FLOOD CONTROL
United Nations JOURNAL
ST/ECAFE/ SER.C/24 September 1955
Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East
CONTENTS Page
REGIONAL PROJECTS ...... 4
INDIA
Assam power project ...... 4 Power projects in Bombay State ...... 4 Irrigation facilities in Delhi State ...... 14 Chambal Valley development ...... 15 The Godavari North Canal ...... 22 Kuttanad Development Scheme in Travancore-Chochin . 26 Power development in Madras State ...... 27 Power from the Periyar ...... 30 Nandikonda Project ...... 32 Embankment along the Beas ...... 32 Power development in West Bengal ...... 33
PAKISTAN
Five-Year Irrigation Plan ...... 41 Kotri Barrage ...... 43 Gudu Barrage ...... 45 Four irrigation projects sanctioned for Baluchistan StatesUnion ...... 46 Land-reclamation in East Pakistan ...... 47 East Pakistan hydrological data ...... 47 Earth-moving school set up in Hyderabad (Sind) .... 48
/ MACHINERY USED - 2 -
CONTENTS (cont'd) Page
MACHINERY USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF RIVER-VALLEY PROJECTS IN INDIA ...... 48
REDUCING- EVAPORATION FROM WATER STORAGE IN AUSTRALIA ...... 50
WEED CONTROL IN IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE CHANNELS IN ALGERIA ...... 51
PROBLEMS OF FLOOD CONTROL ...... 53
EQUIPMENT AND PROGRAMME OF HYDRAULIC LABORATORIES IN 1954 ...... 57
AUSTRALIA Hydraulic Research Station, State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, Werribee, Victoria ...... 57 Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Hydraulic Laboratory, King Street, Manly Vale, New South Wales .... 61 Public Works Department, Hydraulic Laboratory, Manly Vale, New South Wales ...... 61 Robin Hydraulic Laboratory, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia ...... 64
CEYLON Irrigation Research Laboratories, 11 Jawatte Road, Colombo-5 67
CHINA: TAIWAN Taipei Hydraulic Laboratory, National Taiwan University, Taipei ...... 71
INDIA Central Water and Power Research Station, 20 Bombay-Poona Road, Poona-3 ...... 73 Irrigation Research Station, Madras Public Works Department, Poodi, Madras ...... 79 Mysore Engineering Research Station, Krishnarajasagar, Mysore ...... 82 Irrigation and Power Research Institute. Amritsar. Hydraulic Research Station, Malakpur (Gurdaspur), Punjab . 84 Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttar Pradesh ...... 85
JAPAN Central Research Institute of the Electric Power Industry, Technical Research Laboratory, 1229 Iwato, Komae-machi, Kitatama-gun, Tokyo ...... 91
/ Water Works - 3 -
CONTENTS (cont’d) Page
JAPAN (cont’d) Water Works Laboratory, Waseda University, Totsuka-machi, Shinzyuku-ku, Tokyo ...... 92 Hydraulic Laboratory, Engineering Research Institute, Kyoto University, Yoshida - honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto-shi . 93 Hydraulic Laboratory, Tokushima University, Minamijyoosanjima, Tokushima-shi ...... 97
NEW ZEALAND Canterbury College School of Engineering Hydraulic Laboratory, P.O. Box 1471, Christchurch C.l ...... 99
PAKISTAN The Punjab Irrigation Research Institute, Lahore ...... 102 - 4 -
REGIONAL PROJECTS
INDIA Assam power project1/
An agreement has been reached between India and Canada for joint participation in implementing the Rs 15 million Umtru Hydro-Electric Project of Assam.
The Canadian contribution will be in the form of engineering services and electrical equipment for the project at an estimated cost of 1.2 million Canadian dollars, which is equal to about Rs 5 million. The Canadian Government has also agreed to cover rupee expenditure on the project up to 2.1 million Canadian dollars (about Rs 10 million). This contribution will be made from rupees which become available from sale of Canadian industrial raw materials provided to India under the Colombo Plan.
The Umtru Hydro-Electric Project is situated about 32 km (20 mi) from Gauhati on the road to Shillong. The total area likely to benefit from the project covers about 2,591 km2 (1,000 sq mi) with a total population of nearly one million. Benefits will be in the form of power for irrigation and land-reclamation purposes, for existing cottage and small-scale industrial establishment, and for development of new industries in the area.
Power projects in Bombay State2/
Bombay began using electric power as early as 1907 when a midget generating station was set up at Wadi Bunder. In 1914, the Tata Hydro-Electric Company set up the first Large power station at Khopoli with a capacity of 50,000 kW.
In the pre-war period, electric-power development in this State was largely confined to the industrial areas near Bombay, Poona and Ahmedabad. In terms of energy generated, the Bombay-Poona region had the biggest power system as it /accounted
1/ Abstract from The Indian and Eastern Engineer, Bombay, March 1955, p.328. 2/ Ibid., p.339. - 5 -
accounted for 25 per cent of the total energy generated in India. This area has four large power stations, which are inter-connected: the three hydro-electric stations - Khopoei (65,000 W),k Bhivpuri (69,000 W)k and Bhira (110,000 W)k - of the Tata Hydro-Electric Agencies, Ltd., and the steam station at Kalyan (40,000 kW) owned by the Central Railways.
The State lias an area of 296,200 km 2 (111,434 sq mi) and a population of 35.956 million (1951 census). The total installed capacity in the State as on 1 January 1954 was 511,606 kW, consisting of 182,057 kW of steam plant, 48,435 kW of diesel plant and 281,114 kW of hydro-electric plant. The per capita consumption of electric energy during 1952 was 43.04 kWh (The national average is about 15 kWh).
Need for expansion
Water availability and firm plant capacity were well within the load demands on the system in the pre-war years. During the war the power demand steadily increased when it became necessary to co-ordinate the operation of the hydro-stations more closely with that of the Kalyan steam power station so as to derive the maximum benefit from the available power resources. In the immediate post-war years, the power-supply conditions became so critical that severe restrictions had to be placed on connection to new loads and staggering of industrial loads had to be resorted to. The loss in output due to power paucity, it has been estimated, added up during 1952 to Rs 600 million in Bombay city. It, therefore, became imperative to provide additional generating capacity to relieve the situation permanently.
Expansion measures
Among the measures undertaken by the authorities in relieving the power supply situation are the installation of the sixth generating set (22,000 kW) at Bhira hydro-station, the construction of an auxiliary reservoir, the addition of two 12,000 kW steam turbo-generator sets at the Kalyan power station by the Government of Bombay. The Bhira power plant extension has been completed. The discharge capacity of the tunnel taking off from the reservoir, feeding the Bhira
/power station, - 6 -
power station, can only develop about 110,000 kW. Therefore, an auxiliary reservoir has been built at the outlet of the tunnel so that the discharge from the tunnel during periods of low loads may be stored in the auxiliary reservoir; supply for one or two 22,000 kW sets can be drawn from this reservoir during the hours of peak demand for generation of a maximum output of 132,000 kW by the station.
The addition of two 12,000 Wk generating sets at Kalyan power station has also been completed by the Central Railways. The installation of three 18,000 kW units at the Kalyan power station by the State Government is nearly complete. One set was put into commercial service in April 1954, and the other two sets are ready for commissioning.
( 1 ) Trombay Scheme
With the completion of these extensions the power-supply position in the Bombay-Poona area will be relieved to some extent. At the same time further capacity extensions are imperative if the future load demand is to be taken care of. The load forecast for this area indicates a demand of the order of 470,000 kW by 1960-61 as against the present demand of 286,000 kW. In order to meet this demand satisfactorily, it has been decided that the Tata Company should instal at Trombay near Bombay a modern steam power station. The output from this station will be fed by means of 110 kV lines into a new receiving station in the south of Bombay island. This power station will have two units of 50,000 kW each designed to operate at a pressure of 88 kg/cm2 (1,250 Ib/sq in) and a temperature of 510°C (950°F). These will be the first turbo-alternators operating in India under such high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. The boiler that operates each unit will have a capacity of 272,160 kg (600,000 lb) of steam per hour.
The power station will be situated in the vicinity of the oil refineries installed by the Standard Vacuum and Burmah Shell companies. It may be that the oil refineries will be able to supply fuel gas at a price comparatively lower than that of the coal equivalent. The boilers are therefore being designed suitably for burning refinery gas. Orders have already been placed for the plant and equipment required for this power station and necessary site works are in hand. The power station is expected to commence supply about the end of 1956.
/(2) Koyna Project - 7 -
(7) Koyna Project
All the measures mentioned above are really in the nature of short-term stop-gap remedies. As a permanent remedy to the power problem of Bombay, the State Government has to evolve a long-range solution. As a result work has now starved on the Koyna Hydro-Electric Project.1/
(a) The River Basin
The Koyna rises in the Mahabaleshwar plateau and flows north-south for about 64 km (40 mi) in the scenic ranges of the Western Ghats, then takes a turn eastwards on the Deccan plateau near Helwak, which is about the southern-most limit for building a dam and providing a storage reservoir. The Koyna joins the Krishna at Karad about 80 km (50 mi) east of Helwak. The location is satisfactorily served by rail and road via Dabhol-Chiplum on the western coast of India. The area lies in a heavy rainfall zone, catching 3,800 to 6,350 mm (150 to 250 in) a year.
On the western face of the Ghats, there is a sheer drop of about 450 m (1,500 ft) between the river bed and the western foot of the Ghats.
(b) History of the project
Such an attractive site for the development of cheap hydro-electric power and storage for irrigation had not escaped notice. It had previously been considered for development of irrigation by the government and for power generation by the Tata Company. The earlier investigations had been planned only for partial utilization.
In 1946-47, the Government of Bombay had the Koyna possibilities fully investigated both for power generation and irrigation development. On the basis of investigations lasting for over three years, it has been decided to undertake the project in stages to generate hydro-power for serving the Bombay-Poona area and the surrounding areas of Maharashtra and Karnatak, as well as to store a sizable quantum of water for irrigation.
For the time being it is planned to undertake only the first stage of the project which will generate 240,000 kW at 60 per cent load factor. Irrigation and further generation up to about 420,000 kW at 60 per cent load factor will be undertaken in the second stage. The Koyna holds a further power potential which could be tapped as and when necessary. /(c) Features of
1/ A mention has been made of this project in previous issues of Flood_ Control Journal: ST/ECAFE/SER.C/13, January 1953, p.8 and ST/ECAFE/SER.C/19, June 1954, p.43. -8 -
(c) Features of the project The eastern foot of the Ghats is at an elevation of about 570 - 600 m (1,900 - 2,000 ft) above mean sea level at the proposed dam site near Deshmukhwadi in the North Satara District. The area, for miles to the east of the Ghats, forms the Deccan plateau at an elevation of about 540 m (1,800 ft). The western face of the Ghats has steep slopes ending at an elevation of about 150 m (500 ft). The sea is about 40 km (25 mi) west of the foot of the Ghats.
