Steven R. Gullberg, Ph.D.

Director for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture School of Integrative and Cultural Studies College of Professional and Continuing Studies University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA

Chair, International Astronomical Union Working Group for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture

[email protected] International Astronomical Union (IAU) Archaeoastronomy Inca Astronomy Milky Way Chaco Canyon Babylonian Astronomical Diaries Education for Astronomy in Culture International Astronomical Union International Astronomical Union International Astronomical Union International Astronomical Union International Astronomical Union The sky is a resource largely unchanged since antiquity

ASTRONOMY ARCHAEOLOGY Measurement and Inferring ancient testing of culture from observable sky material evidence events

We can use astronomy as a tool to gain further insight into ancient cultures Archaeoastronomy deals with the astronomical significance of sites and structures of prehistoric peoples. Archaeoastronomical studies are interdisciplinary in that they incorporate astronomy, archaeology, and anthropology. They often involve investigating possible astronomical alignments and their cultural associations.

Ethnoastronomy deals with the astronomical systems of indigenous peoples. Ethnoastronomical studies combine anthropology and astronomy, but sometimes also incorporate data drawn from prehistory, geology, linguistics, and genetics. Seek understanding of culture using astronomy as a tool  A discipline that can assist archaeology/anthropology

Assess and validate previously published cultural astronomy work

Test building astronomical associations with:  Directional orientations  Solar events such as solstices and equinoxes  Lunar events Conduct field surveys  Sighting Compass  Theodolite  GPS

Analyze and validate astronomy predictions  U.S. Naval Observatory data  Photo-confirmation of predicted astronomical events

Interpretation–Focus on the people; assess results in cultural context It is important that findings are supported astronomically. Movement of astral bodies on the celestial sphere is defined mathematically and can be precisely calculated with spherical trigonometry, long a mainstay of archaeoastronomical research. If a spherical triangle is defined as having three angles labeled A, B and C, and the sides opposite those angles are correspondingly labeled a, b and c, then the following are the basic formula for solving spherical triangles. cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A (1) sin A/sin a = sin B/sin b = sin C/sin c (2) sin a cos B = cos b sin c – sin b cos c cos A (3) cos a cos C = sin a cot b – sin C cot B (4) These may be used in archaeoastronomy to calculate angles and distance that specify horizon points of celestial bodies and verify field data taken by sighting compass, GPS, and theodolite. Hour angle of the Sun in degrees = (GMT-12)15 – LONG – (EOT)15 (5)

Altitude of the Sun = Arcsin(Sin(LAT)Sin(DEC)+Cos(LAT)Cos(DEC)Cos HA)) (6)

Azimuth of the Sun = Arcsin (Sin(HA)Cos(DEC)/Cos(ALT)) (7)

Where HA = Hour Angle, GMT = Universal Time Coordinated, LONG = Longitude, EOT = Equation of Time, LAT = Latitude, DEC = Declination, and ALT = Inclination. In horizon astronomy research, when the angular altitude of the horizon at or above level is known by measurement with such as an inclinometer, the latitude of the site in question is taken from a chart or GPS measurement, and the declination of the Sun is derived from the nautical almanac, the following formula is most useful for calculating the position on the horizon that the Sun will rise. Azimuth of Sun = Arccos ((Sin(DEC) – sin(LAT)Sin(ALT))/(Cos(LAT)Cos(ALT)) (8) Precession of the Equinoxes

Slow wobble of Earth’s axis over nearly 26,000 years Celestial poles and celestial equator migrate

Right ascension and declination change over time as a result and the difference in declination leads to new rising and setting azimuths for stellar objects.

Not a factor within solar system Obliquity of the Ecliptic

Inclination of the Earth’s equator to the plane of the ecliptic is presently 23.439°

Decreases at a rate of about 47 arcseconds (0.013°) every 100 years

A consideration for celestial measurements regarding ancient structures Refraction

Celestial bodies appear higher in the sky than they actually are Result of light being slightly deflected due to differences in atmospheric density and has a greater effect near the horizon Azimuth is shifted due to refraction - more pronounced at higher latitudes with smaller incident angles to the horizon than in the tropics Becomes negligible at inclinations 20° or more above the horizon Pronounced at higher latitudes and generally insignificant in the tropics Atmospheric Extinction

Absorption and scattering of photons when colliding with particles or air molecules Atmospheric water, carbon dioxide and oxygen are primary absorbers Rayleigh Scattering occurs with air molecules smaller than the wavelength of the photons Mie Scattering results with photons striking small atmospheric particles of similar wavelengths Extinction not an issue with the Sun and Moon, but becomes significant when observing faint stars near the horizon, such as the Pleiades Horizon Deviation

