between India The fear is that the Indo- Thai Free Trade and the seven South East Asian countries was Agreement may similarly affect several other too wide to facilitate growth in trade. Table 8 sectors like consumer durables, consumer illustrates the point. electronics and textiles. The anticipated The difficulties involved in India migration of manufacturing activities in some establishing free trade arrangement with the sectors from India to Thailand may, of course, ASEAN can be easily imagined. Bringing have very adverse consequences on industry down the duties to the level of ASEAN has and employment in India. serious implications for Indian economy in The problem, therefore, boils down to general and the manufacturing sector in one basic question: Is India prepared to go the particular. Even the reduction of tariffs by 50 whole way towards bringing its tariff rates % on a selected list of 84 items under the down to those of the South East Asian Framework Agreement with Thailand has led countries? The difficulties involved in India to vociferous protests from Indian taking such a step are numerous. The manufacturers of automobiles components and experience with FTA concluded with Sri Lanka parts. They apprehend that, because of the readily comes to one’s mind. To alleviate the very low duties on raw materials, the auto hardships experienced by Indian producers of

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Table 8: The Tariff Differential Between India and The South East Asian Countries the course of preparatory work for all trade adversely affect some sectors but the (% weighted mean tariff) agreements and also at the negotiation stage. government has to take steps to ameliorate the sufferings of people so affected and to All Prim ary Manufactured A view is sometimes expressed that Country Year encourage growth in other areas with a view the scope for achieving any notable increase Products Products Products to maximizing the gains to the economy. Indonesia 1989 13.2 5.9 15.1 in trade with South East Asian countries is limited by the absence of complementarities Conclusion 2004 5.5 3.2 6.2 among the economies concerned. This view South East Asia and East Asia are Malaysia 1988 9.7 4.6 10.8 has been invalidated by the increasing trend regions of high economic growth and towards outsourcing on a global scale. In many 2003 4.2 2.1 4.6 burgeoning foreign trade. India stands to gain cases, countries no longer manufacture a Singapore 1989 1.1 2.5 0.6 tremendously by establishing closer product 100 % within their respective national cooperation with the countries in the region. 2003 0.0 0.0 0.0 borders; parts and components are outsourced India’s efforts in recent years to upgrade its Thailand 1989 33.0 24.3 34.9 from countries with low costs and the finished economic relations with the ASEAN countries products are sold all over the globe. What is 2003 8.3 4.4 9.3 are in the right direction and have in fact currently happening in South East Asia and produced highly satisfactory results. But the Myanmar 2001 4.8 5.1 4.7 the Far East is a striking example to illustrate path has many pitfalls and, hence, needs to be 2004 4.1 4.6 3.9 this trend. Table 5 of this paper showed how treaded with care. Philippines 1988 22.4 18.5 23.4 China is beginning to account for a rapidly increasing share of the exports of the seven Trade in merchandise, with which this 2003 2.6 5.0 2.0 countries under study. Asian Development paper was concerned so far, is only one part, Vietnam 1994 20.6 46.5 12.9 Bank’s Outlook 2004 clearly brings out (page albeit a major part, of the economic exchanges 2004 14.5 17.7 13.3 5) the increasing scale of production-sharing, among the ASEAN countries and India. Trade or vertical specialization, in the East and South India 1990 56.2 34.1 70.8 in services like travel, tourism, health care and, East Asian region. Referring to China’s of course, information technology hold great 2004 28.0 36.9 25.3 increasing import of components and parts opportunities for India. Such exchanges will Source : World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2006. from other countries in the region, the Report help promote not only economic prosperity but states that, “ the structural trade balances also social and political stability among the between PRC and its major trading partners people of this region who historically share so tea, rubber, etc., India had to hike the duties movement of jobs is inherent in the process of clearly show its role as an assembly centre much in common in terms of culture and on these items, which happened to be the very economic integration and globalization and, for many exports from Asia to the US and civilization. same items of interest to Sri Lanka. This is then, to bemoan the movement of any jobs from EU”. It adds that production-sharing is not an argument for eliminating or slashing the India to other countries brought about by FTAs expected to become more important to regional duties whatever the consequences for Indian that it voluntarily chooses to sign, is trade, facilitated by improvements in References industry and economy. It only highlights the incongruent. What is needed is adoption of a transportation and communication and falling need to identify what are sensitive items to give-and-take policy with built-in safeguards Amit Baruch (2000): “Looking East the launch of the trade and investment barriers. India preparatory to trade negotiations and to to protect against any socially or economically Mekong-Ganga Co-operation in Laos Signals a New Beginning in India’s Foreign Policy, but will skillfully negotiate the FTAs. But it should be disastrous consequences that may flow from India, as another fast-growing large it Gather Momentum?”, The Front Line, Vol.17, realized that India cannot have it both ways. any trade agreement. For this purpose, the economy in Asia, has to be prepared for similar issue 24, Nov.25-Dec.8. To argue, in the context of BPO outsourcing Government of India will have to involve Indian changes if it is to fully participate and gain from by the Western countries to India, that such industry and trade in an increased measure in the forces of globalization. The process may Asian Development Bank Outlook 2008.

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Bhattia, R.C (2001): International Business with Asian Nagesh Kumar, Rahul Sen & Mukul Asher (2006): India- Urbanization in South Asia with Special Reference to Countries, Deep & Deep Publications, Delhi. ASEAN Economic Relations- Meeting the Challenges of Globalization, ISEAS publications. Bangalore – Its Impacts Chandan Irom (2000): “Whatever happened to India’s Look East Policy? The Mekong-Ganga Co- Rahul Sen, Mukul G. Asher, Ramakrishna S. Rajan Priya Narayanan operation”, The Hindu, 28th November. (2004): “Asean-India Economic Relations Current Status and Futures Prospects”, Economic and Christopher Reynolds (2002): Global Logic – The Political Weekly, July 17. Abstract challenge of Globalization for Southeast Asian Urbanization is one of the most rapid forms of social change in the world. While Business, Prentice Hall publications. Raja Mohan G (2004): “India and China: a Shifting the global urbanization is at the rate of 2 per cent, Asia’s urbanization is at the Paradigm”, The Hindu, 29th July. CMIE (July 2005): “Foreign Trade and Balance of rate of 2.3 per cent. Asia stands the second highest in the world for the rate of Payments”, CMIE Report, Publication of Centre RBI Annual Report (2007): RBI publication. urbanization after Africa. This paper aims to study the urban demographics of for Monitoring Indian Economy Pvt. Ltd., South Asia and its effects. The effects are felt and experienced than studied. Sultan Shahin (2003): “India’s “Look East” Policy Pays Hence they are explained through the reference of Bangalore. The paper Economic Survey 2004-05 (2005): Government of India off”’, Asia Times, 11th October. concludes that urbanization would pose the greatest challenge for the developing publication. countries and should be dealt with efficient technologies to avoid disasters. Vibha, Mathur (2003): Foreign Trade of India Policy Jayapalan N (2004): Foreign Policy of India, Atlantic and Developments 1950-2000, New Century Publishers and Distributors. publications. The Urban Magnets Jon E. Hilsenrath (2000): “India’s Economy is set to World Development Indicators (2007): World Bank Introduction Beat China”, Asian Wall Street Journal, 27th April. publication. Until near past, urbanization and urban During 1970s to 1990s the emergence Kupppuswamy C.S (2003): “India’s Look East Policy: growth was considered as signs of of cities with more than 10 million populations Gaining Momentum with the Prime”, South Asia modernization. Urbanization was defined as was twice as great in developing countries as Analysis Group Paper, 819, 20th October. transfer of population from hinterlands to urban experienced in developed countries. Since the centres that stimulates the needs and provides UN projections reveals that 23 or 27 cities with the conditions needed for “take off” towards more than 10 million population in 2015 and 36 wide spread participation. Cities provide of 44 cities with more than 5 million population machine tools for modernization1. are to be concentrated in the south, gives a clear alarm call to curl urbanization. It is in All cities do not enjoy sustainable these fast growing cities where greatest development. While cities and towns are challenges of sustainable developments have defined as engines of growth and incubators to be met. of civilization expanding knowledge, culture, tradition, industries and commerce, it is the The rural population of Asia is same cities and towns which cause concerns predicted to decline in the next three decades on pollution, land use change, slums, heat and the urban population is expected to double. islands and loss of ecology. However it also divulges that there are

Dr Priya Narayanan is a Guest Faculty of the Department of Geography, Bangalore University, Bangalore, India. E-mail: [email protected]

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 IJSAS 2(2) 2009, pp.216-227. ISSN 0974 - 2514 217 Urbanization in South Asia with Special Reference to Bangalore – Its Impacts Priya Narayanan 218

Figure 1: Urban and World Population Trends (in billions) Table 2: Asia’s Largest Countries: Urban Population, Number and Percentage Estimates, 1950 and 2000 and Projections, 2030 1950 2000 2030

No (‘000) % % of growth No (‘000) % % of growth No (‘000) % 1950-2000 2000-203 China 69,528 12.5 556.3 456,340 35.8 93.6 883,421 59.5 India 61,695 17.3 352.3 279,045 27.7 106.3 575,684 40.9 Indonesia 9,863 12.4 781.5 86,943 41.0 107.1 180,019 63.7 Pakistan 6,949 17.5 572.9 46,757 33.1 184.9 133,226 48.9 Bangladesh1,774 4.2 1,836.5 34,354 25.0 186.9 98,554 44.3 Japan 42,065 50.3 137.9 100,089 78.8 2.7 102,819

Source: United Nations 2002.

variations between individual three residents in East Asia will live in urban Table 3: Population and Growth Rate of Urban Agglomerations With More Than 10 countries and regions with in Asia. This is areas while the urban proportion will be 44 Million Inhabitants in 2011, 1975-2015 as a result of geography and economic percent in South Central Asia and 56.5 Cities Population in Millions Growth Rate (%) policies that any country experiences. Table percent in south eastern Asia. It is 1975 2000 2001 2015 1972-2000 2000-2015 1 show that South -Central Asia is the least especially important to consider trends in urbanized part of the region with less than a the largest nations (Table 2). Table 3 shows Tokyo 19.8 26.4 26.5 27.2 1.16 0.19 third (29.8 percent) of its population living the population of urban agglomeration of Mumbai 7.3 16.1 16.5 22.6 3.13 2.26 in urban areas while Eastern Asia is the most south Asia with more than 10 million urbanized (41.6 percent). By 2030 two in population. Calcutta 7.9 13.1 13.3 16.7 2.02 1.66 Dhaka 2.2 12.5 13.2 22.8 7.00 3.99 Table 1: Asia: Urban Population, Number and Percentage Estimates, 1950 to 2000 Delhi 4.4 12.4 13.0 20.9 4.13 3.45 and Projections, 2030 Shanghai 11.4 12.9 12.8 13.6 0.48 0.36

1950 2000 2030 Jakarta 4.8 11.0 11.4 17.3 3.31 3.00

No (‘000) % No (‘000) % No (‘000) % Osaka 9.8 11.0 11.0 11.0 0.45 0.00 Eastern Asia 121,250 18.0 616,845 41.6 1,064,756 62.7 Beijing 8.5 10.8 10.8 11.7 0.95 0.49 South Central Asia 82,882 16.6 440,879 29.8 968,944 44.0 Karachi 4.0 10.0 10.4 16.2 3.69 3.19 South Eastern Asia 26,305 14.8 196,029 37.5 407,174 56.5 Metro Manila 5.0 10.0 10.1 12.6 2.75 1.56 Asia 230,437 17.1 1,253,753 34.9 2,440,874 52.5 Source: United Nations 2002, 9Note: Urban agglomerations are ordered according to their Source: United Nations 2002. population size in 2001.

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Effects of Urbanization unemployment persuade for mushrooming of 12058’ N latitude and 770 36’E Longitude, and The city of Bangalore survived for informal settlements and informal jobs. elevated 916 meters above mean sea level. nearly two and half centuries without It was already said that by 2008, more noticeable physical expansion. This can be than one half of the world’s population will be Urban areas affect the environment Decadal Growth and Composition of mainly attributed to the economic activity living in urban areas that is cities of different in three ways: through the conversion of land Population which was predominantly agriculture or sizes2. This will make 21st Century what many to urban use, the extraction and depletion of Bangalore became the sixth largest collection of surplus from country side. But believe to be truly urban century3. Most of natural resources and the disposal of urban city in India. Employment opportunities was the booms in industrialization and the urban population explosion is due to waste. More population means more hands initially in the public sector, and then in textile globalization have led to surprising rise in migration. People migrate from rural to urban to work but more than that, it is more mouths and high technology industries which resulted population and expansion of the city limits. areas with the scope of employment, better to feed and more waste to handle. The in migration of people to Bangalore. The 2001 In the decade of 1991-2001, the growth rate standard of living and better exposure to impacts of this are widely felt but were rarely census population of Bangalore was 56.86 urban population in Karnataka was 28.85%, technology. In the South Asian region, 40% efficiently handled in many of developing lakh, but the (new draft) City Development as against the aggregate population growth of the urban population is due to migration countries. One of the world’s ongoing crises Plan of BDA has included population in the rate of 17.25%. Bangalore grew at a much during 1970-1990. In India rural-urban will be radical restructuring of population and peripheral villages and estimated the faster rate, and the population of Bangalore migration is well evidenced and experienced. culture as people in less developed countries metropolitan area population as 61.70 lakh. increased from 41.30 lakh to 56.86 lakh In 1971, 20.22 per cent of the population were move into cities4. In all cities, parks have The growth of Bangalore from a town to a during the decade 1991-2001, representing urban, during 1971-81, the urban population played a greater role as the city’s lung space, metropolis has been a result of five growth a decadal increase of 37.7%, which made shot to 46 per cent, while the rural population with associated greenery. But increasingly events: Shifting of the State Capital from Bangalore one of the fastest-growing Indian registered a growth of only 16 percent. natural forests are being added to the list of Mysore; Establishment of the Cantonment; metropolises, after New Delhi (51.93%). Temporary migration is more significant here, areas providing recreation choices to the urban Setting up Public Sector Undertakings/ Figure 1 shows the population growth and such that the earning member of the family population5. The effects can be well studied Academic Institutions; Development of Textile illustrates sharp spurts in population growth in leaves behind the family in the home town and and realized by studying closely the Industry; and Development of Information the decades 1941-51 and 1971-1981. migrates to urban areas for occupational urbanization of any one particular city. Technology/ITES/Biotech based industries. causes. Nearly one million workers from south Introduction to Bangalore Asia especially from Bangladesh, India, Figure 2: Growth Curve of Population Pakistan and Sri Lanka emigrate each year to Bangalore, the fifth largest 60 56.86 Middle east. The Middle East countries hire metropolitan city in India with 6 million the outsourced work force, their policies for populations is known as technological hub, for 50 Software Industries permanent settlement for the emigrated it being a hub of technology based industries. & Services 41.3 population is very rigid which forces them to Hence, it is also called as Silicon Valley of 40 go back to their countries. Such kind of policies India. For its space for greenery, it is also Growth Phase II 29 .21 can be encouraged for migration between two known as Garden city of India, for which it 30 State Capital & Military Industries

n Lakhs n Lakhs Growth Phase – I Textile countries. But, migration within a country is was honoured with Indira Priyadharshine I Industries & Military 16. 64 major problem. Especially for a country like Vriksha Mritra award in the year 1980. For it 20 Establishments India, where agriculture is the predominant 12 .06 offers a very pleasant living conditions, it was 7. 86 10 4.1 occupation, breach of agricultural yields due also called as Pensioner’s paradise. All these 3. 09 1.63 1.89 2.4 to natural or cultural causes push the rural adjectives would give us an adulated picture 0.9 8 population to the urban areas. Due to this 0 of Bangalore. But these are stories of the 1860 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 migration factor, the formal economies will be past. The present urban Bangalore suffers unable to absorb the enormous influx workers, under the eclipse of urbanization. Bangalore, Census Period Growth curve of Population which again lead to unemployment. This the state capital of Karnataka is situated at

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Table 4: Growth of Population in Bangalore About one third of the population increase in 10% of the total BMP population of 43.01 lakh. poor. The CDP has taken into account all slums the Bangalore region is attributed to the fact The increase in number of slums in Bangalore spread throughout Bangalore (encompassing Census Percentage Persons that new areas were added to the Bangalore is a problem that has not yet been completely area under the control of BMP, 7 CMCs, and Year in increase urban agglomeration. Adjusting this factor, the addressed. However, growth in poverty levels 1 TMC). The total number of slums captured 1861 98,000 net increase in population during 1991-2001 is mitigated to some extent due to availability in the survey is 542 and the number of households was approximately 22%. Table 4 shows the of jobs provided by the growing Services proposed to be redeveloped is estimated to be 1871 1,44,479 growth composition of population. sector. Karnataka Slum Clearance Board 217,257. Table 5 shows the details of slums, while 1881 1,55,857 7.88 has focused on proving the amenities in Table 6 shows the access levels of the urban The City forces to grow out of its slums to address basic issues relating to urban poor, to infrastructure services. 1891 1,80,366 15.73 existing boundary with the increase in the 1901 1,63,000 -9.58 population. Most of the time the growth is Figure 3: Population Composition 1911 1,89,000 16.18 through natural increase in the inmate’s population. Ironically, Bangalore being a Tech- 1921 2,40,000 26.69 city the growth is governed through the 1931 3,00,900 29.05 migratory population than the Natural growth. 1941 4,10,000 32.66 The composition of population growth of Bangalore is summarized in the Table 5. 1951 7,86343 91.34 1961 12,06,961 53.49 Urban Poverty 1971 16,64,208 37.88 While Bangalore’s employment increased twice as much as the population and 1981 29,21,751 75.56 incomes increased three times faster than the 1991 41,30,288 41.36 population, the inequality of this latest growth 2001 56,86,844 37.69 leads to the increased difficulties for the urban poor. However, the key challenge remains Source: Census of India, 2001. series growth devolution to all sections of the society. 30, Karnataka. Provisional Population As per the 2001 census, the slum population Totals, Paper 2 of 2001. in the BMP area is 4.30 lakh, which is about

Table 5 : Composition of Population Growth

Composition 1981 - 91 % of 1991-2001 % of total Urban Infrastructure Management infrastructure is undergoing the process called (lakhs) total (Lakhs) “Urban Decay”, where in existing infrastructure Unlike other cities, Bangalore is not a Natural Increase 2.66 22 3.42 22 by it’s over use and non-maintenance the city with dearth of finance. Here the problem infrastructure starts decaying. In-migration 5.44 45 7.00 45 lies with the governance and for the governance is the ever increasing population. Jurisdictional Change 4.06 33 5.19 33 Urban Health and Safety Robust infrastructural plans exist here too, but Total Increase 12.09 100 15.57 100 in the files. The plans of metro rail, sky bus, While analyzing the health status of development plans on line of Singapore have the inmates of Bangalore city, the common Source: City Development Plan for Bangalore – BDA not seen its day of light yet. Here the existing diseases prevalent here are the gasterantytis

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Table 6: Details of Slums (GE), Tetanus, Diphtheria, measles, efficiently failing which owing to the density rabies, chickenpox, mums and others. There of population, the victims will be ever Agency No. of Slums No of Households Remarks is a perfect correlation with the diseases increasing. The figure 4 will give an insight Karnataka Slum occurrence and density of population of of fluctuating health situation of the city Clearance Board 218 106,266 Declared different wards of Bangalore. Where the inmates of the city. The major diseases (KASCB) density of population is found high, there the accounted here are GE, Chickenpox, Rabies BMP incidences of diseases are also reported high. and Tetanus. There are fluctuations on the 65 33,990 This is very evident for air borne and water number of the victims, but in the given East Zone borne diseases. Every year it is a challenge season, the set of diseases does occur every West Zone 65 28,926 for the health officials to handle the situation. year without fail, indicates poor eradication South Zone 39 10,132 Undeclared Every outbreak of diseases has to be handled measures. Total 169 70,048 Figure 4: Percentages of Occurrence of Diseases CMC’s 38 7,062 Byatarayanapura Krishnarajapura 19 1,020 Mahadevapura 22 8,547 Bommanahalli 40 3,764 139 R Nagar 15 1,351 Undeclared & Dasarahalli 16 13,497 14 Declared Yelahanka 03 2,589 Total 153 37,830 TMC 2 113 Kengeri Undeclared Grand Total 542 2,17,257 Source:-JNNURM – City Development Plan for Bangalore

Table 7: Access of Slum Dwellers to Basic Infrastructure

Year Percentage of Slum Dwellers Having Access to Source: Health Information system of Bangalore, M.Sc. Geography project work, Bangalore University, 2007. Water Supply Drainage System Waste Service Collection Toilets Inefficient Traffic Management system compounds the problem. This further 1991 NA NA NA NA Rising traffic congestion is one of the encourages the commuters to use individual 2001 17.1 17.1 17.1 34 key issues in the City. Though the length of vehicles avoiding the public transport. 2005 17.0 17.0 17.0 30 roads available is good, the problem lies with Added number of vehicles means added the restricted widths. BMTC is one of the chaotic traffic and added pollution there in. Source: Infrastructure Development and Investment Plan for Bangalore 2006 - 30, best bus transport corporations in the country, Table 4 throws light on number of registered STEM and NSS 58th Round 2002. but the absence of a rail-based commuter vehicles in Bangalore.

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Air Quality Table 8 - Registered Vehicles in Figure 5: Annual Average of Ambient Air Quality Bangalore, Year 2000 The air quality of the city has deteriorated beyond standard long before 1999. Vehicles No

The Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Two-Wheelers 10,53,007 Nitrogen as NO and Suspended Particulate 2 Cars 1,98,004 Matter (SPM) and Repairable Suspended Jeeps 6,822 Particulate Matter (RSPM/PM10) are regularly measured which the suspended Autos 60,750 particulate matter seems ever increasing. KSRTC 7,635 From the figure 5, we can interpret the levels of air pollution from the1999 to 2008-09. One Private Buses 1,509 main reason that can attribute to this alarming Goods Vehicles 41,244 air quality is increase in the vehicular population Contract carriages 768 of the city. Table 8, shows that in the year 2000, Bangalore had 14,18,376 registered Maxi Cabs 4,143 vehicles. But it is clarified from the Regional Total 14,18,361 Transport Office (RTO) Bangalore that till October 2007 there are 31,06,564 vehicles occupied by built up structures. When natural registered and this number stands next to drains are blocked, results in urban floods Chennai. With the introduction of economical during heavy rains. The concept of neo determinism in geography is well fit here. Man cars the number is expected to increase still Source: Sanjeev Aundhe ‘A Comprehensive study of three models for evaluating urban Infrastructure has the capability to determine or alter his further. If at this rate the vehicle population Projects” Ph.D Thesis, IIM Bangalore, 2001, P. 41. increases, Bangalore’s roads will choke with environment, but only to a certain extent, traffic issues. beyond which he will be the victim of nature’s providers to rock. For instance, when buildings by .25 degree Celsius every decade which agony. raises before infrastructure, then constructing calls for a great concern in the total global Urban Floods road to meet at right angles would not be warming scenario. Urban Sprawl practically possible. Bangalore’s sprawl is well Bangalore situated at a height of 927 Land Transformation and Loss of Ecology m from Mean sea level, with no perennial The irresponsible and poorly-planned evident with annexure of urban agglomeration source of water either through rivers or tanks development that destroys green and blue with every census reports. These urban The valued ecology of Bangalore is experiences floods during the rainy season. space and that causes urban chaos can be annexure Cleary indicate the new sprawl its forests and lakes. A synoptic view of Bangalore receives an average rainfall of termed as sprawl. The comparison of sprawl which is annexed with the Bangalore urban Bangalore from space through satellite imagery 970mm for the last 10 years. But for the past can be with cancerous disease process or a area. depicts Bangalore as green and blue spot virus6. Sprawl may said to happen at a rate at except the centre which is a concrete forest, four years Bangalore has been facing severe Climate Unreliability flooding. The main sources of ground water which the land is convert to non-agricultural “the city”. More than 50% of the city’s lakes for Bangalore are tanks. There were 265 or non-natural uses exceeds the rate of The annual average maximum are already lost to urbanization. The tanks in Bangalore as depicted in Survey of population growth7. A set of social, economic, temperature of Bangalore, which in 1963 was Comprehensive Development plan that was India maps, published in the 1972. The Satellite psychological, political and physical forces 28.9 degrees Celsius, rose to 29.9 degrees prepared in the year 2003 determined a green Imagery of the year 2007 shows only 110 operate here. The more common type of Celsius by 2008. For 45 years the annual belt for the city, in which today’s city exist and tanks, and every day the number is sprawl that happens here are discontinuous average temperature is increasing by one the green belt is pushed further away. Forest deteriorating. These tanks are filled up and “leap frog sprawl” which makes the service degree. There is an increase in temperature covers inside the city and in the periphery of

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the city are under high threat and are same. Hence, the urban magnetism has to be Artistic Freedom of Expression versus Communitarian encroached. Agricultural land and plantations reduced by strengthening and equipping the are converted into mega built up structures. rural areas with basic facilities that are Sentiments - A Case Study Land transformation is in high order and available in urban areas. Employment Binu Zachariah pretense the greatest threat to urban ecology. opportunities and industrial decentralizations are first positive move towards it. The urban Threat on Food Security areas have to be provided with better services Abstract The geography of land use models since they are the revenue yielder to the The paper attempts to situationalise the crisis which arose out of the conflicts between artistic freedom of expression on the one side and an army of powers suggests that any city would be surrounded government. Good and quality service, curl of such as the State, the Church and the community at large. By problematising the inflow population and support to rural by green belt with horticulture, agriculture and issue of artistic freedom and by attempting to draw borderlines for that freedom mixed forest. This green belt ensures the food developments would see a transformation to (if necessary or desirable) this paper tries to evaluate the crisis by taking an supply for the city. Bangalore is also surrounded the entire world and shall make it a better place independent and non-partisan stand. The paper analyses the justifications offered by green belt. This green belt in the periphery for co-existence. by proponents from both sides of the divide, with specific regard to the play, The of the city known as Rural Bangalore assures Sixth Holy Wound of Christ and attempts to see whether a middle path can be the city with food needs of the city. But Notes achieved by respecting both religious sentiments as well as artistic freedom of invariable urbanization and sprawl towards all 1. Daniel, Lerner (1958): The Passing of Traditional expression, even if it is difficult to accept opposing viewpoints. directions. It was calculated from the Indian Society: Modernizing the Middle East, The Free Remote Sensing Satellite Imagery (IRS) of the Press, New York, p.61. year 2001 showed the agricultural area as 2. Hall P. and Pfeiffer U (2000): Urban Future 21: A Freedom of expression is a The Sixth Holy Wound of Christ by 1064.86 sq.km, which constituted for 73% of Global Agenda for Twenty First Century Cities, fundamental right guaranteed in a democracy. P.M. Antony is an adaptation of the Greek the land use of Bangalore district. But in the Spon. London The dictionary defines the phrase as: ‘the right novelist Nikos Kazantzakis’ The Last year 2005, the agricultural area shrunk to 3. Zeng H., Sui D.Z., and Li S (2000): “Linking Urban to express one’s opinion freely.’ This paper Temptation of Christ (Kazantzakis 1960). In 531.98 sq.km which accounts for 24.36% of Field Theory with GIS and Remote Sensing to attempts to analyse the conflicts that arise when fact, a cursory reading of the two works would the land use. The agriculture land is shrinking Detect Signature of Rapid Urbanization on the manner in which an artist or a writer reveal the contents as being very similar, or at the rate of nearly 12% an year. The Landscape: Towards a New Approach for expresses his/her freedom to create a work rather, at most times identical, the differences consequences are felt with increasing price Characterizing Urban Sprawl”, Urban Geography, of art affects the religious sentiments of a between them being very marginal. Antony 26 (5), pp.410-434. of vegetables, diminishing farmer markets and community, in this case, the Christian states that his play is concerned with the Jews’ farmer participation in the markets, increasing 4. Jordan T.G. and Rowntree, L (1990): The Human community. Though the major thrust of the freedom struggle against the Roman empire: supermarkets for horticulture, agriculture and Mosaic - A Thematic Introduction to Cultural paper is on the clash between artistic freedom orchid products. This will further weaken the Geography, Haper Collins Publishers, New York. of expression and communitarian sentiments As far as I am concerned, it is the farmer’s participation in agriculture here, 5. Giok-Ling Ooi, Kalyani Chatterjea, Chew-Hung- encompassed within the context of the staging people of Israel who are important. which is a push factor to the city. Chang and Kenneth YT Lim (2007): Geographies of a play in Malayalam entitled The Sixth Holy The Christ in this expressive context of a Changing World: Global Issues in the early Wound of Christ, (Antony, 1988) the created quite a few doubts. Why did Conclusions 21st Century, Pearson Prentice Hall, Singapore. performance of which created a furore in Christ’s message of love fail in Israel? The effects of urbanizations and its 6. DiLorenzo. W (2000): “The Myth of Urban Kerala in the mid-1980s, the paper also touches And why does it fail even today? Is dimension are well studies and perceived. The Sprawl”, USA Today, May, 128: pp.54-6 upon the reception in India of recent works it possible to liberate an oppressed people through the concept of assurance of quality life in urban area is the 7. USEPA (2001): “Why should we be Concerened that discuss Christ. dream of every government that has ever come about Sprawl? The Environmental Protective true. Though the intensity of problems faced Agency”, available on line http://epa.gov/region5/ by every city is different, the problems are the air/sue/sprawl/html. Dr Binu Zachariah is a Senior Lecturer of the Department of English, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India.

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universal love? These are some of the Repeated conscious readings of the performance (Kochu 1986: 14). It seems that figures, a certain amount of care should be questions that I search for with regard Bible enabled me to see the resistance the authorities took offence at the words on taken not to offend the sentiments of a religious to Christ. This is different from of a community, which after being the leaflets printed for the play. Antony community. Leading the crusade against the Kazantzakis’ exposition. That is why described in the Old Testament appealed against the police action and his play was Bishop Kundukulam who felt that I said that this play has only a ‘distant becomes vague and unimportant in appeal was upheld by the Kerala High Court, the whole play was antithetical to the life and conformity’ with Kazantzakis’ text… the New Testament. Actually, is not which felt that, “It is part of a citizen’s freedom teachings of Christ. He argues that people (Antony 1986:19) there a continuation of this struggle in of expression and freedom of opinion to heeded his call to protest, because of their faith the New Testament also? (Antony present a play” (Kochu 1986: 16). in Christ. In a reply to whether or not the calling Antony adheres to his statement 1986:18) for the prohibition of the play is an that for him it is the freedom of Israel that Following this judgment the play was encroachment on the artist’s freedom of is substantial, and that Christ is a There may be an attempt by Antony staged as scheduled, on August 10th, in expression, the Bishop said that, “art should representation of this struggle. But he uses to depict the continuation of this liberation Aleppey. The dramatist also took the effort to not attempt to destroy the divinity of man” the nuances of Kazanzakis’ plot and at times struggle, but he cannot help letting the issue of explain that his play is not about an anti- (Mathrubhumi 1986: 8). the plot itself to paint his own portrait of the freedom struggle be overshadowed by the religious Christ, but instead an attempt to know Christ. Several instances may be cited to character of Christ, and he finds it difficult to more about the historicity of Christ in the It was around this time that the substantiate this—Jesus building the cross balance these two. Like in Kazantzakis’ text, context of Israel’s freedom struggle against Government of Kerala ordered the withdrawal for the crucifixion of the Zealot, Judas Christ does gain a certain kind of centrality. Rome. Though the High Court cleared the play of a text prescribed for study in the Calicut admonishing him for this, Mary’s concern But Antony seems unsure of whether to for staging, more problems cropped up after University, because it included an essay that for her son’s tormentations, her desire to see prioritise the freedom struggle or the character that. On November 3rd there was a mass dealt with the character of Christ as found in him lead a married life, the rabbi’s advice to of Christ. protest rally in Thrissur, led by the then Bishop Nikos Kazantzakis, The Last Temptation of Jesus to go to the monastery in the desert, Nevertheless, the play attracted wide of the Thrissur diocese, Bishop Joseph Christ. (Kalakoumudi, 1986: 7) This incident Jesus’ attraction towards Magdalene and attention not because of the playwright’s focus Kundukulam, urging the government to ban the cannot be viewed as separate from the vice-versa, Jesus planning his own on the freedom struggle of Israelites, but play. (Mathrubhumi, 1986: 6) The District prohibition of the play. Bishop Kundukulam betrayal, etc. because of the controversial depiction of Jesus Collector of Ernakulam banned the play stating expressed his views on this matter also: “That that, “the staging of this drama anywhere in book depicts Christ as an adulterer. I do not Kazantzakis, in his novel, is able to Christ, which ran contrary to general Christian the district is liable to inflame communal think it is right to insist that such a text should provide a complete transformation of Christ, belief. passions and lead to a serious breach of be taught, and learnt by students.” He agreed from a self-doubting being, to a strong, A brief survey of what made The peace” (Court Documents 1987: 133). that The Last Temptation of Christ may be confident individual, sure of his mission, albeit Sixth Holy Wound of Christ controversial is found in American theological colleges and besieged by temptations at several junctures. An in-depth study of the reactions to necessary here. One of the primary factors seminaries but that is because “they do not Antony is not able to replicate the profundity the prohibition of the play yielded variegated that initiated the controversy, were the words care for God at all … They need God only of Kazantzakis’ characterization. In responses. It was the Church leaders who in the play’s brochure: “The Jesus who is not when they are about to die. You do not need Kazantzakis’ novel it is the Christ figure that called for the ban. But there were a couple of the Son of God! The Judas who is not a God if you give importance to material benefits. is foregrounded, while the oppressed state of noted theologians who felt that the ban was betrayer! The Barabbas who is not a criminal! Is that our culture?” (Mathrubhumi 1986: 9) the Israelites only forms a background. But The Mary of Magdalene who is not a sinner!” unnecessary. Similarly, while almost all the Antony does not seem to have a clear view (Kochu 1986: 15) Antony justifies the use of literati urged the withdrawal of the ban order, Bishop Kundukulam may be endorsing about the course of the play. He affirms that these statements saying that he wanted to because they felt that it was only an attempt here the colonial notions that the East is the concern of his play is to view the New create a new perspective in the minds of the by the dramatist to look at Christ and the ‘spiritual’ while the West is materialistic. His Testament as a continuation of Israel’s spectators. On 5th August, 1986, the Kerala historicity of the Bible from a different words imply the ‘conservative’ outlook struggle for freedom as depicted in the Old police raided the rehearsal camp and seized perspective, there were some who felt that prevalent in Kerala as opposed to the ‘liberal’ Testament: copies of the script, five days before the first while dealing with religious and historical attitude of the west, and therefore according

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to him the play should be banned because it Christ is picturised not as overcoming Christ. (Thomas 1987: 8) He opines that there Temptation of Christ and used his imagination does not seem to fit in ‘our culture’. The temptations, but as succumbing to is nothing in the play that calls for legal action to shape them in order to suit his theme. M.M. bishop’s views are further strengthened by the them and committing sins… The against the artist’s freedom of expression. Thomas opines that although the Church agrees arguments of Fr.A. Adappur, an important prostitute in St. Luke’s Gospel obtains Instead of banning the play, he felt that the that the point where humanness and godliness theological writer of the Catholic Church and forgiveness of sins from Jesus. She Church should welcome an open discussion meet is the consummation of Jesus’ a member of the International Anglican- obtains that through her faith and on the play. Thomas argues that the Church, ‘personness’, it has traditionally given Catholic committee. Fr. Adappur also argues returns in peace. The whole incident instead of attempting to extinguish those views importance to his divinity over his more human that the play deliberately defames the image is subverted in the play. Magdalene is that question its traditional aspects of belief, and mundane characteristics. Thomas feels of Christ, thus hurting the sentiments of shown as losing her innocence should try to study these views. During the that it is the humanness of Christ that attracts Christians. By subverting the biblical because of her physical attraction period of the early European history, when the people towards him and therefore the Church characteristic features of Jesus, Judas, towards Jesus, and because of her Crown and the Church were almost united, should give importance to modern theological Barabbas, Mary of Magdalene etc, the frustration she becomes a prostitute religious leaders had persecuted those who studies that attempt to envisage the godliness dramatist, according to Fr. Adappur, is making … While the New Testament Jesus opposed their views and interpretations. But in Christ through his humanness. Thomas a dangerous anti-Christian point: forgives the sins of the prostitute, the M.M. Thomas feels that since the Second argues that not only Antony’s play but any Jesus in this play confesses his sins to Vatican Council of 1962 had officially interpretation that attempts to understand This play is an amplification of a Jesus her and begs for forgiveness. In scene recognised freedom of religious expression, it Christ’s human characteristics should be taken who sins in order to escape from God, 12, Mary, who stands in front of Jesus is odd that the Church leaders in Kerala called seriously by the Church, and therefore, The a Jesus who wishes to marry and lead after being caught for adultery, does for the prohibition of Antony’s play. He also Sixth Holy Wound of Christ should be viewed the life of an ordinary human being. not repent at all. (Adappur 1989: 13) disputes the claim that such subversions of in a more creative manner. Thomas supports We could have accepted or ignored religious characters and incidents would influence Antony’s portrayal of a ‘human Christ’, not all these facts if the major character According to Fr. Adappur, the major or destroy the faith of ordinary people: by giving credence to his freedom of was anyone else. But the matter problem that Christians, regardless of their expression to write anything about anyone, but Perhaps the Church labels those who becomes serious, because it is Christ various denominational differences, have with by questioning the Church’s rigid stance. The do not have any doubts or who is shown as a coward and sinner. this play is that the character of Christ depicted Church may have a particular canonical picture apprehensions about its teachings, as (Adappur 1989: 10) here is false and vulgar. of Christ and it may be justified in its refusal ordinary people. But in today’s world, to accept anything less than this. However this The very thought of a Christ who sins However, not all theologians conform where one is influenced by new does not mean that the Church should insist is unacceptable to Christians because it is to this point of view. The late Bishop Paulos systems of thought and especially in that alternative portrayals of Christ must not totally against the two thousand year old Mar Paulos, Bishop of the Church of East Kerala, where the youth are aware exist. In fact, the main reason for the growth teachings of the Church. Fr. Addappur also Trichur, and a member of the panel set up by of the importance of emerging Dalit and formation of several denominations in takes offense at the way Christ, the Saviour the High Court to review the play, states in his and Feminist ideologies, the ‘ordinary Christianity is the fact that each of these of mankind, and Judas, his betrayer are report submitted to the High Court that, “ the man’ is only a minority. The ordinary denominations interpreted the Bible in its own play is not profane, blasphemous, sacrilegious, man does not see Antony’s play or any contradictorily portrayed: “Judas is pictured as way. But then we must also note that Antony other play. So this mourning for the a brave patriot, while Jesus is a weakling and or offensive.” (Court Documents, 1988: 64) is subverting the most important entity sensibility of the ordinary people is an opportunist.” By listing out certain Another member of this panel, the late M.M. common to all these denominations. The meaningless. (Thomas 1987: 24) expletives used against Jesus in the play, like Thomas, a renowned theologian and a member Church may have every right to protest against ‘coward’, ‘Roman dog’, ‘worse than whores’, of the World Council of Churches, and a According to M.M. Thomas, The Antony’s portrayal of Christ, because it does etc, Fr. Adappur argues that the dramatist is former Governor of the State of Meghalaya, Sixth Holy Wound of Christ is only an artistic not adhere to the Church-prescribed portraying Christ not just as a character whom refuted Fr. Addappur and Bishop creation. The dramatist borrowed certain representation of Christ. But this protest should everyone hates, but as a character who should Kundukulam’s views on the issue of censorship characters and incidents from the Bible and not be transformed into a license to demand be hated by everyone. with regard to The Sixth Holy Wound of also to a very large extent from The Last the total prohibition of an artistic portrayal.

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The literati meanwhile, went all out Azhikode adds that just because a new However, there were other literary his introduction to the textual production of the against the call for banning the play. Several perspective does not comply with the beliefs figures who tried to strike a balance between play writes: “In a sense, I think it was good of them stood united in their opinion that of a religious community, its prevalence and freedom of expression and communitarian that Bishop Kundukulam waged a war against prohibition is not the way in which a work of progress should not be controlled. It is sentiments, and who felt that the dramatist should The Sixth Holy Wound of Christ. It helped art, a product of an artist’s freedom of important to stress here that these mainstream have been more cautious while tampering with the play in getting the publicity it deserved.” expression, should be dealt with. The writers and critics had not seen the play or the life history of a very important religious identity. (Idamaruku 1988: 40). responses of important Malayalam literary read its script. But their responses were N.V.Krishnawarriyar’s views regarding this The arguments of these critics and personalities of the period appeared in several highlighted in literary journals because they matter are interesting: writers are valid and acceptable. But most of journals. It is interesting to note that, while belong to the mainstream literary world. All … like any other citizen, the artist also them are just not looking at the other side of none of them had actually seen the play or of them are looking at the whole issue only is promised freedom of expression by the issue. It is true Christ does not need read its script, all of them felt quite strongly from the viewpoint of the artist’s freedom our constitution and there should not anyone’s ‘protection’, that he himself, during about its prohibition. They argued that the of expression. This freedom of expression be an attempt to limit or control this his days ‘questioned existing traditions and artistic value of a work of art is not as is no doubt, important. But equally pertinent freedom … Every citizen has some beliefs’ and that ‘ no single person has the important as the freedom of artistic expression, is the question of how the artist has used moral responsibilities towards the copyright of what has become the possession which paves the way for its creation. The this. To a certain extent it sounds ‘farcical constitution. And one of these is to of the whole of humanity.’ But it is necessary noted novelist, Thakazhi felt that: “the protests and also scary’ that the opinions of exercise amity towards all religions. to consider how a work of art affects a against The Sixth Holy Wound of Christ mainstream literary personalities are given There are various religions in India. A reader, especially if it is something that is appear to be farcical and also scary; farcical, weightage because of their mainstream writer may not feel that the beliefs of entirely antithetical to what that particular because some people are trying to protect the status and not because they have done a a particular religion are absurd and reader and several others like him have been personality of Christ, which needs no such careful study of that which gave rise to impractical. Even if he feels like this, taught and conditioned to accept through protection … scary, because it seems that voices calling for a ban on the play. In he should be responsible enough to centuries as a part of their upbringing. This fascist elements are entering the socio-cultural contemporary times, the noted novelist make sure that although he might not perhaps, is the ‘innate consciousness’ that and artistic arenas.” (Kalakoumudi 1986:6) Anand argues that various mystical elements respect that religion, he must not be N.N.Pillai is talking about. The noted environmentalist and poetess, in the life of Christ like the miracles he contemptuous or scornful towards it. Sugatha Kumari also agrees with Thakazhi’s performed, his crucifixion, resurrection, etc, It is plausible that what became Everybody has this responsibility. opinion: “it is not Christ who needs anyone’s appear very mythical today: “When historical problematic for the Church was the (Kalakoumudi 1986: 7) protection, but in the present context, it is the personalities enter the world of myth, they get conceptualistion of Christ as a very ordinary, artist who needs some protection.” separated from the time period in which they The famous Malayalam stage actor mundane figure—a man who thinks, feels and (Kalakoumudi 1986:8) In an article entitled, lived, and become the possessions of all people and director, the late N.N. Pillai also agrees acts just like anyone else, a man who is man ‘The message of the Cross gets crucified,’ the and all ages. Therefore no single person has with this viewpoint: “There is a certain innate and not God. According to the teachings of renowned Malayalam literary critic, Dr. the copyright of what has become the consciousness in every believer’s mind. One the Church it is God who took the form of Sukumar Azhikode argues that “Christ himself possession of the whole of humanity.”(Anand should be careful when one destroys this in man in order to sacrifice Himself for the questioned the existing tradition and beliefs of 1995: 20) Maybe for Anand, Christ is only a the name of art” (Pillai 1987: 8). redemption of mankind: the Jews of the period, and those who were mythical figure. But that is not the case as far comfortable with the older beliefs did not as a believer is concerned. Anand, unless he What happened as a result of the ‘In the beginning was the Word, and encourage this questioning attitude and discusses Christ beyond His humanness responses of the architects of the Malayalam the Word was with God, and the Word therefore they crucified this new visionary cannot strike a space with the believer. His literary world was that Antony and his play was God’. [John 1:1] ‘And the word thinking that his vision would end there. And statement here appears to be a very closed gained wide coverage in the local newspapers was made flesh, and dwelt among us, today too it is this new perspective that is being one and therefore difficult to be considered and journals. The play thus became popular (and we beheld his glory, the glory as protestingly criticised.” (Azhikode 1987: 6) by a believer. because of the controversy it helped to brew. of the only begotten of the Father,) The noted Malayalam atheist, Edamaruku, in full of grace and truth.’ [John 1:14]

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‘And he began to teach them, that This is the word of the law regarding Trust, K.M. Tharakan, Editor of the Malayala Justice John Mathew further says the Son of Man must suffer many the concept of freedom of expression. I would Manorama Weekly, Advocate G. Janardhana that it does not matter whether this play is an things, and be rejected of the elders, now like to briefly describe the court Kurup, and Dr. N.A. Karim, Pro-Vice adaptation of The Last Temptation of Christ and of the chief priests, and scribes, proceedings with which this is concerned. An Chancellor, University of Kerala, Trivandrum] or whether “the drama has not gone to the and be killed, and after three days rise appeal filed in the Kerala High Court by felt that the play should be banned. While the extent the author of that novel has gone”. again.’ [Mark 8:31] T.Parameshwaran, the convenor of remaining six, including the Chairman of the … whether the drama is an Aashayavishkara Samrakshana Samithi, an Panel, Prof. Sarah Joseph, K.T. Mohammad Antony’s play became problematic ‘objectionable performance’ or not organisation that gives importance to freedom Surabhila, Bishop Paulose Mar Paulose, Dr. because he reshaped the character of the God has to be examined irrespective of the of speech and expression, led to Justice M.M. Thomas, and N.V.Krishna Warriyar felt of a particular community in a way that they fact whether it is an adaptation of the Sivaraman Nair and Justice Pareed Pillai that the play need not be prohibited. found difficult to accept. Antony is part of this said novel or not. In the affidavit of passing an order on 10- 4 – 1987: community and therefore he must have felt In his judgement, Justice John Mathew argues the author dated 13th July 1987, the that he can take the freedom of subverting or … to set up a panel consisting of that: learned author has frankly admitted re-creating the character of his community’s persons from different shades of that he has not pictured Jesus as The main ground of attack as far as God. In this context, let us try to understand opinion to read the script and see the depicted in the Bible. The cardinal how artistic freedom of expression is to be the drama in question is concerned is basis of Christian faith is that God performance of the drama and submit that it comes within clause (5) of regarded especially, as prescribed by the became man in the form of Jesus the report to this Court on the need, S.2(1) of the Act. Therefore, the main Constitution of India. desirability and justification in imposing Christ to redeem humanity. Christians question to be considered is whether believe that he died to redeem the Article 19 of the Indian Constitution and continuing the prohibition against it is deliberately intended to outrage human race from their sins. However, talks about the fundamental rights of a citizen. the performance of the drama. (Court the religious feelings of any class of the Christ that is introduced in the With regard to this paper, we are specifically Documents 1988: 66) the citizens of India by insulting or drama is not only not God, but a very concerned with the concept of ‘freedom of blaspheming or profaning the religion This panel was headed by T. weak man. He is not only no model to expression’: Chandrasekhara Menon, a retired judge of the or the religious beliefs of that class... be followed, but a traitor and one who 19. (1) All citizens have the right— High Court of Kerala and the main aim of the … Regarding clause (5), the is trying to run away from God. In the panel was “to view the performance of the deliberate intention of the author is drama Jesus becomes redeemer, (a) to freedom of speech and expression; drama and to express their reasoned opinion to be mainly gathered from the simply because He happens to go to (2) Nothing in sub clause (a) of clause as to whether the performance is profane, nature of the language used, the monastery when the head of the (1) shall affect the operation of any sacrilegious or blasphemous, and depicts Jesus although it is permissible to consider monastery died. Christ is depicted as existing law or prevent the state from Christ as a charlatan easily succumbing to external evidence either to prove or a sinner who asks pardon even to making any law, in so far as such worldly temptations or He is depicted as a rebut the meaning ascribed to the Mary Magdalene, although in the law imposes reasonable restrictions noble soul who outlives all such temptations.” language used. If the language is of Bible, Jesus by his compassion on the exercise of the right (Court Documents 1988: 56) The panel a nature calculated to outrage the converted Mary Magdalene and conferred by the said sub clause in constituted fifteen members. Nine of them [N. religious beliefs or feelings of any brought her back to God. The the interests of the sovereignty and Sreedhara Menon, Professor of Sanskrit, K.C. class of citizens an inference of arrangement of the scenes as well as integrity of India, the security of the Seth, Bishop and Attorney, Jos T.Manjooran, such a deliberate intention has to the script of the drama outrages the state, friendly relations with foreign Principal of the Ernakulam Law College, be inferred. The writer must be religious feelings of Christians. It states, public order, decency or Ernakulam, M.S.Mani, chief editor of the presumed to intend (that) which attempts to alienate the minds of its morality, or in relation to contempt journal ‘Keralakoumudi’, Dr. Benedict Mar the performance of the drama was viewers/readers from love and of court, defamation or incitement Gregorios, Arch Bishop of Trivandrum, Babu likely to produce (Court reverence to God. The drama treats to an offence (Basu 1988: 96). Paul, I.A.S, Chairman of the Cochin Port Documents 1988: 59). Jesus Christ with contempt and

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irreverence. A textual analysis of the outrage the religious feelings of the of Christ, but he could not imbibe the it does not stay true to Kazantzakis’ novel. It script of the drama as well as the Christians by insulting or blaspheming spirit of the novel … . The one marked is another matter that The Last Temptation dialogue of various characters will or profaning Christian religion and difference between the two is that of Christ would have hurt Christian sentiments wound the religious beliefs, feelings religious beliefs and is, therefore an when the novel reached about more, because it actually portrays Christ and sentiments of an ordinary ‘objectionable performance’ as fourteenth chapter, Jesus Christ has enjoying the lusts of flesh with Magdalene, and Christian … Jesus is depicted as a defined in the Kerala Dramatic been described as a Messiah and it is not mere ‘friendship’ that Jesus has with weakling who does not want to do Performances Act,1961 … There is Saviour of mankind. Then only Martha and Mary; he fathers their children. what he is forced to do, who is not no merit in this appeal and it is towards the last chapters Jesus Christ But Kazantzakis takes care to keep all these able to do what he wanted to do. Such accordingly dismissed. (Court is mentioned as a person who wanted at the level of mere temptations. Anyone who a characterisation of Jesus will wound Documents 1988: 66, 67) to have worldly pleasures and some reads the novel and the play may easily come the religious feelings of Christians. details have also been mentioned to the conclusion that The Last Temptation It is important to state that the banning Whether the characterisation was regarding his friendship with Mary of a work of art is unacceptable. A work of of Christ is of superior artistic value than The deliberately intended to out-rage the Magdalene and Mary and Martha, the art is meant for an audience. It is for the Sixth Holy Wound of Christ. But a judgement religious beliefs or feelings can be sisters of Lazarus. But all these have audience to see and judge for themselves based on artistic quality should not be the decided primarily by going through the been mentioned in the novel as a whether they want to be for, or against it. One criterion here. A work of art should not be script of the drama or by viewing it. dream of Jesus Christ and are stated may have problems with Antony’s play. But banned just because it is artistically inferior to The portrayal of Jesus in the drama as illusions sent by the Devil. In the that does not mean that the play should not be another work by which it has been influenced does not have the support of any of drama the playwright has not allowed a certain kind of space that is required or inspired. Justice Balakrishnan is doing the Gospels. The life of Jesus is attempted to portray Jesus like that, for it to exist. I find it extremely difficult to exactly this. He concludes that: portrayed in the four Gospels of the and even towards the end of the accept Justice Mathew’s views that the play Bible. If any one creates a story of drama in Scene15, it has been depicted The main thrust of argument of the “attempts to alienate the minds of the readers/ Jesus repudiating what is given in the that at the time of the crucifixion Jesus learned counsel for the appellant was viewers from love and reverence to God.” I Gospels, that itself will outrage the Christ made a violent cry, ‘I am that the ban order has impinged upon would say that if one’s faith in God is so weak religious beliefs and feelings of thirsty!’ Whereas in the novel, Jesus the freedom of speech and expression that it can be crumbled by a radical portrayal Christians. … According to Christian Christ uttered a triumphant cry ‘It is guaranteed under Article 19 (a) of the of God it is very poorly founded and can hardly belief Jesus was a man in every accomplished’ and the novelist further Constitution. Freedom of speech be called ‘faith’. There is no use in the Church respect except that he was totally free says that it was as though he said guaranteed by the Constitution is leaders trying to protect the faith of the from sin. It is true that Satan tried to ‘everything has begun’. This marked subject to reasonable restriction in the believers, because I strongly believe that faith subject him to temptation. This difference shown by the dramatist interest of decency or morality. The is something that is founded on individual temptation did not originate in his has also created confusion and the powers conferred on the Government personal experience. person but it came from outside, but spectators who had seen the drama under the provisions of the Kerala never for a moment had he Justice Balakrishnan, the other High would feel that even by the Dramatic Performances Act 1961 are succumbed to it. This is the faith of Court Judge in the case T. Parameshwaran crucifixion of Jesus Christ, nothing in the general interest of the public and the Christians however incredible it v.s District Collector, Ernakulam and others is accomplished and Jesus Christ they do not impose any unreasonable may sound to others. Any portrayal bases his judgement with reference to The Last died as a desperate man (Court restrictions (Court Documents 1988: 67). of Jesus contrary to this is Temptation of Christ. Documents 1988: 67). objectionable and will outrage the The Constitution makes it very clear religious beliefs of believing Christians One major drawback is that the Justice John Mathews’ decision to ban that the concept of freedom of expression is … Applying the guidelines indicated dramatist had chosen to imitate the the play because it hurts the sentiments of not something that exists in a vacuum. It above, we are of the view that the novel and had extracted certain scenes Christians sounds more sensible than Justice emphasizes that this freedom, exercised by one drama is deliberately intended to from the novel, The Last Temptation Balakrishnan trying to negate the play because individual must not be harmful to others.

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Looking at this from a literary point of view, if representation. Religious and political leaders Ministry and Catholic Church are show some concern for the sentiments of a our argument is that artistic freedom of may be seen as agencies that invoke satisfied the film will not hurt the religious community. At the same time, religious expression entitles an artist to write what he communitarian sentiments, while it is the ‘elite- sensitivity of Christians in the country. leaders must not insist that their tradition and wants in any manner that he wants, then, in intellectual-middle class’ and the literati who Information and Broadcasting their belief are the only true one. The Church this post modern world, our argument is a invoke artistic freedom of expression. The fact Minister P R Dasmunsi told reporters need not accept any other interpretation of traditional one. Taking the specific example however, remains that our democratic system here on Tuesday that he along with Christ other than its own. It may choose to of The Sixth Holy Wound of Christ, all the does not allow a complete and distinct members of the Catholic Church, and ignore other interpretations; it may strongly literati who spoke in support of its creator’s coexistence of these two concepts. The officials of the I&B ministry and criticise and protest against such new artistic freedom of expression, questioned the Constitution clearly favours the collective Censor Board would view the movie perspectives; but insisting that just because traditional notions of the Church’s beliefs and consciousness of a community as opposed to in camera and only then a decision certain new ideologies or works of art are teachings, and urged the religious leaders to the concept of freedom of expression, would be taken about its screening. disagreeable to the Church, they must not see be open-minded. But they do not question the according to which “the law imposes … the government wants to first the light of the day, is denying the freedom for traditional notion of artistic freedom of reasonable restriction on the exercise of the establish a mechanism to get the alternative systems of thoughts and/or artistic expression. The gamut of political thought and right (to freedom of expression)” (Basu 1988: 96). representatives of the Catholic Church expressions to exist. These are, of course, movements like feminism and Dalit movement of the country satisfied, and only then personal viewpoints. They may sound that have emerged strongly in recent times, In recent times, the Vatican has been it would allowed to be exhibited. ambiguous because of the inability of the writer emphasise the significance of collective critical of movies like Angels and Demons Asked it he was not creating a bad to take a clear-cut stance either for consciousness and collective identities, which and The Da Vinci Code. (http:// precedent by watching the movie ‘communitarian sentiments’ or for ‘freedom are as important as individual identity and chennai365.com) Both these films are based before it got clearance, the minister of expression’. But it is difficult to take a stance individual freedom of expression. Therefore, on novels by the American writer Dan Brown. said, “I am not creating any bad in support of one of these concepts by negating by merely clinging to the traditional notion of Brown became famous through his highly precedents, but want to see whether the other. Rather a space for the co-existence individual freedom of expression, if one popular novel, The Da Vinci Code. Jesus is the appeal made by the community of these two entities is required—a space attempts to supersede the freedom of not a character in this work of fiction, but the holds merit. (http://dnaindia.com) where infinite dialogues are possible. One collective/community consciousness, by plot revolves around attempts to conceal an cannot but admire M.M. Thomas’ standpoint individual/artistic freedom, one might find it age old conspiracy theory, which states that Leaders of religious, social or political on this, “Rather than suppressing those hegemonic rather than liberating. Jesus married Mary Magdalene. The groups or organizations cannot be justified, if ideologies which question Christology, the protagonist in the novel, Robert Langdon, they demand that a film that contains events Church should be prepared to engage a A work of art should never be banned, attempts to trace the truth behind this. The or ideologies that are antithetical to their beliefs discourse with these, so that the regardless of whether it conforms to a book sold millions of copies worldwide. The or faith can be exhibited only after they give comprehension, understanding and belief of the collective identity or not. Prohibition is, to a film based on this book was scheduled to be clearance for it. The government has set up a believers are strengthened.” (Thomas 1987: very large extent counter-productive. It does released in India in 2006. In fact, the Censor Censor Board for this purpose. Nevertheless, 10) But the Church panicked. The Last not abolish any practice; it only attempts to Board had cleared the film for screening with inspite of the cautious approach taken by the Temptation of Christ was never banned in control this practice at a legalised public level. an ‘A’ (adults only) certificate. But at this government, several states like Goa, Nagaland Kerala. It was even translated into Malayalam. And non-prohibition does not ensure truth-value juncture, the Ministry of Information and and Punjab delayed the screening of The Da But unlike a textual production, a play or a to the practice. So the anxiety of the Church Broadcasting interfered: Vinci Code. The State government in Tamil movie is a visual form of art. It is seen not just to prohibit the play does not guarantee that Nadu had the film taken off a few days after by the intelligentsia or the middle class, but by Taking a cautious approach, the similar texts that question existing notions of it began screening (Parthasarathy 2009). people from almost all sections of a society. tradition and belief will never appear again. government has decided not to give Artists should definitely have the Kazantzakis’ text did not create a huge Likewise the ‘intellectual insistence’ on clearance to the screening of the liberty to exercise their artistic abilities. But scandal, but the film based on it with the same complete freedom of expression does not controversial film, the Da Vinci Code, when they deal with religious issues, they must title directed by Martin Scorcese provoked valorise the authenticity of Christ’s till the Information and Broadcasting

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wide protests throughout Europe and America. Idamariku (1988): Introduction, Kristhuvinte Aaram Rajbanshis: The Deprived People of North Bengal (In the State Similar was the case with The Da Vinci Code. Thirumurivu (M), P.M. Anthony, Atheist Therefore visual forms of presentation that Publications, New Delhi. of West Bengal) speak against traditional conceptualisations are “Ivide Swathanthrathinu Kaiyyamam Veenirikunnu” Moumita Ghosh Bhattacharyya often perceived as a greater threat than textual (1986): Kalakoumudi (M), Dec.7. presentations. Kazantzakis, Nikos (1960): The Last Temptation of Christ, Touchstone, New York. Abstract The Rajbanshis being the indigenous population of north Bengal acquired a References Kochu, K.K (1986): “Oru Nadakam Kurishil” vast area of land both operational and homstead and as well as vested lands. But Kalakoumudi (M), No. 579. Adappur, A (1989): Ethirpilude Munnottu (M), Janata gradually these huge masses of land were transferred to the hands of the migrant Publications, Thevara. “Kristhuvum Kristhumathavum Avahelikkapedunnu,” population who came and settled in this area over time. These migrants were (1986): Mathrubhumi (M), Nov 30. mostly the Bengalis and the Marwaris who have arrived to the land from various Anand (1995): “Kristhunadakavum, parts of the country throughout the ages. The purpose of the paper is to diagnose Communistnadakavum Chila Sahitya Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. the major consequences of land transformation from the hands of the indigenous Chinthakalum” Kalakoumudi (M), No. 1057. (2006): Bloomsbury Publishing, London. people to that of the various upper caste Hindus and land mafias for their personal Antony, P.M (1988): Kristhuvinte Aaram Thirumurivu Parthasarathy, Anand (2006): “Dithering over Da Vinci benefits depriving the actual owners and therefore the crucial consequences (M), Indian Atheist Publication, New Delhi. Code”, The Frontline, Vol 23. resulting in countrywide protest and demands for land, demand for separate statehood and a cry for preservation of their ethnicity and traditional identity. Antony, P.M (1986): Interview, Kalakoumudi (M), Pillai, N.N (1987): “Aaram Thirumurivum Njanum” No. 579. Mathrubhumi (M), No. 49.

Azhikod, Sukumar (1987): “Kurishinte Sandhesham Thomas, M.M (1987): “Kristhuvinte Aaram The history concerning the origin of of Bengal is found in the accounts of invasion Kurishilerunnu” Mathrubhumi (M), No.45. Thirumiruvu: Oru Dhaivashastra Charcha “ Dynamic Action (M), No. 97. the Rajbanshi population is a mystery. It is said of Baktyar Khiliji when he entered Tibet in Basu, Durgadas (1988): Introduction to the Constitution that this community belonged to the great 1206 A. D.2 According to Dr. Charu Chandra of India, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi. Court documents. (1987): (1) K.L.T.132. P.M.Antony century B. C. from the east and settled on the Lakhnavati and Tibet lay the hill or rather the versus District Collector and others. T.Parameshwaran versus District Collector, Bengal. Some scholars believe that north and the Tharu. It is also assumed that modern Ernakulam and others. they are the local ethnic community dominating Kamrup were formerly ruled by many tribes. “Fascism Varunna Vazhi” (1986): Kalakoumudi (M), 1 Nov. 23. the land over years. The Rajbanshi is one of Danabs, the Kirats, the Asuras, the Burmans, the 16 major Scheduled Castes of West the Chutias and the Pals had swarming either Bengal. According to 2001 Census, the the whole or a part of Kamrup time to time. Rajbanshis comprised about 18.4 per cent of Then came the Ahoms, the Khens and the total Scheduled Caste population of West Kochs. Initially these people fought among Bengal. The first introduction in the modern themselves but gradually came closer through history of the people living in the furthest north matrimonial and other alliances. The Ahoms

Ms Moumita Ghosh Bhattacharyya ([email protected]) is a Research Scholar under School of Women’s Studies, Jadavpur University. Kolkata.