Storage will be obtained by a dam about 62.4 m (208 ft) high above the bed in the first stage, and about 81 m (270 ft) in the second at which, an average head of about 480 m (1,600 ft) becomes available for power generation. The spillway is to be located in the central portion of the dam and it is proposed to make it wholly of concrete. The flanks will be made of masonry up to a height of about 60 m (200 ft) below which will be laid cement-concrete from foundation upwards.
The catchment area is about 893 km2 (345 sq mi) and capacity at full- supply level is expected to be about 2,462 million m3 (2.25 million acre-ft) at the final stage; in the first stage it is about 1,025 million m3 (0.83 million acraf The water spread will be 54.4 km2 (21 sq mi) in the first stage and about 115.2 km 2 (44.5 sq mi) in the second. The length of the dam at road level will be about 660 m (2,200 ft) in the first stage and about 840 m (2,800 ft) in the final stage.
It is proposed to provide five sluices in the body of the spillway for purposes of irrigation and silt-scouring. Six gates, 12.3 m x 8.1 m (43. ft x 27 ft) each, are to be installed on the spillway crest.
(i) Under-ground power house
A unique feature of the Koyna Project is that the site conditions are ideal for an under-ground type of power house not only from an economic point of view but in other respects too. It is, therefore, proposed to have the paver house about 240 m (800 ft) below the ground level at the locality. This will be the first real under-ground power station in India and at full development will, perhaps be amongst the largest 5 or 6 under-ground power stations in the world.
/The power - 9 -
The power station will be housed in a cavern, about 16.5 m x 117 m (55 ft x 390 ft) clear in the first stage and 16.5 m x 165 m (55 ft x 550 ft) in the second. The entrance to the cavern will be through an approach tunnel of about 990 m (3,300 ft) at a gradient of 1 in 18 to 1 in 20.
Water from the turbines will be discharged into a hill stream through a tail race about 2,250 m (7,500 ft) long and thence into the Arabian Sea, via the creek at Chiplun on the west coast. The tail-race tunnel is to have a 7.2 m (24 ft) clear horseshoe section.
Two separate tunnels are provided to lay the 230 kV power cables and control cables from the under-ground power station to the switchyard located outdoors. A ventilation shaft, which will also be an emergency exit, is also being provided.
In the first stage, four generating units of 60,000 kW each will be installed, and in the second stage four more will be installed,of which one will be a standby.
In the first stage, the major portion of the 240,000 kW is to be transmitted to Bombay and fed into the inter-connected system of the Tata hydro-Electric Company, the Central Railways and the Bombay Government for serving the Bombay-Poona area. This power is to be transmitted on two circuits at 220,000 V.
About 10,000 kW are to be transmitted to the adjoining southern area of Karad-Sangli-Miraj by 66 kV, 33 kV and 11 kV lines. This power will help local industries and build up demand for more power at the second stage.
/( ii ) Irrigation - 10 -
(ii) Irrigation
It is proposed to introduce irrigation in the second stage to
the extent of utilizing about 893 million m3 of water for development of lands in the Koyna-Krishna basin.
The further power potential of the Koyna can be developed through a power house built at the foot of the dam to be served by the irrigation supplies and a tail-race development, downstream of the first stage under-ground power house. Thus the total generation at full development is expected to be of the order of 500,000 kW.
(d) Progress of the scheme
Detailed investigations, surveys and drilling have been done on the project. Designs have been prepared after careful study and consultation of experts.
The scheme was inaugurated on 16 January 1954. Work on housing, roads, water supply and drainage has been started since then. This work was intensified during the working season 1954-55.
The main elements of the project, such as the dam and tunnels, are expected to be undertaken in the working season of 1955-56. The construction programme envisaged the supply of the first block of power to the Bombay-Poona area after the monsoon of 1960.
( e) Organizational set-up
The construction of the project has been entrusted to the Koyna Control Board under the chairmanship of the Minister for Public Works, Bombay.
The execution of the project is to be under a Special Project Chief Engineer who will be assisted by the appropriate number of superintending engineers and other staff.
A special design section is to handle the day-to-day design problems and to supply the necessary drawings and details to the construction staff. A field laboratory is to be set up for the day-to-day control and testing of materials.
/(f) Benefits - 11 -
(f ) Benefits
Koyna power is expected to be reasonably cheap at about 0.40 anna (Be 0.025) delivered in bulk in Bombay. The cost of power delivered in Maharashtra-Karnatak zone is expected to be of the order of 0.75 anna (Re 0.047) which is considered very reasonable.
The abundant supply of power at such rates in the State is expected not only to meet the pent-up demand but also to give a fillip to further industrialization as well as to serve the needs of lift irrigation in the famine- stricken areas in the souther part of the State.
The Koyna Project will further assure irrigation supplies in the region where they are badly needed and is expected to serve about 160,000 ha (400,000 acres).
During the construction period of about six years the project will offer employment to a large number of skilled and unskilled workers. It will also prove a good training ground for mechanics, operators and craftsmen like masons, carpenters, etc.
(g) Power demand of Bombay
After the Koyna Scheme is commissioned, the hydro-electric power stations of the Tata Company together with Koyna and the steam power stations at Kalyan and Trombay will be able to meet satisfactorily the whole of the power demand in the. Bombay area in the foreseeable future.
(3) Ahmedabad and North Gujarat
Electricity supply was first commenced in Ahmedabad, the city of textile mills, with a diesel station in 1915. The demand for power has been steadily growing ever since. In 1934 a new steam station was commissioned by the Ahmedabad Electricity Supply Company with an initial capacity of 7,500 W;k it had reached, a total installed capacity of 97,000 kW by the end of 1953. To meet the growing demand of lend, the company has already made arrangements for pressing additional generating plant into service. A new power station with three 15,000 kW generating sets and boilers is coming up. The first of the generating units was commercially commissioned in March 1954, while the second set was commissioned in October 1954. /Apart from - 12 -
Apart from the local, industrial and other loads served by the Ahmedabad Electric System, a very important load supplied by the Ahmedabad Electricity Company is the bulk supply to the Bombay Government for the North Gujarat Grid Scheme. The State Government has now contracted with the Ahmedabad Electricity Company for bulk supply to the extent of about 17,000 kW. The supply received at 11 kV is stepped up and a 66/110 kV double-circuit line transmits the power over a distance of 112 km (70 mi) to Baroda. Step-down sub-stations have been installed at Baroda, Anand, Nadiad and Barejadi; 33 kV lines also take off from Ahmedabad to Kalol and from Anand to Petlad. From each of the sub-stations, 11 kV lines have been constructed to rural, semi-urban and urban areas. This is the first electrification scheme launched by the Bombay Government. Steady progress is being made in taking supply to rural areas for agricultureal and industrial purposes. Thirty villages have already been electrified.
(4) South Gujarat
A private company has installed a diesel generating station at Surat to meet the local power demand. The State Government Electric Grid Department has now established a steam power station at Utran (near Surat), which is intended to be a central power station to meet the power demand not only of Surat district but also the proximate rural and urban areas. This power station has at present two generating sets with an installed capacity of 7,500 kW. A third unit of the same capacity is expected to be commissioned by the end of 1954. This power station has commenced bulk supply to the Surat Electricity Company, which is partly meeting its requirements from its own generation. The State Government has completed the 66 kV Utran-Billimora line and the 22 kV Utran-Surat line. This will permit power supply from Utran Station to various load centres such as Bulsar, Billimora, Navsari and others. A 22 kV line is under construction for power supply at Bander.
/(5) Jog-Karnatak Area - 13 -
(5) Jog-Karnatak Area
With a view to promoting electric-power development in the southern districts of the State, the Government Electric Grid Department has now under execution a transmission and distribution system in this area for which power supply is being obtained in bulk from the Jog power station of the Mysore Electrical Department. The State Government is to purchase supply for this scheme at two points (a) Jog (10,000 kW) and (b) Harihar (15,000 kW) at 110 kV and 66 kV respectively. Necessary transmission lines and associated sub-stations are now under construction and from, each of these sub-stations lines of lower voltages will be constructed to distribute power in the neighbouring rural areas. Some of the sub-stations and lines have been completed and supply started at Harihar in October 1954.
(6) Nursery schemes
A distinctive method of power utilization in rural areas in the State is the nursery power station scheme started by the Electric Grid Department in several small townships. Many interior areas cannot be economically reached from the existing stations. In order to make a start of electric-power supply in such areas, the State Government has installed a number of small diesel power stations together with local distribution lines. The intention is that the loads that will be built up for these small distribution systems will in due course justify extensions from the State-wide network. So far, such nursery power stations have been built in several towns with an installed capacity of less than 400 kW.
In certain other areas, which are not far away from the lines or stations of the existing electricity licensees, the State Government has made arrangements for the purchase of power from the local supply authorities for distribution in the villages and townships. Twenty-one villages in Satara district and 10 villages in Bulsar Taluk have been electrified.
/(7) Radhanagari Scheme - 14 -
(7) Radhanagari Scheme
In the former Kolhapur State (now part of Bombay), a dam 42 m (140 ft) high is being constructed at Petha-Radhanajari on the Bhogwati river. The reservoir formed by the dam, which is primarily intended for irrigation, also generates power at a power house situated at the foot of the dam. This power station, which has now been completed, comprises four 1,500 kW generating sets. As the dam is still under construction, the full output of the station is not yet available. The dam is expected to be completed by the end of 1955.
Power supply at the end of the Plan
The total installed capacity in the State at the end of the First Five-Year Plan is expected to be 623,300 kW, consisting of 288,600 Wk of steam plant, 49,600 kW of diesel plant and 285,100 kW of hydro-plant, as against the pre-Plan figure of 416,185 kW in the State of Bombay.
Irrigation facilities in Delhi State1/
The Delhi State Government is at present working on a number of schemes which will help in irrigating over 24,000 ha (60,000 acres) of land in the State. Work on one of the most important schemes, which will help irrigate a vast tract of land in several villages, has already started. The scheme will provide perennial water supply to about 6,000 ha (15,000 acres) of land by taking water for the Western Yamuna Canal. Work on the digging of channels has already started.
There are about 24,000 ha (60,000 acres)of uncultivated land in the State which will come under the plough after completion of the schemes.
