Heavenly Powers: Holy See Diplomacy toward China by Fabrizio Bozzato, Grad Dip (International Politics), MPolSc Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts School of Government University of Tasmania February 2009 - Declaration - I declare that this thesis contains no material which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by the University of Tasmania or any other tertiary institution, except by way of background information and duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of my knowledge and belief no material previously published or written by another person except where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis, nor does the thesis contain any material that infringes copyright. Signed: Fabrizio Bozzato February 17th, 2009 11 - Statement of Authority of Access - This thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. Signed: Fabrizio Bozzato February 17th, 2009 - Abstract - Holy See-China relations have a long and chequered history marked by political as well as cultural conflicts. Since the foundation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), these relations have represented one of the thorniest and most complicated diplomatic questions on the world stage. After a long period of absence of communication, over the last three decades the Holy See and Beijing have held secret or discreet talks. These talks to date, however, have not led to the opening of formal negotiations. The current diplomatic stalemate is mainly due to the PRC's intransigence in demanding the Holy See cede the direction of the Catholic Church in China to China' own governmental organizations and sever diplomatic relations with Taiwan. While the Holy See is leaning toward compromise on the latter request, it can hardly bend to the former. In fact, the Catholic Church regards the exertion of Papal authority over the local Catholic hierarchy as a pillar of its doctrinal and institutional integrity and an essential prerequisite for establishing 'working conditions' to carry on ecclesial activities at the national level. Rome's defence of the Church's unity and independence from secular influence collides with Beijing's pursuit of institutional and ideological control over Catholics in China. This striving for control is rooted in the Chinese state apparatus' conviction that the Catholic Church, because of its organizational virtuosity, and the Holy See's international status and prestige, has a special potential to undermine the Communist Party's authority. Holy See-PRC diplomatic normalization is, therefore, predicated on the solution of the conflict of authority between the Apostolic See and Beijing. iv In order to understand this conflict and identify possible solutions to it, this study investigates the Holy See's diplomatic policy toward China. This thesis initially explains the unique position that the Holy See occupies in the international system and delivers a diachronic analysis of the evolution of Sino-Pontifical relations by individuating and examining their historical phases. Subsequently, the thesis shifts its focus to contemporary developments and options in Holy See-PRC interaction by analyzing Benedict XVI's 2007 letter to Chinese Catholics. It then investigates the main obstacles to diplomatic progress, including factional dynamics within the Church. Finally, this study explores the potential solutions which - on the basis of political-diplomatic precedents and the tradition of the Catholic Church - the parties could adopt in order to establish formal relations. < v - Acknowledgments - I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Richard Herr, whose expertise, understanding, and patience, added considerably to my graduate experience. He provided me with direction and moral support, and became more of a mentor and friend, than a professor. I would like to thank also my co-supervisor, Dr Terry Narramore, for the precious assistance he offered me at all levels of the research project. I particularly appreciate the fact that he generously shared his profound knowledge of China with me. Apart from my supervisors, I owe special thanks to a number of ecclesiastics, diplomats and academics. Through their help, encouragement and advice, they gave an essential contribution to the making of this thesis. In primis, I sincerely thank Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone, Secretary of State of His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI. Cardinal Bertone furnished me with precious letters of introduction and has followed with great interest the progress of my thesis. I express my gratitude also to Cardinal Joseph Zen Ze-kiun, Bishop of Hong Kong, who benevolently gave some of his time to explain to me the situation of the Church in China. I thank