Computational Models of Primary Visual Cortex and the Structure of Natural Images

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Computational Models of Primary Visual Cortex and the Structure of Natural Images Computational Models of Primary Visual Cortex and the Structure of Natural Images vorgelegt von Diplom-Informatiker (Dipl.-Inf.) Hauke Bartsch Von der Fakult¨at IV - Elektrotechnik und Informatik der Technischen Universit¨at Berlin zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Naturwissenschaften – Dr. rer. nat. – Promotionsausschuss: Vorsitzender: Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Orglmeister Berichter: Prof. Dr. rer. nat. K. Obermayer Berichter: Prof. Dr. sci. nat. F. Wysotzki TagderwissenschaftlichenAussprache: 2003-12-01 Berlin 2004 / D 83 . Hauke Bartsch January 28, 2003 Computational Models of Primary Visual Cortex and the Structure of Natural Images PhD Thesis Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Technical University of Berlin, Germany . Abstract Understanding the function of the brain appears to be mainly an introspective task. Nevertheless, large parts of our brain are used as a direct interface to our environment. They constantly acquire information and control our actions. The dynamic interweaving of brain and environment opens a dual route to the understanding of cortical processing. Based on that insight the present work focuses on the following two issues: a) analyzing the functional role of cortical networks, and b) analyzing the special requirements imposed onto the brain by the statis- tics of its input, namely the statistics of natural images. After an introduction into both, natural images and the mammalian visual system, we first analyze the connection scheme found in the primary visual cortex at different levels of abstraction. We start by deriving a system of cou- pled differential equations describing a column of excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Phenomena like contrast invariant orientation tuning and contrast saturation are investigated which have been found important features of corti- cal neurons. The initial model is extended to explain also response properties related to contextual effects. There stimuli presented outside the classical re- ceptive field of the neuron can modulate its response. Principle difficulties in having cross-orientation modulations by iso-orientation specific patchy con- nections are shown. In explaining cross-orientation modulations we analyze the effect of the distinctive spatial layout of the cortex. We found that two opposite effects contribute to the observed contextual modulation; (i) local in- hibition that is induced by a local change in input (leads to suppression), and (ii) dis-inhibition. The second part deals with the input of the visual system, namely pictures of scenes encountered in the surrounding world. We formulate the hypoth- esis that higher order features in spatial pattern can be described in terms of intrinsic invariance and symmetry and introduce a mathematical formula- tion of smooth local symmetries. Applications for object classification, image alignment, and landmark detection illustrate the principle advantage of our structure analysis over methods of shape analysis. Two new algorithms are introduced to efficiently learn higher order fea- tures. The first one introduces a centralized Gaussian mixture model to extract 4 second-order features estimating the density of the data. The obtained code is shown to outperform other known linear codes by being well distributed and by showing a high population sparseness, both are preferable properties in coding of natural images. Originating from geometrical considerations of manifolds in high dimen- sional spaces we introduce a non-linear transformation and by this a family of feature spaces that are shown to be useful to detect correlation of a specific or- der in the data. Moreover it is shown that these correlations can be learned in the feature space by linear methods. This general property of the transforma- tion is interesting for a large class of algorithms in the field of explorative data analysis. In the context of independent component analysis this transforma- tion defines a feature space in which the assumption of independent sources can be fulfilled for a set of over-complete basis functions. 