Occurs when the visible horizon differs from the astronomical horizon Commonly in areas of mountainous terrain and is most pronounced at higher latitudes where the arc of travel for a specific body can yield a significantly different point for rising or setting than that given for the astronomical horizon. Horizon Deviation

Altitude above astronomical horizon Latitude 13.5° Latitude 40°

1° 0.22° 1.04°

2° 0.49° 1.99°

4° 1.07° 3.84°

6° 1.69° 5.63°

8° 2.35° 7.37°

10° 3.04° 8.06° Precession is not a concern for solar observations, but for measurements involving stars such as the Pleiades it must be taken into consideration Obliquity of the ecliptic has changed 0.0649° since the time of the Incas, resulting in a difference in azimuth of 4’ at a latitude of 13° and is therefore negligible Refraction and extinction can be important when examining the rising and setting of stars, they are not a concern for the Sun. The rising and setting of all celestial bodies at the S13.5° latitude in Cusco, the Sacred Valley, and Machu Picchu must take horizon deviation into account.

Astronomy was an integral part of Andean mythology and creation, and was at the very heart of the Incas’ religion and agriculture.

The Incas proclaimed themselves to be the children of the Sun. They worshipped it and viewed their emperor as being the Sun’s direct descendant. The Emperor, Pachacuti, his son, and grandson successively built the largest empire ever known in the Americas, 4800 km from Chile to Columbia.

Temples and shrines were constructed as a part of exerting state control over its subjects, as well as pilgrimage centers designed to reinforce the legitimacy of royal rule over the populace. The Incas made solar worship the official religion of their empire.

Pachacuti imposed it across the realm, maintaining that he was the son of the Sun and his wife the daughter of the Moon. The Incas venerated the Sun, the Inca, and his predecessors.

The ruling Inca was the central figure in solar worship, supporting the assertion that he was the descendant of the Sun. The Incas learned the cycles of solstices and equinoxes and used this knowledge as a key component of their annual crop management activities, as well as for determining dates for religious celebrations. ● Limestone outcropping ● Carved in situ ● Two sucancas (gnomons) ● Effects of light and shadow ● June solstice sunrise ● “The Awakening of the Puma” ● Cave within Kenko Grande ● Altar and three stairs ● June solstice ● Sunlight climbs the stairs

●Light-tube ●Directed at altar ●Crescent moon

Lacco with Nevado Ausengate ● Northeast Cave opening oriented June solstice sunrise ● Illuminates altar and cave interior

● Temple of the Sun ● Light-tube/Altar ● Zenith Sun ● Limestone outcropping ● Two carved circles ● Carved seats ● Alignments for solstice and equinox horizon events

June Solstice Sunrise ● Terraces and fountains ● Intihuatana ● Elite/non-elite viewing of the June solstice sunset In Saihuite the axis between the horizon points of the June solstice sunrise and December solstice sunset dominates the upper sector of the complex.

The Principal Stone lies with the adjacent structure on the axis of the June solstice sunrise and December solstice sunset. Niche and corridor aligned for the June solstice sunrise. Niche and corridor aligned for the June solstice sunrise. Intihuatanas, or “hitching places of the sun,” are also found at Machu Picchu, the Urubamba River, and Tipon and likely were places of solar worship.

In Pisac the intihuatana is a large, partially carved rock in the temple group that is enclosed by a semi-circular masonry wall adjoining a straight masonry wall in the form of the letter “D”.

It displays a stone gnomon on its flat upper surface within the walled enclosure. The gnomon aligns with a nearby peak in the 065° direction of the June solstice sunrise. The Intihuatana of Pisac

● Sixteen towers once on Cusco horizon ● Beyond Cusco 2 survive near Urubamba on Cerro Saywa ● Mark rising Sun at June solstice when viewed from palace of Huayna Capac ● Validate chronicles of Cusco pillars ● DSSR view from white granite boulder at Q’espiwanka ● View across Cerro Pumahuachana ● Pillars on 4377m summit ● North/South alignment