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occupied the eastern zone and the Koches Desi belong to a large Dravidian tribe of North themselves into the same gotra (Kasyapa) Porter (1931: 473) again states that started dominating the west zone of Kamrup. Eastern and Eastern Bengal amongst whom with the result that all marriages amongst Koch, Palaia, Rajbanshi were originally the Gradually the Koches centered round Cooch- there are grounds for suspecting some Rajbansis as Kshatriyas would, upon a strict same. The Kaivarttas of Assam and North Behar and Baikunthopur.3 admixture of Mongolian blood… the interpretation of Hindu law, have been invalid Bengal had more affinity with Rajbanshis. transformation of the Koch into Rajbanshi, the owing to their being within the same gotra”.8 They all claim to be Rajbanshis and all Dr. Hunter (1876: 402) observed that, name by which they are now known in Rajbanshis claimed to be recorded as about the close of the 15th century one of the Thompson (1921: 358) states, “The Rungpur, Jalpaiguri and Kuch or Koch Behar Kshattriyas at the beginning of the 19th century. Koch kings Hajo (1510-1587) founded a Rajbanshis are the indigenous people of is a singular illustration of the influence The more backward and illiterate members of kingdom in the west portion of Kamrup. The northern Bengal and the third largest Hindu exercised by fiction in the mixing of caste… the Rajbanshi caste still maintain practically kingdom of Hajo included western half of caste in the province. Their total number has Now the great majority of Koch inhabitants inconsistent with orthodox Hindu belief.11 Assam, eastern half of Morung (Nepal Terai) been exaggerated by the fact that a number of North Bengal invariably describe and the lands bounded on the east by of fisherman caste in Mymensingh, Nadia Grierson (1969: 95) comments, themselves as Rajbansis or ‘Bhanga Dhaneswari river, on the west by Konki, on and Murshidabad returned themselves as “There can be little doubt that the original Kshatrias’. They keep Brahmans, initiate the north by Dallimkotte hills (formerly in Rajbansis. In 1901 many Koches in North Koches were same as the Bodos. The Koch, Brahmanical ritual in their marriage ceremony Bhutan now in the district of Darjeeling, West Bengal were returned as Rajbansis. Many Mech and Bara or Bodo all connoted the same and have begun to adopt Brahminical system Bengal ) and on the south Ghoraghat ( in East of the Rajbansis have taken sacred thread tribe or at most different steps of the same of ‘Gotras’. In respect of the last point they Pakistan, now Bangladesh). This formed the and were prepared to use force in support tribe. The name Koch in fact connotes a are now in a curious state of transition, as they boundary of Hajo’s kingdom at that time.4 His of their claim to be returned as Hinduized Bodo who has abandoned his have all hit upon the same gotra (Kasyapa) grandson Visva Singha, together with his Kshattriyas”.9 ancestral religion for Hinduism and ancestral and they habitually transgress the primary rule officers and all people of the condition Bodo language for Bengali or Assamese. of Brahmanical system which absolutely Thompson (Ibid: 346- 349) also apostatized to Hinduism. A divine ancestry for Rajbansis are the Hinduized Koches of Runpur prohibits marriage within a gotra. They are argrued, “No part of the Census in 1891, 1901 the chief was manufactured by the Brahmins. and Goalpara. Those Koches who are now thoroughly Koch under the name of Rajbansi. and 1911 aroused so much excitement as the The converts abandoned the name Koch and Hindus, are principally known under the name There is no historical foundation for the claim return of caste which caused a great deal of took Rajbanshi. Hunter also noticed that in the of Rajbansi. The Rajbansi dialect bears many of Rajbansis to be a provincial variety of districts of Rangpur, Jalpaiguri and Cooch- heart burning and in some quarters with threats close points of resemblance to the dialect of Kshatriyas. It is a singular fact that the title Behar, the name Rajbanshi, which literally of disturbance of the peace. Rajbanshis claim East Bengal”.12 Rajbansi serves much the same purpose for means ‘Royal Race’ was adopted by the to be included as- Kshattriya, Bratya the lower stratum of Hindu population of North Gait (1901: xxxviii) describes the cultivators and respectable men and Koch Kshattriya, Barua Kshattriya. Bengal as the title Rajput does for the Rajbansis of North Bengal, “as a synonym of being restricted to labourers and specially to landholding class of dubious origin all over Kayastha and Hari as- Kshattriya Koch, this represents a real caste and in this the palanquin bearers. Hunter places the India. The original nucleus of Rajbansi was sense only it may be entered in the schedule. Rajbanshis under ‘semi- hinduised aboriginals’.5 Kamar as- Kamar Kshattriya certainly Dravidian”.7 The term is also a title of Tiyars, Kaibarttas, Rowny (1882: 146) describes, Pod as- Poundra or Bratya Kshattriya Namasudras and other fishing castes, also of Porter (1931: 474) states, “Some more “Intermarriage of Koch tribes with Hindus has Barua, Mugs in Chittagong and of Bagdis, gotras other than Kasyapa were introduced Malo as- Malla or Bratya Kshattriya considerably changed their old habits. They Mals etc… In Burdwan persons using this title amongst the Rajbansis. They are i) Kasyapa resemble the Bengalees more than any other are usually Bagdis if fishermen and Kaibarttas ii) Sandilya iii) Bharadwaja iv) Goutama v) Koch as- Koch Kshattriya people. One class of this tribe, the Rajbanshis if cutivators”. According to Gait Dhimals of Savarna vi) Kapila vii) Thandi viii) Batsya ix) worship Hindu deities and have adopted Hindu Jalia Kaibartta and Tiyer as- Rajbansi Darjeeling and Nepal Terai are Rajbansis.13 Maudgala x) Art xi) Parasara xii) Kausuka manners”.6 xiii) Viswamitra”. He also argues, “The The feeling ran so high that the census S. K. Chatterjee (1998: 60) argues, According to Risley (1981: 492), Rajbansis have now to some extent regularized would have broken down completely in “The masses of North Bengal areas are very “Koch, Koch- Mandi, Rajbanshi, Palliya and the anomalous position in which they found Rungpur if this had not been promised”.10 largely of Bodo origin, or mixed Austric

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Dravidian- Mongoloid… or semi- Hinduized beginning of 16th Century that the Koch descent of his lineage and tribesmen as Jagannath Puri by an Act of the Government Bodo who have abandoned their original Tibeto- Chieftain Visvasimha drove away the Muslim Kshtriyas, who had thrown away their sacred in the year 1911. Burman speech and have adopted the northern intruders and established the Narayani dynasty thread when fleeing from the wrath of This insensitivity of the upper strata dialect of Bengali. They are proud to call with his capital at Kamatanagari. In course of Parashurama. Thus many of Vishwasimha’s of Bengali intelligentsia antagonized this themselves as Rajbanshis and to claim to be time he consolidated his power over the entire followers had given up their tribal designation community and gave rise to a need for social called Kshatriyas”.14 western part of the region from river Karatoya and called themselves Rajbanshis.In this regeneration among them under the leadership to the Barnadi, after defeating the local connection it would be worth mentioning the Historical background of Rai Saheb Panchanan Barman. Panchanan Bhuyans of Assam. In 1562 a Koch army observations of Waddell (1901). According to Barman, a lawyer by profession from Rangpur The beginning of twentieth century under the leadership of NarNarayana the son him any one of the Indo-Chinese tribes like district came out with a distinct vision for the was definitely a turning point for the history of Visvasimha marched to the Ahom capital Kachari, Garo, Rabha, Lalung, Koch, Mech upliftment of the Rajbanshi community. With Garhgaon and annexed it. But soon the etc could elevate their tribal status by of the Rajbanshis of north Bengal. In the the help of the relevant clues from the Vedic kingdom was split into two, Koch Behar and establishing a brahmanical priest and giving up colonial literature, the Rajbanshis were Shastras and support of Brahmin Pandits from Koch Hajo. Koch Hajo was better known as eating beef. Thus it is widely held that Koches generally regarded as a purified group of the Kashi, Nabadip, Methila, Kamrup he cited the Kamarupa, a part of modern Assam along the after undergoing Sanskritisation assumed the Koch (a semi-aboriginal tribe) who had different code of laws which reinforced their border of river Sankosha. We are here name Rajbanshi. adopted Hindu manners and customs by kshtritya origin and legitimised the elevation concerned with the region in western abandoning some of their traditional cultural In spite of these efforts, the 17 Kamarupa which came to be known as of their ritual status into “Kshatriyas”. practices. The people of India appeared to be Hinduised, poor and illiterate Rajbanshis could Kamata Koch kingdom or Cooch Bihar. The sanguine of the singular character of the Koch not really enter the Hindu fold successfully due Sanskritisation or the assimilation of Kamata Koch kingdom continued to exist and Rajbansi and prescribed the latter term to the resistance offered by the high caste tribal people into Hindu fold was not smooth. 15 through the vicissitudes of fortunes, through as a Hinduised synonym of the former. The Hindus, and in fact fell an easy prey to the In terms of ‘cultural approximation”, the Koch- the Anglo Koch treaty of 1773 down to its earliest attempt to write the history of the insatiable greed of the Brahmins. In the early Rajbanshis being people of “little tradition” merger with the Indian union in 1949-50 by Rajbanshi community was that of Harikishore social setting of this region, the social status frame of reference as formulated by Robert the Cooch Bihar Merger Agreement (Aug 28, Adhikari who wrote Rajbanshi Kulaprodip of the Rajbanshis was not challenged until the Redfield had no access to cultural forms and 1949).16 in Bengali and published it from Calcutta in influx of a large number of caste–Hindu styles of Great Hindu tradition, and so initially 1315 B.C. He based his writings on Hindu The Koch-Rajbanshis belong to the immigrants into this clime from some other they took the risk of becoming Hindus even if scriptures and wanted to prove that the Tibeto-Burman group of the Mongoloid race parts of the country. These people with a it was only to accept a “berth” in the Rajbanshis were Kshatriyas and also who had always been kept out of the strong awareness to casteism started disadvantageous inferior rank of caste descendents of a Royal lineage. However it brahmanical fold of Hinduism, in spite of their interacting with the indigenous Rajbanshis in hierarchy. It is through Kshatriya movement was Sri Panchanan Barman of the “Kshatriya innumerable efforts to merge with the differential terms. The Rajbanshis also faced that we find the Rajbanshis challenging the Sabha”, the first intellectual of this community mainstream Hindu society. This community has humiliation and objectionable identification by lower status assigned to them. While in 1891 who suggested a historical link of the present always been in the periphery of the Hindu caste the caste- Hindus. Few such instances of the Rajbanshis described themselves as Vratya Rajbanshi community with Bhaskar Varman, hierarchy. In fact in 1496 A.D when racial misinterpretation and social suppression Kshatriya, from 1911 they began to claim pure king of Kamrupa (Present Assam) in 7th Visvasimha the Koch chieftain rose to power, are: Nagendranath Basu in the early 20th Kshatriya status legitimized by priests, century A.D. It is said that after the exit of he did so by converting into Hinduism and century while writing his World Encyclopedia genealogists and pundits. In order to gratify Palas of Kamarupa in 12 century A.D, their adopting Hindu practices through (Vishwakosh) mentioned the Rajbanshis as their ritual rank aspiration they began to imitate capital Kamarupanagara might have grown Sanskritization. The Brahmins who were barbarians or (Mlechha) and Bankim Chandra the values, practices and cultural styles of into Kamatanagara during the reign of the brought in from as far as Kanauj, Mithila, Chattopadhyay in Bongo Darshan moots that “twice born” castes that formed a part of Khens or Shens in the 15th Century. Husain Srihatta legitimized his political power by the Koch identity cannot be synonymous with Hindu great tradition. Since 1912, a number Shah ousted these Khens and assumed the bringing him into the Brahmanical fold through Bengali Hindu identity. The Ranjbanshis of mass thread wearing ceremonies (Milan title “Conquerer of Kamata”. It was in the Hindu rites and rituals. They also traced the were even denied entry into the temple of Kshetra) were organized in different districts

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by the “Kshatriya Samiti” where lakhs of Rajbanshis to elevate their status in social The above arguments are likely to The anthropological past of the Rajbanshis donned the sacred thread as a mark hierarchy at the local level because there state that the Koches are non- Aryans in origin. Rajbanshis has been wonderfully of Kshatriya status. The immediate objective were enormous hindrances to implement Some of them adopted Hinduism and became described in an article by Dipak Kumar of the “Kshatriya Samiti” was to regain the their ideas of social upliftment and the acid Rajbanshis. These Rajbanshis afterwards Roy (2006:74 in Roy, Nikhilesh ed. lost social status of the Rajbanshi community test was experienced when the general claimed themselves to be Khastriyas. The Degor), with a detailed genealogy of the in the Hindu social system. Hindu community showed their attitude to social organization, cultural and religious Rajbanshi community, its origin and the this effect. The caste Hindu opinion was in practices, educational profile and economic division, which can be helpful to The Kshatriya Samiti also had some general against any upliftment of the position of the Rajbanshis need to be discussed understand the history of the community. other objectives to fulfill. It intended first, Rajbanshis in terms of social hierarchy. For in order to locate them in the confined socio- to separate the Koch and the Rajbanshi example, the caste Hindu ‘zamindars’ and economic structure. identity emphasizing the superior status of professionals protested strongly against the the latter. Second, to legitimize the demand placed by the Rangpur Vratya demand to include the Rajbanshis within Kshatriya Jatir Unnati Vidhayani Sabha to RAJBANSHI the Kshatriya caste. Third, to indoctrinate write Vratya Kshatriya as the caste before brahmanical values and practices among the Rajbanshis. Infact they put forward this the Rajbanshis. The positive aspect of the protest to Mr. F.A. Skyne, the then District Indo-Mongoloid social upliftment movement organized by Magistrate of Rangpur. All the more when the Rangpur Kshatriya Samiti was the the community donned sacred thread on Feb creation of the apparent caste solidarity 10, 1912 at Perolbani, Mr. J.S. Milligan, and KOCH > Hinduization among the Rajbanshis in general and an the then D.M. of Rangpur remained present identity consciousness among the with a group of armed constables in case educated and well to do section of the caste Hindu people might attempt to create community in particular. Both these Social Sub-Group disturbance and frustrate the ceremony.18 In efforts, one in the early stage of the the given circumstances, it may be presumed establishment of the Koch Kingdom and that the Rajbanshis were not treated at par the other in the early 19th century were (Madashi, Saru, Koch (Rabha), Heremiya, Koch-Kahar(Rawani Kahar), with the respectable caste groups inspite of an attempt to eliminate the alienation of their attempt to Kshatriya mobility.19 This Morangiya (Samtiya, Thunthuniya, Rabaniya, Pashucharan, Deshiya, the community and emphasize the identity may also be the background for a deliberate of the Rajbanshis within the Hindu caste [Baradeshi (Dhanuya), Charadeshi (Dhokoi, Dhyakra, Dhunikoch)], attempt to establish separate student hostels fold. Both the times they tried to elevate to board and lodge the Rajbanshi students Paliya (Matuyan or Babupali, Sadhupali) their status staying within the caste who were even victims of humiliation and hierarchy but the nature of social social discrimination from their caste Hindu relationship between the Rajbanshis and contemporaries. At the same time donning the other “higher castes “ and, the rules (Kshatriyization > Other Communities-Dhimal, of sacred- thread, the symbolic justification specifying this relationship remained more | Tharu, Jalda, Rabha, Hazong, Mech, of Kshatriya caste group, did not help them | or less unaltered despite the Rajbanshis | Baidar etc. to be at par with the Brahmins who were to attempt to steadily change their own | > Koch-Rajbanshi+ Bhutiya= serve the upper caste Hindus. Thus social identity. | Dobhashiya emulation only increased their detachment It is a fact that mere placing to a from the social groups with whom they co- THE RAJBANSHI SOCIETY higher Varna category did not serve the habited or lived for centuries.

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Family Pattern of the Rajbanshis either with ploughing, sowing or other kinds of dressing attitude. They imitate whatever they of the society.32 Early marriage was more related work in the field. A Rajbanshi farmer come across in the T. V. serials and promptly common among the Hinduised than among the Family was the basic unit of the took his meal after returning home at noon. opt for it. So now-a- days the younger non- hinduised aboriginals of Bengal. Rajbanshi community and they normally lived After the completion of the day’s work they generation girls wear ‘churidars’, jeans and Polyandry was occasionally present but in joint families,20 which were patrilineal and gathered in the evening either in the house of tops, ‘long gowns’ etc. and the boys put on polygamy was rare among the aboriginals. patrilocal and generally the eldest male the landlords or in one of their own houses ‘cargo jeans’, ‘T- shirts’ etc. Amongst the Santals, a Santal wife could member was considered as the head of the and enjoyed the evening by smoking ‘hukka’ divorce her husband if he secured a second family.21 The Rajbanshi community had a Their food habit was very simple. or participating in ‘Hari Sankirtan’.26 wife without her permission. Often the simple rectilinear structure and the concept of They generally had rice, pulses, green husband’s brother would keep the widow as sub- caste was absent among them.22 They The Rajbanshi women had to work vegetables, fish and meat. This is also true in his wife or one of the co- wives. There was were not divided into exogamous clans or more than their men folk. They not only the present situation and things have not no dowry system. ‘gotras’, but constituted a single endogamous managed household chores, but also assisted changed so much. group. They had only one ‘gotra’, i.e. their men in fields regarding transplanting One of the forms of tribal marriage Marriage Practices of the ‘Kasyap’,23 and marriage within the same paddy or reaping it. They collected dry woods was ‘marriage by service’, where the Rajbanshis ‘gotra’ was therefore a common practice. for cooking and sold agricultural products in bridegroom had to render free service for a the market. Thus the contributions of the During the late nineteenth century, period to the bride’s father. This was prevalent Most of the Rajbanshis lived in women in the Rajbanshi families were marriage in Bengali society was naturally among the Santals, Moondas, Oraons, villages, which were very thinly populated and significant and as a result encouraged the men different in form in different sections of had developed around the house of a ‘jotedar’ Rajbanshis and Haris. ‘Marriage by throwing folk to tie the knot with more than one wife.27 or ‘giri’. Villages were scattered and in every people. With the Hindu upper classes, each other’s blood’ was a system of There were no restrictions on the free village there were various habitats and each marriage was not often considered as primarily engagement in the Hari tribes of Bengal in movement of the women and they enjoyed group was called a ‘tari’ (hamlet). A ‘tari’ a union between two partners to raise a new which the bride and the bridegroom would consisted of a few kin or non- kin households.24 much more equality, compared to what upper family, but as a social institution to serve the bring out blood from their fingers by pricking castes women did, which is also true in the whole household of the bridegroom.29 In such with thorns and would smear it on each other’s The ‘jotedars’ or ‘giris’ who generally current scenario. For instance, smoking is very cases, the bride was almost a part of property body. ‘Marriage by throwing vermilion’ on the stayed in villages with their share- croppers, common among Rajbanshi women with men fleeting from one family to another. Marriage bride’s head was practiced among the Santals followed lifestyles and cultural practices which within their own community, which are very assumed the character of family alliances of Bengal and was probably reminiscent of were very much in common with these share- age old practices. rather than individual partnerships.30 The marriage by blood smearing. ‘Marriage by croppers, a majority of whom belonged to the system of dowry was very much prevalent sprinkling water’ on the bride was yet another Dress Sense and Food Habit same community. However, this situation and mandatory. Under the traditional Hindu form of engagement by the poorer began to change from the late nineteenth Their dress sense was very simple. law, the permission for divorce was not granted Rajbanshis of Purnea District. According to century as a result of migration of non- In place of blouse or petticoat, they used to and marriage was a life- long affair. Upper this form, a pair could live as husband and wife Rajbanshi settlers into the districts of north wear a single piece of cloth, called ‘phota’, class women were always trained from their and beget children.33 Bengal. This change was also due to various which they tied just above the breast and it very childhood to submit to their elders and The Rajbanshis had certain distinctive other colonial and urban influences which came down up to the knees. The Rajbanshi not to question their authority.31 compelled the ‘jotedars’ to change their characteristics regarding their marriage men generally wore a single piece of cotton attitudes.25 Among the Bengali Hindus, the lower practices and customs. Marriage within the cloth, called ‘nangti’ to cover the lower portion class women married at an age later than ten same ‘gotra’ was a common practice, though Occupation of the Rajbanshis of their bodies and did not wear any other dress years to a much larger extent than the upper it was a deviation from the prevailing ‘orthodox except in winter.28 Agriculture being the only basic caste Hindu women. The father of an Brahminical culture’.34 Marriages were means of livelihood, most of the Rajbanshis But presently the influence of modernization unmarried girl above ten was not usually arranged through professional match- makers started their daily work early in the morning, or rather globalization has influenced their communally censured as in the upper stratum called ‘ghatak’. The ceremony used to hold

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on an auspicious day pre- determined by the remarried while her husband was alive. This Religion Practiced by the Rajbanshis upper caste Hindus. The absence of clay priest. The practice of paying bride price was was very rare in practice and it occurred only images or Brahmin priests and the worshipping Saivism and Vaishnavism were prevalent and the initiative for marriage when the first husband could not maintain his of the natural forces- all these distinguished popular religious practices among Rajbanshis, proposal used to come from the bridegroom’s wife or a covetous father wanted money by their religion from that of the upper caste which differentiated them from the upper caste family.35 Two types of marriage were in form- giving his daughter to a second marriage. Child Hindus of Bengal and points towards their Hindus of Bengal. Vaishnavism was adhered both 1) regular and 2) irregular. marriage was not prevalent among the tribal origin. Over a period of time there was to by more people, as J. A Vas had observed, Rajbanshis, while widow remarriage was. Two absorption of the Rajbanshi traditional deities, 1.Regular Forms of Marriage ‘The Rajbanshis who form the bulk of Hindu well- known forms of widow remarriage were rituals, and believes into those of the orthodox population, profess to be Vaishnava, but the a) Phul- biha; Phul- bio; Phulmara- biha: i) Ga- gouch and ii) Dangua. Hindu culture.46 The most important features religion they practice is not free from aboriginal This was the most regular form of marriage. of this acculturation were the worshipping of i) Ga- gouch: According to this form of rites’.42 Most of the Rajbanshis took part in This form of marriage was generally adopted the clay images and the induction of Brahmin marriage, a man brought a widow to live with ‘kirtan’ which is a form of collective singing and accepted by society as the ideal and real priests for performing religious rites, all of him and to look after his house, it was called of devotional songs, had also a special appeal form of marriage. In this form the boy was which they adopted at a larger stage from the ga- gouch. for them. They did not worship any deity of married to a virgin girl. conventional high caste Hindus. the Hindu pantheon, nor did they worship any ii) Dangua: Again if a widow owning property According to custom, the marriage clay images. They worshipped nature, as Education invited a man to live with her as a protector and crown (phul or Sahera) used to be tied on the represented in the form of ‘stupa’ or ‘munda’, look after her property, it was called dangua.38 At the beginning of the 19th century head of the bride and the bride- groom. Marriage which were worshipped for the welfare of the there was in orthodox Indian society a fairly was solemnized by a priest or ‘adhikari’. Therefore, among the Rajbanshis, community.43 The Hindu official great gods, i.e. common prejudice that education was sinful marriage was mainly viewed as unification the Devas or the shining ones are not b) Ghor- dzia biha: This was another regular for women and that educated women were between man and woman and there were not worshipped here in any particular place or form of marriage. In this form an orphan or a even likely to be widowed.47 This relentless many complexities in marriage practices. locality and there is no temple or shrine to any poor boy who could not pay the bride price superstition was, however, disregarded by Similarly, divorce was also a simple affair and 44 was kept in the house of the girl and after of them or any of the minor deities. They some open-minded members of the upper no claim of maintenance allowance was made sometime, if the girl’s father was satisfied with also worshipped ‘Bisahari’, ‘Siddesheswari’, classes, who tried to educate their women folk after divorce. Cross- cousin marriages and the nature and behaviour of the boy, he was ‘Kali’, ‘Durga’ and the river goddesses. even before 1819 (the date of the first regular marriages between brothers and sisters were married to his daughter in a regular form of girls’ school in Bengal, open to all), to enable not allowed.39 As there was no clan The Rajbanshis had their own priests marriage.36 known as ‘adhikari’, ‘deosi’, ‘deodha’, etc., them perhaps to manage their properties in the organization among the Rajbanshis, 48 who officiated in there religious ceremonies. event of widowhood. Apart from this, some 2. Irregular Forms of Marriage matrimonial alliances were determined by women tried to educate themselves without kinship and marriages were arranged within The ‘adhikari’ also lived on agriculture like the a) Panichita: This was one of the irregular undue publicity49 to be able to read, specially their ‘culture- group’.40 Marriage outside the other Rajbanshis but he enjoyed a special status forms of marriage. When a young man could the religious books.50 Rajbanshi community was not objected to but in the society. He was the village priest and not pay bride price, he approached the guardian they seemed to have a marked preference for officiated in all ceremonies in the village. The The formal girls’ schools of Bengal of a girl ‘to sprinkle’, with consent of the elders, marriage with the upper caste Hindus, rather ‘deosi’ performed the worship in the temple were started in different stages and each in a ‘some water with the twig of a mango tree on than the Mech, Koch, Rabha, etc. whom they and at the ‘charak’ festival. The ‘deodha’ different setting. First from 1807 the Christian the head of the girl and the boy’.37 Then the considered inferior in social ranking.41 From performed fire sacrifice and other ‘tantric’ rites missionaries started a school for the Christian couple was allowed to live together like the above discussion, it is clear that marriage and sometimes became the medium through convents; from 1819 the Christian missionaries husband and wife, and this was known as practices among the Rajbanshis were different which god was supposed to prescribe remedies ran schools, open to all but with compulsory panichita form of marriage. 45 from the existing marriage norms among the for various problems. In other terms the instruction in the Christian scriptures. In 1847 b) Chotrodani: According to chotrodani upper caste Bengali Hindus and women Rajbanshis lacked ritual specialization and the some enlightened Bengalis founded the form of marriage, a married woman was occupied an important social status. well-known Sanskritic religious elements of Barasat School for orthodox Hindus. In 1849,

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Mr. Bethune founded his school on a secular women themselves, like- Banga Mahila Samaj Table 2: Population and Proportion of Table 3 : Literacy Rate of the basis and in 1854 the government entered in (1879),57 Sakhi Samiti (1886),58 the Bharat Rajbanshi community in West Bengal Rajbanshis of West Bengal According to the field of women’s education in Bengal. By Stree Mahamondal (1910),59 etc. According to 2001 Census 2001 Census 1869 there were 2351 girls in aided schools in Name of Literacy Rate (7 + years) But today in the present time when Name of Total Proportion to Bengal and the number rose to 41,349 in 1881- the SC Population the Total the SC 8251 (5589, more than the figure in the Census education is more or less equally accessible to SC Population Report of 1881). both the girls and the boys, academically the Total Male Female Rajbanshis are very diffident. It is in fact true All 18,452,555 100% Population But even when formal education with the case of north Bengal, compared to Scheduled began, its scope was very limited, because other parts of Bengal. This can be ascribed to Castes Rajbanshi 60.1 72.3 47.3 many girls left school on account of early the general lack of interest on the part of the Rajbanshi 3,386,617 18.4% Source: Cultural Research Institute: Short Notes marriage,52 and no systematic effort was made local people, as also to the inadequate on the Scheduled castes of West Bengal, (Kolkata, to educate them when they were thus shut up opportunities available for education. In the Sources: Cultural Research Institute: Short 2005). in their households. The Scott missionaries state of West Bengal the Rajbanshis having Notes on the Scheduled castes of West Bengal (Kolkata, 2005). were the first to take up in 1854 the plan of more than 33 lakhs population constitute 35.8 educating the Bengali women inside the percent of the total Scheduled Caste population Table 4 : Literacy Rate of the Rajbanshis by Sex scheduled apartment in an organized form. of the state.60 District 1961 1971 1981 Miss Toogood, an Eurasian, began to instruct Persons Male Female Persons Male Female Persons Male Female inside the scheduled apartments in the house In West Bengal among all Scheduled of the family of Rabindranath Tagore- teaching Castes, 59 percent of the population is liter- Darjeeling 24.66 40.05 5.59 22.13 37.84 6.06 27.21 40.39 12.60 his elder sister Swarnakumari Debi.53 ate, which is higher than the aggregated na- Jalpaiguri 9.23 14.67 3.00 15.62 23.81 7.71 23.18 33.55 11.91 Gradually this plan was followed by other tional average for Scheduled Castes which is Cooch Behar 17.52 28.71 5.23 16.93 24.07 9.28 25.90 37.50 13.57 missionaries.54 But these efforts were not 54.7 percent. The gender gap in literacy among West Dinajpur 13.05 22.44 2.21 12.10 19.44 3.20 20.47 32.14 8.03 sufficient enough because a huge number of Scheduled castes is quite conspicuous with girls could not avail these opportunities. The male and female literacy rates of 70.5 per- Malda 11.29 20.06 2.10 13.11 21.23 4.49 19.42 30.76 7.31 insufficiency of the existing schools55 and the cent and 46.9 percent respectively. Again, North Bengal 12.83 23.12 4.01 4.01 15.85 23.62 23.68 34.98 11.57 drawbacks of home education by the Christian 60.1% of the Rajbanshi population is literate (Total) missionaries had attracted the attention of which is 0.9 percent higher than the state level N.B.: Percent of literates to total population.Source: Census of India, 1961, Vol. XVI, Tables: West Bengal and Keshabchandra Sen. In 1862/ 63 he started Sikkim, part V- A(i), Tables on Scheduled Castes; Census of India 1971, Series 22, West Bengal part V- A, Special the Bramhobandhu Sabha (Theistic Friends’) Tables on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes; Census of India 1981, Series 23, West Bengal part IX (i & ii), Table 1 : Literacy Rate of Total Special Tables for Scheduled Castes. which organized the Anthapur Strisiksha, an Population, SC and ST of West Bengal organization for womens’ education at home. According to 2001 Census Within a few years there sprang up several is but again the female literacy rate is signifi- were literates in 1981. This statistics was 13 such organizations for conducting home Literacy Rate 7 + Persons cantly lower than that of the male literacy rate. percent and 16 percent during 1961 and 1971 education, e.g.: Barisal Female Improvement State respectively. Among the male population, the Total To judge the level of socio- cultural Association in 1871/ 72; the Sylhet Sammilan SC ST percentage of literates was 24 in 1971, and Population advancement of any community, the best index in 1877; the Vikrampur Sammilani Sabha which has gone up to 35 percent in 1981. But is literacy. However, till 1981, the Rajbanshis (organized by Dwarakanath Ganguli in 1879); West Bengal 68.64 59.04 43.40 the female literacy potrays an inferior picture. the Faridpur Suhrid Sabha in 1880/ 81, etc.56 of north Bengal had not been enough aware Source: Cultural Research Institute: Short of educating themselves or concerned about In 1971, only 8 percent of the Rajbanshi female Adult women’s home education was Notes on the Scheduled castes of West Bengal, various literacy drives of the time. Table 4 were literate and which has poorly increased (Kolkata, 2005). also fostered by some societies organized by shows that about 24 percent of the Rajbanshis by 12 percent in 1981.

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Table 5: Percentage Distribution of Rajbanshi Literates in proportion of Rajbanshi literates being educated Rajbanshis in this specific level of education Various Levels of Education by Sex upto Matriculation and above is only 6.51 was marginal. percent. Thus it seems that upto 1981 the Economic stipulation of the Rajbanshis Literates without Level of education Primary/ Matriculation and Rajbanshis of north Bengal were less Economically the Rajbanshis were District Census educational levels Junior/ Basic/ Middle above* priviledged or responsive to higher education. P M F P M F P M F predominantly agriculturists. The agrarian a 77.78 78.84 68.32 20.90 19.72 31.30 1.32 1.44 0.38 structures existing in different parts of Bengal Darjeeling According to Table 5 it is noticed that b 26.53 30.51 2.22 23.27 63.75 96.40 5.30 5.74 1.38 in 1981, about 7 percent of Rajbanshi male varied extensively. According to the analysis c 43.67 41.33 51.94 50.26 51.96 44.22 6.07 6.71 3.84 and about 4 percent of Rajbanshi female of Sugato Bose, Bengal agrarian structure may a 68.68 68.47 69.83 29.46 29.53 29.01 1.86 2.00 1.16 Jalpaiguri literates had education upto matriculation and be distinguished into three broad categories, b 12.27 12.37 11.97 82.60 81.72 85.22 5.13 5.91 2.81 above of it. The majority of their male (56 viz. (a) the peasant small holding system in c 39.60 38.14 44.09 53.98 54.72 51.69 6.42 7.14 4.22 percent) and female (51 percent) literates east Bengal, (b) the prevalence in west and a 65.35 64.14 72.68 33.48 34.52 27.22 1.17 1.34 0.01 were educated upto primary/ junior basic/ central Bengal of vast personal demesne of Cooch Behar b 25.14 33.60 1.70 72.91 63.92 97.85 1.95 2.48 0.45 middle standard. The proportionate of lands cultivated by landless labourer and (c) c 37.53 35.27 44.17 55.68 57.00 51.80 6.79 7.73 4.03 Rajbanshi male literates without any formal the rich farmer- share- cropper system of North a 66.36 67.30 55.37 32.70 31.70 44.32 0.94 1.00 0.31 West Bengal.61 The Mughal land revenue system, b 14.78 14.11 19.68 82.12 82.55 79.45 3.10 3.34 0.87 education was 37.04 percent as opposed to Dinajpur the British land revenue reforms, the c 40.48 38.70 48.06 53.46 54.56 48.77 6.06 6.74 3.17 45.10 percent of the female literates. Thus in customary practices of different areas, and the a 68.52 68.26 71.01 30.07 30.21 28.68 1.41 1.53 0.26 all the districs of north Bengal, 52- 57 percent Malda b 24.73 26.45 16.10 72.00 69.96 82.26 3.27 3.59 1.64 of the Rajbanshi male and 44- 52 percent of ecological conditions largely determined the c 38.05 36.06 46.97 55.55 56.71 50.36 6.40 7.23 2.67 Rajbanshi female literates had education upto patterns of agrarian relations in different parts 62 a 67.03 66.52 70.72 31.59 32.01 28.87 1.33 1.47 0.41 primary/ middle standard. of Bengal. North Bengal b 20.08 24.29 6.48 76.66 71.85 92.20 3.26 3.86 1.32 (Total) Among the Rajbanshis, only about 1 The jotedari- adhiari system of north c 38.94 37.04 45.10 54.55 55.65 50.99 6.51 7.31 3.91 percent of their male and 0.41 percent of Bengal N. B: a= 1961; b= 1971; c= 1981 Censuses. * For easy analysis, the figures of literates in all other levels of education above matriculation have been female literates were matriculate in 1961. The The ‘jotedari- adhiari’ system was the merged into this category. decade 1971- 81 recorded a substantial prevailing pattern of the agrarian dealings in Source: Census of India, 1961, Vol. XVI, Tables: West Bengal and Sikkim, part V- A(i), Tables on decrease in the proportion of Rajbanshi literates north Bengal. However, there were also Scheduled Castes; Census of India 1971, Series 22, West Bengal part V- A, Special Tables on Scheduled with primary/ junior basic/ middle standard of variations in tenurial relationship in different Castes and Scheduled Tribes; Census of India 1981, Series 23, West Bengal part IX (i & ii), Special education. The rate of decrease was from parts of the region. There were regions like Tables for Scheduled Castes. 71.85 percent in 1971 to 55.65 percent in 1981 Dinajpur, Rangpur, parts of Jalpaiguri, which for males, and from 92.20 percent to 50.99 were permanently settled areas, and where Again in this table, there is district wise Rajbanshis in all districts of north Bengal have percent for females. In contrast to that, there zamindari system exsisted. But in the western variation in the literacy of the Rajbanshis. In recorded an increase in their literacy rates. was a significant increase in the proportion of Duars of Jalpaiguri and in Cooch- Behar, where Darjeeling district, the percentage of literates the people both male and female who are there was no zamindari system, land was given among the Rajbanshis was 27.21 in 1981. Then Table 5 shows the level of education literate without any formal education. Between to ‘jotedars’ or rich farmers by the government in Cooch Behar it is 25.90 percent and in also indicates the pattern of progress of the the decades of 1971- 1981, the Rajbanshis of in exchange of an undertaking to pay annual Jalpaiguri, 23.18 percent. On the lower side, Rajbanshis in literacy. According to 1981 Cooch Behar, West Dinajpur and Malda rent.63 There were also variations in the the Rajbanshis of Malda and West Dinajpur census, in north Bengal, a majority of the districts had shown a better progress in positions and privileges in North Bengal.64 This had relatively low literacy rate with 19.42 and Rajbanshi literates (54.55 percent) were attaining education upto matriculation and was the result of a number of variables, such 20.47 percent respectively. But it is clearly educated upto “primary and middle” level of above of it. But in the districts of Jalpaiguri as local customs, administrative necessity, or understood that between 1971 and 1981, the school education. On the other hand, the and Darjeeling, the rate of progress of ecological factors. The purpose of the study

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is to understand the different ranks of The agrarian structure shows that the landholders’.73 Usually an ‘adhiar’ paid rent gentry, they also came to form a middle class cultivators and their corresponding rights and ‘zamindar’ was at the top of the hierarchy. to the landlord in kind, i.e. half of the crops at the village level as it was from this group privileges in the local agrarian structure. The Government allotted him land in return of the that he produced on the land given to him by that the majority of the ‘zamindari’ agents and reasons for the development of this rich payment of a fixed amount of revenue. Under the landlord. As a result the ‘adhiar’ was in an the staff of the local ‘cutchery’ were recruited. farmers/ share cropper system in this area the ‘zamindar’ was the ‘jotedar’, who got land unremitting state of debt and had very little They took advantage of the backwardness of were varied. There were vast stretches of from the ‘zamindar’, subject to the payment resources to improve his position. He had to the local cultivators or poor ryots and began uncultivated land, which were given to rich of rent at prevailing rates. The rent paid by take advance from his landlord to survive, and to exploit them. As Rangpur Settlement Report men at very low rents in order to motivate the ‘jotedar’ was subject to enhancement.68 the landlord used to charge heavy interests noted: them to bring waste land under cultivation. Though the ‘jotedars’ formed an exclusive during harvest time.74 Though there were ‘These men, of whom one or two are These rich men gave the lands to poor group of landholders, among them there were variations in the position of the ‘adhiars’ in to be found in almost every village, are the cultivators, initially for no or minimum return. differences in terms of the amounts of land different parts of north Bengal. But it was this leaders of local factions who by a smattering But once cultivation started regularly, the held. There were very big ‘jotedars’ as well section of peasantry who had to bear the major of legal knowledge and ready wit, have gained cultivators paid, generally in kind, half of the as good number of small ‘jotedars’. According burden of exploitation by the state and the the confidence of their co- villagers. Often they produce to the original title holder. Thus the to A. Beteille’s observation, ‘jotedars’ were landlords. are retained by the zamindar’s staff and in cultivators who reclaimed the waste land not an economically homogenous group and Thus, the fact that emerges from the return for land at favourable rates of rent or became the share-croppers and the rich men there were rich and poor ‘jotedars’, owning above discussion is that the ‘jotedars’ even rent free they watch their interests.’76 by virtue of their economic supremacy or cultivating large as well as small lands.69 constituted the most dominating cluster in local became the land lords.65 This system of There were enormous variations in the size of The mind-set of the ‘jotedars’ agrarian social structure. In this context, an leasing out land existed in north Bengal in ‘jotes’ in different districts of north Bengal.70 belonging to local ethnic groups also changed important point is to be noted- it was the pre- British and during British rule and it Hunter argued, ‘The ‘jotedars’ can underlet considerably as they came in contact with this absence of non- cultivating upper caste gentry became much more popular among the their holdings to inferior tenants or farmers, upper caste gentry. The prevailing practice of in north Bengal. There was a class of upper ample landholders. and also transfer all the rights and privileges the ‘jotedars’ themselves cultivating their land caste gentry in east and some other parts of they themselves derive from the proprietors. was now increasingly discontinued and a class Another reason for growing Bengal, who owned substantial amount of These subtenants or farmers have the power of non- cultivating ‘jotedars’ extended. popularity of the share- cropping system in land. But they themselves did not cultivate their of again subletting their lands to holders of the this region was the scarcity of labour land, because physical labour was a matter of third degree and so on.’71 So under the However, the focus of the study is to compared to availability of land, resulting in impertinence in society. They, however, ‘jotedar’ was ‘chukanidar’, who paid a fixed situate the Rajbanshis in this local agrarian land being less precious than labour.66 F.B enjoyed maximum power in society by virtue rent to ‘jotedar’ and the latter could not expel structure. It is not possible to determine the Hamilton, an early twentieth- century of their economic and social position. This was him from land if he paid the rent on a regular exact numerical status of the Rajbanshis in observer wrote, ‘the most remarkable not the situation of north Bengal.75 Till the basis. His title to his holding was heritable and different categories of tenure holders due to circumstance is that with this overwhelming advent of the nineteenth century most of the transferable. The ‘chukanidar’ could again the non- availability of date. From the available population, there is a general complaint of a land in north Bengal was in the possession of sublet land to ‘dar-chukanidars’ and the ‘dar- sources it can be assumed that there was a scarcity of workmen. The waste lands are the local people, i.e. the Koches, the a- chukanidar’ was the under tenant of ‘dar- fair representation of the Rajbanshis among attributed to a want of farmers, and common Rajbanshis, the Meches, etc. Unlike the upper chukanidars’. All these under tenants had the ‘jotedars’, till about the late nineteenth workmen or porters cannot be procured caste gentry, these local people did not face occupancy rights in Cooch- Behar, but not century. They were the local people and since without the utmost difficulty.’67 There were the problem of status discrepancy if they elsewhere.72 there were not many takers of the waste land also certain other factors which contributed themselves cultivated the land. But the situation at the initial stage, they could secure for to the expansion of share- cropping system The ‘adhiars’ were poor labourers who began to change from the late nineteenth themselves a dominant position in the local like- effects of war, and the depression, price had very little land of their own. They were century with the immigration of the upper caste agrarian structure. There were, however, hike, purchase of land by moneylenders and regarded ‘more as the servants of the jotedar, Hindu gentry in this area. Not only did they subsequent changes in the pattern of land merchants etc. or landlord, than as independent consolidate their position as a non- cultivating control in north Bengal, with the result that

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Table 6 : Migration to Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri and Dinajpur from Contiguous and beneficiaries from this crisis were the Rajasthan. The marginalization and Other Districts between 1891 and 1921 merchants, money lenders and speculators, pauperization of the indigenous Rajbanhis has through their invested capital in land.78 The given rise to a general feeling of estrangement From Contiguous large scale transfer of land from the Rajbanshis and turbulence among them which is further From Other Districts Year Districts to the non- Rajbanshis, which had started from provoked by the apathy shown by the Male Female Male Female the late nineteenth century was only mainstream society primarily composed of the accelerated further by these late developments upwardly mobile Bengali and Marwari Migration to Cooch Behar in north Bengal. The abundance of land, community. In Jalpaiguri, while the number of 1891 12,997 15,192 3,262 1,201 possibility of good business, job opportunities ‘jotes’ held by the Rajbanshis decreased, those in government offices as the local people were held by the Marwaris,the upper caste Bengali 1901 9,165 12,531 12,668 2,255 not in a position to race, and the lure of the tea middle- class people and others increased 1911 11,000 13,000 5,000 2,000 gardens, which provided job facilities for both sharply.81 In Cooch Behar too, the people from 1921 9,000 12.000 10,000 6,000 the ‘babus’ as well as the labourers, attracted outside those who were mostly in the 79 Migration to Jalpaiguri people from various regions of the state. The administration of the Cooch Behar state and figures on migration according to census for were perceptively more resourceful than the 1891 30,920 27,835 12,431 7,641 the period between 1891 and 1921 in Cooch local inhabitants, grabbed a large number of 1901 23,856 24,354 65,272 48,636 Behar, Jalpaiguri and Dinajpur districts, ‘jotes’.82 Thus, in all over north Bengal this 1911 18,000 15,000 15,000 10,000 portrays an idea of the volume of migration phenomenon of transfer of land from the hands of the Rajbanshis to those of the non- 1921 21,000 19,000 5,000 4,000 which took place in north Bengal in Table 6. Rajbanshis became a standard pattern and in Migration to Dinajpur This large invasion of people only led course of time it generated a sense of to a mounting demand for land and a rise in 1891 22,670 18,819 9,308 5,894 grievance among the dispossessed Rajbanshi land prices. The local people tempted by the gentry. Later on this took an ethnic dimension 1901 13,901 13,319 60,243 34,871 spiraling prices soon began to sell their lands as the Rajbanshi elites tried to raise caste 1911 19,000 16,000 12,000 6,000 leading to the transformation of the local small sentiments among members of their 1921 12,000 13,000 10,000 7,000 and middle ‘jotedars’ into undertenants, community. Alienated from their land and subservient to a new class of settler landed Source: A. Mitra, West Bengal: District Hand Books. Calcutta. 1951. Cooch traditional occupation, eroded of their cultural Behar. pp. xxxvi. Jalpaiguri. pp. lii. West Dinajpur. pp. xii gentry. In Rangpur and Dinajpur, it was the and linguistic identity they find themselves at big ‘jotedars’ and non- agriculturists who bought the receiving end of a degrading eco- system, the maximum number of ‘jotes’.80 an alien social structure which is indifferent to the Rajbanshis were gradually pushed out by in the economic sphere as a result of war, their traditional identity. This has lead to a the non- Rajbanshi landholders from their depression and famine in Bengal severely After independence, with rapid feeling of dispossession and disillusionment position of eminence. In 1911 only 1.2 percent affected the existing pattern of land ownership industrialization and the burgeoning of the tea among the Rajbanshis who are now growing of the Rajbanshis who had any occupation in the northern Bengal districts. gardens in north Bengal there was a gradual more and more identity conscious, in terms of derived their income from rent. In the Rajshahi growth of land Mafia in this region trying to A crisis in rural credit that followed their history, language, traditional social division, which contained the major monopolize the only large scale agro-based the depression compelled many small ‘jotedars’ structure, occupation and land rights. concentration of this caste population, they and peasants to sell their land. The rise in the industry of the region. Most of the land which constituted only 10.68 percent of the rent- prices of food grains and other necessities, was earlier owned by the local Scheduled Dislodgment for marginal receivers, while the representation of the following the World War II, also seriously Castes communities of Koch and Rajbanshis communities is a catastrophe; it disrupts an Brahmins in this category amounted to 25.26 affected the middle and poor peasants and this was thus bought over by the affluent Hindu entire way of life. It involves a distress, which percent.77 The changes that were taking place culminated in the great Bengal famine. The refugees from Bangladesh and Marwaris from can never be fully compensated in economic

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terms. This realization, along with the fact that changes in the existing agrarian social acquisition has still lead to a depletion of this system. Secondly, the gradual influx of the they did not share in the fruits of the sacrifices structure. National development policies were corpus. It should also be added here that tribals Bengalis and the Marwari merchants. Thirdly, they were called to make in the name of the based on large-scale creation of infrastructure and the backward castes derive a large part the growth of economic indebtedness among nation, increase the sense of estrangement of and industries, all of which required acquisition of their sustenance from common property the common people or cultivators.88 these marginalized victims of land of land. As it happens, a large part of our natural resources (CPRs), including the adjoining In the year 1986, environmental dispossession giving rise to protest movements, resources lies in the hilly and forest areas, forests. Thus even if there is no actual degradation in the coffee plantations of Brazil holding up the development process, causing mostly inhabited by tribals and backward acquisition of the land formally belonging to led to a fall in its demand in the international demolition to life and property and generally castes- some of the most disadvantaged the tribals or backward castes, the acquisition market, but at the same time the demand for daunting an efficiency cost on the system. sections of the population. Following past of forest lands for setting up of mega projects tea grew at an alarming rate. The north- eastern colonial practice, land has been acquired in and cash crop plantations results in the depletion This change in the ethnic composition part of India being climatically suitable for the exercise of the principle of “eminent domain” of their sources of livelihood. of the land holding class in north Bengal was growth of tea, plunged at this golden which confers upon the government the power also related to a general change in the The Koch Rajbanshi community during opportunity. North Bengal was not far behind. to take over private property for public character of the north Bengal economy itself. every state of its history has thus shown strong The process of land dispossession among the purpose. Thus involuntary resettlement has Roychoudhury argued that the economy of tendencies of acculturation and assimilation local Rajbanshis had already begun; the growth been the unintended companion of north Bengal had almost remained in a state only to be thwarted off by the mainstream of tea plantation only aggravated the situation. development. of self- sustained village economy till about society. The transition from small tribal kingdom Their traditional mode of cultivation, the last quarter of the nineteenth century.83 In most cases, compensation for land to the status of a Hindu princely state during lackadaisical life style, and poverty made them Land being surplus, but the cultivation was acquisition has been paid in cash, lower than the British rule has experienced contacts with poor competitors to the innovative, done in the traditional manner, which was a the prevailing market prices. While the different cultures. The tribal kings began to hardworking and shrewd designs of the major drawback. The communication system privileged castes had a better absorptive import bureaucracy and statecraft from the immigrant Bengalis. Lacking the essential being under developed, different parts of the capacity for this form of compensation, for the Hindu world. Important offices of the kingdom expertise for cultivation, land for them has region were not well connected with the tribals and Scheduled Caste communities such as the Prime Minister and clerical jobs never been a means of capital accumulation markets. The absence of a proper market displacement has meant a loss of livelihood began to be filled by people from the Bengal and economic mobility. In fact very often they economy, the production needed was largely and habitat, severance from an eco-system plain. This process of Hinduisation of the State have used land merely as a “commodity” for determined by the need of the peasants’ own that had sustained them earlier and above all mechanism had the potential to not only its exchange value, and more often than not consumption. The autobiographical account of social disruption. But the Rajbanshis who undermine tribal polity but also their traditional ended up with money less than the value of Upendra Nath Barman also depicts a similar constituted the bulk of the ‘adhiars’ of north economy.87 the land. Very often, due to their impoverished picture of the north Bengal village economy, Bengal did not benefit from this state the Rajbanshis have sold their land either Moreover the dynamics of the where cash nexus had not yet developed transformation. They were the cultivators and to get a daughter married or to perform the Rajbanshi society show that since early part properly and barter system was in practice.84 therefore the worst sufferers and it was the last rites of parents and sometimes even to of 20th century the “Jotedars” and poor peasants and ‘adhiars’ who were mainly pay the land revenue which they could not This ‘self- sustained’ village economy “Izaradar’s” of this community gradually lost affected.86 afford. Now, with urbanization and however began to change with the beginning their economic dominance over others because industrialization their situation worsened. of the commercialization of agriculture,85 Although there have been few efforts of considerable alteration in the traditional land Finding no special concessions and facilities particularly tea- plantation and the introduction to soften the impact of displacement on these ownership structure. The changes in the land for agricultural holding from the Government of railways in north Bengal. The above deprived groups through protective land holding pattern led to the emergence of a new these poor Rajbanshis slowly started to sell discussed beneficiaries- the merchants, the legislation, distributive land reforms, and a class of landed society. This was the result of their land to the upwardly mobile tea cultivator. money lenders, the speculators and middle- generating awareness of the value of land, all three things, firstly confusion arising out of the In cases when they did not sell the land, paddy class service groups penetrated as appendages of which have meant that they are still left introduction and subsequent abolition of new fields were transformed into small tea gardens of a market economy brought significant with a corpus of land resource. However systems of land reforms like the Izaradari which were more economically viable. The

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gradual encroachment of the agricultural their health and social structure. Replacement onwards that the Rajbanshis of north Bengal of mass thread wearing ceremonies in order economy by tea and other cash crops gave of food crop economy by cash crop economy began to claim for a separate state of to boast their Kshatriya status. Moreover, rise to an impoverished local economy, and led and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers Kamatapur. A few intellectuals of the efforts were also undertaken to establish links to the drainage of local capital into national and pesticides reduced the productivity of community came forward to write their history with the Bharatiya Kshatriya Mahasabha. and international markets. agricultural holdings. It also adversely affected and establish a link between the present and Women’s Contribution in Economic “fishing” which had been so far an important it’s glorious past. Sanskrit scriptures were In order to safeguard the land rights Development mode of subsistence for them. Left with very widely quoted, legends interpreted folk songs of local Rajbanshis from land mafias and illegal little choice Rajbanshi’s were forced to migrate and ballads rewritten. The objective was to Unlike African countries where acquisition of paddy lands the West Bengal into the nearby urban areas only to be absorbed build a concrete history of these people and female farming and shifting agriculture is Govt had formulated a well defined policy for into the marginalized sections of the wider bring to light the bright tradition of this predominant and plough is not used, in Asian land acquisition. According to it: society. They formed the bulk of the proletariat- community. The Rajbanshi elites maintained a countries like India, the agricultural work 1. Tea gardens cannot be grown on paddy rickshaw pullers, construction workers, distance with the rest of the Bengali caste through plough cultivation is distributed low lands. domestic servants whose survival depended society who they referred to as “Vinnajati”, between the two sexes in a very different way. upon the selling of their labour power. and made it a slogan to dissociate themselves The main farming instrument in this region, the 2. No tea gardens can be started on the Alienation from their ancestral land and the in their social behavior and interaction. Before plough, is used by men helped by draught teesta irrigation project land. transformation of Rajbanshi from land owning Independence Shri Jogendranath Mondal a animals, and only the hand operations- or some 3. No Rajbanshi land can be acquired for peasants to wage labour proletariats had Nomoshudro gentleman from undivided of them are left for women to perform.89 tea cultivation various social connotations too. Bengal, leading the cause of the backward classes had demanded a separate state for Table 7 shows the regions of India 4. “Patta” or “Barga” land cannot be used The Kamtapuri movement which has Rajbanshis, called “Rajar-sthan” or abode of where plough cultivation is predominant. The for tea cultivation. seen a recent upsurge in the Jalpaiguri, king. He feared that if Bengal was divided, a samples from regions of plough cultivation in Dhupguri, Cooch Bihar, Naxalbari, Fasidewa India show a predominantly male family labour But more often than not, most of these section of the backward classes would be and other neighboring districts of North Bengal force, because a large proportion of women guidelines were violated, resulting into a dominated by the upper caste Hindus while is an ultimate outcome of the struggle for in cultivator families are completely exempted situation where a land mafia of businessman- the other would be under the Muslims. The power and the associated privileges between from work in the fields. The land is prepared politician nexus monopolized tea cultivation. division of Bengal would thus only weaken the the indigenous communities (particularly the Rajbanshis who would then be a weak force for sowing by men using draught animals, and Although one can hardly argue that most of this thorough land preparation leaves need for these land was acquired through legal Koch Rajbanshis) and the Bengali and in Bengal politics. These sentiments of Marwari immigrants. It exemplifies the efforts alienation which is today part of the Rajbanshi weeding the crop, which is usually the procedure but what remains to be seen is women’s task. Therefore, women contribute whether these illiterate community was in a of an indigenous community in putting up a community can be historically traced back into resistance to their gradual economic their earlier efforts of social and cultural mainly to harvest work and to the care of position to get the prevailing market price for domestic animals and household chores. their land. Secondly the Rajbanshi landlords, marginalisation and erosion of cultural and assimilation, and the resultant apathy shown (few in number) had a structural difference linguistic identity in the guise of a development by the mainstream society. The Influence of Caste on Women’s Work process which was primarily derived through with the Bengali or Marwari owners of land. The movement for self-respect was and Wages These simpleminded people did not find it land acquisition. organised by the members of the affluent A large number of village studies from difficult to escape the looping designs of the All these along with the indifferent section of the Rajbanshi community. From the all parts of India describe the intricate immigrant community, nor could they attitude of the Government for an all round 1890s, the influence of Sanskritisation could hierarchical pattern of work in Indian villages. understand the complications of the legal development of north Bengal have led to the be clearly seen and there was an effort to The description of the social pattern of a village system. creation of the sentiment of Kamatapuri People characterise the Rajbanshis as Vratya (fallen) in Andhra Pradesh in South East India may be This illegal land acquisition had an Party (KPP) for the formation of a separate Kshatriyas. At the same time, from 1912 mentioned as an example. The author of the impact not only on their economy, but also on Kamtapur State. Infact, it was from 1940 onwards the Rajbanshi elite organised a series study, S. C. Dube, found four main social

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Table 7: Work Input by Women and Men in Agriculture in Some Asian Countries90 groups. In the top group of high- caste people India has an interesting history of rise of women took no part in any outdoor activities agricultural labour. An average traditional Country (where Percentage Average hours worked per week Percentage of work in farm and many observed ‘purdah’, i.e. they never village is inhabited by a dominant land owning sample villages of women on own farm performed by are located) in family left the house unveiled. Their husbands’ caste and several other occupational castes by active by active female by active by active hired agricultural work was restricted to the and groups. These various castes had till the labour female ma le ho ur s a s female ma le labour force in supervision of those who performed the actual end of the British rule an inter-relationship of family family percent of family family of both agriculture manual work. Below this top group was the rights and obligations towards each other. members members male hours me mbe rs members sexes local cultivator caste. Their women were Wiser (1969), in his study of Karimpur village Western A 32 16 33 48 17 50 33 occupied mainly with domestic duties and in Uttar Pradesh observed that “in each India never earned money for the support of the village community, there is an inter-relation B 39 19 35 54 14 57 29 family, while the men would plough their own of services which carries with it certain C - 20 56 24 fields. In the third group of ordinary low- caste responsibilities and rights. These people, women assisted their husbands in the responsibilities and rights constitute the Centr al A 21 15 27 64 6 21 73 fields and they also went to the market. They structure of the ‘Hindu jajmani system’. India B 27 20 29 52 7 20 74 worked mainly within the family framework The system had socio- religious support from Southern and in their own fields, although they might Hindu scriptures. Hindu caste system gives 40 20 30 67 25 37 38 India work for a wage in the busy season. The fourth each occupational group a fixed standing Delhi territory 31 and lowest social group was composed of within community, must of necessity have women belonging to the poorest of the low certain patterns of behaviour, which enable Malaya A 7 17 45 castes who were expected regularly to seek each caste to maintain its own status and (a) B 9 14 68 paid work for the support of their families. satisfactorily engage in relationship with Philippines 21 30 43 70 13 69 18 others.In this service of inter- relationship, Thus, within the social microcosom of each occupational caste renders service, within China (b) a single Indian village we can clearly identify 30 50 13 72 15 certain range, limited or unlimited to each of average the different types of female work pattern which the other land owining castes. In return for Northern China 27 41 9 75 16 we have described as being characteristic of the service rendered, there are payments in Southern China 31 58 16 69 15 various parts of the world at large. First, there is cash and kind made daily, monthly, half- the veiled, non- working woman of the Middle Of which: sub- yearly, per piece of work and on special region with East. Secondly we have the domestic wife who 42 76 30 62 9 occasions as part of the good will of the multi- cropping contributes very little to farming; this we recognize jajman (employer). The system in fact, had of paddy as the characteristic type of many Latin its origin in the religio-socio-economic plan a The A sample refers to a village with one annual crop of paddy; the B sample refers to three villages with multi- American countries. The third type is that of the of occupations outlined 2000 years ago by cropping of paddy. The farm families were smallholders and both men and women had much wage labour in active family worker who must carry a large addition to their work in own farm. Hindu philosophers and law- makers”.91 b The figures refer to the period 1929- 33. share of the burden of work in the family farm * Western India: Sample A, Dandekar, 82- 9, sample of 2,379 households in the old Bombay Deccan, 1949- 50. and who may occasionally work for others. She Rural economy has undergone vast Sample B and C, Farm Survey Bombay, 14, 87, 117, 344-50, sample of 158 farms in Ahmednagar and Nasik is characteristic of the South East Asian scene. changes during the last one hundred years. The districts (1956- 57). Central India: Sample A and B, Farm Survey Madhya Pradesh, 126- 7, 143-4, 149, 152, And, fourthly, we find the ‘African type’ of barter system prevalent earlier in rural India sample of 160 farms in Akola and Amraoti districts, 1956- 7. Southern India: Farm survey Madras 16- 7, 39- 43, woman who cannot expect to be supported by has been replaced by monetized economy. The sample of 199 farms in Salem and Coimbatore districts, 1956- 7. Delhi territory: Chaudhuri 647, sample of twenty- seven families in village close to Delhi. Malaya: Sample A and B, Wharton, 5- 6, sample of fifty families in her husband, but must fend independently for conspicuous increase in the population of Province Wellesley in 1962- 3. Philippines: Survey of Households, 25, arepresentative sample of5, 123 households, her own support and that of her own family agricultural labourers can be attributed to two October 1960. China: Buck, 290- 3, sample of 15,316 farms, 1929- 33. by accepting whatever she can find. main causes:

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i) dispossession of land among the small and of the country. Within each region female Several studies carried out in India, Table 8 : Variation in the SC Female marginal farmers, and participation in agriculture happen to be with reference to the female workers pointedly Agricultural Labourers Cultivators persistent by a variety of factors which may refer to the importance of poverty related during the Decade 1981- 1991 ii) loss of rural crafts in competition to modern be listed as follows: i) agro-climatic explanatory factors underlying the growth of industries. endowments and the resultant crop cultural the labour force- (Mise 1984; Agarwal 1984; Both Agri. Agri. Labourers The two principal sources of labour practices of the region, ii) distribution of assets Chakravarty 1978; Chatterjee 1984; Sen & Sen Year Cultivators force data in India, namely the Decennial in particular, cultivated land among the rural 1984). More specifically, the studies seem to Labourers & Cultivators households, iii) presence of cultural and ethnic attribute the influx of female wage labour to Censuses and the National Sample Surveys 1991 66.52 17.53 84.05 groups such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled provide a good deal of insight into the nature an ongoing process of marginalization. The 1981 68.00 16.12 84.12 and dimensions of female labour participation Tribes etc. iv) the skill and educational demographic growth begins to put pressure on Source: Cultural Research Institute: Short Note on in the country. These data sources suggest that background of the female population.94 income and consumption levels of the Scheduled Castes of West Bengal, (Kolkata, 2005). in most regions of India, there has been an households which results in a variety of The land distribution pattern has Table 9 : Involvement of Women in overwhelmingly large concentration of women economic activities in order to supplement the direct influence on the ethnic composition of Rural Production System within the agricultural sector alone. The household income. A discernible outcome of the working population. The regions with (figures in lakhs) evidence also points to the fact that a very this process is the increased entry of women greater inequality in land distribution are found large proportion belong to the category of and younger age groups into the labour force. Enterprises Women Men to harbour specific pattern of ethnic and caste unskilled workers such as agricultural labour.92 These developments have also resulted in the based occupational specialization among Agriculture 18.70 754.70 lower rungs of the landholding hierarchy and women. Both men and women belonging to It is well known that social variables being pushed into the category of wage labour Dairying 750.00 50.00 of caste status and of ethnic group in India labour castes were assigned specific types of households. Such eventualities have been Fisheries 10.00 18.00 are correlated, and women with the different farm operations. In course of time, the caste characteristic of region marked by the Small Animal work characteristics just described can often society also perpetuated a network of regid preponderance of small and marginal holdings Husbandry 150.00 20.00 be identified as belonging to different ethnic rules and regulations governing members of along with inequalities in land distribution. Khadi & Village groups. Indeed, India is a meeting place for these labour castes which effectively (Krishna1979; Joshi 1980) As for women peoples with different cultural traditions and curtailed their access to landed assets and workers from lower stratum of rural society, Industries 17.00 19.90 this is reflected in the work pattern of its also their occupational mobility into non- it has also been pointed out that the Handicrafts 5.40 22.00 women- and of its men. The concentration of agricultural pursuits. Withdrawal from the development of capitalism in agriculture and Sericulture 8.00 12.00 women in agriculture and allied activities, as agricultural labour force thus, came to be allied sectors of economy has resulted in their Handlooms 29.00 44.80 has been accounted by many scholars, is due deemed as a luxury which could be afforded induction into the labour force under a variety Source: National Perspective Plan for Women, to the decline of rural industries leading to large only by the upper echelons of the caste of exploitation relationships (Mise 1980; Bhatty 95 1988- 2000 AD, Dept. of Women and Child scale reduction of the labour force within non- based society. 1980; Kurian 1981 and Bardhan 1989). Development, M/HRD, GOI, 1988. agricultural sectors and also to their eventual The social gap between cultivators reversion of wage labourers in agricultural Numerically, in India’s female female agricultural labourers to cultivators was and agricultural labourers is always wide, and sector.93 population, every sixth person is a SC woman. 0.42 in 1961 and by 1981 it had increased to particularly so where female agricultural The employment opportunities for SC women 1.19. By and large the rate of increase of The conditions and the factors which workers of low caste or tribal group work for are very rare and whatever are there, these female agricultural labourers has kept pace with influence the scope and intensity of the female male farmers belonging to communities with provide very meager income just to subsist. the increase in the male agricultural labourers. participation in agriculture and associated non- working women living in seclusion. Here There has been a significant decline in the sex- Given the decline in overall female participation activities as belonging to the categories of the three status differences social class, ethnic ratio of the agricultural work force between rate the share of female agricultural labourers proprietory workers and wage labourers, group and sex-culminate in the creation of 1961 and 1981. It is largely due to sharp decline in the total work force, consequently increased happen to varry widely across different regions an abyss between employer and employee. in the sex- ratio of the cultivators. The ratio of from 24 percent in1961 to 45 percent in 1981.

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Table 10 : Percentage Distribution of Rajbanshi structure that have affected the supply of have no access to resources, credit, inputs and Workers into Different Occupational Categories female agricultural labourers. other agricultural interventions.

A comparison of the data available in Agriculture being the primary Occupational Categories 1981 and 1991 censuses indicates a decrease occupation of the Rajbanshis of north Bengal, District Census in percentage of agricultural laboureres among they totally depend on it. Table 10 depicts that in 1981, 57.76 percent of Rajbanshi workers I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX the SC female population and simultaneous increase in the percentage of cultivators during were cultivators and 33.27 percent were a 87.77 6.42 0.23 0.85 0.23 0.07 1.17 0.16 3.10 the decade 1981- 1991 agricultural labourers. Therefore, about 91 percent of the Rajbanshi workers were Darjeeling b 55.13 23.75 12.833 0.40 0.51 0.20 2.24 0.88 4.06 Agriculture is the main stay of Indian c 47.30 39.09 0.67 0.30 1.89 1.13 2.16 1.58 5.58 principally engaged in agriculture and related economy. Agriculture therefore, is a majore activities. Though the Rajbanshi cultivators a 89.40 4.09 0.98 0.86 0.39 0.15 1.03 0.43 2.61 field of women’s employment. In India, almost outnumbered the agricultural labourers in all Jalpaiguri b 68.85 13.05 9.97 0.86 0.81 0.20 0.08 0.90 5.28 all women in rural India today can be the districts, the ratio of latter to former was c 57.06 32.77 0.84 0.41 1.37 0.29 1.35 1.93 3.98 considered as farmers in some sense or the high in the districts of Darjeeling and West other, working as wage labourers, unpaid a 89.89 5.81 0.06 1.09 0.23 0.02 0.57 0.12 2.21 Dinajpur. Only about 9 percent of the Cooch workers in family farm enterprises or some b 78.58 16.77 0.17 0.53 0.44 0.03 0.56 0.27 2.65 Rajbanshi workers were engaged in various Behar combinations of the two. The rural India is c 59.89 32.21 0.25 0.74 1.50 0.14 1.13 0.88 3.26 non- agricultural pursuits. Except in witnessing a process which could be described manufacturing, trade and commerce, a 73.64 19.63 0.84 1.71 0.39 0.11 1.05 0.14 2.49 96 West as “Feminization of Agriculture”. Between transportation, and other services, the b 64.50 29.64 0.86 0.37 0.74 0.06 0.83 0.32 2.68 Dinajpur 1977 and 1991, the female to male agricultural proportion of Rajbanshi workers in remaining c 56.27 36.17 0.84 0.83 1.45 0.11 1.44 0.58 2.31 labour went up from 57 to 60 percent. Similarly, categories of occupation was less than one a 69.88 13.78 1.16 6.62 0.96 0.05 0.67 0.47 6.41 the rate of female to male cultivators has risen percent. In 1981, about two percent of the Malda b 39.45 30.19 6.68 5.85 3.93 0.58 3.63 1.26 8.43 from 14 to 19 percent. Rajbanshi workers were in manufacturing c 59.13 27.96 1.55 2.18 4.68 0.16 1.25 0.92 2.18 industries and only 3.33 percent were in other Table 9 given below gives a relative services. Thus it appears that upto 1981, the North a 87.03 7.04 0.53 1.29 0.34 0.08 0.82 0.25 2.62 position of the involvement of women in Rural economic activities of the Rajbanshis of north Bengal b 70.73 18.57 4.01 0.85 0.78 0.12 0.65 0.53 3.76 Production System. Bengal were primarily focused on agriculture. (Total) c 57.76 33.27 0.63 0.71 1.61 0.22 1.31 1.16 3.33 Inspite of such significant contribution In 1981, 60.47 percent of Rajbanshi male N.B: a=1961, b=1971, c=1981 Census in agricultural production process, women are Occupational Categories:(I)Cultivators;(II)Agricultural Labourers;(III) Mining, Quarrying, livestock, fishing, workers were cultivators, 31.66 percent were plantation etc; (IV) Household Industry; (V) Manufacturing other than household industry; (VI) Construction; yet to be perceived as participants rather than agricultural labourer and 3.05 percent were (VII) Trade and Commerce; (VIII) Transport, storage and communication; (IX) Other services. beneficiaries of development programmes. employed in other services. The corresponding Source: Census of India, 1961, Vol. XVI, Tables: West Bengal and Sikkim, part V- A(i), Tables on Scheduled Women are primarily treated as consumers of percentages for female workers were 19, 56.46 Castes; Census of India 1971, Series 22, West Bengal part V- A, Special Tables on Scheduled Castes and social services (like health care, education and Scheduled Tribes; Census of India 1981, Series 23, West Bengal part IX (i & ii), Special Tables for Scheduled and 7.22 respectively. The participation of the Castes. nutrition) rather than producers. They are kept Rajbanshi female workers in household industry away from development programmes in and manufacturing was proportionately better These dramatic changes in the share among these processes, as revealed by the agriculture and allied fields. Lack of access to than their male counter part. The similar situation of agriculturers and cultivators in the work existing literature, being: i) development of cash income is one of the reasons of the above was also noticed in the case of agricultural force can be attributed to the socio- economic irrigation, ii) shift in cropping pattern, and iii) situation. The subordinate status of women has labourers where the male participation was 31.66 and technological processes that took place the green revolution technologies. Besides made them supplementary earners with the percent in comparison to that of 56.46 percent during the two decades; the most important there have been changes in the agrarian male as head of the household. Thus, women of female participation.

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 271 Rajbanshis: The Deprived People of North Bengal (In the State of West Bengal) Moumita Ghosh Bhattacharyya 272

Table 11 : Percentage Distribution of Rajbanshi Workers into During the period 1961- 81, certain upon the availability of employment Different Occupational Categories by Sex interesting changes have taken place in the opportunity at a particular point of time. employment pattern of the Rajbanshi females. Moreover, most of them are unskilled. District Census Sex I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX The proportion of female cultivators sharply Rajbanshi women have to work more hours M 88.28 6.90 0.17 0.02 0.21 0.08 0.83 0.19 3.30 decreased from 78.56 percent in 1961 to 19.00 than their male counter parts and most of the a F 84.34 3.04 0.63 6.40 0.32 - 3.49 - 1.78 percent in 1981. On the other hand, the time their labour goes unpaid.

