“BITTER TIMES:” THE POOR SCHOOL SISTERS OF NOTRE DAME IN HITLER’S GERMANY, 1933 TO 1945 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Notre Dame in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Martina Cucchiara Doris L. Bergen, Director Graduate Program in History Notre Dame, Indiana November 2011 Copyright 2011 Martina Cucchiara “BITTER TIMES:” THE POOR SCHOOL SISTERS OF NOTRE DAME IN HITLER’S GERMANY, 1933-1945 Abstract by Martina Cucchiara This dissertation focuses on Catholic sisters in modern Germany, with a particular emphasis on Nazi Germany. In the 1930s, nearly one hundred thousand nuns lived in Germany; this figure compares to about 22,000 priests. I present a representative case study of the Poor School Sisters of Notre Dame. With about 4,000 members, the institute of the Poor School Sisters of Notre Dame was one of the largest teaching congregations in Germany in the 1930s. My work destabilizes common historical narratives that associate women’s progress in the modern era only with secularization. Catholic religious vocations in fact offered countless women an alternative to marriage, a higher education, and the chance to enter a profession at a time when opportunities for women contracted in the secular realm. But longstanding saccharine and mocking portrayals of nuns in popular culture, such as in films like The Sound of Music and Sister Act, have contributed to the dismissal of nuns in the modern era as serious historical actors. Clichés of nuns are in fact linked to the women’s contested status in patriarchal Western society that expressed common Martina Cucchiara anxieties about women foregoing marriage and childbearing in favor of a life of public service in all-female communities. These age-old tensions between the social and sexual demands placed on women and women’s continued insistence on religious vocations reached a zenith in Nazi Germany. The history of Catholic sisters illuminates the contested position of the Catholic Church in Hitler’s Germany between privilege and oppression. The women worked to integrate into the Nazi state, and through their labor in schools, the Poor School Sisters both legitimized and subverted the regime. Although the sisters tried to assimilate, they remained on the fringes of Hitler’s “people’s community.” When the Nazis attempted to remove nuns from the public sphere, the women learned that they could not rely on the clergy to come to their aid and they formulated an independent response to National Socialism. The Poor School Sisters relied in part on popular support to preserve their privileged position in society, and my work therefore adds new insights to key debates on Nazi Germany as a dictatorship of consent. The history of nuns exposes the extent to which Hitler depended on ordinary Germans to participate in the persecution of outsiders. For instance, in 1935, the Nazis orchestrated a series of sensational criminal legal proceedings against nuns in order to persuade Germans to turn against the women and the church. Although the Nazis used many of the same measures against nuns as against Jews, most people refused to shun the women because in their case, crucial pre- conditions for persecution, in particular latent prejudices and opportunities for self- advancement, were absent. I reject ubiquitous depictions of nuns in the scholarship as victims of Nazism. I argue instead that despite Catholic sisters’ dismissal from schools, their sphere of Martina Cucchiara influence in Germany actually increased in the latter 1930s, as they took up positions as social workers and pastoral assistants across the country. Nuns also occupied key positions during World War II, and their lives frequently intersected with Nazi criminal and ideological measures. My research adds fresh perspectives to central discussions on women and the church in war and the Holocaust. Catholic sisters’ participation in the war effort was extensive. I challenge common portrayals of women as mere helpmates to men, which contributed to postwar narratives of women as apolitical and powerless victims of war and Nazism. Women did not merely perform subservient work for absent men. The history of Catholic sisters shows that the women contributed their sophisticated organizational networks and real estate and their and skilled “feminine” labor to the German war effort. My research also highlights young Catholic women’s increased active political involvement in the National Socialist cause in the latter 1930s and 1940s. In particular during war, the Nazis successfully persuaded many young candidates for sisterhood to forego religious life in favor of working for the Nazi movement. The drastic decline in religious vocations in the 1940s was in part due to the unprecedented expansion of young, single women’s public roles in Hitler’s Germany and occupied Europe. The Poor School Sisters of Notre Dame emerged from the Third Reich with their communities intact, but they also lost a generation of sisters to National Socialism, and thus diminished, they struggled to meet the great demands placed on them in postwar West Germany. For Michael ii CONTENTS Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iv Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: The Business of Angels: Catholic Sisters in Nineteenth-Century Germany ....33 Chapter 2: The Darkening Horizon: From Imperial to Early Nazi Germany ....................90 Chapter 3: Nuns Imprisoned: The Foreign Exchange Trials of 1935/36 .........................148 Chapter 4: The End of an Era: The Removal of Catholic Sisters From German Schools .....................................................................................................196 Chapter 5: A New Mission: School Sisters Without Schools ..........................................245 Chapter 6: Deathblows: From Stalingrad to Capitulation................................................318 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................364 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................371 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to the History Department and the Graduate School at the University of Notre Dame, the Nanovic Institute for European Studies, the Kellogg Institute for International Studies, the German Historical Institute in Washington, D.C., the Holocaust Educational Foundation, and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum for generous financial and scholarly support of my work. My time as a fellow at the Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum was one of the most enriching experiences of my graduate career. Writing a dissertation is both a solitary endeavor and a joint project. Without the trust and help of the Poor School Sisters of Notre Dame in Germany and the United States,1 I could not have written this dissertation. I am deeply grateful to Sister Judith Best and Sister M. Consolata Neumann for their kind and substantial support, expertise, and friendship over these past years. I would also like to thank all of the sisters and archivists who have assisted me in my research, including Sister M. Apollinaris Jörgens, archivist and scholar in her own right. I thank my good friends Sheila Nowinski, Liz Strauss, Glen Ryland, and Elaine Clark for offering valuable comments and encouragement over the years. But I am most indebted and grateful to the members of my dissertation committee, Professors Semion Lyandres, Thomas Kselman, Kevin Spicer, 1 In the United States, the congregation is called School Sisters of Notre Dame. iv and Doris Bergen. I could not have asked for a more supportive, erudite, and accomplished committee. I feel fortunate to have benefited from the breadth and depth of Prof. Semion Lyandres’s scholarship. I would also like to thank Semion for his warm support and for including me in campus events and workshops. Prof. Thomas Kselman’s excellent work on popular religion and society in France continues to inspire my own writing and thinking. As Tom’s teaching assistant, I was motivated by both his teaching and scholarship in the classroom. I owe special thanks to Prof. Kevin Spicer for his continued and generous support of my work. Kevin’s extensive knowledge of the subject matter and his meticulous eye for historical detail have been invaluable in the research and writing of my dissertation. Thank you for taking the time to read and comment on a draft beforehand. I am deeply grateful to my advisor Prof. Doris Bergen. I admire Doris for her remarkable intellect, sophisticated scholarship, and the generosity and kindness with which she treats her students. My most memorable and inspiring moments at Notre Dame were spent in conversation with you in your classroom and your home. Thank you taking me on as a student and thank you for everything! I also thank my family in Germany. Throughout this journey, my husband Michael has been by my side. Words cannot express the gratitude I feel (but I am certain an Ariel Atom can). I dedicate this dissertation to you. v INTRODUCTION This dissertation focuses on Catholic sisters in Nazi Germany. My work addresses a significant lacuna in the historiography of the Catholic Church and women in National