The orientation of Cerro Unoraqui as viewed across Cerro Pumahuachana from Q’espiwanka in the direction (C) of the December solstice sunrise. (B) is the direction of the June solstice sunrise and (A) the June solstice sunset ● Walls & terraces oriented N/S & E/W ● South determined by gnomon ● North, East & West established geometrically ● Titikaka & Chinkana on 065/245 degree axis of JSSR/DSSS It could have been possible to determine east-west at times of the equinoxes when a gnomon cast its shadow in these cardinal directions. Finding true south was perhaps even more definitive by tracking the gnomon’s shadow over a period of time and recording the endpoint of its midday position each day A parabolic curve is the ultimate result, and while the Incas likely did not recognize parabolas as such, they certainly could recognize the point in the curve closest to the gnomon A line drawn from the gnomon through this point is aligned directly with true south. The Incas then could find east-west as being perpendicular with this south-north axis There is no historical reference of them using such techniques. Titikaka and the direction of December solstice sunset as viewed from the top of Chinkana. ● Associated with Ollantaytambo ● Cave opens to December solstice sunrise ● Black granite huaca faces inward with carving similar to the Fountain of the Nuestros Muyu A Celebrations at June solstice could be indicated by the nine linear terraces, which are aligned with the moving shadow of the rising Sun. June Solstice Sunrise shadows on the linear terraces of Moray The most striking feature when first approaching Ollantaytambo is a magnificent set of 17 stone terraces that ascend the hillside.

The extensive terraces of Pumatillis face out to the rise of the December solstice Sun and, in the opposite direction, face in toward and frame the June solstice sunset. What is sometimes known as Ollantaytambo’s Temple of the Sun was extensively damaged by the Spanish in their purge of indigenous religion, however a foundation and a wall of six monoliths survives. The wall faces the Pinkuylluna mountain, which from this location is close to, but not precisely oriented with, the the rise of the June solstice Sun. The Pinkuylluna mountain lies opposite Ollantaytambo to the northeast and aligns with the June solstice sunrise as viewed from the Pyramid of Pacaritanpu.

The mountain exhibits two structures and a face on its side. Pyramid of Pacaritanpu Pyramid of Pacaritanpu The Incamisana The horizontal gnomons of the Incamisana On the December solstice at local noon the shadow of one of the gnomons is said to reach down and “insert” itself to fill a carved triangular notch in the base below.

●Llactapata ●River Intihuatana ●Machu Picchu ●JSSR-DSSS Axis ●Equinox Axis

Machu Picchu, Llactapata, and the River Intihuatana Contains a carefully fitted rock wall that includes a window open to the horizon positions of the June solstice sunrise and the heliacal rise of the Pleiades. Intimachay is a cave with a constructed opening intentionally aligned to December solstice sunrise. The Temple of the Condor includes a system of three caves with an entrance below the boulder representing the left wing of the condor. The caves are oriented to the anti-zenith sunrise.

Dates of anti-zenith could be determined by reversing the direction of sunrise on days of the zenith Sun to arrive at the position of anti-zenith sunset

A pillar of Cusco and several ceques were aligned to designate days of the anti-zenith Sun

Anti-zenith passage occurs in Cusco each August 18th and April 26th and coincides with the planting and harvest of maize, times of Inca ceremony and celebration

While the Sun cannot be seen at nadir, the full Moon closest to the 18th will pass at or very near zenith. The Gran Caverna includes the Temple of the Moon and is located far below the peak of Huayna Picchu on its northwest face.

● Northwest face Huayna Picchu ● Lower cave door and ● Upper cave 5 double- windows open to jamb niches June solstice sunset

Machu Picchu, Llactapata, and the River Intihuatana ● Principal Temple ● Temple of Three Windows ● Semi-circular platform ● JSSR-DSSS Axis

●Overlooks Machu Picchu 5 km ●Aligned for June solstice sunrise & Pleiades rise

June solstice sunrise ● Urubamba River canyon ● Carved granite ● Between Machu Picchu & Llactapata ● Platform, steps, fountain, basins, cave ● Intihuatana, fountain, basins ● Structures ● Steps ● Tower ● Terraces

Ground Plan of the River Intihuatana Sanctuary

●Llactapata ●River Intihuatana ●Machu Picchu ●JSSR-DSSS Axis ●Equinox Axis ●Ceremonial Complex

Machu Picchu, Llactapata, and the River Intihuatana Spaniards attempted to define Andean astronomy in European terms familiar to them, failing to fully realize that the Incas viewed the cosmos from a different perspective.

While European astronomy followed a zodiac that centered around the ecliptic, the Incas oriented their sky with the Milky Way. Inca cosmology viewed the Milky Way as a river flowing across the night sky in a very literal sense.

They saw earthy waters as being drawn into the heavens and then later returned to earth after a celestial rejuvenation.

The Earth was thought to float in a cosmic ocean and when the “celestial river’s” orientation was such that it dipped into that ocean the waters were drawn into the sky.

The Milky Way is therefore an integral part of the continuing recycling of water throughout the Quechua universe. The Incas saw the Milky Way as two separate rivers, due to the Earth’s rotation and the Milky Way’s alternating position on the horizon each twelve hours.

