Examining Communication and Democracy in the War Caycie Maynard

B.A. Candidate, Department of History, California State University Stanislaus, 1 University Circle, Turlock, CA 95382 Received 16 April 2019; accepted May 2019

Abstract

The Era is a complex and unfortunate time for ’ history. Despite US involvement beginning in 1950, large-scale discussion and public knowledge did not begin until much later. Involvement in the Vietnam War began before the American population was able to exercise their democratic right. In addition, President Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon all contributed to the deception and violation of the American people. Government officials created a palatable narrative covering the events of the Vietnam War and engaged in the war in secrecy, violating democratic rights in the process. When events developed beyond being easily concealed, the American people grew restless and resisted intensely until they were heard.

Keywords: Vietnam, discussion, communication, rhetoric, opposition, Democracy, reactions, secrecy, resistance.

In the words of the Declaration of Independence: an attack against and the protection of “[w]e hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are democracy. An example of this theory comes from Sandra created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with Scanlon, who suggests that a considerable amount of the certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, American population supported the war due to its goal of Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. containing the spread of Communism. This is best noted in — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted an excerpt where she states that conservatives had a “long- among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent stated belief that the Vietnam War was an essential part of of the governed” (US, 1776). This declaration served to America’s Cold War struggle against the spread of highlight the injustice by the British towards the Colonists totalitarian communism (Scanlon). She continues to in their pursuit of freedom. The early Americans were so elaborate in further chapters, where she argues that impassioned by the violation of these rights that they considerable support for the war existed until the later would ultimately fight against the British to obtain their stages of the war, when public opposition publicly freedom. From this fact, the logical idea would be to dominated, and support of the war was overshadowed. Her assume that the early Americans then chose to create a argument falls into a broader section of literature, which government that derived power by the people for the highlights support for the war. people. It would be rational to assume that the Other theories on the Vietnam War draw government regarded liberty and the average American’s considerably different conclusions. Another largely ability to participate in the democratic process as prominent war opinion is that the Vietnam War faced fundamental to society. It would ultimately be rational to opposition swiftly and immediately by large groups of the assume that early Americans would create a government, American people. A representative voice of this theory is H. which encompassed the rights that they desperately Bruce Franklin. He suggests that “the first American wanted from the British, and the rights that were presented opposition came as soon as Washington began warfare in the Declaration of Independence and even the US against the by equipping and Constitution. transporting a foreign army to invade their county- in 1945” While this would be the logical assumption, this is (Franklin). His voice embodies the theory that war ultimately, not what occurred. The United States’ opposition began extremely early in the war; as early as the government unfortunately faltered in its ability to grant war began, as well as the fact that Americans as a whole these rights to its own citizens. While this is prominent in were fundamentally opposed to the war. large swaths of US history, a prime spotlight of the Both of these theories suggest a theory on American dereliction of American democratic ideals is encompassed public opinion at the same, but they lack an awareness in a in the Vietnam War Era. In an ideal American democracy, fundamental aspect of public opinion. While many people (in terms of what early Americans hoped for in their had reactions to the war, these people could not truly have a government) an average American would have the liberty valid opinion on the war because they were not given all of to influence political processes. Citizens, in theory, should the information. This paper will examine the rhetoric an be able to voice their opinions in a form that their direct information presentation by government officials and select representation responds to by enacting policy that reflects voices of the American people to highlight the lack of true their voice. To elaborate on this further, contextualization liberty, democracy, and consent of the governed. The and vast discussion of the Vietnam War opinion is American people were largely opposed to the war, despite needed. the fact that they were not given any amount of the full The historiography of the Vietnam War’s public information known by government officials. Admittedly, opinion focuses in on several prominent fields of thought. there were groups