/irrigation unit
1/ Abstracted from The Times of India, New Delhi, 28 April 1955. - 15 -
Irrigation unit
The State Government is considering the possibility of establishing an irrigation unit of its own to look after its various plans. The unit will also conduct a survey to report on the feasibility of installing pumping sets to draw water from the Najafgarh Jheel.1/ With the aid of the pumping sets, it is estimated that at least another 4,000 ha (10,000 acres) of land can be irrigated.
The unit will also be asked to give its opinion on the plan to construct small dams in various parts of the State to store water during the rainy season.
Whever canal irrigation is difficult, the irrigation unit will examine the possibility of installing tube-wells. The State Government has not so far taken up any scheme to install tube-wells because there are doubts about their working in certain areas of the State. Prior to the formation of the State Government in Delhi, this work was being done by the Central Ground Water Organization.
Chambal Valley development 2/
History of the Scheme
Although this river valley has a substantial water potential no investigations were carried out before 1945. During the second world war, some investigations were made into the use of Chambal water to generate hydro-electric power required to work the Zawar mines of Udaipur for tin and zinc. Before the scheme took shape, the States of Kotah, Mewar and Indore individually prepared schemes mainly for power development within their areas. These schemes conflicted with one another. The Government of India, therefore, asked the Central Water /and Power
1/ Natural Lake. 2/ Abstracted from Bhagirath, New Delhi, March 1955, p.329. A brief mention has also been made in Flood Control Journal (ST/ECAFE/SER.C/13), January 1953 p.8. - 16 -
and Power Commission (then Central Waterways, Irrigation and Navigation Commission) to prepare an integrated plan for irrigation, power, navigation etc., keeping in mind the individual interests of the States concerned. Such a scheme was drawn up in June 1946 and it contemplated three dams and a barrage. The scheme which has recently been adopted after detailed discussions and investigations, agrees fully with the scheme envisaged in 1946. Although at that time there had been a great deal of controversy, by 1948, these small States had merged into two bigger units - namely Rajasthan and Madhya Bharat - and the Government of India, after conferring with the two governments in ths same year, finalized the blueprint for the co-ordinated and integrated project.
The Chambal river
The Chambal, known as the Charmanvati in ancient India and a major tributary of the Yamuna, has its source at Bagri, a village on the northern elopes of the Vindhya range of hills, about 32 km (20 mi) south-west of Mhow in Madhya Bharat State, at an elevation of 840 m (2,800 ft) above sen level; it flows generally in a northernly direction for a distance of about 360 km (225 mi), through Indore, Jaora, Gwalior, Sitaman, Dhar and again Indore. In the last 16 km (10 mi) of this reach it pierces through a deep and narrow canyon of sand-stone cliffs in Indore. The sides of the canyon are almost vertical and rise 90 m (300 ft) above the river bed on either side.
After emerging from this narrow gorge, it flows in a north-easternly direction for another 456 km (285 mi) through parts of Mewar, Kotah, Bundi, Jaipur, Karauli in Rajasthan and areas of Dholpur and Gwalior in Madhya Bharat. Thereafter, it forms the boundary between Madhya Bharat and Uttar Pradesh at an elevation of 120 m (400 ft) above mean sea level.
Before its entry into the Indore gorge the river is about 9.8 km (0.15 mi) wide, but 4.8 1cm (3 mi) farther downstream it narrows down io just 201 m (1 furlong). Here the bed level, on an average, is 336 m (1,120 ft) above mean sea level. The gorge then widens to varying widths ranging from 402 m (2 furlong) to 603 m (3 furlong) till it terminates near Kotah. The total length of the gorge is about 112 km (70 mi) including a length of 40 km (25 mi) where the hills recede on both sides. In tins reach, the river runs in alternate pools and rapids with a total fall of about 120 m (400 ft). The famous Chulia Falls lie almost midway in this long gorge. /Catchment - 17 -
Catchment
The total catchment area of the Chambal is 142,500 km2 (55,000 sq mi). The basin is bounded by the Vindhya range to the south-east and west, and by the Aravalis to the north-west. The catchment is mostly a plateau covered either by fertile black soil or by alluvium.
Annual run-off
Like other peninsular rivers, the Chambal discharges considerable volumes of water during the monsoons, but the flow in the dry weather dwindles down to a trickle. So the development of irrigation and power from the normal run of the river is not possible without artificial storage.
Project features
The present proposal for the development of the Chambal river valley envisages the construction of three dams and a barrage, as shown in figure 1. The first dam in the series is the Gandhi Sagar ham which is being financed by the Government of Madhya Bharat. It is situated about 8 km (5 mi) downstream of the Chaurasigarh Fort. The second dam, called the Rama Pratap Sagar Dam, will be erected, if considered necessary, at Rawat Bhatta in Rajasthan about 32 km (20 mi) downstream of the first. The third dam, called the Kotah Dam, will be built about 32 km (20 mi) downstream of the second dam. The Kotah Barrage will be built about 3 km (2 mi) upstream of Kotah city. The second and third dams and the Kotah Barrage are financed by the Government of Rajasthan. The whole development will be carried out in three stages.
First stage
This will include the construction of the Gandhi Sagar Dam with Gandhi Sagar Power Station, Kotah Barrage, the entire canal system and a part of the transmission line system. The cost of these works is as detailed below:
(million Rs)
Gandhi Sagar Dam 89.0 Gahdhi Sagar Power Station 50.0 Kotah Barrage 30.7 Canal system 225.2 Transmission system 85.4 Total 480.3
/ After the Figure 1
RAGARH
SAMBHAR JAIPUR PHALERA DAOSA
HINDAUN
NAWAI KARUALI
GWALIOR SABALGARH
SIJAIPUR
LAKHERI SHEDPUR
JHANSI 1 8
KOTAH KOTAH BARRAGE KOTAH DAM RANA PARTAP SAGAR DAM
GANOHI SACAR DAM HALWAR ROAD
SINA
REFERENCES: CHAMBAL VALLEY DEVELOPMENT AREA IRRIGATED BY CANALS 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 km SCALE WATER SPREAD 0 20 40 60 80 100 mi -19-
After the completion of the first stage, 400,000 ha (1,100,000 acres) of land will be irrigated and 69,000 Wk of power will be generated. The power will be available at 0.8 anna1/ per unit at the Grid Sub-Station.
Second Stage
In the second stags the Rana Pratap Sagar Dam and Power Station to generate 90,000 kW of power will be constructed and transmission lines will be extended accordingly. The total cost for this stage is estimated at Rs 136.6 million. This will bring an additional area of 121,500 ha (300,000 acres) under irrigation.
Third Stage
In the third and final stage will be taken up the construction of the Kotah Dam and a power station of 45,000 kW capacity and further extension of transmission lines. This stags is expected to cost about Rs 100 million.
Gandhi Sagar Dam
The Gandhi Sagar Dam will be, according to present estimates, one of the most economical and paying irrigation structures in the country. As against a normal investment of 0.973 anna needed for storing 1 m3 (Rs 75 per acre-ft) of water, the Gandhi Sagar Dam will store it at an incredibly small cost - 0.233 anna per m3 (Rs 18 per acre-ft).
The Gandhi Sagar Dam will be of stone masonry, 61.2 m (204 ft) high above the average river bed (elevation 336 m or 1,120 ft). The length of the dam at the top will be 505.5 m (1,685 ft) and at bed level 375 m (1,250 ft). The maximum width at the bottom in the spillway portion will be 52.74 m (175.8 ft) non-spillway 49.26 m (164.2 ft). The masonry of the dam will be cemented with red mortar (one part of surkhi2/ powder to four parts of cement plus sand).
The dam is provided with 10 crest gates each 18 m x 8.4 m (60 ft x 28 ft) with a total discharging capacity of 9,060 m/sec3 (320,000 cfs) and regulating sludge gates each 3 m x 7.5 m (10 ft x 25 ft) with a total discharging capacity of 4,650 m3/sec (164,000 cfs). Thus, out of 21,250 m3/sec (750,000 cfs) assumed discharge, 13,700 m3/sec (484,000 cfs) will be surplussed through the gates. To
negotiate the remaining 7,550 m3/sec (266,000 cfs) the reservoir will be depleted to a lower level to elevation 392.4 m (1,308 ft) or so before the influx of high flood. /The river
1/ One anna = 1/16 of a rupee. 2/ Finely-ground brick. -20 -
The river bed consists of hard quartzitic laminated rock. In general, the rock is considered by geologists as quite sound and suitable for resting a dam of the proposed height.
Tile reservoir will have a gross capacity of 7,070 million m3 (5.73 million acre-ft), and the water will spread over 65,520 ha (163,800 acres). From the reservoir 6,250 million m3 (5.06 million acre-ft) of water will be available for irrigation and power. The dead storage of 820 million m3 (0.67 million acre-ft) has been allowed for silt accumulation.
At the site of the dam during the post-monsoon period the river flow bifurcates into two branches - one on Bhanpura Flank and the other on Rampura Flank. The post-monsoon discharge varies from 85 m3 /sec (3,000 cfs) to 113 m3/sec (4,000 cfs) in October to almost nothing in the summer (May). However, in order to negotiate this flow alternately from one branch to another during construction, suitable coffer dams are being erected.
In all, lands of 204 villages will be affected on account of the formation of the Gandhi Sagar Reservoir. Out of these, 120 villages will be completely submerged and the rest partially. Out of a total area of 66,000 ha (163,800 acres), 29,200 ha (72,000 acres) are under cultivation. The rest is made up of unculturable jungle ravines, rivers, etc.
Gandhi Sagar Power Station
The Gandhi Sagar Power Station will be 93.3 m (311 ft) long and 21 m (70 ft) wide. It will house five generators of 23,000 kW capacity each, of which one will serve as a standby. The total power generated at tills station will be 69,000 kW. This will yield a gross revenue of Rs 17,625,000 annually at a rate of 0.8 anna per unit of power sold at the Grid Sub-Station. The net return on this account is expected to be over 4 per cent on the sum of charge in the 16th year after commencement.
Canal system
The Kotah Barrage, the last structure in the series, will raise and divert water for irrigation to the canals. This will be about 37.5 m (125 ft) high above the river bed and 591 m (1,970 ft) long at top. It will be a composite structure; the main river section being in earth protected by stone and the spillway in
/masonry -21 -
masonry topped with gates.
After taking off from the Kotah Barrage the Left Main Canal will ran for 3.2 km (2 mi) after which it will bifurcate into two branches, namely the Bundi Distributary and the Kaperen Branch. The Bundi Distributary will irrigate 38,000 ha (96,000 acres) and the Kaperan Branch 66,300 ha (164,000 acres) annually.
