Examining Communication and Democracy in the Vietnam War Caycie Maynard B.A. Candidate, Department of History, California State University Stanislaus, 1 University Circle, Turlock, CA 95382 Received 16 April 2019; accepted May 2019 Abstract The Vietnam War Era is a complex and unfortunate time for United States’ history. Despite US involvement beginning in 1950, large-scale discussion and public knowledge did not begin until much later. Involvement in the Vietnam War began before the American population was able to exercise their democratic right. In addition, President Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon all contributed to the deception and violation of the American people. Government officials created a palatable narrative covering the events of the Vietnam War and engaged in the war in secrecy, violating democratic rights in the process. When events developed beyond being easily concealed, the American people grew restless and resisted intensely until they were heard. Keywords: Vietnam, discussion, communication, rhetoric, opposition, Democracy, reactions, secrecy, resistance. In the words of the Declaration of Independence: an attack against Communism and the protection of “[w]e hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are democracy. An example of this theory comes from Sandra created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with Scanlon, who suggests that a considerable amount of the certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, American population supported the war due to its goal of Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. containing the spread of Communism. This is best noted in — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted an excerpt where she states that conservatives had a “long- among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent stated belief that the Vietnam War was an essential part of of the governed” (US, 1776). This declaration served to America’s Cold War struggle against the spread of highlight the injustice by the British towards the Colonists totalitarian communism (Scanlon). She continues to in their pursuit of freedom. The early Americans were so elaborate in further chapters, where she argues that impassioned by the violation of these rights that they considerable support for the war existed until the later would ultimately fight against the British to obtain their stages of the war, when public opposition publicly freedom. From this fact, the logical idea would be to dominated, and support of the war was overshadowed. Her assume that the early Americans then chose to create a argument falls into a broader section of literature, which government that derived power by the people for the highlights support for the war. people. It would be rational to assume that the Other theories on the Vietnam War draw government regarded liberty and the average American’s considerably different conclusions. Another largely ability to participate in the democratic process as prominent war opinion is that the Vietnam War faced fundamental to society. It would ultimately be rational to opposition swiftly and immediately by large groups of the assume that early Americans would create a government, American people. A representative voice of this theory is H. which encompassed the rights that they desperately Bruce Franklin. He suggests that “the first American wanted from the British, and the rights that were presented opposition came as soon as Washington began warfare in the Declaration of Independence and even the US against the Vietnamese people by equipping and Constitution. transporting a foreign army to invade their county- in 1945” While this would be the logical assumption, this is (Franklin). His voice embodies the theory that war ultimately, not what occurred. The United States’ opposition began extremely early in the war; as early as the government unfortunately faltered in its ability to grant war began, as well as the fact that Americans as a whole these rights to its own citizens. While this is prominent in were fundamentally opposed to the war. large swaths of US history, a prime spotlight of the Both of these theories suggest a theory on American dereliction of American democratic ideals is encompassed public opinion at the same, but they lack an awareness in a in the Vietnam War Era. In an ideal American democracy, fundamental aspect of public opinion. While many people (in terms of what early Americans hoped for in their had reactions to the war, these people could not truly have a government) an average American would have the liberty valid opinion on the war because they were not given all of to influence political processes. Citizens, in theory, should the information. This paper will examine the rhetoric an be able to voice their opinions in a form that their direct information presentation by government officials and select representation responds to by enacting policy that reflects voices of the American people to highlight the lack of true their voice. To elaborate on this further, contextualization liberty, democracy, and consent of the governed. The and vast discussion of the Vietnam War opinion is American people were largely opposed to the war, despite needed. the fact that they were not given any amount of the full The historiography of the Vietnam War’s public information known by government officials. Admittedly, opinion focuses in on several prominent fields of thought. there were groups of people who supported the war, First, is the notion that although there was opposition in although they did not truly have the full information in the later portion of the war, Americans largely supported order to make that decision. This paper will examine the flaws in communication that prevented the American Indochina in 1945 (Franklin). As soon as the war began, people from making informed decisions in the political Truman began to involve the US through financial process. contributions. The Pentagon Papers elaborate on this In short, the American people wanted a voice. further by detailing the contributions and reasons. In terms From the very beginning of the establishment of of its financial contributions, The Pentagon Papers American government, the American people were fighting documents that in “the winter of 1945-1950… the Truman to have a voice in their democracy. While this could have Administration moved to support Emperor Bao Dai and resulted in a fair and productive democracy, it ultimately provide military aid to the French against the Communist- boiled down to a nation where the top officials made the led Vietminh” (Butterfield in Pentagon Papers). In the early decisions and then presented them in a limited capacity to 1950s, the documents show several cases of military and the American people. Using an examination of the five economic contributions in Indochina. All of these examples prominent presidencies (Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, clarify the US involvement in Vietnam. Johnson, and Nixon) and the public voice surrounding the In addition, all of these contribution documentations Vietnam War, this paper will inspect the faults of are accompanied by the rationale behind them. For democracy. example, in December of 1949, “President Truman Beginning a discussion of US involvement in the approved a key National Security Council study on Asia, Vietnam War requires a short historical summary of the designated N.S.C. 48/2” which illustrated that “the course of broader situation in Indochina. In the 1880s, Vietnam was US policy was set to block further Communist expansion in essentially a colony of the French. By the mid-1900s, Asia” (Butterfield, P.P.). This is developed further in however, the Vietnamese grew tired of this and engaged February 1950, when the National Security Council in a struggle for independence. Beginning in 1945, the provided an explanation for their military aid to Indochina, French Indochina War was largely a struggle of a colony which centered entirely on the Domino Theory (Butterfield, fighting for independent rule from France. In April 1954, P.P.). In other related examples, the Pentagon Papers the Vietnamese won their independence, which is outline contributions to Indochina with rationales of the demonstrated by the Geneva Conference. The alliances fear that Indochina would fall to Communism. The threat of and groupings during the French Indochina War led to the Communism in Vietnam was enough for the United States post-war decision to split Vietnam at the 17th parallel into to begin financial involvement in the war. the North and South. The South identified with US allies While financial contribution it itself is not major and began to align with principles closer to a democracy, involvement in the war, it does pose significant issues. while the North found French and other influences that First, it is still action engaged in covertly by the US pushed the region into practices that were more government. The average American people were not told communist in nature. about the financial contributions to the war and in many This notion of the North and South carried on until cases, official documentation of the war suggested that the it was escalated into conflict. By 1957, forces from the information was held secretly. This is noted in several North and South were fighting along the Ho Chi Minh significant documents, but is highlighted succinctly in the Trail. Fighting, as well as US involvement gradually 1952 Policy Statement by U.S. on Goals in Southeast Asia. escalated into the war that would later signify and embody In this document, the National Security Council outlines a the Vietnam War. US involvement is frequently noted as policy for keeping Southeast Asia from becoming beginning after the Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964, which Communist by assisting their resistance efforts. This resulted in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Peace talks document then outlines specific policy for Indochina, much from the United States began from the US Government of which incorporates a presentation of importance of formally in 1968, and the last US troops were pulled out Indochina to the American people.