M 57.14 22.85 12.26 0.33 0.55 0.21 2.40 0.87 3.39 Darjeeling b proportion of female agricultural labourer has F 40.98 30.07 16.82 0.89 0.22 0.22 1.11 1.00 8.69 Like other provinces of India, West gone up from 2.78 percent in 1961 to 56.46 c M 49.90 36.32 0.60 0.21 1.17 1.20 2.23 1.79 6.00 percent in 1981. The rate of decrease in Bengal has also undertaken several schemes F 29.10 58.45 1.10 0.88 2.90 0.73 1.72 0.07 5.05 for the upliftment of socio- economic status M 89.92 4.54 0.44 0.39 0.29 0.17 0.95 0.49 2.81 number of female cultivators was considerably a of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and F 85.73 0.94 4.69 4.16 1.11 0.01 1.62 - 1.74 high in the districts of Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri

M 72.78 13.54 6.00 0.78 0.72 0.20 0.08 0.93 4.97 and Cooch Behar. Between 1961- 1981, almost Other Backward Classes since independence Jalpaiguri b through various amendments [The F 8.12 5.45 71.23 2.11 2.13 0.21 0.02 0.49 10.24 in all the districts of north Bengal there was M 59.74 30.94 0.73 0.23 1.12 1.29 1.30 2.06 3.59 c considerable increase in the proportion of Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order: F 20.20 57.93 2.30 2.92 4.74 0.32 2.03 0.14 9.42 1950; The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled M 90.84 6.02 0.06 0.23 0.13 0.02 0.44 0.12 2.14 Rajbanshi female agricultural labourers. a F 76.67 2.77 0.09 13.15 1.61 0.02 2.62 - 3.07 Tribes Lists (Modified) Order: 1956 and Conclusion The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Cooch b M 79.53 16.53 0.16 0.29 0.26 0.03 0.43 0.26 2.51 Behar F 44.11 25.54 0.74 9.23 6.88 - 5.34 0.47 7.69 Lists Order (Amendment) Act: 1976]. M 62.40 30.98 0.24 0.30 1.00 0.13 1.05 0.93 2.96 Education leads to empowerment and c According to 1976 Amendment Act a Total of F 17.70 52.96 0.11 8.21 9.96 0.17 3.36 0.16 8.37 employment for women as well as men. M 75.36 19.90 0.87 0.37 0.18 0.08 0.78 0.15 2.31 Education of girls is a significant variable for fifty nine castes of West Bengal got Scheduled a Caste status. Presently, there are a total of F 33.77 13.38 0.07 33.04 5.34 0.66 7.09 - 6.65 social progress of a community or society. West M 66.90 28.12 0.81 0.27 0.46 0.05 0.79 0.33 2.27 b sixty Scheduled Caste Communities in West Dinajpur F 16.21 60.19 1.73 2.38 6.36 0.33 1.78 0.09 10.93 Human resource development of Scheduled Bengal. Though the Reservation policy has M 58.92 34.60 0.86 0.32 1.00 0.11 1.36 0.61 2.22 Caste people in general is considered a pre- c F 16.64 59.77 0.59 8.56 8.03 0.01 2.65 0.08 3.67 requisite for socio- economic development. positive impacts on the Scheduled Caste and M 71.44 14.33 1.27 4.17 1.00 0.05 0.62 0.54 6.58 Therefore, it is suggested that there should be Scheduled Tribe communities of India and a F 58.60 9.82 0.33 24.33 0.66 - 1.05 - 5.21 West Bengal as well, but practically major M 41.08 29.67 7.09 5.58 3.76 0.60 3.59 1.23 7.40 a positive discrimination in favour of female Malda b portions of the Scheduled Castes of the state F 11.04 53.02 4.03 6.13 7.54 0.70 5.52 0.61 11.41 children of Scheduled Castes people in general

M 63.24 25.37 1.68 1.64 3.67 0.16 1.24 1.00 2.00 are still beyond the level of poverty line. Their c and the Rajbanshis in particular, for example- F 15.66 55.51 0.13 7.92 15.46 - 1.34 0.04 3.94 free hostel facilities; higher amount of economic position is still fragile since their M 87.87 7.47 0.34 0.45 0.23 0.08 0.67 0.27 2.62 a scholarships; reservation of seats for the girls engagement in primary sector is highest where F 78.56 2.78 2.46 9.82 1.41 0.04 2.30 - 2.63 North opportunity of surplus appropriation is very M 73.11 18.22 2.68 0.68 0.60 0.12 0.57 0.54 3.48 particularly in the vocational, technical, Bengal b F 21.46 25.77 31.41 4.29 4.43 0.22 2.27 0.47 9.68 professional courses of study, etc. much low. Again there are wide gaps in socio- (Total) M 60.45 31.66 0.61 0.34 1.19 0.23 1.24 1.23 3.05 economic status within the Scheduled Caste c F 19.00 56.46 0.97 6.06 7.75 0.22 2.20 0.12 7.22 The categories of occupation population itself. a=1961, b=1971, c=1981 Census. OccupationalCategories:(I)Cultivators;(II)AgriculturalLabourers;(III) undertaken by the Rajbanshis are: cultivators; Mining, Quarrying, livestock, fishing, plantation etc; (IV) Household Industry; (V) Manufacturing other agricultural labourers; mining, quarrying, Therefore, it is suggested that the than household industry; (VI) Construction; (VII) Trade and Commerce; (VIII) Transport, stroge and Government, both central and state should communication; (IX) Other services. livestock, fishing, plantation etc; household Source: Census of India, 1961, Vol. XVI, Tables: West Bengal and Sikkim, part V- A(i), Tables on industry; manufacturing other than household undertake such policies which are able to bridge Scheduled Castes; Census of India 1971, Series 22, West Bengal part V- A, Special Tables on Scheduled industry; construction; trade and commerce; the gap between the general communities and Castes and Scheduled Tribes; Census of India 1981, Series 23, West Bengal part IX (i & ii), Special transport, storage and communication, etc. Scheduled Castes/ Scheduled Tribes and that Tables for Scheduled Castes. However, most of their occupations depend among the Scheduled Castes themselves and

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 273 Rajbanshis: The Deprived People of North Bengal (In the State of West Bengal) Moumita Ghosh Bhattacharyya 274

also the discrimination between male and 20 ‘Joint family’ means a man, his wife, their sons, 35 Gruning, J.F. 1911: pp. 32- 3; Strong, F. W. 1912: 46 Sanyal, Charu Chandra. 1965: p. 123. Mukherjee, female population throughout the country as son’s wives and children. For discussion on Bengali pp- 34-43; Risley. 1981: pp. 494- 7. Bandana. 1963: ‘Socio- Economic and Religious well as state. family and kinship ties see, R.B. Inden and R.W. Organization of Rajbanshi’. Bulletin of the Nicholas, 1977: Kinship in Bengali Culture, pp. 36 Sanyal, Charu Chandra. 1965: pp. 91- 95. Anthropological Survey of India. Vol- XII, no. 1& 4- 8. 37 Ibid., p. 95. 2. p. 77

21 Mukherjee, B. 1963: ‘Socio-Economic and Riligious 38 Mukherjee, B. 1963: ‘Socio- Economic and Relig- 47 Sen, Chandrakanta.1316 B.S: Bamasundari Ba Organization of the Rajbanshi’. Bulletin of the ious Organization of the Rajbanshi’. Bulletin of Adarsha Nari. pp. 12. Notes Anthropological Survey of India. Vol. XII. No. 1 & the Anthropological Survey of India, vol- nos .1&2. 2, p- 65; Sanyal, C.C. 1965: p. 124. 48 Bose, Ananthanath (ed.). 1941: Report on the State 1 Das Gupta, Biman Kumar. 1969: ‘A Note on the pp. 68- 9; Roy, J. 1954: ‘Economic and Social of Education in Bengal: 1835 & 1838- including Rajbanshi (Rajbansi) of Eastern India with special 22 Schendel, W. V. 1982: p. 69. Customs of the Rajbansis’. Modern Review. some accounts of the state of Education in Behar- Reference to Social Movements’ in Bulletin of August. p. 122. a consideration of the means adopted to the Anthropological Survey of India. 18 (1). 23 Risley, H.H.1981: p. 494. 39 Sanyal. 1965: p. 99. improvement and extension of public instruction in both provinces by William Adam. Calcutta 2 Journal of Asiatic of Society Bengal. 1849: Vol. 24 Sanyal, Charu Chandra. 1965: p. 20. 40 Mukherjee, Bandana. 1963: ‘Socio- Economic and University. pp. 187- 188. XVIII, Part- II. pp. 704- 706. 25 Ibid. pp. 29-30. Religious Organization of Rajbanshi’. Bu.lletin of 49 Sen, Chandrakanta.1316 B.S: Bamasundari Ba 3 Sanyal, Charu Chandra 1965: p. 5. the Anthropological Survey of India. vol- XII, no. 26 Ibid. 1& 2. pp- 68-9; B. Dasgupta. 1969: ‘A Note on Adarsha Nari. p. 12. 4 W. W. Hunter. 1876: p. 218. 27 Sunder, D. H. E. 1995: p. 48; J. Roy. 1954: the Rajbanshi of Eastern India with specia lrefernce 50 Debi, Rashundari.1999: Amar Jiban.(my life). pp. to social movements’. Bu.lletin of the Anthropological 5 Ibid. p. 402. ‘Economic and Social Customs of the Rajbanshis’, 58, 59, 80. Modern Review. August. p. 122. Survey of India. vol- XVIII. pp. 11- 12. 6 Rowny, H. B. 1882: p. 146. 51 Chakraborty, Usha.1963: pp. 45, 46, 63, 65. 41 For detailed discussion on marriage between the 28 Martin, M. 1979: p. 490; W. W. Hunter. 1974: p. Rajbanshis and non- Rajbanshis, see Sanyal, Charu 52 Upadhyay, Gourgobindo (Roy). p. 175. 7 Risley, H. H. 1981: p. 492. 389. Chandra 1965 : pp. 92- 4. 53 Richter, J.1908: pp. 336. (Translated by Sydney 8 Porter, A. E. 1931: p. 474. 29 Sen, Chandrakanta. 1316 B. S: p. 22. 42 Vas, J. A. 1911: pp. 44- 5. H. Moore.) 9 Thompson, W. H. 1921: p. 358. 30 Urquhart, M. M. 1925: pp. 32- 3, 39- 40. 43 Some of the Rajbanshi gods and goddesses were: 54 Progress of Education in Bengal, 1902/3- 1906/07. 10 Ibid. pp. 346-349. Tista Buri: Goddess of the river, 31 Urquhart, M. M. 1925: pp. 32, 64. p. 126. Madar and Satyapir: Islamic deity adopted by 11 Porter, A. E. 1931: p. 473. 32 Census Report of Bengal. 1911: Vol. V, the Hindus, 55 Chakraborty, Usha.1963: pp. 48, 53. 12 Grierson, G. A. 1969: p. 95. Part- I. pp. 322- 25. Haribola: Vaishnava deity, 56 Vernacular Education in Bengal from 1813- 1912, Sannyasi: Saiva deity, (1916). pp. 139- 40; Bethune College and School 13 Gait, E. A. 1901: p. xxxviii. 33 Ibid., pp. 322- 25. Hudum Deo: Rain god, Madan Kam: God of procreation.This deity Centenary volume 1849- 1949. pp. 134- 36. 14 Chatterjee, S. K. 1998: p. 60. 34 It is impossible to define in definite terms the was worshipped in every village away from homes orthodox Brahminical culture because it varied from 57 Bamabodhini Patrika. 1286 B. S: No- 178. p. 31, 15 Risley, Herbert. 1891; Risley. 1915. and goats and pegions were offered as sacrifices. No- 181. pp. 116- 20. region to region. But in every region there are certain See for details, Risley. p. 498; Sanyal. 1965: 16 Agreement of merger of Cooch Behar State made religio- cultural norms and practices, which are pp. 135-50; G. S. Roy, Uttar Bamger Rajbanshi 58 Bethune College and school Centenary Volume, between the Governor General of India and His supposed to be specified by the official Hindu Samajer Deb Debi O Puja Parban’ (Bengali), 1849- 1949. pp. 148; Tattabodhini. 1939 B. S. Highness the Maharaja of Cooch Behar on 28th ‘Sastra’ for the upper caste Hindus. Any deviation unpublished Ph.D. thesis, North Bengal Ashar. (But in Bethune College and school August 1949. from the approved cultural norms is regarded as University. Centenary Volume the year appears as 1896). ‘low caste culture’ by the interpreters of the 17 Barman, Upendranath. 1379B.S: Note 6, pp. ‘Sastras’. Following this rampant notion, the 44 Risley, H. H. Papers (in microfilm). Reel No. 5, 59 Chakraborty, Usha.1963: pp. 104- 05. 40- 42. cultural practices among the upper caste Hindus NAI, Delhi. 60 Government of West Bengal: Short Notes on the 18 A. C. Hartley. 1940: pp. 54- 60. of Bengal have been described as the ‘orthodox Brahminical culture’ as a reference point for the 45 Roy, ‘Uttar Banger Rajbanshi Samajer Deb Debi O Scheduled castes of West Bengal, (Kolkata, Cultural 19 Barman, Upendranath. 1379B.S: Note 6, p. 58. discussion of the Rajbanshi cultural practices. Puja Parban’. pp. 18- 21. Sanyal, C. C. 1965: p. 134. Research Institute, 2005). p. vii.

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61 Bose, S.1986: pp. 9- 33. 76 Hartley, A. C. 1940: pp. 14- 15. References Chatterjee, S. K (1998): Kirata Jana Kirti, The Indo- Mongoloids: Their Contribution to the History and 62 For detailed discussions on the agrarian structure 77 Mitra, A.1986: ‘Emergence of Land Market in Bamabodhini, Patrika: 1286 B. S: No- 178. Culture of India, (reprinted edn), The Asiatic of Bengal, see P. Chatterjee, 1984: pp. 158- 65; A. Jalpaiguri (NorthBengal), in the early Twentieth Sen, P. Chatterjee, and S. Mukherjee (eds.), 1982; Century.’ Occasional Paper IV. Centre for Studies. Barman, Upendranath: 1379B.S: Thakur Panchanan Society, Calcutta. Barmaner Jiban Charita (Bengali), Jalpaiguri. S. Bose. 1986: For further discussion on the Surat. p. 12. Cooper, A (1988): Share Cropping and Share Croppers’ agrarian structure of north Bengal, see R. Ray. 1979; Barman: U. N. 1392 B. S: Uttar Banglar Sekal O Amar Struggles in Bengal 1930- 1950, K. P. Bagchi and P. Chatterjee, 1984: Bengal 1920- 47. 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Das Gupta, R (1992): Economy, Society and Politics in Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 29. No. I. p. 77; Roy 63 Ray, R. 1979: p. 203. Bengal: Jalpaiguri 1869- 1947, OU Press, Delhi. choudhury, T. K. 1987: pp. 13-17; Mitra, A.1986: Boserup, Ester (1970): Woman’s Role in Economic 64 Miligan, J. A. 1920: pp. xxi, xxiv; A. C. Hartley. ‘Emergence of Land Market in Jalpaiguri (North Developmen, St. Martin’s Press, New York. Debi, Rashundari (1999): Amar Jiban (My Life), 1940: pp. 54- 5; H. N. Chaudhury. 1903: pp. Bengal), in the early Twentieth Century.’ Occasional Translated by Enakshi Chatterjee, Writers’ 511- 4. Becket, W. A. O. (1874): Completion Settlement Report Paper IV. Centre for Studies. Surat. pp. 10-13. Workshop, Kolkata. of Pergunnah Mekhligunge, Cooch Behar. 65 Bose, S.1986: pp. 26- 8. 82 Sarkar, S. 1990: pp. vii- 32; Ray, Ratnalekha. Gait, E. A (1902): Census Report of Bengal, 1901, Part.I, Bell, F. O. (1941): Final Report on Survey and Settlement 66 Taniguchi, S. 1977: pp. 205-6; W. V. Schendel.1991: 1979: pp. 203- 4. Appendix-I, Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta. Operation in the District of Dinajpur, 1939- 40, p. 114. 83 Roychoudhury, T. K. 1987: p. 2. Bengal Government Press, Calcutta. Government of West Bengal: Short Notes on the 67 Hamilton, F. B. ‘An Account of the District of Scheduled Castes of West Bengal (2005), Cultural 84 Barman, U. N. 1392 B. S: pp. 1- 15. Bethune College and School Centenary Volume, 1849- 1949. Dinajpur, 1808- 9’, cited in A. Mitra.1951: District Research Institute, Kolkata. Hand Book, West Dinajpur. Appendix III, pp. ii- vii. 85 Xaxa, V. 1980: ‘Evolution of Agrarian Structure and Beteille, A (1979) (eds.): Studies in Agrarian Social Grierson, G. A (1969): Linguistic Survey of India, Vol-III, Relations in Jalpaiguri District (W. B.)’. Structure, Oxford University Press, Delhi. 68 Hunter, W. W. 1976: p. 279. Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 29 No. I. p. 72. Part-II, (reprinted edn), Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi. Census of India, 1991, Govt. of India, New Delhi. 69 Beteille, A. 1979 : pp. 135- 6. 86 Roy, J. 1954: Economic and Social Customs of Gruning, J.F (1911): Eastern Bengal and Assam District Census of India, 2001, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Gazetteers: Jalpaiguri, Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta. 70 Becket, W. A. O. 1874: p. v; D. H. E. Sunder.1895: the Rajbansis. Modern Review. August. p. 129. p.118. In his Settlement Report , Becket noted 87 Basu, Swaraj. 2003: 53-55. Census Report of Bengal (1911): Vol. V, Part- I, Bengal Hamilton, F. B “An Account of the District of Dinajpur, that the average size of a ‘jote’ in the Mekhligunge Secretariat Press, Calcutta. 1808- 9”, A. Mitra District Hand Book (1951), Bengal subdivision of Cooch Behar was 79 acres, where 88 Ibid., pp. 49- 56. Government Press, West Dinajpur, Calcutta. as Sunder reported that the average size of a ‘jote’ Chaudhury, H. N (1903): The Cooch Behar State and 89 Boserup Ester.1970: pp. 66- 81. in Western Duars was38.6 acres. its Land Revenue Settlements, Cooch Behar. Hartley, A. C (1940): Final Report on the Rangpur Survey and Settlement Operations, 1931- 38, Bengal 71 Hunter., W. W. 1976: p. 279. 90 Ibid,. Table. 2. p. 25 Chakraborty, Usha (1963): Condition of Bengali Women Government Pres, Calcutta. around the Second Half of the 19th Century, 72 Ibid., Vol. X. pp. 389; Sunder, D. H. E. 1895: 91 Wiser. 1969: p. 24. Bardhan Press, Calcutta. Hunter, W. W (1876): Statistical Account of Bengal, p. 119. 92 National Commission for Women. 1998: p. 4. Vol-VII, Trubner & Co., London. Chatterjee, P (1984): Bengal 1920- 47, The Land Question, 73 Bell, F. O.1941: p. 22. 93 Ibid., p. 4. vol. I, K. P. Bagchi and Company, Calcutta. Hunter, W.W (1876): Statistical Account of Bengal, 74 Hartley, A. C. 1940: p. 65. Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar, Vol-X, 94 Ibid., pp. 6-7. Chatterjee, P; A.Sen, and S. Mukherjee (1982) (eds.): Trubner & Co., London. 75 Ray, Ratnalekha. 1979: p. 173; Mukhopadhyay, 95 Ibid., pp. 6-7. Perspectives in Social Sciences 2: Three Studies Sibsankar. 1990: p. 117. on the Agrarian Structure in Bengal 1850- 1947, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, (1849): Vol- 96 Ibid., p. 39. Oxford University Press, Delhi. XVIII, Part- II.

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Martin, M (1979): The History, Antiquities, Topography Sanyal, Charu Chandra (1965): The Rajbanshis of North A Time Like No Other: An Analysis of the Political Economies and Statistics of Eastern India, Vol-V, Education Bengal, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta. Dept., Government of Maharashtra. of Eastern Europe since 1989 Schendel, W. V (1982): Peasant Mobility: The Odds of Life in Miligan, J. A (1920): Final Report on the Survey and Rural Bangladesh, Oxford University Press, Delhi. Joel R. Campbell Settlement Operation in the Jalpaiguri District, Schendel, W. V (1991): Three Deltas, Accumulation and 1906-16, Bengal Government Press, Calcutta. Poverty in Rural Burma, Bengal and South India, Mukherjee, B (1963): “Socio-Economic and Religious Oxford University Press, Delhi. Abstract Organization of the Rajbanshi”, Bulletin of the Anth Sen, Chandrakanta: 1316 B. S: Bamasundari Ba Adarsha Nari. This paper focuses on the political development of Eastern Europe since 1989, ropological Survey of India, Vol. XII, No.1 & 2. especially the Visegrad countries of Central Europe: Poland, the Czech Republic, Strong, F. W (1912): Bengal District Gazetteers: National Commission for Women: Report on Scheduled Slovakia, and Hungary. It also compares these countries to representative cases Dinajpur, Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta. Caste Women in Agriculture (1998). in Southeastern Europe (Romania), the Baltic states (Lithuania), and the former Sunder, D. H. E (1995): Report on the Survey and Soviet Union (Belarus). Porter, A. E (1933): Census of India, 1931, Vol-V, Part- Settlement of the Western Duars in the Jalpaiguri I, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta. District, 1889-1895, Bengal Secretariat Press, Progress of Education in Bengal, Third Quinquennial Calcutta. Review, 1902/3- 1906/07. Introduction economically and politically to Western Europe, Taniguchi, S (1977): “Structure of Agrarian Society in have pursued Western democratic capitalist Ray, Ratnalekha (1979): Change in Bengal Agrarian The current moment in international northern Bengal 1765- 1800”, (unpublished Ph.D. forms as the perceived best way to prepare Society, 1760- 1850, Oxford University Press, Delhi. relations provides a unique opportunity for thesis), Calcutta University. for, and make themselves attractive for, Richter, J (1910): History of Missions of India, comparative analysis of economic and political Thompson, W. H (1923): Census of India, 1921, Vol. V, eventual inclusion in the West’s political, Translated by Sydney H. Moore, Oliphant, development in countries in transition, i.e., the Part-I (Bengal), Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, economic, and military arrangements, i.e., Anderson & Ferrier, Edinburgh. former Communist states of Eastern Europe, Calcutta. friendly relations with the U.S., and contrasted with those of Central Asia. This Risley (1915): The People of India, (II ed.), W. Thacker membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Upadhyay, Gourgobindo (Roy) and Acharya paper considers the post-1989 experience of and Co., London. Organization (NATO, granted in 1999 and Keshabchandra Sen, Keshab Centenary Volume, countries in transition in the two regions, and Risley, H. H (1981): The Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Allahabad Series, Vol.I. 2004) and European Union (EU, accession examines the implications of the transition Vol-1, (reprinted edn), Firma KLM gained in 2004). Political changes are also a Urquhart, M. M (1925): Women of Bengal; A Study of process for theories of economic and political Mukhopadhaya, Calcutta. way to distance the region from Russia, its the Hindu Pardanasins of Calcutta, Association development. Specifically, what general Roychoudhury, T. K (1987): “Land Control: Class traditional nemesis. However, the experience Press, Calcutta. patterns of political economic development Structure and Class Relations in Western Duars 1871- of forty-five years of Communism, and then have manifested in each region, and what major 1905”, UGC Seminar Paper, North Bengal University. Vas, J. A (1911): Eastern Bengal and Assam District sudden economic and political liberalization, Gazetteers: Ranpur, Bengal Secretariat Press, factors are most crucial in accounting for such Roy, J (1954): “Economic and Social Customs of the profoundly affected the political culture of the Calcutta. patterns? Rajbanshis”, Modern Review, August. region, and the desire to retain the supposed Vernacular Education in Bengal from 1813- 1912, Roy, Nikhilesh (2003) (ed.): Degor, Vol-3, North Bengal The Central and Eastern European economic and social benefits of socialism has (1916). Academy of Culture, Darjeeling. (CEE) countries (for analytical purposes, tempered countries’ embrace of capitalism, and has allowed ex-Communists a political Roy, Nikhilesh (2006) (ed.): Degor, Vol-4, North Bengal Wiser, W. H (1969): The Hindu Jajmani System, The including only the Baltic states from the former Academy of Culture, Darjeeling. Lok Dal, Lucknow. Soviet Union), by consciously tying themselves lease on life. Roy, “Uttar Banger Rajbanshi Samajer Deb Debi O Puja Xaxa, V (1980): “Evolution of Agrarian Structure and Parban”. Relations in Jalpaiguri District (W. Bengal)”, Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 29, No. I. Rowny, H. B (1882): Wild Tribes of India, Oxford Dr Joel R Campbell is a Professor of Center for International Education, Kansai Gaidai University, 16-1 Nakamiya University Press, Delhi. higashino-cho, Hirakata-shi, Osaka 573 1001. E-mail: [email protected]

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 IJSAS 2(2) 2009, pp.278-301. ISSN 0974 - 2514 279 A Time Like No Other: An Analysis of the Political Economies of Eastern Europe since 1989 Joel Campbel 280

Comparison of Eastern Europe’s parts: 1) a political narrative of post-1989 Political changes have roughly countries during the 1990s. These have post-1989 transition to the changes in Central Eastern European development, 2) a mirrored these economic shifts. Poland saw included Walesa and Krasniewski in Poland, Asia presents a number of challenges for comparison of the European cases to those of major changes with each election from 1991 Havel and Klaus in the Czech Republic, political economic theory. The strong role Central Asia, and 3) an examination of relevant to 1997, and then a period of relative stability Meciar, Kovac, and Dzurinda in Slovakia, and played by states in both regions, and the better political transition theory, as it applies to the until 2005. The Czech Republic experienced Horn in Hungary. Finally, strong political and economic performance by state-led, export- Eastern European cases. big shifts with each economic turn during 1996- economic ties to the EU and the U.S. have oriented programs may indicate that statist or 1998. Slovakia’s political struggles, centering been important for all four countries. Poland, Country Cases neo-mercantilist theories provide better on the rivalry between Vladimir Meciar and the Czech Republic and Hungary are already explanatory or prescriptive analysis of While the details of transition have Michal Kovac, dominated national life from members of NATO, and the three are first- transition from command to liberal systems. differed among all nations examined here, the “Velvet divorce” from the Czech Republic tier candidates for EU membership. Liberal economic theories fail to account for certain general patterns easily can be initiated in 1992 until the election of an 1. Poland: Poland was the reform leader in either the prevalence of strong political discerned. It is useful to present in narrative opposition coalition led by Mikulas Dzurinda Eastern Europe, even before 1989. The first regimes, or their effectiveness. Marxist or form the key developments that have occurred in 1998. Hungary had major electoral shifts in country to gain a degree of religious freedom leftist theories may suggest that these countries in all of the Visegrad countries, in order to get 1995 and 1998, as Socialists (former and slight room for the operation of a civil are being incorporated into the capitalist world an overview of those characteristics that Communists) alternated with democrats. By society, its workers spawned the Solidarity system as new peripheries or semi-peripheries, determine the political patterns that have the 2000s, few of the former Communist union movement. Allied with the Catholic but the Eastern European experience shows emerged since 1989. countries had strong leaders.2 that nations can quickly transform themselves, Church, Solidarity initiated the Round Table and achieve upward mobility in the global Visegrad Countries Consequently, economic issues have negotiations that led in 1989 to the first non- communist government in the Eastern Bloc. political economy. The Visegrad countries have been high on the political agenda. During the Poland also set the tone for both political and undergone a three-stage process of initial early years, these included the privatization of This paper focuses on the political state-owned enterprises (SOEs), control of economic reform throughout the region. development of Eastern Europe since 1989, political economic transformation. In all four, Politically, the transition represented a gradual, economic decline from 1989 to the early 1990s budget deficits, reform of pension and health especially the Visegrad countries of Central systems left over from the communist era, yet complete break with the past, and the Europe: Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, was followed by a return to economic growth creation of both a strong presidency and strong by the mid-1990s, then an increase or maintenance and reform of welfare benefits. and Hungary. It also compares these countries During late 1990s and early 2000s, focus legislature (Sejm). It did so in a step-wise to representative cases in Southeastern Europe slowdown in growth in the late 1990s, and fashion, centered on the writing of a new finally fair to lackluster growth after 2001. shifted to preparations to join the EU. Other (Romania), the Baltic states (Lithuania), and purely political issues have been wild cards in constitution: first, a “Small Constitution” that the former Soviet Union (Belarus). It finds that Poland began to grow in 1992, and slowed created basic institutions and allowed political down in 1998, then grew quite well after 2001. each country. Scandals have hit most of the all of the nations of Eastern Europe share a countries, viz., the Czech Republic, Slovakia, space, leading to the writing of a widely general pattern of political development, but The Czech Republic saw a return to growth accepted national constitution in 1997.3 only by 1995, growth slowed from 1996, and and Hungary. Extreme partisanship and that the Visegrad countries have been better political conflict have been normal features in by 1999 was in a severe recession, only Economically, the Polish government able to consolidate democratic development Poland and Slovakia. Ethnic tensions have returning to middling growth early in this quickly decided by 1990 to pursue a “shock due to stronger economic growth. been relatively minor, though issues relating to decade. Slovakia began to grow at the same therapy” approach (the Balcerowicz Plan), Southeastern Europe and the Baltics were hurt the Roma (Gypsy) minority have surfaced in time as its Czech neighbor, but unlike it, has involving stabilization, currency convertibility, by disastrous economic declines in the early the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. seen steady growth ever since. Hungary’s and price liberalization. Nonetheless, output 1990s, though the Baltic countries rebounded The Hungarian minority in Slovakia has also growth started after a painful adjustment in declined markedly through 1990 and 1991, and faster than Belarus. The former Soviet become politically active. countries have had difficulty escaping an 1994, and increased in 1997. Like Slovakia, privatization of state firms proceeded only authoritarian political culture that fosters Hungary was a recipient of much foreign The dominance of major political slowly.4 The economy began to recover in strongman rule. The paper is divided into three investment.1 personalities was a key feature in all Visegrad 1992, and by 1995 was perhaps the strongest

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in the CEE region. Gradual recovery came too of the Solidarity-led strike in Gdansk found little of the ailing Asian tigers, which got much more Vaclav Havel was elected twice in indirect late for the Solidarity government, though. Its unity in celebration, as violent demonstrations attention. The economy began to recover in elections to the largely ceremonial position. He shock approach, along with Lech Walesa’s forced the Tusk government to relocate 1998, just like the Asian economies. thus functioned as a rare figure above politics, increasingly controversial leadership of commemorations.8 The question now is and there was much concern about the future Political changes mirrored the Solidarity, fragmented the democracy whether a more “normal” competitive politics of Czech politics when his term ended. As his economic upheavals of these years. In the movement, as shown by splintered results in and consolidation of the opposition will occur. successor, Klaus was able to become a more heady aftermath of the Velvet Revolution, the the 1990 presidential and 1991 parliamentary popular figure than he had been as prime former opposition umbrella grouping Civic elections. A succession of coalition 2. Czech Republic: The Czech Republic has minister. governments under Walesa wavered in received much favorable international attention Forum won an overwhelming victory in 1990 3. Hungary: Until last year, Hungary had been support of economic reform, but birthed because of its perceived success in bringing elections. By 1992, the right-wing Civic blessed with perhaps the most stable post-1989 significant political changes, including an about both political and economic transitions. Democratic Party (ODS) split from Civic economy in Eastern Europe. As the first Soviet election law to reduce political fragmentation. The reality has been more mixed than the Forum and won on its own. The first Vaclav bloc economy to experiment with economic Former communists used superior international news media suggest. The Klaus government formed soon thereafter. As reforms (“goulash Communism”) in the 1970s organization, a reputation for competence, and economy has only been partially privatized and the economy began to recover, Klaus had and 1980s, Hungary had much experience with discontent over economic decline and its performance has never been strong since breathing space for major reforms. When the private and partially private enterprise, and it Walesa’s perceived arrogance to win control 1989. The political system has been economy began to falter in 1996, a pre- of the parliament in 1993 and the presidency characterized by constant conflict and communist socialist party, the Czech Social was relatively easy to extend the liberalization in 1995. Walesa’s successor, Aleksandr irreconcilable differences along several Democratic party (CSSD) came in a close process in the 1990s, especially privatization Krasniewski, gained support as a charismatic, cleavages, the most serious of these being the second to ODS. The second Klaus government of SOEs. Growth began in 1994, though it has youthful technocrat vowing continued reform. 1993 split with Slovakia (the “Velvet was accordingly much weaker, and the bloom been much lower than in Poland. As in the Unable to hold onto power in 1989, the former Divorce”). While the nation joined NATO and was off the reforms. Scandals and economic Czech Republic, the country has struggled with communists managed a remarkable comeback the EU, it has a long way to go before it catches difficulties sunk the Klaus government. In budget and trade deficits, not to mention serious within six years in the “velvet restoration.”5 up with the West economically or 1998, as the economy began to recover, the external debts dating back to the communist era. CSSD gained an outright victory, but the Krasniewski’s considerable diplomatic skills institutionalizes its new democracy. Hungary’s recent political subsequent Milos Zeman government had and political competence allowed him a second The Czech economy saw moderate development perhaps best fits the hypothesis term. difficulty forming a coalition and had to make economic growth in the 1990s, but it was never of transitional politics being shaped by a pact with Klaus in order to function as a as strong as that of Poland or Hungary. The economic shifts. The left-right cleavage is The economy finally began to take minority government. The Social Democrats state carried out a comprehensive privatization perhaps more profound here than in any other off in 2003, and growth reached seven percent formed another weak coalition with the program in 1991, involving vouchers that were post-communist nation, which Schopflin dubs in 2007. A swing to the conservative Law and Christian Democrats in 2002, but the Civic intended to spread ownership of SOEs widely, a “cold civil war” that cuts across the society.11 Justice Party (PIS) in 2005 saw joint rule by Democrats took six months before they could but actually ended up concentrating stock The electoral system is extremely complicated, the Kacynski twins, Lech as president and form a viable coalition with the Christian ownership in a few hands. A shock therapy and there is no clear connection between votes Jaroslav as prime minister, but their quirky Democrats and Green Party in early 2007.9 The program was not nearly as successful as that received by parties and the number of seats attempt to fight corruption by seizing greater minority government of Mirek Topolánek has power and control for themselves led to a done in Poland, though it avoided the abysmal gained in the parliament (in fact, in one election, faced seven no-confidence motions, and his victory for the centrist Civil Platform, led by results seen in Russia. Growth commenced in a party out-polled the ruling party, but received leadership of the EU presidency has been uneven Donald Tusk in the 2007 parliamentary 1995, but the country quickly slipped into a fewer seats). In 1990, as in the Czech Republic, at best, as he has made several undiplomatic elections.6 Neighboring EU countries not so major crisis in 1996-1997. This involved bank the opposition Hungarian Democratic Forum statements about both the union and the U.S.10 quietly favored Mr. Tusk over the Kacynskis, collapses, a currency crisis, and ballooning won a great victory, but lost its mandate due due to the latters’ occasionally skeptical budget and trade deficits. All of this made the Presidential elections since 1989 have to economic contraction. So, in 1994, the stances on the union.7 The thirtieth anniversary Czech Republic look like a miniature version been different. Former Cold War era dissident Hungarian Socialist Party (MSzP), a

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repackaging of the former communist party, period after the split with the Czechs was Slovakia’s economy grew over ten powers than in any other Eastern European won a landslide. The Gyula Horn government difficult, as the Klaus shock therapy program percent per year during the first two years of country. In 1992 parliamentary elections, formed a fairly stable coalition with the small had hit the country fairly hard. General Fico’s government but, like Hungary, slipped conservatives successfully tarred liberals for Alliance of Free Democrats (SzDSz). economic growth, primarily agricultural into a serious recession toward the end of 2008 the impact of harsh reforms, and conservative Economic difficulties of the mid-1990s caught export-driven, resumed in 1994, but a and debt ballooned to five percent of GDP. interim president was Ion Iliescu reelected, but up with the Socialists, and in 1998, they were privatization program had generally benefited Despite a number of corruption scandals in not without a runoff.17 Iliescu left office in 1996, replaced by a center-right coalition made up the former communist elite. Slovakia has his party, Fico’s personal popularity remains but came back to win impressively in 2000. of the Alliance of Young Demcrats (Fidesz- enjoyed perhaps the greatest influx of fairly high for a Slovak prime minister, due to Elected to fight endemic corruption four years MPP) and the smaller Smallholders’ Party foreign investment on a per capita basis of his “mix of fiery rhetoric and pragmatism.”16 later, conservative president Traian Basescu (FKgP) and the MDF. The Socialists came any of the former Communist states (2.2 faced a political deadlock with the leftist parties Comparative Cases back in a coalition with the SzDSz in 2002. billion euros in 2004), made possible in part in parliament. This conflict was personified by Businessman Ferenc Gyurcsany became by low labor costs, a flexible labor system The Balkans: In Southeastern Europe, his feud with Prime Minister Calin Popescu- Prime Minister in 2004 and was reelected in allowing ease of hiring and firing, and low economic decline has led to unstable politics. Tariceanu during his first years in office. The 2006, but a leaked tape in which he indicating taxes combined with a flat tax policy.14 Romania and Bulgaria have remained calm, prime minister finally resigned, replaced by that he lied about the size of the national debt given their economic collapse, but have tended another short-term premier, but the parliament As noted before, the politics have led to mass protests.12 more toward authoritarianism and extreme voted articles of impeachment against the also been more simple than elsewhere in the partisanship than in the Visegrad countries. president, which failed in a popular referendum As in the Czech Republic, post- Visegrad area. In 1992, the Movement for The former Yugoslavia descended into civil in 2007.18 Basescu saw his popularity slip in communist presidential elections have been a Democratic Slovakia (HZDS), led by war and severe conflict, except for Slovenia, 2009 due to his party’s selection of his ex-model fairly non-controversial. Arpad Goncz was Vladimir Meciar, took power. However, the whose politics and economic development daughter as a candidate for the EU twice elected in indirect elections in the 1990s, government lost a vote of confidence two mirrored that of the Visegrad countries. Albania parliament.19 and Lazslo Solyom has been president since 2005. years later, about the time the economy has seen gradual recovery from a very low began to take off. The HZDS won the 1994 The Romanian economy generally The 2008-2009 economic crisis hit basis, and has concentrated on institution election, partly due to the relative popularity performed poorly in the 1990s, and the Hungary hardest of all the major Eastern building. of Meciar. Michal Kovac, a Meciar rival, government had to seek IMF help with the European EU states. Heavily indebted during continued as president until 1998, when he 1. Romania: The Romanian Revolution of countries debts in 1994. Romanian economic the early part of the decade, the country’s retired. Presidential prerogatives devolved 1989 was the most abrupt, violent and popular reforms mainly consisted of price deregulation. currency collapsed in 2008, leading to a $25 on Meciar, but his increasing concentration of transitions that year. The entire process of Significant reform of SOEs was delayed (SOEs billion bailout agreement with the IMF. The of power and a scandal involving the kidnap overthrow of the old regime, from protests in still account for a large share of industry), and agreement calls for cutting the budget deficit of Kovac’s son weakened his hold on the the western region, to restoration of order in Iliescu’s government pursued generally to three percent of GDP, which makes country. In an election that year, votes Bucharest following Communist dictator conservative policies. The IMF was economic stimulus almost impossible. Gyurcsany, were split between HZDS and various Nicolae Ceausescu’s summary execution, took accordingly reluctant to grant large loans, but perhaps realizing how much the economic other parties, which refused to join HZDS only a little over two weeks. Governments of due to an austerity package passed in 1994, collapse had weakened his government, in in a coalition government. As a result, four the 1990s were brittle and fairly short-lived. A extended limited aid. The overall economy, March, 2009 appointed economics minister opposition parties formed a rickety broad coalition government called the National which had been in free-fall since the fall of Gordon Bajnai as his successor.13 coalition under Prime Minister Mikulas Salvation Front (FSN) took power, and won Ceausescu, began to grow again the same 4. Slovakia: Slovakia’s post-1989 economic Dzurinda. Rudolf Schuster took office as parliamentary elections over an unorganized year.20 The recent recession hit Romania quite development has proceeded somewhat more president the next year. Dzurinda stayed opposition in 1990, but split between hard, as both FDI and exports decreased, but simply than most of its neighbors, and in office until 2006, when he was replaced conservatives associated with the communist reduced trade paradoxically reduced the certainly has been less complicated than that by Robert Fico of the Direction Social regime and liberal reformers. A 1991 country’s current account deficit. Economic experienced by its Czech brethren. The early Democracy Party.15 constitution gave the president stronger growth is expected to be under 1% this year,

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and its banks are not profitable. Economic and populist parties did well in the presidential commonly associated with semi- well as a referendum allowing him to serve slowdown meant an increased government and local elections. A center-right coalition led democratic countries. indefinitely, as unreliable. Lukashenko gradually deficit, but the EU granted Romania a large by President Rolandas Paksas took power in tightened his control, giving himself rule by 3. Belarus: Belarus was once one of the most loan to help it get through the crisis.21 2000, but Paksas was removed from office decree in 1996 and ignored a court ruling prosperous areas of the Soviet economy. for corruption in 2004 and former president overturning the referendum extending his term. Unlike the Visegrad countries, Closely tied to Russia, it shrank by perhaps Valdus Adamkus was reelected.23 His party won overwhelming victory in Romania has significant ethnic cleavages, half in the first decade of independence, parliamentary elections in 2000 and 2006 and, which have nonetheless not yet resulted in the Russia’s proximity remains a looming though it grew slightly in the mid-1990s before perhaps unsurprisingly, his party won all of the issue in Lithuania’s politics. Both the Social Russia’s ruble crisis of 1998. Unlike most kind of violence seen in the former Yugoslavia. parliamentary seats in 2008.26 Hungarians, mostly residing in Transylvania, Democratic Party (LSDP) government and the Eastern European countries, there was little account for about seven percent of the conservative Homeland Union/ Christian liberalization of the economy after 1991, and Central Asia: By contrast, Central Asia has population, and Roma and Germans for Democratic (TS-LKD) opposition routinely most economic activity is still performed by followed a path both more independent and another two percent. The Republic of condemn Russian actions abroad. Alleged state-run companies. Russia subsidized the more authoritarian than Eastern Europe. Moldova, bordering eastern Romania, has a Russian connections also feature prominently economy with cheap oil and gas through the Traditionally dependent on the Soviet Union/ largely Romanian population, and there has in Lithuanian political scandals, most early part of this decade, though Belarus was Russia, since 1991 these new nations have been a strong movement to unite the two spectacularly in Paksas’s impeachment.24 forced to accept a doubling of gas prices in sought to break out of their landlocked status 2006. The country remains on fairly good through diversified political and economic ties nations. Nonetheless, Moldovan leaders claim The Lithuanian economy was 22 terms with Russia, though Moscow’s attempts with Western and neighboring nations. For that they wish to remain independent. affected worse than any other European to raise oil and gas prices instance, Uzbekistan has attracted foreign country by the 2008-2009 recession. The 2. Lithuania: Unlike Central Europe, investment and production from various government projected that the economy would In contrast to the young, developing Lithuania underwent severe economic countries, and Kazakhstan has established contract 10.5% in 2009, led by broad declines democracies of Central Europe, Belarus is an contraction during most of the 1990s, and this itself as both a major petroleum producer and in construction, retail and textiles, and extreme example of democratic strongman has led to greater political turnover (fifteen military ally of the U.S. None of these countries suggested that the economy would not return rule, or more accurately a classic semi- governments since 1991). It held its first has developed fully democratic institutions yet, to the black until 2011. As the largest economy democratic presidential regime, with a weak parliamentary elections in 1990, when it was and former Communist leaders wield power still a republic of the Soviet Union, when the of the Baltic states, Lithuania was expected legislative branch (still called the Supreme 25 in most of them. nationalist Lithuanian Movement for to adversely affect Latvia and Estonia, as well. Soviet and only loosely institutionalized by Restructuring (or Sajudis) won solidly over The rest of the former Soviet Union, 2000). The Belarusian system therefore The Newly independent states (NIS) the communists. As in most of Central Europe, except for the Baltic states, experienced reminds one of the Third and Fourth Republics of Central Asia began life in 1991 with the severe contraction of the economy extreme economic decline (perhaps in South Korea (1963-1980) or the Republic least resources of the three regions to draw accompanying independence the next year characterized as hyper-depression) during the of China on Taiwan under Chiang Kai-shek upon. Although Central Asian cultural heritage allowed the Lithuanian Democratic Labour 1990s, while Russia saw a commodities-fuelled (1949-1975). Aleksander Lukashenko was extends back to before the Middle Ages, none Party (LDDP), made up of former recovery in this decade. Contradictory impulses overwhelmingly elected on a populist platform of the five NIS existed as a distinct entity Communists, to triumph the next year. Like to democratize and gain control of the economy in 1994, having served as head an anti- before the Stalinist era. All were initially Hungary, their reign was short lived, and the meant that the CIS countries have gravitated corruption commission; he is sometimes called created as czarist satrapies carved out in the 1990s saw a succession of short-term toward democratic strongmen, i.e., elected “Europe’s last dictator.” Protesters are “Great Game” of the nineteenth century. governments. The conservative wing of democratically but wielding considerable punished severely, the government has a poor Culturally, all are drawn southwest to the Sajudis, calling itself Homeland Union and centralized power. The Yeltsin and Putin human rights record, and election results are Turkic world, or east toward China, and modern Lithuanian Conservatives, won the 1996 governments in Russia, the Lukashenko commonly questioned by Western influences came through the alien occupier, election and put together a coalition regime in Ukraine, and the Kuchma regime governments. EU governments considered his Russia. Unlike Eastern Europe, the Central government. Environmentalists, anti-European in Belarus have all shared common features overwhelming victories in 2001 and 2006, as Asians gained little experience in either

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independent governance or capitalist 4. Uzbekistan: Gleason notes that Uzbekistan outright, and a general suppression of human agricultural output, and fared better in terms development before their post-World War I has been characterized by various rights and democracy activists followed. The of capital investment.29 incorporation into the Soviet Union. contradictions. Most notably, though clearly Western response was fairly weak, but just Nevertheless, Uzbekistan today authoritarian, its government has been fairly strong enough to get U.S. military forces kicked Almost unexpectedly liberated from remains the second poorest of the former popular (unlike Belarus), and many Uzbeks out of the country. Karimov subsequently Soviet control, the NIS lacked effective Soviet republics, with a per capita GDP of only believe they have a better functioning political stepped up political and economic cooperation opposition groups that could wrest control from $2600. While the country has moved away system than in Russia. There has been much with Russia and China.28 communist governments, and so pre-1991 from its Soviet era dependence on agricultural discussion of the “Uzbek Model,” centered on apparatchiks generally remained in power. The Uzbek Model is also distinctly production to mineral and petroleum gradual economic reform, state autonomy and The only exception was Tajikistan, where an Asian, since it draws on the state- development, trade has diversified away from political quiescence. The Uzbek Communist Islamic group tried to gain power, and ledexperiences of South Korea and Taiwan, Russia, and it has become a regional chemicals Party in 1991 renamed itself the People’s precipitated a civil war. The region’s and the gradualism of China. The government and machinery producer, it is still the second Democratic Party. Two opposition parties also economies, heavily dependent on single cash has consciously promoted foreign trade and largest cotton producer. The Uzbek currency were formed, but have found it difficult to crops, energy production, and Soviet aid, investment, and attracted such large foreign is not yet easily convertible, severe import operate. The government outlawed Islamic virtually collapsed post-independence. Serious concerns as Korea’s Daewoo Corp., which restrictions remain, and the Kazak border has parties, created three non-governmental environmental and poverty problems limited manufactures automobiles in Uzbekistan. sometimes been closed. Government parties as a way to control the opposition, and governments’ room for maneuver, and ethnic Unlike most of the former Soviet republics, economic controls have actually increased used regulatory bodies to manage nominations divisions in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan the Uzbek government eschewed a shock since 9/11.30 of candidates. In the 1991 presidential election, threatened national cohesion. therapy approach. As in Romania, economic only one weak opponent was allowed to face 5. Kazakhstan: The first decade of reforms centered on price liberalization. This Where Eastern Europeans strive for President Islam Karimov, who won by a independence was not easy for Kazakhstan. was partly precipitated by the negative impacts democratic normality and Westernization, first, landslide. His subsequent elections up to 2007 The size of its economy and per capita income of Russia’s unilateral decision in 1993 to Central Asians seem stuck in varying degrees have been marked by sparse opposition and were nearly halved, partly due to its suspend the Soviet era ruble, still in use at that of authoritarianism and political quiescence. widespread allegations of vote-rigging. The dependence on trade with Russia, its industrial time in Central Asia, and issue new ruble notes In a sense, the Soviet system never ended, as presidency has nearly unchallenged powers, production was also cut in half, and agricultural (this also forced Uzbekistan to issue its own states retain exclusive control over large and there is no real legislative or judicial output fell by a third. Capital investments were currency). Controlled prices remain only for sectors of both the economy and society. To independence (the legislature has primarily only twelve percent of 1989 levels, despite food-related agricultural products and utilities. be sure, this is partly driven by the common advisory functions). The government’s security attracting the highest levels of foreign The state procurement system has been desire to protect the recent independence, agency has been accused of serious human investment of any FSU country. Nearly half phased out, except for governmental assert national identities, and prevent re- rights violations, and there are severe of the people were under the poverty line. With institutions and important trade commodities, Russification of the region. Second, like Eastern restrictions on civil liberties. Karimov’s Uzbekistan, it suffered serious environmental especially cotton. Privatization of SOEs has Europe, there are various ethnic cleavages, but government has promoted Uzbek nationalism problems around the dying Aral Sea. concentrated on small companies, and most except for in Tajikistan (which, unlike its as a unifying force, but has downplayed ethnic large firms are still in state hands. Uzbekistan’s Turkish-speaking neighbors, is home to a issues that might create conflict with Kazakhstan’s economy underwent a gradualism has not been popular with the IMF Persian-speaking dominant ethnic group), neighboring countries.27 major revival from about 2000, driven primarily there seems to be general agreement to handle and World Bank, but the government could by rising international petroleum prices. As a these peacefully, e.g., Kazakhstan’s efforts to Uzbekistan came to international claim success by 1997-1998: Uzbekistan’s major gas and especially oil producer, the accommodate its Russian minority, and overall attention after the 9/11 Incident, when Karimov economy contracted far less than any other in government made a number of high profile agreement not to contest national borders. decided to assist the U.S. by granting basing Central Asia, and was the only former Soviet deals with Western oil companies, as well as Third, there is widespread acceptance of the rights for the Afghanistan War. In 2005, pro- republic to surpass its 1989 industrial production agreements with Russia for development of policy priority given to economic matters over democracy protests in Andijan were brutally level, and nearly reached its 1989 GDP level the Caspian Sea and adjacent areas. Economic political reform. suppressed, with perhaps hundreds killed by 1998. It also was near 1989 levels in growth has been above eight percent

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throughout this decade, and consequently in1999 with about eighty percent of the vote, Eastern Europe: Like Latin American its pact of governance, Belgrade granted limited Kazakhstan’s government budget and and in 2005 with ninety-one percent. Like nations, the former Communist nations autonomy to its constituent republics. international finances have been in excellent Karimov’s election, these contests were quite considered in this study have inchoate rules Only superficially communized, shape.31 Kazakhstan’s government has limited. that are in a state of flux. Rules vary greatly, Eastern Europe easily discarded totalitarian assiduously pursued closer ties with Russia, even between neighboring countries, but one Political Economy Theory Reassessed governments and command economies in 1989, seeking to have Moscow as an unofficial can discern a few general patterns across but its incomplete pre-1939 political guarantor of its continued existence. As a The Rules of the Game: Every political and regions, based on common cultural, economic, development meant it had only limited regional geographically, economically and ethnically economic system operates by explicit and and state characteristics. Traditional Eastern historical models to work with. For the first diverse landlocked country, Kazakh leadership implicit rules of the game. Such rules have Europe has centuries of semi-Western cultural years of independence, politics were fractious, feels that Russian friendship is critical to its similarities within regions, but owing to development behind it, developed as a bastion as former dissidents sought to forge workable future. This puts it in opposition to other differences in political culture, vary country- of Western philosophy and religion, and has governance and members of the ancien Caspian states, such as Azerbaijan and to-country. Rules also change over time, with been heavily influenced by Western ideas and regime attempted to recast themselves as Uzbekistan.32 the least change occurring in well established cultural patterns. To be sure, traditional Eastern Western-style social democrats. Ethnic polities, i.e., the advanced industrial countries European society was more paternalistic, divisions that menaced the Balkans were Kazakhstan is the only former Soviet (AICs) of Western Europe, North America, feudal, and communitarian than its more liberal, relatively mild from Hungary northward. republic whose native ethnic group is in a and Japan. individualistic Western neighbors, but noted for minority. While still the largest group in the occasional spurts of progressive development, Eastern Europe’s rules are at once country (about forty percent) in 1989, there Wynia notes that these rules are especially in Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary. inchoate and shaped by its rich past. First, the was nearly an equal number of Russians shaped by the culture, economic structures, Its economy was never as developed as region is a middle ground between Western (thirty-eight percent), and large numbers of and state structures of a nation. In Latin Northwestern Europe, but was far more Europe and Russia, and Janus-faced, must look Germans and Ukrainians. Managing the ethnic America, for instance, key elements include advanced that of the Russian Empire. both warily East and hopefully West. So, its cleavages has been perhaps the biggest political the Iberian cultural heritage, dependence on Governments were authoritarian, but owing to politics are involved in perpetual balancing acts: challenge since independence. The regime of the world capitalist economy, and a tradition rule over polyglots, neither overly intrusive nor tradition vs. change, authoritarianism vs. Nursultan Nazarbaev has tried to mollify the of governments active as players in the political effective. democracy, and accommodation of various Russian minority, while suppressing any economic arena, either on behalf of factions. Second, collective desires shape and separatist moves on their part. It also moved conservative interests or as a molder of social The Communist period had a constrain political possibilities: democratic the capital from Alma Ata to Akmola (renamed welfare. Informal rules are as important as profound effect on the psyches of Eastern aspirations (the general desire to make Astana or “capital”), a strongly Russian area, formal ones, and the administration of law and Europeans, as they lost control of their destinies democratic capitalist societies work), desire in 1998. Repeatedly reelected with anemic justice is often “haphazard,” at best. Extreme to an essentially foreign ideology imposed on to join the Western framework (NATO first, opposition, Nazarbaev may be viewed as a disagreement over the rules for gaining and them by Soviet military force. But, the communist ideology never fully penetrated the the EU later), coupled with limited economic slightly more benign version of Lukashenko. holding of public office forces players to make society, and the Soviets and their client development and major social and Kjoernet, et al. refer to the Central Asian continual, pragmatic adjustments, and use governments appeased Eastern European environmental difficulties left over from the republics as “managed democracies,” in which available resources to influence the publics with limited degrees of economic pre-1989 era. Third, Eastern European politics the state determines elections and court cases government operations and subvert the formal process, viz., through use of brute force, liberalization (“goulash communism” in approximate the “normal” politics of Western in advance, and large corporations have wealth, expertise, political ideas, or ability to Hungary), material benefits (Czechoslovakia), Europe, with vigorous competition and dominant economic influence.33 mobilize the masses. These rules constrain or state autonomy (Romania), or religious frequent turnover in power, yet there is as yet As in Uzbekistan, a hegemonic create opportunities for both presidents and freedom (Poland). Yugoslavia and Albania no consensus about acceptable political regime has virtually unchallenged control of opposition, and bias politics away from attained sufficient independence from the behavior, and so politics tend to be more the political system. Navarbaev was first pluralism, and toward corporatism, Soviet bloc that they were able to develop raucous, polarized, and zero-sum. As the elected in 1991, then reelected president authoritarianism, and communism.34 indigenous variants of Communism; as part of Visegrad, Baltic, and Balkan countries have

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become used to democracy and integrated into Westernized economic structures and hegemonic socio-religious or ideological economic and political forces that accounted NATO and the EU, these patterns have to regulatory regimes.36 framework that provides an important for transition—and how often the transition some degree shifted toward the toward the latter. background for political and economic process depends on related events and explicit Political and Economic Transitions changes, 3) the nature and degree of cleavages choices made by leaders and other actors. He Key Factors in Transition: What have been Political and economic transitions in a society, which usually split along ethnic, introduced the notion of phases of the key transition factors in the regions cannot be separated. By the nature of the class, and religious lines. The third involves democratization: 1) the “preparatory phase,” discussed above? Zecchini states that all of transition process, they are closely linked and the institutions and operations of politics. in which major battles over structural and the Eastern European reform courses had constantly interact. Economic reforms come Institutional approaches—the most traditional, cultural issues are waged between incumbent common characteristics. First, all governments through the political process, and alter the since they go back to the ancient Greeks— elites and the opposition, 2) the opposition felt there was “no alternative” to junking the social and political fabric as they take effect, examine the relationship between types of triumphs in the “decision phase,” wherein the central economic planning, due to strong in turn necessitating new institutions, new institutions and, say, economic performance. two elites must bargain over the shape of the demands for individual economic freedom. A modes of governance, new interest demands, Issues include: democratization, regime transition, and 3) the “habituation phase,” when Chinese or pre-1989 Hungarian hybrid system, new constituencies, and new modes of stability, citizen participation, presidential vs. the new elite has to consolidate democracy involving simultaneous elements of command participation. Political reforms stimulate parliamentary systems, and federalism vs. and accommodate the people to the new and market economies, was seen as having desires for higher growth, productive unitary systems. Other strictly political studies system. The latter period is perhaps the most too many problems of management and investment, redistributive equality, and pertain to the operations and transitions (to challenging, as political action is at once limited control. Second, all had to liberalize prices effective macroeconomic and microeconomic and) from authoritarian regimes, by the new structure and institutional quickly, though they tried to keep controls on management. Often, the shape of political institutionalization, legitimacy, and individual effectiveness is challenged by a welter of certain sectors, such as energy. Third, transitions is determined by key economic and political actors.38 unleashed political forces.39 economies were opened to foreign competition, social forces at work. Important economic Since Rustow, studies have political through ending of government controls over factors include the degree of affluence, growth Lane and Ersson suggest that transition have become a growth industry. trade, introduction of convertible currencies, rates, economic structure, and importantly, transition processes are shaped powerfully by and devaluation. Fourth, there was a high amount of “human development” (i.e., quality the interaction of four factors, arranged in a Among the more noteworthy approaches are degree of “legislative shock,” as countries had of life). Also playing roles are the degree of square grid: market exchange and strong state those of O’Donnell (the process of to completely rewrite laws dealing with private stability in the social and political system, and involvement in the economy; vs. democracy “deepening,” leading to insertion of property and operation of markets. Finally, all unpredictable circumstances and events.37 or dictatorship. Market democracies include bureaucratic authoritarian regimes), Linz and countries had to deal with problems of excess the U.S., Switzerland, and Japan, while typical Stepan (who focus on elections and politicians), liquidity through macroeconomic stabilization. Comparative political studies present market dictatorships have been Chile and the and Share and Mainwaring (who emphasize a smorgasbord of factors that attempt to Congo. Democracies with extensive state the process of bargaining). Haggard and Nonetheless, there was incomplete explain political transitions. These can be involvement included the Scandinavian Kaufman stress the “effects of economic action in a number of areas, such as laws and divided into three groups. The first concerns countries and Austria, whereas dictatorships conditions on preferences, resources, and 40 regulations dealing with labor markets, the overall political system. Approaches dealing with extensive intervention have included the strategies.” Berneo concentrates on elite restructuring of both private firms and SOEs, with the capacity of the system and the role Soviet Union, Argentina in the 1970s, and Brazil behavior. For instance, Spanish and Portuguese and bankruptcy. Governments were also slow of citizens fit here, as do traditional statist at the same time. incumbent elites of the 1970s feared extremists, to deal with needs for retraining, lack of approaches that focus on state autonomy and but felt they would probably be defeated, so financing for start-ups, or overall industrial capacity. The second deals with cultural, social, Among the first major scholars to were willing to grant democracy. Greek elites policy.35 As countries gradually shifted from and economic factors. These include deal with political transitions was Rustow, who were also afraid of extremists, but believed “transition” to “integration” with the EU after approaches dealing with: 1) modernization of focused on the process of democratization. He moderates would win, so saw democracy as about 2000, they entered a second phase of countries, as they shift from agriculture-based delineated important conditions leading to an escape. Chinese elites in 1989 saw the reforms, i.e., a change in focus from de- to industry-based economic structures, 2) democracy, or necessary for the maintenance possibility of pro-democracy activists winning communization and privatization to creating cultural conditions, i.e., the preeminent or of democracy, and noted the mixture of as an “intolerable threat,” and so crushed the

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Tienanmen movement.41 Munck and Leff take and the state, little ethnic conflict, and optimism the process of economic development (i.e., Radicals argue that neither politics elite attitudes further by schematizing the about the process of democratization.43 The industrialization), the centrality of politics in all nor economics alone adequately explain the “agent of change” (incumbent and “counter- Latin American and East/Southeast Asian three regions could clearly be seen as a erratic and varying performances of Eastern elites”) vs. the change strategy employed experiences are distinctly different—the vindication. It illustrates three distinct Europe and Central Asia. World systems (degree of confrontation or accommodation). former because of economic precariousness, approaches, and hence the supreme flexibility theory, for instance, sees post-1989 Where incumbent elites are agents of change the latter due to markedly different political of the state concept—democratic and developments as the latest stage of the in a climate of confrontation, a “revolution cultures and economic development. accommodationist in Eastern Europe, incorporation of the whole planet into the world from above” may result, e.g., as in Bulgaria. authoritarian and managerial in Central Asia, capitalist system. Eastern Europe is bound Actually, Wiarda is slightly wrong: the If they lead in an atmosphere of striving for political and social stability amidst tightly as a semi-periphery (CEE-5 nations) most obvious comparison is between Southern accommodation, “conservative reform”may rapid economic change in East Asia. These or periphery (the Balkans) to the Western Europe and the “CEE-5,” i.e., Poland, the result. By contrast, counter-elites as agents three were modeled on successful states in European core, Central Asia is emerging as a Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, and of change in a confrontational climate lead to other regions, e.g., Chinese borrowing from new energy-producing periphery, and the East Slovenia. The outlook for successful political social revolution. If they lead under terms of South Korean experience or Polish and Czech Asian quasi-communist states serve as a cheap and economic transitions in all five countries accommodation, a “revolution from below,” as acceptance of Western democratic norms. The labor periphery, principally for Japan and the are currently quite bright, as they have become in Chile, can occur. Most cases do not fit neatly, contrasting poor performance cases of the U.S. Similarly, dependency suggests that these fully integrated into NATO and the EU much but instead are examples of “reform through Balkans and Russia are the exceptions that prove regions have been allowed to change, but not earlier than expected. The prospects are more rupture” (Czech and Argentina), “reform the rule: lack of effective institutionalization to shake obvious ties of dependency. The East guarded for Ukraine, cloudy for the Balkans, through extrication” (Hungary), or “reform combined with overly conflictual politics have Asian nations, including both the communist and dark for Russia. The Balkans and Russia, through transaction” (Poland or Brazil).42 made these nations developmental basket cases. and democratic-capitalist developing states, with their severe economic conditions, would be clear cases of dependent Various scholars have questioned conflictual politics and problems of governance, Politics has been front-and-center of development. Central Asia, while it has whether the post-communist nations can be appear most like Latin America. Central Asia, the transitional experience in all three regions, escaped its former dependency on Russia, is compared to other nations that have undergone with its gradualism, strong states, and apparent yet to the contrary, one may argue that now largely dependent on growing economic political economic transitions in recent decades. political quiescence, looks like South Korea, economics, not politics has determined their ties with the West and Japan. Eastern Europe, The most obvious comparisons are to Southern Taiwan and the Philippines before the transition course of development. Economic liberals note similarly, has escaped the Soviet empire, only Europe in the 1970s (Greece, Spain and processes began. The East Asian communist that those countries which have had the best to become the dumping ground for obsolescent Portugal), Latin America in the 1970s-1980s nations constitute the most unusual group economic performance over the past decade Western industries, and market to save (especially the “Southern Cone” of Brazil, examined here, since unlike either Central Asia are those that have most liberalized their Western industry. Argentina and Chile), and East/Southeast Asia or Eastern Europe, they have undertaken major economies; not coincidentally, they are also the in the 1980s (especially South Korea, Taiwan, economic reforms without attempting serious most politically stable, and in Europe, most As with any political theory, how one and the Philippines). Wiarda suggests that political reforms. democratic, as well. Liberals often cite China looks at cases determines the results. Each of Southern Europe’s experience is most similar as a premier example, at least in the first Contending Comparative Political Theories the three approaches has something to to the CEE and former Soviet Union, since it decade of liberalization, of a country doing most recommend it, and each has serious possessed several factors that boosted its Political economic theory uses three things right. Overholt, for instance, glowingly drawbacks. It is dangerous to take snapshots chances for successful transitions, viz., a major approaches to examine important issues. presents a China that has prospered and of the process, since it is dynamic and evolving. culture “shift” in favor of democracy, a These can be loosely classified as the statist/ eliminated poverty because it followed a much Eastern Europe and Central Asia have had only democratic tradition, relatively health neo-mercantilistic, liberal economic, and different path than the former Soviet Union: it a single decade to generate an alternative to economies, key financial and political support radical/Marxist schools. What could the three nurtured agriculture, downgraded state-owned Marxist-Leninist economic development. That from the U.S., developed civil societies (unions, have to say about the process of political enterprises (SOEs), and “emphasized gradual, they have taken two markedly different paths parties, interest groups), functioning welfare economic transition in the three regions? For carefully sequenced reform.”44 and met with varying degrees of success is to systems, social “pacts” among labor, employers statists, who view the state as the key actor in be expected, given their vastly differing

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histories and cultures. By contrast, East Asia China’s gradual economic liberalization/ liberalization of prices and trade, as well as political reforms have been few and spotty, it has had somewhat longer to develop, since political quiescence approach, managed in fits rolling privatization, enterprise reform, financial is more appropriate to refer to the trajectory China’s post-Maoist policies have been and starts over two decades, has produced the restructuring and stabilization, in Romania and of economic reform. One can refer to early, operating for about twenty years (but for at most consistently strong economic growth of Hungary.45 middle, and mature economic reforms in all least a decade less in Indochina; Mongolia’s any country here studied. This has been partly cases. In China, for instance, the early reforms Third, is there a general sequence time scale is the same as Eastern Europe). due to early concentration on “easy” centered on the “easy” transformation of, first, of transition. In both Eastern Europe and For now, it would behoove scholars to avoid agricultural and urban market reforms, as well agriculture, then urban markets and SOE Central Asia, post-1989 period can be divided taking hard and fast ideological positions on as Maoist era pent-up demand and native responsibility. Middle reforms centered on into at least three political economic periods. these theoretical issues, and to use the three entrepreneurial traditions. Nonetheless, it is more complicated issues such as price reform First was the period of transition, roughly 1989- approaches side-by-side as competing perceptual striking that the Chinese government has and financial restructuring, and engendered lenses that will aid better understanding. consistently eschewed any sweeping “Big 1994, when new governments replaced former protests and backtracking. Failure to address Bang” approach to liberalization. The Balkans communist regimes and a tremendous level of demands for political reforms, accompanied What is required is a new theory that and Russia have experienced the worst euphoria swept the old order away. The new by divisions in the leadership and an outcry takes into account the post-1989 realities, and economic performance, and both have endured regimes accomplished sweeping economic, against corruption, led directly to the uses the experiences of the three regions to combinations of serious ethnic strife, political and social changes, but falling Tienanmen Massacre of 1989. After a period explain the process of transition. Elements of lawlessness and feckless economic policy. economies created hardships that, in many of retrenchment, China embarked on a more any new theory would have to explain the Eastern Europe has had perhaps the second cases, led to their ouster by 1994. Balcerowicz comprehensive program to control inflation and following. First, what differs between the notes that this depended on the difficulties of processes of transition and development? In best economic performance, though taking over revamp its SOEs. Vietnam’s reforms have a decae to recover to pre-1989 economic inherited conditions, differences in political lurched far less than China’s: a period of initial fact, is transition from command to market organization between the former communists economies a special type of development, or levels, and has accomplished the fullest political reforms in the mid-1980s was followed by a liberalization-cum-democratization. and opposition (communists were often better brief retrenchment and renewed reforms by just an historical anomaly due to the collapse organized), cleavages on non-economic issues, of communism? Is it possible these kinds of Accordingly, the region (especially the the early 1990s. Visegrad countries and Slovenia) has the most i.e., nationalist, religious, and ethnic events will ever be seen again? I suggest that 46 Blecher suggests that the Chinese balanced record and is most likely to be copied grievances. The second period, 1994- transition is a special kind of development, with experience was not merely reform, but a for future nations in transition. The Central 1997was a time of consolidation, in which unusual problems, but is nevertheless well process of creating “new forms” of political Asian republics stand somewhere in the middle economic decline was reversed, and political within the mainstream of development studies. control and economic activity, and a “basic as works in progress. Though its politics remain institutions began to function more normally. Thus, the experiences of East Asia and Central transformation” of the class structure created largely frozen, a la China, there are at least The most recent period, 1997-present has seen Asia share various features with developing in the Maoist period. China’s 1980s reforms some elections and other democratic elements a gradual return to growth, as most economies nations, i.e., lack of institutionalization, chaotic settled into a “rhythm” of advance, criticism that could portend future flowering of civil surpassed their 1989 levels. Most governments and volatile politics, wild economic swings, and and retrenchment, and renewed advance.47 poorly developed markets (relative to society. had gone through several rounds of national developed countries). elections, and the notion of the peaceful Conclusions This seems to have been true, transition of power between governing parties Second, are there any general regardless of the sequence of reforms. and a “loyal opposition” had become well The world watched the Eastern rules—as suggested by Wynia and others— Zecchini, for instance, draws the difference established in Eastern Europe. European revolutions of 1989 with awe. Nations for transition that can be abstracted from the between: 1) the “front-loaded” strategy of held hostage for a generation shrugged off experience of the three regions in the past Poland, the Czech Republic and Russia, where By comparison, East Asia can be Communism so easily that nearly every decade? Experiences in Eastern Europe and economic stabilization packages came early, characterized somewhat differently. Instead observer was caught off guard. What has Central Asia (plus Russia) powerfully support 2) an emphasis on liberalization over of a general time scale for the region, there happened since the easy democratic victories the notion that economic outcomes depend on privatization and restructuring in Bulgaria, and have been general phases that all have passed of 1989 has been nearly as remarkable. First, the form of governance used. By contrast, 3) a “step-by-step approach,” involving gradual through, though at different times. Since in most countries, was a three-stage pattern

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of political development operating roughly in Neither side completely held the upper hand, What does the future hold for the then fully democratize like Japan in the 1940s- response to economic decline, growth, and and power more easily alternated from side to political development of Eastern Europe? As 1950s or Taiwan and South Korea in the late nascent maturation through the mid-2000s. side. Third, the Visegrad economies showed since 1989, that probably depends on the region 1980s to1990s? Currently, the signs are not Second, a divergence of political experience that stability with growth would probably return in question. Things clearly look brightest for promising, but if political economic history among four separate regions: relative political to the entire region in time. This could bolster the Visegrad countries, as integration of all into teaches us anything, it is that the process of stability in the Visegrad countries, political more normal politics in Southeastern Europe, the EU has proceeded well. Joining Western political economic change never stops. stability despite economic difficulties in the the Baltic states, and perhaps even parts of Europe has strengthened the economies and Can the rest of the world learn lessons Baltic countries, relative political instability in the former Soviet Union. so living standards of these countries, and from Eastern Europe’s post-1989 experience? Southeastern Europe, and strongman accordingly solidified Western-style politics Even though there seems to be a Yes and no. To be sure, that experience is a democracy in the former Soviet Union and governance. Southeastern Europe and the rough relationship between economic non-repeatable series of events relating to the (excluding the Baltic states). What general Baltic countries will take longer to recover their development and political fortunes since 1989, collapse of the Soviet empire. Moreover, most implications for political and political economic economies, even as they enter the EU, so their the relationship is anything but straight-forward, of the developing world does not start any transitions can be drawn from the Eastern politics will continue the oscillations of the and unpacking will take much work by transition with the kind of industrial economy European experience? First, the Eastern 1990s for perhaps another decade. Growing economists and political scientists. In part, this and infrastructure that most Eastern European European transition has been a more-than- ties with the West are helping them is because elections or changes in political countries possessed at the beginning of usually complicated business, since the nations economically, as happened to the Visegrad power do not precisely coincide with economic transition. On the other hand, many developing in transitions have had to accomplish, not only nations in the 1990s. The former Yugoslavia turning points. Even when they happen nearly countries have undergone the kind of a change of regime as in Latin America, South and parts of the former Soviet Union will take simultaneously, the exact effect of economic wrenching political changes (or indeed civil Korea or the Philippines, but simultaneously longer to recover economically, and will changes may not be clear because of lag time war) that the Eastern Europeans have known several vital tasks: creation of new political struggle to put aside the legacy of between the onset of changes and impacts on in recent years. They certainly can learn from institutions, cultivation of democratic habits authoritarianism. the aggregate economy. Also, various the Polish, Czech and Hungarian ability to (inculcation of trust, buildup of legitimacy, wildcards, such as strength of leadership, Russia and Belarus have shown a construct peaceful functioning democracies in toleration of dissent, agreement to disagree, degree of scandal, relative effectiveness of stubborn tendency toward strongman rule that short order. and ability to compromise), reform of non- electoral campaigns, and external factors, have may remain for some time. The initial transition functioning economic institutions, liberalization proved vital political factors in each country. was a complete disaster for Russia, as the Notes of economic interaction to create markets Perhaps the only political research hypotheses Soviet economy imploded and the “oligarchs” where none had existed. Second, the early from Eastern Europe’s experience that can be took over most industries. The regime of 1. For more on the Visegrad Group, see Joseph Rothschild and Nancy M. Wingfield, Return to euphoria of 1989 quickly gave way to advanced with any degree of confidence are: Vladimir Putin has been no friend of disillusionment as living standards fell in all Diversity: A Political History of East Central first, voters tended to punish the party in power democracy, but its petroleum-driven economic Europe Since World War II (New York: Oxford regions of Eastern Europe. This led to for the pain of economic transition, especially policies and gradual state appropriation of restorations of (repackaged) former University Press, 2000), pp. 265 and 297; Michael during the first few years of transition; second, oligarchs’ holdings has been quite popular J. Baun, A Wider Europe: The Process and Politics communists to power by the mid-1990s in most economic pain in the early years of transition because many Russians feel that it is the of European Union Enlargement (Lanham, MD: countries, a development that would probably created an opportunity for the pre-transition nation’s best hope for national revival. Russia Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2000), have been inconceivable at the beginning of ruling parties (i.e., Communists) to reappear is morphing into a strong developmentalist, pp. 43, 45-46; “Visegrad Four growth will democratization. Once the neo-socialists had as restorers of economic security, in order to semi-democratic state playing a leading role ‘converge’—says Hungarian Institute,” by Sandor proven themselves little better than the regain power; and third, neither non- in economic development, a la Meiji era Japan, Laczko, May 18, 2007, http://www. radio.cz/en/ democrats at wielding power, growth had communist and repackaged communist and South Korea or Taiwan during the 1960s article/91476 (accessed 12/28/07). p. 1. returned and the democrats had reorganized, governments was better able to manage the to mid-1980s. Once Russia has successfully 2. “Doctor Who?” The Economist, June 21, 2007; most countries settled into a more “normal,” transition from centrally planned to capitalist transited its resource-based developmental arc http://www. economist.com/displayStory. Cfm? Western European-style pattern of politics. market economies. and rebuilt itself as an industrial state, will it story_id=93704121 (accessed 12/29/07), pp. 1-2.