Taking off from the Kotah Barrage the Right Main Canal, carrying a discharge of 195 m3/sec (6,880 cfs), passes through Rajasthan State for the first 126 km (79 mi) of its length. At its 128th km (80th mile) at the crossing of the Parvati river, this canal enters Madhya Bharat territory. At this place it carries a discharge of 110 m3/sec (3,900 cfs). After this it passes entirely through Madhya Bharat State. The Main Canal, after crossing the Parvati river, runs as a contour canal for 165 km (103 mi) to a point where the Ambah Branch takes off, carrying 32 m3/sec (1,125 cfs); the Main Canal after this point is called the Main Canal Lower. The Main Canal Lower, carrying a discharge of 54 m3/sec (1,900 cfs), flow a further distance of 78 km (49 mi) and thereafter will tail off into the ridge canal called the Morena Branch Canal to irrigate the lands between the valleys of the Kunwari and Asan rivers. At the end of the Main Canal Lower, where it changes into a ridge canal, a feeder drops into the Asan river. The existing Pilu weir downstream of the Asan picks up the waters of the Chambal and diverts them into the Kotwal weir on the Sank river by the existing connecting canal. From the Kotwal weir the existing Bhind Canal System takes off which is to be re-modelled for the higher discharge required for increased irrigation under its command. A new canal called the Mau Branch Canal will be constructed to take off from the Bhind Canal.
Construction progress
All the preliminaries regarding Gandhi Sagar Dam, such as surveys, location of site, geological investigations, model experiments, etc., are over. The designs have been finalized and a combined project report by both States - Rajasthan and Madhya Bharat - has been prepared and approved by the Central Water and Power Commission. The Planning Commission has included this scheme in the First Five-Year Plan. The work of excavation for the foundation of the dam was started on 26 January 1953. The total excavation done to the end of December 1954 was about 70,700 m3 (2,500,000 cu ft). This work is progressing well.
/The foundation - 22 -
The foundation stone for the dam was laid on 7 March 1954. Since then about 22,650 m3 (800,000 cu ft) of masonry had been constructed up to the end of January 1955. This work is progressing rapidly. Work has started on the Kotah Barrage.
Regarding irrigation works, the preliminary surveys, including aerial surveys, have been completed, and the main canal alignment has been finally fixed. .Detailed surveys for branches and distributaries are also nearing completion. Excavation of the Main Canal was started at a place called Shripura, 35 km (22 mi) from Sheopur on 1 December 1954. At present over 1,000 labourers are working on this job. The design of the Parvati Aqueduct has been finalized.
The Godavari North Canal1/
Telengana, the Telugu-speaking portion of Hyderabad State, is proverbially known as the "Land of Thousand Tanks". The people, generally speaking, are hard working and are used to tank irrigation for cultivating rice - their staple food - though the country is not wanting in rivers. The land slopes, and the rivers run, chiefly from north-west to south-east. The Godavari, the Krishna and the Manjira are some of the important rivers flowing in this part of the State. As a first step towards harnessing these mighty rivers with a large potential, the Nizamsagar Reservoir was constructed, more than twenty years ago, on the Manjira. Now an attempt is under way for harnessing the great Godavari, the largest river of the south.
The River
The Godavari is one of the major rivers of the Indian sub-continent. It has a catchment of about 299,000 km2 (115,337 sq mi) and its normal annual flow is 70,400 million m3 (2,500,000 million cu ft). Rising from Triambak near
Nasik in Bombay the river enters Hyderabad near Paithan in the Aurangabad district and leaves the State near Parnasala to enter Andhra. Tributaries like the Manjira, the Purna, the Maner and the Kaddam join the river in its course through Hyderabad. Of these tributaries, the Saddam rises in Adilabad district and joins the Godavari near Pedda Bellala in the same district. /The Scheme
1/ Abstracted from Bhagirath, New Delhi, January 1955, p.265. - 23 -
The Scheme
The Godavari North Canal Scheme is part of the main Godavari Project which comprises the construction of two reservoirs on the Godavari - the Kawaligudam reservoir and the Kushtapuram reservoir - and one dam each on the tributaries, the Maner and the Kaddam. Two main canals, known as the North and the South Canals, take off from a pick-up weir below the Kishtapuram (lower) Dam, one on either bank.
The North Bank Canal in its alignment comes across the Kaddam river at km 56 (mile 35) (see fig 2). The canal drops into the Kaddam reservoir to be constructed at this place and takes off from the other flank for a further length of 128 km (80 mi).
The South Canal will cross the Maner at km 157 (mile 98) and running past the Warrangal town will cross the Godavari-Krishna ridge at km 256 (mile l66). After traversing another 128 km (80 mi) in the Krishna Valley it will end at the Kangal stream above Nalgonda town.
Tile canal system can irrigate an area of about 1 million ha (2.5 million acres) in the districts of Nizamabad, Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warrangal and Nalgonda. Hydro-power also will be generated at the two dams on the main river as well as at the drops on the canals. There will be in all 10 power stations with an aggregate capacity of 144,000 kW peak at 60 per cent load factor. The entire scheme may cost about Rs 800 million.
As a first step in the implementation of the Godavari Project, the Godavari North Canal Scheme was sanctioned by the government in 1949.
The Kaddam Project
The Godavari North Canal Scheme comprises the construction of a 1,648.5 m (5,495 ft) long dam across the Kaddam river and a 76.8 km (48 mi) long canal, taking, off from the head sluices of the dam on the left flank. The dam site is situated near Peddur village, in Adilabad district before the confluence of the Kaddam
with the Godavari. Near the dam site the river has a catchment of 2,591 km2 (1,000 sq mi) with an average rainfall of 1,016 mm (40 in).
/The dam Asifabad Pedda Vagu R.
HADDAM RIVER
ADILABAD
KADDAM DAM
NIRMAL (Proposed)
GODAVARI POWER CANAL
- KARIMNAGAR
24
- NIZAMABAD MANCHIRIAL
0 2 4 6 8 10 miles
INDEX MAP OF KADDAM PROJECT GODAVIRI river REFERENCE Road Reservoir
Rly.Line Canal Power Station River Figure 2 - 25 -
The dam - The dam consists of a masonry portion in the middle with composite dams on either side. The dam measures 28.2 m (94 ft) above the lowest river bed. There will be a 186 m (620 ft) long masonry spillway for discharging the flood waters. Nine lift gates, 18 m (60 ft) wide and 4.5m (15 ft) high each,
can discharge 4,240 m3/ sec (150,000 cfs) of flood. The water stored by the reservoir spreads over an area of more than 21 km2 (8 sq mi).
The canal - The main canal takes off from the head sluices situated in a saddle at the extreme left flank of the dam. The country for the first half-mile is low, necessitating heavy embankment on one side and formation of a small lake. Thereafter the canal runs almost entirely in rugged country and thick forest. After 77 km (at mile 48), the canal has to cross the lime-stone range near Hajipur. It will burrow its way through this range, the length being 1,110 m (3,700 ft). The canal again encounters a forest area beyond the tunnel after passing Mancherial. This portion of the canal after km 77 (mile 48) is not to be taken up at present. Tile canal at the head will be 9.9 m (33 ft) wide and 3 m (10 ft) deep with a discharge of 56.6 m3/sec (2,000 cfs). The main canal is to be lined in order to obviate seepage losses, weed growth and costly maintenance.
Construction progress
The project, now included in the First Five-Year Plan of the State, was sanctioned in 1949 and work was started in June 1949. The construction of the dam is making progress. The whole project will.be completed by June 1956.
Benefit
The 76.8 km (48 mi) main canal commands an area of 52,466 ha (131,165 acres) out of which 26,000 ha (65,000 acres) are to be irrigated. Rice will be grown over all this area and a second crop can be raised on 800 lia (2,000 acres).
Cost
The scheme now under execution, also known as the Godavari I Phase, was sanctioned for an estimated cost of about Rs 44.1 million. More than Rs 26.5 million was spent on this scheme up to the end of June 1954.
/Kuttanad Development - 26 -
Kuttanad Development Scheme in Travancore-Cochin1/
In Travancore-Cochin State an area of about 860 km2 (340 sq mi) around Alleppey, which is familiarly known by the name of Kuttanad, is an important rice-producing certre. Four of the chief rivers of the State - the Achencoil, Pamba, Manimala and Meenachil - drain their waters through this area with their outfalls finally ending at Cochin. This is one of the thickly-populated centres of the State. The chief problems to be solved were the submergence of all the lands for a period of about a month during the monsoon and the ingress of salinity with, consequent contamination of drinking water during the off-monsoon months. One of the first schemes to be tackled in the First Five-Year Plan, therefore, was the Kuttanad Development Scheme. This scheme comprises three major works:
(1) Construction of a spillway at Thottappally 25.6 km (14 mi) south of Alleppey estimated to cost Rs 5.7 million. This is intended to surplus out the excess flood water directly into the sea instead of allowing it to stagnate and let it out at the Cochin mouth through Vembanad Lake. The spillway includes a channel 1,290 m (4,300 ft) long, 360 m (1,200 ft) wide, with bed level about 1.8 m (6 ft) above mean sea level, cut across the sandy beach connecting the sea with the Trivandrum-Shornur canal, inland at Thottappally. The regulating arrangements consist of 40 steel shutters, each 7.5 m x 2.9 m (25 ft x 9.5 ft), operated by electrical, gearing and fitted on the masonry piers of the combined bridge, alongside the regulator. This bridge which is 360 m (1,200 ft) long, is along the Quilon - Alleppey road which is National Highway No.47. During the monsoons when water level rises in Kuttanad the shutters of the regulator will be raised and water will flow to the sea; this will reduce the intensity of flood rise brought about by the four rivers emptying their waters simultaneously into the sea. (2) Construction of a combined road and canal connecting Alleppey and Changanacherry, a distance of 23.2 km (14.5 mi), through the heart of Kuttanad at an estimated cost of Rs 3.5 million; this will facilitate transport. (3) Construction of a salt-water barrier across Vembanad Lake between Thanneermukkom and Vetchoor, 22.4 km (14 mi) north of Alleppey, at an estimated cost of Rs 4.5 million. This work is intended to arrest inflow of saline water coming from the Cochin mouth through Vembanad Lake.