5 Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, zum Verst¨andnis der Strukturen des menschlichen Gehirns beizutragen. Grosse Teile unseres Gehirns funktionieren als eine direkte Schnittstelle zu unserer Umwelt. Zwischen Umwelt und Gehirn werden kontinuierlich Informa- tionen verarbeitet und Handlungen initiiert. Das dynamische Wechselspiel zwischen Umwelt und Gehirn macht es notwendig, auch bei der Analyse der Verschaltungsstruk- turen im Gehirn ihre jeweiligen Eingaben, hier meist sensorische Signale, zu unter- suchen. Auf der Grundlage einer Dualit¨at von Gehirnstrukturen und sensorischen Signalen besch¨aftigt sich diese Arbeit mit den folgenden beiden Themen: a) der Analyse der Funktion kortikaler Schaltkreise und b) den speziellen Anforderungen, die bei der Verarbeitung von Bildern an das Gehirn, insbesondere deren statistischen Eigenschaften gestellt werden. Nach einer kurzen Einfuhrung¨ in die Statistik naturlicher¨ Bilder und die Anatomie und Funktion des visuellen Systems der S¨augetiere untersuchen wir die Verschal- tungsstrukturen, die im ersten visuellen Areal gefunden werden. Insbesondere die Ph¨anomene der kontrastinvarianten Antwort auf orientierte Gitter als optische Stimuli und das S¨attigungsverhalten der Zellen bei hohen Kontrasten in der Eingabe werden analytisch und durch Computersimulationen unterstutzt¨ untersucht. Das verwendete Differentialgleichungsmodell fur¨ gekoppelte Zellpopulationen wird schrittweise er- weitert, um auch kontextabh¨angige Effekte untersuchen zu konnen.¨ Hierbei h¨angt die Antwort einer Zelle von den Reizen in ihrer weiteren Umgebung ab. Wir zeigen unter anderem, dass zwei unterschiedliche Effekte zu den Kontextmodulationen beitragen: zum einen lokale Hemmung (Inhibition), die durch eine Anderung¨ in der Struktur der Eingabe bestimmt werden, und des weiteren durch den Effekt der Dis-inhibition. Die Analyse von Bildern unserer Umgebung ist das Hauptziel im zweiten Teil der Arbeit. Sie sind der Input in das visuelle System. Wir formulieren die Hypothese, dass wichtige Eigenschaften von Bildern durch ihre inh¨arenten Invarianzen und Symme- trien definiert werden. Um diese Hypothese zu testen, fuhren¨ wir ein mathematisches Mass fur¨ lokale Symmetrien in r¨aumlichen Mustern ein. Anwendungen auf den Ge- bieten der Objektidentifikation, der Objektausrichtung und der Landmarkenfindung unterstreichen die Vorzuge¨ der Strukturanalyse gegenuber¨ einer reinen Formanalyse. Zwei neue Algorithmen werden vorgestellt um Eigenschaften hoherer¨ Ordnung in Bildern zu lernen. Der erste basiert auf dem Modell eines zentralisierten Gauss'schen- Mixture Modells und extrahiert Merkmale dadurch, dass er ein Modell der Verteilungs- funktion der Daten lernt. Die gelernten Merkmale sind denen anderer Modelle erster Ordnung hinsichtlich der Populationsantworteigenschaften uberlegen.¨ Ausgehend von geometrischen Uberlegungen¨ zu Mannigfaltigkeiten in hochdimen- sionalen R¨aumen fuhren¨ wir eine Transformation in einen nicht-linearen Merkmal- sraum ein, in dem Korrelationen beliebiger Ordnung mit linearen Methoden gelernt werden konnen.¨ Im Kontext der Independent Component Analysis als einem Beispiel fur¨ einen Algorithmus der explorativen Datenanalyse kann die Transformation dazu benutzt werden, um uber-komplette¨ Basisfunktionen zu lernen. 6 Hauke Bartsch, 2002 . Contents 1. Introduction 2 1.1. Scope and Goals . 4 1.2. Plan of the Manuscript . 4 1.3. The Input of the Visual System . 6 1.3.1. A Statistical Description of Images . 8 1.3.2. First Order Statistics . 9 1.3.3. Second Order Statistics . 10 1.3.4. Decomposition into Basis Sets . 12 2. The Mammalian Visual System 15 2.1. The Retina . 17 2.2. The Visual Pathway and the LGN . 19 2.3. The Primary Visual Cortex . 20 2.3.1. Classical Receptive Field Measurements . 21 2.3.2. Complex Stimuli in the CRF . 25 2.3.3. Anatomy of Lateral Connections in V1 . 27 2.3.4. Non-classical Receptive Field Measurements . 29 2.3.5. Texture Segmentation and Line Completion . 32 2.3.6. Origin of Orientation Selectivity . 33 2.3.7. Iceberg-Model . 35 2.4. Discussion . 39 3. From Columns to Hypercolumns and Lattices 40 3.1. Introduction . 40 3.2. A Mean-Field Model of Neuronal Population Activity . 41 3.2.1. Modeling Orientation Selectivity with Two Cell Types . 44 3.2.2. Hypercolumns with Multiple Populations . 48 3.2.3. Hypercolumn Model Setup for Contextual Effects . 62 3.2.4. Numerical Simulations . 64 3.3. A Lattice Model for Contextual Effects . 69 3.3.1. Model description . 70 3.3.2. Results . 72 3.4. Concluding Remarks . 