of people who supported the war, First, is the notion that although there was opposition in although they did not truly have the full information in the later portion of the war, Americans largely supported order to make that decision. This paper will examine the flaws in communication that prevented the American Indochina in 1945 (Franklin). As soon as the war began, people from making informed decisions in the political Truman began to involve the US through financial process. contributions. The Pentagon Papers elaborate on this In short, the American people wanted a voice. further by detailing the contributions and reasons. In terms From the very beginning of the establishment of of its financial contributions, The Pentagon Papers American government, the American people were fighting documents that in “the winter of 1945-1950… the Truman to have a voice in their democracy. While this could have Administration moved to support Emperor Bao Dai and resulted in a fair and productive democracy, it ultimately provide military aid to the French against the Communist- boiled down to a nation where the top officials made the led Vietminh” (Butterfield in Pentagon Papers). In the early decisions and then presented them in a limited capacity to 1950s, the documents show several cases of military and the American people. Using an examination of the five economic contributions in Indochina. All of these examples prominent presidencies (Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, clarify the US involvement in Vietnam. Johnson, and Nixon) and the public voice surrounding the In addition, all of these contribution documentations Vietnam War, this paper will inspect the faults of are accompanied by the rationale behind them. For democracy. example, in December of 1949, “President Truman Beginning a discussion of US involvement in the approved a key National Security Council study on Asia, Vietnam War requires a short historical summary of the designated N.S.C. 48/2” which illustrated that “the course of broader situation in Indochina. In the 1880s, Vietnam was US policy was set to block further Communist expansion in essentially a colony of the French. By the mid-1900s, Asia” (Butterfield, P.P.). This is developed further in however, the Vietnamese grew tired of this and engaged February 1950, when the National Security Council in a struggle for independence. Beginning in 1945, the provided an explanation for their military aid to Indochina, French Indochina War was largely a struggle of a colony which centered entirely on the Domino Theory (Butterfield, fighting for independent rule from . In April 1954, P.P.). In other related examples, the Pentagon Papers the Vietnamese won their independence, which is outline contributions to Indochina with rationales of the demonstrated by the Geneva Conference. The alliances fear that Indochina would fall to Communism. The threat of and groupings during the French Indochina War led to the Communism in Vietnam was enough for the United States post-war decision to split Vietnam at the 17th parallel into to begin financial involvement in the war. the North and South. The South identified with US allies While financial contribution it itself is not major and began to align with principles closer to a democracy, involvement in the war, it does pose significant issues. while the North found French and other influences that First, it is still action engaged in covertly by the US pushed the region into practices that were more government. The average American people were not told communist in nature. about the financial contributions to the war and in many This notion of the North and South carried on until cases, official documentation of the war suggested that the it was escalated into conflict. By 1957, forces from the information was held secretly. This is noted in several North and South were fighting along the significant documents, but is highlighted succinctly in the Trail. Fighting, as well as US involvement gradually 1952 Policy Statement by U.S. on Goals in Asia. escalated into the war that would later signify and embody In this document, the National Security Council outlines a the Vietnam War. US involvement is frequently noted as policy for keeping from becoming beginning after the Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964, which Communist by assisting their resistance efforts. This resulted in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Peace talks document then outlines specific policy for Indochina, much from the United States began from the US Government of which incorporates a presentation of importance of formally in 1968, and the last US troops were pulled out Indochina to the American people. In the policy statement, of Vietnam in 1973, signaling the end of the war (Hanna). covert actions and propaganda are encouraged in Despite the general knowledge that US involvement several aspects (NSC 1952, P.P.). In other documents, began later, approximately around the period of the Gulf more covert behaviors, propaganda, and other forms of of Tonkin incident; US involvement actually began much deception are hinted at. In short, while financial earlier. US involvement began in 1945, when the United involvement is not an extreme behavior, it was still a States helped France against the Vietnamese “by secret to the American people and offered these Americans equipping and transporting a foreign