Monsignor Ambrose Madtha, former Chargé d'Affaires a.i. of the Apostolic Nunciature in China, who kindly helped me to identify the main problems in Sino-pontifical relations. I give my thanks to Monsignor Salvatore Pennacchio, Apostolic Nuncio to the Kingdom of Thailand, who provided me with useful research material. I acknowledge Reverend Dr Gianni Criveller, analyst at the Holy Spirit Study Centre of Hong Kong, who had the vi patience to spend long hours with me, answering my multitude of questions. Thank you also to the Salesian Fathers in Hong Kong and Taipei, who have been my family while I stayed in Terra Sinica. A special mention goes to Monsignor Lech Piechota, Official of the Secretariat of State of the Holy See, who warmly encouraged me in my research. An earnest acknowledgment must go to Dr Chou-seng Tou, Ambassador of the Republic of China to the Holy See, and his predecessor, Dr Raymond Tai. I really appreciate the time they took to explain to me the state of Pontifical-Taiwanese relations and answer my many questions when I was beginning my research. Very special thanks go out to my 'uncle', Commendator Guido Gusso, whose knowledge of Pontifical institutions greatly added to my understanding of the Holy See. He gave me continuous support and advice. I am honoured I had the trust of a man who has devotedly served in the Vatican under four Popes. I owe my gratitude also to Commendator Dr Peter Chiang, a scholar and a journalist at Vatican Radio. His advice was precious, and his friendship was certainly invaluable. I would also like to thank my family for the support they provided me through my entire life and, in particular, the writing of this study. Indeed, without the love and constant encouragement of my parents and my sister, I would not have finished this thesis. vii - Table of Contents - Table of Figures xii Acronyms and Abbreviations Epigraph 1 Introduction The Problem of Diplomatic Stalemate 2 Research Questions and Analytical Perspective 3 Methodology 9 Researching Sino-Holy See Relations 11 Thesis Outline 14 Chapter I The Holy See as a Subject of International Law Introduction 19 The Apostolic See 20 The Holy See and the Vatican City State• 26 Conclusion 33 viii Chapter II The Historical Evolution of Holy See-China Relations: a Relationship Unfolding over the Centuries Introduction 35 Over the Centuries: from the Middle Ages to the 1920s 36 1930s-1950s: Diplomatic Imbroglios, Achievements and Debacles 40 1950s-1990s: from Confrontation to Signs of an Opening 47 Conclusion 58 Chapter III The Late Pontificate of John Paul II and the Initiatives of Benedict XVI Introduction 60 High Hopes and Contradictory Gestures 61 Benedict XVI: Perseverance in Dialogue and Coordination of Efforts 70 Conclusion 80 Chapter IV Benedict XVI's Letter to Chinese Catholics: a Vision for Future Relations with China Introduction 84 Benedict XVI 's Letter 85 The Chinese Reactions to the Papal Letter 95 The Holy See 's Cautious Comments on the Chinese Reactions 101 Conclusion 107 ix Chapter V Factionalism on Sinopolitik: 'Party of Compromise' versus 'Party of Principles' Introduction 108 The Difficult Coexistence of Idealism and Realism 109 'Party of Compromise' versus 'Party of Principles' 115 The Papal Initiatives to End the Factional Divide 130 Conclusion 133 Chapter VI The Conflict of Authority between the Party-State and the Catholic Church: Confucian Obedience versus Libertas Ecclesiae Introduction 135 China's Religious Policy: a Diachronic View 136 The Conflict of Authority between the Party-State and the Catholic Church 150 State Control Over Religion: an Hegelian and Marxist Concept 155 Conclusion 165 Chapter VII Working towards Formal Recognition: Aims and Problems Introduction 167 Aims in Normalizing Relations 168 Problems on the Road to Normalization of Relations: the 'Non Interference in China's Internal Affairs' 177 x The Appointment of Bishops: Potential Solutions 187 Taiwan: an Ancillary (but not Unimportant) Issue 193 Conclusion 200 Chapter VIII Working towards Formal Recognition: Models and Ways Forward Introduction 202 The Soviet/Russian Model 203 The Vietnamese Model 209 Ways forward 216 Conclusion 232 Conclusions 234 References 248-308 xi - Table of Figures - Estimated Statistics for the Catholic Church in China, 1996 82 Estimated Statistics for the Catholic Church in China, 2007 83 xii - Acronyms and Abbreviations - • CPC Communist Party of China • CPCA Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association • PIME Pontificio Istituto Missioni Estere (Pontifical Institute for Foreign Missions) • PRC People's Republic of China • RAB Religious Affairs Bureau • SARA State Administration of Religious Affairs • VCS Vatican City State • WTO World Trade Organization - Epigraph - "In any case I long ago realised