77 8 Contents 4. Invariance and Symmetry 78 4.1. Related Models . 79 4.1.1. Learning Invariance . 79 4.1.2. Learning Symmetry . 81 4.1.3. The Lie Transformation Group Model . 85 4.1.4. Symmetries of the Visual Cortex . 86 4.2. A Structure Preserving Transformation . 87 4.2.1. Co-variation and the Quadratic Form . 91 5. The Binary Valued Quadratic Form 93 5.1. The Choice of a Binary Valued A . 95 5.2. The Properties of . 96 5.2.1. is LinearSin Contrast . 98 5.2.2. TheS Moments of . 98 5.2.3. Dependence on RFSS and Preferred Orientation . 99 5.2.4. Stability Analysis . 100 5.3. Inverting the Symmetry Detection . 101 5.3.1. Minimizing F by Metropolis Algorithm . 105 5.3.2. Minimizing F by Gradient Descent . 107 5.4. Applications . 108 5.4.1. Object classification . 108 5.4.2. Image Alignment . 110 5.4.3. Landmark Detection . 112 5.5. Concluding Remarks . 113 6. The Real Valued Quadratic Form 114 6.1. A Tensor Form for Symmetry Detection . 114 6.2. Independent
Recommended publications
  • Optical Illusion - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia
    Optical illusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Try Beta Log in / create account article discussion edit this page history [Hide] Wikipedia is there when you need it — now it needs you. $0.6M USD $7.5M USD Donate Now navigation Optical illusion Main page From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents Featured content This article is about visual perception. See Optical Illusion (album) for Current events information about the Time Requiem album. Random article An optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is characterized by search visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a percept that does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source. There are three main types: literal optical illusions that create images that are interaction different from the objects that make them, physiological ones that are the An optical illusion. The square A About Wikipedia effects on the eyes and brain of excessive stimulation of a specific type is exactly the same shade of grey Community portal (brightness, tilt, color, movement), and cognitive illusions where the eye as square B. See Same color Recent changes and brain make unconscious inferences. illusion Contact Wikipedia Donate to Wikipedia Contents [hide] Help 1 Physiological illusions toolbox 2 Cognitive illusions 3 Explanation of cognitive illusions What links here 3.1 Perceptual organization Related changes 3.2 Depth and motion perception Upload file Special pages 3.3 Color and brightness
    [Show full text]
  • OPTICAL ILLUSIONS Matyas Molnar More Info, Examples, Sources
    OPTICAL ILLUSIONS Matyas Molnar More info, examples, sources • Mohit Gupta: Understanding optical illusions • https://www.eyebuydirect.com/understanding-perception-optical-illusions • https://www.rd.com/culture/optical-illusions/ • https://www.thisisinsider.com/classic-optical-illusions-2018-1#this-is- troxlers-fading-circle-if-you-stare-the-dot-for-at-least-20-seconds-the-circle- will-completely-fade-away-20 • https://interestingengineering.com/11-puzzling-optical-illusions-and-how- they-work • https://www.collective-evolution.com/2017/07/26/ex-nasa-scientists-share- concealed-information-about-the-face-pyramid-found-on-mars/ • https://www.buzzfeed.com/arielknutson/people-who-found-jesus-in-their- food Preface • Microscopy is a visualization technique – the danger: we tend to believe what we see but humans are fooled by their vision in many different ways • We see / don’t see what we – want / don’t want to see – learnt / didn’t learn to se – others expect / don’t expect us to see • Humans are not rational beings. Our perception and decisions are governed by our emotions and earlier experiences. We make decisions emotionally, only later we justify them with logical explanations. • Biggest effects and limitations are in the following levels: – Eyes – Brain – Environment – Culture, religion, belief systems • We cannot perceive the world objectively outside of our box • Is there any objective world outside us? Preface • Many times there are no consensus on how an actual optical illusion works. • Hard to explain optical illusions with one unified theory, numerous factors are involved • There are various theories and counter theories, and sometimes it's also not clear if the illusion or type of illusion acts on the physical visual system or on the brain level.