The plane of the Milky Way is inclined between 26° and 30° with the axis of the Earth’s rotation. This orientation is 26° degrees toward the south celestial pole and 30° toward the north. The Milky Way at times will be viewed as rising in the southeast, passing through the zenith, and setting in the northwest.

Twelve hours later the horizon positions have shifted and the band of stars rises instead from the northeast, traveling again through the zenith, but now setting in the southwest.

This 24-hour rotation cycle creates two zenith-intersecting intercardinal axes that divide the celestial sphere into four observable quarters. Milky Way risings figured prominently in Inca horizon astronomy because of correlations with their intercardinal axes and the four points of solstice horizon events.

At the time of the December solstice, when the sun rises at 114° on the Cusco horizon, the evening positioning of the band of the Milky Way lies similarly to the southeast.

During the June solstice sunrise at 64° the Milky Way is situated in like fashion in the northeast. Times of the solstices are the only ones when the Sun rises and travels with the Milky Way.

Inca cosmology recognizes that both the celestial river and the Sun rise together at the dry season’s beginning in June and the rainy season’s start in December and sometimes uses this in correlation to explain the seasonal intensity of the Sun, which feeds upon the powerful waters. The Inca ordered their sky by this celestial quadripartition, in contrast with the use of the ecliptic path orientation for reference by ancients such as the Babyonians.

This gave the Incas a nearly 90° difference in their perspective of the heavens and the cosmological constructs that were developed accordingly.

The primary axis for celestial references was east-west, rather than north-south, as was common in systems of the Northern Hemisphere.

The Incas believed the waters of the celestial river to have originated with the Sun.

The Vilcanota River flows southeast to northwest through the Sacred Valley, past Machu Picchu and beyond.

Its waters were thought to rise into the Milky Way, and once having traveled its celestial course, to fall again to the Earth as rain.

The Milky Way is said to be a heavenly reflection of the Vilcanota. The Incas recognized dark constellations, or the shapes of beings formed by dark clouds in the visible band of the galaxy.

The Incas saw great cosmological characters meant to guide them in their daily lives. The dark constellations of the Incas stretch across nearly 150° of the Milky Way’s expanse. Most are animals that figure prominently in Andean cosmology and myth.

1)Machacuay, 2)Hanp’atu, 3)Yutu, 4)Yacana, 5)Unallamacha, 6)Atoq, 7)Yutu The emu- Aboriginal Australians

The mother and baby llamas - Incas The Mañic - Mocoví M83 – Southern Pinwheel Galaxy M20 - Trifid Nebula

Not photographs – watercolor paintings by Jessica Gullberg

Wijiji Sunrise Dec 21, 2008

 Pueblo cultures exhibit elements of astronomy and cosmology:  Sky watching was socially and ritually important  Solar horizon and Moon phase calendars - traditions vary; solstices were ritually important

The use of solar horizon calendars at multiple Pueblos is well documented.

June Solstice Set

2015 Solstice horizon marker (Calvin, 1991) photo-confirmed December 2014

Dec Solstice Rise Photograph by Julia Munro Used with permission Babylonian scribes recorded positions of the Moon and planets nightly for 700 years in cuneiform on clay tablets during the first millennium BCE.

Astronomical Software

•Many of the astronomical entries describe topographical relations between celestial bodies. In each case the first body is denoted as being “above,” “below,” “in front of,” or “behind” the second.

•A distance in cubits (KÙŠ) and/or fingers (SI) is normally included.

•Most observations were close to sunset or sunrise, perhaps allowing the scribe to sleep during the middle of the night.

•The Diaries never define exact time of observation, units of measure, or the system used to reference these topographical relations. •Examine diary entries pictorially, as well as quantitatively, using graphical astronomical software.

•SkyMap Pro. It generates charts accurate to plus or minus 6000 years from the present, easily encompassing the first millennium BCE time-frame of the Diaries. NEBUKADNEZAR II YEAR 37, Simānu (SIG) -567 III 8 (27 – 28 June 568 BCE)

GE6 8 USAN 2 ½ KÙŠ sin šap RÍN ša SI GUB Night of the 8th, first part of the night, the Moon stood 2 ½ cubits below β Librae

Zubeneschamali is the common name for β Librae (β Lib). The orientation of “north” and “south” is shown here as being perpendicular to the ecliptic. At 20:00 the moon was 4.27 degrees of latitude below β Lib at 1.71 degrees per cubit. Oriented to the ecliptic, the moon was directly below β Lib. ARTAXERXES III YEAR 12, Kislīmu (GAN) -346 IX 16 (17 - 18 December 347 BCE)