army to invade their no choice in the matter. country [Vietnam]” (Franklin). In addition, the US In addition, this process of increasing financial continued a pattern or providing financial aid and involvement served to increase US responsibility in resources throughout the French Indochina War. This Vietnam. While the economic and military aid was not a summary of the situation in Vietnam serves to be a huge action in itself, it served to pledge US support within contextual foundation for the discussion of US the war and would create an interventionist precedent. involvement in Vietnam This is summarized succinctly by the quote “the Truman Administration’s decision to give military aid to France in her colonial war against Communist-led Vietminh directly Harry S. Truman, AKA Give ‘Em Hell Harry: involved the United States in Vietnam and set the course 1945-1953 of American policy” (Sheehan, P.P). In short, financial Harry Truman began US involvement in involvement was not a huge step in war involvement, but it Indochina, although he did so in secrecy. As noted earlier, provided the precedent for covert involvement that would Truman began financially contributing to the war in last for four more presidencies. the American people of an influence in public policy Truman’s covert involvement is noted in the regarding Vietnam, there still were people who recognized Pentagon Papers in several documents, but it is extremely the situation and called for the US to stop. The Truman relevant in his speeches as president. In these speeches, Administration set a precedent for involvement in the American people were led to believe that they were Vietnam with the intention of keeping all of Asia from getting updates of American policy within the world, when falling to Communism. This administration also set a in truth; these speeches were used as a tool to disguise the precedent for secrecy. From its very beginning, the actions authorized by the President. In most cases, American people were stripped of their opportunity to Truman’s speeches served as a type of propaganda, where have a voice in the political process. the American citizens were told to care about the various Dwight D. Eisenhower: AKA General Ike: 1953-1961 issues that would be prevalent in the Vietnam War. For In Eisenhower’s First Inaugural Address speech on example, in June of 1947, Truman gave a speech to the January 20, 1953, he made the claim that America has NAACP. In this speech, Truman says, “[r]ecent events in “grown in power and responsibility” (Eisenhower). While the United States and abroad have made us realize that it is this quote is likely referring in part to Korea and the Post- more important today than ever before to ensure that all World War world, this quote also fits perfectly to the Americans enjoy these rights” (Truman). While this situation in Vietnam. During the Eisenhower speech is focused on the rights of African Americans and Administration, Vietnam War involvement continued the is likely drawing this parallel to the tumultuous situation same gradual escalation pattern that the Truman in Korea, it also provides an opportunity for Truman to Administration began. This is outlined most clearly in the suggest an importance in ensuring rights for all. Pentagon Papers. To illustrate, the ’54 Report by Special This notion arises in many other speeches. For Committee on the Threat of Communism illustrates the example, on April 11, 1951, Truman gave a speech escalation by outlining the conclusions and courses of entitled Report to the American People on Korea. In this action. In this document, the central idea is that the US speech, Truman notes the importance of targeting the should defeat the Communist threat by any means Communist who are working to endanger peace within the politically or militarily available (Report by Special free world. However, in this speech, Truman makes broad Committee, P.P.). This mentality appears to motivate the statements that could easily represent Vietnam. He also rest of the decisions in Eisenhower’s Administration. notes that the Communists were attacking Korea with a For example, in June 1954 through August 1955, this larger plan of taking over all of Asia (Truman). In his report resulted in the authorization of “paramilitary speech, Truman makes large claims of the Communist operations against the enemy and to wage political- danger to freedom everywhere, while also suggesting that psychological warfare”. This was supplemented in August Communism is being defeated in Korea so that it will not of 1954 when the US states supported a plan of direct be an issue anywhere else (Truman). This idea that involvement and in December of 1954 when the US took Communism is being defeated in Korea is deception to the over the military training in Vietnam (Butterfield, P.P.). As American people. Involvement in Indochina with the goal stated earlier, all of these actions were responses to the of stopping Communism is not mentioned. fear of Communism. However, this fear was not projected Overall, many of Truman’s speeches appear to take in conversations to the American public. In fact, the on a role of a trial balloon, where he presents the situation American people were led to believe that the situation in in a way that gradual increases awareness of the Vietnam was being managed and was showing far- Communist issue. While keeping the economic and reaching progress (National Intelligence Estimate, military assistance a secret, Truman directs the people to Butterfield, and P.P.). The American people were given an focus on the issues of Communism in other parts of the optimistic painting of the vastly uncertain and fear- world. Truman’s public rhetoric serves to make inspiring situation in Vietnam. involvement in the war more palatable to the American Many of Eisenhower’s public speeches corroborated people, while maintaining its secrecy. This behavior will the optimistic image being presented to the people. For be continued and expanded by the presidents after him. example, in his inaugural address, Eisenhower presented Even though US involvement began in secrecy, an optimistic and powerful image of American individuals there was still rare instances of resistance. Large bodies of fighting to “deter the forces of aggression and promote the the American people did not know of US involvement in conditions of peace” and to consider the “Nation’s the war, and as a result, they were not able to resist strength and security as a trust upon which rests the hope involvement or sway government policy in any capacity. of free men everywhere” (Eisenhower). This speech However, there still were special cases of resistance. For presents a striking positive image, and does not mention example, in September 1947 a meeting for the any semblance of US involvement in Vietnam. The speech Celebration of the Second Anniversary of the only casually presents the tragic image of the French Independence of the Republic of Viet-Nam allowed many soldier dying in Vietnam and implicitly suggests that speakers to denounce the war (Franklin). These speakers Americans could eventually have to aid the forces of essentially claimed that the United States was financing freedom. He clarifies this idea in more detail in his colonial by supporting the French. Despite Chance for Peace speech when he states “humanity is being kept in the dark to a large degree regarding US hanging from a cross of iron” and then delves into an policy in Vietnam, these individuals resisted involvement analysis of the threat to freedom in many places around the even in the 1940s. Despite the US government robbing world (Eisenhower). In this speech, he offers an image of a potential peace, when this was just truly not the case of In this speech, Kennedy uses his rhetoric to establish the time. himself as the president who is making every effort to be Eisenhower presented an appearance of a need to transparent with Congress and with American citizens. He contain Communism and hinted at a negative situation in presents the idea that he will make every effort to inform Vietnam, but he did not provide the American people with the American people and Congress with information they a truthful assessment of government action. As a result, need to make decisions on policy. While this is these individuals could not have a valid and informed phenomenal, it is ultimately just a line given to the reaction to US involvement. While the population was American people with no action behind it. largely unaware of actions, they still could occasionally Later in the speech, he does go on to explain limited infer and form suitable reactions, just as they did in the information about Vietnam and how they are fighting for Truman Administration. For example, In April of 1954, freedom. He uses this to explain America’s responsibility Vice President Nixon implied in a trial balloon that US and outlines the response needed; including more “air-lift action might be needed in Vietnam, which prompted capacity”, an increased “submarine program”, and an thousands of Americans to write to the White House acceleration to the “entire missile program” and some form discouraging this action (Franklin). Besides this, a Gallup of program with can help give aid to these countries poll in May of 1954, indicated that 68 percent of people (Kennedy). He markets the aid strategy as others as new opposed sending troops into Vietnam (Franklin). While plans which he plans to ask Congress permission for, but in these instances are not the outlandish protests depicted in reality, this was already largely occurring. later years, it is tangible proof that the American people His message of transparency is echoed louder in his were unhappy about this war and protested it as soon as 1961 “President and the Press” Speech. He clearly they knew any semblance of what was occurring. presents an image of transparency in the quote: No President should fear public scrutiny of his John F. Kennedy AKA “Lancer”: 1961-1963 program. For from that scrutiny comes understanding; and In short, Kennedy was responsible for a significant from that, understanding comes support or opposition. increase in involvement in Vietnam. While keeping most Moreover, both are necessary. I am not asking your of the details out of the press, Kennedy would create a newspapers to support the Administration, but I am asking significantly more developed American response. your help in the tremendous task of informing and alerting However, Kennedy also put out the presidential image the American people. For I have complete confidence in that he was open an honest. In his speeches, Kennedy the response and dedication of our citizens whenever they placed a great deal of focus on being transparent with the are fully informed. population. He also spoke passionately about the