    [Show full text]
  • Understanding Optical Illusions
    Understanding Optical Illusions Mohit Gupta What are optical illusions? Perception: I see Light (Sensing) Truth: But this is an ! Oracle Optical Illusion in Nature Image Courtesy: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter19/graphics/infer_mirage_road.jpg A Brightness Illusion Different kinds of illusions • Brightness and Contrast Illusions • Twisted Cord Illusions • Color Illusions • Perspective Illusions • Relative Motion Illusions • Illusions of Expressions Lightness Constancy Our Vision System tries to compensate for differences in illumination Why study optical illusions? • Studying how brain is fooled teaches us how it works “Illusions of the senses tell us the truth about perception” [Purkinje] • It makes us happy J : Al Seckel Simultaneous Contrast Illusions Low-level Vision Explanation Negative Positive Photo-receptors Photo-receptors Receptive Fields in the Retina - Inhibitory Light Excitatory - + - Light - Low-level Vision Explanation - - - + - - + - Positive - - Negative Gradient Gradient High-level Vision Explanation: Context Less Incident More Incident Illumination Illumination Higher Perceived Lower Perceived Reflectance Reflectance Brightness = Reflectance * Incident Illumination The Hermann grid illusion The Hermann grid: Low level Explanation - - + - - Lateral Inhibition The Hermann grid illusion Focus on one intersection Why does the illusion disappear? Receptive fields are smaller near the fovea (center) of the eye The Waved Grid: No illusion! Scintillating Grids: Straight and Curved Adelson’s checkerboard
    [Show full text]
  • Mariann Füzesiné Hudák UNDERSTANDING BASIC VISUAL
    Budapest University of Technology and Economics PhD School in Psychology – Cognitive Science Mariann Füzesiné Hudák UNDERSTANDING BASIC VISUAL MECHANISMS THROUGH VISUAL ILLUSIONS PhD Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Ilona Kovács Budapest, 2013 ‘There is no harm in doubt and skepticism, for it is through these that new discoveries are made.’ (Richard Feynman, Letter to Armando Garcia J, December 11, 1985) 1 Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... 3 2 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ 4 3 Kivonat ............................................................................................................................................. 4 4 Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 4 5 Összefoglaló ..................................................................................................................................... 5 6 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 7 6.1 Looking into the ‘black box’ through illusions - An alternative to physiological studies ...... 7 6.2 Theories of lightness-brightness perception .......................................................................... 12 6.2.1 The roots ...........................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Visual Illusions 1077 Square on Top of 4 Disks Is Assumed
    Visual Illusions 1077 square on top of 4 disks is assumed. Note that just inside its edges should also be present in its the completion of the boundaries of the Kanizsa middle. This is a symbolic (logical) operation square is accompanied by a surface filling-in pro- that might be carried out in the high-level visual cess that leads to the square being perceived as cortex. Some studies have failed to find evidence brighter than the surrounding white background. for the spread of information thought to underlie In a related process, the black disks are surface perception in early retinotopic visual completed “behind” the reconstructed surface. areas, and this has been taken by some as sup- Filling-in and completion processes related to port for symbolic theories of surface perception. visible figures (the Kanizsa square) are referred Hence, further empirical work is required to test to as “modal,” while these processes are referred the traditional view as well as symbolic theories, to as amodal when related to invisible parts of and to resolve some inconsistencies in the find- figures (the parts of the disks occluded by the ings among some studies. Because the traditional Kanizsa square assumed in front by the visual view and symbolic theories are not mutually system). exclusive, elements from both theories might find Figures 1(c) and (d) illustrate the existence of support in the future. surface filling-in processes. Figure 1(c) shows that the physical gray levels in between the black bars P. De Weerd are the same. When the black bars are removed, See also Consciousness; Gestalt Approach; Object some regions in the stimulus are seen as much Perception; Object Perception: Physiology; Perceptual brighter and others as darker, an illusion referred Organization: Vision to as the Craik-O’Brien-Cornsweet illusion.