GE6 1˹6˺ ina ZALÁG sin ár LUGAL ½ KÙŠ ina IGI MÚL-BABBAR 2 KÙŠ ana ŠÚ GUB Night of the 16th, last part of the night, the Moon was ½ cubit behind α Leonis, it stood 2 cubits in front of Jupiter to the west

At 05:52 the Moon was 1.09 degrees of longitude behind α Leo, Regulus, at 2.18 degrees per cubit. A seasonal hour in Kislīmu is equal to about 1h 9m. The selected time of entry at 05:52 is 1h 8m before sunrise. The Moon was also 4.80 degrees of longitude in front of Jupiter at 2.40 degrees per cubit. DARIUS II YEAR 5, Ajjaru (GU4) -418 II 7 (1 – 2 May 419 BCE)

GE6 7 sin ina IGI AN 2/3 KÙŠ i sin ana SI NIM …night of the 7th, the moon was 2/3 cubit in front of Mars, the Moon being a little high to the north

At 20:00 the Moon was 2.40 angular degrees of longitude in front of Mars at 3.61 degrees per cubit. When viewed in relation to the ecliptic, it was also “a little high to the north.” The given rate of 3.61 degrees per cubit is a little high. •The Astronomical Diaries appear to have been compiled, at least in part, for use in celestial divination and its search for omens with keys to the future of the king and country.

•This data shows that “in front of” and “behind” relate to differences in what we know to be celestial longitude and “above” and “below” to that of celestial latitude. The corresponding star-charts clearly depict these relationships.

•It is probable that the topographical relations utilized in the Astronomical Diaries were in direct correlation to the general path of ecliptic travel, the direction of movement for the Sun, Moon, and planets. There is no evidence of a specific relationship to the exact ecliptic, however, and no evidence was found of any specific coordinate reference system.

•The proximity of the bodies to the horizon helped to narrow the window of time in which the observation may have been taken.

•Errors in the dairy entries or transliterations were identified astronomically.

•A demonstration of how such software can be used as a tool for predicting events in archaeoastronomy. Archaeoastronomy can assist in supplementing the archaeological assessment of changes in cultural focus or movement of groups in time and space

Identifying astronomical orientations can add an additional dimension in the effort to understand a society • Satisfy curiosity • Increase knowledge • Develop appropriate research skills • Develop appropriate publication skills • Javier Mejuto – Maya Archaeoastronomy and Introduction to Archaeoastronomy; Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Honduras • Alejandro Lopez – Introduction to Astronomy in Culture; National University of La Plata, Argentina • Giulio Magli – Science of Stars and Stones; Politecnico Di Milano, Italy • Irakli Simonia – PhD Archaeoastronomy and Cultural Astronomy (2-3 students per year); Illia State University, Tiblisi, Republic of Georgia • Nick Campion – Cultural Astronomy and Astrology; University of Wales, Trinity Saint David, UK • Clive Ruggles – Archaeoastronomy and Cultural Astronomy; University of Leicester, UK • Tony Aveni – Astronomy in Culture, Comparative Cosmologies; Colgate University, USA • David Koerner – Indigenous Astronomy; Northern Arizona University, USA College of Professional and Continuing Studies OU Extended Campus

Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture

Graduate and undergraduate programs Individual courses Science-oriented archaeoastronomy Online coursework Field research World-wide enrollments

Virtual Reality Video conferencing Email: [email protected] Graduate Courses:

Archaeoastronomy and Methods

Archaeoastronomy of Chaco Canyon and Cahokia

Latin American Archaeoastronomy

Archaeoastronomy Beyond the Americas

Cultural and Ethnoastronomy

Field Research in Archaeoastronomy (on-site elective course) Undergraduate Courses:

History of Archaeoastronomy

Astronomy in Culture: Insights and Applications

Positives and False Positives: Identifying Pseudoscience

Contemporary Cultural Astronomy

Calendars, Culture, and the Cosmos Future development:

Courses in Native American Astronomy

Doctoral Program Future development:

Undergraduate archaeoastronomy textbook Open-access Journal for Indigenous and Cultural Astronomy Biennial conferences for Indigenous and Cultural Astronomy For anyone interested in astronomy in culture proper education and skills are very important. Archaeoastronomy is a relatively new field that began to emerge in the 1960’s and 1970’s. The field has now evolved to the point where dedicated educational programs are essential. As in any field, proper education is the key to the future.

[email protected]

https://pacs.ou.edu/certificates/archaeoastronomy/