strengthening and preparedness needed in order to fight in I not only could not stifle controversy among your Vietnam. readers—I welcome it. This Administration intends to be To illustrate, in his 1961 “City Upon a Hill” Speech, candid about its errors (Kennedy). Kennedy emphasizes that American democracy is “a This speech offers the image of open honesty and of model to others” in many ways, specifically including the giving the American people a chance to influence public American courage needed to “stand up to one’s enemies” policy. However, this never happened in the capacity that (Kennedy). He corroborates this in his 1961 Inaugural Kennedy presented. Kennedy offered a golden image of Address where he encourages an arms increase and a transparent honestly, but this never occurred for American show of strength to the other nations (Kennedy). In both citizens. speeches, he implies that preparing to aid struggling Despite the golden image of public communication, nations is part of being a model democracy, and part of Kennedy engaged Vietnam in covert secrecy. For example, being an American. Kennedy used his presidential almost in the exact timing of this speech, “President rhetoric to make fighting in Vietnam an issue of Kennedy made his first fresh commitments to Vietnam patriotism. secretly. The Pentagon Study discloses that in the spring of Besides the use of patriotism, President Kennedy 1961 the President ordered 400 Special Forces troops and uses other tools of speech to present a better image. For 100 other American military advisers sent to South example, in his 1961 State of the Union Address, Kennedy Vietnam. No publicity was given to either move.” (Smith, offers a false pretense of transparency to the American P.P.). Not only was this a secret mission and a slap to the people. This is best observed in the quote: face of the American people who were promised honesty, it Our Constitution wisely assigns both joint and was also a breach of the Geneva Agreement. In addition to separate roles to each branch of the government; and a deceiving his own people, Kennedy was willing to ignore President and a Congress who hold each other in mutual terms of the peace agreement. respect will neither permit nor attempt any trespass. For Kennedy took further steps, including a decision to my part, I shall withhold from neither the Congress nor step up the covert operations in (National the people any fact or report, past, present, or future, Security Memorandum, P.P.). Without describing every which is necessary for an informed judgment of our operation initiated by Kennedy, a process of deepening conduct and hazards. I shall neither shift the burden of covert operations was initiated. A notable example includes executive decisions to the Congress, nor avoid an outline for covert warfare, including spying on and responsibility for the outcome of those decisions sabotaging Communist bases in North Vietnam (Smith, (Kennedy). P.P.). Covert operations continued in a pattern of secrecy with specific control of the communication. For example, simultaneously hiding it from the American people. Still, there began to be speculation about the situation in the American people were able to coordinate and begin to Vietnam and the response is best noted in the quote: form resistance to this injustice. “Administration officials effectively squelched press speculation about the troop question with carefully Lyndon B. Johnson AKA “Landslide Lyndon”: 1963- managed news leaks” (Smith, P.P.). 1969 Throughout Kennedy’s presidency, Vietnam In this stage, Johnson was responsible for bringing involvement skyrocketed with ten times more American light to the situation in Vietnam as he significantly forces (Smith, P.P.). By October 1963, “American increased involvement in the war. At the same time, his involvement grew to 16,732 men” (Smith, P.P.). Overall, Kennedy was responsible for significantly deepening US revelations brought the rapid advance of anti-war involvement in Vietnam while hiding it from the American demonstrations. Despite being the President running on the people. This is best articulated in the book Dereliction of platform of restraint, Johnson was responsible for the worst Duty by H. R. McMaster, as he is able to explain in a step- of the Vietnam War involvement. by-step fashion exactly how Kennedy (and Johnson) made Johnson’s speeches offer a concise look as his huge errors in conducting war in the dark to the American presentation of the war to the American people. Johnson people. Without delving too far into this book, it explains offered little discussion about Vietnam in his speeches until some of the major covert operations and cover-ups by after the Gulf of Tonkin. His limited information was Kennedy that solidify and clarify the several mistakes presented in the context of a vague statement of trying to made by Kennedy. The American people were promised lessen involvement or through coaxed answers by transparency and honestly but instead got wide-scale questioning reporters. In his Report on the Gulf of Tonkin deception and increased involvement. In this Administration, the American people Incident, Johnson cried of the unjust action by Vietnam and finally were able to obtain some knowledge regarding swore retaliation (Johnson). From this point on, Johnson’s war involvement. Granted, the knowledge was still speeches used the Gulf of Tonkin as an excuse for extraordinarily