/The work
1/ Abstracted from The Indian and Eastern Engineer, Bombay, March 1955, p. 359. -27-
The work on the Kuttanad Development Scheme started in the second half of 1951. The work on the spillway and the construction of the Alleppey-Changana- cherry road work were started first. The spillway is completed and was formally inaugurated on 15 December 1954. The construction of the salt-water barrier is about to be started. The road work will be completed in another year. When tile Kuttanad Development Scheme is completed about 50,000 ha (125,000 acres) of paddy-land which now yield only one crop in the year will be converted into double-crop land and the whole of Kuttanad will have fresh water throughout the year for domestic use. On the basis of the area of land which will be benefited the cost per ha of land works out to about Rs 275 (Rs 110 per acre) which is considered to be one of the lowest figures in India for a reclamation work of this kind.
Power development in Madras Stated1/
Madras is in a better position as regards power and has made substantial progress in power development and utilization since 1929 when the State started nationalizing its power sources. A special feature is that the registered demand for power, particularly for industries, agricultural pump-sets and rural electrification,outstrips power generation. As a matter of fact, every time projects are completed the demand for pwero exceeds the supply. The Government of India has therefore been urged to include a number of large and small hydro-electric power projects in the Second Five-Year Plan. It was stated that unless these schemes were taken up immediately the power supply position would become serious and it would not be possible to accelerate the process of industrialization and electrification of villages.
The total capacity of generating stations was a little over 150,000 kW on the eve of Independence. Not more than 1,000 villages were electrified. As a result of persistent demand, for power a large programme of power development was undertaken. Thus the Moyar Hydro-Electric Scheme, the first and second stages of the Madras Thermal Scheme, the Papanasam Hydro-Electric Extensions, the Madurai Thermal Scheme and the Pykara III Stage Extensions - all included in the First Five-Year Plan - have been completed, adding about 100,000 kW to the capacity of the generating plants in the State which now totals over 250,000 W.k /The remarkable
1/ Abstracted from The Time of India, Delhi, 26 May 1955. - 28 -
The rertarkable progress made can be realized when it is known that 2,400 villages have been electrified, the connected industrial load, which was 122,000 kW before Independence, has more than doubled, the irrigation and agricultural load has increased from 40,000 kW to about 100,000 kW. The total length of high-tension and low-tension lines has increase from 8,000 km (5,000 mi) in 1947 to over 16,800 km (10,500 mi) to-day. The number of consumers, which was only 125,000 in 1947, is now 350,000. All this has been achieved at a total cost of Rs 300 million during the post-Independence period.
All the generating stations have been formed into a grid which has been useful in assuring supplies to deficit areas, the thermal power making up the shortage of hydro-electric power during non-irrigation season and hydro-electric power making up the shortage of thermal stations during the irrigation season. The power distributed to 350,000 consumers in about 200 towns and 2,400 villages is utilized as follows: 58 per cent for industrial purposes, 15 per cent for irrigation and agricultural purposes, 14 per cent for domestic lighting and power, 6 per cent for commercial purposes, 2.5 per cent for public lighting, 2 per cent for traction and the balance for miscellaneous purposes.
It will be seen that three-quarters of the power output are used in industry and agriculture, helping directly to produce wealth. The agricultural pump-sets which numbered, 5,000 on the eve of Independence are now nearly 22,000.
Work on the Rs 100 million Periyar Hydro-Electric Scheme has recently been started. This will generate 75,000 kW initially and 100,000 kW ultimately. The sanction of the Kundah Scheme, although expected at any moment, was held up, it was stated, because the Planning Commission was examining it along with alternative proposals, the Barapole Scheme in Coorg and the Honnemaradu Scheme in Mysore. The Barapole Scheme is expected to develop 125,000 kW in the first stage at a cost of Rs 160 million and increase the capacity to 179,700 kW in the second stage at an additional cost of Rs 13 million. The Honnemaradu Scheme, one of the Largest in India, contemplates the utilization of waters of the Sharavati river in Mysore for generating about 400,000 kW of power in three stages.
/Even when - 29 -
Even when the Periyar and the Kundah schemes are completed the power available will only meet the existing demand. The growing demand for power necessitates the taking up of other schemes. It will also be necessary "to firm up" hydro-electric power which will bo available in large quantities only during irrigation season, by the construction of more thermal stations. A thermal station with an initial capacity of 100,000 kW and ultimately 200,000 kW at Neiveli, utilizing lignite as fuel, is also planned. The project will cost about Rs 200 million. A good part of this power will be utilized in industries to be established at Neiveli and also in mining.
Plans have also been made for new hydro-electric schemes like the Kumbar- Amaravathi at a cost of Rs 80 million with a power potential of 45,000 kW, the Mettur Low-Level Sluices Hydro-Electric Scheme at a cost of Rs 120 million to generate 75,000 kW and two small hydro-electric stations at the foot of the Pykara and Papamsam dams, generating 3,000 kW and 4,000 kW at a cost respectively of Rs 3 million and Rs 4 million. All these are expected to generate a total installed capacity of 372,000 kW and have been proposed for inclusion in the Second Five-Year Plan.
Another scheme at the Hogenekkali Falls on the Coimbatore-Mysore border, generating 30,000 kW at a cost of Rs 60 million is also to be developed.
When all these schemes are completed the government will be able to electrify 1,000 villages and connect up 10,000 pump-sets every year as against the present annual target of 250 villages and 2,000 pump-sets.
Even this additional power of 372,000 kW from new projects was expected to be inadequate to meet the growing demand for power, particularly for the contemplated large-scale industrial development of the State under the Second Five-Year Plan. In this field as in irrigation, the Madras Government is stated to think that the co-operation of neighbouring States would be essential as the State is in need of large blocks of additional power, which could be spared by them from projects like the Jog Scheme in Mysore and the Barapole Scheme in Coorg.
/Power from -30-
Power from the Periyar1/
The Periyar Project, in the State of Madras, which was started on 11 February 1955, will be the fifth hydro-power station in the State designed to meet, at least partly, the growing demand for power.
The main source of electricity supply in Madras State is the inter-connected grid comprising the hydro-electric stations at Pykara, Mettur, Papanasam and Moyar2/ and steam stations at Madras and Madurai. During the post-war years the load demand has come to exceed the resources of the power network and the State Government has been undertaking new installations to augment the generating capacity of the grid. The Periyar Hydro-Electric Scheme is one of the major new schemes.
The Periyar river has its origin near Kallimalai - a peak on the ridge between Travancore and Madras States. The river generally flows westward and empties into the Arabian Sea near Cranganur. It lies entirely in Travancore-Cochin area and its length is about 220 km (130 mi). The nature of the country through which the river flows is such that the waters cannot be utilized for irrigation to significant extent.
In 1886 the Madras Government took a lease from Travanoore State for utilizing the river water for 999 years for irrigation in the Madras areas. About 19 km (12 mi) below Thanikudi, a dam was constructed in 1893 across the Periyar on the west face and the water tunnelled through the hills into the basin of the Vaigai in the East. The canal system taking off from the Vaigai has been irrigating about 60,000 ha (150,000 acres) in Madurai district.
The Periyar waters thus diverted cascaded over a total fall of more than 300 m (1,000 ft) before reaching the plains. The idea of using this drop for power generation had been engaging the attention of engineers for a long time, although the reservoir, when constructed, was intended purely for irrigation.
With the proposal to construct a dam across the Vaigai, the scope of the Periyar Hydro-Electric Scheme has been widened. The irrigation requirements in the ayncut3/ will be met to some extent by the Vaigai reservoir, and the Periyar waters will be used for power generation.
/As the hydro-
1/ Abstract from Bhagirath, New Delhi, March 1955, 2/ For a description of Pyhara and Moyar Hydel schemes, see Flood Control Journal (ST/ECAFE/SER.C/15), June 1953. pp 19-26. - 31 -
As the hydro-electric aspect was not considered when the first agreement was entered into between Madras and Travancore Governments, a fresh agreement had to be reached between the two governments for power generation also. In November 1954 an agreement was concluded after prolonged discussions. The Madras Government will pay to the Travanoo re-Cochin Government a royalty based on the extent of electric energy produced.
The Periyar Scheme comprises the installation of three generating sets of 35,000 Wk each in the first stage, and of a fourth unit a decade later. The existing Periyar Dam is 45 m (150 ft) high and stores 442 million m3 (15,632 million cu ft) of water. The 1,766 m (5,807 ft) tunnel running east through the Ghats can discharge 37 m3/sec (1,300 cfs). In the new scheme it will be enlarged enough to discharge 43 m3/sec (1,600 cfs). The water will be discharged into a pond that can store 85,000 m3 (3 million cu ft) of water. The fore-bay dam tint holds the water will be 28 m (93 ft) high. Another tunnel 1,286 m (4,188 ft) long, and nearly as big as the first, will take off from the pond, and terminate at the top of the pipes which run downhill for 1,050 m
(3,500 ft) to reach the power house. These will carry a discharge of 11.3 m3/sec (400 cfs) each. The need available for power development is 379 m (1,263 ft). About 384 km (240 mi) of high-tension lines will be constructed to transmit Periyar power to the various load centres in the Madras grid system.
The cost of the sanctioned scheme is Rs 67.5 million initially, rising to Rs 104.7 million in the course of 10 year.
The Periyar Scheme will provide employment to a number of people of the area during the construction stage and, when completed, the cheap hydro-power will give a fillip to new industries in the State. The power will also be available for electrification of a number of villages for various purposes such as pump irrigation, cottage industries, home and town lighting.
/Nandikonda Project1/ - 32 -
Nandikonda Project1/
The decision to undertake the construction of the Nandikonda Dam across the Krishna river near Macheria during the First Five-Year Plan was taken at a conference held on 24 February 1955 in New Delhi in which the members of the Planning Commission and representatives of the Andhra and Hyderabad Governments took part.
The entire project has now been split up into two stages. The first phase of the project, which has now been accepted, consists of the Nandikonda Dam, a left-bank canal over 172.8 km (108 mi) leading up to the Muneru river and a right-bank canal over 224 km (140 mi) reaching the Musi river.
The cost of construction of the dam and two canals is estimated at about Rs 750 million. The project when completed is expected to irrigate nearly 940,000 ha (2,350,000 acres). The left-bank canal will serve exclusively Hyderabad State in the first stage. The right-bank canal will serve Andhra Stat and the cost of the project will be shared by the two governments.
Embankment along the Beas2/
The Government of the Punjab proposes to construct a long embankment on the Beas river to save over 50 villages of Gurdaspur district from floods. The embankment will be 40 km (25 mi) long. It will be between Mirthal railway bridge and Bhaini Bhaswal. It is estimated to cost Rs 500,000. Most of the work will be done by the people of the area through voluntary Labour.
With the construction of the embankment, water flowing from the Beas river into Kahnuwan Chhamb Lake will be checked and thousands of hectares of land will be reclaimed.