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May 6, 2009; http://bbc.co.uk/ 1/hi/world/ europe/ 19. “Ex-model daughter of Romania’s president wins inesskazakhstan.pdf (accessed 6/22/09), pp. 1-5. irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2009/0414/ country_profiles/1102180.stm (accessed 6/22/09), EU seat,” Citizen.co.za, June 8, 2009; http:// 122424462327.html (accessed 6/12/09), pp. 1-2. pp. 1-3. www. silobreaker.com/exmodel-daughter-of- 34. Gary W. Wynia, The Politics of Latin American 11. Gyorgy Schopflin, “Hungarian politics through the romanias- president-wins- eu-seat-16_ 27. Gregory Gleason, “Uzbekistan: the politics of Development, 3rd. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge eyes of a Cheshire cat,” May 28, 2006. Dr. Sean’s 2262374211072819201?Focus=11_212765 national independence,” in Ian Bremmer and Ray University Press, 1990), pp. 24-44. See also Jeffrey Diary. http://www. drseansdiary.blogspot.com/ (accessed 6/24/09), p. 1. Taras, eds., New States, New Politics: Building the Haynes, Democracy in the Developing World:

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Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East (April, 1997), pp. 305-322. The Indian Response to the Global Financial Crisis (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001). 42. Gerardo L. Munck and Carol Skalnik Leff, “Modes Sumanjeet Singh 35. Salvatore Zecchini, “Transition approaches in of Transition and Democratization: South America retrospect,” in Zecchini, ed., Lessons from the and Eastern Europe in Comparative Perspective,” Abstract Economic Transition: Central and Eastern Europe Comparative Politics. Vol. 29, No. 3 (April, 1997), The effects of the global financial crisis have been more severe than initially in the 1990s (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic pp. 343-362. forecast. By virtue of globalization, the moment of financial crisis hit the real Publishers Group, 1999), pp. 1-34. 43. Howard J. Wiarda, Introduction to Comparative economy and became a global economic crisis; it was rapidly transmitted to 36. See Daniel Gros and Alfred Steinherr, Economic Politics (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., many developing countries. The crisis emerged in India at the time when Indian Transition in Central and Eastern Europe: Planting 1993 and 1999), pp. 111-114. economy was already preoccupied with the adverse effects of inflationary the Seeds (Cambridge: Cambridge University pressures and depreciation of currency. The crisis confronted India with daunting 44. William H. Overholt, The Rise of China: How Press, 2004), introduction. macroeconomic challenges like a contraction in trade, a net outflow of foreign Economic Reform is Creating a New Superpower capital, fall in stock market, a large reduction in foreign reserves, slowdown in 37. Jan-Erik Lane and Svante Ersson, Comparative (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1994), pp. 25- domestic demand, slowdown in exports, sudden fall in growth rate and rise in Politics: An Introduction and New Approach 46. See also Peter Nolan, Transforming China: unemployment. The government of India has been highly proactive in managing (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), pp. 209-218. Globalization, Transition and Development this ongoing crisis with a slew of monetary and fiscal measures to stabilize the (London: Anthem Press, 2004). financial sector, ensure adequate liquidity and stimulate domestic demand. As a 38. Ibid., passim. result of this combining with many several structural factors that have come to 45. Zecchini, in Zecchini, op. cit., pp. 1-34. 39. Lisa Anderson, “Introduction”; Ezra Suleiman, India’s aid, India’s economic slowdown unexpectedly eased in the first quarter of “Dankwurt Rustow,” Comparative Politics. Vol. 46. Lazek Balcerowicz, “The interplay between 2009. The present paper makes an attempt to assess the impact of global financial 29, No. 3 (April, 1997), pp. 253-262; 403-404. economic and political transition,” in Zecchini, op. crisis on the Indian economy and discuss the various policy measures taken by cit., pp.153-168. government of India to reduce the intensity of impacts. The paper also highlights 40. Stephan Haggard and Robert R.Kaufman, “The recovery of Indian economy from crisis and in the end of paper concluding Political Economy of Democratic Transitions,” 47. Marc Blecher, China Against the Tides: Restruct remarks are given towards. Comparative Politics. Vol. 29, No. 3 (April, 1997), uring through revolution, radicalism and reform pp. 263-284. (London: Pinter Publishers, 1997 and 2003), pp. Key Words: Crisis, India; Impact, Policy, RBI 9-40. See also Jinglian Wu, Understanding and 41. Nancy Berneo, “Myths of Moderation: JEL Codes: JEL Codes: E6, E10, E44, G33, G3 Interpreting Chinese Economic Reform (Mason, Confrontation and Conflict during Democratic OH: Thomson Southwestern, 2005). Transition,” Comparative Politics. Vol. 29, No. 3 1. Introduction September 2008, with the failure and merging of many financial institutions. The crisis’s The present financial crisis which has global effects differentiate it from the earlier its deep roots in closing year of the 20th century crisis like Asian 1997-98 crisis2, which spread, became apparent in July 2007 in the citadel of only to Russia and Brazil or from the debt crisis global neoliberal capital, the United States, of the early 1980s that affected the developing when a loss of confidence by investors in the world. It is different from the recession of value of securitized mortgages resulted in a 1973-75 and 1979-81 because they did not liquidity crisis1. But the crisis came to the propagate as fast and hardly affected Soviet forefront of business world and media in Union, China and India. Added to this, in

Dr Sumanjeet Singh is an Assistant Professor of Department of Commerce, Ramjas College, University Enclave, University of Delhi, India. E-Mail: [email protected]

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previous times of financial turmoil, the pre- crisis promoted a substantial injection of capital has brought about a slump in economic growth to slow from just under 3.5 per cent in 2008 to crisis period was characterized by surging into the financial markets by the US Federal (Figure 1) in most countries and has been called 1.5 percent in 20096. The global financial cri- asset prices that proved unsustainable; a Reserve. In 2008 alone, the US government the most serious financial crisis since the Great sis initially affected advanced economies, prolonged credit expansion leading to allocated over $900 billion to special loans and Depression, with its global effects emerging economies, and low-income econo- accumulation of debt; the emergence of new rescues related to the US housing bubble, with characterized by the failure of key businesses, mies in very different ways. types of financial instruments; and the inability over half going to the quasi-government decline in the consumer wealth estimated in of regulators to keep up (ADB, 2008). The agencies of Fannie Mae, Fredie Mac and the the trillion of U.S. dollars, rapid decrease in Advanced economies were first hit immediate cause or trigger of the present crisis Federal Housing Administration. Bailout of international trade, slowdown in foreign mainly by systematic banking crisis in the US was the bursting of United States housing Wall Street and the financial industry moral investments, steep falls in industrial and Europe (Nanto, 2009), emerging markets bubble3 (Also known as Sub-prime lending hazard also lay at the core of many of the productions, substantial financial commitments with well-developed financial systems was crisis), which peaked in approximately 2006- causes. incurred by the governments, and significant initially mostly affected by cross broader 074. In March 2007, the United States’ sub- decline in the economic activity. financial linkages through capital flows, stock prime mortgage industry collapsed to higher- Initially, it was thought that other major market investors and exchange rate. Under Such sectors as stock markets and than-expected home foreclosure rates, with world economies would not be significantly developing and poor countries have been bank investment funds have been badly af- more than 25 sub-prime lenders declaring affected. But, the crisis of U.S. quickly became mostly insulted (Panagariya, 2008) from the fected worldwide, especially in US and BRIC bankruptcy, announcing significant losses, or a global problem (UNCTAD, 2009), affecting first round effects of the financial crisis owing (Brazil, Russia, India and China) countries (Fig- putting themselves up for sale. As a result, major economies worldwide both directly and partly to sound macroeconomic management, ure 2). The central banks of many countries5 many large investment firms have seen their indirectly. The sub-prime crisis in the US, but also because of the underdeveloped nature on these continents have taken evasive action stock prices plummet. The stock of the following the collapse of the housing sector of the financial markets and are not well to prevent credit crises that could lead to eco- country’s largest sub-prime lender, New boom, has sent ripples through the economies connected to international markets. nomic recession. Thus, the current financial Century Financial plunged 84%. Liquidity of many countries (Pradhan, 2007). The crisis crisis is more global than any other period. The In the present paper an attempt has January 2009 update of the World Economic been made to study the impact of global Figure 1: Quarterly (Annualized) Economic Growth Rates for Selected Countries Outlook (WEO, 2009) projects global growth financial crisis on the Indian economy. The

Figure 2: One-Year % Change in BRIC Countries and S&P 5007

Source: Congressional Research Service, Data and Forecasts (March 15) Global Insight (With permission) Source: Bespoke Investment Group

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paper has been divided into 4 sections. Section are depleting and the rupee is depreciating. Table 1: Monthly Trends in Foreign Investments in 2008-09 (US $ Million) 2 discusses the impact of global financial crisis IMF has also predicted that Indian economy on various segment of Indian economy. Section can not remain immune from global financial Months Foreign Direct Foreign Portfolio Total 3 highlights the policy option adopted by Indian crisis and crisis will hit India’s growth story. Inv estment Investment Inv estment government to overcome the situation of crisis. Indian government is feeling the heat of global April 3749 -880 2869 Sector 4 highlights the recovery of Indian crisis in India. As a result, The Union May 3932 -288 3644 economy from economic slowdown and in the Government has constituted a committee to end of paper concluding remarks are given. consider issues raised by India Inc on global June 2392 -3 010 -618 financial crisis and its impact on India. Some 2. Impact of Global financial Crisis on July 2247 -492 1755 notable impacts of global financial crisis on the India August 2328 593 2921 various segments of Indian economy are India’s economy has been one of the presented in section 2.1 to 2.4. September 2562 -1403 1159 stars of global economies in recent years, October 1497 -5 423 -3746 2.1: Reversals of Capital Flows, Depreciation growing 9.2% in 2007 and 9.6% in 2006 and of Rupee and Fall of Stock Market November 1083 -574 509 has seen a decade of 7 plus percent growth. Growth had been supported by markets The most immediate effect of that December 1362 30 1392 reforms, huge inflows of FDI, rising foreign crisis on India has been an outflow of foreign January 2733 -614 2119 exchange reserves, both an IT and real estate institutional investment from the equity market. February 1466 -1085 381 boom, and a flourishing capital market. But, in Foreign institutional investors, who need to March 1956 -889 1067 the middle of 2008, price increases of global retrench assets in order to cover losses in their commodity (Hamilton, 2008), especially those home countries and are seeking havens of March-April 35146 -13855 21291 of oil, metal and food took a toll on India. safety in an uncertain environment, have Note: Highlight areas indicates negative investment Inflation reached at 12.91 per cent, the highest become major sellers in Indian markets. FIIs Source: Reserve Bank of Indi a level seen for a decade. With this growth have pulled out an estimated US$ 13 billion softened, budget deficits widened and trade from Indian stock market in 2008 (Sumanjeet, The financial crisis has also created a fall in FII followed by their withdrawal balances worsened. Before the India could 2009a). Almost immediately after the crisis shortage of money supply and India is also contributed, albeit with some lag, to the recover from the adverse impact of high surfaced FII registered a steel fall between facing a credit crunch especially in terms of bursting of the India’s stock market bubble commodity prices, the global financial crisis October and November 2007, from $ 5.7 foreign exchange and the Indian Banking (figure 4). However, Indian stock markets are has come knocking. Initially, it was argued that billion to minus 1.6 billion. Since then the sector and forex markets are facing tight never free from falling big and the market India would be relatively immune to this crisis, downward trend of FII has remained liquidity situations each passing day for the past crash in 2008 was an anticipated one, but a because of the ‘strong fundamentals’ of the unabated (Table 1). quite some time. This liquidity crisis along with fall of this extent was never anticipated by economy and the supposedly well-regulated FII sell off has forced the Indian Rupee to even the big of the bear. banking system. But, a crisis of this magnitude FDI investment during 2008-09 was devaluate (Sumanjeet, 2009b) like never before Curiously enough, though IIP growth was bound to affect globalized economy like volatile but overall remained stable. Foreign and in a span of 9 months the Indian Rupee had started declining since March 2007, the India and it has (Jha, 2009). Economy began investment received in 2008-09 was US$ 35.1 has slipped from around Rs 40/US $ to Rs 47/ share market boom continued until early 2008; to slow down from the middle of 2007-08. billion, slightly higher than the FDI received in US $. After a long spell of growth, the Indian 2007-08 (US$ 34.3 billion). A significant between March and December 2007, the economy is experiencing a downturn. difference in the total investments of 2008-09 As is to be expected, FII outflows Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) index, fuelled Industrial growth is faltering, inflation remains and 2007-08 has been on due to the inflow might also have had a negative impact on in part by substantial FII inflows, went up from at double-digit levels, the current account and outflow of foreign investment observed in domestic investment. Given the relative 12,858 to 19,827. The bullish sentiments deficit is widening, foreign exchange reserves 2007-08 and 2008-09 respectively. thinness of the Indian share market, the sharp prevailed for a short while even after the

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Figure 3: Exchange Rate of Indian Rupee with US Dollar and Euro 1.6%, 3.8% and 9.6% respectively in 2008-09 Table 2 clearly shows that due to against the growth of 4.9%, 8% and 10.8% shrinkage in demand in the markets, it is not respectively in 2007-08. Poor agricultural only manufacturing industry but also the growth is also attributed to low monsoon in services sector that is getting hit. The major parts of India (Figure 5). government came up with a set of stimulus

Table 2: India’s Macroeconomic Indicators

downward drift in FII began in November growth. GDP started decelerating in the first 2007. The Indian Stock Markets have crashed8 quarter of 2007-08, nearly six months before from a peak of around 21,000 in January 2008 the outbreak of the US financial crisis and to close to 10000 in December 2008. Stocks considerably ahead of the surge of like RNRL, Ispat, RPL, Essar oil and recessionary tendencies in all developed Nagarjuna fertilizers have lost 50-70% of their countries from August-September 2008. That value. The crisis in the global markets, a fall in was just the beginning of slowdown impact on the rupee and poor IIP numbers led to the fall. “India’s GDP growth. GDP growth for 2008- 09 was estimated at 6.7% as compared to the 2.2: Fall in Growth Rate, Industrial growth of 9.0% posted in the previous year. Output and Rise in Inflation Figure 5: Daily Mean Rainfall over the Country as a Whole (mm) All the three segments of the GDP namely Second, the global financial crisis and agriculture, forestry and fishing, industry and credit crunch have slowed India’s economic services sector were seen to post growth of

Figure 4: Fall in FIIS and Stock Market

Source: Indian MAT Department

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measures on three occasions to aid the ailing experienced, between September 2007 and Table 3: WPI Inflation-Sector Wise Analysis9 industry compromising on the deficits. These October 2008, a pronounced stagflationary measures have however have led to widening phase, with the growth slowdown on the one Index Change Average Inflation of fiscal deficits. hand and rising inflation on the other hand. So Year WPI PA Fuel Mfg WPI PA Fuel Mfg far as the Indian economy is concerned since 1995-96 5.1 3.7 5.6 5.9 8.01% 8.27% 5.07% 8.57% Further, India’s industrial output fell prices of practically all petroleum products are at its fastest annualized rate in 14 years, despite administered and trade in agricultural goods is 1996-97 6.6 11.5 15.3 2.6 4.60% 8.43% 10.33% 2.05% tax cuts and fresh spending programme far from free, transmission of global inflation 1997-98 5.8 6.3 17.8 3 4.37% 2.69% 13.89% 2.87% announced by the government of India in to domestic prices occurred with a time lag, 1998-99 7.1 10.8 4.6 6.4 5.95% 12.05% 3.29% 4.35% December and January to boost domestic demand. from November 2007 rather than September Data released by CSO showed that the factory 2007. Beginning of 2008 has seen a dramatic 1999-00 9.2 6.1 28.2 3.3 3.29% 1.20% 9.07% 2.75% output shrank by 1.2 per cent in February, on rise in the price of rice and other basic food 2000-01 8.3 2.4 42.2 5.7 7.06% 2.85% 8.04% 3.22% week global and domestic demand. This is stuffs. There has also been a no-less alarming 2001-02 2.6 6.3 10.6 -0.2 3.62% 3.65% 9.26% 1.82% against growth rate of 9.5 per cent during the rise in the price of oil and gas (Table 3). When same month a year ago. Industrial output thus coupled with rises in the price of the majority 2002-03 10.5 10.3 22.9 7.3 3.41% 3.38% 5.53% 2.69% grew 2.8 per cent during April-February, against of commodities, higher inflation was the only 2003-04 8 2.9 6.3 9.8 5.43% 4.23% 6.32% 5.61% 8.8 per cent in the same period a year ago. likely outcome. Manufacturing, which constitutes 80 per cent IIP 2004-05 9.2 2.3 27.8 7.9 6.44% 3.70% 10.03% 6.25% (Index of Industrial Production), contracted by Indeed, by July 2008, the key Indian 2005-06 7.7 9.9 25.9 2..8 4.45% 2.90% 9.58% 3.14% Inflation Rate, the Wholesale Price Index, has 1.4 per cent in February, as production of basis, 2006-07 13.2 22.6 3.7 11.9 5.38% 7.67% 5.62% 4.39% intermediates and consumer goods shrank risen above 11%, its highest rate in 13 years. 2007-08 16.3 20.9 21.8 13.7 4.67% 8.90% 0.99% 4.97% compared with a year ago (Figure 6). Inflation rate stood at 16.3 per cent during April to June 2008. This is more than 6% higher Source: Commerce Ministry, IBI Gilts Ltd. For a little over a year after the than a year earlier and almost three times the outbreak of financial crisis, the global economy RBI’s target of 4.1%. Inflation has climbed steadily during the year, reaching 8.75% at the consumption revives in the developed end of May. There was an alarming increase economies. The slowdown in the trade sector Figure 6: Falling Industrial Output in June, when the figure jumped to 11%. This post April 2008 is more explicit. Exports have was driven in part by a reduction in government declined continuously since July 2008 except fuel subsidies, which have lifted gasoline prices the month of December. They declined from by an average 10%. US$ 17,095 million in July 2008 to US$ 11,516 million in March 2009, which accounts for 2.3: Fall in Exports, Outsourcing Services and Service Sector almost 33% decline (Figure 7). India’s exports fell the most in at least India’s export of steel fall by a 14 years as the worst global recession since whopping 35 per cent to 3.2 million tonnes the Great Depression slashed demand for the during the current fiscal buoyed by healthy nation’s jewellery, clothing and other products. domestic demand, Centre for Monitoring Indian It must be noted this growth contraction has Economy (CMIE). Automotive tyre exports come after a robust 25%-plus average export from India also suffered a setback in the first growth since 2003. A low-to-negative growth quarter of current financial year, according to Source: Central Statistical Organization in exports may continue for sometime until latest Tyre Manufacturing Association of

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Figure 7: Export Performance after 2006-09 Table 4: Major Items of Balance of Payment (US$ Million)

India. During the period exports registered a some signs of recovery in 2008 after a long 22 per cent drop against that the in the same spell of recession since 1999, has been pushed period of 2008-09). back into gloom y the ongoing financial crisis. Software services receipts also declined by Further, worldwide slowdown in 12.7 per cent during Q4 of 2008-09. However, vehicles sales is likely to drag down India’s when compared with the performance in the components exports between zero and 5 per first three quarters of 2008-09, software trade deficit (Table 4). The trade deficit on a growth in exports and the country’s GDP. For cent in the current fiscal. The Automotive exports at US$ 11.2 billion during Q4 of 2008- BoP (Balance of Payment) basis in Q4 of instance, when between 1996 and 2002 the Components Manufacturing Association has 09 was almost in line with an average software 2008-09 (US$ 14.6 billion) was less than half average growth rate in exports was less than warned that if the slump in auto sales continues, exports of US$ 11.9 billion recorded in the first of the average trade deficit (US$ 34.9 billion) 10%, the GDP growth also averaged below exports could also be negative this year. three quarters of 2008-0 recorded in the first three quarters of 2008- 6%. A slowdown in export growth also has Apparel exports from India have fallen sharply 09. The trade deficit during Q4 of 2008-09 was other implications for the economy. Close to by 24 percent since August 2008 due to Initially, the commerce ministry had much lower than that of Q4 of 2007-08 (US$ 50% of India’s exports-textiles, garments, declining sales in the US and the European set an export target of $200 billion for 2008- 22.3 billion). gems and jewellery, leather and so on-originate Union while those from Bangladesh, Indonesia 09, which was subsequently revised from the labour-intensive small- and medium- and Vietnam are on an upswing. The current downwards to US$175 billion in January this A decelerating export growth has enterprises. A sharp fall in export growth could global meltdown has hit the country’s cashew year. But the latest numbers reveal that India implications for India, even though our mean job losses in this sector. This would farmers. Official reports with the Cashew has missed even the revised target. While, economy is far more domestically driven than necessitate government intervention. A silver Export Promotional Council of India (CPECI) imports fell 36.6 percent in April from a year those of the East Asia. Still, the contribution lining here, however, is the global slowdown show that cashew kernel exports have dropped earlier and the trade deficit narrowed to US$5 of merchandise exports to GDP has risen will also lower cost of imports significantly, marginally from 11.5 lakh tonnes in 2006-07 billion from US$8.7 billion in the same month steadily over the past six years- from about thereby easing pressures on the balance of to only 11 lakh tonnes in 2007-08. Indian in 2008, today’s report showed. Oil imports 10% of GDP in 2002-03, to nearly 17% by payment. seafood export during 2007-08 has also slid 58.5 percent to US$3.6 billion, while non- 2007-08. If one includes service exports, the recorded a fall of 11.58 per cent in terms of oil purchases dropped 24.6 percent to $12.11 ratio goes up further. Therefore, any downturn The current crisis parallels the 2001- quantity and 8.9 per cent in terms of rupee. billion. The sharp decline in both exports and in the global economy will hurt India. There 2002 bust especially for India’s outsourcing The domestic tea industry, which was showing imports during Q4 of 2008-09 led to a lower also seems to be a positive correlation between (BPOs and KPOs) sector. The outsourcing

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sector is heavily dependent on demand from Cognizant and HCL Technologies collectively Table 6: Service Sector in Recession During April-November 2008 the US and Europe, which are currently going referred as SWITCH vendors are now forced through a deep recession. This is going to have to reconcile to a lower growth rate as their Services Growth Rate(2007-08) Growth Rate(2008-09) a strong negative impact on Indian IT groups. larger banking and auto clients became victims Air Passenger Traffic 20% -4.7% Approximately 61% of the Indian IT sector’s of the financial crisis. The SWITCH vendor revenues are from US clients and 20% from account for over half of the country’s software Domestic Air Passenger Traffic 22.5% -8.5% UK, the rest comes from other European exports. The industry, which grew by 30 per Fixed Line Subscriber -3.2% -3.0% countries, Australia etc. Just take the top five cent on a compound annual basis over the past India players who account for 46% of the IT five years, is likely to see its growth rate halve Assets Mobilized By Mutual Funds 54% -50% industry’s revenues, the revenue contribution this year as the economic turmoil intensifies. Assets Under Management of from US clients are approximately 58%. The In fact, the Indian IT and BPO market is slated Mutual Funds 50% -26% outsourcing arm of Infosys Technologies, to see 16.4 per cent CAGR in the coming five India’s second-biggest software maker, and years leading to 2013, compared with 24.3 per Insurance Premium 23% -2.7% iGate Global Solutions, both based in cent growth recorded between 2003 and 2008 Source: Compiled by Researcher from Various Sources Bangalore, lost a major client when GreenPoint (Table 5). negotiating lower rates with suppliers and with corresponding period of the previous year. Mortgage was shut down by parent Capital In addition, from a qualitative nearly 60 percent are cutting back on In fiscal 2007-08, the growth was 58 per cent One Financial Corp. About 30% of the industry standpoint, the tentacles of the financial sector contractors. With budgets squeezed, just over compared to the previous year. Internet revenues are estimated to be from financial business are quite well-entrenched and have 40 percent of companies plan to increase their subscribers grew by 26 per cent (20 per cent), services. significant structural impact as well. A recent use of offshore vendors. and Broadband subscribers by 87.7 per cent After exports, there seems to be bad study by Forrester reveals that 43% of Western (23.6 per cent). The dipping performance in The service sector, which contributes news in store for the domestic IT and BPO companies are cutting back their IT spend and the services sector comes close on the heels over 55 per cent to India’s economy, has market in 2009 which is expected to grow only nearly 30 percent are scrutinizing IT projects of the manufacturing sector registering a started showing a marked deterioration due to 13.4 per cent being the slowest growth since for better returns. Some of this can lead to negative growth and this would result in the global financial crisis, credit crunch and 2003. This will largely on the back of slower offshoring12, but the impact of overall reduction slowdown in the overall economic growth rate. higher interest rates during recent months, IT consumption in some key verticals including in discretionary IT spends, including offshore The government has already admitted that the according to a survey carried out by apex retail and financial services. Large Indian firms work, cannot be denied. The slowing U.S. expected rate of economic growth could not business chamber FICCI. During April- such as TCS, Infosys, Wipro, Satyam, economy has seen 70 percent of firms come down to seven per cent. November 2008 various services has a negative performance (Table 6). These were 2.4: Other Implications Table 5: IT, BPO Market Growth in India air passenger traffic, fixed line telephone Added to above mention, the major subscribers, assets mobilization by mutual social costs of a recession are those funds, asset under management of mutual associated with the enforcement of job cuts, funds and insurance premium. lay off and significant upheavals in labour Segments adversely impacted by the markets. Many companies are laying off their global crisis include financial services, employees or cutting salaries for a few days information technology and infotech-enabled in month or cutting production and not doing services, aviation and real estate. The credit any further recruitment13. Official sources crunch and higher interest rates have impacted suggest that there has been already been a these areas. Wireless telephone subscribers sharp fall in employment in the export oriented grew 50% in April-November 2008 compared sectors like textiles and garments, gems and

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jewellery, automobiles, tyre and metal products. terror attacks will affect this segment on a of drugs and medicines, up by 4.5 percent. money markets, sharp declines in stock The estimates show that in the year 2008-09, temporary basis, it is more likely to suffer due This obviously impacts upon the entire markets across the globe and extreme investor with export growth of 3.4%, the total job loss to the prolonged economic crisis. Hotels in the population, but especially the bottom half of aversion brought pressures on the domestic in India due to lower export growth was of metros which largely cater to corporate tourists the population who may find it extremely money and forex markets. The RBI responded around 1.16 million. have witnessed a sharp dip in occupancy rates difficult if not impossible to meet such by selling dollars consistent with its policy in the past few weeks, in some cases as much expenditures in times of stringency. objective of marinating conditions in the foreign The job loss in the IT and BPO sector as 25% to 30%. As per hotel consultants HVS exchange market. Simultaneously, it started in the country topped 10,000 in the September- International’s analysis, almost all the top six- 3. Policy Responses from India addressing the liquidity pressures through a December 2008. While employees of medium- hotel markets-Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, variety of measures. A second repo auction in sized companies bore the brunt of job losses The global financial crisis has called Hyderabad, Bangalore and Kolkata have been the day under the Liquidity Adjustment Facility in the September-December period, it is going into question several fundamental assumptions impacted. While the room rates have officially (LAF16) was also introduced in September to be their counterparts in the big and small and beliefs governing economic resilience and increased hotels are selling corporate travel 2008. The repo rate was cut in stages from 9 firms, who would increasingly face the axe in financial stability. What started off as turmoil packages at huge discounts to maintain percent in October 2008 to rate of 5 per cent. the coming six months. According to a recent in the financial sector of the advanced occupancy levels. Tour operators believe that The policy reverse repo rate under the LAF report, over 50,000 IT professionals in the economies has snowballed into the deepest and the real discounts and tariff cuts are as high was reduced by 250 basis points from 6.0 per country may lose their jobs over the next six most widespread financial and economic crisis as 30% to 50%. The recent economic cent to 3.5 per cent. The CRR (Cash Reserve months as the situation in the sector is expected of the last 60 years? With all the advanced downturn has also been a cause of concern Ratio) was also reduced from 9 per cent to 5 to worsen due to the impact of global economic economies in a synchronized recession, global for the Indian hospitality Industry. Taj brand per cent over the same period, whereas the meltdown on the export-driven industry, a GDP is projected to contract for the first time of hotels reported a 73 per cent drop in its net SLR (Statutory Liquidity Ratio) was brought forecast by a union of IT Enabled Services since the World War II, anywhere between warned. profits at Rs 16 crore for the quarter ended 0.5 and 1.0 per cent, according to the March down by 1 per cent to 24 per cent. To June 2009 against Rs 61 crore in the pervious 2009 forecast of the International Monetary overcome the problem of availability of India’s travel and tourism sector has corresponding quarter. Fund (IMF). The emerging market economies collateral of government securities for availing been hit by global financial crisis. The Indian of LAF, a special refinance facility was Last but not the least, the prices of are faced with decelerating growth rates. The tourism industry, valued at Rs 333.5 billion, introduced in October 2008 to enable banks to food articles has increased by more than one- World Trade Organization (WTO) has forecast earns most of its forex revenues from the US, get refinance from the RBI against declaration fifth in this one-year. This, obviously, affects that global trade volume will contract by 9.0 UK and European visitors. As per the industry, of having extended bona fide commercial loans, household budgets, especially among the poor per cent in 2009. Governments and central on account of recent crisis, the sector may under a pre-existing provision of the RBI Act 14 for whom food still accounts for more than banks around the world have responded to the lose as much as 40% of annual revenues . for a maximum period of 90 days. These policy half of total household expenditure. Meanwhile, crisis through both conventional and Even as per the estimates of the Tourism measures of the RBI since mid September non-food primary product prices have hardly unconventional fiscal and monetary measures. Committee of The Associated Chambers of resulted in augmentation of liquidity of nearly changed. The prices of fibres-mainly cotton, Indian authorities have also responded with Commerce and Industry of India US $80 billion (4,22,793 crore). In addition, the jute and silk-have barely increased at all. fiscal and monetary policy and regulatory (ASSOCHAM) on account of the global permanent reduction in the SLR by 1.0 per Oilseed prices have fallen by more than five measures (Mishra, 2009). slowdown, the growth in tourism sector is likely cent of NDTL (Net Demand and Time percent. This, immediately, affects all the to fall by a minimum of 10% and stay at around 3.1: Monetary Policy Measures Liability) has made available liquid funds of producers of cash crops, who will be getting 5% YoY for FY09. Of the tourist visiting India, the order of Rs.40,000 crore for the purpose the same or less for their products even as corporate travelers account of the majority On the monetary policy front, the of credit expansion (Table 7). chunk. This segment was already getting they pay significantly more for food. They are policy responses in India since September affected since the start of the year on account also paying more for fertilizer and pesticides, 200815 have been designed largely to mitigate The liquidity situation has improved of the global credit and subprime crisis. With prices of which have increased by more than the adverse impact of the global financial crisis significantly following the measures taken by companies cutting down travel budgets, this five percent. Another major item of essential on the Indian economy. In mid September the Reserve Bank. The overnight money mar- segment exercised caution. While the recent consumption has also increased in price- that 2008, severe disruptions of international ket rates, which generally hovered above the

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Table 7: Actual/Potential Release of Primary Liquidity-Since Mid-September 2008 has provided comfort to the banks/FIs, which duty cut amounting to Rs 8,700 crore and can fall back on them in case of need. benefits worth Rs 2,000 crore for exporters18. Measure/Facility Amount (Rs. crore) 1 CRR Reduction 1,60,000 Taken together, the measures put in In less than a month since the UPA place since mid-September 2008 have ensured Government announced its first fiscal stimulus 2 Unwinding/Buyback/De-sequestering of MSS Securities 97,781 that the Indian financial markets continue to package in December 08, the government 3 Term Repo Facility 60,000 function in an orderly manner. The cumulative again announced its second fiscal stimulus 4 Increase in Export Credit Refinance 25,512 amount of primary liquidity potentially available package dose which was combined with significant monetary measures from the RBI 5 Special Refinance Facility for SCBs (Non-RRBs) 38,500 to the financial system through these measures is over US$ 75 billion or 7 per cent of GDP. announcing further cuts in key benchmark 6 Refinance Facility for SIDBI/NHB/EXIM Bank 16,000 This sizeable easing has ensured a comfortable interest rates, both being aimed at kick starting 7 Liquidity Facility for NBFCs through SPV 25,000* liquidity position starting mid-November 2008 as investments and stimulating demand in the economy which has seen a significant Total (1 to 7) 4,22,793 evidenced by a number of indicators including slowdown in demand arising out of Memo: Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) Reduction 40,000 the weighted-average call money rate, the overnight money market rate and the yield on recessionary conditions in several global * Includes an option of Rs.5,000 crore. the 10-year benchmark government security. markets. The second stimulus package has five Source: RBI elements this time which include a strong focus The LAF window has been 3.2: Fiscal Stimuli Packages on interest rate reduction, additional liquidity repo rate during September-October 2008, in a net absorption mode since mid-November enhancement to productive sectors, export have softened considerably and have gener- 19 2008. The liquidity problem faced by mutual To contain the knock on effects of the sector being offered financial aid , a boost ally been close to or near the lower bound of 20 funds has eased considerably. Most global slowdown, the Government of India being given to the Infrastructure Sector and the LAF corridor since early November 2008. commercial banks have reduced their announced three successive fiscal stimuli finally easier access to ECB’s (External Other money market rates such as discount 21 benchmark prime lending rates. The total packages during December 2008-Feburary Commercial Borrowings) and FIIs . The rates of CDs (Certificates of Deposits), CPs utilization under the recent refinance/liquidity 2009 amounting to a total of Rs. 80,100 crore stimulus package announced has an additional (Commercial Papers) and CBLOs17 (Collat- facilities introduced by the Reserve Bank has (US $16.3 billion) to the exchequer. These plan expenditure of Rs. 20,000 crore during eralized Borrowing and Lending Obligations) been low, as the overall liquidity conditions stimulus packages were in addition to the current year, mainly for critical Rural, softened in tandem with the overnight money remain comfortable. However, their availability already announced post budget expenditure Infrastructure and Social Security sectors, and market rates (Table 8). towards the farmer loan waiver scheme, rural measures to support Exports, Housing, Micro, Table 8: Interest Rate-Monthly Average (In %) employment guarantee and other social Small & Medium Enterprises (MSME) and security programs27, enhanced pay structure Textile sectors. In this package, government arising from the 6th pay commission, etc. As a has focused on the Infrastructure needs result, net borrowing requirement for 2008-09 wherein the India Infrastructure Finance increased nearly 2.5 times the original Company Limited (IIFCL) would be raising projection in 2008-09 from 2.08 per cent of Rs. 10,000 crore to refinance infrastructure GDP to 5.89 per cent of GDP projects worth Rs 25000 crore. It has also envisaged funding of additional projects worth The government’s first fiscal package, Rs 75000 crore at competitive rates over the announced on December 2008, a day after the next 18 months. Funding for these projects to central bank cut the Repo and Reverse Repo IIFCL would be enabled in tranches of rates, has Rs 20,000 crore as additional additional Rs 30000 crore by way of tax-free expenditure, an across-the-board 4% excise bonds, once funds raised during current year

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are effectively utilized. (Estimated benefits to 3.3: Regulatory Measures finance companies were also allowed to opportunities, certain special initiatives have the tune of Rs 40000 crore) access ECBs subject to RBI approval. Taking been considered for agriculture, handlooms, Recognizing that the unexpected and advantage of the discount on Foreign Currency handicraft, gems and jewellery and leather Barely a week after the presentation swift turn of events could lead to problems of Convertible Bonds (FCCBs) issued by India sectors. To improve the infrastructure of the of the Interim Budget, the government came a spiraling downturn; the RBI took a series of companies in overseas markets, they were export sector, Towns of Excellence’, and the out with the third fiscal stimulus package in regulatory measures in addition to providing allowed to prematurely buy back their FCCBs associated units will be granted additional which further tax cuts costing Rs 29,100 crore liquidity and special refinance. In November at prevailing discounted rates. support and incentives. The 5% incentive for or about 0.5 per cent of GDP were announced. 2008, as a counter-cyclical measure, the handicrafts under special focus would promote additional risk weights and provisions were The impact of liquidity easing and The service tax was cut by two points from the industry interests. The policy aims to withdrawn and restored to previous levels. The prudential measures is reflected in the credit the prevailing level of 12 per cent and excise provide a thrust to the employment-oriented prudential regulations for restructured growth in the year ended June 2009 at 15.8 duty was reduced by a similar magnitude for sectors, which have witnessed job losses due accounts were modified, as a one-time measure per cent against 26.3 per cent in the previous items presently subject to 10 per cent. to recession, especially in the fields of textiles, and for a limited period of time in view of the year. Though there was slowing down in the leather and handicrafts. To give a boost to the The indications so far seem to be that extraordinary external factors, for preserving period after October 2008, the credit growth drought -hit industry, the Textile Corporation the package of policy measures is not really the economic and productive value of assets in the period October 2008 to June 2009 clocked of India is setting up cotton depots. The cotton having the intended impact of reviving the real which were otherwise valuable. The modified annualized rate of 8.9 per cent. The credit growth prices shoot up during drought. These depots, sector. In spite of the more than Rs. 4,00,000 regulations were in operation for applications during November 2008-May 2009 was higher will act as buffers for the industry. crore of liquidity released into the financial for re-structuring received upto March 31, than average for sectors such as infrastructure, markets, the credit offtake has been 2009 and restructured packages implemented real estate, NBVFC, SME, agriculture and 4: Recovery of Indian Economy remarkably poor (Nachane, 2009). within 120 days of receipt of application or by certain industries like iron and steel. It is interesting to note that after two June 30,2009, whichever was earlier. The There are also questions on the An unprecedented contraction in modification permitted the restructured years of recession, almost all the countries are appropriateness of the measure in the already exports that has already continued for 10 rising again. Hence statements from politicians accounts to be treated as standard assets strained fiscal scenario. The effectiveness of cuts successive months was the backdrop against and others as well as official data which in provided they were standard on the eve of the in excise duty and service tax in providing a which commerce and industry minister Anand other times would be seen to be pessimistic or crisis, viz., September 2008, even if they had demand stimulus is doubtful-first, the tax cuts Sharma presented a new foreign trade policy at best neutral are now viewed as something turned non-performing when restructuring had should result in price cuts and then, these should (FTP) on 27th August, 2009 whose highlights to cheer about. In May 2009 the U.S. been taken up. translate into higher demand in the situation of include tax refunds for exporters, lower authorities allowed ten banks to return part of falling incomes. Furthermore, there will always In case of NBFC, having regard to transaction costs, promises of better export the money they had received from the be dissatisfaction when the tax cuts are reversed. their need to raise capital, they were allowed infrastructure-and a broader strategy to ship government to shore up their financial position Many, in fact, believe that fiscal stimulus is better to issue perpetual debt instruments qualifying more Indian goods and services to new at the height of the crisis22. Even though served by expenditure increase rather than tax for capital. They were also allowed further markets in Latin America, Oceania and Africa President Obama admitted that the crisis was cuts not only because the impact is direct but time of one more year to comply with the instead of traditional, but recession-stricken far from over, the news of banks returning the also because it can be better targeted (Rao, increased Capital to Risk Weighted Assets markets in Europe and North America. With money ahead of schedule was received 2009). Hopefully, the reduction in excise duty and Ration (CRAR) stipulation of 15 per cent as a target of US $200 billion exports for next positively by the markets. U.S. Treasury service tax rates will facilitate the unification of against the existing requirement of 12 per cent. fiscal and an annual export growth of 15%, Secretary Timothy F. Geithner was probably the two taxes for levying the GST (Goods and Risk weight on banks’ exposures to NBFC, the 2009-2014 FTP provides an extended tax alluding to the above development when he Services Tax) at a reasonable rate when which had been increased earlier, was brought holiday and duty refund for exporters. Under said that “the force of the global storm is implemented. In any case, the entire episode of down. Further, NBFCs (Non Banking finance protectionism, the FTP had allowed duty free receding a bit”. The role the U.S. government announcing tax cuts just after a week of presenting Company) that were not otherwise permitted import of capital goods. With a view to double was committed to play to save the banks will the Interim Budget points to the government’s to resort to overseas borrowings were allowed India’s percentage share of global trade in five probably get reduced. He also identified lack of clarity in combating the slowdown. to raise shore term borrowings’ housing years, and increasing employment improving signs in the U.S. economy and better

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outlook internationally. The good news gross domestic product released by the Central Figure 9: Growth in Six Infrastructure Industries (in %) was not confined to the U.S. alone. IMF23 in Statistical Organization (CSO). The best its recent report also mentioned that ‘global performance was from the trade, hotels, economic recovery has started’. According to transport and communication group, as also reports, prices in China fell less sharply in May the financial services and real estate sectors than in April giving rise to expectations that with an 8.1 per cent expansion each, while the US $686-billion stimulus package of the mining came next 7.9 per cent followed by Chinese government was beginning to check construction with 7.1 per cent. The industry deflationary forces. And latest GDP data from data revealed domestic passenger car sales in Brazil portend an upswing in its economy. July went up to 1,15,067 units from 87,901 units Indian economy is also recovering slowly since in the same month last year. Software the beginning of year 2009. However, the exporters paced gains after Goldman Sachs recovery rate is very slow. India’s economic upgraded its outlook on the country’s slowdown unexpectedly eased in the first information technology services sector. Tata Consultancy Services, the biggest software quarter. India’s economic growth logged a Source: Ministry of Industry, GOI notable acceleration to 6.1 per cent for the exporter, rose 2.85 per cent after Goldman first quarter of this fiscal from 5.8 per cent for Sachs more than doubled the stock’s target The data during the first two months Car sales in August grew a robust the quarter before due to strong showing by price. After auto, realty was the best of 2009-10 on six core infrastructure industry 25.5% as companies despatched more vehicles various services industries (Figure 8). performer, rising 2.14 per cent to 3,693.02. indicated improvement in output (Figure 9). to dealerships to boost stocks ahead of the The metal index rose by two per cent at The main drivers of growth seen in the six demand spurt in forthcoming festive season. The growth registered by the farm 12,305.66 as Hindalco Industries, the biggest core infrastructure industry during the period Maruti, Hyundai, Tata and Mahindra led the sector at 2.4 per cent and manufacturing at aluminum producer, rose 3.38 per cent to were cement, power and coal posting growth growth in car and passenger vehicle sales after 3.4 per cent remained below the overall Rs 105.45 after UBS raised it to “buy” of 11.7 % , 5.1% and 11.8% respectively in a 31% growth in July. Total auto sales were expansion, showed the data on the country’s from “sell”. April-May 2009-10 compared to the growth up 24% at 10 lakh units in August against 8.1 of 5.4% , 1.7% and 9.5% respectively during lakh units in the same month last year, Figure 8: Acceleration in GDP the same period of previous fiscal. However, according to industry body Siam (Table 9). production of crude petroleum and petroleum 9 refinery were badly hit. Car sales in August stood at 1.2 lakh 8 units against 96,082 units in the corresponding 7 The official data shows that the month last year. Demand for new models

o 6 cement sector has grown 9.97 percent in added to the festive rush and kept the 5 December 2008 as compared to November momentum going for car sales that witnessed 4 7.8 7.6 and the year on year increase is 11%. Steel, the seventh straight month of growth. Industry

GDP Gr GDP 3 6.1 which declined from September onwards last 5.3 5.8 analysts said demand was likely to remain 2 year, has shown a recovery in December last strong in the coming months, especially over 1 and January this year. It has now touched 22.86 low base of last year when demand was hit 0 million metric tones, a figure it achieved in May by economic slowdown and high interest rates. Ap.-June Jul.-S e p . 08 O ct.-D e c. Jan-M ar.09 A p .-Ju n 09 2008 when the sectoral growth rate was 4.1%. The two-wheeler industry also saw a 26% 08 08 This may not be quite impressive but the very growth at 6.1 lakh units against 4.8 lakh units fact that the sector is growing is a matter of in August last year, with Hero Honda fuelling Source: CSO some satisfaction. the demand for motorcycles. On the scooter

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Table 9: Growth in Automobile Segment Table 9: Growth in Automobile Segment Segment August 2008 August 2009 Change (%) 2008-09 2009-10 Commodities Cars 96,082 1,20,669 26 May June May June Motorcycle 4,85,270 6,11,173 26 All Commodities 8.9 11.8 0.8 -1.4 Scooters 96,441 1,118,694 23 I Primary Article 9.5 10.6 6.2 5.4 Commercial Vehicles 34,289 40,624 18 (A) Food Articles 5.7 5.9 8.3 8.6 Three Wheelers 31,929 39,201 23 (B) Non-Food Articles 13.9 17.1 1.4 -2.0 Total 8,11,341 10,0,8,702 24 II Fuel Power Light & Lubricants 7.7 16.3 -6.5 -12.6 Exports 140746 149320 6 III Manufactured Products 9.0 10.6 1.4 0.1 Source: SIAM (A) Food Products 11.5 14.4 13.6 11.1 side, Honda Motorcycle and Scooter India, cent for the week ended March 14 this year, (B)Beverages,Tobacco& Tobacco Products 8.2 7.9 5.8 5.7 Hero Honda, TVS and Suzuki pushed up sales, compared with 8.02 per cent in the which grew 23% at 1.1 lakh units. Sales of corresponding week last year (Table 10). (C) Textiles -1.6 3.6 8.3 4.3 commercial vehicles were also up, growing by (D) Wood & Wood Products 6.3 9.8 3.6 0.3 18% at 40,624 units against 34,289 units in Foreign institutional investors’ (FIIs) August 2008. net investment in Indian equities crossed $8 (E) Paper & Paper Products 3.1 3.5 2.9 2.5 billion in calendar 2009 with foreigners buying (F) Leather & Leather Products 1.1 1.6 0.0 -1.0 Slowdown in the economy and rapid stocks worth $274 million on Friday. At the decline in global commodity prices toned down end of July, net inflows from FIIs stood at $7.3 (G)Rubber & Plastic Products 5.7 6.0 2.6 2.6 the overall inflation to below 0 levels for the billion and it took another 20 trading sessions (H) Chemicals & Chemical Products 8.7 9.8 1.4 1.7 first time in 35 years. However, it was found before net inflows crossed the US $8 billion that prices of some of the items of mass mark, the first time in this year. Last year, hit (I) Non-Metallic Mineral Products 5.7 5.0 2.2 2.9 consumption were still rising (Rakshit, 2009). by recession back home FIIs took out nearly (J) Basic Metals Alloys & Metals Products 20.3 21.3 -13.2 -14.0 While, the average overall inflation numbers $12 billion from the Indian stock markets but (K) Machinery & Machine Tools 5.5 6.5 -0.9 -2.3 for the month of June 2009 turned negative with sentiment improving from March this year, however, food articles falling within the foreigners have returned with net investment (L) Transport Equipment & Parts 6.4 6.1 0.3 0.6 category of primary commodities continue to amounting to $9.3 billion, according to SEBI. rise by 8.6% in June 2009 on YoY terms 24 The benchmark index Sensex has risen 65% Following the global financial turmoil, the the crucial 4,800-point level to close higher by compared to 6% in the previous year. Furthers st 25 till 31 August 2009 (Figure 10). markets had plunged to 8,047.17 points on 22.35 points at 4,805.25 (Figure 12). Buying food articles was also seen to get dearer (m- th March 6, 2009. Investor sentiment on 7 was more or less confined to fundamentally o-m basis) over May 2009. In June 2009 prices Further, the Sensex of the Bombay September got a further boost from positive strong stocks. As many as 15 shares in the of non food articles, fuel leather and basic Stock Exchange (BSE) gained 325 points to trends across Asia. Besides, expectations of 30-BSE index closed with significant gains, metals dropped by 2%, 12.6%, 1% and 14% reach 16,014 on 7th September 2009. Markets strong quarterly earnings and signs of stability while the other 15 closed lower. Hindalco, respectively from positive growth of 17%, have surged higher in the second half with the in global economy bolstered their confidence. Sterlite were the two big gainers at 6.05% and 16%, 1.6% and 21% seen in the previous year. NSE Nifty has surging past the 4750 mark to 4.78% respectively. Market leader Reliance The annual inflation rate, as measured by the reach a 52 weeks high and the BSE Sensex In similar fashion, the wide-based was up by 3.73%. wholesale price index (WPI), fell to 0.27 per has also surged past the 16000 levels (Figure 11). National Stock Exchange index Nifty crossed

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Figure 10: BSE-Sensex Performance in August 2009 Figure 13: Figure 2: Dollar Index v/s Euro Movement

Commodities outperformed 28 in the since January 2009, trading in a wide range Figure 11: Sensex Touched 16000 Marks on 7th September 2009 Mid May. The CRB (Commodity Research between 46.75 and 52.18. The last five months Bureau) Index26 rose sharply from 236 to 254, of 2009 have been quite eventful for the Indian a rise of nearly 8% with precious metals, rupee, with the currency gaining steadily energies and base metals moving up sharply. against the US dollar, after a catastrophic 2008 Crude oil’s performance was the best amongst that saw the Indian rupee fall more than 20% the entire complex where prices shot up by from 39 levels to 50 levels. At a time when 20% on NYMEX29 (New York Mercantile the Indian economy was visibly slowing down, Ezchange) during the last fortnight. Except the recent gain in the rupee has proved to be aluminum, most industrial metals surged by a blessing in disguise. It has appreciated close more than 10%. to 1.30% YTD (year-to-date) after making a The rupee has been largely volatile low of Rs 52.18 per dollar in early March 2009.

Figure 12: Nifty Touched 4842 Marks on 7th September 2009 Table 9: Recent Indicators in 2009

Recent Indicators Jan 09 Feb. 09 March 09 April 09 June 09 July 09 2 & 3 Wheeler -7.20 -2.60 -7.20 8.90 9.50 12.00 4 Wheeler -13.40 0.60 -18.70 6.90 -1.00 10.60 Non Food Credit Growth 19.40 18.50 17.50 18.10 16.10 15.60 Indian Purchasing 46.7 47 49.5 53.3 55.7 55.33 Manager’s Index (PMI31) Cement Dispatched (top 4 6.63 7.08 6.81 11.84 11.10 11.95 producers) Source: Bloomberg

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The appreciation or depreciation of the corresponding period of previous year. The net which is protecting the poor and the returning everyone at this time of globalization. rupee30, as the case may be, is more influenced bank credit to the government sector swelled migrant workers from the extreme impact of Regardless of their political or economic by the weakness or strength of the US dollar. by 4.1% from 0.1% growth posted in the the global crisis. Sixth, throughout the crisis, system, all nations have found themselves in This means that factors affecting the dollar previous year. Growth in the bank credit to the RBI has also been very proactive in the same boat. Thus, first time world is facing against a host of other international currencies the commercial sector remained negative. The providing liquidity to the system, releasing truly global economic crisis. Around the world need to be closely monitored. A string of net foreign exchange of banks continue to slide about Rs 2.5lakh crore in the form of CRR stock markets have fallen, large financial economic reports released by the US and Euro by 1.4% compared to an increase of 1.4% cuts and MSS redemptions and also cutting institutions have collapsed or been bought out, regions, statements made by central banks in recorded in the previous year. Aggregate the Repo and Reverse Repo rates rapidly to and governments in even the wealthiest nations these regions, inflationary concerns, and the deposits expanded by 2.4% in April 2009 as 4.75% and 3.25% from peaks of 9% and 6% have had to come up with rescue packages to GDP growth of these economies play a direct against the Y-o-Y variation of 0.1% seen in respectively. As a result, broader lending and bail out their financial systems. The cause of role in determining the value of a particular the same month of the previous year. deposit rates have also gradually come down the problem was located in the fundamental currency. For instance, the appreciation of the Investment stepped up by 6% compared to by 200-300bp on an average. Last but not the defect of the free market system regarding its rupee to 47 levels (from 53 levels) in the second 4% in the previous year. least, the recent victory of the Congress party capacity to distinguish between “enterprise” quarter of 2009 was also attributed to the in the Indian general elections is a positive and “speculation” and hence, in its tendency weakness of the Dollar Index against major 4: Some Reasons of Recovery signal for international business and diplomacy. to become dominated by speculators, currencies, such as the euro and the pound There are also several structural Prime Minister Manmohan Singh has a good interested not in the long-term yield assets but (Figure 13), and positive sentiment on the back factors that have come to India’s aid. First, chemistry with many world leaders and has only in the short-term appreciation in asset of the euro-a composite currency of 15 nations- notwithstanding the severity and multiplicity of aptly stuck to his international commitments values. Weak and instable financial systems gaining strength. the adverse shocks, India’s financial markets in the past - the successful implementation of in some countries increased the intensity of have shown admirable-resilience. This is in the Indo-US deal on nuclear power is an crisis. India which was insulted from the first Government has also given indication example. The most important aspect of large part because India’s banking system round of the crisis partly owing to sound of inclusive growth, thrust on infrastructure Congress’ re-election has been its much more macroeconomic management policies became remains sound, healthy, well capitalized and development, support to Indian industry in comfortable position in the new parliament, vulnerable to the second round effects of global prudently regulated. Second, India’s Economic Survey and Rail Budget to whether eliminating the need to seek support from rigid crisis. The immediate effects were plummeting comfortable reserve position provides difficult economic scenario. And same will also and obstructive communist parties. During the stock prices, loss of forex reserves, confidence to overseas investors. Third, since be visible in Union Budget as well. Apart from last five years India has moved forward in deprecation of Indian rupee, outflow of foreign budget the Indian economy indicators are a large majority of Indians do not participate opening its economy, but the last government’s capital and a sharp tightening of domestic showing sign of further improvements in June in equity and asset markets, the negative speed and the level of engagement was liquidity. Later effects emerged from a month (Table 9). impact of the wealth loss effect that is plaguing restricted due to threats by powerful left-wing slowdown in domestic demand and exports. the advanced economies should be quite allies of necessity. It is ironic that in the middle However, India’s banking system has been Cement dispatch, auto sales and PMI muted. Consequently, consumption demand all have shown sign of improvement in last of an international financial crisis that has considerably less affected by the crisis than should hold up well. Fourth, because of India’s 32 three months. The non-food bank credit had seriously dented the reputation of capitalism banking system in US and Europe . The single mandated priority sector lending, institutional grown at lower rate but may be because of the Indian communists have suffered their most important concern that Indian credit for agriculture will be unaffected by the seasonal effect. Even declining interest rate worst electoral defeat in decades. government needed to be addressed in the credit squeeze (Chandrasekha, 2008). The is acting as a stimulus for stabilizing and growth crisis situation was the liquidity issue. The RBI farm loan waiver package implemented by the 4.2: Concluding Remarks of Indian Economy. had in its arsenal a variety instruments to Government further insulated the agriculture The present crisis situation is often manage liquidity, viz., CRR, SLR, OMO, LAF, Last but not the least, money supply sector from the crisis. Fifth, over the years, compared to the Great Depression of the late Refinance and MSS. Through the judicious in April 2009 calculated over March 2009 India has built an extensive network of social 1920s and the early 1930s. True, there are combination of all these instruments, the RBI shows, M3 swelled by 2.6% in April 2009 safety-net programmes, including the flagship some similarities. However, there are also was able to ensure more than adequate liquidity compared to 0.6% growth recorded in the rural employment guarantee programme, some basic differences. The crisis has affected in the system. At the same time it was also

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ensured that the growth in primary liquidity was on borrowed funds, and leveraging by 3. In the years leading up to the crisis, significant down from 6.25 percent in 2008 to about 3.25 per not excessive. The pressure on financial systematically important NBFCs have stood amounts of foreign money flowed into US from fast cent in 2009. Growth in developing economies is growing economies in Asia and oil importing countries. expected to slow to 3.33 per cent in 2009 from market has been eased, although there is some us in good stead. Added to these, at the policy This inflow of funds combined with low US interest 6.33 per cent in 2008. evidence of an increase in the non performing front there is need to focus of creating as much rates from 2002-04 contributed easy credit conditions, which fueled both housing and credit bubbles. 7. Over the last year, the US has performed better loans. However, the financial system has been additional fiscal space as possible to prop up than Russia and China, inline with India, and worse more risk averse. The decline in global fuel the domestic economy while preventing 4. Subprime lending become popular in the US in the than Brazil. Russia’s stock market is down the prices and other commodity prices has helped macroeconomic stability. Expenditure priority mid 1990s, with the outstanding debt increasing most of the BRIC countries at -68%. China’s from $ 33 billion in 1993 to $ 332 billion in 2003. Shanghai Composite is down 46% and has really the balance of payments and lowered the should be defined rationally. Public spending As of December 2007, there was an estimated $ seen a nice pickup lately. India’s Sensex is down inflation level. This has created the space for that creates jobs especially for poor is 1.3 trillion in subprime mortgages outstanding. 20 43%, which is right inline with the S&P 500, and monetary easing as well as providing better essential. Ongoing efforts to increase per cent of all mortgages originated in 2006 were Brazil is down 36%. considered to be subprime, a rate unthinkable just ten scope for fiscal stimuls. The monetary and effectiveness and efficiency of the banking years ago. This substantial increase is attributable to 8. January 21, 2008, the Sensex saw its highest ever fiscal stimulus package is expected to contain system must continue. At organizational level, industry enthusiasm: banks and other lenders loss of 1,408 points at the end of the session on discovered that they could make hefty profits from Monday. The Sensex recovered to close at the downward slide in demand in 2009 while efforts to raise domestic productivity and 17,605.40 after it tumbled to the day’s low of competitiveness in international market origination fees, bundling mortgages into securities providing a good basis for recovery in 2010. and selling theses securities to investors. 16,963.96, on high volatility as investors panicked However, there are many examples of policy become critical factors for protecting export following weak global cues amid fears of the US market shares. Last but not the least, a close 5. The European Central Bank (ECB) took action to recession. On January 22, 2008, the Sensex saw failures (structural and macro-management) prevent a liquidity crunch in Europe. The French its biggest intra-day fall on Tuesday when it hit a that contributed towards the pre-crisis coordination and integration between bank BNP Paribas had three investment funds that low of 15,332, down 2,273 points. The Bombay slowdown and magnified the negative impact government of India, financial institutions and were connected to the subprime market in the US. Stock Exchange benchmark Sensex witnessed its of the slowdown. For example, the reason organizations is needed to deal with the crisis The bank stopped withdrawals from these funds. second-largest fall ever losing 900.84 points to close Losses were faced by NIBC, a Dutch investment at 16,677.88. May 18, 2006, the Sensex registered behind the slowdown in export growth in the and restore the growth momentum. bank during the first half of 2007. Losses were faced a fall of 826 points (6.76 per cent) to close at pre-crisis period seems to be largely policy by Dillon Read, the fund affiliated with UBS, the 11,391, following heavy selling by FIIs, retail related. Ignoring all economic logic and Notes Swiss Bank. Rhineland Funding, which is affiliated investors and a weakness in global markets. The international experiences, the government went with the German bank IKB, was substantially hit by markets crashed by 801 points to close at a low of 1. In 2006, the German Economist Max Otte published the subprime crisis. The Japanese Yen did not benefit 10,528. The crisis in the global markets, a fall in in for large-scale liberalization of FIIs. This, a book with the title “The Crash Comes”, in which from the advantages of lower interest rates because the rupee and poor IIP numbers led to the fall apart from inflating stock market bubble, let he pointed up the risks of present housing bubble of an increase in the value of the Yen. This increase 9. Ideally we should see lower average inflation in to a significant strengthening of Indian rupee in the US and the fact that most of these houses was due to the US subprime crisis. Japan’s central sold on credit to people who actually could not bank has noted that the impacts of the crisis on the case of lower rise in index numbers. However, in and posed a serious hurdle to the country’s afford such high debits. He also predicted an country have been far more intense than anticipated Table 3 we do not see any relation as consistently. export growth. The Indian economy suffers enormous fall in the value of US dollar and a new and that Japan’s economic growth has slowed In fact, it breaks more often than not. For instance, from an extended period of high interest rates, world economic crisis in which all finally ended. considerably. Impacts have started to surface in China in 1995-96 average inflation is 8.01 per cent the second highest in time series. However, the index high prices consequent to supply constraints with a sharp fall in the shares held by Chinese banks. 2. The Asian Financial Crisis was a period of financial Shares held by the Bank of China fell by 6.4% and rises by just 5.1 points. In 2002-03, 2006-07 and that are more domestic in origin than global crisis that gripped much of Asia beginning in July 4.1% in Hong Kong and Shanghai markets. In India, 2007-08 the index rise in double digits but inflation and declining business confidence that was 1997, and raised fears of a worldwide economic the rise in the value of the Rupee versus the US is not as high. In 2002-03, the low inflation could meltdown due to financial contagion. The crisis started ignored by policy players fixated on inflation Dollar is expected to damage exports. Indian be possible because of much lower rise in index in in Thailand with the financial collapse of the Thai companies involved in mortgage processing for the 001-02 (2.6 points). But, the same does not apply and blinded by GDP numbers. But, in nutshell, baht caused by the decision of the Thai government US have faced a decline in work orders. India has also for 2007-08 where index rises in 2006-07 as well. macro and micro policies adopted by RBI have to float the baht, cutting its peg to the USD, after recently faced major falls in stock markets, which exhaustive efforts to support it in the face of a severe 10. (I) On a BoP basis, India’s merchandise exports ensured financial stability and resilience of the have been attributed, by many experts, to the US recorded a sharp decline of 24.2 per cent in Q4 of financial overextension that was in part real estate subprime crisis. banking system. The timely prudential driven. At the time, Thailand had acquired a burden 2008-09 as against an increase of 47.2 per cent in measures instituted during the high growth of foreign debt that made the country effectively 6. Advanced economies are suffering their worst down- Q4 of 2007-08. period especially in regard to securitization, bankrupt even before the collapse of its currency. As turn since World War II, with economic output (IIi) As per the commodity-wise data released by the crisis spread, most of Southeast Asia and Japan saw expected to contract by over 1.75 per cent in 2009. additional risk weights and provisioning for the Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence slumping currencies, devalued stock markets and other Growth in expected to fall in Brazil, China, India and Statistics (DGCI&S) for the period January- specific sectors measures to curb dependence asset prices, and a precipitous rise in private debt. and other emerging market economies, dragged February 2009, merchandise exports declined by

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25.1 per cent, reflecting a fall in exports of all commo- economic crises or the global tourism scare resulting being made more attractive by providing an interest 24. This report, published by the International dity groups. Amongst the commodities, the exports from the events of 9/11 is that people continue to subvention of 2 percent upto 31/3/2009 subject to Monetary Fund, presents the IMF’s analysis and of raw cotton, rice, sugar and molasses, iron and steel, travel but they will travel differently from the way minimum rate of interest of 7 percent per annum. projections of economic developments at the global gems and jewellery, and petroleum products showed they do during times of economic buoyancy. Those (2) Additional funds of Rs. 1100 crore will be level and focuses on major economic policy issues maximum fall in export growth during this period. tourism and hospitality businesses which will provided to ensure full refund of Terminal Excise as well as on the analysis of economic development survive and indeed thrive in the months ahead are duty/CST. (3) An additional allocation for export and prospects. The report is prepared twice a year 11. (I) Import payments, on a BoP basis, also registered those which can adapt because there are always winners incentive schemes of Rs. 350 crore will be made. and is used for activities of global economic a sharp decline of 27.3 per cent in Q4 of 2008-09 and losers in any outbreak of economic volatility. (4) Government back-up guarantee will be made surveillance. The latest report focuses in particular as against a high growth of 55.8 per cent in Q4 available to ECGC to the extent of Rs. 350 crore on the topic, “Crisis and Recovery of 2007-08. According to the data released by the 15. Till August 2008, the RBI followed a tight monetary to enable it to provide guarantees for exports to DGCI&S, the decline in imports is mainly stance in view of the inflationary pressure arising difficult markets/products. (5) Exporters will be 25. Markets ended flat amidst concerns about rainfall attributed to the sharp fall in oil import payments from crude, commodity and food prices. allowed refund of service tax on foreign agent deficit and drought being declared across various due to lower crude oil prices during Q4 of 2008-09. villages of the country. The market was highly commissions of upto 10 percent of FOB value of 16. Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) was introduced volatile during the August with global positives (II) The commodity-wise break-up of imports data by RBI during June, 2000 in phases, to ensure exports. They will also be allowed refund of service tax on output services while availing of benefits being weighed down by the monsoon concerns. released by the DGCI&S revealed sharp decline in smooth transition and keeping pace with Sensex ended almost flat down 0.02% & Nifty under Duty Drawback Scheme. imports of certain commodities like gold and silver, technological up-gradation. On recommendations gaining a meager 0.55%. The selling pressure from consumption goods, capital goods, and crude oil of an RBI’s Internal Group RBI has revised the 20. The government has decided to restore duty the FIIs to the tune of Rs.3767 crs was fully and related products leading to a decline in imports LAF scheme on March 25, 2004. Further revision entitlement passbook (DEPB) rates to exporters absorbed by the Domestic Institutions who were by 31.8 per cent during January-February 2009 as has been carried wef Oct 29, 2004. The revised at prevailing rates prior to November 2008. Besides buyers to the tune of Rs.4985 crs. Midcaps & against an increase of 55.4 per cent during the LAF scheme has the following features: The funds the DEPB scheme would now be extended till end Small caps however outperformed the benchmark corresponding period of previous year. under LAF are used by the banks for their day-to- December this year. The other measures to counter indices gaining 5.6% & 12.75% respectively. day mismatches in liquidity. Under the scheme, recessionary trends including withdrawal of 12. Offshore outsourcing is the practice of hiring an Reverse Repo auctions (for absorption of liquidity) 26. The recovery was mostly due to a rise in stocks of exemption from countervailing duty (CVD) on external organization to perform some business and Repo auctions (for injection of liquidity) are auto, realty and metals. The auto sector index, TMT bars and structural. The exemption on CVD functions in a country other than the one where conducted on a daily basis (except Saturdays). 7- which rose by 3.07 per cent to 2,537.48, was the and special CVD on cement has been withdrawn. the products or services are actually developed or days and 14-days Repo operations have been biggest gainer on aggressive buying by funds on Also the full exemption from basic custom duty manufactured. It can be contrasted with offshoring, discontinued w.e.f. Nov 01, 2004. All commercial the basis of reports that the automobile industry in which the functions are performed in a foreign banks (except RRBs) and PDs having current on Zinc and Ferro is being withdrawn. These posted healthy growth in July. country by a foreign subsidiary. Opponents point account and SGL account with RBI. exemptions were earlier introduced to contain out that the practice of sending work overseas by inflation. 27. Agro commodities were affected due to slack countries with higher wages reduces their own domestic 17. CBLOs were developed by the Clearing Corporation domestic and export demand and impending employment and domestic investment. Many of India (CCIL) and Reserve Bank of India (RBI). 21. On the infrastructure front more finances have been monsoon in India. Surprisingly, gold too moved customer service jobs as well as jobs in the information The details of the CBLO include an obligation for allowed to raised. The India Infrastructure upwards along with the rest of the asset class. The technology sectors in countries such as the US, and the borrower to repay the debt at a specified future Company Ltd. (IIFCL) will allowed to access an major reason for the movement in commodities the UK have been or are potentially affected date and an expectation of the lender to receive the addition Rs. 30,000 crore in trenches through tax was a weaker dollar that brought back investors to money on that future date, and they have a charge free bonds. This would help additional projects of commodities. Further, weakness in the US dollar 13. The country’s second largest reality firm, Unitech on the security that is held by the CCIL. about 75, 000 crore at competitive rates over the may keep buying interest among investors intact has reduced its workforce by about 10 per cent, next 18 months. in most of these commodities. out of total of 17,00 employees, as part of its cost 18. Following the announcement in the Union Budget cutting measures. Besides downsizing employees 2008 in February 2008, the commercial bank, 22. The extant policy on ECBs has been further 28. Since 1934, Commodity Research Bureau (CRB) strength over the last 4-5 months, the company is cooperative banks and regional rural banks liberalized. Now the FIIs have been allowed to has been the world’s leading commodities and also not filling up vacancies which were left empty implemented in the period till June 2008, the debt invest upto $ 15 billion in corporate bonds as futures research, data, and analysis firm. in the processes of normal attrition. The company’s waiver scheme (100 per cent) for small and marginal against $ 6 billion earlier. The ‘all-in-cost’ ceiling current rate of attrition is about 15-20 per cent farmers and debt relief (25 per cent) program for on ECBs have been removed for borrowings under 29. The New York Mercantile Exchange, Inc. is the annually. other farmers, covering an estimated 40 million the RBIs approve route. The housing sector has larges physical commodity futures exchange and farmers to the extend of nearly Rs. 71,000 crore or been given access to the ECBs fr the development the preeminent trading forum for energy and 14. Tourism is especially vulnerable to economic 14.5 billion. The RBI took sector specific measures of integrate township. precious metals. The Exchange has stood for market integrity and price transparency for more than 135 uncertainty and volatility for a simple reason. Most to alleviate the stress faced by employment 23. The fact that the banks had received large capital years. Transactions executed on the Exchange avoid travel and tourism involves discretionary expense. intensive sectors such as SME, export and housing. During tough economic times people conserve their infusion in the face of an extraordinary crisis to the risk of counterparty default because the cash to cover the essentials of life, food, shelter 19. (1) Pre and post-shipment export credit for labour save themselves and the banking system from NYMEX clearinghouse acts as the counterparty and family necessities. However, this does not intensive exports, i.e., textiles (including collapse was forgotten. The conditions that to every trade. Trading is conducted in energy, mean that tourism stops. The trend that we have handlooms, carpets and handicrafts), leather, gems prompted such extraordinary action on the part of metals, softs, and environmental commodity learned from past crises whether we refer to past & jewellery, marine products and SME sector is the U.S. authorities have by no means gone away. futures and options.