hidden and deceptive, and large amounts increasing military action. This is apparent in several of people still had very little knowledge of the true nature speeches, including his 1964 Remarks on Vietnam at of war. Despite this, protest essentially began in a larger Syracuse University speech, his Address at John Hopkins capacity under the Kennedy Administration. For example, University, and more. several groups such as the Society of Friends, the Johnson also blamed other factors for the war. For Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), and the War example, in several speeches, Johnson blamed the past Resisters League (WRL) all began denouncing war presidents for establishing precedent in the war (despite the involvement (Schreiber). In addition, as noted by Franklin, “by 1963, the basis of a broad popular fact that he was the president who involved the US most movement was forming” (Franklin). Franklin goes on to heavily). The best example is the Address at John Hopkins note that while opposition to the war would nationalize in University, where he states, “we are there because we have a large way the following year, the Kennedy a promise to keep. Since 1954 every American President administration saw the beginning of anti- war coalition. has offered support to the people of ” War opposition was not huge due to the largely held (Johnson). Another element of the blame game originates secrets of involvement, but there were significant in the Press Conference on July 28, 1965, where Johnson elements of development in this time period. stresses the perils of the Domino Theory. The best example of opposition from this time Overall, Johnson’s speeches do contain a vastly period comes the Port Huron Statement released in 1962. higher amount of Vietnam War conversation. In fact, In this statement, a deeper understanding of the anti-war nearly every single speech in his presidency has some type demonstration is understood. This entire document can be of mention of Vietnam. However, this is because of the Gulf summarized as a plea for a say in the democratic process. of Tonkin. After Vietnam policy went through Congress, The plea for a “participatory democracy” is best the American people knew of the war and were able to summarized in the quote “as a social system we seek the demand answers. Even though presidential conversation establishment of a democracy of individual participation, spoke frequently of the war, it did so in a way that placed governed by two central aims: that the individual share in blame on everybody except the President. Speeches were those social decisions determining the quality and direct worded in ways that blamed others, blamed precedent, or of his life; that society be organized to encourage blamed aspects that could not be corrected. Even though independence in men and provide the media for their Vietnam conversation was much more apparent in the common participation” (SDS). The statement essentially Johnson Administration, it was still done in a way that hid summarizes the need for democracy to consist of prominent aspects from the American people under cheap information sharing with the people and a plea for the shifts of responsibility. American people to have some say in government Much like the presidents before, the Pentagon actions. This would encompass a large degree of anti-war Papers serve to explain the way in which the war was sentiments in later years. involved in without the American people’s knowledge. In Overall, Kennedy was responsible for creating a chapters five through ten, Johnson’s policy for covert war that the US could not turn away from, while warfare was laid out in pristine detail. Johnson authorized a great deal of covert warfare and made plans for The Comment provides an example of a more remote resolutions to be presented to Congress. This warfare school voicing opposition. This paper includes details of included various forms of “information gathering” and transgressions in Vietnam, student calls for peace, anti-war “destructive undertakings” where people were attacked, editorials, and campus interviews against Vietnam kidnapped or spied on for information gathering and (Bridgewater). Another newspaper example is The covert warfare (Sheehan, P.P.). Another glaring example Cardinal, the newspaper of the University of Madison. of Johnson’s transgressions comes after he agreed to This paper created some of the loudest calls for opposition bomb North Vietnam (among all other actions of covert and was responsible for inciting many protests against the warfare) and then gave a speech where he claimed that the DOW chemical plant; the creator of Agent Orange. policy of the US “was to furnish advice, give counsel, College newspapers provide major and vivid examples of express good judgement, give them trained counselors, the opposition developing with the development of and help them with equipment to help themselves” information available to American people. (Sheehan, P.P.). Johnson was remarkable at deceiving the Opposition additionally found roots in the broader American people. In another example, “President Johnson Civil Rights Movement. Both of the leaders of major Civil decided on April 1, 1965 to use American ground troops Rights Movements spoke loudly against the war. Malcolm for offensive action in South Vietnam… He ordered that X spoke first is his The Ballot or the Bullet Speech in