/Power development
1/ Abstracted from Bhagirath, New Delhi, March 1955, p.360. 2/ Ibid., p.357. - 33 -
Power development in West Bengal1/
Although Darjeeling Can claim to be the pioneer in hydro-electric development in India, having started operation in 1897-98, West Bengal has not been proceeding on a par with other States of the Indian Union in this respect. This is due to the comparatively high cost of developing the water power sites and also to the proximity of the coal-fields. In West Bengal where both hydro and thermal power resources are available, the two sources may be considered as complementary rather than competitive, and ways and means should be found of developing hydro power, having due regard to the secondary effect which this will have upon the economy of the State. The following table shows the number and installed capacity of the various types of power stations in West Bengal.
Type of power station Number Installed capacity
Hydro-electric 2 2,760 Steam 7 510,050 Diesei 9 3,192
18 516,002
River of West Bengal
For a proper appreciation of the rivers in West Bengal (see fig 3) for power generation, it is convenient to classify them, into three groups:
Group I - Under this group should come the rivers of the Gangetic plains, which have their sources in the distant mountains and flow for hundreds of miles before entering the plains of Bengal, maintaining a more or less perennial flow and navigable all the year round. The Ganga is the largest of this group of rivers, draining an average annual rainfall of 107 mm (42 in) over a catchment area of 1,030,000 km 2 (397,500 sq mi) and with a recorded discharge of about 56,600 m3/sec (2 million cfs). But the Gangetic plains being absolutely flat, the rivers in this region cannot be utilized for power generation.
/in the lower
1/ Abstracted from Datta, M. : "Power Development in West Bengal", Power Engineer, Simla, India, April 1955, vol.5, No.2, p.60. -34-
Figure 3
NEPAL BHUTAN
DANJEELING hukong VALLEY
SHILLONG
manipur BIHAR
HILL TIPPERA LUSHAI HILLS
MAP OF W. BENGAL, E. PAKISTAN AND ASSAM SHOWING IMPORTANT RIVERS
0 100 200 300 400 km SCALE 0 100 200 300 mi
PLAN APPROX SCALE 1 = 2000
2300 GOVT. OF BEHJAL ELECTRICITY 2300 DEVELOPMENT 2100 MAIN MATURES : 2000 1) INTAKE AT RIVER N.L.L.L. 1990 1800 AND W.L.E.L. 2060 2) SHORT CANAL 1800 3) STEEL PIPE DIA TO RESERVOIR 1700 4) RESERVOIR MAX W.L.S.L.1550 5) DIA STEEL PIPE TO POWER HOUSE 1600 6) POWER HOUSE 1500 CUTPUT AT 100% L.R. 1400 DURING DRY WEATHER 1300 (200 cusecs ) 7850 kW. DURING MONSOON (500 CUSESES 1200 -17150 Kw)
BALASON AND JALDHAKA PROJECT
Figure 4 - 35 -
In the lower deltaic region, however, there are a number of estuaries, each resembling an arm of the sea, where the possibilities of obtaining power from the tides may be explored.
Group II - This group consists of rivers such as the Subarnarekha and the Cossye in Midnapore district; the Silai and Dwarakeswar in Bahkura district and the Damodar, the Ajoy, the Mayurakshi, the Dwarka, the Pagla, the Brahmani etc., in Burdwan, Birbhum and Murshiddbad districts. They run more or less from west to east, independent of one another. These rivers have their sources in the Chotanagpur and Santhal Parganas hill. With the arrival of monsoons lasting from June to September, the rivers bring in enormous volumes of water at times, causing destructive floods. They, however, dwindle down to a mere trickle, sometimes even during the rainy season, and during the dry season there is practically no flow.
A typical example of tins type of river is the Damodar, the flow of which varies from 0.014 m3/sec (0.5 cfs) in the dry season (March) to 1,700 m3/sec (60,000 cfs) or more in the monsoons, which frequently cause devastating floods resulting in great loss of life and property, one of the worst being tint of 1943. The Ajoy, which lies further north, becomes completely dry in May and discharges over 340 m3/sec (12,000 cfs) in August.
It is, however, to be noted that the times of occurrence of the floods do not always coincide with the time when irrigation demand arises, especially after mid-September when the rainfall is hardly sufficient to meet the requirements of the paddy crop. Even in normal years artificial irrigation is thus a necessity to ensure a normal harvest in these districts. It is, therefore, apparent that to meet even the irrigation needs of the area, storage is a necessity. But, owing to the flatness of the country, it is difficult to obtain suitable sites for storage dams within the boundaries of the State of West Bengal. Good sites are, however, selected in the upper valleys of the rivers lying within the hilly regions of Chotanagpur and Santhal Parganas, where, for storage of flood waters from the rainfall of the catchment area, large reservoirs and dams are being built in connexion with the Damodar and Mor projects.
/Group III - - 36 -
Group III - The rivers under this group, rising from the Himalayan region bordering the north, mostly Sikkim and Bhutan, flow into the districts of Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling. The Tista and all others which flow east of it - the Jaldhaka, Baidak, Gangadhar - belong to this group. There the rainfall is heavy; besides, the thickly-wooded mountain retains much of the monsoon waters, so that considerable discharge can be obtained in the dry season also. These rivers have great potential power for hydro-electric generation. Some of the large rivers, which are snow-fed, give good discharge during summer, although the flow is least during the months of December and January. It is, therefore, possible to utilize this group of rivers for power generation without having to construct dams to form large reservoirs but on the basis of the minimum flow only. The Projects of the Damodar Valley Corporation1/
The rainfall in the catchment area of the Damodar Valley flows through the Damodar, the Barakar and their tributaries the Konar and the Bokaro. It is proposed to harness these water sources by means of eight storage dams for flood control. The control of the river will not only prevent the recurrence of devastating floods but also provide for regular irrigation, navigation and production of hydro-electric power. It has, therefore, been proposed to install hydro-electric generating plants as indicated below:
(W)k Barakar River Tilaiya 4,000 Balpahari 20,000 Maithon 40,000 Damodar River
Aiyar 45,000 Bermo 30,000 Panchet Hill 40,000
Tributaries of Damodar
Konar 40,000
Bokaro 3,000 Total 222,000 /These stations
1/ See also Flood Control Journal, No.3, April 1950, p 17, ST/eCAFE/SER.C/13, January 1953, Pp.4 and 5 and ST/ECAFE/SER.C/19, June 1954, pp.36 and 37. - 37 -
These stations will not be constructed simultaneously. Works are in progress at Maithon and Pandiet Hill. Approximately half this capacity will be firm power at 60 per cert load factor and the rest seasonal. In order to augment the seasonal power, a thermal station has been completed at Bokaro with an installed capacity of 150,000 kW. By the end of 1957/58, when all the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) projects (first phase) are completed, power will be available at Gaya, Patna and Dalminanagar in the west and at Calcutta in the east, besides the Damodar Valley basin, which comprises the districts of Hazaribagh, Manbhum, Singhbhum, Ranchi and Burdwan.
The Government of West Bengal is considering the installation of a large thermal plant at Durgapur, which has been selected for the site of the new coke-oven gas grid plant. This plant, after installation, is to be inter-connected with the DVC transmission system. When all the schemes are completed, the DVC would become a large inter-connected power system with Bokaro thermal station and the various hydro-power stations connected together in a common grid; additional thermal plants operated by major consumers would work at main, load centres, namely Tatanagar, Calcutta, Durgapur and the coal-fields area.
During the dry period, the thermal stations take the base load, as the energy content on the lower part of the load curve is such that it cannot be met from the dependable water flow, but the top part can be conveniently supplied by hydro-stations.
During the wet period, the thermal stations arc run to take the peak loads, as the energy content in the lower part of the load curve can be met from the hydro-electric stations working at or near maximum load continuously. The steam stations are then used as little as possible, thus saving coal. In actual practice, the installed capacities of hydro and thermal stations in an integrated system are worked on the basis of load-sharing under the worst conditions in dry and wet periods.
/Mor Project - 38 -
Mor Project
In the case of the Mor Project, a stone masonry dam is being constructed at Messenjore in Santhal Parganas, capable of collecting 617 million m3 (0.5 million acre-ft) of water for controlled distribution throughout the year. This storage will provide primarily for irrigation, but a part of it, about 8.5 m3/sec (300 cfs), will be available throughout the year for hydro-electric power generation with an additional discharge of about 8.5 m3/sec (300 cfs) during the monsoon months, July to October. Here the power production will be an adjunct of gravity irrigation. The whole cost of civil works is to be allocated to irrigation, so that the cost of power will be comparable with that from the large sources such as the DVC system. The capital cost allocations in the case of Maithon and Panchet Hill sites of the DVC are 1:1:4 for power: irrigation: flood control. For Tilaiya and Konar, the proposed proportion for power is 60 per cent.
Schemes of the Himalayan regions
The above may lead to the conclusion that the development cost for hydro electric power generation from such sites in the Himalayan region would be low. This is, however, not so because of the following geographical characteristics. The rainfall in the region also is seasonal. The snow-line in the Himalayas is very high - about 3,000 m (10,000 ft). As summer advances, the snow goes on melting but up to an altitude of 4,800 to 5,100 m (16,000 to 17,000 ft) only. So the contribution of snow to the river flow is small - about 10 to 20 per cent. Hence the snow water in the rivers is limited in comparison with the monsoon water. During the wet period, the inflow is considerable, bit during the dry season, the inflow is less and the steady power available from rivers is quite small in comparison with the size of the rivers, which is determined by the available maximum flood capacity. Another characteristic of this region is that there is no abrupt change of altitude in the course of the rivers, In consequence, long flume line and pipelines have to be laid to obtain the necessary hydraulic head for power generation. Such laying of flumes and pipelines in mountainous terrain is costly and it has become more so, because after the great earthquake of 1952, the land-slide problem has become very acute in this region, Great precautions must be taken before the installation of the flumes and pipes. All /the above - 39 -
the above factors go to make the capital cost of such a project considerable. But there is no likelihood that power can be made available through the alternative means of a major thermal power plant in this region, because the lack of good communications would make the transport of coal excessively costly. Thus the Terai and Western Dooars areas can rely only on hydro-electric power.
The Government of West Bengal has recently given attention to the possibility of economic development of smaller river sites at Balason and Jaldhakar (see fig 4). The present load prospect is sufficient to justify these small river schemes.
Harnessing the other larger river like the Tista may not offer attractive or economic prospects, unless some large factories can be set up in the neighbourhood. However, for the control of the North Bengal floods, if any scheme of construction of dams is carried out, it migit be possible to utilize the head of water behind the dam or dams for power production, thus making the cost of power relatively economical.