    [Show full text]
  • Scientific and Large Data Visualization 25 October 2018 Visual Perception Massimiliano Corsini Visual Computing Lab, ISTI
    Scientific and Large Data Visualization 25 October 2018 Visual Perception Massimiliano Corsini Visual Computing Lab, ISTI - CNR - Italy Overview • Intro • Our Eye • Receptive Field Model, CSF, Mach Bending, Cornsweet effect.. • What we really see • Preattentive Process • Gestalt Laws • Perception of lines and areas Human Visual System (HVS) • The Human Visual System (HVS) is subdivided into two parts: – Optical part our eye. – Visual Perception our brain (visual cortex). Our Eye The Retina • The retina is composed by a large number of photoreceptors (rods and cones). • 100 millions of rods, 6 millions of cones. • Cones are concentrated in the fovea (1.5-2 degrees). • Retinal ganglion cells send information, through the optic nerve, to the brain. Rods and Cones Distribution Visual Acuity • Points – 1 minute of arc. • Gratings – 1-2 minutes of arc. • Letter – 5 minutes of arc. • Vernier acuity (the ability to see if two segments are colinear) – 10 seconds of arc. Visual Acuity Snellen Chart Visual Acuity Figure by Vanessa Ezekowitz under CC-SA-BY 3.0. Contrast Sensitivity Function (CSF) • Our perception is sensitive to pattern contrast, frequency and orientation. • Also color influences the CSF. Figure by Martin Reddy. Contrast Sensitivity Function (CSF) Visual Cortex • LGN (Lateral Geniculate Nucleus) forwards pulses to V1. It is also connected with V2 and V3. • V1 is the primary visual cortex. It performs edge detection and global organization (inputs from V2, V3). Visual Cortex • V2 handles depth, foreground, illusory contours. • V3 supports global motion understanding. • V4 recognizes simple geometric shape. • V5/MT: motion perception integration and eye movements guidance. Receptive Field (in the retina) • The receptive field of a cell is the visual area over which a cell responds to light.
    [Show full text]
  • CROWN 85: Visual Perception: a Window to Brain and Behavior Lecture 6
    CROWN 85: Visual Perception: A Window to Brain and Behavior Lecture 6 lecture 6 outline Crown 85: Visual Perception: A Window to Brain and Behavior Crown 85 Winter 2016 Visual Perception: A Window to Brain and Behavior Lecture 6: The Central Visual: System (structure and processing) Reading: Joy of Perception Eye Brain and Vision Web Vision Looking: Information Processing in the Retina (Sinauer) Visual Pathways (Sinauer) Phototransduction (Sunauer) Several Werblin Videos on Visual Cortex OVERVIEW: Visual information leaves the retina via the optic nerve and is transmitted to structures in the brain. The aim of this lecture will be to see various cortical sites further of the original “photograph” into new codes which emphasize certain aspects of the image while discarding others. We will discuss how this code is refined as information is transmitted Lecture 6: Central Visual System (Structure and Processing along pathways to the brain. 1 2 two important questions about cortical processing from outline 2. Understand the following functional concepts: What types of patterns selectively activate a. receptive field f. orientationally tuned cells in the visual system? b. concentric on-center neuron [receptive fields] receptive field g. simple cell c. concentric off-center h. complex cell receptive field i. "grandmother" cell d. retinotopic map j. spatial frequency detector Are differing aspects of an image processed e. feature detector k. what vs where pathways by different parts of the brain? [concurrent pathways or streams] 4 receptive rield (RF) Receptive Field (Kalat figure 6.18) Map of how light presented to various positions in the visual field excites or inhibits the firing of a neuron (this map or pattern is the cell’s receptive field).