this decision be kept secret” (NSAM 328, P.P). April of 1964, where he denounced the war passionately, Throughout the war, Johnson would make many decisions and called for action and cessation of war in Vietnam (X, in secrecy. Malcolm). Martin Luther King Jr. echoes this in several In the later years of his presidency, Johnson could speeches. The most famous speech of MLK in this context not hold on to the secret operations. After the Gulf of was Beyond Vietnam, where he passionately and Tonkin and several prominent breeches of information, empathetically calls for the end of violence to the war opposition grew in huge numbers. For example, “On Vietnamese (King). Both of these individuals, as well as March 10, [1967] The New York Times published the all of the previous examples, show the large extent at first report… about General Westmoreland’s request for which this time became focused on opposition. As 206,000 troops. The president was furious at the leak” individuals learned of the war, they were quick to oppose (Kenworthy, P.P.). Johnson began to crumble, as war it in any way they found possible. policy grew unpopular inside and outside of the government. From this point on, Johnson would begin to Richard M. Nixon AKA Slick Rick: 1969-1974 fight an uphill battle with the massive increase of “press By the time of the Nixon Administration, the war had leaks and public criticism” (Kenworthy, P.P.). Overall, shifted from a process of covert engagement to a process Johnson was responsible for massive expanses in the war, of backpedaling and trying to push an agenda of peace. as well as a massive increase of public opposition. In his First Inaugural Address in January of 1969, Nixon No amount of explanation can give a full picture of praises the youth for fighting diligently for peace and the opposition during Johnson’s Presidency. However, strongly encourages it while continuing to salvage this period encompassed huge resistance from many reputation by throwing in mentions of a peace that different individuals. Franklin characterizes them best in protects South Vietnam (Nixon). Nixon at this stage of his his book. To illustrate, Franklin notes the marches, teach- Presidency was reduced to an attempt of cleaning up the ins, mutinies, army resistance, protests, and groups that all smoldering messes of Vietnam. This is best reflected in worked to oppose the war. Franklin notes that the first his Address to the Nation on the War in Vietnam from anti-war opposition in this administration came when November of 1969. While he still lies and deceives the Americans selected him for his anti-war pledge, despite American people, most glaringly in the statement that US him committing American troops to ‘fight the war of the involvement had only occurred for four years, he Asian boys’ less than 48 hours after his election presents a specific amount of honesty to the American (Franklin). Anti-war demonstrations also came in the form people (Nixon). In this speech, Nixon gives numbers of of marches, beginning in 1964 with the SDS coordinating men involved, or policies implemented and of peace 25,000 people in the March on Washington and negotiations between countries. He uses this pretense of eventually escalating in the late 60s to marches honesty as a backdrop to try to win support for the decision incorporating nearly 500,00 people (Franklin). The teach- to phase in Vietnamization instead of immediate ins also began March 1965 (Franklin). withdrawal (Nixon). In these examples as in many of Students also comprised a lot of the resistance in Nixon’s speeches, he is truly attempting to quell the this administration. Notable forces include the Students massive opposition long enough to create some form of for a Democratic Society (SDS) and Student Nonviolent peace in Vietnam. Coordinating Committee (SNCC), which were both Nixon’s speeches from 1969 until 1972 all serve in responsible for loud voices of opposition. Another some capacity to inform the American public about prominent sample of resistance originates in the student Vietnam. Without doubt, these accounts are not entirely newspapers. Across many campuses, college students honest; however, they reflect that candor that has been created a voice of opposition in their school’s newspaper. forced from the glaring opposition of the public. At this A huge example comes from The Comment, the university point, the American people are furious and want answers. newspaper of Bridgewater State University. Many, many schools published extremely anti-war publications, but As a result, Nixon is forced to explain his actions to a public that desperately wants peace. This is the situation until January of 1972, when Nixon gave his Address to from the masses. The democracy of the United States was a the Nation on Plan for Peace in Vietnam that proposed a laughing- stock example of democracy, which is especially peace and withdrawal of American forces (Nixon). He shameful when juxtaposed next to the fact that this war was markets the peace as a lasting chance for peace and a fair allegedly fought in the name of protecting democracy. The option to all parties and not as a placatory option for the American people were not allowed to engage the decisions of the war until after the presentation of information, which riled-up American population. came through leaks, accidents, and a lack of other options. His placating of the public would