The Jaldhaka river has its origin in several small mountain lakes on the borders of Sikkim and Bhutan at an elevation of about 4,600 m (14,000 ft). The reach of the Jaldhaka river between Bindu Khola and Naksal Khola appears to offer good possibilities for the development of hydro-electric power. This reach, in addition to containing a considerable head, offers relatively easy access to the site. Provision of ample storage, either immediately above the power plant or possibly further up on the Jaldhaka river, will make it possible to develop large mounts of firm power from the Jaldhaka and adjoining small rivers.
A scheme - 40 -
A scheme for developing the head in the upper part of this reach (180 to 240 m or 600 to 800 ft) was prepared by the Electricity Development Directorate in April 1947, with, a view to supplying power to the numerous tea-gardens in the Dooars, involving power-transmission over short distances. It was proposed to collect the waters of the Jaldhaka river near the point of entry of the Bindu Khola near the boundary of Bhutan, then convey them by a 16 cm. (6.25 in) diameter steel pipeline to a series of old river terraces known as Gourigong, then lead them to a surge chamber and forebay and thence by individual penstocks to each generating unit in the power-house at a place known as "Paren". On the basis of water measurements carried Out by the River Research Institute, West Bengal, a minimum flow of 5.7 m3/sec (200 cfs) can be assumed for design and by utilizing the drop from Bindu Khola to Biru Khola, could develop an amount of firm power of 7,250 to 10,400 kW at 100 per cent load factor or 11,700 to 16,900 kW at 600 per cent load factor depending on the lay-out chosen.
The energy generated in the Jaldhaka will be consumed more or less in the surrounding territory. The stage-wise development of the Jaldhaka and adjoining smaller rivers commensurate with prospective growth of load will probably not entail undue financial commitments.
In conclusion, it is most essential that integrated efforts should be made by all departments connected with the development of the rivers of West Bengal such as irrigation, power, flood control, navigation, etc., so that all-round development of the resources of the State may be achieved with maximum economy.
/PAKISTAN -41-
PAKISTAN Five-Year Irrigation Plan1/
The Five-Year Irrigation Plan of the Government of Pakistan to augment the water supply in both wings of Pakistan is estimated to cost Rs 345.6 million. This plan supplements a series of irrigation projects already in hand, which arc estimated to cost Rs 1,816,130,000 and on which Rs 600 million have already been spent. When developed to full capacity, these projects will help wipe out the country’s deficit in agricultural commodities and raise the standard of nutrition.
The new five-year plan includes the Teesta Barrage and the Ganges- Kobadak Projects of East Pakistan, the Abbasia Canal Project of West Pakistan, and a number of smaller projects for both wings.
The Teesta Barrage project will irrigate 440,000 ha (1,100,000 acres) in the northern districts including Rangpur, Dinajpur and Bogra. The estimated cost is Rs 99 million. While the main plan is being finalized, the Central Government has sanctioned Rs 1.5 million for inundation canals which will be merged into the main Teesta Project at a later stage.
The Ganges-Kobadak Project will irrigate 800,000 ha (2,000,000 acres) of land. Meanwhile, a pilot scheme, called the Ganges-Kobadak (phase I) has been sanctioned in Kushtia area at a cost of Rs 19.6 million. The Canadian Government is understood to have sanctioned $1,810,000 for the thermal station to supply energy for pumping from the Ganges to irrigate 80,000 ha (200,000 acres). The Foreign Operations Administration of the United States of America has also committed $1,956,000 for providing pumps and control structures for the canals.
The Abbasia Canal Project is expected to irrigate at least 20,000 ha (50,000 acres) at an estimated cost of Rs 44 million.
In addition, there are a number of what are called small projects (storage and flow) to cater for 60,000 ha (150,000 acres). The cost is estimated at Rs 30 million. ______/ Among the 1/ Abstracted from Dawn, Karachi, 21 March 1955. - 42 -
Among the projects in hand in the Frontier Province is the Rs 7 million Warsak high-level canal on which Rs 300,000 have to date been spent. This canal, when completed in 1958, will provide water for about 57,200 ha (95,000 acres) and generate 160,000 kW of electric energy besides providing navigation facilities.
The Kurram-Garhi multiple-purpose project, on completion, will provide water for 108,000 ha (270,000 acres) of old and new land and 4,000 kW of electric energy. The project comprises a concrete weir on the river Kurram west of Bannu, along with the construction of an earthen dam in the Baran Nullah, 840 m (2,800 ft) long and 36 m (120 ft) high. The original estimate as sanctioned by the Central Government was Rs 10 million but owing to the subsequent provision for the Baran reservoir and hydro-electric facilities, the estimated cost would be Rs 32.5 million.
One of the large projects in hand in the Punjab is the Taunsa Barrage, about 1.6 km (1 mile) in length across the Indus river. It will provide weir-controlled supplies to 284,000 ha (710,000 acres) including the area in the Muzaffargash and Dera Ghazikhan districts which is at present irrigated by an erratic supply through the existing inundation canals. It is also proposed to have a road-cum-rail bridge combined with the barrage. The railway link will connect Lera Din Panah on the Multau-Mari-Indus line to the proposed Shikarpur-Kashmore-Taunsa line. Vigorous attempts are being made to finish this barrage in record time and it is expected that the project will be completed by 1957-58. The total cost of this project is estimated at Rs 101.4 million.
In addition, two tube-well schemes, known as the Rasul and the Punjab Tube-Well Projects, have been sanctioned. Under the former, 1,350 tube-wells
of 0.056 m3/sec (2 cfs) capacity had been sunk by the end of September 1954 at an expenditure of Rs 24.4 million. Under the Punjab scheme, about 2,000 tube-wells are to be installed at an estimated cost of Rs 83.05 million. The main purpose of these tube-well schemes is to eliminate the waterlogging menace and provide supplemental water flow to help in leaching out the salt-ridden lands.
/A sizeable - 43 -
A sizeable portion of Baluchistan’s arid wasteland will be brought under cultivation when the Rs 3 million Nari-Bolan Project is completed. In order to tap all the monsoon flow of the river Bolan, it is proposed to construct an earthen dam where the river Bolan passes through a low range of hills about 24 km (15 mi) below the river’s entry into the Sibi plain. The dam will irrigate 9,600 ha (24,000 acres) of virgin land in addition to ensuring controlled supplies to the 4,000 ha (10,000 acres) which receive only erratic watering at present. Kotri Barrage1/
On 15 March was Inaugurated the great barrage on the Indus river at Kotri, Lower Sind, Pakistan. The 2,880 km (1,800 mi) long Indus rises amidst the snows of Tibet and for the first 800 km (500 mi) or so follows a north-westerly course through high mountain ranges until crossing the border of West Pakistan. After entering northern Kashmir, it flow between two of the world’s highest mountain ranges, the Karakorams on the north and the Himalayas on the south, before finally heading south-west to become the main artery and life-line of West Pakistan on its flow through the north-west frontier, Punjab and Sind into the Arabian Sea.
At Sukkar in Upper Sind stands the huge Sukkur Barrage, built in 1923, which, with its intricate system of canals and waterways, has transformed a former desert into one of the most important cotton-growing areas in Pakistan. In Lower Sind, however, once this river had left the command area of the Sukkur Barrage, it proceeded on a reckless course, unleashing floods, carrying away valuable silt into the sea and leaving devastation in its wake.
Preliminary work on the project at Kotri started in 1946 when excavation of the Kalri Baghar Feeder was taken in hand, Work on the barrage proper started in October 1949, and on 12 February 1950, the foundation-stone was laid.
______/Thi s is 1/ Abstracted from Eastern World, vol 9, No.5. May 1955, p. 44, and Malaya Mail, Kuala Lumpur, 26 March 1955. - 44 -
This is the biggest irrigation project in Pakistan since Independence. The barrage is 895.2 m (2,984 ft) long and consists of 44 bays each of a 18 m (60 ft) span. These bays are provided with gates 6.3 m (21 ft) deep which will retain water 6 m (20 ft) above the crest of the barrage. Running the entire length of the barrage is a 8.4 m (28 ft) road bridge with foot-paths on either side. In height the barrage towers some 25.2 m (84 ft) above its rock-bottom foundation. It is constructed of mass concrete faced with stone quarried from nearby Jungshahi. Above is the steel bridge-work from which the gates are operated. The maximum flood discharge for which the barrage is designed is 24,800 m3/sec (875,000 cfs).
Plans for the apportionment of land have made it quite clear that this project aims essentially at bettering the life of the small farmers. The barrage promises to command a total cultivable area of 1.1 million ha (2.75 million acres) in the Hyderabad, Thatta and. Dadu districts, of which 440,000 ha (1.1 million acres) are entirely virgin land. About one-third of the command area has been reserved for landless peasants. Some 120,000 ha (300,000 acres) will be allotted for the resettlement of ex-servicemen and their families; 29,200 ha (73,000 acres) are to be devoted to forests; the balance will be apportioned into small holdings.
In terms of production, the annual out-turn of crops from this region is expected to rise from 179,000 tons to 750,000 tons. The barrage will also help generate 15,000 kJ of electricity at Kotri and there will be smaller power stations on the main feeder canals.
Two other features of the barrage proper which are worth mentioning are the provision of a lock channel to facilitate the trans-shipment of river traffic, and the construction of two fish-ladders which will enable the valuable "palla" fish to reach the northern reaches of the river.
The Kotri Barrage is the second of three projects planned to bring the waters of the Indus to arid tracts in Sind and Baluchistan. The first one, the Lloyds Barrage at Sukkur, was completed in 1932. It converted 4 million ha (10 million acres) into wheat- , rice- and cotton-producing areas, Work on the third one - the Gudu Barrage in Upper Sind - began last year.
/Gudu Barrage - 45 -
Gudu Barrage1/
The preliminary work on the Gudu Barrage, Sind’s third big irrigation project, was started in 1954. The Upper Sind (Gudu) Barrage, which will ensure water supply to the Sind and Baluchistan areas north of Sukkur and Rohri, is expected to be completed in three years’ time.
Also envisaged is the construction of a barrage on tin Indus at the northern-most boundary of Sind, along with two main canals on the right bank and one main canal on the left bank with their branches and distributaries for irrigation of 917,964 ha (2,294,910 acres) of land north of the Sukkur Barrage. The existing irrigated area is only 379,960 ha (949,900 acres) and it suffers from the vagaries of the river.
The area which will be irrigated upon completion of the project is 857,836 ha (2,144,590 acres) including dubari2/ but excluding forest areas.
The cultivation on the tract in command of this barrage will be mostly food grains. The project will considerably help increase the yield of food grains. The canal system is expected to be developed simultaneously.