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30. While the rupee movement in a certain direction Hamilton, J.D (2008): “Understanding Crude Oil may benefit some, it may prove to be detrimental Prices”, NBER Working Paper No. 144492, Global Economic Crisis and the Implications for South Asia for others. For instance, if the rupee appreciates Cambridge, Massachusetts. K Venugopal Reddy against the dollar (or any other currency, for that matter), the importers stand to gain as they have to Jha, Raghbendra (2009): “The Global Financial Crisis shell out less units of the local currency (rupee and Short Run Prospects for India”, Working Paper, Australia South Asia Research Center, payments) for each unit of dollar imports. On the Abstract other hand, the exporters stand to lose as they notch Australia National University, Australia. The paper focuses on the Global Economic Crisis arising out of the unbridled up less units of the local currency in exchange for Mishra, B. M (2009): “Global Financial Crisis and their exports dollar earnings. Monetary Policy Responses: Experience from process of Globalization and ribald Capitalist practices of the Western World. It is contextualized against the backdrop of the Great Depression of 1930s, 31. A Purchasing Managers Index (PMI) is an economic India”, Paper discussed on Breakout Session on indicator; it is a composite index that is based on Monetary Policy in Regional High-Level Workshop which produced the Fascist ideologies culminating in a Global Conflict. five major indicators including: new orders, on Strengthening the Response to the Global However the economies like India aping the West and leaving the old state inventory levels, production, supplier deliveries, Financial Crisis in Asia-Pacific: The Role of controlled economic policies are paying the price in terms of deepening economic and the employment environment. Each indicator Monetary, Fiscal and External Debt Policies, ESCAP, Dhaka, Bangladesh, July 27-30. marginality and sudden economic slowdown which meant massive has a different weight and the data is adjusted for unemployment, excruciating poverty and a social uprooting and impending seasonal factors. A PMI index over 50 indicates Nachane, Dilip (2009): “The Fate of India crisis ridden society. It argues for the continuation of the Pre-Liberalization that manufacturing is expanding while anything below Unincorporated”, Economic and Political Weekly, 50 means that the industry is contracting. The PMI Vol. XLIV, No. 13, pp 115-122. social welfare orientation of the State policies. report is an extremely important indicator for the financial markets as it is the best indicator of factory Nanto, D.K (2009): “The Global Financial Crisis: The production. The index is popular for detecting Analysis and Policy implications”, Congressional Introduction of capitalism. In the process, the globalization inflationary pressure as well as manufacturing Research Services, RL 34742. has become unbridled and eventually it economic activity, both of which investors pay close Panagariya, Arvind (2008): India: The Emerging Giant, The world today presents a contrasting attention to. The PMI is not as strong as the CPI in culminated in unmasking capitalism’s deadliest Oxford University Press, New York. picture of highly advanced industrial societies detecting inflation, but because the data is released and ugliest face through the reincarnation of one day after the month it is very timely. Pradhan, Jaya Prakash (2007): “Growth of Indian represented by the Western countries and the recession in global economy.1 The present Multinationals in the World Economy: United States of America and of those 32. This is because the causes of the crisis in India are Implications for Development”, Working Paper global economic crisis sharply informs the different from those elsewhere. In the advanced countries that still grapple with some of the No. 2007/04, March 2007, Institute for Studies in imbalanced and impaired approach in the path economics, the banking system suffered from huge Industrial Development, New Delhi. pre-industrial social formations and yet losses, this led to collapse in the flow of credit and of global capitalism. in confidence of and dragged down the real economy. Rakshit, Mihir (2009): “India Amidst the Global Crisis”, Eco- engaged in negotiating with the emerging In India, it is the real economy that has been affected nomic and Political Weekly, Vol.28, No.13, pp94-105. capitalist development. The scenario of Exploring the Implications of 1929 through various channels and banks are feeling the Rao, Govinda (2009): “Third Stimulus Package and unequal spread of the advanced features of Economic Depression effects of slowdown in the Indian economy. Fiscal Conundrum”, Business Standard, August 27. social and political organization unveils globally The world economic depression in Sumanjeet (2009a): “Foreign Capital Flows into India: the disoriented nature of production process References Compositions, Regulations, Issues and Policy and the distorted picture of the distribution 1929 had originated in the industrialized ADB (2008): “South Asia Forum on the Impact of Options”, Journal of Economics and International system. Thus, the current economic system is countries of the West (Rothermund 1996:x). Finance, Vol. 1, No.1, pp. 014-029. Global Economic Crisis and Financial Crisis”, deeply intertwined and embedded in And all major factors contributing to the Project No. 42502, Research and Development Sumanjeet (2009b): “Depreciation of the Indian economic depression can be traced back to Technical Assistance, Asian Development Bank. disjointedness and inequality underpinning the Currency: Implications for the Indian Economy”, the United States of America (Rothermund Working Paper No. AIUB-BUS-ECON-2009-04, capitalist development in the world. Coupled Akyuz, Yilmaz (2008): “The Global Financial Crisis 2 and Developing Countries”, Resurgence, December, American International University. with this, there is widespread emphasis on the 1996:48). However, the economic depression eventually became global as no country had Third World Network, Penang. UNCTAD (2009): “Global Economic Crisis: process of globalization to facilitate the spread Chandrasekhar, C. P (2008): “Global Liquidity and Implications for Trade and Development”, Trade Financial flows to Developing Countries: New Trends and Development Board, GE09, First Session, in Emerging Markets and their Implications”, G-24 Trade and Development Commission, Geneva”. Dr K Venugopal Reddy is a Reader of Dept. of History, School of Social Sciences and International Relations, Pondicherry Working Paper, available on http://www.network WEO (2009): “Crisis and Recovery”, World Economic University, Puducherry – 605 014, India. Email: [email protected] ideas.org/featart/jul2008/fa29_G24.htm Outlook, International Monetary Fund, April.

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been able to escape from its debilitating meltdown is exposing the unsustainability of specter of rise in the unemployment figures American dream of globalizing its model of effects. Both the colonial powers and the the global economic order, which is built on seems imminent in Germany. The drop in capitalistic development with rhetoric of colonized territories suffered intensely but the the fallacy of the infallibility of capitalist exports is expected to raise unemployment globalization gets seriously eroded. extent of economic damage and the escape principles. It demonstrates the irrelevance of from the current 3.6 million to beyond 4 million.7 Interestingly, the U.S. Congress has approved or recovery route varied according to the the neo-liberal economic paradigms and France i.e., the euro region’s second-largest the fiscal package of $787 billion- $506 billion status of each country i.e., whether an threatens the survival of the capitalist order. economy faces the problem of rising by way of government spending and $281 independent nation or a colonized country. The neo-liberalism, the ideological prop of unemployment as companies reduce jobs and billion in tax relief. There is a strong feeling However, one significant aspect of the impact capitalist order, is thus under stress and investment due to the worst global recession that it is inadequate to stimulate and shore up of the Depression in 1929 was that “Almost scrutiny. The free market policies, which are since World War II.8 The enormity of the the American economy, which is sliding into a everywhere, the depression hit the poor harder floated in the name of liberalizing the economic problem is captured by one British newspaper ‘moribund state’.12 Yet the fact is that it is ‘the than the rich. Peasants, Unemployed workers, landscape and dismantling the regulatory in a succinct epithet “Europe’s time of troubles largest spending to be ever attempted by an small traders all suffered from sever regimes, are under scanner. The eternality of is gathering depth and scale. Governments are American government since the Second World deprivation” (Rothermund 1996:136). The rapid economic growth, which fashioned the trembling. Revolt is in the air.”9 War to combat recession’.13 Referring to the peasantry in Asia suffered very baldly.3 faith in the universality of the lure of profit as current economic chaos in the U.S.A, Noam Dubai, one of the seven states the engine of faster economic progress Chomsky aptly characterizes the state India too suffered significantly from constituting the United Arab Emirates, is also propelling uninterrupted social development intervention as a move “to socialise cost and the dislocating impact of great depression on in the midst of recession in its economy.10 The without spacial constraints, is loosing its risk and privatize profit, without a public its economy. India’s foreign trade was severely signs of deepening of the financial disaster have voice.”14 hit by the global depression. The imports and ideological sheen. The countries across the unmistakably become clearer globally. The world are now encountering a resurrected exports dropped heavily and they were 2009 hunger report of the United Nations Food South Asia practically halved in three years. Consequently, monster in the form of gigantic economic and Agriculture Organization predicts that ‘the the peasants in India in the absence of an malaise, which rocked the world economic number of hungry people may cross one billion Dominiques Strauss-Kahn, the head 4 export market for their produce found it system in 1930s, devoured social peace and in 2009 in the world’ (The Hindu 22 June 2009) of the International Monetary Fund, warned difficult to meet their obligations such as debt destabilized global political order. And in both as a result of the global economic crisis. The that the next economies to be affected severely service and the payment of land revenue the contexts, it is the United States of America, statistics on global economic growth portends by the growing financial crisis are the emerging (Manikumar, 2003:9-12). Thus on the impact an icon of advanced capitalism, which holds the impending disastrous development: economies. He elaborated further that of Great Depression, K. A. Manikumar writes: the unique responsibility. “They’re the latest victims of a financial crisis ‘The Great Depression of 1929 had a profound Last autumn, the IMF was expecting that started in the United States and spread to The Current Economic Crisis impact on the world economy…India, too, was global growth of 3 per cent this year; Europe and is now moving beyond Europe’s not exempt from its disastrous effects. The current economic recession is also now it is predicting a contraction of borders.”15 Rightly so, the destabilizing effects However, the fact that India’s economy globally intensive in its impact.5 Every nation 1.3 per cent. Japan’s projected growth of the financial crises on economic functioned under colonial aegis added further is getting pulverized. The rise in the extent of of 0.5 per cent has been turned into development and social harmony are deeper complexity to the whole issues.’(Manikumar unemployment on account of the economic 6.2 per cent plunge in output: the (Arestis, Baddeley and Mccombie 2001:2). 2003:1) However, the recovery of the world slow down is reported from every country. In modest 0.1 per cent drop in Britain is With unprecedented progress towards economy had a long trajectory. It had particular, Europe is erupting and mounting now projected to be a 4.1 per cent globalization, the global consequences of the recovered in about a decade but the recovery unemployment and haziness of feature is crash – worse than any year since recession are profound than earlier such from the depression was not a story of a translating into mass demonstrations involving 1945. (Elliott, The Hindu 28 April 2009.) economic crises particularly for the developing glorious achievement but of social injustice millions of people.6 Germany faces the problem This slowdown in global economic countries. The World Bank in its Global (Manikumar 2003:31) of huge fall in its export market characterized growth raises serious questions on the efficacy Monitoring Report, 2009 estimated “that The world is now dissolved into a as “The revenge of Germany’s export of the ribald capitalist path as the only route to close to 90 per cent of the developing countries dangerous zone. The current global economic dependency.”(The Hindu 17 May 2009) The economic and social progress.11 So, the great could be highly or moderately exposed to the

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impact of the crisis, as they face slowing cent in dollar terms in March this year – the Further he quotes a Tappawala, who of Rs. 20,000 crores over a five year period.27 economic growth, high levels of poverty, or maximum drop in over a decade – as a direct carries money from the migrant labourers from But curiously the trajectory of Indian both.”16 Bangladesh began to feel the impact fall out of the global slump in demand for goods Surat to Ganjam as saying that “But economic development has so far remained of the recession on its economy through “falling in major markets since October 2008.” (The remittances have taken a big hit with the lopsided. The pronounced economic growth pictures of export growth and the number of Hindu 2 May 2009) The slowdown in recession. Our volumes are badly down” that India has had in recent year’s left large workers going abroad with jobs in contrast to economies of United States and Europe has (Ibid). The other notable development is the chunk of the people untouched. Millions of the last financial year” (The Financial Express seriously impacted Indian exports. ‘The crisis fall, though not very alarming at present, in 22 Indians remained marginalized and mired in 29 March 2009). is real and big in the exports sector’. The the migrants’ remittance flows to India as was 28 repercussions of the fall in Indian exports could cautioned by the study of the World Bank.26 poverty and underdevelopment. It has cast Similarly, Pakistan was confronted perhaps be understood from the way it had them aside in the dark corners of the social with the problem of ‘worsening health of its The most distressing trends are to be affected business at major ports across the and economic landscape. Therefore in Indian banking sector’ during the period of January seen on the increase of unemployment in India country as the ‘growth rate of traffic handled context, the phenomenon of globalization and to September, 2008.17 It is perhaps important on account of economic depression. A sample by major ports had come down to 2.13 per its impact does not bode well for the multitude to note the severity of the crisis, which was survey of 2,581 units conducted by the Labour cent during 2008-09 as compared to 11.97 per of the underprivileged. Shashi Tharoor explains intensifying in Pakistan. It is reported that Bureau under the Ministry of Labour and cent during 2007-08.23 The fall in the exports on the marginality of these people in ‘thirty-two percent of Pakistanis have cut Employment, concluded that during October- from India has proved to be disastrous as it contemporary India thus: down on food because of rising prices’.18 And December 2008 there was a decrease in has led to the closure of businesses and the so unrelenting are the consequences of employment by about half a million. Yet, ‘…22 per cent of our population – loss of employment running into lakhs. The economic crisis that it continued to ravage very another survey by the Labour Bureau for the some 250 million people – are still living results are serious and disquieting for the hard the industrial landscape of Pakistan. It is period January to March 2009 involving 3,192 below the poverty line, in conditions migrant labour within India as the labour therefore pertinent to note that: “Almost half units indicated certain improvement in that are a blot on our individual and intensive sectors like textiles, handicrafts, its industry is dysfunctional because of power otherwise critical scenario, with employment collective consciences. By poverty I carpets, leather, gems and jewellery, marine shortage and the global vaporisation of demand rising by a quarter million. However, the saga don’t simply mean the kind of poverty products as well as small and medium enterprises for its products. There is distress in the small- of the hapless labourers losing out their that economists refer to, measured in are critically exposed to the downslide in their scale manufacturing sector, which is the employment continued unabated in sectors the numbers of people living below a businesses.24 It has potentially reduced their country’s economic backbone, and workers are such as leather, metal and transport. To quote dollar a day. Our poor cannot afford employment and earnings.25 Thousands of being laid off simply because there is no power Mukul Sharma: to feed themselves, but I am equally migrant labourers, who lost their employment to run the lathes.”19 concerned about their lack of due to the present recession, had to return to In all sectors, contract workers opportunities in our society, which Worsening Marginality of the Poor their villages. To quote P. Sainath: are the worst affected in terms prevents the complete participation of of loss of income or employment. The saga of India is also strikingly The Collapse of the export market large masses of Indians in their Seeing the status of these similar.20 In India, it is widely believed that its in urban Gujarat has had hard-to- nation’s democracy, and in out contract workers, the fate of economy is largely insulated and will emerge imagine ramifications in Orissa’s country’s governance. We must take workers in the informal sector unscathed by the tantrums of the current villages. That collapse has seen the necessary steps to ensure that who are neither protected nor economic crisis. Simultaneously there is also nearly 50,000 of close to half a every Indian is given the means to live surveyed can be easily understood a strong impression that India can continue its million (overwhelmingly male) a decent life, to feed his or her family, (Sharma The Hindu 17 July 2009). saga of economic growth untainted by the migrants in Surat, to return to and to acquire the education that will malaise.21 However, there are signs that India Ganjam. Migrant remittances are The current economic slowdown has enable him or her to fulfill their creative could not escape from the clutches of current the mainstay for Ganjam’s roughly also further aggravated the woes of Air India, potential. Failure to accomplish this economic distress. It is reported that “India’s 3.5 million people. (Sainath, The which solicits a revival package, i.e., ‘bail our will be a real threat to India’s future. merchandise exports plummeted by 33.3 per Hindu 18 July 2009) package’ from the Govt. of India to the tune (Tharoor, The Hindu March 18 2007)

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Globalization in Indian context is capitalist order and its universality symbolized Particularly the poor and the marginalized in 5. Note: “Warning that the world is entering an era of mostly pro-elitist and its impact on the by America and the Western countries are the rural and urban areas are the victims of “slower growth”, the multilateral lending agency subalterns of Indian society is profoundly ebbing out. The developing countries, instead the disastrous economic depression and this has projected the global economy to shrink 2.9 per cent this year. The World Bank in its latest report unfavorable. To quote Pamela Shurner-Smith: of being mere imitators of the models of the calls for a committed and sustained pro-labour titled ‘Global Development Finance 2009: Charting “For the poor, the outcomes of globalization West, are beginning to explore the indigenous and pro-poor strategy to rescue from them a global recovery’ has said that excluding India and are not qualitative lifestyle changes and ethos of economic development.38 Herein lays from being crushed under the juggernaut of China, the developing economies would shrink 1.6 westernized consumer goods, but more of the implications for India. The greatest moral the present economic crisis. per cent this year. “Developing countries are what went before: more rural indebtedness, as well as economic challenge that India today expected to grow by only 1.2 per cent this year, after 8.1 per cent growth in 2007 and 5.9 per cent more landlessness, more food shortages, more faces is our poor. As a country with about 25 growth in 2008. ...Battered by the global economic child labour, more casualization of work, more per cent people mired in poverty, ameliorating Notes recession and shaky financial markets, the net violence and intimidation.”(Shurner-Smith them should be the primary focus. (Saleem, private capital inflow to developing countries 2000:2)29 One of the contradictions of India’s The Hindu 26 July 2009) It must desist from 1. Note: Geoffrey Ingham’s recent work on Capitalism plunged to $707 billion in 2008 from $1.2 trillion trajectory of development is the persistence brilliantly traces the growth of capitalism in the in the previous year. “Amidst global economic the folly of imitating the alien ideologies or world and its manifold features. He delineates the of low levels of human development.30 The recession and financial-market fragility, net private mantras of free-market. The path which was recent economic crises and also shows how the capital inflows to developing countries fell to $707 current economic crisis is further accentuating forsaken in early 1990s lured by the highly industrialized Western nations have billion in 2008, a sharp drop from a peak of $1.2 the glaring economic inequalities, pushing the globalization mania must be re explored and contributed to these economic developments by trillion in 2007. International capital flows are mass of subalterns into conditions of followed. The Indian government may redesign their selfish and ill-conceived market and financial projected to fall further in 2009, to $363 billion,” haplessness and destitution.31 The naïve policies. See, Geoffrey Ingham, Capitalism, Polity it noted’. its policies to rein in the market and command Press, Cambridge, 2008. thinking that the rapid advance of capitalism it. Hence what is required currently is the 6. Note: “This is their first taste of how brutal free- would promote rapid economic equality is 2. Note: The factors that had led to the starting of the willingness to ‘embark on a course of Great Depression were: ‘The handling of war market capitalism can be and they don’t like it.” getting exploded and the plea for unfettered development that reaches the disadvantaged debts, the sterilization of gold, a deflationary See Hasan Suroor, ‘Backlash in Europe as recession market economy and greater thrust on mass of people in this country.’ (Lahoti and monetary policy after an expansionist period, spreads’, The Hindu, 17 February, 2009, Chennai. privatization put forward by the neo-liberals is Reddy, The Hindu 28 July 2009) This will help protectionism and the overproduction of wheat. under serious interrogation.32 Consequently, All these factors were due to long term developments, 7. Note” ‘A pattern across almost all industries – secure the millions of the marginalized and the from car manufacturers to metal production, the disbelief in the free market economy is but they were accentuated by the sudden crash of under privileged in India an assured living and the stock market in October 1929 which under- hospitality industry and producers of solar energy growing. Effective management of the markets belief in the democratic traditions (Shurner- mined the world credit system and that was the products – has seen factories cutting back on 33 is underscored. The political regimes are Smith 2000:24).39 approximate cause of the Depression.’ Ibid., p. 48. roduction and workers forced to reduce their hours. growing skeptical of the theories that Companies have been cutting back on investment, emphasize the unbridled role of the big Conclusion 3. Note: see for the impact of global economic reducing prices and ignoring an almost hallowed corporations or the multi-national corporations depression on Asian peasantry, Dietmar obligation in Germany by refusing to take on The human cost of the present Rothermund, ‘Currencies, Taxes and Credits: Asian apprentices. The backbone of German in the economic progress.34 The globalization economic crisis is inestimable, particularly, Peasants in the Great Depression, 1930-1939’, in manufacturing, the car industry, has cut production agenda pushed through the guise of when the world is plagued by ‘chronic hunger Harold James, Elisabeth Muller-Luckner (ed) The by a third, with Mercedes experiencing a drop in liberalization (Shurner-Smith 2000:22 & 3)35 sales of 25 per cent and Porsche of 19 per cent.’ and malnutrition, especially child Interwar Depression in an International Context, is actually widening the economic disparities Oldenbourg, 2002, pp. 15-34. See The Hindu, 17 May, 2009 Chennai. malnutrition’.40 Though there may be some (Shurner-Smith 2000:17)36 and it receives a perceptible signs of recovery from the 4. Note: The current economic recession has been 8. Note: See ‘May Day: demand for jobs, pension’, big jolt at the present juncture.37 economic crisis as claimed by policy makers41, characterized “…worst economic downturn since The Hindu, 2 May, 2009, Chennai. The damage it however has caused the worst is not yet over and “the economic the Great Depression.” ‘Social sector in the 9. Note: Hasan Suroor writes thus: ‘Here’s a snapshot scenario is still grim”.42 The suffering it has downturn’ Editorial, The Hindu, 24 April, 2009, to the visions of social transformation based Chennai; Also see Larry Elliott’s article on ‘No of what happened across Europe on just one day on egalitarianism is transitory, repairable and caused to the lakhs of people who became recovery without balance’, , The Hindu, 28 April, recently as reported by one British recoverable. The illusions of invincibility of unemployed takes a long time to forget. 2009, Chennai. newspaper:”France paralysed by a wave of strike

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action, the boulevards of Paris resembling a debris- 12. See Noam Chomsky’s Interview with Press TV, 20. Note: The World Bank in its recent report “…counts ports had come down to 2.13 per cent during 2008- strewn battlefield. The Hungarian currency sinks 28 January, 2009; Note: “Nobody really knows. India among countries that have a “high exposure” 09 as compared to 11.97 per cent during 2007-08. to its lowest level ever against the euro, as the What is happening with the economy is not well to increased risk of poverty due to the global He attributed the decline to the financial slowdown. unemployement figures rises. Greek farmers block understood. It is based on extremely opaque economic downturn.” See the ‘Editorial’, The Iron ore traffic, which was mainly for export, the road in Bulgaria in protest at low prices for financial manipulations, which are quite hard to Hindu, 21 February, 2009, Chennai. recorded a growth of 2.3 per cent in 2008-09, down their produce. New figures from the biggest bank decode. I mean, the general process is understood, from the 14.2 per cent recorded a year earlier. In in the Baltic show that three post-Soviet states but whether the $800 billion, or probably larger 21. Note: ‘Despite the slight slowdown this fiscal, it the liquid bulk category, cargo growth in crude and there face the biggest recessions in Europe.”, government stimulus, will overcome this crisis, is will be possible for the country to bounce back to petroleum was a modest 3.3 per cent whereas it Further, the May Day celebrations in France not known. The first $350 billion have already 9 per cent economic growth rate in the next financial was a healthy 10 per cent in 2007-08. The most witnessed a tremendous upsurge of workers been spent — that is the so-called part bailout but year, Union Home Minister P. Chidambaram affected was the container traffic segment, which despair and anger through their protests demanding that went into the pockets of banks. They were observed here on Saturday.’ See The Hindu, 22 largely reflected trade in manufacture and jobs, better wages and pensions. For the first time supposed to start lending freely, but they just February, 2009, Chennai. Also note: ‘Governments components, growing by a marginal 0.9 per cent in since the Second World War all of France’s eight decided not to do it. They would rather enrich around the world have incurred deficits to finance 2008-09 compared to the robust 25.6 per cent in major trade unions demonstrated together.’ See themselves, restore their own capital, and take over their contra cyclical stimulus packages. Some, like 2007-08.’, See The Hindu, 28 July, 2009, Chennai. ‘May Day: demand for jobs, pension’, The Hindu, other banks — mergers and acquisition and so on. the U.K and U.S., have incurred much larger deficits 2 May, 2009, Chennai. Whether the next stimulus will have an effect and consequently borrowed more. Everywhere the 24. See for example for the decline in exports of gems depends very much on how it is handled, whether expectation is that growth, so badly affected by and jewellery: ‘Gems and jewellery exports 10. Note: ‘A six-year boom that turned sand dunes into a it is monitored, so that it is used for constructive the global economic crisis, will resume. However, continued to face a downslide for the eighth month glittering metropolis, creating the world’s tallest purposes. [It relies] also on factors that are just there is a qualitative difference between India’s in a row with exports declining sharply by 24 per building, its biggest shopping mall and, some say, not known, like how deep this crisis is going to economic story and that of developed and most cent to $1.5 billion in May over the year ago month a shrine to unbridled capitalism, is grinding to a be.” http://www.counterpunch.org/chomsky0128 other developing countries except China. India and due slump in demand in major markets like the U.S halt. Dubai, one of the seven states that make up 2009.html. China are among the few that are forecast to post and Europe.’ The Hindu, 18 June, 2009, Chennai; the United Arab Emirates (UAE), is in crisis…But positive growth while most others will witness a See also for critical views on the impact of global 13. See The Editorial on the plight of American the real estate bubble that propelled the frenetic contraction in their economies.’ See also the article depression, the editorial, ‘A call for global action’ economy, The Hindu, 16 February 2009, Chennai. The Hindu, 26 June 2009, Chennai. expansion of Dubai on the back of borrowed cash on ‘Fiscal deficit, the biggest challenge’, The Hindu, July 20, 2009, Chennai. and speculative investment has burst. Many 14. Note: See the BBC News 19 September 2008. 25. Note: ‘Predicting a dip in net exports, the United westerners are being made redundant, or absconding 22. Note: ‘India’s exports, which had clocked a healthy Nations Conference on Trade and Development before the Sharia legal system catches up with them. 15. See the report on ‘Emerging economies to be next growth of over 30 per cent in the first half of 2008- (UNCTAD) on Friday warned that there could be Half of all the UAE’s construction projects, totaling victims of crisis: IMF’ in Daily Express, 1 09, suddenly felt the heat of global recession and around 13 lakh job losses in export units in India in $582bn, have either been put on hold or cancelled, November, 2008: http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/ entered the negative zone from October 2008. 2009-10 due to recession in developed countries. leaving a trail of half-built towers on the outskirts default.asp?page=2008\11\01\story_1-11- Exports managed to clock a meager growth of 3.4 According to a study carried out the UNCTAD, of the city stretching into the desert.’ See, Paul 2008_pg5_40, Accessed on 18-11-2009 per cent in 2008-09 aggregating $168 billion against the net job loss in the export sector was estimated Lewis, ‘Global financial crisis hits hard in Dubai’, the original target of $200 billion and revised target to be 7.48 lakh since some sectors like plantation 16. Note: See ‘Social sector in the downturn’ Editorial, The Hindu, 16 February 2009, Chennai; Also Note: of $170 billion. The crisis is real and big in the may witness a positive growth. It said India’s The Hindu, 24 April, 2009, Chennai. ‘Dubai, which borrowed $80 billion to fuel a four- exports sector and the very fact that despite exports are likely to dip by 2.2 per cent in the year construction boom, was badly hit by the global 17. See Daily Express, 1 November, 2008: http://www. depreciation of the rupee against the dollar, exports current fiscal. … The study said abour 1.16 million recession, with home prices halving since the 2008 dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008\11\01 in rupee terms have clocked a negative growth of people lost their jobs in 2008-09 due to negative peak.’ See Atul Aneja’s ‘Dubai’s financial woes \story_1-11-2008_pg5_2 Accessed on 18-11-2009. 15 per cent in March and 16.4 in April 2009. The export growth in sectors such as textiles.’ The shake up world’ The Hindu, November 28, 2009, decline in exports has badly hit the manufacturing Hindu, 13 June, 2009, Chennai. Chennai. 18. See Daily Express, 25 October, 2008: http://www. sector as well as industrial production as shrinking 26. Note: ‘A World Bank study has come up with the 11. Note: ‘The prevailing global economic crisis dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008\10\25\s exports markets of the U.S. and Europe showing finding that the migrants’ remittance flows to characterized by an uninhibited econom ic meltdown tory_25-10-2008_pg7_2, Accessed on 18-11-2009. no signs of revival of demand.’ See The Hindu, 27 developing countries are set to decline from $328 has fuelled skepticism about the market’s role in June, 2009, Chennai. billion in 2008 to $304 this year. The predicted development almost in a manner that the collapse 19. See the Editorial ‘Economy versus honour’ Daily decline by 7.3 per cent is far less than the fall in of former communist bloc did about the role of the Express, 4 April, 2009, http://www. 23. Note: Shipping Minister G.K. Vasan in his written private investments flows.’ See the Editorial ‘A state.’ Mujibur Rehman ‘Growth in South Asia’ in dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009\04\04\s reply to a question in the Lok Sabha “… conceded relatively stable flow’, The Hindu, 23 July, 2009, Book Review, The Hindu 7 July, 2009, Chennai. tory_4-4-2009_pg3_1 Accessed on 18-11-2009. that the growth rate of traffic handled by major Chennai.

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27. Note: See the editorial ‘Reviving Air India’, The makes little sense to pitch for India to open its housing or planned for the poor in the mushrooming the need to protect jobs and retain employees even Hindu, 28 July, 2009, Chennai. doors to them. As the Finance Minister himself cities. These people are the backbone of the if it meant a cut in compensation, in view of the noted in his speech, the merit of India’s balanced unorganized sector of the economy, casual workers effect of the global economic meltdown…He said 28. Note: “It is true that there is still poverty and there approach, as well as Indira Gandhi’s “wise and in unregulated industrial units.’ that in large measure, an economy like India’s, which are about 25 crore poor people in the country. visionary” decision to nationalize the banking was quite substantially internally driven, would But, nobody can deny that economic growth has system 40 years ago, “has been borne out in the 36. ‘Exports can almost triple in five years only if goods need to generate domestic demand to cushion itself contributed to a substantial improvement in the recent experience, as the turbulence in the world which were normally consumed at home are against the economic turbulence abroad. “We need living standards of nearly 85 crore people in the financial markets has left the Indian banking and diverted to the world market, resulting in a high to press for trade and aid flows to the developing country,” Union Home Minister P. financial sector relatively unaffected.” See rate of inflation for domestic products, such as countries. And We will need to look at regional Chidadambaram. See The Hindu, 22 February, Siddharth Varadarajan, ‘Political Logic of budget is basic foodstuffs. In an article on rising prices in cooperation to strengthen our defences against such 2009, Chennai. that welfarism pays’, The Hindu, 7 July, 2009, Chennai. the popular journal India Today it was pointed crises.” See, The Hindu, 21 February 2009, Chennai. out that, whilst consumer durables like 29. Note: ‘Though the fashionable term ‘globalization’ 35. Note: ‘The Indian economy had been gradually refrigerators were getting cheaper, the food to put 39. Note: ‘Manmohan Singh realized that acceptance of ought to ring hollow in Indian ears, it echoes with liberalizing since Rajiv Gandhi’s regime (1984-89) in them was on average rising in price by 40 per a full-blown market system was not possible in a new resonance today because it is espoused by and structural adjustment promised a package of cent per annum (Charavarti and Rekhi 1998). This India and that the state would be required for a the category of Indian society which has more to market orientated policies which were small example encapsulates the impact of the long while to provide a whole range of services gain from solidarity with its own class enthusiastically welcomed by substantial sections liberalization of the Indian economy; for a few, life directly, and he coined the phrase ‘liberalization internationally than with its fellow countrymen. of the middle classes. It was not just Bagachi’s getting a great deal better, for those with no hope with a human face’ to acknowledge that welfare However, this globalization is accompanied by a ‘powerful forces’ which welcomed the New of ever buying a refrigerator, food price rises of responsibility. But there were to be plenty of faces thinning of internal solidarity. Elite Indians have Economic Policy; a whole swathe of middle India this magnitude are catastrophic.’ Ibid., p.17. whose the humanity was questionable. It was increasing amounts in common (economically, believed that it would pave the way for western -Also see ‘The report (162-page document) prepared argued that, though freeing the market would cause politically and culturally) with English speakers lifestyles and standards of living for themselves. It by the International Institute for Labour Studies – short-term hardship for the poor, eventually this elsewhere in the world, but suffer increasing is far too easy to say that 1991 marked the start of a research body established by the ILO IN 1960 – would result in economic growth which would distance from the mass of the national society. The India’s integration into the latest round of analyses global employment through the prism of percolate to all sections of society. However, same globalizing processes impact profoundly on postcolonial globalization - like everywhere else it inequality. The main finding of the study is that India’s poor are too poor to take even short-term the rest of the population too, even if the was in already. Indeed, it was global forces which globalization has resulted in the widening of income hardship. Poverty means the inability to provide consequences are less easy to see.’ had precipitated the crisis. However, with inequality across and within countries…‘Its oneself with 2400 calories worth of grain per day 30. See the Editorial ‘Strengthen social sector’ The structural adjustment the forms and rhetoric of research found that in 51 out of 73 countries, for in the rural areas ( 2100 in town).’ Hindu, 19 June, 2009, Chennai. globalization invaded the everyday consciousness which data were available, the share of wages in of people in India, first of the élites, gradually of a national income declined over the past two decades. 40. Note: “With one child dying of hunger and 31. Note: ‘The government on Friday said five lakh wider educated population.’ This meant that workers gained less from economic malnutrition every six seconds and over 20 million people lost their jobs between October and ‘India’s New Economic Policy was introduced in growth. The rich-poor gap has also widened, post- children at risk, such negligence may cost all nations, December 2008 owing to economic slowdown. 1991 as the consequence of the acceptance of a globalisation, as nearly two-thirds of the countries and perhaps even the world order as it stands, Minister of State (Independent charge) Oscar World Bank loan and a Structural Adjustment experienced an increase in income inequalities dearly.” See the Editorial on ‘Food summit let- Fernandes said the global financial crisis affected Programme. This implies a consideration of the between 1990 and 2005. Yet another finding, which down’, The Hindu, 21 November, 2009. certain segments of the Indian economy also and consequences of ‘liberalization’ and a shift from is important from the diagnostic perspective, is 41. ‘In India as well as in many other countries there is the government was concerned about the adverse centralized planning to a free maket…’ and ‘the that this rich –poor gap is not only widening, but a growing view that the global economic crisis is impact of this crisis on labour.’ See The Hindu, 21 sector of society which befits most from economic it is doing so at an increasing pace.’ V.S. Sambandan, abating. The signals are tentative and the muted February, 2009, Chennai. liberalization: the affluent, English educated, ‘Globalisation and income inequalities’, The Hindu, optimism is more due to a change in sentiment cosmopolitan, urban élite. Although this is a small 16 June, 2009, Chennai. rather than hard evidence. For instance, data 32. Note: There is a myth that rests on the notion that fraction of the whole, it is highly audible and visible; watchers in many countries see a reduction in the the MNCs are harbingers of global equality; See Johan 37. Note: Hasan Suroor writes that “…This is the first it dominates the media, politics and society and its pace of slowdown. That is not the same as Norberg’s ‘In Defence of Global Capitalism,’ 2001. really serious economic crisis since globalization interests are widely represented…’ and the losers discerning positive signs of recovery. However, went big and already the idea of a happy-clappy of this shift in the discourse of development are the sense of hopelessness that had gripped policy 33. See the Editorial ‘Dealing with the crisis in India’, global village working in concert is starting to look ‘…the forgotten people, the urban poor, doomed makers, analysts and everyone else is giving way Economic and Political Weekly, 8 November, 2008. fragile.” The Hindu, 17 February, 2009, Chennai. to a life of marginality an illegality – occupants of to a belief that the worst of the crisis is over. 34. Note: ‘At a time when the biggest private banks ad slums, denied public utilities, because municipal 38. Note: ‘External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee, According to popular view, the global economy insurance companies in the West have fallen flat, it authorities have never provided sufficient official who holds charge of Finance, on Friday stressed has bottomed out though it is still far from

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presenting a picture of health. … Policy makers and its real estate arm, Nakheel, sparked fears of ‘The Hungry Tide’: Rise in Sea Levels in the Sundarbans Due have played a significant role in conditioning renewed global financial turmoil, which again expectations. ‘… Almost two months ago – during reminded the global markets that all are not rosy to Global Warming- Induced Climate Change the third week of April – the U. S. President saw and the financial recovery is tardy.’ See ‘Sensex “glimmers of hope” while his chief economic recovers from day’s low’, The Hindu, 28 Debabrata Ghosh advisor Lawrence Summers said that the sense of November, 2009, Chennai. freefall in the domestic economy would come to an end in a few months. The return of the UPA Abstract government, substantially strengthened after the References The aim of this paper is to examine the present alarming condition of elections, boosted Indian stock markets which no Dietmar Rothermund (1996): The Global Impact of the environmental instability of the Sundarbans due to global warming-induced other development could possibly have done. Great Depression: 1929-1939, Routledge, London. climate change. Giving an overview of the world scenario of global warming Finally, the impressive rebound in stock prices and the Indian perspective about the vulnerability of coastal zones to the impacts Geoffrey Ingham (2008): Capitalism, Polity Press, though welcome need not necessarily presage an of global warming related accelerated sea level rise, it proceeds to examine the economic recovery. In fact, the current bout of Cambridge. realities in the largest delta and one of the largest mangrove ecosystems in the exuberance in stock prices is not justified either in terms of economic fundamentals or corporate K.A. Manikumar (2003): A Colonial Economy in the world. The Sundarban islands are most vulnerable to submergence due to rise in performance. For those tracking India’s economic Great Depression, Madras ( 1929-1939), Orient sea levels in the Bay of Bengal and unsustainable human activities almost since performance the stock markets have been a poor Blackswan. the early colonial period, which would create innumerable environmental guide.’ ‘Global crisis: are recovery signs real’, The Larry Elliott (2009): “No Recovery without Balance”, refugees. Higher seas are already flooding coastal areas, making the area Hindu, 15 June, 2009, Chennai; Also see Note: The Hindu, 28 April, Chennai. increasingly prone to erosion and vulnerable to cyclones and storms, increasing The industrial production continued to expand due the salinity of groundwater, fast depleting the mangrove forests and threatening to possibly on account of stimulus measures Mukul Sharma (2009): “Imperatives on the Job Front”, the region’s biota. At this critical juncture, strong and time-bound mitigation coupled with high consumer and election spending The Hindu, 17 July, Chennai. measures must accompany measures for adaptation. – to post a growth of 2.7 per cent in May on the P. Sainath (2009): “Put Your Money Down, Boy”, The back of a 1.2 per cent increase witnessed in April. Hindu, 18 July, Chennai. See ‘Industry clocks 2.7% growth in May’, The The world is now at the threshold of an 80% of Himalayan glacial cover and leave Hindu, 11 July, 2009, Chennai. Pamela Shurner-Smith (2000): India: Globalization and environmental disaster. The climate experts of India thirsting for fresh water by 2030. In fact, Note: On the signs of recovery, The President of Change, Arnold, London. the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate about 67% of the Himalayan glaciers are America said that ‘he was startled to see a Newsweek magazine cover that declared, “The Philip Arestis, Michelle Baddeley, and John Mccombie Change (henceforward IPCC) has issued on already retreating and a study of 466 th Recession is over”. “Here is what’s true. We have (2001): What Global Economic Crisis?, Palgrave, 6 April 2007 at a world conference at Himalayan glaciers by scientists has estimated stopped the free-fall. The market is up and the New York. Brussels their bleakest forecasts of global that their area has shrunk by 21% since the financial system is no longer on the verge of Rahul Lahoti and Sanjay G. Reddy (2009): “Right to warming, predicting hunger in Africa, loss of 1960s. In addition to global warming-induced collapse. That’s true. We’re losing jobs at half the Food Act: Essential but Inadequate’, The Hindu, Himalayan glaciers and listing Asian mega- climate change, human factors like high rate were when I took office six months ago,” he 28 July, Chennai. said. “We just saw home prices rise for the first deltas among the most vulnerable regions. population density and unsustainable time in three years. So there’s no doubt that things Shashi Tharoor (2007): The Shashitharoor Column, The According to IPCC, desertification, droughts, exploitation of natural resource bases in the have gotten better. We may be seeing the beginning Hindu, March 18, Chennai. rising seas would hit the tropical areas hard Asian mega-deltas such as the Ganga- of the end of the recession. But that’s little comfort and Asian mega-deltas, the Arctic, small Brahmaputra-Meghna delta will put additional Sofia Ghori Saleem (2009): “Imagining a Nation”, The if you’re one of the folks who have lost their job, Hindu, 26 July, Chennai. islands, sub-Saharan Africa would be more stress. The World Health Organization has and haven’t found another.” See ‘Beginning of end affected than other regions. The IPCC has also warned that a lack of commitment from of recession: Obama,’ The Hindu, 31 July, 2009, The Financial Express, 29 March 2009, Dhaka. Chennai. also predicted that global warming may melt the top greenhouse gas emitters (the USA, The Hindu, 17 May 2009 Chennai. 42. See the Editorial on ‘Food summit let-down’, The Hindu, 21 November, 2009, Chennai; and also note: The Hindu, 22 June 2009, Chennai. ‘A possible debt default by Dubai’s state-owned Dr Debabrata Ghosh is the Principal of Balagarh Bijoy Krishna Mahavidyalaya, Balagarh, West Bengal - 712 501. development and investment agency Dubai World The Hindu, 2 May 2009, Chennai. E-mail: [email protected]

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 IJSAS 2(2) 2009, pp.346-356. ISSN 0974 - 2514 347 ‘The Hungry Tide’: Rise in Sea Levels in the Sundarbans Due to Global Warming Debabrata Ghosh 348

China, Russia, India and Japan being the top in temperature and height of the oceans and population is directly dependent on coastal and — is more vulnerable than the west coast to five) has resulted in global warming-induced the consequent change in the water world will marine resources such as mangroves and other the fury of cyclones. It is almost certain that climatic changes leading to rising temperatures, also put stress on fisheries by altering the coastal vegetations, agriculture and fisheries an increase in sea surface temperature will changing rainfall patterns and the anticipated distribution and abundance of major fish stocks for their livelihood. Any impact to the coastal be accompanied by a corresponding increase loss of fresh water, which will eventually around the world. Seventhly, the warming of ecosystem may affect the coastal population in cyclone intensity. Thus, an increase in sea increase disease and malnutrition.1 the oceans could trigger a disintegration of adversely in almost every sector of their lives. surface temperature due to global warming deposits of clathrate ices within the sea-bed The problem of freshwater is already acute in leading to both a corresponding thermal Moreover, the inflow of water from melting mud, venting enough methane and CO into coastal regions of Gujarat, Orissa, Tamil Nadu expansion related sea level rise and a polar ice sheets and glaciers and thermal 2 the atmosphere to bring immense warming. and West Bengal owing to over-extraction of corresponding increase in the frequency or expansion of the upper ocean layers would Lastly, the most alarming prospect of sea level groundwater, which has resulted in lowering intensity of cyclones may eventually result in cause rise in global sea levels. It should be rise is the possibility that low-lying island of groundwater table and salt water intrusion. a disproportionately large impact not only in kept in mind that nearly 50% of the world’s nations, particularly those situated on coral The lowering of groundwater table has in its densely populated coastal areas but also in population lives in coastal zones. In the USA, atolls, could disappear altogether. So, quick and turn also led to subsidence of coastal land terms of the paralyzing devastation in low- the figure is 53%, with more people moving effective adaptation will be necessary to causing high relative sea level rise. The income rural areas of India.4 into the 17% of the land on the coastal zone 2 address such probable impacts. vulnerability of coastal zones to an increasing each year. The rising sea levels would inundate Recent studies on the potential impact range of stresses and shocks is likely to be and submerge coastal cities (such as New The Indian Perspective of one metre sea level rise along the Indian exacerbated by climate change.3 York, New Orleans etc.) and zones India has been identified as one coast provide an idea about the land which everywhere in the world, low-lying countries amongst twenty-seven countries which are Model simulation studies indicate that could be inundated and the population that (like the Netherlands, Bangladesh etc.), low- most vulnerable to the impacts of global the oceanic region adjoining the Indian would be affected, provided no protective lying small island nations (like the Maldives in warming related accelerated sea level rise. subcontinent is likely to warm up at its surface measures are adopted. It has been suggested the Indian Ocean, the Marshall Islands in the Indian coastline stretches about 5,700 km on by about 1.5-2.0 degree centigrade by the that an area of 5,763 sq. km. along the Pacific etc.) and delta regions (such as in India, mainland and about 7,500 km including two middle of this century and by about 2.5-3.5 coastlines of India, i.e., 0.41% could be Bangladesh, Egypt, the USA etc.), creating groups of islands — the Andaman and Nicobar degree centigrade by the end of the century inundated and almost 7.1 million, i.e., 4.6% of millions of environmental refugees. Secondly, Islands and the Lakshadweep Islands. The due to global warming. The corresponding coastal population could be directly affected. higher seas are likely to increase damage from high degree of vulnerability of Indian coasts thermal expansion related sea level rise is In West Bengal, as a result of one metre sea surges and accelerate coastal erosion, which may be attributed to extensive low-lying coastal expected to be between 15-38 cm by the middle level rise, 0.122 million hectares of coastal area could threaten transportation infrastructure, areas, high population density, frequent the century and 46-59 cm by the end of the out of a total of 8.875 million hectares, i.e., tourism and coastal development. Thirdly, occurrence of cyclones and storms, and high century. As a result of an increase in sea 1.38% will be flooded and 1.6 millions of coastal intrusion of saltwater into fresh groundwater rate of coastal environmental degradation due surface temperatures, changes in the population out of a total of 67.98 millions, i.e., sources due to rise in sea levels could to pollution and non-sustainable development. frequency, intensity or tracks in cyclones hitting 2.35% will be affected. The most vulnerable devastate supplies of water used for drinking Any global warming-induced climatic change the coastal regions may occur. India is areas along the Indian coastline including the and agriculture. Fourthly, it could lead to loss like sea level rise; increase in sea surface frequently affected by tropical cyclones and delta of River Ganga would be totally lost. From of estuaries, wetlands and mangrove swamps temperature; and change in frequency, storms, particularly during or around the a purely physical point of view, Gujarat and (as in the Indian and the Bangladesh parts of intensity or tracks of cyclones may aggravate monsoon. About 6.5% of about world’s 80 West Bengal would lose the maximum land the Sundarbans). Fifthly, coral reefs, which the potential risks to coastal zones. The rise in tropical storms are formed annually in the area. In terms of population, Tamil Nadu, West provide a rich economic resource for fisheries, sea level could result in the loss of cultivable Indian Ocean. The frequency of formation of Bengal and Maharastra would be most recreation, tourism, coastal protection and one land due to inundation, salt water intrusion into cyclones is five to six times more in the Bay severely affected. The cultivated land in the of the largest global storehouses of marine coastal ecosystems and into groundwater of Bengal as compared to the Arabian Sea. coastal states of India would be worst affected biodiversity, are to be adversely affected by systems, and loss of terrestrial and marine So the east coast in India —— especially by both inundation and intrusion in case of one warming and heightened seas. Sixthly, the rise biodiversity. A large percentage of coastal Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal — metre sea level rise. In coastal regions of

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Orissa and West Bengal, the problem of fresh out of which about 2,585 sq. km. are designated later. The currents are so powerful as Lohacharra could not be sighted in satellite water is fairly acute because of the depth of as a tiger reserve. The Sundarbans has been to reshape the islands almost daily — imagery. The disappearance of these two water table and the high cost of lifting the same declared a World Heritage Site by the — some days the water tears away islands has rendered over 10,000 people from a depth of 700-1000 metres.5 UNESCO in 1997 for its rich biodiversity, entire promontories and peninsulas; at homeless. A dozen others on the western end including the Royal Bengal Tiger. Most of the other times it throws up new shelves of the inner estuary delta are now threatened. Coastal ecosystems like mangroves inhabited islands were reclaimed and first and sandbanks where there were none As the islands are gradually sinking, nearly etc. provide natural protection to coasts by inhabited under the British, who, since the early before …. At no moment can human 1,00,000 people will have to be evacuated from dissipating considerable wave energy and 1770s, undertook a massive drive to clear the beings have any doubt of the terrain’s those in the next decade. According to many, hence only smaller waves of moderate forests and make the land cultivable, so that utter hostility to their presence, of its global warming and depletion of mangrove intensity reach the shore and break. Coastal people could be settled there and the cunning and resourcefulness, of its areas are responsible for the rising sea levels erosion is no doubt caused by forces of nature Government’s revenue augmented. In fact, the determination to destroy or expel in the world’s biggest delta. The relative mean but very often accentuated by anthropogenic jungles of Sundarban began to be reclaimed them. Every year dozens of people sea level in the Bay of Bengal is rising at a activities. The mangrove swamps of India for extension of agriculture since 1770 mainly perish in the embrace of that dense rate of 3.14 millimetres a year due to global including those in the Sundarbans are being 7 under the supervision of Cloud Russell and foliage, killed by tigers, snakes and warming. If this trend continues, the rising sea cleared at an alarming rate. The Sundarbans the islands gradually began to be either crocodiles.” 10 will devour nearly 15% of the islands in the are highly vulnerable to sea level rise since it auctioned or leased out to prospective buyers Sundarbans. To add to the fears, a recent study would change the salinity distribution and Rise in Sea Levels and Increased Salinity or ijaradars at a very low rate in order to by Stefan Rahmstorf, Professor of Ocean thereby the productivity of the soil.6 of Groundwater encourage human settlement in an otherwise Physics at the Potsdam University, has found 8 The Sundarbans inhospitable terrain. The Indian part of the One of the greatest challenges people that global warming may lift sea levels faster Sundarbans comprises 19 blocks, of which 13 living in this delta may face in coming years is than previously expected. According to him, ‘Sundarban’ in Bengali language are in South Twenty-four Parganas and 6 in the threat of rising sea levels caused partly by rising temperatures could boost sea levels by literally means ‘beautiful forest’. The North Twenty-four Parganas, and 102 islands, subsidence (that is, the motion of the Earth’s as much as 1.4 metres (4.6 feet) by 2100, Sundarbans in the Indian State of West Bengal of which 52 are inhabited with a population of surface as it shifts downward relative to a almost twice the rate previously forecast. as well as in Bangladesh is a sprawling 1.8 million and 48 reserved for wildlife datum such as the sea level) in the region and Climatologists so far agree that sea levels will archipelago of several hundred islands, sanctuaries. More than 3.9 million people now partly by climate change. A 2007 report by increase 9-88 centimetres (4-35 inches) over stretching nearly 300 km. This estuarine phase live in this deltaic region, precariously UNESCO, “Case Studies on Climate Change 1990 levels by the end of the century, but of the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna river subsisting on agriculture, fishing, collection of and World Heritage”, has stated that an Professor Rahmstorf suggests that the range systems is the world’s largest delta with an forest products (like wood and honey), and anthropogenic 45 cm rise in sea level, likely could be as much higher as 50-140 centimetres 9 area of 80,000 sq. km. and one of the world’s hunting or poaching. by the end of the twenty-first century (20-55 inches).12 largest mangrove forests. The West Bengal according to the IPCC, combined with other part of the Sundarbans makes up more than A famous contemporary Indian writer According to a report by the scientists forms of anthropogenic stress on the 60% of India’s total mangrove cover and in English has described the Sundarbans and of Jadavpur University’s School of Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of comprises 102 islands, of which 52 are human beings’ association with the region thus: Oceanographic Studies (henceforward 75% of the Sundarban mangroves spread over inhabited. Though the inhabited islands have JUSOS), the average rate of sea level rise as “There are no borders here [in the a 10,000 sq. km. area in India’s eastern state no forest cover left, about 10,000 sq. km. of measured from the tidal records at Sagar point mohona or confluence of rivers in the of West Bengal and Bangladesh.11 the Sundarbans are still covered by swampy Sundarbans] to divide fresh water is 3.14 mm per year while this figure is 5 mm mangrove forests, more than 40% of which from salt, river from sea. The tides Though official records list 102 islands at Pakhiraloy point near Sajnekhali, both of lie in India and the rest in Bangladesh. To be reach as far as three hundred on the Indian side of the Sundarbans, scientists which are substantially higher than the global precise, the mangrove forests of the kilometres inland and every day have been able to map only 100. The rising average of 2 mm per year. If this trend Sundarbans occupy about 5,890-6,017 sq. km. thousands of acres of forest disappear sea levels have already submerged two islands continues, the Sundarbans will loose nearly in Bangladesh and about 4,264 sq. km. in India, underwater only to re-emerge hours in the Sundarbans since Suparibhanga and another 15% of its total habitable land,

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 351 ‘The Hungry Tide’: Rise in Sea Levels in the Sundarbans Due to Global Warming Debabrata Ghosh 352

displacing more than 30,000 people by 2020. to the degradation of this region, making it excessive exposure to the sun due to rapid away in the Sundarbans tiger reserve as well The rate of sea surface temperature increase increasingly prone to erosion and vulnerable depletion of jungles and the increasing salinity as in the southern parts of Jambudweep and is 0.019 degree centigrade per year, which to cyclones and storms. A 2007 UN study has of water, often venture out of their habitats Mayadweep and the south-eastern parts of the might lead to a 1 degree temperature rise by revealed that a mere 45 cm rise in the sea and come into direct contact with locals. Though Gosaba Block. Increased displacement of 2050. As the rate of coastal erosion is found level will destroy 75% of the Sundarban the rise in sea levels has led to an increase in people due to loss of habitation and land as a to be strongly co-relatable with the rate of sea mangroves by the end of the century. The the salinity levels of the water in the result of sea level rise will increase India’s level rise, this implies increased erosion and report by the JUSOS shows several changes Sundarbans, the tigers are not known to drink count of environmental refugees and add to submergence of the Sundarban island system.13 in physical, biological and social components saline water. But owing to scarcity of fresh the burden of poverty under which we are of the Sundarban islands and their temperature water, they have had to change their food already reeling. In fact, the vulnerability of the The rise in sea levels in the has risen by over one degree centigrade since habits. With salinity levels increasing further, Sundarbans to climatic impacts is very high in Sundarbans has a direct correlation with the 1965. This study also shows that the the big cats have preferred to move towards comparison to other coastal areas of India. increased salinity of groundwater thereof. This temperature in the area is expected to rise by the northern fringes, where the water has a Thousands of people from the Sundarbans are region is crisscrossed by a maze of tidal rivers, another one degree centigrade by 2050. The comparatively low salinity level, considerably under the risk of losing their habitat estuaries and creeks that carry saline water annual number of cyclones has fallen, but they increasing thereby the chances of man-animal permanently due to sea level rise, increased nearly 300 km inland from the Bay of Bengal, are more intense now due to global warming, conflict and tiger attacks on human beings. cyclone intensity and flooding in the ensuing particularly at the time of high tides. In many which means more coastal flooding, erosion Around the 1880s, most tiger sightings were decades. The Ghoramara Island, settled some of the Indian mangrove wetlands, freshwater and more saline water moving in on the islands. near the Haldibari area in the southern fringes; two hundred years ago, had an area of 3,912 reaching the mangroves was considerably While rainfall has risen only marginally over in the 1990s, most tiger sightings were from hectares, but it has less than a third that size reduced from the late nineteenth century due the years, most of the rains no longer fall during the Netidhopani areas of the central Sundarbans; today. According to an estimate, Ghoramara to diversion of freshwater in the upstream the traditional monsoon periods. Rather, rainfall whereas post-1998, maximum sightings have has been reduced in size by 41% since 1969, area. The Bengal Basin is also slowly tilting has shifted to the post-monsoon period, which been in the Sudhannakhali area situated in the displacing 7,000 islanders over the last three towards the east due to neo-tectonic is a definite indicator of climate change.15 transition zone from sparsely populated to decades of the twentieth century. The 9 sq. movement, forcing greater freshwater input densely populated parts of the northern km. piece of land, which still offers shelter and to the Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the Global warming-induced climatic Sundarbans.16 It is estimated that even at the sustenance to some 5,400 largely marginal salinity of the Indian Sundarbans is much higher change seems to have taken its toll not only beginning of the twenty-first century, a human farmers, fishermen and daily labourers, might than that of its counterpart in Bangladesh.14 on the mangrove plantation of the Sundarbans being is killed by a tiger every other day in the not last beyond 2020. In fact, by 2035, the sea but also on the habitat and food habits of the Depletion of Mangrove Forests and the Sundarbans, the Indian and the Bangladesh will lay claim to a dozen islands in the Royal Bengal Tigers in the area. There are Tiger Menace parts taken together, at the very least.17 By Sundarbans, six of which are populated, approximately 55% of the world’s wild tigers March 2009, it has been found that about 3,000 rendering about 70,000 people homeless. In The Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve in the Indian Sundarbans, which naturally has widows, whose husbands fell prey to man- the past two decades, the sea has claimed two is being threatened by both human intervention the largest population of wild tigers in India, eating tigers, are living in abject poverty.18 islands, Lohacharra and Suparibhanga, the and changes in the surrounding environment. currently believed to be around 250. The rise Therefore, the majestic Royal Bengal tigers have latter uninhabited. If scientists are to be The Sundarban islands, separated by a in sea level threatens the resident tiger often been forced to become man-eaters due believed, Ghoramara and Sagar would follow complex network of hundreds of tidal rivers population insofar as the primary tiger habitats to man-made factors in the Sundarbans. suit. As per a 2003 report prepared by the and creeks, form an important buffer shielding in Dalhousie and Bhangadoyani are gradually JUSOS, an annual 3.14 mm rise in sea level millions from cyclonic storms and tidal waves submerging, thereby driving the tigers to The Sundarbans: A Threatened due to global warming-induced climate change in the Bay of Bengal. But over two centuries migrate north. Besides, the forest areas in the Existence is partly responsible for eating away these of converting mangrove forests into paddy land Indian Sundarbans are fast depleting due to islands on the southern fringes of the and homestead, exploiting the area’s natural illegal felling of trees by human beings. The The sinking Sundarban islands are one Sundarbans. The higher than average rise in resources, and hunting and poaching mostly tigers, unable to find enough forest cover as of the first climate hot spots in India. Around sea level, which is about 2.0 mm annually during the colonial period have all contributed their habitat and unable to adjust to the 300 sq. km. of land has already been eroded worldwide, is because of land subsidence,