    [Show full text]
  • Visual Illusions
    VISUAL ILLUSIONS: PERCEPTION OF LUMINANCE, COLOR, AND MOTION IN HUMANS Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr. rer. nat.) an der Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen Fachbereich 06: Psychologie und Sportwissenschaften Otto-Behaghel-Strasse 10F 35394 Giessen vorgelegt am 21. Dezember 2006 von Dipl. Psych. Kai Hamburger geboren am 5. Juni 1977 in Gedern 1. Berichterstatter und Betreuer Prof. Karl R. Gegenfurtner, Ph.D. (Psychologie, Giessen) 2. Berichterstatter Prof. Dr. Hans Irtel (Psychologie, Mannheim) To my grandfather Heinrich, my parents Elke and Rainer, my brother Sven, and to my fiancée Sandra. Acknowledgement First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my godfather in the graduate program, Professor Karl R. Gegenfurtner (Giessen, Germany), and my two other supervisors, Professor Lothar Spillmann (Freiburg, Germany) and Professor Arthur G. Shapiro (Lewisburg, PA, U.S.A.). Karl, on very short notice you gave me the opportunity to join the graduate program ‘Neural Representation and Action Control – Neuroact’ and by doing so one of the best departments in the field of Vision Sciences. I became a member of an extraordinary lab, which still excites me. You allowed me to finish projects which were already in progress when I started in Giessen and you gave me plenty of rope to pursue my own interests. Thus, I was able to publish efficiently and furthermore gained deep insights into the field of Vision Sciences and even beyond. This was the best mentoring a natural scientist could think of. Thank you. Professor Spillmann, you paved my way into the Vision Sciences. At the beginning of my scientific career you gave me the opportunity to join your famous ‘Freiburg Psychophysics Laboratory’.
    [Show full text]
  • Ganglion Cells Are the Output Neurons of the Retina: They Produce a Train of Spikes
    NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL VISION MODULE 387AA – ROBOTICS [WIF-LM] Marcello Calisti [email protected] The BioRobotics Institute Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna Content of the lectures • Natural part – theorectical (3h) • Artificial part – theorectical (3h) • Hands-on in Matlab (6h) The material on natural vision can be found on: Kandel et al., “Principle of Neuroscience”, McGraw Hill, 2013 Most of the material presented in these lessons can be found on the brilliant, seminal books on robotics and image analysis reported hereafter: 1. P.I. Corke, “Robotics, Vision & Control”, Springer 2011, ISBN 978-3-642-20143-1 2. R. Szeliski, “Computer Vision: Algorithms and Applications”, Springer-Verlag New York, 2010 3. R.C. Gonzalez & R.E. Woods, “Digital Image Processing (3rd edition)”, Prentice-Hall, 2006 Most of the images of these lessons are downloaded from RVC website http://www.petercorke.com/RVC/index.php and, despite they are free to use, they belong to the author of the book. Human vision is a creative process, far beyond simple trasduction Psychol Sci. 2006 Apr;17(4):287-91. The impact of emotion on perception: bias or enhanced processing? Zeelenberg R1, Wagenmakers EJ, Rotteveel M. Psychol Sci. 2003 Jan;14(1):7-13. Emotional facilitation of sensory processing in the visual cortex. Schupp HT1, Junghöfer M, Weike AI, Hamm AO. what we can What we learnt What we want Light is «different» depending on the animal we insect Ludimar Hermann Shiny Herman grid We saw contrast, not absolute value of illumination The Craik-Cornsweet illusion
    [Show full text]
  • Free-Energy and Illusions: the Cornsweet Effect 058 002 059 003 060 004 Harriet Brown* and Karl J
    ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE published: xx February 2012 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00043 001 Free-energy and illusions: the Cornsweet effect 058 002 059 003 060 004 Harriet Brown* and Karl J. Friston 061 005 The Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London Queen Square, London, UK 062 006 063 007 064 Edited by: 008 In this paper, we review the nature of illusions using the free-energy formulation of Bayesian 065 Lars Muckli, University of Glasgow, perception. We reiterate the notion that illusory percepts are, in fact, Bayes-optimal and 009 UK 066 010 represent the most likely explanation for ambiguous sensory input. This point is illustrated 067 Reviewed by: 011 Gerrit W. Maus, University of using perhaps the simplest of visual illusions; namely, the Cornsweet effect. By using 068 012 California at Berkeley, USA plausible prior beliefs about the spatial gradients of illuminance and reflectance in visual 069 013 Peter De Weerd, Maastricht scenes, we show that the Cornsweet effect emerges as a natural consequence of Bayes- 070 University, Netherlands 014 optimal perception. Furthermore, we were able to simulate the appearance of secondary 071 015 *Correspondence: illusory percepts (Mach bands) as a function of stimulus contrast. The contrast-dependent 072 Harriet Brown, Wellcome Trust Centre 016 073 for Neuroimaging, Institute of emergence of the Cornsweet effect and subsequent appearance of Mach bands were 017 Neurology Queen Square, London simulated using a simple but plausible generative model. Because our generative model 074 018 WC1N 3BG, UK. was inverted using a neurobiologically plausible scheme, we could use the inversion as a 075 019 e-mail: [email protected] simulation of neuronal processing and implicit inference.
    [Show full text]
  • Sensorimotor Processing of Vertical Disparity
    SENSORIMOTOR PROCESSING OF VERTICAL DISPARITY ROBERT SCOTT ALLISON A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Programme in Biology York University Toronto, Ontario March 1998 Natioral Library Bibliothèque nationale 191 of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington OttawaON K1AON4 Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or seIl reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of ths thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/^, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otheIUrise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author' s ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. SENSORIMOTOR PROCESSING OF VERTICAL DZSPARITY by Robert S. Allison a dissertation subrnitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of York University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Permission has been granted to the LIBRARY OF YORK UNIVERSITY to lend or sel1 copies of this dissertation. to the NATIONAL LIBRARY OF CANADA to microfilm this dissertation and to tend or seil copies of the film, and to UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS to publish an abstract of this dissertation.
    [Show full text]
  • Neural Stimulation, Learning and Masking
    Seeing 3D surfaces: neural stimulation, learning and masking Vassilis Pelekanos A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Psychology College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Birmingham June 2015 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract Our everyday visual perception experience is of a richly detailed world full of bounded objects, slanted and extensive surfaces. Estimating surfaces’ depth is critical for visually guided interactions, yet, challenged by the limited two-dimensional input projected on each eye’s retina. Binocular disparity, the positional differences that objects project on the two retinae, is a powerful depth cue inducing stereopsis. In the present dissertation, I assessed the neural stages of the visual hierarchy that support the visual perception of disparity- defined three-dimensional (3D) surfaces. In the first experimental chapter (chapter 3), I used fMRI-guided rTMS to probe the cortical areas involved in the perception of slanted surfaces. Results hint at a functional contribution of the dorso-parietal visual stream (posterior parietal cortex; PPC) to slant estimation, however, further work is needed to fully understand the nature of its involvement.
    [Show full text]