draw to a close American people opposed the war as soon as they in his 1973 speech, Address to the Nation Announcing an were able to. Opposition came as quickly as information Agreement on Ending the War in Vietnam in which he did. Maybe if a global protector of democracy had announces that a peaceful negotiation has been intervened in the United States, Vietnam would have never accomplished (Nixon). In his speech, Nixon prides the occurred at all. terms of peace and offers heavy praises to the American forces involved. In this speech is the announcement of the end of the war that claimed nearly 60,000 American lives References and nearly tore the nation into shreds of public opposition. Bridgewater State College. (1969). The Comment, October 14, 1969. It is clear that peace was inevitable based on the massive Eisenhower, Dwight. “Chance for Peace.” Speech, April 16,1953. Miller public outcry. Center. Every major opposition began in the 1960s was Eisenhower, Dwight. “First Inaugural Address.” Speech, Washington, DC, January 20, 1953. Miller Center. increased and continued during the Nixon Administration. Franklin, H. Bruce 1934-. Vietnam and other American Fantasies. Teach-ins, marches, protests, newspaper outcries, public Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000. speeches, riots, and more were all strikingly glaring in the Hanna, Peggy. "Brief Overview of the Vietnam War." Swarthmore Nixon Administration as well. This is outlined in great College Peace Collection. 2003. Johnson, Lyndon. “Address at John Hopkins University.” Speech, detail by Franklin, who encapsulates the fact that all of Baltimore, April 7, 1965. Miller Center. these movements grew in strength, numbers, and power at Johnson, Lyndon. “Report on the Gulf of Tonkin Incident.” Speech, this time. A quick example of these facts comes in the August 4, 1964. Miller Center. large-scale demonstrations, including several million Kennedy, John F. “City Upon a Hill.” Speech, Boston, Massachusetts, January 9, 1961. Miller Center. people participating in marches in 1971, the glaring 75% Kennedy, John F. “Inaugural Address.” Speech, Washington, DC, of veterans opposing the war, and the roughly 1,000 January 20, 1961. Miller Center. veterans participating in the March on Washington in the Kennedy, John F. “President and the Press.” Speech, New York City, spring of 1971 (Franklin). These instances were in great April 27, 1961. Miller Center. abundance as American people fought to project their Kennedy, John F. “State of the Union.” Speech, January 30, 1961. Miller voices loud enough to be heard by every individual of Center. King, Martin Luther, Jr. "Beyond Vietnam: The United States and Asia." power. Speech, Riverside Church, New York City, April 4, 1967. Nixon, Richard. “Address to the Nation Announcing an Agreement on Conclusion Ending the War in Vietnam.” Speech, January 253, 1973. Miller Center. With Nixon pushed into a corner, it was public Nixon, Richard. “Address to the Nation on Plan for Peace in Vietnam.” opposition that forced the President into a quick end to the Speech, January 25, 1972. Miller Center. war. After over a decade of involvement, the American Nixon, Richard. “Address to the Nation on the War in Vietnam.” Speech, November 3, 1969. Miller Center. people finally had enough knowledge to consolidate the Nixon, Richard. “First Inaugural Address.” Speech, January 20, 1969. power needed to end the war. These people never wanted Miller Center. war. The war involvement began before Americans had a Scanlon, Sandra. The Pro-War Movement: Domestic Support for the choice, but as soon as they knew, they began a clear Vietnam War and the Making of opposition to involvement. At the beginning, they were Modern American Conservatism. Amherst: University of quiet, as people “believed that the government would Massachusetts Press, 2013. Schreiber, E. M. "Opposition to the Vietnam War among respond to them because they believed in democracy and American University Students and Faculty." The British rectitude” (Franklin). However, this quickly proved to be Journal of Sociology 24, no. 3 (1973): 288-302. false, and as the American people realized this, they got Sheehan, Neil, E. W. Kenworthy, Fox Butterfield, Hendrick louder and bolder until they were heard. American Smith, and James Greenfield. The Pentagon Papers: The Secret History of the Vietnam War. Two Rivers individuals did not want to violently riot or act in the Distribution, 2017. drastic ways that they did. They acted as they did to be Students for a Democratic Society (U.S.). The Port Huron heard, and to establish communication that would force Statement (1962). Chicago, Ill. :C.H. Kerr, 1990. action. Truman, Harry. “Address Before the NAACP.” Speech, Washington, DC, June 29,1947. Miller Center. In a traditional idea of democracy, and in the Truman, Harry. “Report to the American People on Korea.” democracy that this country aimed to establish as seen in Speech, radio address, April 11, 1951. Miller Center. the Declaration of Independence, the US government X, Malcolm, 1925-1965. Malcolm X : The Ballot or the Bullet. should derive its power from the people. Policy should North Hollywood :Pacifica Foundation, 1965. ideally be a reflection of public opinion. However, the Vietnam War offers a glaring example of the absolute demolition of democratic principle. Power was derived in secret conversations with select people and then stifled