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 353 ‘The Hungry Tide’: Rise in Sea Levels in the Sundarbans Due to Global Warming Debabrata Ghosh 354

which is typical of deltaic regions. There are, scarcity, crop damage and heat waves that particularly the twelve sea-facing 3. Aggarwal, D. and Lal, M., ‘Vulnerability of Indian of course, many other factors that contribute global warming portends for the sub-continent. southernmost islands most vulnerable to Coastline to Sea Level Rise’, http:// to this gloomy future. First, the fast depletion While higher temperatures are expected to submergence, survive longer. This is an www.survas.mdx.ac.uk/pdfs/3dikshas. of mangroves: according to an estimate, the reduce grain yields, food insecurity may also immediate adaptation measure and the people 4. Ibid. area of the Sundarban forests was about be exacerbated by the loss of cultivated land for the sake of their lives and livelihoods are 5. Ibid. 20,000 sq. km. in 1885, but now it is 9,630 sq. and nursery areas for fisheries by inundation taking this action collectively. On 15th October km., of which less than 4,200 sq. km. is and coastal erosion of low-lying areas. India 2007, ‘The Rainbow Warrior’, the 6. Ibid. mangrove forest. Secondly, the population and Bangladesh are especially susceptible to “Greenpeace” flagship, docked at the 7. Roy, 2003: 115; Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia explosion in the delta: a 234% increase has increasing levels of salt in groundwater and Sundarbans as “Greenpeace” was there to in the Internet; The Statesman, 14 January 2007, 3 taken place since Independence. At this rate, surface water along the coastal regions due highlight the threat of climate change to these March 2009; http://www.breitbart.com ; the numbers may reach 5 million by 2020 and to the rise in sea level. It has been suggested ecologically fragile islands. The residents of Chakrabarti and Mistri, 2007: 10. 10 million by 2050, exceeding the Sundarban that the per capita water availability in India Sagar Island that day joined hands with 8. We find an interesting account of the beginning of ecosystem’s carrying capacity. Thirdly, the will decline from 1,820 cubic metres in 2001 “Greenpeace” to start a mangrove planting early human settlement in one of the islands of the reduction in sediment supply from the rivers to as low as 1,140 cubic metres by 2050. Due drive as an immediate adaptation measure Sundarbans in the Bengali novel Padmanadir Majhi since silt gets blocked in the dams built along to the gradual decline of the mangrove forests since it will arrest the rate of coastal erosion written by Manik Bandyopadhyay in 1936. in the Sundarbans, which act as a frontline due to global warming on these endangered Though Kuber Majhi is the hero of the novel, the these rivers up north. Lastly, the erection of most interesting and mysterious character is that 3,500 km. of man-made embankments that, defence, Kolkata would become vulnerable to islands. The main aim of the campaign was to of Hossain Mian, originally a resident of Noakhali while protecting the islands from erosion, tropical storms arising in the Bay of Bengal. 21 educate the local youth on ways to save the region but now living in the riverside village of prevents silt deposition and hampers the islands’ islands. But it is evident that unless large-scale Ketupur near Deviganj, who had purchased on The impact of sea level rise on the vertical growth. During high tide, seawater measures to stop climate change by means of auction a small island named Moynadweep in the Sunderbans, as analysed earlier, is no doubt Sundarbans. He used to lure or even sometimes inundates the islands, but river water finds no emission reduction are taken globally, a significant because the region is already under compel poor families to settle in that island and ingress because of embankments. Needless to substantial part of the Sunderbans might stress. To devise appropriate and effective embark on cultivation by clearing forests. Hossain say, the region is already under stress due to disappear from the map. So, we must take was obsessed with Moynadweep and wanted to response strategies, it is essential to make unsustainable human activities such as mindless definite measures to reduce CO emissions, we fulfill his only dream before death to settle one and vulnerability assessment studies at both 2 deforestation for the purposes of creating must de-carbonise our development. That was half thousands of people there so that not a single regional and local levels in the Indian world bigha of land thereof remained uncultivated. cultivable space and having firewood, excessive why, over ten thousand people, most of them heritage islands. Moreover, efforts should be Bandyopadhyay, 1998: 13-97. use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides for school children, gathered at the Gangasagar initiated to protect the coastal zones from th boosting up agrarian production, industrially on 14 October 2007 asking for immediate 9. The Statesman, 14 January 2007, 3 March 2009; erosion and salt water intrusion by judiciously http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in ; http:/ polluted water being brought by the Ganga from action globally to tackle the worst impacts of chosing the hard (e.g., seawall, revetments, 23 /portal.unesco.org ; http://www.treehugger.com. upstream, over fishing and the recent booming climate change which affect their daily lives. groins etc.) or soft structures (e.g., Shibshankar Mitra’s Sundarbane Arjan Sardar is of shrimpculture that poses a big threat to The devastation caused by the cyclonic storm a novel which contains the varied hunting and or regeneration of natural protective systems like th Sundarban’s natural detritus food chain.19 The Aila in the Sundarbans on 25 May 2009 poaching experiences in the life of Arjan Sardar, a mangroves, coral reefs or replenishment of 24 wide ranges of flora and fauna have also under should serve as our eye-opener. So, we must famous peasant cum hunter of the Sundarbans, who sandy beaches). Lastly, coastal zone lived and grew up in the village of Kalikapur situated gone changes for the worse.20 At this critical juncture, act fast and with conviction. management plan should also include research on the southernmost fringes of human habitations strong and time-bound mitigation measures must in the Khulna District. Mitra, 2005: 7-112. accompany measures for adaptation. and development activities for cost effective Notes methods for the protection of coastal lands.22 10. Ghosh, 2004: 7-8. This wonderful novel, written 1. The Telegraph, 2 and 7 April 2007; The Statesman, on the background of the tide country of the Response Strategies and Adaptation Measures 10 March, 8 April and 1 November 2007. According to many experts, Sundarbans in West Bengal, has two stories There can be no doubt that India is ill- mangrove planting will arrest the rate of coastal 2. Long, 2005: 18-20; Weart, 2005: 147-148, 161, juxtaposed in it, one past and another present. The prepared for sea-level rise, fresh water erosion, making the Sundarban islands, 181-182, 185; Chakraborty, 2005: 14-21. past is relating to the incidents that took place in a

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Sundarban island called Morichjhapi by mid-May 17. [Mashima said to Kanai:] ‘….My belief is that nets are so fine that they catch the eggs of all the rise on Indian coastlines by D. Aggarwal and M. 1979 as narrated by Nirmal Bose, the headmaster over a hundred people are killed by tigers here other fish as well. Mashima wanted to get the nets Lal, op. cit. of Hamilton School at Lusibari, the farthest of the each year. And, mind you, I’m just talking about banned, but it was impossible.’ inhabited islands in the Sundarbans, in his the Indian part of the Sundarbans. If you include 23. http://www.greenpeace.org ; http://www.india notebook. It was occupied by some refugees, who the Bangladesh side, the figure is probably twice ‘Why?’ environmentportal.org.in ; The Statesman, 20 October 2007. came there to settle from their resettlement camp that. If you put the figures together, it means that ‘Why else?’ she said. ’Because there’s a lot of money in Dandakaranya in central India, leading to a violent a human being is killed by a tiger every other day in in prawns and the traders had paid off the 24. The Statesman, 25th and 26th May 2009. confrontation with the Government, whereupon the Sunderbans-at the very least.’ Ghosh, 2004: 240. politicians. What do they care – or the politicians they were forcibly taken away to their original for that matter? It’s people like us who’re going to camp. The present revolves round Piyali Roy, an 18. The State Government provides for the relief and rehabilitation of only those widows who can suffer and it’s up to us to think ahead. That’s why References Indian-American cetologist based in Seattle, who I have to make sure Tutul gets an education. had arrived at Canning for surveying the marine produce photographic evidence of their husbands’ Otherwise, what’s his future going to be?’ Bandyopadhyay, M (1998): Manik Bandyopadhyay mammals of the Sundarbans and Kanai Dutt, a death at the hands of a tiger. Since it is impossible Rachanasamagra, Vol. II, Paschimbanga Bangla translator and interpreter based in New Delhi, who to produce a picture of a tiger ambushing its victim Ghosh, 2004: 133-134; Roy, 2003: 116; Chakrabarti Academy, Kolkata. was going to meet his aunt Nilima Bose or and then killing him, the Rs. 20,000 meant to be and Mistri, 2007: 13-14. paid as relief money seldom reach the next of kin Mashima, the founder of the Badabon Chakrabarti, R and Mistri, I. K (2007): Sundarbaner Development Trust of Lusibari, in order to receive of the victim. ‘Oyikkotan Sangho’, a social 20. For instance, a part of the conversation in between voluntary organization in the Sundarbans, is about Kanai Dutt and Piyali Roy may be cited: Arthaniti, Janasanskriti O Paribesh, Readers a sealed packet containing a notebook which his Service, Kolkata. uncle Nirmal Bose had left for him before his death. to set up vocational training units for these widows in order to give them a source of livelihood. The ‘Do you think there are fewer dolphins than there Piya began to survey dolphins in the rivers of Chakraborty, S. C (2005): The Global Warming Statesman, 3 March 2009. used to be?’ Sundarbans with the help of Fokirchand Mandol, Scenario, Thema, Kolkata. an illiterate fisherman of Lusibari, who was the 19. http://www.greenpeace.org ; http://www.treehugger ‘Oh yes,’ said Piya. ‘It’s known for sure that these Ghosh, A (2004): The Hungry Tide, HarperCollins husband of Moyna, a trainee nurse in the Trust’s .com ; The Statesman, 14 January 2007 and 10 waters once held large populations of marine mammals.’ Publishers Limited, UK. hospital, and the father of Tutul. But they were March 2009. The use of very fine nylon nets for caught in a storm and Fokir saved Piya’s life by catching the spawn of tiger prawns by the poor ‘What’s happened to them then?’ Long, Douglas (First Indian Edition: 2005): Global sacrificing his own. Piya then went to Kolkata and inhabitants of the Sundarbans since the 1980s has, Warming, Viva Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. raised some money through the internet so that in effect, been picking up the eggs of all other kinds ‘There seems to have been some sort of drastic Moyna could buy a house and provide college of fish. Thus, it will in near future extinct many change in the habitat,’ said Piya. ‘Some kind of Mitra, S (First Published: 1956, First Ananda Edition: education for Tutul. Being offered funding from varieties of fish and endanger the livelihood of the dramatic deterioration.’ April 1991, Third Print: July 2005): Sundarbane several conservation and environmental groups, local fishermen. That is why, Moyna wants to Arjan Sardar, Ananda Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Piya next planned to start a project named after ‘Really?’ said Kanai. ‘That was what my uncle felt too.’ educate her son Tutul so that he will not have to Kolkata. Fokir to survey the dolphins of the Sundarbans take up his father’s profession. All this is told by ‘He was right,’ said Piya grimly. ‘When marine under the sponsorship of the Badabon Trust, where Roy, S (2003): Environmental Science A Comprehensive the following conversation in between Moyna and mammals begin to disappear from an established Moyna would act as a part-time worker. (pp. 3-400) Treatise on Ecology and Environment, Publishing Kanai Dutt: habitat it means something’s gone very, very wrong.’ Syndicate, Kolkata. 11. Wikipedia; The Statesman, 20 October 2007. ‘Because Tutul has to go to school, doesn’t he?’ she Ghosh, 2004: 266-267. Weart, Spencer R (First Published: 2003, First Indian 12. http://www.breitbart.com. [Moyna] said sharply. ‘I don’t want him growing up catching crabs. Where’s the future in that?’ 21. The Telegraph, 12 April 2007; Roy, 2003: 116. Edition: 2005): The Discovery of Global Warming, 13. http://www.treehugger.com ; http://www.breitbart. Viva Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 22. Cf. the response strategies and adaptation options com ; http://www.greenpeace.org. ‘But that’s what Fokir does.’ formulated for tackling the impact of sea level 14. Wikipedia; The Statesman, 14 January 2007. ‘Yes, but for how long?’ she said. ’Mashima says that in fifteen years the fish will all be gone. What 15. http://www.breitbart.com ; The Statesman, 14 with the new nets and all. And after that what?’ January and 20 October 2007. ‘What new nets?’ 16. http://www.tigerawareness.co.uk/sundarbans.php ; http://www.treehugger.com ; The Statesman, 10 ’These new nylon nets, which they use to catch February 2008 and 3 March 2009. chingrir meen – the spawn of tiger prawns. The

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 Shanthakumari & Somalingam 358

Culture as a Preferred Strategic Choice for Asian Countries: upgrading the skills and knowledge of human developed for culture. In the global force to the international standard and to gain perspectives, however, two cultures namely An International Business Approach competitive advantage of the participating Western and non-Western cultures are R Shanthakumari & A Somalingam countries. But, it is who has to participate with popular. In the changing scenario, the cultural what capacity? is the question. It is not easy trend can be discussed into three, such as task for the developing countries such as Asian ‘culture refers as culture’ (Castlles 1998) and Abstract developing countries. Historical background of in which knowledge intervenes knowledge Culture plays very important role in the International Business. There is always the developed countries also support this fact. itself. ‘Knowledge aids culture’ to expand a misunderstanding in between ‘westernised-culture’ and ‘non-westernised American War of Independence held in the further and further. Secondly there is a trend culture’. The purpose of the article is to highlight the importance of culture as a year 1776. UK never fight for the freedom as that ‘culture becomes more of a commodity’ preferred strategic choice for Asian countries in relation to international in the case of third world countries. France is (Young 2005). Thirdly, the process whereby business. Asian developing countries can’t compete with free trade practice with also the ruler of world colonies like UK. But, commodities themselves acquire greater ‘western-cultured’ states until they have the ability to counter the global almost all the Asian countries have gained their cultural and symbolic content (Scott 2000). In competition. It is concluded that in the international forum, trading with similar freedom only after World War II. Western- the information era, culture is a leading cultured-countries is more encouraging in the developing stage, hence it is cultured states took enough period to bring intellectual resource which can interpretate considered as, culture is one of the strategic choices in the international business growth in their economy. Is it possible, to and transform any society to be more environment. participate in the global business with full swing, purposeful one. But often many of the social for the Asian developing countries with more institutions and governments fail to encash population and economic burden? cultural advantages. Introduction etc. While framing strategic planning for developing and managing sectoral issues, Meaning and Concept of Culture Cultural change is inevitable in our The purpose of the article is to tourism, heritage, rural and urban marketing age. Hugh Mackay, a leading Australian social Culture is a system of collectively highlight the importance of culture as a are beneficiaries of greater cultural content. researcher wrote that thirty years of social, preferred strategic choice for Asian countries International business is also one among the shared values, beliefs, tradition and behavioural cultural, technological and economic change, in relation of international business. Socio, area, a government or any operator of norms, unique to a particular group of people have resulted in a wide spread sense of economic and political stability is very much international business has to keep certain (International Labour Office 1996:103). As uncertainty amongst Australians, who feel that required for the nations which are interested principals and policies which should not bleak advocated by many of the popular writers, they are not in control of their own futures but in achieving sustainable development. It is sole the culture or cultural advantage of the nation. culture includes the values, traditions, norms, are, ‘merely pawns in someone else’s global responsibilities of the administrators of the In addition, as culture is a merit-based customs, arts, history, folklore and other chess game (Hugh Mackay 1999, p.ix, x). government to provide secured society and approach for Asian countries, they can build institutions shared by a group of people (Bodley Post-Development theorists accuse protected civil rights for their belonging. their own nest which will pave way for better 1994 and Thompson 1990:132). The word development of decimating ‘third-world Secured society in the sense, free from regional co-operation, regional development ‘traditional’ is originated from the word cultures’ by destroying the ‘old fabric of violence, protection from internal and external and maintain standard of living of the people. ‘tradition’ which refers customs, beliefs or communal societies,’ breaking human relations threats, reasonable distribution of economic One of the objectives of globalisation process, methods that have existed for a long time and community cohesion, and creating divisions resources, scientific and intellectual advancement advocated by the western-cultured nations, is without changing (Advanced Learners’ and dependencies (Rahnema and Bawtree English Dictionary 2003:1540). Hence the 1997:384- 391; Carmen 1996:42). traditional culture refers old ways of doing The UNO Concept of Culture and Peace Dr R Shanthakumari is a Faculty of Department of Management Studies, Chandra Sekharendra Saraswathi Viswa things in the community before modern Maha Vidyalaya, Kanchipuram, India. influence. Every day, human life witnesses A United Nations-backed international Mr A Somalingam is a Research Scholar of Department of Management Studies, Chandra Sekharendra Saraswathi culture as an expanding phenomenon. New treaty to preserve the rich diversity of the Viswa Maha Vidyalaya, Kanchipuram, India.E-mail: [email protected] meaning and concepts are, still, being world’s means of cultural expression from the

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dangers of globalization, including its many Popularity of Joint Family and Nucleus is very basic and vital part of any development becomes a fashion to the people working and languages, came into force on 18 March Family programme. Many countries try to frame lacking passion even with the promoters and 2006. As examples of the kind of cultural policies and programmes for their youth. But other stake holders of the companies. The Nucleus and joint family concept is consolidation threatened by globalization, the youth policy’s objectives never fully westernized work culture is being spread over still very popular among the Asian families. In UNESCO notes that 50 per cent of the implemented. This may have contributed to other parts of the globe, where integrity, Western and European countries, this kind of world languages are in danger of extinction numerous problems encountered by young loyalty, commitment, long-lasting relationship joint family practice is limited. In Western and that 90 per cent of them are not people that include confusion between traditional etc. are questionable qualities amongst the countries, many young people face problems represented on the Internet. In addition, five and modern cultures, poverty and hardship, work group. and they do not have opportunity to live a countries monopolize the world cultural drug and alcohol abuse, prostitution, theft and normal life because of their nuclear family industries. In the field of cinema, for unemployment. In America, the number of Mobility and Migration, some time aid relationships break down. For example, instance, 88 countries have never had their divorces per 1000 marriages now stands at a to the Asian work group to protect their own children with abusive parents often find it own film productions (UN News Centre, staggering 504, and 19.3% of the women in culture and many occasions instigate to loss difficulty to seek help from others; teenage United Nations Organisation 2006). It also the age group of 30 to 34 are unmarried. 20% their identity by westernized-culture, which are single mothers often encounter problems in highlights “the importance of intellectual of the children grow up in single-parent homes strong enough to offer employment as well as raising their children; and young school leavers, property rights in sustaining those involved and two- thirds of black babies who are born to bring change into their new life style and bored at home may be, prompted to participate in cultural creativity” and reaffirms that out of wedlock life with their mothers. There behaviour. In the traditional culture, the people in illicit activities (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan “freedom of thought, expression and are 15 suicides, 100 drug crimes, 15 road of Asia sacrificed their life and blood for the et.al. 2004 n.d.(591): 98-124). It quite common cause of ‘soil’, ‘kith and kin’ ‘culture and information, as well as diversity of the media, accident deaths per 1,00,000 people in the all over the world that parents do benevolent civilisation’, whereas Westernized-culture, enable cultural expressions to flourish within developed countries. (Malay and Arindam thing to their children by nurturing and often, taught them to loss not only life but also societies.” 2003). 2.7 million fraudulent transactions on motivating for their future, provided if they live self-respect, dignity and traditional culture for UK-issued cards recorded by APACS ( the A group of people became society in the nucleus family with more commitment the cause of ‘money’ and ‘money’ alone. UK Payments Association) in the UK in 2007, because of its distinctive culture and to build their traditional background. However, ‘Globalisation process’ is not an adverse an increase of 20% from 2006. British Crime civilization. In the modern society, often, the main concern is that the norms and values programme to the Asian countries forever. But Survey (BCS) estimates that there were traditional culture is highlighted as an of traditional cultures are gradually dying out the present trend, including socio, economic, 21,64,000 violent incidents against England and instrument to develop peace and harmony due to the vast influence of Western cultures, political and cultural environment, does not Wales in 2007/2008. (Crime in England and amongst different group of societies - Christianity, and other forces at play since the warrant Asian countries for active participation Wales in 2007/2008. – National Statistics). regional, national and international. Human colonial days (Hamena 2008). in the global market. development requires more than health, Youth Development in the Light of Mobility and Migration Global Recession and Repositioning of education, a decent standard of living and Traditional Culture World Countries political freedom. People’s cultural identities Large numbers of work forces are must be recognised and accommodated by As there is non-existence of joint migrating from Asian countries to other parts The World Bank said the global the State. The 2004 Human Development family or nucleus family in the western culture, of the world, particularly to European and recession in 2009 will be ever deeper than Report published by the United Nations it results automatically negligence and lack of American countries. Though the mobility and previously predicted. It is also revealed by the Development Programmes (UNDP) care on their younger generation’s future. migration are frequent in nature it is a potent World Bank’s Report that the global economic focuses on cultural liberty, which means Money alone can’t serve the purpose of youth evidence that most of the Asians never loss recession and associated market turmoil ‘being able to choose one’s own identity- development. Personal care, motivation, their cultural identity. ‘culture identity’ is just caused a steep drop in international capital flow without losing the respect of others or being parental/family relationship, regular monitor in like a ‘branded equity’ for Asian human force. to investments in less developed countries in excluded from other choices is important in their progress from child-good to adult-good ‘Hard work’ as well as ‘smart work’ are 2008. The foreign investments are expected leading a full life (United Nations are very much required. All over the world meritorious ‘work culture’ for the Asians. In to fall further during 2009. Global Economic Development Report 2004:1-6). the administrators know that youth development the modern organizations, work culture Prospects 2009 finds the global economy

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transitioning from a long period of strong Asian Development Bank said. “Still, the road world. (The UNO Report: World Economic ethical standard, for which culture is a developing-country led growth to one of great to sustainable recovery will be long and depends Situation and Prospects 2009). Under a more powerful supportive element in the international uncertainty as the financial crisis in developed in large part on a rebound in the developed optimistic scenario, factoring in fiscal stimulus business environment. countries has shaken markets worldwide. GEP world”- Asian Development Bank Senior of between 1.5 and 2 per cent of gross domestic 2009 projects that world GDP growth will be Economist CYN-Young Park said. (The Wall product (GDP) of the major economies and Cultural Influence in Asian market further interest-rate cuts, developed economies 2.5 percent in 2008 and 0.9 percent for 2009. Street Journal/Economy 22 April 2000). Cultural factors exert the broadest and could post a 0.2 per cent rate of growth, and Developing countries will likely grow by 4.5 deepest influence on consumer behaviour. The The damage of recession is limited in the developing world would surpass 5 per cent percent next year, down from 7.9 percent in roles played by buyer’s culture, sub-culture and Asian countries. The reason is most of the growth, the economists calculate. 2007, while growth in high-income countries social class are particularly important will turn negative. (World Bank Press Release financial institutions are run by the Cross-Cultural Management in the (Kotler:172). Culture has its own influence in No: 2009/160/DEC; In DC: Merrell Tuck). Governments. Banking deposits and insurance Modern Organizations global market, and very strong influence in Due to the recession, world per capita income deposits i.e. mutual funds and unit linked insurance products are worst affected area in Asian market. Because, culture-adoptability is expected to decline next year, export growth It is established behaviour of the the global financial market. It is estimated that behaviour is very strong in Asian countries. and capital inflows will fall, borrowing costs people that organisational learning of an capital levels in the US and UK Life Insurance Western culture survives by continuing to for developing countries will rise as contagion individual is fully depended on the country’s sector will decline considerably. It is estimated change, adapting to it’s global environment, spreads from the major economies; the United culture. For example, Indian, Singaporean and that countries with larger domestic institutional while traditional cultures are lauded for not States dollar is set to resume its decline, with Chinese theories of organisational learning, investor bases will be better positioned to changing, with the implication that western a possible hard landing in 2009, according to respectively, which are dependent on the handle this effect (International Monetary Fund culture is less valuable than the traditional the UN Annual Economic Report, (2009). specific culture of the country (Kumar 2000:49- 2008). It is to be understood that Asian people cultures since it has neither integrity nor stability 69). Though many number of factors involved are, though financially weak, having the culture (Harris 2005:102). “People in the developing world have in the process of organisational learning, value to deal with two major external shocks- the of financial savings for the benefit of their Cultural values are powerful force in future. Their nucleus family system warrants and ethics are very important factors during upward spiral in food and fuel prices followed work culture (Deshmukh and Gupta 2003). forming distinctive attitudes and behaviour, and this need and want as a basic culture. Hence, also serve as important guiding principles in by the financial crisis, which has eased tensions There are many number of issues related to in turn, it is also viable for the Asian countries the lives of individuals in that group or society in commodity markets but is testing banking consumers in which issues related to ethical to have a larger domestic institutional (Harry 1994). Taste and preference of systems and threatening job losses around the grounds are like, good quality of product, world,” said Justin Lin, World Bank Chief investor’s base. Because of the above, it is a consumers are learned response and is highly reasonable prices, correct weights and Economist and Senior Vice President, strategic choice for the Asian countries to have variable from culture to culture, has a major measures, safety and purity, consumer Development Economics. “Urgent steps are domestic and international business with similar impact on the market environment. Edward education and protection etc. But in reality, needed to help reduce fallout from the crisis or non-westernised culture countries. T. Hall (1976) suggested ‘high-context cultures business man exploits the consumers by on the real economy and on the poorest, and low-context cultures’ as a way of The Baseline Scenario of UNO duplication of products, false labelling and by including through projects that build better understanding different cultural orientations. misleading advertisements. During the course roads, railways, schools, and health care According to the baseline scenario, For high-context culture, Japan and Arabian of international business, parties from different systems.” (World Bank Press Release world output will reach a meagre 1 per cent in countries are given example, that emphasises countries may have trouble coming to contract No:2009/160/DEC; In DC: Merrell Tuck). 2009, compared to 2.5 per cent in 2008 and obligations and trust as important values. In global growth rates of between 3.5 and 4 per terms because of differences in laws governing low-context-culture, for example United The financial outlook for emerging cent in the preceding four years. The 2009 their respective activities across the States, Swiss and German, deals are made Asia is less bleak than in other parts of the projection includes a decline in output of 0.5 boundaries. It is usually extremely difficult and with much less information about the character, world, with local equity markets showing signs per cent in developed countries, along with costly to sue a party for breach of contract. background and values of the participants. To of recovery and local currency bond issuance growth of 5.3 per cent in the transition Thus the contracting parties and the people of meet out all kinds of contractual obligations, expected to rise this year, a report from the economies and 4.6 per cent in the developing the organisation should live up with the highest to sanction loans to common man and to

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manage men in the organisation, studying the business people were well aware of doing Allowing a multi-national companies region have already experienced heavy job cultural orientation of the society and country international business. Travelling to distant and making a joint-venture with a western losses due to the entry of MNCs. Only a is very important. In general, high-context countries, conducting a business of gold, cultured/developed nations is always a strong domestic competition can build up the cultures get along with much less paper work diamond and other precious stones were in dangerous signal to future prospects of ability of nation to manufacture high quality than is deemed essential in low-context practice by major countries of Asia including developing Asian countries. Fortune 500 product, as in the case of Japanese economy. cultures. The above study is one of the best India, China, Japan and Arabian countries. companies and other MNCs with huge Without the experience in competing with examples, which is one of the reasons for Barter system was popular in those days by turnover would easily wipe out Asian domestic competition/similar culture, today’s economic recession in westernised- exchanging essential commodities between companies which are developing in nature companies can’t compete with a free market cultural states. For example, to maintain the rulers and other bureaucrats of the and hailing with small amount of turnover. system which is a totally different culture to quality and reliability in the banking system, countries. During the colonisation by the Thumps Up and Coco Cola case is one of the international business. both customer and banker should co-operate Europeans, the culture of foreign trade with the best example in Indian environment. The Endangered Gender Approach with each other while mobilising funds for the neighbour, friendly and culturally related sales figure of the top 200 companies in the the operation as well as encouraging savings countries were broken through ‘divide and world, from1983 to1999, is equivalent of Living and marrying with the same sex amongst the civilians for the benefit of their rule’ policy of Europeans. In the dawn of about 27.5% of the world GDP. Their sales is one of the endangered gender approaches old age provision and future generation. 20th century, the dominant western-cultured are equivalent to 27.5% but they employ only in human life style. In other words it is said to 0.78% of world’s work force. In the fifteen In the course of business, culture- nations formed their own foreign trade be unnatural way of doing sexual intercourse, years of service, their profit grew by 362.4% based competition is potent in domestic and policies in which major resources i.e. raw i.e. lesbianism and homosexual practice. It is whereas the number of people employed by global level. It is the responsibility of the materials were imported from Asian and common in most of the Western-cultured them grew only 14.4% (Malay and Arindan Asian players to identify the course of action other parts of the developing and under- countries, including Denmark, Swiss, France, 2003:29-30). No one from developing to protect and retain their own cultural developed countries at cheaper cost. The United Kingdom, United States etc. whereas economy can imagine to competit with these identity so as to conduct reliable and same raw materials were converted into in the Asian continent, except few, it is dead giant MNCs. Because, their business conservative business in their international value added products and exported to the against of their culture and ideology. In most motives and culture is different from Asian forum. For example, ongoing business same third-world countries, particularly to part of the Asia region, including India, Japan, culture. They invest huge amounts in between India and its foreign clients is Asian countries. Because, Asian countries Nepal and China, marriage with opposite sex publicity and advertisements to motivate and spurred on by mutual interest. Often, false are most populated countries in the world, is to be treated as divine relationship and is make them to purchase their products. It is rumours, supplier defaults and customer which have got good scope for European/ also enjoying legal sanctity. But in most of the also true that most of the MNCs never care cancellations are prevalent. It is because Western products. Japan is one of the western-cultured countries, marriage is only a about the cultural values; most of the Indian society is atleast as ethnically and exempted category in the Asia, who followed contractual obligation and marrying with the advertisements are western-culture based. culturally diverse as that in Europe, and their own cultural/organisational strategy same sex is legally valid. The sudden and Advertisements made by the MNCs create business practices are probably even more with strong unity, integrity, hard work and highest level of terminations of marriage, i.e. an imagined need in the minds of varied than in Europe. divorce is taking place frequently in those Total Quality Management concept and economically disadvantaged people rather countered the western-cultured nations. All countries. In addition, the illegal and improper Foreign Trade and Cultural Management than understanding actual need. Multi-Level other countries in the Asian region are still Marketing (MLM) is a concept introduced sex practice is prevailing in most part of the Before the 6th UN World Trade fighting for the foreign trade practices. by the MNCs to market financial products world for which the development of internet, Organization (WTO) Ministerial Conference Because of their inability to upgrade their and home appliances. The unemployed youth westernised-culture, westernised media in Hong Kong in 2005, the prevailing skill and knowledge and failure to mobilise in the Asian region met great loss and publication and fast growing technology are rationale for the preferences was that “trade resources for the global competition, most confusion in executing these marketing idea, some of the reasons. ‘Chatting’, ‘dating’ and is better than aid.” The new paradigm has of the Asian nations are put into great which is totally unmatching with our low/ ‘cheating’ are popular versions among the become “aid for trade” (UN News Centre, confusion that whether to participate in the moderate income group. Countries like modern youth. These kind of western-cultured UNO). Prior to modern society, Asian globalisation or not. India, Malaysia, and China in the Asian approach cause concern and it is a dangerous

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signal in developing international relations, even References Richard Korati Hamena (2008): “How Can Traditional UN News Centre, “Developing Countries Need Both for the purpose business. Culture be a Link to Positive Youth Trade and Aid”, Says New UN Study. Advanced Learners’ English Dictionary, 2003. Development? A Case Study in Goroka Papua New Guinea”, Thesis, Massey University, United Nations Annual Economic Report (2009): issued Conclusion Bodley, J.H (1994): Cultural Anthropology: Tribes, Palmerston North, New Zealand. at the International Financing for Development States and Global Systems, Mayfeild Publishing, International Business is conducted Review, Doha, Qatar. Mountain View C A. Scott, A (2000): The Cultural Economy of Cities: Essays in a more complicated and ever-changing on the Geography of Image-Producing Industries, United Nations Development Report (2004): “Cultural Carmen (1996) Autonomous Development, Vistaar, New environment. Whatever be the character of Sage Publication, London. Liberty in Today’s Diverse World”, UNDP, New the business, whether national, international, Delhi, p.42. York, p.1. trans-national or global, it is a blend of Castlles, M (1998): The Rise of the Network Society, The Wall Street Journal/Economy, April 22, 2009; www.wsj.com. Vandra, Harris (2005): The Development Contact Zone- economic, political, cultural and personal The Information Age: Economy, Society and Parishioners Perspectives on Culture, Power and realities and events. The idea of globalisation Culture - Vol I, Oxford, Blackwell. Thompson, J.B (1990): Ideology and Modern Culture: Participation in Cambodia and Philippines, p.10, Critical and Social Theory in the Era of Mass Flinders University. is to synchronise world counties on one plat Catalano R, Berglund, L.M., Ryan, A.M.J., et.al. (2004): Communication, Cambridge: Polity Press, p. 132. form is more encouraging one, provided all Positive Youth Development in the United States, World Bank Press Release No:2009/160/DEC; In DC: the participating nations are equal capability The Annals of the American Academy of Political Triandis, Harry C (1994): “Culture and Social Merrell Tuck; [email protected]. socially, culturally, economically and and Social Science, n.d.(591), pp.98-124. Behaviour, McGraw-Hill, New York. politically. From the experiences, it is noted Edward T. Hall (1976): “Beyond Culture”, Garden City, that the intervention of westernised culture- Anchor Press, New York. countries are more in the global business. Hence the amount of uncertainties is also Kumar, R (2000): “Confusion Pragmatism vs. Brahminical Idealism: Understanding the Divergent much more because of their personalised Roots of Indian and Chinese Economic regulations and practices. Business Performance”, Journal of Asian Business, Vol.16, relationships between parties of different No 2, pp 49-69. cultures and or nationalities are subject to additional challenges. Natural and human Gregory Young (2005): “The Cultural Reinvention of Planning”, Doctoral Thesis, University of New of induced catastrophes, political problems, South Wales. foreign exchange inconvertibility, widely fluctuating exchange rates, depressions and Hugh Mackay (1999): Turning Point: Australians changes in national economic priorities and Choosing their Future, Macmillan, Sydney. pp.ix-x. tariff schedules are dominating the international business environment. More International Monetary Fund (2008): Global Financial over, there is an excellent market Stability Report. potential in the Asian continent in which Malay Chaudhuri and Arindam Chaudhuri (2003): The the present major operators are from Great Indian Dream. western-cultured nations. The present trend is an opportunity for Asian countries National Statistics (2008): “Crime in England and Wales in 2007/2008”. to counter the trade and gain cultural advantage. Hence, it is suggested that Philip Kotler (1999): Marketing Management: Analysis, cultural-based international business Planning, Implementation and Control. approach may be the priority for the Asian Rahnema M, Bawtree V, (1997): The Post Development developing countries. Reader, Zed, London, New York, p.384- 391.

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Ethnicity and Ethnic Policies in Pakistan and Myanmar Nationalisms in Southeast Asia, secession4 or to gain some advantage within according to Nicolas Tarling had been an existing state.5 While the primordialists T T Haokip “reactive, creative, constructive and considered blood ties, race, language, religion destructive.”3 While reacting against the and custom as the important aspects of Abstract colonial rule, the state elites at the same time ethnicity, the instrumentalists on the other hand The paper attempts to examine the practices of colonial power and the ethnic domesticated the ‘nationalist idea’ in consider ethnicity as a weapon in pursuit of policies of Pakistan and Myanmar in addressing their vast ethno-cultural diversity constructing the nation-state as an ideological collective advantage or a resource for interest and the way the ethnic minority groups have evolved their identity. The paper vision. The strength of the nation-state is groups. Ethnic nationalism anywhere in the argues that the ethnic policies of Pakistan and Myanmar with respect to religion, assured so long as the state elites played a world has always been more concerned about language, historiography, curriculum and mono-ethnic ideology reinforce and crucial role in constructing the nation as an its political power rather than some primordial intensify perceptions of ethnic discrimination and ethnic nationalism. The minority ideological vision and are seen as delivering identity. Ethnicity or ethnic nationalism is not ethnic groups, who consider the ethnic policies as the source of social disruption, on their promises of equitable development. really about identity, culture and traditions, but inequity, insecurity and not the agent of equitable development, depict ethnicity as the alternative imagined kinship community. The ethnic minority groups felt The nation-states began to weaken when state about political power. It is about either share that their share in the politics, administration, economy or society has been elites began to be seen increasingly as the in the existing state power structure, or, if that undermined. The paper concludes by arguing that so long as the nation-building source of social disruption, inequity and is not possible, about creating its own space. process in both Pakistan and Myanmar undermines the aspirations of the minority insecurity. The inability of states to fulfil their The paper attempts to study the how the ethnic ethnic groups, crisis will persist and ethnic nationalism would always threaten invented ideology of social justice led to the policies of Pakistan and Myanmar initiate and the national identity of Pakistan and Myanmar. The leaders of Pakistan and erosion of its main ideology; the myth of intensify the politicisation of ethnicity and ethnic Myanmar need to redefine their policies that will guarantee regional autonomy, assimilating nation. This in turn has generated nationalism in Pakistan and Myanmar.6 wealth sharing and equal participation in decision-making. the countervailing strengthening of ethnic Colonial rule and Ethnicity nationalist claims. The adoption of new strategies by the nation-states to manage ethnic The colonial rule at one level brought Introduction and meaning is continuously negotiated, claims involves the dismantling of the earlier ethnic groups into closer contact by including revised and revitalised.”1 National or ethnic myths of assimilation, and replacing it with new the areas inhabited by various ethnic groups There is a consensus among scholars identity is never static but always symbols of multicultural nationalism. While it within the borders of the colonial state. At that increasing cultural differentiation reconstructed in response to new interests celebrates cultural diversity at the ethnic level another level, it amplified and intensified ethnic especially in a conflictive or competitive and perceptions through shared ancestry, on the one hand, it continues to depict the differences. Colonialism changed the nature political context very often leads to the history, culture, language or through nation as the umbrella cultural community of the state, the relationship between state and manifestation of politicised collective constructed, imagined historical and within which the distinct and compatible ethnic consciousness, which gradually crystallises in cultural links. Many scholars have society, relations between ethnic groups, social cultures can flourish on the other. However, opposition to “other.” There is also a consensus emphasised the ‘indissociable relationship’ perception from an unbounded patron-client the more the state commits itself to allocating that a highly political and ambitious between ethnicity or nationalism and and center-based abstraction to the Western resources or rights, the more it opens itself to leadership or elite within an ethnic group more political legitimacy. Thus, the origin could be idea of ethnicity and a nation. However, it accusations of ethnic bias. In most cases, the often than not midwifed collective ‘primordial’ but assertion is usually would be incorrect to say that the colonial rule state is no longer seen as neutral and impartial consciousness. National or ethnic is therefore, ‘circumstantial.’ B.B. Lal (1983), Paul R. directly created ethnic nationalism or guardians of the citizens. In the process, like conceived as “a socially constructed, variable Brass (1991) and John Breuilly (1993) separatism. The political, economic and cultural the state elites, the ethnic elites formulate definition of self and other, whose existence advance the circumstantial argument.2 effects of colonialism intensified the movements based on shared meanings of demarcation between communities and common descent, real or imagined simply to provided the mould and means for the Dr T T Haokip is an Assistant Professor of Department of Political Science, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, mobilise political support for a variety of emergence of new identities both in Myanmar India. E-mail: [email protected]. objectives ranging from autonomy to and in Pakistan.

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Myanmar/Burma Burman national movement and further aspirations of the ethnic Burmans, the British themselves and salvage their plight in different polarised the ethnic relations.13 Communal sought to take advantage of the hopes and directions need to be viewed in this background. The colonial state largely brought the clashes erupted between Burman-dominated fears of the non-Burman nationalities. In the The perception of Hindu domination as the ethnic empires7 into closer contact as well as Burma Independent Army (BIA) and Karen14 process, both the Burmans and minority ethnic common threat united the majority Muslims aggravated disputes and ethnic differences. as well as Buddhist Arakanese and Muslim groups had been betrayed. behind Jinnah’s declaration that the “Muslims Ethnicity and ethnic identity, which was not Rohingyas in Arakan. In Shan state, the were a nation by any definition.” While the paramount in pre-colonial Burma8 amplified Pakistan Sawbwas15 swore allegiance directly to the All-India Muslim League, formed in 1906, was and probably saw greater hardening of Japanese rather than to the BIA.16 The British patronised the Muslims in busy with the political mobilisation of the divisions between the majority Burmans and Punjab who served as the guardians of the Muslim masses, the British colonial ethnic groups under the colonial rule.9 The The Colonial power instituted British Indian Empire. The British Indian Army administrators encouraged the growth of ethnic process of assimilation of Arakanese and Mon different system of laws in order to manage was “Punjabised,” as almost fifty percent of identities, which created inter-cultural into the dominant Burman culture intensified the ethnic groups of Myanmar. The division Muslims in it were Punjabis. While the British during the colonial period.10 The recruitment of Myanmar into ‘Ministerial Burma’, and alienation and inter-ethnic animosities. colonial exposed those groups who were useful of Kachin, Karen and Chin to the colonial army ‘Frontier Areas’ which was described as Pakistan, which emerged out of the for the consolidation of its empire to resulted in establishing ethnically segregated ‘order without meaning,’17 was not merely contradiction in Indian society in the name of modernisation, it deliberately left others at the units.11 Representing roughly 13 percent of the division of land but separation of Burmans and Islam, continues to struggle the task of peripheral level of development. The population, the Karen, Kachin and Chin ethnic minority groups as well. While the heartland sustaining itself and its identity. Pashtoons in the North-West Frontier groups accounted for 83 percent of the armed was with the predominant Burman population, Province, who maintained a strong ethnic Ethnic Policies of Myanmar and Pakistan forces of Myanmar/Burma in 1931. The the non-Burman minority ethnic groups were identity, remained outside the pale of The politicisation of ethnic identities recognition of Shans in Myanmar as a special with the ‘Frontier Areas’. Initially, the British modernisation and denied political and group, frequent conversion of Chins, Kachins left the Frontier Areas largely untouched, while that began during the colonial period resulted constitutional reforms until 1932. The British in widening the socio-economic gaps, power and Karens to Christianity further created a they deliberately adopted more intrusive and partially urbanised Sind province due to the disparities, competition for control over gap between them and the Buddhist majority direct rule in “Ministerial Burma.” Additionally, strategic and political importance of Karachi. 12 territory and resources in the post-colonial in the valley. Additionally, the Burman while the Act of 1935 enhanced self- The British created new elite of landed period. The use of coercion and military force farmers and workers were at the bottom of government in the heartland, the Frontier area aristocrats who were more interested in by Myanmar and Pakistan against minority the social ladder because of the immigration was further sub-divided into ‘partially excluded serving the interests of the colonialists than ethnic groups has led to radicalisation of ethnic of new ethnic groups such as Europeans, areas’ with some political rights and ‘excluded their own compatriots through gifts of large Indians and Chinese. The Indian labourers and area’ directly governed by the British governor. tracts of land, especially in the Canal Colonies. groups and escalation of ethnic conflicts. moneylenders opened up Burma’s Irrawaddy Successive policies reflected the colonial The political strategy of the colonial power was Increasing assertion of the majority ethnic as one of the world’s rice bowls and by the exclusion/inclusion process and strengthened so successful that, depending on the degree groups that progressively shut one door of 1920s, Myanmar’s economy was in the hands the division. The British promised political of identification with the colonial rule, some privilege after another on minority ethnic of the British, Indians and Chinese. The independence to the minorities in the post-war ethnic communities began to consider groups led to the emergence of ethno-nationalist dynamics of the colonial economy contributed period. Ever since then, the majority Burmans themselves as superior to others. The British movements in both Pakistan and Burma. The to the emergence of communal awareness and and ethnic minority groups began to have rule was a great blow to the Muslims as they myopic management of politics in the post- to the articulation of ethnic identities not only different visions of the country’s future. The could identify themselves neither with British independence period complicates the in towns but also in the countryside as well. British substituted ‘unite and quit’ for ‘divide rulers nor with Hindus. To the chagrin of the processes of nation building in both the countries. The distinct economic functions performed by and rule’ after the Second World War, although Muslims, the Hindus and the British converged Religion separate community reinforced ethnic a British officer in charge of the Frontier areas together in their distrust of Muslims and differences. The Japanese occupation not only campaigned against the inclusion of the hill subjected them to political and economic The concept of Pakistan, first resulted in the collapse of the political system people into the Burman Union.18 While the isolation by the end of the 19th century. The envisaged as a Muslim state of South Asia and of the pre-war era but also militarised the Japanese sought to use the nationalist desperate attempts of the Muslims to relocate a religious philosophy where the Muslims

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would be free to pursue their religion and during the period of the country’s conception. might of the state. In the process, neither an communities. Hinduism is mainly associated promote their culture subsequently became a The Islamic rhetoric slogan, which mobalised Islamic state in the real sense of the term nor with Indians who came to Myanmar during democratic and a secular nation.19 However, the Muslims in the past, opened a ‘Pandora’s a true democracy has taken shape in Pakistan. the British rule. The Indians whether Hindus neither the stalwarts of the Pakistan’s freedom box of arguments and counter arguments. As Edwar Mortimer highlights, “Pakistan was or Muslims are still considered as ‘kala’ or movement nor its opponents were clear about an idea before it became a country, and foreigner even though they are largely the The separation of East Pakistan was the role that Islam would play after whether it is a nation remains doubtful even offspring of older generations. However, not just a territorial loss but the failure of an independence. The top leadership were not today”.21 Pakistan has remained an Burma, which in theory was created as an Islamic ideology. It demonstrated the difficulty only undecided about the way they would “ideological state” but with no “known inclusive secular state, in reality, became a of managing Pakistan’s ethnic diversity define a secular state in the name of Islam but ideology.” Pakistan, despite the exclusive mono-ethnic Burman-centric state with through overt use of Islamic symbolism. The also differed widely over the issue. While the rationale behind its formation was politically Buddhism as the state’s majority religion. rise of ‘Islamic ethnicity’ in the post-1971 Muslim leaders understood the symbolic value more inclusive than Myanmar because the Unlike Aung San who sidestepped the religious Pakistan in the wake of the rising assertion of of Islam, they at the same time opposed any elites accepted religion as the basis of identity. and collateral Burman claims to superiority, U ethno-linguistic diversity posed a challenge to theocratic system of governance. Jinnah’s However, while one identity (Islam) was Nu and the successive leaders of Myanmar the state. The process of Islamisation initiated secured, the other identities (language) came lacked the vision and capacity to carry the dream of Pakistan was secular in form but by Zia-ul-Haq evoked lot of controversy and to the fore, seeking institutional recognition. ethnic accord forward. Although U Nu Islamic in spirit. The Muslim League leaders alienated the Shias. The ruling elites’ attempts Pakistan still remains an artificial creation and immersed in politics, his heart was with were more concern about short-term goals and to superimpose an Islamic identity upon the is still in search of its national identity. religion.22 The religious minorities strongly no one in the party gave much thought as to ethno-linguistic identities have not quite paid opposed the proposal of U Nu when he how a traditionalised ideology of Islam would off. The more the ruling elite sought to use In Myanmar, Buddhism, Burmese proposed a Union based in part on Buddhism be translated into the constitutional framework Islam as a binding force, the more the fissures. language and literature influenced the early as the state religion in 1960. The proposal was of a modern democracy. After a year of debate The Pakistani leadership except Ayub Khan stage of nationalist movement. Nationalism in seen as violation of the essence of the over the issue, a compromised resolution had made use of Islamic symbols to unify the Myanmar was founded on a historically and Panglong Agreement, which guaranteed full known as “Objective Resolution” was adopted, diversity. Ayub Khan had attempted a secular religiously oriented nationalism with close ties autonomy in internal administration, enjoyment stating that in Pakistan, Allah (God) had way of ‘coalescing all divergent linguistic and to Buddhism and a modernist and secularly of democratic rights, financial support, and delegated his authority to the people of sectarian social groups into a single whole.’ oriented nationalism. Myanmar defined as a economic equality for the Frontier Areas. The Pakistan. However, the resolution was vague, Ever since then, no significant step has been secular inclusive nation state at independence ethnic minorities also viewed the state religious as it did not specify the limits of political power taken to unify the diversity of Pakistan on a failed to evolve as an inclusive secular state bill not only as religious issue, but also as a and authority. The 1956 Constitution of Pakistan secular basis. The failure of the evolution of as the ethnic Burmans portrayed the state of constitutional problem, in that this had been failed to address clearly the role of Islam in an Islamic universalism has affected the Myanmar as successor to the Burman allowed to happen. The religious policies the state, although it labelled Pakistan as an nation-building efforts in Pakistan in many dynasties of the past. Unlike Pakistan, sparked off discontent among the non-Burman “Islamic Republic”. While the 1962 ways.20 Islam as an integrative force has been Myanmar represents a society deeply ethnic groups. Many cultural and literary Constitution of Pakistan removed the word, rendered almost powerless in the face of fragmented along religious line. Besides the organizations that emerged during the 1950s “Islamic Republic,” the 1973 Constitution again contradictory forces (ethnic versus national). Theravada Buddhism shared by the majority for promoting and protecting minority cultures made Pakistan an “Islamic Republic.” This The political leaders of Pakistan expected too Burmans and other ethnic groups such as the became the backbone of armed organizations.23 label changing was an indication of serious much from Islam when they used it as the only Rakhines, Shans and Karens, there are internal contradictions within the national integrative determinant of national identity in substantial communities of Christians, Hindus, While the central part of Myanmar identity of Pakistan. The Islamic-state a state based on Westminster type democracy. Muslims and Animists. While Buddhists enjoys religious freedom, there has been controversy continues to polarise between the Consequently, the rich mosaic of ethnic groups constitutes approximately 84 percent, discrimination against Christians and Muslims orthodox and secular factions. Many of the with little sympathy for each other, participating Christians and Muslims account for 4 percent in minority regions. The ethnic minorities see problems, vulnerabilities and crises that less in common ideals, suspicious of and hostile each, others account for 3 percent. Christianity the construction of Buddhist structures in their Pakistan encounters existed or germinated to each other, are held together only by the is more often than not identified with the tribal areas and restrictions on construction of new

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churches particularly in Chin and Kachin states Language nationalities compete for power and can get lower jobs in all the provinces of as attempts to destroy their religion and resources.29 There are at least 69 dialects in Pakistan. One cannot get even a clerical job, Many scholars have documented the displace them from their lands. Burman Pakistan as per a survey of the existing if one cannot write in Urdu and English except importance of language in shaping ethnic nationalism also engaged Buddhism in linguistic communities in 2003.30 These in Sind and other parts of the Pashto-speaking relations in multi-ethnic societies of Asia.26 proactive tribal mission work where separate languages/dialects have given rise to region where the local pride is strong enough Various studies have shown that successful Christianity had a dominant presence. Since distinct nationalist literatures. The major to counter Urdu. The ethnic groups thus government policies establish either a politically 1988, church and mosque lands have been languages like Sindhi, Punjabi, Seraiki, Brahui, challenged the state’s ideology by consolidating neutral language, thereby limiting the likelihood, confiscated in order to construct Buddhist Baluchi, Pushtu and Hindko have sought to their identities. Language has been the symbol that one ethnic group will secure unfair monuments in minority areas across the depict separate national consciousnesses used for the mobilisation of a counter ideology advantage or multiple ethnic-based languages, country. During 1991, Islamic schools in throughout history. Some of the major of ethnic assertion. However, the choice of where no ethnic or otherwise politically neutral northern Rakhine State had been closed. language-based ethnic movements in Urdu over other languages at that critical language exists. By contrast, Pakistan and Further, serious accusations of religious Pakistan’s short history31 include the Bengali juncture was a wise decision as Urdu was Myanmar sustained language as a tool for harassment have been made by Christian clerics Language movement of 1948-52 in former East considered as no body’s language but discrimination against ethnic nationalities to the in several areas, especially in the Kayah, Karen, Pakistan, riots between the Urdu-speaking everybody’s language. In addition, the choice detriment of political stability and integration. Kachin, Shan States and in the Delta region. Mohajirs and the Sindhi speakers in Sind of Urdu was politically a correct decision as Known as “a cradle of languages and cultures”,27 Another alarming reports concern the arrest and Province in 1971 and 1972 and the tension Urdu was linked with the growth of a separate Pakistan perceived linguistic identities as being alleged extrajudicial executions of a number of between Mohajirs and Sindhis since the mid- Muslim identity in South Asia. antithetical to a pan-Muslim identity and did Christian pastors and teachers by the military 1980s. Pakistan’s One Unit Plan subsumed not take into account the increased salience regime. The military regime is also accused all the linguistic groups within the Western Myanmar represents a society deeply of these identities. Language controversy in 33 of exploiting religious differences to divide the Wing into one Punjabi-dominated unit. The fragmented along ethnic lines. The census of Pakistan began with the promulgation of Urdu 34 ethnic groups. The distribution of anti-Muslim non-recognition of the provincial languages of 1931 listed 126 languages and dialects. While spoken by about 3.5 per cent of the total literature in Shan state in 1996, the anti-Muslim Western Pakistan contributed to this alienation. one survey has claimed 242 different population as the national language in place of riots in Taunggyi and Prome during the pro- Pakistan’s subsequent inability to manage languages and dialects, another source claims Bangla spoken by about 54.5 per cent of the 35 democracy movement in 1988 and the tensions linguistic groups is due to the lack of linguistic 172 communities. Myanmar has been total population of Pakistan. This has created between the Muslims and Buddhist in the capital consociationalism. In 1973, Pakistan’s labelled “complex-complex” because of its a sense of neglect in the minds of the Bengalis of Rakhine state are believed to have been rewritten constitution permitted provincial diverse ethnographic landscape. The initial who were numerically in a very strong position engineered by the military regime to stir up languages, although the Punjabi dominance of policy of the Burmese government was to use in Pakistan. However, the fact is that Urdu religious and racial tensions for its own benefit. the state has hindered national integration. In local language as the medium of instruction was a part of the ideology of Muslim Thus, continued emphasis on religiously oriented spite of the fact that the Punjabi elite have until class four, making English a compulsory separatism in India and was later projected as th nationalism with close ties to Buddhism and advocated Urdu as the lingua franca of subject after 5 grade and Burmese at higher a major symbol of national integration in the Burman culture as the basis for Myanmar’s Pakistan, there is a strong passion among levels. However, in 1955, it was decided that new country of Pakistan. Indeed, Urdu came national identity in contrast with modernist and Punjabi speaking people for the Punjabi the matriculation examination could only be to be associated with the hegemony of the 36 secularly oriented nationalism challenged the language. In fact, the advocates of Punjabi taken in Burmese. In 1959, the speaker of centre in Pakistan. The state’s ideology of using notion that the populations did share a common language demanded for recognition of Punjabi the Chamber of Deputies cautioned the Islam and Urdu, as symbols of Pakistani national identity. It was this mono-ethnic as an official language in 1954, and in 1969 members about excessive use of English words identity and national integration did not change 37 character of state and its policy of assimilation when Punjabi language was recognised.32 The and phrases. Sanctioned as the official even after the loss of East Pakistan.28 that have determined the character of the ethnic minorities have resented the power and language in the constitution, Burmese is the ensuing politics in Burma.24 The Burman- Language plays an important role in status that has been given to Urdu and English, only language allowed in the Union Parliament. dominated military that took power in 1958 and the formation of ethnic identities as they used which favoured the westernised elites. Higher Further, legislations originally promulgated in again in 1962 and 1988 have closely followed language to define their identities and further jobs are reserved for those who are fluent in English have been translated into Burmese, the ethnocentric basis for government policies.25 their ideological claims when different ethnic English. If one can write in Urdu only, one and the new legislations have been

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promulgated in Burmese. Consequently, other answers that it “distorts one’s picture of social In Myanmar, a highly Burmanised and majority as the most serious of issues non-Burman languages have been relegated reality and serves the interest of the dominant doctrinaire curriculum in which any expression confronting multi-ethnic countries. to home use. While there had been 12 daily classes in the society”.38 Hobsbawm has also of minority cultures is denied have replaced Burmanisation programme that ignores the newspapers in minority languages in 1962, said: “Nationalist historians have often been the multi-cultural system of education envisaged none-Burman ethnic cultures is another form there was none by 1988. The Mon language, servants of ideologists”.39 Pakistan had two by Aung San and ethnic minority leaders in of Burman ethnic nationalism. It is a clear whose alphabet was borrowed by the major problems: how to construct the colonial the 1947 constitution. In addition, at the indication of cultural as well as military Burmans, is forbidden to be taught in schools. period and how to justify the partition. Pakistan universities, no efforts have been made to study hegemony of the Burmans. Burmanisation and In addition, throughout the colonial period and found an easy solution for the first problem in the languages, art, and culture of the non-Burman Burmese way to socialism is an inward looking until 1981 Monks could sit for the Pali exam that the colonial period had been treated as nationalities. In government-controlled areas, ideology, as it not only cut itself off from the in Mon, but now Burmese is the only language India’s past since Pakistan had not existed at there is no official teaching or research in any rest of the world, but also led to economic permitted. Ethnic minority communities view that time. In dealing with early Islamic past, minority language in either secondary or tertiary stagnation. Burma, one of Southeast Asia’s the banning of minority languages as a historians seek an Islamic link with the Arab education. Such discrimination is not only a major leading economies prior to military rule is now deliberate policy to deprive them of their conquest of Sind. Similarly, medieval period is impediment to the survival and expression of one of the poorest countries in the world. The birthright to teaching their own languages and reconstructed under the title of Pak-Hind. minority languages and cultures, but it also open discrimination against ethnic minority literature. The situation has improved in recent Akbar is much maligned in Pakistani discriminates against ethnic minority citizens who groups in matters of culture, education, years, as there is more tolerance at the local historiography is omitted from the school first have to learn Burmese as the only language language and religion is the most disturbing 40 level for ethnic minority languages. Most of textbooks. Medieval Indian history is, for education and government job. Since 1988, evidence of a long-term policy of the cease-fire armed groups have set up their therefore not considered as a part of the the government has transliterated many other ‘Burmanisation’ carried out by all governments own schools teaching in their own language. Pakistani historiography. The composite geographic or ethnic words, which are unfamiliar since independence. The ethnic groups of The 194-page draft constitution is only culture produced by both the Hindus and or politically sensitive to many ethnic groups. The Myanmar have viewed the process of available in Burmese and English languages, Muslims is looked upon as denial of Muslim curriculum at universities in minority states ‘Burmanisation’ as Burman colonialism and as and has not been translated into any of the separateness and uniqueness. The creation of remains heavily Burmanised. A theory of the a result, they never become an entrenched part languages spoken by ethnic minority groups. Pakistan is regarded as a victory against the ‘Burmese family of races’ sharing one blood and of society. The idiosyncratic ‘Burmese Way Thus, language that is intimately related to to Socialism’ swiftly proved a recipe for Hindus and not against the British. The historic origin has been developed. Most ethnic power and ideology has been one of the sources reconstruction of regional history poses disaster. In many parts of the country, the groups reject such interpretations of Burma’s of conflict both in Pakistan and in Myanmar. another problem. The Sikh period in Punjab traditional economy has broken down due to history. Some ethnic minority writers and teachers is downgraded with and disorder and the mismanagement, corruption, the civil war and Historiography and Curriculum who oppose government restrictions or wars of Sikhs against the British have no international isolation. Nationalism can be a encourage expressions of cultural identity and The many crises that Pakistan has place in the history textbooks. Sind is given disintegrative as well as an integrative force.41 the use of their own languages have been experienced since it came into existence also credit because it was the first to vote for Myanmar with its highly centralised state arrested. The change of name from Burma to have an impact on history writing in the nation. joining Pakistan. The resistance of the Kalat structure often referred to as Burmese Myanmar without debates and referendum 42 In Pakistan, historiography has developed state in Baluchistan not to accede to ‘garrison nationalism’ acts as a disintegrative under the framework of ‘Pakistan Ideology’, Pakistan in not mentioned in the school was meaningful only to the majority Burmans. force as the Burman nationalism is based on based on the idea of a separate Muslim textbooks. Any attempt to assert the Similarly, the politics of cease-fires with ethnic one language, one religion and one culture. The nationhood. Indeed, historians have been told historical identity of a region is discouraged, insurgent groups and the national referendum of Myanmar state has been concentrating on to construct the history of Pakistan within this which affects the non-Muslim religious May 10 2008 are nothing but policies to legitimise uniting the country as one single state at the framework. In the process, objectivity is minorities, who are excluded from the the Burman dominated military regime. expense of the rights of minority ethnic groups. sacrificed and facts too are manipulated to mainstream history. Pakistani historiography Burmanisation and Punjabisation The over-emphasis on national identity and justify the acts of political leadership. As tries to homogenise culture, traditions, social misinterpretation of federalism as Michal W Apple poses the question: What does and religious life of the people to suit the political Political philosophers have long ‘disintegration of the union’ in the post- ideology do for the people who have it? He attempts towards political centralization. identified the cultural arrogance of an ethnic independence period fueled greater ethnic

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unrest and insurgency. The ethnic minority Pakistan and Afghanistan.43 The smaller of Pakistan and Myanmar represent a vivid in both Myanmar and Pakistan. The multiple crisis will continue to be one of the most central provinces accused Punjab of becoming a example of ‘weak states, strong societies’; and culturally rich ethnic identities are in issues facing Myanmar as several ethnic symbol of tyranny and oppression. The where central government has been unable to conflict with not only the states of Burma and groups are found on both sides of its 4,016- movements for Sindhu Desh (independent impose its will, except by the use of force to Pakistan but also with each other. However, mile-long land border. Cross-border political Sind), independent Baluchistan44 and protect ‘non-disintegration of the Union’, and the underlying current of all the ethnic movements represent the Kuki-Chin-Mizo and Pushtunistan45 began against this backdrop in the ‘non-disintegration of national solidarity’. movements in both the countries is that of wide Naga living in Indo-Myanmar border. There the 1950s and 1960s. The prevention of anti- The issue is whether democratically elected spread dissatisfaction with the existing set up are Kachin, Wa and Shan in China; Karen, National Activities Act of 1974 made it a crime governments in Myanmar and Pakistan could and a deep urge for recognition of their identity, Mon and Shan in Thailand; Rakhine and for a Pashtun, Sindhi, or Baluchi to label make transition to what Charles Taylor calls a autonomy and freedom. Rohingya Muslims in Bangladesh. The Lahu, publicly himself such. The more it has sought ‘politics of equal recognition.’47 The current The importance of ethnicity in fuelling Akha and Lisu are even divided across four to suppress such identities, the more they have understanding of nationalism by Myanmar and conflict in Myanmar has been recognised. The modern-day borders, being split between resurfaced with indomitable zeal and Pakistan hardly fits the mould of multicultural UN General Assembly since 1994 has called Burma, China, Laos and Thailand. The enthusiasm.46 The visible domination of the and religiously pluralist states. The ethno- for a tripartite dialogue between the military importance of inter-ethnic ties and its bureaucracy and military by the Punjabis has centric bases for government policies, regime, the National League for Democracy consequences on Myanmar should not be provided the logic for assertion of other reinforced by assimilation and centralization (NLD) and ethnic minority groups. Yet, unlike underestimated. regional identities. Thus, competition for power have promoted the perception among minority other two forces, the ethnic minorities lack a sharing between the numerically preponderant In Pakistan, the Punjabis who ethnic groups that the independent states of unified organisational structure. The issue of Bengalis and the rest of the Pakistanis led to occupied strategic positions in the country’s Pakistan and Myanmar are mono-ethnic in ethnic-based states is complex and multi- the consolidation of the Bengali ethno-linguistic bureaucratic and military systems manipulated composition and ideology. faceted in Burma since most of the states and identity, which culminated in the division of political, economic and social policies in order divisions in Burma have become multi-ethnic Pakistan in 1971. Concluding Remarks to maximise their influence and power. states. One particular ethnic nationality will be However, they could not “Islamicise” other Burmanisation and Punjabisation not The ethnic identities that became in majority and will be home to other ethnic ethnic groups because they are already only raised grave doubts about the neutrality politicised during colonial period and nationalist groups as the creation of states for each ethnic Muslims. What they could only try was to of the military but also posed serious questions movement continue to play significant role in group is an uphill task. Further, there are “Pakistanise” them, which in reality meant to regarding their legitimacy to exercise absolute the politics of modern Myanmar and Pakistan. conflicting views about the collective names “Punjabise” them. The other ethnic groups political power. Whenever, the army Ethnicity (covering a multiplicity of elements for some subgroups as many ethnic groups viewed this policy as Punjabi “colonialism”. intervenes, its own predominantly Punjabi and such as race, culture, religion, heritage, history, asserted their separate identities. It is very The ‘One Unit Scheme’ aimed at uniting the Burman ethnic linkage sensitised other ethnic languages and so on) continues to play a central difficult to estimate the total numbers of the non-Bengali population of West Pakistan as groups. The military in both the countries sees role both in Pakistan and in Myanmar politics ethnic nationalities and sub-nationalities. There ‘one unit’ socially, culturally and politically to itself as the ‘central institution of the state, and as in the past. The politicisation of ethnicity is no pan ethnic body, and several groups are counter the perceived threat of Bengali protector of the nation’s independence. In the resulted in widening the socio-economic gaps, represented by more than one organization. domination in 1953 brought about another process, other ethnic groups have regarded the power disparities, competition for control of Thus, the clan-based loyalty combined with identity crisis in Pakistan. While in East policies of Pakistan and Myanmar as another territory. Majority of the ethnic groups felt that complex pattern of distribution make efforts Pakistan, it was taken as an attempt to reduce version of internal colonialism and defined their there is no respect for non-Burman and non- to delimit a nationality group area difficult. its majority status, the merged parts of West identities that hardened ethnic divisions. Punjabi cultures, languages, and political Additionally, the politics of ceasefire Pakistan felt that their individual identities Considered by many as inward looking aspirations. The impressive and unique movement, strategic differences, clashes endangered. Thus, while Pashtuns (Pathan), ideologies, Burmanisation and Punjabisation diversity capable of contributing to the among armed groups for control over territory Sindhis and Baluchis (Balochs) were have failed to transform Pakistan and enrichment of composite culture has been the and resources are likely to make cooperation apprehensive of Punjabi domination, externally Myanmar into more modern, market-oriented, main source of conflict and a fundamental and among ethnic minority organisations difficult. it created a new wave of tension between and productive society. The postcolonial states intractable obstacle to peace and development The development of ethnocentric identities

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divides the minorities from each other. Despite nationhood. Pakistan needs to develop a 5. Amin,Tahir (1988): Ethno national Movements of 16. Smith, Martin, 1991, Op.cit. p64. Pakistan(Domestic and International Factors), differences and divergent goals, the ethnic tolerance for provincial demands and 17. Aung-Thwin, Michael (1985): “British ‘Pacification’ minorities share many grievances and autonomy to accommodate rather than try to Islamabad Institute of Policy Studies, Islamabad, P.2 of Burma: Order without Meaning” Journal of aspirations. Majority ethnic groups seem to assimilate the diverse ethnic identities. Southeast Asian Studies, (September), p.245. have accepted the reality of the Union of 6. The terms ‘Myanmar’ and ‘Burma’ are used The single-minded focus on unseating 18. The issue of amalgamating the hill areas of Burma Myanmar. Peaceful coexistence can be interchangeably throughout this paper without military regimes and restoration of democracy attaching any political significance to the use of and India was discussed at the meeting of the achieved only through political dialogue and Committee on Scheduled Areas between 5 and 11 is likely to be politically counterproductive for the term. the national reconciliation, as well as the December 1942. While C.W.North argued in the minority ethnic groups. There is no formation of genuine federal union based on 7. The pre-colonial states of Southeast Asia have been support of implementing the plan, other four guarantee that the other decades-old ethnic the principles of equal opportunity, autonomy described as ethnic empires and not nation-states. members were not in favour of it. By the middle of issues will disappear automatically. Thus, 1946, the plan was wound up. and sharing of natural resources. The challenge 8. Stanley J. Tambiah (1976): World Conqueror and nation building in Myanmar and Pakistan is to build a broadly inclusive, nationwide platform, World Renouncer: A study of Buddhism and Polity 19. The slogan particularly in the elections of 1946 was requires, among others, the recognition of open to all ethnic minority organisations in Thailand against a Historical Background, New ‘Pakistan ka matlab kiya: la ilaha Illala’ (What is ethnic diversity, as these states are not mono- York: Cambridge University press, pp.102-131; the true meaning of Pakistan: surely there is no regardless of goals, strategy, race and religion. cultural but multi-cultural and multi-racial. The Victor Liberman (1978): “Ethnic politics in God but Almighty alone). There is a need for a comprehensive road map to peace, unlike in the past, should eighteenth-century Burma,” Modern Asian Studies constitution to deal with ethnic diversity. 12:3. 455-482. 20. Jaffrelot, Christophe (2000): A History of Pakistan be an all- inclusive in which all the ethnic and Its Origin, Paris: Anthem Press, pp.254-55. The search for an ideological basis has nationalities should be involved as equal 9. Seth, Andrew (1986): “Race and Resistance in Burma: 1942-1945”, Modern Asian Studies Vol. 21. Mortimer, Edward (1982): Faith, and Power: The made Pakistan without a known ideology. players. So long as the ethnic identities of the politics of Islam, London: Faiber and Faiber, p.191. Nation- building in multi-ethnic societies such minority groups remain unresolved, determined 20. No.33, p.484 as Pakistan has to go beyond Islamic symbols. ethnic movements will continue to threaten the 10. Taylor, Robert H (1987): The State in Burma, 22. Smith, Donald Eugene (1965): Religion and Politics in The Islam-ethnicity-politics interface has national identity of both the countries. The Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, pp.91-8. Burma, Princeton: Princeton University Press, p.148 shown that the force of centripetal Islamic parties to the conflict must enter into a process 11. This was in complete contrast to the prevailing 23. For details on consequences of democratisation on appeal is offset by the centrifugal pulls of of cross-cultural dialogue and widespread practices in pre-colonial Myanmar, which was ethnic relations of Burma, See, Haokip, T.T (2006): regional, ethnic and linguistic identities. The democratic reform, greater autonomy and hardly defined in terms of ethnicity. “Democratisation and Ethnic Relations: A study of Burma (1948-1962)” submitted to Social Science demand for recognition of Baluchi language sharing of natural resources. 12. The Burman nationalists regarded Christianity as Research Council South Asia Regional Fellowship and their opposition against Punjabi intrusion one of the divisive elements. Programme, New York on the ‘Long’ 1950s. into Baluchistan, the Sindhi resistance against References/Endnotes the Punjabis and Mohajirs and the Seraikis 13. Cady, John F (1958): A History of Modern Burma, 24. Silverstein, Josef (1960): The Struggle for National 1. Bhabha, Homi, ed, (1990): Nation and Narration, N.Y: Cornell University Press, p.443. Unity in the Union of Burma, Cornell University, P.36 demands for recognising Seraiki as an ethnic New York, Routledge. identity and political autonomy within Pakistan 14. Smith, Martin (1991): Burma: Insurgency and the 25. For further details, Haokip, T.T. and Shah, Sayed 2. Lal, B.B. (1983): “Perspectives on Ethnicity: Old Politics of Ethnicity, London: Zed Books, p.62 Wiqar Ali (2007): “Collaborative Research: Ethnic and the Pakistan Oppressed Nations Wine in New Bottles”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Movement against the hegemony of the Mapping and Ethnic Nationalism: A comparative 6, (2), pp.166-7; Brass, Paul R. (1991): Ethnicity 15. Sawbwas were the princely rulers of Shans and study of Pakistan and Myanmar” submitted to Punjabi ruling class are some of the challenges and Nationalism, London, Sage ; Breuilly, John Karens. They were allowed to retain their quasi- Social Science Research Council South Asia that confront Pakistan. The Islamic ideology (1993): Nationalism and the State, Manchester feudal powers under the 1947 constitution of Regional Fellowship Programme, New York. used by the founding fathers of Pakistan as University Press, Manchester Burma. For further analysis of the 1947 Constitution, See, Gledhill, Alan(1956): “The 26. Ibid. pp.538-541. the only integrative determinant of national 3. Nicolas, Tarling(1998): Nations and States in Burmese Constitution,” The Indian Yearbook in identity has been rendered almost powerless Southeast Asia, London: Cambridge University International Affairs Madras: University of 27. For details, see Ethnologue: Languages of the World, in the face of contradictory forces. It Press, P.75 Madras, pp.214-224; Maung Maung(1961): 14th Edition, 2003. complicates the process of nation building and 4. Smith,A.D.(1983): Theories of Nationalism, Holmer Burma’s Constitution, The Hauge: Martnus 28. Many Pakistani historians have admitted that this contributes to the fragility of the ‘Pakistani’ and Meier Publishers, Nijhoff. policy was wrongly adapted. For details, See,

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Zaheer, Hasan (1996): The Separation of Pakistan, 37. Tinker, Hugh (1957): The Union of Burma- A study Between Wisdom and Knowledge: The Politics of Creativity in a OUP, Karachi. of the First Years of Independence, London: Oxford, Oxford University Press, p.179. Post-Communist World: Tilo Schabert’s ’Boston Politics’ Today 29. Rahman,Tariq (2003): “Language teaching and power in Pakistan”, Joan L. G. Baart and Ghulam 38. W Apple, Michael (1980): Ideology and Curriculum, András Lánczi Hyder Sindhi, Pakistani Languages and Society: London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp.20, 21. Problems and Prospects, National Institute of Linguistic Studies in collaboration with Summer 39. Hobsbawn, Eric(1999): On History, London: Abstract Institute of Linguistics, Islamabad, p. 19. Abacus, p.35 Does power building differ under the conditions of different forms of government? 40. Qureshi, I. H (1962): The Muslim Community of the Or is Tilo Schabert right in his ’Boston Politics’ when he argues that there are 30. See, Allana, G.A. (2003): “Pakistani Society and princely figures in politics that „appeared at all times and all places”, and the the Problem of Linguistic Plurality”, Joan L. G. Indian Sub-Continent, p.164 prince is not just „one politician among many”? According to Schabert the Baart and Ghulam Hyder Sindhi, Pakistani 41. Nicholas Tarling (1998): op.cit. p.75 Languages and Society: Problems and Prospects, princes are more creative than other politicians, what is more, it is creativity National Institute of Linguistic Studies in collaboration 42. Brown, David (1996): Reconstructing Ethnic Politics that governs and not the government. This paper examines the central idea of with Summer Institute of Linguistics, Islamabad. in Southeast Asia. Western Australia: Asia Research Schabert’s thesis in a post-communist world making use of the classical distinction Centre on Social, Political and Economic Change, between political wisdom and practical political knowledge. The author also 31. See, Rahman, Tariq (1996): Language and Politics Murdoch University,p.4 analyses Plutarch’s view of the statesman, the characteristics of a Machiavellian in Pakistan, Karachi:OUP. prince, and the newly emerged conditions of governing in the post-communist 43. Afghanistan used the Pushtunistan card to bolster world with special emphasis on the Russian democracy that is based on the 32. See Rahman, Tariq (1998): “Politics of Punjabi the integrity of Afghanistan by emphasising the loss Teaching”, The News, September. of historical territories and the deprived rights of seeming paradox that a government may exist in order to not to govern. 33. The Census of Burma 1872, (Rangoon: Government Pakistani Pashtuns and Baluchis (Balochs). Kabul published more than fifty-nine books in Pashtu on Printing Press, 1872), p.27. Key Words: Creativity, Political Knowledge, Power, Machiavellism, Post-Communism different aspects of Pushtunistan. 34. The population of Burma by ethnic groups as per 1931 census is Burman group 9,627,196, Kuki- 44. The military action against the Baluchis for openly Chin 348,994, Kachin 153,345, Shan 1,037,406, opposing the unitisation policy hardened their Statement of the Problem universals and the latter one with the particulars? Karen 1,367,673, Indian 1,017,825, Chinese sentiments. If it is so, how can we connect the two, for if 193,594, European, Anglo-Indian 30,851 and The key to understanding the nature we fail to do that we might end up with being 45. The Pushtun nationalists gave primacy to a Pashtun of government is to be found in the old debate others 870,613. identity over a Mulim or a Pakistani. compelled to admit that political philosophy as between realists and political utopians of many political wisdom is totally useless; and 35. See, P. Kumstadter (1967): Southeast Asian Tribes, 46. See, Manzari, S. M (2003): “Ethnicity and Political Minorities and Nations, Princeton: Princeton kind. This controversy has several fields historians, who claim to be concerned only Process: The Pakistani Experience”, Strategic including the epistemological issues of political University Press. Studies, Islamabad, 23 (3), Autumn. with particulars, will gain an upper hand in the knowledge, the disagreements between debate with philosophers.1 At the bottom of 36. “The Mass Education Movement,” Burma: The 47. See, Taylor, Charles (1994): Multiculturalism and philosophers and historians, and the political tenth Anniversary, Vol. V111, No.2, Rangoon: 1958, the political clashes between liberals and the Politics of Recognition. Princeton: Princeton controversies of liberals wih conservatives. As pp.159-163). University Press. conservatives is to be attributed, by and large, for the status of political knowledge, the first to the problem whether government and systematic treatment of the subject goes back governing can be limited by rational means like to Plato and Aristotle. What is the difference institutions and norms, or, as conservative between political philosophy or wisdom and realists often voice, the fundamentals of practical wisdom? Is it that the first deals with wielding power always remain the same, i.e.

Dr András Lánczi is the Director for the Institute of Political Science, Corvinus University of Budapest. E-mail: [email protected]

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due to man’s ambiguous nature, the rules of In his seminal work “Boston Politics” conditions the gap between the two could be Between Acting and Making wielding power do not change. This realistic and elsewhere Tilo Schabert has been widened to an absurd degree: a country can In order to understand why political approach has a long history starting with suggesting that in all regimes we have be run for good many months without a knowledge and political wisdom have become ancient historians esp. Thucydides or Livy, politicians who are ’princes’, who “represent government (Belgium in 2007), or government an antagonism in terms of governing, we need conceptualized forcefully by Machiavelli, in one person the classical features of political can be used for the purpose of not to govern – to distinguish between acting and making. Le Machiavellian ideas partly taken up by Thomas leadership, or to use a classical term, i.e. government is just an excuse to pursue tus take a look at the ancient concept of the Hobbes, and the realistic view refashioned by statecraft”.3 The princely figures are a type personal or private group interests like in statesman who was supposed to unite political Carl Schmitt among others. On the other hand which has “appeared at all times and all Russia. The split is made possible on the basis wisdom and practical political knowledge. we have those political utopians like Plato, places”, and certainly is not just “one politician of the modern split between political wisdom When Plutarch wrote his Parallel Lives, he Locke, Rousseau or John Rawls who thought among many”. The princes have common and practical wisdom, already discussed by first did not mean to describe how a city or an that political power can be tamed, and by philosophers on the politeia. features without copying each other or knowing empire should be governed. What he knew means of justifying institutions man could about each other, and what they are in common In what follows I wish to contribute was that cities and empires are run by great change the character of politics. By the formal is that “they prouduce, in a general enactment to the understanding of government by men, and greatness depends on the acquisition end of communism, we all live in a post- of forms, the form that is enacted by their own contrasting political wisdom and political and practice of moral and intellectual virtues. communist world2, which may have brought conduct of government”. It means that a (practical) knowledge with the help of the He also knew that it is deeds rather than words about a new situation with regard to the prince is an originator or creator, an artist concept of creativity after the formal fall of that make a man great. He was also convinced understanding of what government is. The whose work cannot be repeated or copied – communism. I argue that postcommunist that deeds and their consequences can be failure of the communist experience, however, the prince himself is a form that produces world has been dominated by gnosticism compared on the basis of the political has not discredited the different representatives unlimited number of variations of government. more than ever which might be a sigh that in effectiveness of political deeds. It is man who of modern gnosticism. Just the opposite has Tilo Schabert states that “governing is formal or illiberal democracies authoritarian governs, and not the gods or institutions. He occured: the mainstream intellecutal trend in creativity”, and even goes as far as to declare processes and governing may flourish without could draw a parallel between Pericles, who a post-communist world has been nurtured by that “The creativity governs, not the openly challanging the idea of democracy. “presided in his commonwealth when it was different forms of gnosticism producing a post- government.” By saying this, he challenges the Democracy has become an ideology that is a in its most flourishing and opulent condition, post-modern mind that is characterized by a contemporary mainstream idea of government concentration of all previous gnostic great and growing in power”, and Fabius, “who historical determinism, also called ’progress’ that is focused on the institutionalized approach movements as it was elaborated by Eric undertook the government in the worst and entailing a cultural self-hatred, a hostility to government, and praises the procedure of Voegelin. I also claim that the split between most difficult times, was not to preserve and towards every form of ’substantialism’ or governing by establishing a set of rules of logic and rhetorics is a sign that rhetorics and maintain the well-established felicity of a ’essentialism’ thus creating a limitless space “good governance”. Contrary to general logic has made the natural difference, observed prosperous state, but to raise and uphold a for relativity, and a scientific arrogance against expectations, I assume that the focus on by Aristotle, betwen political wisdom and sinking and ruinous commonwealth”(Plutarch faith. The idea of government today is more creativity and accordingly on the political agent practical wisdom an antagonism.4 As a result, 2001: Comparison of Fabius and Pericles) And about institutions and procedures than about has increased due to the rise of the concept of the realist approach to what is political has been Plutarch did not found his comparison upon individuals who run them, thus the actual modern legitimacy of rule. Because of the sidelined by normative or utopian approaches considerations of the differences of forms of structure and working of power have been indispensability of legitimacy of wielding power that mistake the political for the general social state – it is man and not the type of political overshadowed by an ideology of democracy under modern conditions, postcommunist world character of man’s existence. The realist regime that produces differences in political that produces types of democracies as variants has just to face the split between the conditions approach would be concerned with effectiveness. In sharp contrast to antiquity, of the ideal type of democracy, and tacitly of government and the goals of government – acquisition as man’s urge in politics, and the the modern perception of political greatness contrasts democracy and authoritarian regime this is a fundamental difference between normative or utopian would focus on the and weakness is blurred by institutions like the as if the distinction would be absolute. The classical and modern practice of government. possible and the institutions that override all constitution, human rights, checks and reason for this is the neglect of political realism By classical standards the conditions and goals personal. The question still holds: who, and not balances, and by seemingly impersonal and with the creative politicians in focus. of government coincided, under modern what, governs? routine-like procedures. Modern conception of

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governing apparantly diminishes the role of the difference betwen practical wisdom and art the two, the acting and the making. Why are take him seriously. We would like to believe agent, and enhances the impact of political when he writes that “practical wisdom is a acting and making connected? Because that his insights can be retained and his mechanisms. According to Plutarch, following virtue and not an art”, although it is common practical wisdom “concerned with the ultimate extremism discarded, that his notion of the Aristotelian categorization of the regimes in both that “art and practical wisdom deal with particular fact” which is emphatically repeated esecuzione can be absorbed into modern or forms of government, it is not the number things that are variable”. Definition of art is by Aristotle (1141b-1142a). A politician acts liberal constitution without the tyrannical of those wielding power would decide which based on “things made” and “things done” individually but in accordance with practical requirement of uno solo that may give us a form of state is superior, but the quality of because “making and acting are different”, wisdom that is concerned not only with shiver or merely quaint.”(Mansfield 1996:314.) government. He only dinstinguishes between and “art”, like architecture, “is identical with a universals but “it must also recognize the But what if Machiavelli’s “extremism” is just tyrants and statesmen who observe the laws.5 state of capacity to make, involving a true particulars; for it is practical, and practice is the core or originality of his teaching? If Plutarch does not really deal with the people course of reasoning. All art is concerned with concerned with particulars”. But how can one “discarded”, what remains? Mansfield seems which can be “distempered”, “violent” and coming into being, i.e. with contriving and connect the universals with the particulars? to believe that constitutionalism is the remedy “fiery” but the main characteristic of it is that: considering how something may come into Only through reasoned action, i.e. a politician for the Machiavellian extremism. If it is true, “A people always minds its rulers best being which is capable of either being or not should “do things” as “manual labourers” do. then modern princes’ power should remain when it is neither humoured nor being, and whose origin is in the maker and What the doers do is nothing else than creation within constitutional arrangements, i.e. the oppressed.”(Plutarch 2001: The Comparison not in the thing made; for art is concerned – they create things that have not existed prince’s scope of creativity is limited seriously. of Poplicola with Solon) neither with things that are, or come into being, before. The difference between acting and But what if constitutionalism does not really by necessity, nor with things that do so in making is not absolute, though the form of curtail modern leaders’ sphere of action? What Plutarch’s view on government accordance with nature (since these have their connection between them may assume several if, except of life-long domination, modern ultimately rests on wisdom. We know by origin in themselves). Making and acting being forms. Reasoned action was the old advice. leaders use new means but their actions do Aristotle that “the soul possesses truth by way different, art must be a matter of making, not In modernity, however, a new solution was put not differ from any “uno solo” leadership? And of affirmation or denial are five in number, i.e. of acting.” Thus making implies creating forward by Hegel, for instance, who modern leaders can do the same, again, in a art (techne), scientific knowledge (episteme), something that has not yet existed and there is recommended that the natural distinction limited amount of time, what classical rulers practical wisdom (phronesis), philosophic no necessity to exist in the future. between acting and making could be overcome did for as long as fate allowed them to do? I wisdom (sophia), intuitive reason (nous)” by “history” that can unite thinking and acting, wish to argue that with the extension of But politics is concerned with action, (Nicomachean Ethics, Book VI., 1139b)) acting and making, the what is and the what democratic institutionalism worldwide, the for “Political wisdom and practical wisdom are Because Aristotle wants to explain what he ought to be. His suggestion has remained strict borderline between constitutionalism and the same state of mind, but their essence is means by each of these intellectual virtues, he dominant until today. uno solo leadership or princely governing has not the same. Of the wisdom concerned with demonstrates “practical wisdom” by saying always been flexible and superficial, and what the city, the practical wisdom which plays a “The creativity governs, not the “that we think Pericles and men like him have Tilo Schabert discovered by combining the controlling part is legislative wisdom, while that government” practical wisdom, viz. because they can see universal political wisdom with the practical which is related to this as particulars to their what is good for themselves and what is good One of the most relevant issues about wisdom of the particulars in his Boston universal is known by the general name for men in general; we consider that those can political action is whether Machiavelli Politics, is a strong case for the problematic ‘political wisdom’; this has to do with action do this who are good at managing households described the ideal type of a prince or he went opposition of the forms of government and the and deliberation, for a decree is a thing to be or states.” Thus government is a kind of into excesses, thus the force of his teaching art of politics. If Schabert is right, then not carried out in the form of an individual act. management. According to Plutarch a noble should be mitigated as it was suggested by only the classical prince should be reinvented This is why the exponents of this art are alone act combines “the highest valour, wisdom, and Harvey C. Mansfield in his book on but the classical distinction of the Aristotalian said to ‘take part in politics’; for these alone humanity” just with respect to the comparison Machiavelli: “With our hindsight from liberal regime typology that is more realistic in terms ‘do things’ as manual labourers ‘do things’.” of Pericles with Fabius. As a result we can constitutionalism, Machiavelli seems to have of what we can call “the best regime”. Or at So Aristotle seems to exclude creativity from not say that Plutarch favored “art” in matters gone too far. His statements ring true but his least the distinction between republics and politics since it has to do with action and of managing a state, instead he preferred conclusions seem exaggerated, and we fail to principalities voiced by Machiavelli ought to “practical wisdom”. Aristotle is clear about the deliberation. But the last sentence connects

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be taken into account again. If the prince is an the good or leave it, according to the dictate are inert in themsleves, it is always creation wisdom, the moderns, esp. from the late 20th eternal type of government, we should also of necessity (necessitá)”.(Voegelin 1998:78) or making that breathe life into them. century on, having found ’the’ best political consider Carl Schmitt’s concept of decisionism There are two ways of fighting the dilemma Governing can be likened to the activity of a order, called modern democracy, feel justified – there is always someone who decides things, that arises out of the tension between the one physician or a sheperd or a captain of a boat, not to bother about questions of the ’best and the act of deciding is governing itself. I and the many: the many is unable to discern but such metaphors fail to capture what that political order’. There is no need for political cannot see why we would regard liberal what is good, so the prince should be aware activity is what we call governing. Government wisdom either. The fundamental mistake is democracy sharply contrasted with other forms of this necessity, and very often, instead of is empty without creation, and to make things committed in the way they handle political of government – the boundaries are never using the laws, he must resort to force which worse, no institutional or constitutional knowledge. Having been satisfied with absolutely fixed in politics. is beastly, but unavoidable for the prince to frameworks could change the character of democracy, they believe that everything can preserve his power, i.e. to be successful. leadership. Even in constitutional orders, be managed with the practical knowledge of What makes a prince according to including democracies, there is no pattern that managers. Things should be managed not to Machiavelli? It is having power to execute. Otherwise the prince is a creator, he could be followed or imitated. A leader is be judged – Lenin did actually also believed Power to execute needs virtue that is hailed can “create a state” (Machiavelli 1998:20), always desperately alone and cannot avoid to that. Democracy has also evolved into an by him as Roman virtue to be identified in what is more, he can create a new order. That create if he wants to preserve his position and ideology that favors the faithful and eliminates politics and war. Therefore Machiavellian anyone can be creative is a modern power, i.e. to acquire. the renegades. If democracy is the best form virtue is the highest value of practical wisdom phenomenon, what is more, it has become part of government than the critics of it should be and could be studied by observing human of the democratic ideology.(6) The Greeks The Problem of Political Knowledge: cherished and not suppressed. The best order deeds. But virtue is nothing in itself, “it must thought that only a poet can be creative, i.e. Universal vs. Particular cannot be executed because it is the quest of be for the sake of something else; its end is the poet can make a brand new thing, the artists One of the oldest problems of political the best order that saves us from ourselves acquisition”. (Mansfield 1996:13) Acqusition simply imitated reality. The Romans had their knowledge is how to bridge the gap between and the actualization of the best regime – this is made mandatory because of necessity: own word for it (’creatio) but it did not have the universal and the particular. Political realism is a universalization of a particular experience, “Necessity means the necessity to acquire; so political meaning until Cicero who already would dictate that all we can know about the Western experience, which may and may men cognizant of necessity must devote them- flirted with the idea of the statesman being politics is description of past political events not be good. A regime is good as long as it can selves to acquisition.” (Mansfield 1996:15) But creative. To a large extent Machiavelli became (history is but the politics of the past) and all secure liberty for the individuals, whether it is what is this necessity? Machiavelli says that the initiator of modernity because he gave a generalization is useless, although “political democracy or another form of government, man has a natural desire to acquire. As a political meaning to the concept of creation: a controversy has a natural tendency to express cannot be verified empirically. But looking at consequence necessity is also “natural” and politician can also be a creator, and he should itself in universal terms”, because “a man who politics realistically, the natural tendency to “ordinary”. (Machiavelli 1998:8.) Necessity be so under certain circumstances. If the defends democracy in Athens cannot help acquire and to preserve cannot be changed cannot be reduced to one particular thing, since changes of time that lift and drop anyone, the using arguments in favor of democracy as by changing the form of government. it is a natural condition of one’s preserving most urgent need is to create conditions under such”.(Strauss 1989:55) It seems also an Machiavelli’s prince the archytype of all able power. Machiavelli’s “necessity” serves a which someone can ensure the desired unshakeable truth that today’s political science leaders, and only the democratic ideology deterministic purpose, the concept of outcome, or at least he can try to control fate still does not want to deal with the question of wants us to depart from reality, and we fail to “necessity” paves the way for later thinkers’ or fortune. Accordingly in a world where the best political order. Strauss’s words are discern that institutions are run by persons. fundamental teaching about self-preservation. traditions are no longer binding, creation is not still relevant: “The most striking difference Democracy is never the work of the “people” The famous tenet about the unsourmantable optional but mandatory. It is true for all walks between classical political philosophy and but of the few individuals called the elite. This distance between what is and what ought to of modern life with special emphasis on politics present day political science is that the latter is why the issue of legitimacy can be raised be (Machiavelli 1998:Ch. 15.), led Machiavelli despite the contradiction that if modern man is no longer concerned at all with what was with respect of all – old and new – to study the minimum conditions of power. Eric wants to ensure the outcome, he must rely upon the guiding question for the former: the question democracies of the world. Voegelin has a point here to add that “who institutions which, due to their internal logic, of the best political order.”(Ibid.:50) For ancient strives to be good must perish among the many would easily degenerate into a spiritless What a statesman knows about thinkers the difference was to be studied who are not good. Hence a prince must do bureaucracy, or get corrupted. But institutions politics is a mixture of his personal experience, between political wisdom and practical

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successes and failures, of what he read and I are in agreement, my chief quarrel with the Chaos. The concept of chaos rightly chaotic but powerful rule of which you will be heard about politics. The maker or actor of present state of the historical and political plays a central role in Schabert’s argument for the sole master.”(Schabert 1989:42) Chaos is politics, however, is not concerned with sciences is their growing incapicity for the idea that “creativity governs”. There are, needed to establish and preserve power. The generalizing his experience – all he wants is making distinctions.”(Arendt 1994:407) Lack however, two conflicting views about chaos question is if liberal conception of power, based to achieve success, accomplish his plans, and of distinctions, an insight borrowed from in our culture. According to Greek authors, on a contract and reconciliation of interests seek support for his deeds including Carl Schmitt’s On the Concept of the chaos preceded order, whereas the Christian by negotiation, can offset the reality of power. justification for his deeds. In this respect I Political, is a sign of an overambitious effort account of order, at least the argument of Liberals probably err on the judgment of their agree with Tilo Schabert in that “Political to reduce reality to a method or a form of creation which declares that existence is to own methods because they fail to distinguish science can be as objective, as ’empirical’ and government that overlooks the natural be thanked to “creatio ex deo”, strictly limits between the conditions and the goals of power. as ’hard’ and experimental as the natural features of politics, such as the nature of creation to God’s omniscient planning. The These two can never be identitfied unless one sciences. Strictly considered, political science execution. Because of the modern needs of Greek ’gaping void’ is described by Ovid as thinks that legitimacy of power can be fully is even more experimental than natural science one’s legitimatization, the nature of things is “a crude and indigested mass, a lifeless lump, rationalized. What has been evolving in the because, to use Vico’s words, the “political to be controlled by separating political unfashioned and unframed, of jarring seeds and modern age is a dichotomy of the goals and world surely was made by men, and its entities from each other, e.g. separation of justly Chaos named”(Metamorphoses, I.7), conditions of power. The tendency shows that principles therefore can be found in the powers, as if in reality action could be and gods being born out of this “lifeless lump” the more depoliticized, ie.made rational, politics constructive life of our human mind”. separated from its own nature. are the first symbols of order, though showing is, the more efforts should be exerted to create (Schabert 2005:235) Schabert is a stubborn Generalizations in the field of political the elements of man’s proneness to condtions for preseving power. Chaos in a realist this is why he seems to be resistent to science, which is a natural tendency, can distempered or disorderly behavior. And it is liberal or plural society is intentionally caused all sort of ideology including the ideology of have effect or relevance if the incessant true that the Christian idea of “creatio ex nihilo” not only by those having the executive power, democracy. A political leader even in a interplay between acting and thinking is is very close to the Greek explanation of but all the political agents who are involved in democracy should have to be aware of the maintained by way of creativity. But one creation. Whatever is the first cause, chaos is democratic politicy-making in contrast to the nature of power, otherwise he loses his position should not forget that even creativity is only the initial stage in existence, and the rational functioning of institutions. The more and his self-esteem. His ’necessitá’ is to politicized, it is part of the political practice. moment man appeared on earth, his existence universal one’s claim to power is, the bigger preserve himself with no concern with the aims depended on the perception of order. But Modern conditions of power, or Plato, chaos one has to face; and the bigger the chaos of his power. A decision is never democratic, parallelly to forming symbols of order, man has the manager in modernity government has is, the more rules or elements of the modern only in name, for it cannot be, because creation been struggling with chaos. It is so because it tended to become a question of management executive would have to be used which is is always individual – the idea should be born is man who makes chaos and then realize that as if power can be limited by rules of founded on the separation or liberation of the first, the execution comes afterwards. It is very chaos exists. All creation follows natural laws procedure. By the distinction of conditions of executive “from its clear subordination to law rare that the same idea is born in two or more except man who thinks that it is him who can government, i.e. power building, and the goals and its connection to justice”.(Mansfield different minds, but if yes, only one of them is create things, i.e. he is the creator of himself. of government, Tilo Schabert managed to 1996:302) John Rawls’s suggestion to replace regarded the first – and sometimes it is decided It is him who enacts laws that he likes to pinpoint the secret of modern power – i.e. justice by fairness is just an intellectual on the basis of power. The Hobbesian “might consider similar to the force of natural laws. modern government has to face constant need expression of the modern conditions. Modern is right” can only be limited but the core of all But the matter of fact is that man cannot follow for legitimacy in order to maintain the executive has become more and more power building is based on this idea going back the rules of his own imperfect laws, therefore appearance of “democracy as ideology”, entangled in rational legitimizing of the to Plato’s treatment of the same subject in the he is the victim of his own utopianism, and whereas the elite does what it pleases to do. conditions of power, whereas a never seen Republic. another aftermath is that governing, which is If power building is the essence of government conncerned with particular things, cannot take multiplication of executive goals have emerged How serious the question is just from the personal point of view, it does not place other than in a chaos that is produced in a postcommunist world, or as Schabert further specified by the exchange between deny the need to observe the actual changing by man. And he does it on purpose, Tilo suggests, “The government has to be a Voegelin and Arendt. Arendt writes in conditions of power, the starting-point of which Schabert writes: “If you steadily apply these government of as many committess as there response to Voegelin: “Professor Voegelin and is chaos all the time and everywhere. methods [cf. footnote no. 7] you will erect a are issues – currently, of course.”(Schabert

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1989:232) The balance of the political and of the politician and not the man in general. Media or creation of a virtual “I don’t really see women in [female] terms”. public policy has, seemingly, powerfully shifted Machiavelli devoted a lot of attention to the world. Another condition of the scope of (Ibid:229) Today feminism of various types is from the previous to the latter, this is the reason qualities of the people, which he regarded political action, at least in the past few decades, based on the assumption that all social and for the proliferation of commissions, ungrateful, fickle, pretenders, dissemblers, is connected with the demands of mass media political institutions are constructed, which committees and the like do not look evaders of danger, eager for gain and rebellious or political marketing. A successful poitician means that everything could be constructed superfluous. etc., but it did not occur to him to change the should be able to use the media as part of his differently. This is quintessential gnosticism; character of the people. It is something given creative arsenal. What is striking with the the stake is not that it is men or women who The scope of political action. It is and taken for granted, and more powerful than media is not that is manipulative or more govern but the feminist construction of political noteworthy, however, to determine the scope any virtue. It is Machiavelli who discovers the effective use of propaganda, but the intimacy knowledge rests on the assumption that of action of a politician. There is a gap people for politics. But he professed that a of the politician’s face that is presented to knowledge can be “genderized”, strengthening between a statesman of antiquity and a politician should have to be able to handle the everyone. Politicians of the old days kept a the erroneous opposition of political wisdom politician of the modern age. The emphasis of attitude and inclinations of the people – the good distance to the people, and even if he and practical wisdom, as if wisdom, based on political action in antiquity was more on foreign only necessity of the prince is not to improve had wanted to get as close as possible to the human experience and thinking, is worth next policy and war, whereas the modern politician his character but to learn how to calculate or people, very few of them could see the face to nothing. As if wisdom expressing the most should also have to focus upon public policy predict the behavior of the people with the sole of a statesman. So it is not enough for a comprehensive and universal thought could be issues like education, health-care etc. The purpose of preserving power. Power is what politician today to act according to the mirrors relativized and replaced by a newly Roman state, for instance, had only a duty to it has always been. With the rise of the concept of a prince, but he has to be able to regulate constructed political knowledge. collect taxes, field an army, maintain civil peace of the innocent and good man, suggested his facial appearance and the whole body and administer justice for the wealthy and free Taking these points together, one mainly by Rousseau, a route was opened up language should serve the purpose of hiding citizens. J. E. Lendon writes: “The Roman would be inclined to accept James Burnham’s to ameliorate people by education and by bare power expressed by unintended Government did not undertake to provide food, insight in the middle of the 20th century, that establishing better institutions. People are good, metacommunicative means. And it is not just housing, mass education, or any of the manifold “In the simplest terms, the theory of the counterbalancing the realist view of man by the TV, but all the relevant means that social services taken for granted from modern managerial revolution asserts merely the Machiavelli, only the politicians are morally contribute to the building of a virtual reality of governments.” (Lendon 1997: 2.) A further following […] The conclusion of this period bad. In institutions, especially in written politics. Blogs are to be reckoned with, difference in scope is that ancient statesmen of transformation, to be expected in the constitutions, we can trust, as if although man cameras or picture shooting devices are looked upon the “people” as a chaotic mass. comparatively near future, will find society himself cannot be perfected, but his products, everywhere – the private life of a politician They did not want to change the character of organized through a quite different set of major the institutions could be. Thus the scope of has so much shrunk that he does it good, if he the people, which would have been a sheer economic, social, and political institutions and government has shifted from the statesman to does not try to hide it, but make an image of it nonsense in their eyes, but had wanted to exhibiting quite different major social beliefs the institution, by which the relevance of action making use of real elements to create a virtual improve themselves. Plutarch is helpful again: or ideologies. Within the new social structure as such was diminished, or more precisely, reality of his private life (cf. Pres. Sarkozy’s “For as the hunter considers the whelp itself, a different social group or class – the managers concealed, and the procedures or mechanisms private life). Thus creativity and virtuality go not the bitch, and the horsedealer the foal, not – will be the dominant or ruling of government were highlighted suggesting that hand in hand, and postcommunist reality is best the mare (for what if the foal should prove a class.”(Burnham 1973:74) Burnham was right the intellectual core of governing is to be found described by the intended images created by mule?), so likewise were that politician in perceiving that a new era of transformation in the workings of institutions. The secret of the politician. extremely out, who, in the choice of a chief would enhance the importance of managing modern politics is how to hide the real magistrate, should inquire, not what the man Feminism. Schabert was already alert the more and more complex of economic and conditions of power, if people had known them, is, but how descended” (Comparison of to the problem of feminism with respect to social issues but he failed to notice that the they would completely refuse politics without Lysander with Sylla) It is the politician who positive discrimination (cf. Schabert 1989:228), conditions of using power require old and tried being aware that what they get is perhaps can excel himself, and not the people which is but the full potential of this issue has evolved methods creatively applied to new better than what they would get if bare power whimsical and the behavior of which is difficult to a more status since the 1980s. Kevin White circumstances – he also right to understand would be put to show. to calculate. So the scope is the perfectibility could swerve the gender issue by saying that the nature of rule, that leaders are

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indispensable, but he was mistaken to turn continuity”(Ibid:224) But in the case of negation of cosmic order enimating from a know and apply execution as universal Plato into a manager. This attempt is nothing postcommunist change of regime, it is not the spiritual entity. For communists government is technique including all “the seven elements of else than one of the attempts to crush political institutions but the politicians who are the purely arbitrary, serves group interests, and its the modern executive”7; and they practice wisdom in the name of an ever improving carriers of continuity. Institutions were conditions and goals could be changed what Tilo Schabert named as “Boston Mirror political knowledge. Unfortunately the changed, including the constitutions, but intentionally. According to communist truth for Magistrates”.8 In a postcommunist world, deceptive character of Burnham’s suggestion communist politicians remained using new allegedly found, the different levels of it is the postcommunists who possess real has proved to be influential in the symbols and images: the moment it was understanding of political issues are brought power because they have preserved the postcommunist world. Postcommunist world possible, they became the creative carriers of together by an overall ideology that is very conditions of power that they had extablished is partly the product of creativity of politicians a new regime. It was possible only because close to the situation described by Voegelin as before the technical or institutional change of like Ronald Reagan or Margaret Thatcher or people were simply ignorant of what follows: “The reality experienced and the political system. They preserved their Michael Gorbachev, partly of social government is about, and what role politicians symbolized by everyman’s conscious existence networks, including secret agencies, engineering that replaced truth by fairness long play with making institutions work. On a more was to be replaced by the Second Reality of economic sector, cultural positions, and ago. But it is also true that Plato would have general level people were dissatisfied with their speculation…”(Voegelin 2000:65). Communism elements of civil society. Since the to fail unless we could justify his ideas by communist regimes in so far they did not experimented with founding government on legitimacy of the post-communist societies implementing his tenets – but he, unfortunately, function like the ones in the West. Once focusing on man’s beastly part to achieve depend on the symbolic catching up with earthly paradise, which meant to satisfy all does not have tenets. With his open-ended postcommunists introduced Western symbols western civilization and capitalist economic human needs. So the problem of political conversations he could maintain the unity of and images under the name of system change, development, in these countries privatization knowledge was solved by a second reality reason between political wisdom and practical democratization, and Westernization, the whole has been the political issue, and everyone produced by a total ideology dedicated to political knowledge. Postcommunist reason has issue boiled down to a merely pragmatic close enough to the center of power has concentrate power in the hands of those a profound concern to preserve the split problem: all we need is a new set of institutions. been active to capture the state by means understanding the secret of history. Ideology, between Logic and Rhetorics (cf. note no. 4.), Ideologically controlled societies came under informed by history, has become modern man’s of carving out as large a portion of private the conditions of modern egalitarian power can the ideology of a postcommunist amalgam of response to the dichotomy of political wisdom property as they can thus using government only be maintained in a postcommunist country what Voegelin detected as the different forms and practical wisdom. If Tilo Schabert is right, for not to govern. The clear case is that of if you strictly separates truth (Rhetorics) from of gnosticism: “By gnostic movements we then creativity, a mediator between political Russia. Ivan Krastev has a point: “Managed the formal democratic framework (Logic) that mean such movements as progressivism, wisdom and practical wisdom, must have democracy is a political regime that liberates the ideology of democracy mandates. positivism, Marxism, psychoanalysis, fascism, functioned under communism as well. And it the elite from the necessity of governing and and national socialism.” (Voegelin1968:83) gives them time to take care of their personal Government in a Postcommunist World functioned, because communists initially did not Each of these movements had either a political care about exposing power in its bare and nude business.”(Krastev 2006:59) By “managed What kind of an order is the or an intellectual chance to implement its vision form. Later they came to understand that the democracy” Krastev means the most postcommunist world? What are the symbols or exert an influence. Progressivism and bareness of politics or power should be characteristic of postcommunist government of this new world? Is it new at all? Schabert’s positivism, hand in hand, dominated the 19th concealed, this was the period of “reform – the capabality of using and preserving statement that “A human community exists century, the other four had their momentum in communism” in a few communist countries power of the communist elite by means of through its government or it does not the 20th century. Communism was the last like Poland or Hungary. Secondly, therefore, power techniques so eloquentley described exist.”(Schabert 1989:266) cannot solve the trying to establish an order based on the communists, confronted with the nature or by Machiavelli. It is an insight corroborating problem of what he calls the paradox of creatio transformation of “the history of order” into reality of power, managed to acquire creativity to the statement that it is creativity that continua. In this sense the postcommunist “the order of history”. The order of history of government: first, they seized power, then governs – the only difference is that in a world is not new. But it is not new in the sense was perceived as historical determinism learned the lesson of Machiavellian wielding postcommunist country the mechanisms of of a new beginning either – because it is combined with progressivism and an overt power. Postcommunists, who were yesterday power are less concealed, the creation of stricken by ’a practical paradox’, a problem hostility against metaphysics or visions of order communists, are completely aware of the the conditions of power are more important that requires “institutions: carriers of that have transcendental roots. Atheism is a demands of creativity of government – they than the goals of power.

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The most touchy issue for they make absolute, even antagonize their political behavior that are calculable – the and not how they should do them. It is only postcommunists is the source of their relationship by the neutral assistance of institutions and the behavior of political agents, then that political wisdom and practical wisdom legitimacy. They changed the focus of the modern political science, creating a virtual and thus it has become apological. Thus will be linked again reclaiming the name of legitimacy of their power. First there was, and reality in which the politician as such is not modern political science tends to shun the most the master science. remained all through, the communist ideology important, but he is an expert who can manage important element of politics which is power promising a better earthly living, second, after things under any circumstances thus excluding because that would require a comprehensive Notes the gradual disillusionment with the symbols the last bit of a link between power and and universal approach to politics. Post- of communism, communists claimed morality. And Machiavelli is smiling again. behavioralist political science realizing how 1. An outspoken example is given by Robert Kagan who wrote that “I learned from my father that the “pragmatism” and “management skills” with serious the problem is has returned to the Conclusion problem with Straussians was that they were which they can govern. Thus they have relied original issues of politics but due to its modern ahistorical. They were consumed with the great upon the managerial concept of government, The oldest problem of political science scientific foundations everything they start thinkers and believed the great thinkers were but as a consequence of system change, they is whether the knower can overbridge the gap dealing with comes very close to a normative- engaged in a dialogue with one another across have also grown on the combination of between wisdom and knowledge (the universal ideological standard. Even classical political time. This made Straussians slight the historical positivist pragmatism, historical determinism, circumstances in which great thinkers did their aspect and the particular one) was already philosophy has become ideological (turning thinking. Indeed, my father, the historian, taught and liberal management of confronting systematically handled by Aristotle. He Plato into a manager) just because of the me to mistrust not only Straussians but also interests. Already the name, “system change”, distinguished between political wisdom and misunderstood nature of political knowledge. political philosophy in general, and I have pretty betrayes that communism was put an end to practical wisdom as if they were of different And ideology is just another means of much done so – though, again, I have to admit it primarily in an institutionalized sense. essences, which I can only accept if we concealing political reality. This is why the is partly because I find it hard to understand.” “I am not a Straussian. At least, I do not think I Postcommunist world has developed a new understand it as an epistemological insight. study of democracy has unavoidably turned ideology the hub of which includes democracy am. The Weekly Standard, 02/06/2006, Volume Under modern conditions the Aristotelian into a universalist ideology (cf. Amartya Sen 011, Issue 20. as a civil religion, positivism, and epistemological distinction was made radical, 1999) Postcommunism has its own universalist 2. Richard Sakwa says that after the fall of progressivism. Their creativity is founded on and the two were contrasted as if they ideology that is composed of all the old elements international interests (to avoid an unpredictable communism, in a broader sense, we all live in a belonged to different realities, as if the knower of modern assumptions about knowledge showdown with communists), the exhaustion post-communist world. Cf. Postcommunism. could place himself outside politics. Modern summarized by Voegelin as gnosticism, and London: Open University Press, 1999. see esp. of revolutionary imagination, and their skillful science antagonized the connection between new elements like the changing concept of ’the p.3. preservation of the conditions of their power. political wisdom and practical wisdom demos’ (cf. European Union seeking a demos), Now they are the main beneficiaries of the 3. Tilo Schabert: A Classical Prince: The Style of (knowledge) claiming that the knower can step a shift to public policies from the political, and Francois Mitterand. In: B. Cooper and Ch. R. privatization, they control the media, the outside politics, and can take a so-called the feminist conception of political Embry (eds.): Philosophy, Literature, and cultural background of their power, and the objective position which is based on distancing constructivism. Politics. Essays Honoring Ellis Sandoz. virtual reality of the postcommunist world in Columbia-London: University of Missouri which symbols and images create a second the knower from reality. By this move, modern The only way out of this intellectual Press, 2005. reality just as vague as political power has political science separated political reality from and political impasse is the return to reality political knowledge – what the politicians do and the unity of reason split into Logic and 4. Stephen Toulmin described the rival views of always been for the ordinary people. What is reason thus: “The analysis of theoretical more, by preserving the conditions of their is purely arbitrary and are the playthings of Rhetorics. The difference between political arguments in terms of abstract concepts, and the power, they can interpret their own communist conditions. What they know about is no more wisdom and practical wisdom is relative and insistence on explanations in terms of universal past. They own the past which is the greatest than what they do, a kind self-awareness not substantive. Modern political science has laws – with formal, general, timeless, context- source of their legitimacy and creativity – without meeting any requirements of modern mainly been dealing with second reality of free, and value-neutral arguments – is nowadays things should not take place otherwise. Their science. On the other hand, modern political politics. One should return to the relevant issues the business of Logic; the study of factual narratives about the particular objects or political knowledge lost touch with seeking science developed a scientific position that of politics, and it is power, the conditions of situations, in the form of substantive, timely, truth, they simply make use of the split betwen concentrates upon particulars and pays power and not justice, the politician, and not local, situation-dependent, and ethically loaded political wisdom and practical wisdom, which attention only to those elements of politics and the institutions, the way politicians make things, argumentation, is at its best a matter for Rhetoric.”

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(Return to Reason. Harvard University Press, for government is best done suddenly; the value of Schabert, Tilo (1989): Boston Politics: The Creativity L. Pangle, The University of Chicago Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2001. p.24) This distinction is secrecy in order to gain surprise; and the of Power, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin-New York. Chicago-London. crucial in understanding the nature of political necessity of the single executive, “one alone”, to science, and its ambiguous place among social take on himself the glory and the Schabert, Tilo (2005): “A Classical Prince: The Style Voegelin, Eric (1968): Science, Politics and sciences in modern times. Toulmin’s pithy blame”(Mansfield 1996:298). of Francois Mitterand”, B. Cooper and Ch. R. Gnosticism, Henry Regnery Company, Chicago. description applied for political knowledge brings Embry (eds.): Philosophy, Literature, and Voegelin, Eric (1998): “The Collected Works of Eric out the salience of the ancient distinction between 8. Tilo Schabert summerized the technique of Politics. Essays Honoring Ellis Sandoz, political wisdom and practical political knowledge. creativity of power by enumerating the practical University of Missouri Press, Columbia- Voegelin”, Vol. 22, History of Political Ideas”, actions of a prince-like magistrate: divide et London. Vol. IV, Renaissance and Reformation, 5. Suffice here to refer, for example, to the comparison impera, prevent the existence o fan umbrella University of Missouri Press, Columbia-London. of Lysander and Sylla. Plutarch found that “which group whoch covers the realm of your power, Sen, Amartya (1999): “Democracy as Universal was common to them both was that they were do not establish precise lines of authority, keep Value,” Journal of Democracy, 10.3. Voegelin, Eric (2000): “Order and History”, Volume V, Search of Order: The Collected Works of Eric founders of their own greatness” but were responsibilities blurred, make overlapping Strauss, Leo (1989): “On Classical Political Voegelin, University of Missouri Press, different in that “Lysander had the consent of assignments, foment competition, engage several Philosophy”, The Rebirth of Classical Political Columbia-London. his fellow-citizens, in times of sober judgment, agencies in projects on similar turf, distribute Rationalis, Selected and Introduced by Thomas for the honours he received; nor did he force from time to time chips of influence among your anything from them against their good-will, nor aides, launch periodically into a shake-up of the hold any power contrary to the laws.” Or little governmental apparats, shuffle the personnel, further we read that Lysander was “more create two layers of government, a visible and agreeable to law than Sylla”. (In: The invisible one, by splitting governmental positions Comparison of Lysander with Sylla) There are into nominal and real functions, become an expert several other references that make this distinction in substituting a web of personal relationships between a statesman who acts in accordance with for the system of government (Schabert 1989:41). the laws, and the one that disregards them. But it is important to note that it is “greatness” that decides the judgment of a statesman, all other References aspects of a statesman are secondary.

6. Cf. Richard Florida’s The Rise of the Creative Arendt, Hannah (1994): Essays in Understanding 1930- Class in which he suggests that we are all equal 1954, Schocken Books, New York. with respect to creativity – we have to just Burnham, James (1973 [1941]): The Managerial discover it. Cf. The Rise of the Creative Class. Revolution, Indiana University Press. Basic Books, New York, 2002. Krastev, Ivan (2006): “Democracy’s Doubles”, Journal 7. Harvey C. Mansfield devoted a separate chapter of Democracy, April, Vol. 17. to “Machiavelli and the Modern Executive” where he pointed out the centrality of execution Lendon, J. E (1997): Empire of Honour: The Art of in Machiavelli’s works, and wrote that “Seven Government in the Roman World, Clarendon Press, elements of the modern executive originate in Oxford. Machiavelli: the political use of punishment; the primacy of war and foreign affairs over peace Machiavelli, Niccoló (1998): The Prince, Translated and and domestic affairs, which generally increases introduced by Harvey C. Mansfield, The the occasions for emergency; the use of indirect University of Chicago Press, Chicago-London. government, when ruling is perceived to be Mansfield, Harvey C (1996): Machiavelli’s Virtue, The executing on behalf of someone or some group University of Chicago Press, Chicago-London. other than the ruler; the occasions of differences among regimes as wholes, through the discovery Plutarch (2001): Parallel Lives, Random House. or develepment of techniques of governing Comparison of Fabius and Pericles, Translated applicable to all regimes; the need for decisiveness, by John Dryden.

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Displaced People and Their Issues of Human Rights freedom of the thought and speech. The basic · Right to adequate standard of living including attributes of human rights clarifies that adequate food, shelter and clothing. Somenath Bhattacharjee everyone has the: · Right to work and to basic labour Ø Right to life, liberty and security of a protection. person. · Right to live in a healthy and safe Abstract Human Rights actually refers to those elemental rights which any human deserves Ø Right to a nationality, individual dignity. environment. to have honoured in order to survive, enjoy well being and flourish or fulfill him · Basic right of education. or herself by virtue of being a human. But today the wave of new world order, Ø Right to culture and religious freedom. · Basic right to avail the highest possible exploitative attitude, consumerism and greed of a few are refuting the needs of Ø Right to justice. many. In this regard, along with a number of factors the issues related with the standard of health. displacement of population has emerged as a major one. Particularly due to this Ø Right to social security and is entitled to (Source: PDHRE, 2008) factor the concerned people have to loss their permanent settlement, stable realization through national effort and economic pursuit and they are forced to face severe inconveniences in every international co-operation and in It is to be mentioned here that, aspects of their livelihood. Ultimately the different aspects of their fundamental accordance with the organization and displacement is one of the important factor that human rights are being seriously violated. These issues have been observed resources of each state of the economic, influence the socio-economic and other among the stone crushers of Balasan River bed, who were displaced from their social and cultural rights indispensable for institutional changes in the society. The traditional earlier settlement and are struggling for their common minimum livelihood. his dignity and the free development of culture, norms and values undergo change to cope his personality. up with the new physical and socio-cultural setting. Often in such case the fundamental Key Words: Human Rights, Displacement, Identity crisis, Daily livelihood, Inconveniences. (Source: PDHRE, 2008) human rights of the concerned people are But at present there are a number of being seriously violated and their survival comes factors which severely tell upon the in front of a serious challenge. These issues have Introduction of Human Rights spells out individual rights fundamental human rights of a large number been observed among a section of people who and freedom for everyone as well as Magna of people. Among these factors, the issues were settled in Bangladesh in earlier and due to Carta for all humanity. The fundamental Human Rights are for the human related with the displaced and refugee people displacement they took refuge in India. aspect of Human right is to share a common being. It is gaining much importance in the deserves a special attention and in such cases vision and a common purpose to secure the Studied Area and the People present world scenario and refers to those mostly the political factors become the prime elemental rights which any human deserve to freedom, well being and dignity of all people cause. Actually the refugees are extremely Ever since the independence, India is have honoured in order to survive, enjoy well throughout the entire world. The legislations displaced people who have a well founded fear facing the issue of migration and refugee being and flourish him or herself by virtue of of human rights states very clearly that, all of persecution in their countries of origin and problem. Since then nearly 35-40 million people human being. Today the wave of new world human being are born free and are equal in hence they are unwilling to return. The new have moved across the borders in the Indian order, exploitative attitude, consumerism and dignity and rights. They are endowed with human order is holistic in vision and operation subcontinent. During the political turmoil of greed of a few are refuting the needs of many. reason and conscience and should act towards and therefore, in the larger semantic sweep Bangladesh in 1971 ten million people fled from As a result, human rights are facing an acute one another in a spirit of brotherhood. It should of human rights, humanitarian jurisprudence East Pakistan to India. Today there are 2, global crisis and its reconciliation is very secure the freedom from discrimination, and refugee rights are also included. They 50,000 refugees in India (Sreedevi, 2008:53). urgently needed. The Universal Declaration freedom from fear, freedom from injustice, have the fundamental right to: In this context the present study has been done · Equal protection of law. in North Bengal located in the Northern region of West Bengal. The phenomenon of · Right to a nationality. Mr Somenath Bhattacharjee is a Research Fellow of the Department of Anthropology, North Bengal University Cam- migration has an immense importance in the pus, India. E-mail: [email protected]. · Right to life. context of North Bengal.

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Regarding the population growth and economic In this regard it is to be mentioned here that migrated Rajbansis are living in the Balasan collected through field work was analyzed in development of the said region, the importance the Rajbansis are one of the early settlers of River Bed by forming a Colony named as detail to know about the various factors related of migration can never be overstated. The North Bengal and Bangladesh. They were “Balasan Colony”. The study was done on 200 with the daily livelihood of the concerned people. existence of three international borders viz. primarily depended on agriculture. Their way families of the said colony who were engaged Livelihood of the Concerned People before Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan have of life and mode of behaviour were totally with stone based economy. The studied Migration contributed to a continuous flow of migrants based on folk culture. Their existences were families had 1012 populations, with 507 males in this region. Therefore North Bengal is totally enmeshed with their land and and 505 females; and the sex ratio was 997. In the studied area most of the achieving a remarkable experience of steady neighbours. They shared their merriments The stone collection, stone crushing and the families belonged to the Rajbansis which is the and continuous flow of migrants from different commonly. But the dimension of time, place related socio-economic scenario had a direct dominant scheduled caste group of North places (Data, 2003:16). The population of and situations are always changing. In 1971, impact on their livelihood, cultural aspects and Bengal. It is to be noted that the early North Bengal has risen continuously through there occurred a severe political unrest in particularly to the issues related with their settlement of the studied families were in the past century, from an initial level of 0.27 Bangladesh. As a result a huge number of human rights. These have been discussed here Bangladesh. They were the villagers and their crore and a settlement density of 12.5 persons people were forced to leave their early one after another. prime occupational pursuit was settled per sq.km in 1891. The population growth in settlement; occupation and they become agriculture. They were far from urban the region during the first part of the last migrants. Question of daily existence was a Methodology Applied accessories and their livelihood was confined century was directly attributable to the prime factor for the migrated, landless and The entire study has been done within the villages. Their daily existence had a proliferation of tea plantations. Further almost resourceless people who were devoid through intensive field work. In this regard deep co relation with the surrounding acceleration was noticed after 1947 because of any source of income. Thus the land Preliminary Census schedule was applied on environment. They utilized the natural of massive population migration associated pressure due to continuous increase in 200 stone crushing families to collect data about resources as raw materials to fulfill their population and the lack of purchasing capacity with India’s partition and its aftermath their period of migration, cause of migration, requirements like food, dress and shelter in forced them to search for a permanent daily livelihood. Although they were not (Mondal, 2007:132-133). As such the occupational change, present occupational occupation to give a backbone regarding their economically wealthy, but their livelihood was population in the region which was 39, 61,000 pursuits, daily working schedule, education, establishment as early as possible. In this quite secured because they could easily according to the 1951 Census, was raised to marital status, age at first marriage and first regard Siliguri is the most important place and accumulate their common minimum 1, 47, 24,940 in 2001. This growth is due to child, concept of health, disease and treatment it is the largest urban centre of North Bengal. essentialities from the surrounding environment normal population growth as well as and their daily food habit. Further, interviews Still it is a developing urban centre. Many rivers without any financial expenditure. Agriculture immigration. Owing to locational and other were taken from the key informants to know like Mahananda, Balasan, pass through the was their prime economic pursuit and in this advantages, many people from the other states about their early settlements, their previous heart of the Siliguri town and natural resources regard the entire family was related with the in India and also from neighbouring countries like boulder, stone, sand come downward from socio- cultural practices and concerned work. Their family type was joint in nature like Bangladesh, Nepal and Tibet etc are also the high hilly regions. These natural resources changes of those issues due to migration. and strong kinship bondage was prevailed settled in North Bengal (Mondal, 2007:132). are used as the raw materials for various urban Interview was also taken about the formation among the family members. They always Most of the migrants in this region have come constructions and it emerged out as the only of the colony and the factors related with the participated in each others will and woe. They from Bangladesh because hunger, poverty, earning source for a large number of people. stone crushing occupation. There after, case had their own traditional cultural practices and security threat recognize no border (Datta, studies were taken on the people regarding it was enculturated through generation after 2005:147). Meanwhile, India shares 4095 The stone field of Balasan River bed their suffering from different diseases. It also generation. They had a number of religious kilometers of border with Bangladesh while thus became unquestionably the best option emphasized about their way of treatment and festivals among which a few were related with West Bengal has a border of 2216 kilometer for them because this working involvement their hindrances over the treatment. Further, their traditional agricultural occupation. All of running with it. According to the estimate of does not need any kind of capital investment. the interviews of the higher administrative those festivals were celebrated by the entire Border Police Department about 1,000 Moreover the Balasan River bed provided officials were also taken to know about the community members and those were primarily migrants cross the border every day and they them the land to establish a new residence. authorization related with their present performed with a prayer for the betterment, enter into West Bengal (Mukherjee, 2003). Since 35 years the roofless, resource less settlement and individual identity. The data safety and protection of the entire community.

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Their social life was very much peaceful and economic holds due to natural calamities and mass had no way to highlight their authorization the said occupation. This occupation was co-operative. Earlier the social life and the various other factors. They started to build and demand over their land. The entire situation devoid of age and gender biasness. The associated cultural practices of the studied their houses on the vested land of Balasan had made an acute identity crisis for the people. working atmosphere on the Balasan River bed people were not merely confined among the River bed. Near about all of them were devoid They had no legal authenticity regarding their was a dusty and polluted one. Simultaneously community members rather it was very much of from any sort of official records related with citizenship as an Indian. Moreover as they had the stone crushers always had to work in touch associated with the surrounding nature and all their resettlement and occupancy of the land, no adequate permission related with their with the river water. They worked day long other living objects as a whole. Ultimately, under the Panchayat, block or sub divisional settlement, so they were always under stress under scorching sunlight, shivering cold and during their earlier settlement in Bangladesh, administrative level. Even most of the that any administrative action might tell upon under heavy showers. Mostly they used crude the studied people had their own social security inhabitants of the colony had not their own their inhabitation and it would force them into iron implements and they worked without any and they had the scope to perform their ration card, although they were dwelling in the roofless and resourceless in condition. Although sort of protecting device to their eyes and hands. traditional cultural performances. Earlier their area since the last three decades. It was they got the chance of resettlement after the Among the studied families, in most arrangements of activities were organized by revealed that among the total studied population political turmoil, but till date they were treated of the cases the entire family worked as a keeping in view the broader interest of the only 8.71 percent male and 8.48 percent as the roofless and resourceless refugees. production unit. Excluding the children, 94.82 community inspite of any individual’s vested female had their own ration card while most They had no identity of their own and the people percent male and 87.16 percent female were desire. The productions from the land and the of them had become the beneficiary merely a of the outside areas knew them only as an either primarily or secondarily involved in the resources collected from the neighbourhood year ago. They had repeatedly sought the occupational group who were related with the stone crushing work. The main interesting were equally distributed among the members appeal to higher administration for the provision stone crushing work on Balasan River bed. feature was that, their daily requirements had of the family. All of the family members were of ration card but all their efforts went into Present Occupation and Working forced most of the women to give prime collectively involved to fulfill the essential vain. It is to be mentioned here that among Condition importance to the work despite their household requirements for the purpose of their common the studied families there were 422 males and activities. It is to be mentioned here that the minimum livelihood. In this regard the issues 382 females who had attained their age (as Before migration they were settled females and the children who were primarily of individual betterment and personal sharing directed by Indian Constitution) to opine the agriculturists in most of the cases. Now they engaged in household work and education were strictly forbidden. In earlier they had a electoral franchise. Among them, only 75.36 were not at all in any position to reinstate their respectively, were simultaneously involved in strong community consensus and in their percent male and 73.04 percent female had traditional caste based occupation of settled the stone crushing work secondarily either in livelihood peace, harmony and co-operation their voter identity card, while a larger section agriculture. On the contrary, they found the the stone field or in their houses to fulfill their was always prevailed. had got it only a year ago. Further, it is to be stone crushing occupation as the best way of mentioned here that in the year 2002, a B.P.L survival and readily accepted it. The analysis familial requirements. The work was Resettlement and the Issues Related survey was done in the Balasan Colony; but of generation wise occupation from parental conducted in any climatic condition and the with Daily Livelihood any how most of the studied families were not generation to the descendants revealed that concerned people went to the river bed early enlisted in it, although the standard criteria in the morning and did their work throughout Displacement and Identity Crisis there occurred a complete shift over in their mentioned by the Government of India was occupational pursuit from agriculture to stone the entire day. Most of the working population The migration of people to the Balasan quite proportionate with the studied families. crushing either primarily or secondarily. Their had to work for more than 8 hours. The female River bed was started in the decade of 70’s From the overall circumstances, it can be stated parental generation was totally agriculturist but who were mostly involved in the household (1970) and it is still going on. Most of the that although the studied families were dwelling the present generations are mostly (90%) work, also did the stone crushing work for 3-4 migrated families were from Bangladesh, and in the Balasan Colony since a decade or more, engaged in stone based economy. The colony hours in a day. They worked under ‘sardars’ the others came from different districts of but they had no proper legal authorization. They members were engaged in collection and and could get their payment once in a week North Bengal. The highest number of were settled in the vested land of the Balasan supply of those raw materials for urban (on Tuesday) according to their quantity or migration took place during 1970- 1979 due to River bed without any sort of administrative constructions to the adjacent areas. The stone amount of work. Considering the family severe political unrest in Bangladesh. Migration authorization. On the contrary, it is also true based economy was the prime source of income 26 (13.00) families could earn below took place from other districts of North Bengal that, if Government wants to uproot the studied income for most of the studied families. Hard Rs. 1000/- per month, 154 (77.00) families because a large number of people lost their people from their settlement then the common manual labour was the only requirement for earned between Rs. 1001/- to Rs. 2000/- and

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only 20 (10.00) families had the monthly joined with their parents in the stone crushing Rarely a married son got separated from the harmonious as it was earlier. As a result the income between Rs. 2001/- to Rs. 3000/- . work. Although the enrollment in primary family and lived elsewhere. The relatives and social structure and social organization based Thus despite their hard manual labour the education is cent percent but as they gradually kin members participated altogether in their on familial and neighbourhood interaction level concerned people earned a very little amount. grown up the cases of drop out become a very social, religious and other festivals. They had has changed a lot from their earlier feature. Earlier the people were mostly depended on common phenomenon to them, and it is more a number of religious festivals related with the The contemporary social functions have the agricultural crops and fishes of their own acute among females. Among the male, agriculture and other purposes. Those festivals confined to the circumference of nuclear land, village ponds and nearer rivers but now educational confinement was mostly (96.54%) were mainly performed for the betterment of familial level despite the entire societal level this scenario have changed completely and up to class VIII level and among the female it the entire community. Along with that, they as it was prevalent earlier. Most importantly, they were primarily depended on market based was mostly (64.37%) up to class IV standard. had their own folk cultural performances which a family is the prime source of socialization products. Their average family member was There was not a single female child who had were practiced by them with utter enthusiasm and personality formation for a child. five in number and with this mere source of qualified secondary level of education. After during their leisure. Meanwhile, in the studied area most of the income they had to face all sorts of inconven- getting detached from formal education, the children were lacking the guidance and But due to displacement and migration, iences to fulfill their daily livelihood requirements. children were directly involved in stone based affection of their close kin members, mostly they were forced to leave their relatives work. During the study it was noticed that the particularly of their grandparents. From early Impact on Education and kin members and even sometime their population of Balasan colony got increased in childhood they could observe familial tension, wives and children. Further, they settled in the Education is the cradle of every manifold from its earlier population and it quarrel with neighbours and acute poverty. society. Like others the stone crusher people resulted a definite competition among the Balasan colony with their family members and are also interested to give higher education to families for survival. Despite that the in some cases they got remarried and started Further, the poor level of income had provided their children and make them well established. concerned people were unable to look after a new family life. Here all the family members a very little chance to the stone crushing In Balasan colony the literacy rate of male any other sort of work, because they neither were involved in the stone crushing work for families to acquire better living conditions. Most and female was 75.06 percent and 70.37 had the proper educational knowledge to most of the time and they were no more related of the families had only a couple of room to percent respectively. But the parents and other acquire urban based official jobs nor they were with agricultural works and allied practices. reside and in some cases they resided in a elderly members were mostly illiterate and skilled enough to compete and find their own Most of the families were nuclear in Balasan single room. Positions of kitchens were mostly they were too much busy in their working place among the skilled labour workers of colony and their neighbourhood relationship outside the room and even in some cases they schedule. They could not pay adequate urban Siliguri and other sub urban areas. was no more integrated, harmonious and cooked inside the room. Most of the houses attention to the studies of their children. They affectionate as it was earlier. People were quite were devoid of proper drainage and sanitary could not give care and attention at all over Socio-Cultural Issues and Livelihood busy with their hard working schedule to means and for this purpose they often used the studies of their children. In this regard the Conditions accumulate a fold of rice in the context of their the river bed. The environment around most economic scarcity was a great hindrance for Before migration, the studied people survival. In this regard they could hardly pay of the houses was not adequate from the them to provide adequate educational were settled agriculturist and resided in the enough attention to their neighbourhood. It has perspective of health and hygiene. Particularly requirements and basic infrastructure of study houses build on the open space in the middle been reported that now the young generations in rainy season their shanty lanes became to their children. On the other hand, in the of their own agricultural land. A poor Rajbansi are getting separated from their parents after waterlogged and muddy due to improper studied area there was only a primary school cultivator had a simple family with his parents, their marriage to deal own personal life and drainage system. Lack of proper household and the nearest high school was located at a wife and children. Adult members lived in they merely accept any opinion of their infrastructure had created psychological distance of 2 km. It had turned out as a great separate rooms. Joint family or extended family guardians. Most of the families were far from stresses among the family members and hindrance for them to seek the secondary level was under the authority of one head. The their close kin members and they had a very specially it affected the children very much. of education because the concerned parents elderly person of the family was the sole few contact with them. Their familial Despite their hard work they had a very mere were quiet reluctant to accompany their authority and every one was bound to abide integration had broken very rapidly in these chance to enjoy mental recreation and in the children to such a distance from their very by his direction. The families were patrilineal circumstances. Often neighbourhood quarrels evening most of them got involved in a number crucial working schedule. Moreover the and patrilocal with recognition of social could be seen among them. Their social of addictions. Most of the adult male members children often went out from the classes and relations with the kin members on both sides. integration was no more peaceful and were alcoholic and were involved in gambling.

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They almost spent their entire earning behind concerned people, as those were related with manual labour throughout the entire day. It is environmental resources had forced the studied those. Even the teenage children were also their traditional agricultural occupation. On the to be mentioned here that scarcity of resources people to face a serious challenge related with addicted to alcoholism, tobacco uses and other hand, now they had no more period of had hindered the studied families to provide the food, nutrition and health situation in a sometime in gambling. Ultimately a very little leisure to cherish their folk cultural performances. nutritive food to their pregnant women. complete sense. amount of money was left for the women to As a result these performances were almost Moreover, the pregnant women also had to General Observation fulfill their familial needs and in this regard they been forgotten by them, particularly to the get involved with the stone crushing work to had to face all sorts of inconveniences. The younger generation. Moreover, it had seriously accumulate a fold of rice. As a result, the hard The dimension of time is always continuous pressure of need and lack of its told upon their united participation, common manual labour during the pregnancy period and changing and along with that the livelihood of fulfillment ultimately turned out into familial celebration and social consensus. Thus it is to provision of less nutritive food might had the human being cannot remain static. Today tension among the married couples and often be noted here that the socio-economic and resulted the fact that the concerned women with the rapid influx of globalization we are the wives were maltreated by their husbands. socio-cultural life of the studied people got were quite malnourished and often they had progressing towards the threshold of a new Those intricacies created a problem to their altered a lot after their displacement and given birth to malnourished children. Moreover era of advanced techno-economic development, children and in this regard their simple tender migration form early settlement. their lack of purified drinking water, lack of modern livelihood accessibilities and a number mind had to face all sorts of complexities. scientific sanitation and poor household Impact on Health Situation of other conveniences which will cumulatively These ultimately hampered their education as construction were an added criterion to their pave our way for overall societal betterment. well as socialization and personality formation After their resettlement in a new poverty. Their hard manual labour, malnutrition But on the other hand, there are a huge section as a whole. Meanwhile, it is to be mentioned environmental background they had no scope and improper livelihood infrastructure had of people who are poor, marginalized and are here that, poverty had created an acute to pursue their traditional agricultural made them vulnerable to a number of diseases. struggling in every perspective of their hindrance for the guardians to organize the occupation. On the other hand the land of this In their traditional society they had a deep livelihood to accumulate the common minimum marriage ceremony of their daughters. The area was totally filled up with stone, sand which psychological faith on their traditional medicine requirements for their survival. They are studied people mostly practiced the community had restricted their scope to cultivate man and magico-religious healers. But now completely in the opposite domain of this endogamy but during the study it was reported vegetables in kitchen garden. As a result they their traditional healers had to face all sorts of progressive world and are gradually lagging that, the demand of dowry was quite high from had no oppurtunity to accumulate their food inconveniences to conduct their treatment far and far behind in the steady and faster rate the family members of the groom. In this resources from the environment as it was in because they had a very little oppurtunity to of overall societal and techno-economic regard the parents of the bride had to face all earlier. Moreover the concerned people had collect the required medicinal plants from their development. The studied stone crushing sorts of inconveniences to meet up with the no scope to catch fishes from the Balasan surroundings. Often they had to go to a long families on the Balasan River bed are in such demand of the dowry. It had forced them to River. Further, with the unavailability of distance to collect those and in this connection a situation. Their present condition of livelihood conduct the marriage even by taking debt from agricultural land the grazing land also became they demanded high fees. But the poor people had not resulted in a day or two, but there were the local money lenders at a quiet high interest, scarce and as a result there was no scope of were unable to fulfill their demand and in a a number of factors which had forced them to because they were seldom reluctant to turn domestication for them. Ultimately the studied number of cases they were unable to get the remain in such a condition. In Bangladesh they down the chance of their daughters’ marriage people had a very minimum scope to manage medication from their traditional healers. On had their own land, settled means of livelihood with a suitable mate. Further, during the study any sort of animal protein in their daily diet. the other hand, economic scarcity had hindered and stable economic pursuit. They were not it has been reported that, the females who They had to depend on the expensive market them to avail the western medicinal treatment. economically wealthy but their livelihood was were involved with the stone crushing work based products for their food. But with the Ultimately they mostly sought the medical quite protected in the lap of nature. By gradually start to deposit a little from their mere source of income they became hardly treatment from the local quacks for a quick accumulating the natural resources they could earning since childhood, to meet up with the capable to accumulate rice, pulses and one recovery. Mostly they had no scope to redress easily avail their right to food, shelter and to expenditure for their marriage. Poverty, item of vegetables as their diet for twice in a their poor health condition, due to their inability live in a healthy and safe environment. In early addiction and familial tensions were a great day. Even sometime it also became harder. to avail proper clinical diagnosis for the settlement they had the right to nationality, hindrance for them to lead a joyful life. Further, Consumption of expensive market based financial constraints as well as lack of individual dignity and pursuance of social and in the present settlement, a number of religious animal protein was a mere dream to them. With convenient environment related with their cultural practices. But the severe political festivals were no more practiced by the this quite less nutritive food they had to do hard livelihood. Ultimately the scarcity of turmoil in 1971 left a major impact on their

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right to social security, individual dignity and settlement and it became a co-related factor References Landis, Paul. H (1959): Social Problems, J.B.Lippincott Co., Chicago. right to life. The overall adverse circumstances responsible for the rapid educational drop out. Ahuja, R (2001): Social Problem in India, Rawat forced them to leave the settlement and they Further, the densely populated studied Publication, Jaipur. Leonard, E.B (1982): Women, Crime and Society, were displaced as a roofless and resourceless settlement had a single health sub centre; Longman, New York. Ahuja, R (2003), Violence Against Women, Rawat migrant. But, after the resettlement in the even it had a number of infrastructural Publication, Jaipur. Mondal, S.R (2007): “Ethnic, Social and Cultural Balasan colony they were enmeshed into a limitations. The economic scarcity had Matrix in the Hills and plains of North Bengal: Banerjee, D (1986), Social Science and Health Service number of inconveniences and still now hindered the people to avail western medical Prospects of Prosperity in Diversity”, Development in India, Lok Prakash New Delhi. struggling for their survival. Although they treatment in outside; while the lack of Chaudhuri, B and Chaudhuri, S (ed.): Indigenous were resettled since the last three decades but natural resources had seized their Biswas, S. K. and S. Bhattacharjee (2007): “Health People, Traditional Wisdom and Sustainable they had no identity as an Indian citizen and oppurtunity of traditional medical practices. Situation Among the Stone Crushers of Balasan Development, (Vol-4), Inter India Publication, 127- 153, New Delhi. they had no authorized document of their As a result they had become vulnerable to a River Bed in Siliguri,West Bengal, India”, Chaudhuri, B and Chaudhuri, S (ed.): Health Pagelow, M.D (1984): Family Violence, Praeger present settlement. They were simply known number of diseases and they could hardly Environment Development and Other Essays: Scientific, New York. as an occupational group among the common manage to get a partial relief from their ailment Anthropological Perspectives, (Vol-5), Inter India mass but they were not known on the basis of through the local quacks. Publication, 182-202, New Delhi. “Peoples Movement For Human Rights Education”, their own individual social or cultural identity. Form the overall circumstances it can Chaudhuri, B (1990): Culture and Environmental PDHRE, 2008, Electronic Document, http:// Further, after the resettlement a strong www.pdhre.org accessed on 22.12.2008. be stated that, due to displacement a severe Dimension on Health, Inter India Publication, New economic backbone was their prime need. But Delhi. socio-economic and socio-cultural crisis had Sanyal, C.C (1965): The Rajbansis of North Bengal, the present stone crushing occupation was emerged out among the studied people as well Datta, P (2005): “Undocumented Migration from The Asiatic Society, Kolkata. unable to provide them the concerned Bangladesh to West Bengal”, Sahay, Vijoy S; Singh, as it had exposed them into an insecure Sreedevi, P (2008): “The Refugee Definition and Link requirement. From the present settlement they Pradip K and Bera, Gautam K (ed.): Dimension of environmental circumstance. The studied to Human Rights”, Krishna S.S and Samudrala A.K had no scope to accumulate the natural Research in Indian Anthropology, Serials (ed.): Refugee and Human Rights, Serials stone crushing people were completely Publication, 147-159, New Delhi. resources related with their daily livelihood. devoid of from the basic attributes of Publications, 53-58, New Delhi. On the other hand economic scarcity was a fundamental human rights related with their Doshi, S. L and Jain P.C (1999): Rural Sociology, Rawat great hindrance for them to depend on Publication, Jaipur. Vargashree, K.V (1985), Economic Problem of Modern settlement, nationality, standard of living, India, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi. expensive market based products. Thus they security of food and nutrition, basic right of Ghate, P (1984): Direct Attacks on Rural Poverty, had to face severe struggle for their survival. education and highest possible standard of Concept Publication, New Delhi. Waskin, R (1964) (ed.), Social Problems, Mc. Graw Further, their household infrastructure were health which they should deserve simply by Hill and Co, New York. mostly lacking from the sufficient rooms, Gil, D (1970): Violence Against Children: Physical Child virtue of a human being. They were dwelling Abuse in the United States, Harvard University WHO, 1997, “The World Health Report”, World Health scientific means of sanitation and proper in a close proximity from the biggest urban Press, Cambridge. Organization, Geneva. drainage. Lack of purified drinking water is centre of North Bengal i.e. Siliguri but they an added criterion to their misery. Moreover, Gore, M.S (1968): Urbanization and Family Change, Wolfe, D.A (1987): Child Abuse, Sage Publication, were far away from the modern urban Popular Prakashan, Bombay. Beverly Hills. the poverty and pressure of familial accessibilities. Their labour was the prime requirements had forced the children to get raw material for the continuous urban involved in the stone crushing work from an flourishment, but they were debarred from early age. It had severely told upon their the basic attributes of human rights in every education. Along with that, the economic perspective of their livelihood. If the present scarcity had hindered the parents to provide situation gets continued then only the forth adequate educational requisites to their coming period will tell us about their fate and children. Meanwhile, secondary level of mere chances will be left even for their educational institution was absent in the survival.

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Dealing with Terrorism in South Asia: The Case of India situation is not due to the result of the held hostage to the relationship between India American War in Afghanistan, but a blow back and Pakistan. Due to the difficulties of political Pradeep Kumar Parida of the policies of pre-September 11 Pakistan engagement, SAARC has consequently (Subramanian 2008). Suicide bombings were focused primarily on regional economic unfamiliar in Pakistan then, however, most development rather than on political questions Abstract militant groups were born and nurtured by a (Saighal 2003). Terrorism in South Asia has reached at its peak. The existence of international state apparatus that funded them and trained The present paper is thus designed in terrorist groups and their supporters in South Asia is identified as a threat to them to fight proxy wars in Kashmir and search of various crucial answers that concern regional stability. With terrorist activities and bomb threats assuming alarming Afghanistan (Ibid). Thus, it can be rightly said theory and method to root out terrorism in proportions, it is now understood that how incapable the South Asian regions that South Asian countries, mostly India and particularly India and Pakistan are to prepare themselves to fight against South Asia particularly in India. In fact, it is Pakistan are not safe to live in peacefully terrorism. In this context, the present paper highlights the recent incidence of difficult to communicate in a straightforward where terrorists attack against innocent and terrorism in South Asia, concentrating on Pakistan and India. For a common way on a topic so morally polarised and so unsuspecting civilians and threaten the understanding, particularly, this paper is designed to find out factors that are politically manipulated. Therefore, the paper preservation of the rule of law as well as responsible for terrorist activities in India. To this end, the article has also is divided into four parts. Section I deals with violate human rights at their will. suggested various frameworks for action so that an actionable plan can be some preliminary definitions and statements evolved within a time-frame both to fight terrorism and prepare a response It can be noted that South Asia has of approach of terrorists activities; Section II mechanism in the aftermath of terrorist attack. been the victim of violence perpetrated by a illustrates various factors responsible for myriad of groups with diverse objectives and present terrorist practices in India; Section III varied ideologies. One way to categorize explains framework for action to fight terrorism Introduction organization of the recent attacks in Mumbai terrorist violence in this region is to identify in South Asia with reference to India; Section testify to the potential of terrorism to not only groups according to motivation, which yields IV concludes the paper. Terrorism poses a serious threat to the challenge national security but threaten three distinct categories: (1) those motivated I fabric of our society. At its horrendous regional and international peace. Similarly, in by nationalist politics; (2) those motivated by extreme, it brings a bigger threat with the use Pakistan, the issue of terrorism, militancy and religious extremism; and (3) ethno-nationalist Statements about Terrorism of dirty bombs and other weapons of mass extremism posed by Al Qaeda and Taliban separatist groups (Rosand et al. 2009). Mostly, destruction. Following the terrorist attacks in causes enormous challenges to the security these are the three ideologies which are Till the date, there is no official the U.S.A on September 11 2001, South Asia of the south Asian region. Pakistan’s dominating the terror activities in the South definition available on the critical issue of particularly India, and Pakistan emerged as the dangerously deteriorating internal security Asian region. Apart from the above ideologies, terrorism because ‘one man’s terrorist is epicenter of the war against terrorism with the situation shows that the country is facing a the dangerous and nefarious activities of another man’s freedom fighter’1 which implies involvement of the American and coalition grave challenge to deal with terrorism. Pakistan Taliban and Al-Qaeda cannot be ruled out. that there can be no objective definition of forces against Al Qaeda in Afghanistan. In today is more confused with whom it is fighting Moreover, political relationships among states terrorism, no universal standards of conduct South Asia, there is a consensus that terrorism than it was eight years ago, when the “war on characterized by suspicion, mistrust, and, often, in peace or war. However, terrorism can best has a negative impact of economic terror” began in the Pervez Musharraf’s (the outright hostility, have prevented the be defined by the quality of the acts, not by development, but the assessment differs former president of Pakistan) regime. It is true development of strong and effective regional the identity of the perpetrators or the nature significantly depending on the experience of that Pakistan is unsafe now, more than it was cooperative mechanisms in South Asia. of their cause (Srivastav 2004). All terrorists’ individual countries. The ferocity and before September 11 2001. The present Although the South Asian Association for acts are crimes. In this connection, it can be said Regional Cooperation (SAARC) has made that terrorism is a strategy by groups of different several attempts to forge regional responses ideological persuasions who challenge the state’s Dr Pradeep Kumar Parida is a Senior Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India. to common challenges, including drugs, small authority. Generally, it is found that groups who E-mail : [email protected]. arms, and counterterrorism, its efficacy is often want to dramatize a cause, to demoralize the

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government, to gain popular support, to thinkers one can say that an individual do not instinctual in nature. Psychologists say that Post September 11, 2001 and Concern provoke regime violence, to inspire followers, become terrorists overnight. It is a long process frustration and aggressive behaviour is the of the United Nations Organizations or to dominate a wider resistance movement that begins with alienation and proceeds to root cause of terrorist activities. The Looking specifically after the Second often find terrorism a reasonable choice. protest and permanent dissidence, and ends frustration-aggression thesis has been World War, it was found that terrorism was with a member of terrorist groups. Thus, identified with the work of Sigmund Freud, Quite clearly, however, definitions that practised in various countries without sufficient different form of terrorism involves various who argued that frustration – the blocking exclude state terrorism remain blind to major concern of the World leaders, as some of the degrees of selectivity in the choice of victims. of pleasure seeking or pain avoiding source of the violence and fear that is visited powerful countries were directly or indirectly No doubt, the form of terrorism practiced – activities – always leads to aggression, on civilians around the world. Barker (2005) favouring this act. However, the September how selective it is and how much personal either towards the perceived source of says “state terrorism and group terrorism, it is 11, 2001 attacks has changed the mind set of domination of the victim it involves – would interference, or (if inhibited) displaced on true, have rather different features, but their the world as a whole, as a result of which ‘war determine the relevance of different question. effects on people and politics are often closely to another object. against terrorism’ was initiated by the United linked. They both fit the basis idea of terrorism Available Important Theories 3. Theory of Unbalance Social System. In States subsequently. Thus, there is an ongoing that most people hold: violence and threats of Parsonian terms social systems refer to a debate about whether the world history has Salert (1976) has explained following violence against civilians for political ends stable relationship between two actors, to entered a new phase since September 11. four main theories related to terrorist activities: (Barker 2005: 24).” societies as a whole, to systems of There is no doubt; however, that terrorism and counter-terrorism have entered a new era. Who are the Terrorists? 1. Olson Theory of Revolution or Revolution societies, or in deed any level between as a Rational Choice. Olson (1971) says these. However, theory of unbalance Recently, various international laws warrant Before discussing further, it is that revolution is the best alternative for social system, which is proposed by that all nations have a legal option to work important to know about the terrorists and the achieving any goal. The American and Johnson, says that terrorism is based on against the terrorism. A few weeks after the individual motivation of the terrorists. Social French Revolutions of 1776 and 1789 had the validity of selection of variables, which September 11, 2001 attacks, the United Nations scientists find it extremely difficult to study why a clear political agenda, and both resulted come from the unbalanced social system Security Council, which rarely agrees on things some individual engage in terrorist activities. in a complete transformation of power – increase of ideological activity, armed of consequence in a timely fashion, Crenshaw (1981) says that an identifiable relationships. Later on the Russian forces, general and political criminality, unanimously found that the terrorist attacks pattern of attitudes and behaviour in the revolution of 1917 and the Chinese and suicide – as an index of anomie threatened international peace and security, terrorism-prone individual would result from a Revolution of 1948 had similar dramatic (Johnson 1968). and warranted a stern resolution. As a result, combination of ego-defensive needs, cognitive results. However, not all revolutions in on September 28, 2001 the Security Council processes, and socialization, in interaction with recent history have been socialistic or 4. Marxist Theory. Karl Marx argued that adopted Resolution 1373. The Resolution, in a specific situation. In pursuing this line of egalitarian, or even modernizing; many the social relations which define class its operative part, by explicitly invoking the inquiry, he further clarified that it is important have been anti-democratic or right-wing. generate inherently opposing interests Council’s authority under Chapter VII, ordered to avoid stereotyping the terrorist or Fundamentalist Islam has swept through (Coser 1971). Hence, for example, the the Member States to take a series of oversimplifying the sources of terrorist actions. the Middle East, most notably in the interests of the bourgeoisie are different measures against international terrorism. The No single motivation or personality can be valid revolutionary down fall of the Shah of Iran from and antagonistic towards those of Resolution says “states must suppress for all circumstances. Venturi observed that in 1979. The 1990s have witnessed a the proletariat. It is in the interests of terrorism and must freeze the assets of those “the policy of terrorism united many very ‘reverse revolution’ in many former the bourgeoisie class to exploit the who facilitate or commit terrorists acts different characters of mentalities (Venturi communist states. proletariat and in the interests of the (Guruswamy 2008).” This Resolution “compels 1960: 647)”. Merkl (1974) in his study of the proletariat to overthrow the bourgeoisie. states to prohibit persons from directly or ‘Pre-1933 Nazi Movement’ rejected terrorism 2. Psychological Theory. Many schools of In this connection, the transformation indirectly financing those who commit terrorist based on personality types and instead psychological thought share this from “class consciousness” to acts and forbids the use of their territory as focussed on factors like the level of political assumption that acts of hostility, violence, “revolutionary consciousness” is the key safe haven for those who finance or plans understanding. After discussing the above or extreme self assertion are biological or factor to assess terrorist activities. terrorist act (Ibid)”. On November 12, 2001,

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the Council adopted Resolution 1377, which are vulnerable to terror strikes. The serial bomb change, social control of the population and are responsible for the suffering of people. For dealt mainly with the assistance to states to blasts in Hyderabad, Jaipur, Bangalore and later status quo maintenance of an existing regime instance, aid workers and human-rights fulfil the requirements of Resolution 1373 and in Ahmedabad and Mumbai in which many or territorial arrangement. September 11 researchers say that violence in Jammu and also affirmed a sustained a comprehensive innocent people lost their lives and sustained terrorist attack on the U.S. was primarily Kashmir since independence has revealed approach to combat terrorism (Parida 2007). injuries demonstrate that terrorist can strike staged by Al-Qaeda to bring a policy change hunger and diseases that killed so many people The Security Council subsequently decided to anywhere across the country at their will. In in West Asia especially in regard to the U.S and forced many to practice militant activities. adopt a Declaration on the issue of combating this way, it highlights the grave threats of troops stationed at Iraq and Afghanistan There has certainly been violence in the Valley, terrorism in its 4688th meeting on the January human security even when the injured are in (D’Monte 2008). However, the recent serial by both the militants and the agencies of Indian 20, 2003, which stated that terrorism in all its hospitals. The Ahmedabad blasts were the first bombing in different cities of India reflects that state. Human-rights groups estimate that form and manifestations constitutes threat to instance of terrorists attacking a hospital. This terrorist’s organization is geared towards either thousands more have been displaced. peace and security. Further, Resolution 1566, blast in hospital showed the extent of cruelty for “territorial change” or “social control” Hundreds of women have been raped both by which was approved by the Security Council one can indulge in to create the menace. The (Ibid). Terrorist organizations like Lashkar- e- the military and militants, including gang rape in October 2004, states that “ criminal acts – Mumbai strikes were also marked by brutality Toiba (LeT), Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami (HuJI), in various towns of J&K (Swami 2008). Thus, including those against civilians, committed with by the attackers and incompetence of which are very active in Jammu and Kashmir, the massive discrimination and denial of human the intent to cause death or serious bodily government and security agencies in want territorial change in Kashmir basically rights are grounds for terrorism. In this context injury, or the taking of hostages, with the responding to them. Clearly, the diabolic design to incorporate it with Pakistan. Where as, the Roosevelt says: Student Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) and purpose of provoking a state of terror in the of terrorists has proved that they can pick and Basically, we could not have peace, general public or in a group of persons or choose their targets easily and the the Indian Mujahideen (IM) are in search of strengthening their own status in Indian society. or an atmosphere in which peace particular persons, intimidating a population, or governments can only become a spectator to could grow, unless we recognized the compelling a government or an international face the disaster. By doing this, the extremists So, looking at the ideology of various terrorist groups, it can be rightly said that different rights of individual human beings... organization to do or to abstain from doing any are successful in instilling fear in the minds of their importance, their dignity... and act – which constitute offences within the the people. However, the continuing resilience terrorist groups have different aim based on their intentions and principles. However, due agreed that was the basic thing that scope of and as defined in the international and indomitable spirit of the people in India had to be accepted throughout the conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, after the blasts are praiseworthy. But how long to this, the most basic human right namely to life are denied which creates an environment world. It is hard to disagree with the are under no circumstances justifiable by the common innocent people can tolerate the fundamental rights guaranteed to considerations of a political, philosophical, triggering panic of more attacks? Neither in which common people cannot live in freedom from fear and enjoy their other rights. human rights described in the UN ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other praising people’s patience after every terror Declaration of Human Rights. It is similar nature (Guruswamy 2008: 10).” attack nor words of condemnation and Importantly, the present terror even harder to understand the real announcements of monetary compensations II practices in India can be linked with several world consequences of ignoring these for victims and their families is enough. factors such as human rights violation, active rights until one looks at what events Strategic Logic and Factors behind Question arises, are we capable enough to fight role of Inter Services Intelligence (ISI) in are occurring in the world which Terrorism in India terror? Pakistan, trans-national threats from Al-Qaeda should be being prevented by this and Taliban (another terrorist organization International Document.2 India has been under the threat of Terrorism appears in many forms operated in Afghanistan and Pakistan) as well ranging from bomb blast in public places and terrorism for long. Since independence in 1947, as easy availability of explosives. Recently Prime Minister of Pakistan, we have been facing the problem of terrorism hijacking of flight to assassination of important Yousuf Raza Gilani has accommodated the ISI in different parts of the country. We have personalities. The main aim of terrorists is to In India, we are dealing with human under the control of the interior ministry, as a exclusively faced this problem in Punjab and create destruction and disorder in a civil beings who are suffering, dying and being result of which the intelligence outfit retains Jammu and Kashmir, bordering Pakistan. Now society. Goswami (2008) points out that tortured and starving because of policies that its capacity to function as an autonomous it has spread to all most every parts of the terrorists have basically five goals such as we are involved in. We, as citizens of entity. This will definitely give an opportunity country. At present, all our cities and towns regime change, territorial change, policy democratic society, are directly involved in and to regroup the militant groups and refocus on

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anti-India activities. The U.S Defence Laden and top Al-Qaeda leaders are still hiding escaped U.S and Pakistani counter terrorism are easily available, even a small group of anti- Department and the Central Intelligence out somewhere in the region of the tribal areas campaigns.”3 Further Bruce Riedel, a CIA social elements can also harm people Agency (CIA) are silently watching this and none of the countries fighting against veteran on Al-Qaeda and Taliban, confirmed tremendously and create enormous panic. because as usually, the U.S has some vested terrorism could tress them. As a result of that Mullah Omar had been spotted in Karachi Above all, importantly, poverty and interests now in the re-emergence of the ISI. which, their organization has been able to recently and “some sources claim the ISI oppression make some segment of population The reason behind the Obama administration’s retain many of its top lieutenant, recruit new decided to move him further from the particularly among the youth more vulnerable reluctance to press the Pakistan army to take operatives, and establish new training camps battlefield to keep him safe.”4 So, there are to militant practices. Recently, ‘Sachar Panel’5 more effective action against the militant in Pakistan’s lawless north-western frontier. every possibility that India can be targeted submitted its report stating that India’s minority groups is that the CIA now needs the help of frequently by these forces as there is a strong Osama bin Laden is far from finished. Muslims face widespread deprivation. Muslim ISI to operate in the Federally Administered nexus developing between Taliban, Al-Qaeda, Indeed, more than a decade after his community is lagging behind other religious Tribal Areas (FATA). Since the CIA does not the extremists in Pakistan and the jehadis declaration of war on West and eight years groups in most development indicators. The have its own network of agents in the lawless inside Kashmir and outside Kashmir. In this after the attack of September 11, 2001, he is Panel also stated that Muslims are only FATA, it has given license to ISI to operate its context, even Pervez Musharraf, the former as present as ever on the world stage, linked, marginally better off than the SCs and in some agent actively. In this way, the Pakistan Pakistani General and President, who for a rightly or wrongly, to create violence across cases even worse off. Successive rulers have Intelligence agency is now free to play the period supported the extremists said on his half of the globe. Similarly, the close affinity either appeased or denigrated the Muslim double game that objective observers are interview to CNN-IBN on July 18 and 19, 2009 between Al-Qaeda, Taliban and ISI is community to strengthen their vote banks. The convinced it is playing. Other than sending its “under the absolute present circumstances – definitely a concern for the diplomatic finding that most Muslims are worse off than agents to various cities of India for destructive today – the biggest threat is extremism and downturn in the Indo-Pakistan peace process. the OBCs and other minorities should serve purposes, the ISI has also now created major terrorism by Taliban, Al-Qaeda, and by the The latest terrorist attack in different cities of as a wake-up call to the government. While cracks in the fragile Indo-Pakistan peace extremists in our society (Thapar 2009).” India has somewhere connection with these the Constitution does not permit reservation process. As for India, the escalations of instances. Moreover, the horrendous suicide Recent terror strikes in India show that on the basis of religion, it does allow reservation tensions along the LoC in Kashmir and the attack on the Indian embassy in Kabul also serial bomb blasts were carried out with on the basis of caste and social backwardness. ceasefire violations on the LoC are the highlights the fact that the dreaded Taliban is ammonium nitrate-based explosives. These Therefore, the backward sub-castes among handiworks of the ISI, therefore, India can once again on the rise. It marks a new and explosives are now easily available in the Muslims should be classified as extremely expect more conspiracy and terror violence dangerous phase in the battle against terrorism. flourishing local black market. Western backward or most backward classes. While a unless and until it is well prepared to take The volatile Swat Valley of northern Pakistan, governments have now restricted ammonium community cannot be allowed to suffer counter-terrorism strategy. which was dominated by the Pasthuns ethnic nitrate-based explosives where as Indian continuously, it is important to identify the Regarding the role of Al-Qaeda, groups, is now under the capture of Taliban government could not be successful enough causes that have contributed to strengthen recently the chief U.S intelligence analyst for and has been the epicentre for their terrorist to do so. In 2004, the Union Home Ministry fundamentalist and militant practices. international terrorism told the U.S congress activities. Here, it can be pointed out that there imposed a comprehensive ban on the Role of Islamist Ideology in Terrorism that Al-Qaeda’s network growing in Pakistan is a full-fledged war going on in Afghanistan manufacturer of nitro glycerine-based and Afghanistan pose more immediate threat and Mullah Omar (the supremo of Taliban) explosives for civilian purposes. The mining Since there has been some discussion to the United States and other democratic with his supporters is fighting the coalition and construction industry instead adopted that Muslims had been behind all acts of countries like India. Al-Qaeda terrorists forces and the U.S. forces. In this connection ammonium nitrate-based explosives. But the terrorism, it is important to find out whether operating in South Asia are better equipped to the Washington Times recently reported problem is that the government could not help there are any genuine links between ‘Islam’ attack because they are able to exploit the quoting U. S. intelligence officials “Mullah to detach it from the terrorist organization. as a religion and terror. Of course, the comfort zone in the tribal areas of Pakistan Omar travelled to Karachi last month after the Though explosive users are advised to possess community is condemned by violence and Afghanistan. Here, it can be remembered end of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. license to make purchases and secure stocks, committed in the name of Islam. It is a matter that the fight against “war on terror” has He inaugurated a new senior leadership pilferage of goods have been proved impossible. of regret that a bomb blast in any part of the become slowed down because Osama Bin council in Karachi, a city that so far has Under these circumstances where explosives world brings trouble to Muslims. Whether a

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Muslim is attached to the heinous crime or not ‘Kamikaze’ pilots is the Tamil Tigers in Sri government alone who is sitting very ‘Terror and Consent: the Wars for the he or she is directly or indirectly targeted by Lanka (Singh 2008). comfortably at the centre or state for its own Twenty First Century’ discussed about the the general mass. In this sense, every blast is interest. In a political system, which produces nature of terrorism and the ways of dealing III an attack on Islam and Muslims. Hence, there only contentions and allegations by the political with it. He believes that we are not at a war is a need for introspection on a proper Combating Terrorism in South Asia leaders, combating terrorism seems to be a against terrorism. He argues: understanding of terror practices and its distant dream. For nearly two decades, our genesis. History reflects that the western At present terrorism in South Asia can leaders have encouraged a culture of blaming Terrorism has always been with us foreign policy, especially with regard to the be prevented if important countries like India the others. The debates never encourage the and though its weapons may change, Palestinian issue, compounded by the invasion and Pakistan change their approach to each requisite talents, ideas, resources, assets and it will remain fundamentally the same; and continuing occupation of Iraq are the other and work progressively for combating commitment that can be deployed to eradicate because terrorism will always be with emerging factors responsible for present terror terrorism. History has repeatedly proved that the menace of terrorism. The divided political us, there can be no victory in a war practices among the Muslims (Saighal 2003). force alone does not resolve any problem. It leadership is unable even to encourage the against terror; because there is no There are also social and economic reasons is a fact that hate begets hate. Therefore, it is security agencies to fight meaningfully against enemy state against which such a war such as lack of education and high rate of high time the SAARC nation sits together to terrorism. In this context, Khare says: can be waged, the very notion of a unemployment in the Muslim community make the region a terror free and peaceful “war” on terror is at best a public The battle against global terror cannot which is compelling the youth to be the victims nations. The importance of developing an relations locutions; terrorism cannot be won in isolation from other of terror practices. effective, broad-based regional response to the be an enemy …because it is a method, threat of terrorism is the need of the hour. aberrations in the architecture of rule a technique; because terrorism is a In this circumstance, it is important to However, despite declarations regarding the of law. Because of blame-game technique, not an ideology, it is always recognize that terrorism does not have anything need for greater collaboration among states politics, we have lived with this absurd a means to an end; one man’s to do with the religion. Terrorists commit the on issues related to border security, mutual pretence that while the ruling classes terrorists is another man’s freedom act and use religion only to tarnish the name legal assistance, and law enforcement, this (the political class, the corporate elites, fighter; the root cause of terrorism lies of the religion. Killing of innocent people can cooperation has been slow to materialize in and the media) are free to suborn the in conditions of poverty and economic not be the ideology of any religion. However, South Asia. Therefore, to this end, a holistic loyalty and professionalism of the exploitation; terrorism is not a matter it is unfortunate that many are falling prey to approach would offer an appropriate model police, the same compromised for defence departments when there the mindless acts of terror perpetrated by the for developing an effective regional security bureaucracy still retains the are no battlefield lines or armies to militants in the name of religion. So, Hasan framework for addressing the threat. The competence and the edge to take on confront; rules of law that apply to Suroor has rightly pointed out that “more development of an effective, regional the global terrorist (Khare 2007: 10). conventional conflicts cannot apply to Muslims need to realize that Islamist terrorists mechanism for fostering sustained Our leaders forget that politicising acts a war on terror; and good intelligence are not simply misguided individuals acting on counterterrorism cooperation should be a key of terror will definitely help the terrorists’ provides the decisive key to defeating a whim but that they are people who know component of the strategy. It is time a common organization to divide the nation. It is quite terrorism (Suroor 2008:10). what they are doing and they are doing it counter-terror framework under the worrying that the poor who elect their deliberately in the name of Islam (Suroor 2007: Moreover, Suroor also added that “the mechanism of SAARC is created. It is also representatives fall victim to the designs of 8)”. Muslims want to be associated with the looming combination of global terrorist important that the international community and terrorists only to save their vote banks. So, good people of the world. Clubbing them network, weapons of mass destruction and the defense as well as intelligence establishments time has come that the best of our political forcibly with the militant groups will definitely heightening vulnerability of enormous numbers in the region support such an active role for leaders can stand united and exercises the cause for anguish. Moreover the data of past of civilians emphatically require a basic the regional organization. needed political will to combat terrorism. two decades indicate that there is little transformation of the conventional wisdom in connection between any particular religions As far as India is concerned, the battle Regarding the present “war on international security (Ibid)”. It is important to including Islam to terrorism. In fact, the leading of terrorism has entered a new phase. But this terrorism”, Hasan Suroor (2008) after taking remember here that terrorism is always one instigator of suicide attacks after the Japanese is a battle that cannot be won by the the idea from Philip Bobbitt’s new book on step ahead of technology. So, in order to

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counter terror attacks a well coordinated governed by the ethos of democracy and the However, all measures, steps and people support in an active manner. So, Thakur specialised unit with superior intelligence rule of law. So, the enactment and the proper mechanisms will not succeed unless people’s has rightly said that “Success in defeating gathering skill is urgently needed. In this implementation of a Police Act which can role is not taken into account. Since it is the terrorism can come only if we remain true to context, one thing is clear that our intelligence reflect the democratic aspiration of the people common people who suffer the most, they have values that terrorists reject. It is possible to is not at its best because terrorists are smartly would be the best insurance for the people to take greater, proactive role to play in resort to the lesser evil of curtailing liberties using the merits of it. Therefore, a strong against terrorist. However, it is also necessary identifying, tracking and preventing terror and using violence in order to defeat the greater political will and technological advantage is that the police force ensure transparency and strikes. People’s awareness and interaction evil of terrorism, but only if we do not succumb very much required to counter the terrorists’ accountability in its functioning so that it can with the security is the key in this regard. to the greater evil of destroying the very values ploy to destroy a nation. The emphasis should work independent of and free from People have to be extra vigilant about for which democracies stand (Thakur be on modernising and enhancing intelligence interference. Regarding reforms relating to surroundings, entities, places and things. 2007:10)”. and investigative capabilities. Modern methods the criminal justice system, the legal Generally speaking, the cycle bombers could India-Pakistan Peace Process: The of intelligence gathering skills are very much community must uphold the right to fair trial not have struck without local support. So, the Need of the Hour required at this moment. Hence, instead of for all individuals, irrespective of how way terrorist organization use local people, in reacting after an incident happens, the law heinous their crimes may be. If the judiciary the same way the local people can save the The present terror practices in South enforcement authorities should be able to does not act this right properly, it will act as innocent people through a proper information Asia can be minimised to a great extent if anticipate and prepared to frustrate the designs a moral loss against those who preach and strategy. This needs cooperation and recent India-Pakistan peace process goes of terrorists. The coordination between the hatred and violence. understanding among the people. Moreover, further with a proper direction. Having said intelligence and state security is also important. we need to change our attitude towards public this, it is essential to discuss the obstacles, Importantly, people’s faith in In this connection, there is a lot more to be property that we hardly think as ours. So, rather which are faced by the two nations. Since government and law enforcement agencies is done to empower the vigilance apparatus. The than a passive onlooker, people need to involve, 1947, Pakistan has been using its sponsorship very important step at this juncture. History vigilance and the officers should use the latest engage and confront everyone or thing that gives has witnessed that no action has been taken of and support to different terrorist groups technology and communications systems, to the impression that it is suspicious in nature. against those responsible for Godhra operating in India as a strategic weapon to keep ensure that security is tighter and more massacre, Gujarat riots, Delhi anti-Sikh riots, Having said this, we have to ensure India preoccupied with internal security effective. and Babri mosque demolition. It shows that that various committees work at village level, problems. Before the formation of Bangladesh In India, law and order as well as when people don’t get justice from the block level, district level and even at the state in 1971, the then East Pakistan was the main security is the responsibility of the concerned government, they become vulnerable to those level to discuss about the safety of the sanctuary for non-religious terrorist groups state, so, the state government with the help who exploit their sentiments. So, instead of particular area. Terror agenda needs to be operating in India. Since 1971, the present of central government should overhaul the looking east, west and our neighbouring discussed on priority list. Instead of talking in Pakistan, called West Pakistan before 1971, security infrastructure and formulate a long- countries always, we have to look within, if reaction, time has come for citizens to be has been the main sanctuary for all Sikh and term strategy to tackle and prevent various we are to come up with a proper solution to proactive – from the grassroots to the highest Muslim terrorist groups. acts of terror. So, the law enforcement combat the menace. In this context, it is clear levels – to track any suspicious person or thing Ever since 1947, Pakistan had waged machinery across all states needs to be that local elements are involved in planning and in the public places. For this purpose, all an informal war to seize Jammu and Kashmir; significantly improved as a form of police executing acts of terror. Socio-economic and communities need to work in close association, India was returning the complement by reform and reform in the criminal justice political problems are responsible for the as everyone is affected by terrorism. supporting Pakistan’s Afghan adversaries. This system. At present, it is very difficult to see participation of locals. In other words, Terrorism has no caste, creed, community or process continued indirectly by India till the that we still depend on our police establishment increased terrorists activities are the by- religion. No politics, no jihad, no vow has the annihilation of the Taliban after September 11, on the basis of the legislation enacted in 1861. products of government policies, socio- right to destroy an innocent life. Let the people 2001. After this India openly supported The Indian Police Act, 1861 was a tool used economic condition of the people and human who want to prove a point destroy the terrorists Afghanistan for the reconstruction programme by the colonial power to suppress the general rights violation which all political parties must and the terror. Laws, policies, strategies, that is still under way. This development has mass, which has no place in an open society jointly address. mechanisms, and measures work only when

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threatened Pakistan’s security establishment, recently that the US-led war against militants as one of the active members of global culture of peace demands co- which correctly found India as a growing in Afghanistan might be made easier if the development, should remember that September operation from everyone. In order to obstacle to its longstanding interest in United States worked to improve trust between 11th in America and other serial bomb blasts in change, the world needs everyone. Afghanistan. After India’s open agreement India and Pakistan.6 A peaceful Indo-Pakistan its various premier cities are not the end of We are one race of human beings, with Afghanistan, Pakistan officially expressed relation will definitely bring stability and the history. In the age of easy international born equal.7 concern about Indian activities along development in South Asia. So, a spirit of travel and advanced communications, terrorist Afghanistan border with Pakistan. So, Pakistan cooperation, trust and pragmatism is essential networks have also assumed cross border has been consistently pressurizing India not to between the two nations. This is possible on dimensions. In many instances, attacks are Notes support Afghanistan, where as India is actively an atmosphere free from terrorism, violence planned by individuals located in different 1. At the UNO’s Legal Committee’s 29th Meeting in engaged to reconstruct the war-torn and the threat of it. countries who use modern technology to November, 2000, several countries responded to Afghanistan. collaborate for the transfer of funds and IV the call to define terrorism. Iran noted that some procurement of advanced weapons. This In this circumstance, the role of ISI terrorists work under disguised names, including Conclusion clearly means that terrorism is an international on the Kabul bomb attack on Indian embassy those of human rights, NGOs to find sage haven in problem and needs effective multilateral other nations. Israel was particularly concerned as well as sending its various agents for the The foregoing discussion prompts me engagement between various nations. that acts of bombings were not terrorism if done practice of terrorism in Indian cities and to conclude that South Asia is surely capable Therefore, the designs of terrorists should for national liberation. Congo noted that state ceasefire violations on the LoC is clearly of fighting terror more than any other regions be defeated by displaying unity and solidarity terrorism has allowed neighbouring countries to visible. Even, America has given evidence on of the world, but it has to concentrate on among the people and nations. Now, it is an pillage its people’s natural resources. Yemen noted ISI hand in Kabul attack. Moreover, with true underdevelopment, especially in the border encouraging sign that in recent SAARC that terrorists attack now seeks to create problem democracy still being out of Pakistan’s reach areas, as well as poor governance, summit, all the members’ countries had a between various nations. Syria noted that state and the failure of its government to control unemployment, corruption, human rights unanimous opinion regarding the threat terrorism by Israel had resulted in the deaths of the ISI, it is little wonder that ceasefire violations violation and the lack of trust and limited cross- terrorism posses to peace and stability of Palestinian women and children. Also see Barker, Jonathan (2005): The Nonsense Guide to on the LoC and terror practice by ISI’s agents border cooperation. In this context, their the region. There is a hope that in near Terrorism, Rawat: New Delhi. on Indian soil can be stopped. These have leaders should develop a regional strategy for future greater cooperation among the created cracks in the problematic relation addressing the terrorist threat. Greater SAARC countries will be maintained in the 2. SeeWebsite:http://www.youthnoise.com/My between India and Pakistan. So, it is significant consideration should be given for the face of continuing terror attacks. It is CauseIs/?cause_id=78&a=index&gclid=COD that these accusations are being resolved development of an effective, regional understood that a country’s social peace Vxc6AiJUCFQ_DbwodUz8QrQ. ahead in their bilateral relations. mechanism for fostering sustained becomes an essential ingredient of economic 3. See “ISI Helped Mullah Omar Flee” (2009): The counterterrorism cooperation. It is equally Effectively speaking, a peaceful and development and prosperity. As Federico Hindu, November 21, Chennai, p. 18. important to remember here that South Asian dynamic nation has to carry forward Mayor concludes by saying: countries are required to enlist the academic 4. Mr. Riedel noted that there are huge madrassas in development. In the era of globalisation, the and research communities in the region to A universal renunciation of violence Karachi where Mullah Omar could easily be kept. concept of poverty, unemployment and overall promote strategy implementation and greater requires the commitment of the whole See “ISI Helped Mullah Omar Flee” (2009): The economic development should be taken utmost regional counterterrorism cooperation more of society. These are not matters of Hindu, November 21, Chennai, p. 18. importance. The leadership of India and government but matters of State; not broadly, including through joint research 5. The Rajinder Sachar Committee was appointed by Pakistan should think that India-Pakistan peace only matters for the authorities, but for projects. the Prime Minister to evaluate the socio- process does not reflect a welcome sign for society in its entirety, including civilian, economic and other status of the Muslims. The some countries and some organizations those Global change in the past two decades military, and religious bodies. The panel report found that the deprived have the vested interests only if India and has had enormous impact on human mobility. mobilization which is urgently needed communities lag on all socio-economic indices Pakistan continue fighting each other. Globalization has generated hybridity and to effect the transition within two or such as education, health, employment, credit, However, US president Barack Obama said socio-cultural heterogeneity (Ray 2007). India, three years from a culture of war to a infrastructure and public programmes. On the

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condition of Muslims, the seven-member D’Monte, Darryl (2008): “Why Mumbai?”, The Hindu, Subramanian, Nirupama (2008): “In Pakistan, the Fog Thakur, Ramesh (2007): “Human Rights, National committee has found that the Muslims have had December 7, Chennai, Weekly Edition 2. Refuses to Clear”, The Hindu, October 18, Security, and Terrorism”, The Hindu July 20, to bear the brunt of the so-called competitive forces Chennai, p. 9. Chennai, p. 10. Goswami, Namrata (2008): “Dealing with Terror unleashed by liberalization, despite the economic Strategies”, The Hindu, August 5, Chennai, p. 9 Suroor, Hasan (2007): “Debate or Denial: the Muslim Thapar, Karan (2009): “Pakistan and the Perils Within”, boom that has taken the country to far Dilemma”, The Hindu, July 17, Chennai, p. 8 The Hindu, July 18. Chennai, p. 11. way. According to the report, India is going through Guruswamy, Menaka (2008): “Financing Terror: the a high growth phase and this was the time to help Lashkar and Beyond”, The Hindu, December 5, Suroor, Hasan (2008): “The Bullyboy Syndrome and Venturi, Franco (1960): Roots of Revolution: A History the underprivileged to utilize new opportunities Chennai, p. 10. the War on Terror”, The Hindu, August 8, of the Populist and Socialist Movements in through skill development and education. It Chennai, p. 10. Nineteenth Century Russia, Weidenfeld and added that the lack of access to critical Johnson, C (1968): Revolutionary Change, University Nicolson: London. infrastructural facilities is a matter of concern of London Press: London Swami, Praveen (2008): “For Secessionists, Humiliation for the Muslims. The committee report also Follows Hubris”, The Hindu, December 23, Khare, Harish (2007): “Terror Challenge to the Indian advocates that a group of Muslims with Chennai, p. 10. Imagination”, The Hindu, July 18, p. 10 traditional occupations as that of SCs be designated as Most Backward Classes (MBCs). On Merkl, Peter (1974): Political Violence under the the educational deprivation faced by Muslims, the Swastika: 581 Early Nazis, NJ: Princeton panel notes that from lower levels of enrolment to University Press. a sharp decline in participation in higher levels of Olson, J.M (1971): The Logic of Collective Action, education, the situation of Indian Muslims is indeed Schocken Books: New York. very depressing compared to other socio-religious groups. It has also recommended to the University Parida, Pradeep Kumar (2007): “Globalization, Relative Grants Commission that it should evolve a Deprivation and Terrorism: An Analysis”, India system where part of the allocation to colleges Quarterly, Vol. LXIII, No. 4, pp. 122-154. and universities is linked to the diversity in the student population. Ray, Larry (2007): Globalization and Everyday Life, Routledge: London and New York. 6. See http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/ Better-IndoPak-ties-vital-for-fighting-terrorism- Rosand, Eric; Naureen Chowdhury Fink and Jason Ipe Obama/339350/ ( 2009): Countering Terrorism in South Asia: Strengthening Multilateral Engagement, 7. Website:http://www.youthnoise.com/MyCauseIs/ International Peace Institute Publications: ?cause_id=78&a=index&gclid=CODVxc6AiJ New York. UCFQ_DbwodUz8QrQ Saighal, Vinod (2003): Dealing with Global Terrorism: The Way Forward, Sterling Publishers: References New Delhi.

Barker, Jonathan (2005): The Nonsense Guide to Salert, B (1976): Revolution and Revolutionaries: Four Terrorism, Rawat: New Delhi. Theories, Elsevier: New York.

Coser, Lewis A (1971): Masters of Sociological Thought, Singh, Jatinder (2008): “Steps to Confront Suicide Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc: New York. Bombers”, The Hindu, September 7, Chennai, p. 11. Crenshaw, Marta (1981): “The Causes of Terrorism’, Comparative Politics”, Vol. 13, No. 4, Srivastav, V. P. (2004): Terrorism: A Global Dimension, pp.379-399. Indian Publishers: Delhi.

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 Surinder Pal Singh 428 RESEARCH NOTE

Accelerating Growth through Inorganic Means: rarely returned their cost of capital. In China, suppliers, and has gained production and sales over 40% are said to be losing money where experience in China through previous joint Lessons from the Asian Region as in India, the estimate is half. ventures such as that with Wuyang-Honda, a Surinder Pal Singh manufacturer of engines for motorcycles. Privatisation is being seen as a way of raising performance as well as government De-regulation of Fragmented Industries: funds. Aggressive privatization programmes Many industries across Asia are highly Introduction that their bids would be considered case by are under way in several Asian countries. For fragmented and uneconomic in scale. For case. Similarly, South Korea has raised the The majority of Asian economies have example, Pakistan announced plans to offer instance, the average Chinese paper company limit on foreign ownership in local companies continued to benefit from strong economic stakes to foreign companies in the Water & is a mere one-fifteenth of the size of its US to 55% as part of an attempt to attract foreign growth which has filtered into the M&A Power Development Authority, Pakistan State counterpart. China’s consumer goods and capital to help it overcome its debt crisis. pharmaceutical industries are similarly markets, with little sign of this momentum Oil, Habib Bank and Pakistan fragmented. ceasing in the near future. Restructuring of Family-owned Businesses: telecommunications. Even in India, where Family-owned businesses have long played an privatization activity had been relatively limited, These small companies have survived This paper discusses the rationale important role in many Asian economies. In the government has sold stakes in more than in markets shielded from open competition, but behind the M&A activity in the Asian region South Korea, the top ten chaebol contribute 40 companies. In South Korea, stakes in state- as Asia’s economies integrate with the global and the benefits for adopting this route. It almost two-thirds of GDP. In India, seven of run companies including Pohang Iron & Steel economy and multi-nationals enter local concludes with some comments on the ways the top ten private companies are family- Company, Korea Telecom, Korea Gas markets, their future is threatened. To give & means to achieve success in the M&A owned, and the top 50 family-owned business Corporation and Korea Heavy Industries & them a fighting chance, Asian governments activity. groups account for 30% of total industry Construction Company are up for sale. have been encouraging and sometimes forcing Why is the M & A activity growing in the turnover. These businesses once thrived in a Although most governments prefer to smaller companies to merge. Asian Region ? protected environment where political find local buyers for national assets, some have Sometime back, Malaysia introduced connections mattered more than business little choice but to accept foreign investors. Easing of Regulations: Historically, acumen. But, this resulted in markets a scheme to encourage mergers among banks, regulations governing mergers in Asia were dominated by networks of privileged Overcapacity: Booming demand from an in the run-up to the situation when the banking industry would be opened to foreign institutions restrictive but with the economic liberalization companies, many of which were not able to increasingly affluent Asian middle class has in line with WTO directives. The message was in the area, deregulation has speeden-up. In face competition from overseas. The outcome attracted foreign investment of more than $500 clear: merge or die. India – a country largely untouched by financial of this impacted the entire region which started billion into the region. The 20% annual growth problems that have hit other economies – witnessing an increasing trend of local rate of this incoming capital outstripped GDP What Value-creation does the M&A foreign companies are now allowed to acquire governments introducing incentives to growth, had led to severe over-capacity in Route Provide to the Companies in the controlling stakes in publicly listed Indian stimulate M&A activity in their countries. many industries. This excess capacity has Asian Region? companies. In Thailand, it is now easy for prompted struggling companies to consider foreigners to buy majority stakes in any of the Sale of State-owned Companies: State- sell-outs and offer acquisitive companies a Improved Operating Performance: country’s commercial banks and finance owned companies account for a large relatively cheap way to buy in. For example, Research shows that operating performance companies. This superseded an earlier ruling proportion of most Asian economies. Generally, Honda acquired Peugeot’s 22% equity stake in several Asian countries is far weaker than that foreigners could take majority their performance has lagged behind that of in a loss making manufacturing plant in it is in the West. Even in countries like India shareholdings only in troubled institutions and private sector counterparts and they have Guangzhou province, Southern China, for less and China, it is estimated to be as low as 5 than half of the investment required to build percent of US levels. This poor operating an identical 50,000 car capacity plant from performance means that there are scratch. Honda believes it will fare better than opportunities for companies with strong core Dr Surinder Pal Singh is a Professor of Rai Business School, MCIE, New Delhi. Email: [email protected]. Peugeot because it has a network of local operating capabilities to buy poor performers,

InternationalIJSAS Journal 2(2) of2009, South Asianpp.427-231. Studies IJSAS ISSN July 0974- December - 2514 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 429 Accelerating Growth through Inorganic Means: Lessons from the Asian Region Surinder Pal Singh 430

cut costs, improve processes, and raise product Rashid Hussain Bank of Malaysia has Which resources are required by choose private equity partners who have the and service quality. created value in this way. In 1990, when it companies in the Asian Region to achieve required insider capabilities. In return for their was still a broking house, it acquired a success in their M & A efforts? investment, knowledge and experience of the GE Capital, the financial services arm controlling 20 percent stake in DCB Bank. By local business environment, private equity of the General Electric Company, has used this Funds are an obvious requirement for 1996, it pulled off the country’s biggest ever partners are likely to seek a high investment approach to expand its business rapidly over would be buyers. Raising them may not be a banking merger by combining DCB Bank with return. the past ten years. In Asia, its targets have problem for multi-nationals able to tap Kwong Yik Bank to create Rashid Hussain included United Merchants Finance of Hong resources at home, but for local companies, (b) Management of Uncertainty – To manage Bank. The resulting scale won the new entity Kong, SRF Finance of India, PT Astra Finance the high degree of uncertainty that currently “tier 1” status under Malaysia’s new banking finance is likely to be the single biggest of Indonesia and GS Capital Corporation of exists in some Asian countries, buyers must scheme, and synergies across its businesses. obstacle to an acquisition. Financial institutions Thailand. By improving systems and in some Asian markets are banned from define and monitor specific indicators to get processes, lowering the cost of funds by virtue Restructured Industry: Lack of competition lending for takeovers, and debt markets are an early warning of the scenarios that might of its superior credit rating, and introducing a has enabled local companies to thrive despite small and illiquid, deterring investors who fear unfold, then develop contingency plans that strong performance ethnic, GE Capital swiftly poor products and services. Therefore, there are they might not be able to sell their holdings at allow them to protect themselves in worst case improved results. Most of these acquisitions opportunities for buyers to acquire these comp- a later date. The credit squeeze and the scenarios, but to maximize any possible gains. were privately owned, making performance anies with the principal aim of not only improving depressed state of many Asian markets has (c) Assessment of Quality of Potential figures hard to come by. However, it is existing businesses or capturing synergies, but only made an already difficult situation worse. Targets - It is necessary that a company recognized that GE Capital has turned around of building entirely new business models. should be worth the price which a buyer is the performance of many of its Asian targets, However, apart from funds, a Hindustan Lever Ltd. is changing the ready to pay for it. But assessing companies and that several have already won leadership successful M&A growth strategy must be face of India’s ice-cream in this way. A few in Asia can be fraught with problems and positions in their markets. supported by three capabilities :- (a) deep local years ago, the market was the preserve of networks (b) ability to manage uncertainty (c) unfortunately, several deals have gone bad as Haier, China’s largest white goods small regional ice-cream makers. After skill to distinguish worthwhile targets buyers failed to dig deeply enough. Concealed company, has completed more than 13 acquiring them, Hindustan Lever now boasts high debt levels and deferred contingent acquisitions since 1991 using the same strategy, a market share of about 70 per cent and is (a) Local networks – As doing business in liabilities have resulted in large deals destroying and today boasts sales of about two and a half expanding its product range, investing heavily Asia is still driven by relationships, only value. In those cases where buyers have times greater than those of its nearest rival. in advertisement and promotion to build companies with local market networks, will undertaken detailed due diligence, they have Haier typically buys loss-making companies stronger brands, and improving refrigerated hear about the best deals and those that have been able to negotiate prices as low as half with fundamentally sound products, then transportation and retail cold storage facilities a personal relationship with the seller, will be the initial figure. applies its operating and brand management to increase product shelf-life and market invited to bid for merger. Relationships that skills to enable it to charge premium prices. A penetration. What used to be a slow-growing, deliver these kinds of privileges are often the Due diligence is often difficult because strong distribution network in all China’s fragmented market, is now expanding by more product of networks developed over decades disclosure practices are poor and companies leading cities and some 7000 sales points than 20 percent a year. and give companies that enjoy them an often lack the information which buyers need. abroad, increases its product reach. undeniable lead over foreigners in these Most Asian conglomerates still do not present Although Hindustan Lever is creating markets. But less fortunate companies cannot consolidated financial statements, leaving the Economies of Scale: As industries such as some value by improving the acquired possibility that sales and profit figures might afford to throw up their hands in despair and pharmaceuticals and banking that could exploit businesses and capturing scale economies, be bloated by transactions between affiliated try to manage without it. scale economies have long failed to do so in most of which will be derived from [a] the companies. The financial records that are several Asian markets, there is tremendous way the company transforms the industry [b] One way to go about the task is to available are often unreliable, with different potential for buyers to create value by acquiring creating a market for a higher-quality product hire and develop a high-performing team of projections made by different departments small companies and consolidating & a broader product range [c] boosting demand local managers who have ready-made insider within the same company and different manufacturing, distribution and selling. to new levels. networks. Another option is for companies to projections made for different audiences.

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 431 Accelerating Growth through Inorganic Means: Lessons from the Asian Region BOOK REVIEW

The economic climate has made to creditors and contingent liabilities, need to Changing the World Order: India, EU and US – A Trialogue, Krishnamurthy, B and things even worse as some companies be probed in greater detail. For this purpose, Ganapathy-Dorè, Geetha, Shipra Publications, Delhi, 2009, pp.x+342. desperately conceal liabilities or grossly detailed interviews with customers, suppliers overstate assets in a way that is hard for and financiers can be valuable sources of outsiders to detect. Moreover, seeking information to validate data from the target Pencilling in Shakespeare so as to order that necessitates a delve into it. Extending recourse under the local judicial system is likely company. In short, it is better to spend time understand and contour the fine lines of what the master had to say then, to the realm to be slow and frustrating. Therefore, the best and resources on checks at the outset than international politics may not look all that sane of international politics, we may identify the solution is prevention i.e. taking more time over face surprises and huge losses later on. an endeavour at the very first take. This would analogy such that the stage of international due diligence than it is likely to be normal seem no less than a laughable caricaturing for politics now is witnessing the rise of new Concluding Remarks elsewhere. For example, GE Capital had to an even ludicrous cause. However, the players-new non-state players like the spend more than three months on due diligence The Asian region is characterized by consummation of the aforementioned task European Union, who are driving home the for an acquisition in Asia whereas in the West, a diversity of cultures, business practices and would lie in resuscitating what was etched by emergence of a multipolar world order which this process would have taken no more than a regulatory environments. Executing successful the master himself. is conducive to, tolerant to and hopeful of a M&A transactions in this market requires a new regime of human rights, rule of law, good few weeks. Further, buyers should complement ‘All the world’s a stage; their own efforts with those of local experts combination of in-depth knowledge of the governance and so on. This work is indubitably especially in the areas of tax, accounting and region’s long term potential, the courage to And all the men and women merely players’ in keeping with the earlier works of the authors compliance. Accounting items particularly move quickly in the unknown & turbulent If borrowed into the lexicon of and that is to say that one shall find it equally, debt, inter-company advances, payments due waters and finally, have the staying power. international relations and understood in terms if not more, meritorious, notable and worthy of the ever cascading, turbulent waves of intellectual perusal. perpetually lashing on the shores of inter- Lucid and succinct, the book handles national relations, it unambiguously signifies the various themes within each of its five sections. so-called insignificant, denotes the so-to-say The first section having been befittingly implicit and reveals the concealed, something christened as ‘EU-Democratic Experiments that the ‘hawkish’ world firmament is gingerly and Experiences’, discusses at length and acknowledging-the flight of the ‘doves’. It churns to the fore various facets of the would be unwise to grope for long in the dark democratisation process that have touched as this risks pushing the obvious to the oblivion- upon the European Union. Robert Etien unbolts that which is demanding to be heard, that which the convergence amongst three notable is trying to carve a niche of its own in the democracies-India, US and France to open international political amphitheatre, that task with. Claudine Moutardier in her work pushes which the book under review in the present forth the significance of transparency in work accomplishes triumphantly. Further democratic set-ups and especially the explication of the words of the master would European Union. Suggesting a remedy to the be gratuitous. ‘Changing World Order’ deals existing hiatus in the Union’s documentation, quintessentially with the varied aspects of the she envisions a transformation in the opaque European Union and the work in-toto raises and ‘undemocratic’ image of the Union. This to the surface important issues. The magnitude conception is carried forward by Charles of its substance can be underscored by the Reiplinger in his ‘It’s Fun to Comply with the veracity that these perspectives encompass Foreign Corrupt Practices Act’, taking the within their fold about the changing world South Pars case, writes of the highly protean

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 IJSAS 2(2) 2009, pp.432-435. ISSN 0974 - 2514 433 Book Review : Changing the World Order: India, EU and US – A Trialogue Swati Bhattacharya 434

implementation of the act which has rendered recently held referendum and the Lisbon treaty German-American relations through time to Indian Muslims and Muslims Living in the the international trade and economic arena with their unique flavour in their respective an acid test. This assaying allows one to make European Union Countries’. However, despite highly erratic, creating differences between the papers. While for Sterck, the sounds being the inference that Germany has viewed the Geetha Ganapathy Dore’s persistent European Union and the US regarding made in Europe rejecting the treaty appear arena of international politics through the prism assurances of the Mediterranean Union’s sanguine significant issues, multilateralism positive, to Griffin it seems mere cacophony of multipolarity and the United States of pleasant outcome, Abdoulaye Wade’s words, figuring as the most momentous. Hugo- with the European Union playing the ‘Bad America, through unipolarity. It is here that that the Mediterranean Union is an attempt to Bernard Pouillaude touches upon the issue of Bard’. Sterck feels that the French rejection the relationship has been fraught with ‘amputate the continent of its northern side’ foregrounding national sovereignty vis-a-vis to the treaty evinces the vibrant constitutional complexities and trouble. This was so also continue to reverberate and are hard to miss; intergovernmental organisations and studies life of the nation and is not something to during the Cold War (when the USA wore a especially because the grounds for such Poland in this light as Poland, in piloting its mourn about. It is the perception of the starkly military attire) and it is in situ even now. assurances appear debilitated, feeble and national interests, appears to have at times ongoing constitutionalisation of Europe Erb portends the shattering of the Atlantic inadequate in confronting grassroots realities ardently supported the European Union and rather than a premonition of its demise. alliance and consequent cataclysms in case of a heterogeneous third world. at other times stood anachronistically opposed However, Griffin argues, and equally this is not remedied in the face of twenty first to it. This he traces to the absence of a strong powerfully, that it may not actually be such century economic transformations. The locus of attention in Section five shared commonality, towards whose creation a positive stance as this state of affairs was of the compendium is the domain of human the member states should take leaping strides. after all a culmination of the undemocratic The fourth section tries to place the rights. The European Union commands Pierre-Yves Monjal, in his works, draws practices observed and followed by the European Union vis-a-vis postcolonial authority as a propounder of human rights and attention to the European Union as an European Union at different points in time. developments and assumes the ‘third eye’ in it believes that it is this pro-human rights admirable and remarkable regional gauging several enmeshed intricacies. The perspective that renders it distinct in world organisation, strong institutionally and The third section that deals parturition that was in the latter half of the fora. The European Union considers itself an politically, which exercises its competences, thematically with the common foreign policy twentieth century, saw the conception of the heir to this historical and civilisational product formulates its policies and implements them and external relations of the European Union developing world, which tried to venture into and it is with great acumen that this visage of with great incisiveness. Citing these and speaks of the existing divergence in the unknown waters and tread on hitherto the European Union has been read. P. several other legal arguments he with approaches of the European Union and its age unchartered courses. This was essentially the Marudanayagam, in his work, dwelling on a conviction and dexterity attempts to vindicate old partner, the United States of America to Indian case. In her work, Geetha Ganapathy critical review of literature, charts out the the European Union of claims of democratic foreign policy and international relations. Dore has brought to the fore the inconvenience European historical and civilisational trajectory deficit levelled against it. Where for the European Union, a multipolar associated with being Procrustean. She of the idea of human rights as emerging from world is an end to aspire for, the United States juxtaposes differing ‘Third Worlds’ through her within the folds of Milton’s multifaceted works. The edifice of gravity that the work of America is propelled solely by its national twin papers. While analysing India and the In the paper that follows, Iver Neumann raises demands is brilliantly laid out in the spectrum and security interests and this manifests itself European Union in one, she speaks of the sanguine fundamental questions, visibly of ideas flowing into the first few pages itself in its high handed and volatile exploits Mediterranean Union and the European Union broadening the horizon of the issues to be and this sobriety brooks its way into all that is undertaken in the realm of international politics. in the other. The common underlying thread handled within the larger spectrum of human to follow, pervading the work in its entirety. B. Krishnamurthy’s paper on European being that the European Union extend its rights. Shedding light on the crisis in Kosovo, Thus, chronologically the second section, common foreign and security policy vividly friendly hand to the developing world instead his work bears theoretical underpinnings and ‘Institutional and Constitutional Questions’, is conveys the idea that Europe’s commitment of obfuscating the relationship by merely initiates in the context of the humanitarian a delight not merely for constitutionalists but to multilateralism is in many ways a boon to deeming it as its economic or political rival, as interventionist debate, the question of also for political scientists. Packed with the developing world which was as yet wedged the relationship would not only be mutually prerogatives versus the plebeian with respect heavyweight legal action contemporarily and asphyxiated by whimsical American beneficial but also extend to and trickle down to human rights. The question of legitimate engulfing the European Union, it leads Julien unilateralism. This holds true especially in the to several other unanticipated quarters-the claims is central to his understanding and Sterck and Patrick. B. Griffin to deal with Indian case. The sentiment is vociferously Muslim World; a concept which Shazia Aziz the current work on human rights. His constitutional reform of the EU vis-a-vis the echoed in the work of Scott Erb. He subjects Wulber deals with in her ‘Comparison of arguments appear to fall in place and

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 435 Book Review : Changing the World Order: India, EU and US – A Trialogue

explicate much while speaking of vivacious divergence in their thoughts and action. It is multiethnic, multilingual as well as multi-party within the ambit of this, that B. as well as coalition democracies of the likes Krishnamurthy, names democratisation, of India with social movements, struggles human rights and market economy as points for social justice and political exertions of their converges. The ends are the same unfolding rapidly. albeit differing means and perceptions. He singles out this difference as providing points The epilogue is a summation of the of divergence-even in undertaking action in profundity that the book showcases. It is a the international arena. Speaking of the ‘End brainstorming of sorts and elaborates in depth of West’, he moves on to the factors the idea of the trialogue between the European necessitating a Trialogue between the three- Union, India and the US which the authors the European Union, India and the US, judging envisage as an advantageous international it as more pragmatic and essential in development. This idea that facilitated the redeeming transatlantic relations and the undertaking of a work of this denomination in developing world. the first place, strives to rattle the reader out of his ensconce and slumber. To this effect, He concludes with an affirmative the book cajoles one to broaden ones intellectual hope, faith and belief in this Trialogue with diaspora and assists in the process by taking regards to the creation of a ‘democratic and note of five questions, the answers to which just new world’. A compulsive page-turner, it help in understanding this maturing. Self compels the reader to partake of the ideas introspection on part of each of the three and elaborated. Its optimism is contagious and one an analysis of each of their perceptions helps finds no rationale to desist the temptation to shed light on the points of convergence and succumb to it and share the vision.

Swati Bhattacharya MPhil Scholar Dept of Politics & International Studies Pondicherry University Pondicehrry, India.

International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009 International Journal of South Asian Studies IJSAS July - December 2009