The work on the barrage has been speeded up and efforts have been made towards the building of two barrage towns, one at the barrage site and the other at Kashmore. After the construction of these towns, the work on the main barrage will be taken up. The construction of the feeder under the project started in 1953.
The Gudu Barrage, estimated to cost Rs 270 million, will be much bigger than the Lloyds Barrage at Sukkur and the Lower Sind Barrage at Kotri. It will have 88 piers while the former has 66 and the latter 44.
The barrage was originally planned to be constructed after the completion of the Lower Sind Barrage, but the matter acquired a new urgency on account of the heavier withdrawals upstream. The Indus river level is bound to fall during the next few years. This fall is likely to interfere with the normal ______/functioning of 1/ Abstracted from Dawn, Karachi, 13 February and 12 April 1955. See also Flood Control Journal (ST/ECAFE/SER. C/19), June 1954,p 4-6. 2/ A second crop grown on the irrigated land of the first crop, without further watering. - 46 -
functioning of the Upper Sind inundation canals. The Sind Government therefore decided to proceed with the Gudu Barrage project in 1953-54. It earmarked a sum of Rs 525,000 for the project during the year 1954/55 and a sum of Rs 484,000 has been set apart for it during 1955/56.
The main feeders and the barrage are to be completed in three years’ time and the entire programme for improving the canal system will take six years. Four irrigation projects sanctioned for Baluchistan States Union1/
The Central Government of Pakistan has sanctioned four irrigation projects which on completion would bring under cultivation 110,000 ha (275,000 acres) of land in the Baluchistan States Union.
Among the projects approved fay the Central Government are the Nari- Bolan Project, Bolan Dam and a network of canals from the Gudu Barrage.
The Nari-Bolan irrigation project, work on which has already begun, will irrigate 13,600 ha (34,000 acres) after completion of the first phase. Out of this, 4,000 ha (10,000 acres) have already been brought under crop. The second phase of the plan promises a regular water supply for a total area of 64,400 ha (161,000 acres).
The second plan envisages the construction of a dam across the Bolan river for the irrigation of 18,000 ha (45,000 acres). The dam will be 330 m (1,000 ft) long and 22.5 m (75 ft) high. Besides irrigation, the dam will also check frequent floods in the low-lying districts of the provinces, and be ussed for power-generation.
The third project will lead to the irrigation of 18,000 ha (45,000 acres) after completion of Gudu Barrage. Canals will be dug and diverted to the desert of Baluchistan States Union.
All these projects are expected to cost a total sum of Rs 7.18 million.
/Land-reclamation
1/ Abstracted from Dawn, Karachi, 17 April 1955. - 47 -
Land-reclamation in East Pakistan1/
The government is proceeding with, the scheme of excavating a channel from the beel2/ Gandahasti to the river Padma near Satbaria under Fujanagar Police Station in Pabna district. This beel spreads over a vast area of about 104 km2 (40 sq mi) of waste and marshy land, surrounded on the west and south by the high bank of the Padma, and on the east and north by the dead rivers Atrai and Ichamati respectively.
The entire area to be reclaimed covers several other beds, namely Vog, Pati, Dighal, Baisa, Maishakhali and since the land in that area cannot be cultivated for any useful purposes, the local people have since long been demanding its reclamation.
Upon excavation of the proposed channel to let out the excess water, and with necessary regulators, the entire area is expected to yield an estimated annual output of about 16,000 tons of food grains valued at Rs 2 million.
East Pakistan hydrological data3/
The Central Government has approved the continuance for another five years of the East Pakistan scheme for the collection of hydrological data on the principal rivers in East Pakistan.
Under the scheme, data are collected for planning irrigation schemes on a sound basis in East Pakistan. The scheme has already run for five years.
/Earth-moving school
1/ Abstracted from Dawn, Karachi, 24 January 1955. 2/ Low land 3/Abstracted from Dawn, Karachi, 14 March 1955. 48- -
Earth-moving school set up in Hyderabad (Slnd)1/
An earth-moving school has been set up near Hyderabad by the Government of Pakistan with the assistance of the International Labour Organisation. The ultimate purpose of the school is the conversion of thousands of acres of desert into arable land.
The school has already begun training students in the handling of heavy earth-moving equipment, such as bulldozers and giant excavators. After three months' theoretical and practical training in the school, students are sent for another three months of training at the work sites. Promising students are then picked up for a further six months' training.
MACHINERY USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF RIVER-VALLEY PROJECTS IN INDIA2/
An expert committee appointed by the Government of India to investigate the economic and efficient operation and maintenance of the plant and machinery used in the construction work of river-valley projects in the country said in its report; "The availability factor of equipment for works on the projects visited by us is an average of 58 per cent. The projects not visited by us may have, we think, even a worse situation".
The committee recommended the setting up of a Machinery and Spare Paris Directorate to keep a record of the equipment in use on projects, watch their release and plan their future utilization.
Substantial improvement in regard to the "health" and efficiency of plant and machinery, and supply of spare parts at practically all major irrigation and power projects in India, resulted from the implementation of the committee's recommendation. ______/After the report 1/ Abstracted from Dawn, Karachi, dated 27 May 1955. 2/Abstracted from The Times of India, Delhi, 12 and 17 May 1955. - 49 -
After the report of the Committee was submitted in February 1954, the Central Water and Power Commission took steps to set up a directorate to collect and. correlate data about the major equipment, their release and future utilization.
The directorate co-ordinates the availability of surplus spares on the projects and arranges for the transfer of surplus stores from one project to another. At the instance of this directorate engineers on various projects are already preparing lists of equipment and stores rendered surplus or expected to be surplus in the near future.
With regard to the health of machinery, the Hirakud Project, for instance, now has a separate field organization for daily maintenance and weekly servicing of equipment and machinery. The organization attends also to heavy repairs in the field of all hauling units and basic machinery. This has resulted in better performance and efficiency of all machinery. Another improvement is the introduction of kerb-side pumps to refuel the machinery with high-speed diesel oil, at a number of places in the field camps. This has made it possible to avoid manual handling. Pricing of all stock items has been done and a complete list of surplus stores has been prepared. There are 20,000 items of surplus stores valued at approximately Rs 10 million. Their book value is being worked out.
Similarly at Bhakra Nangal, the average number of working hours of machinery has gone up by over 50 per cent between May 1954 and January 1955. The reduction in "sickness" and break-down during the same period is about 47 per cent, Adequate stores and ample spares for the machinery in use are available. Most of the construction plant required for the dam has arrived and is being installed.
Difficulties which are being encountered by the Damodar Valley Corporation at Maithon and Panchet Hill in regard to operation of machinery to full capacity and delay in receipt of spares arc being resolved on a priority basis so that the target dates for completion arc not affected. Stops are also being taken to improve generally the position with regard to the health of the machinery. /For the purpose - 50 -
For the purpose of removing bottlenecks in the supply of machinery and spares, a department al standing commit toe of senior officers has been set up to review periodically the position of indents and supplies.
Two centres - one at Kotah and another at Hirakud - will start functioning shortly for training of operators and maintenance staff. The opening of two more centres - at Bhakra and Tungabhadra - is wider consideration,
The government has also set up a standing committee, consisting of representatives of all the major projects and of the Ministry of Finance and the Directorate-General of Supplies and Disposals, to make recommendations to the government with regard to standardization of machinery. This committee has to ensure that monopolistic tendencies or other adverse results of the proposed standardization are avoided.
The Rates and Costs Committee was asked to make a preliminary report on the establishment of cost-accounting units on the various projects, and in accordance with its recommendation, instructions have already been issued for the establishment of cost-accounting cells at the major projects REDUCING EVAPORATION FROM WATER STORAGE IN AUSTRALIA1/
In 1940 the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of the Government of Australia supported the late Dr 3. Heymann of the University of Melbourne in his attempts to use thick oil-films to prevent water evaporation. His experiments proved successful in the laboratory but the method failed in the field, even on a small scale. Early in 1953 the Division of Industrial Chemistry of the Council commenced work on films only one molecule in thickness. Although such films are loss effective than thick oil-films in preventing evaporation, they are much more stable. One chemical tested - cetylalcohol - shows considerable premise. Under ideal laboratory conditions it reduces evaporation by 80 per cent, ______/Small-scale
1/ Abstracted from Commonwealth Engineer, 1 April 1955, p. 346. - 51 -
Small-scale out-of-door tests using cetylalcohol films have now boon in progress in Victoria for about 18 months. The results show an average reduction in evaporation of 50 per cent. A larger-scale test was conducted last summer on a town reservoir at Woomelang, Victoria; 8,094 m2 (2 acres) of water were treated, end, although the results wore complicated by seepage, it seems likely that evaporation was reduced by 30 per cent. Further large-scale tests were to be made during the 1955 summer. In Victoria 19 sites have been chosen, ranging from 4,047 to 242,820 m2 (1 to 60 acres) in area; in New South Wales six sites ranging up to 1.4 m2 (350 acres) in area; and in Queensland seven sites all of aoutb 2,044 m2 (0.5 acre). One site is already under test in Western Australia.
Until these tests have been completed it is not possible to make practical recommendations for using this technique. It seems that about 112 kg/km2 (1 lb/ac) of cetylalcohol will be required and that this treatment may last several years. Cost may be about 0.02 penny per m3 (0.1 penny per
1,000 gallons) of water saved. Cetylalcohol now comes mostly from sperm oil from whales and total production is relatively small. However, synthetic material can readily be produced.
WEED CONTROL IN IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE CHANNELS IN ALGERIA1/
Maintenance of irrigation and drainage channels, with special reference to weed control, was among the questions discussed at the second congress on irrigation and drainage, held by the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage at Algiers, Algeria, in April 1954.
It is evident that local conditions are a very big factor in the methods of weed control used in different countries. In a number of countries it is necessary that water in canals should remain potable for stock, and in Egypt for human consumption, restricting chemical methods.
/Chemical methods
1/ Abstracted from Commonwealth Engineer, 1 April 1955, p. 355. - 52 -
Chemical methods have been successful in Australia and the United States of America. It was suggested that more detailed botanical studies should be made into the life conditions of weeds and the effects of chemicals and other agents. The effect of shade on restriction of weed growth was mentioned.
Hand and mechanical methods are the most common control methods in use, the economics of labour being a determining factor in the choice between these two. These methods are not considered entirely satisfactory and further development in mechanical equipment particularly for cleaning small ditches, is required. Another factor in the design of equipment is whether it is necessary to remove silt as well as weeds.
In Great Britain the weed launch has been found best for rivers and large drainage canals, but hand labour was best for small ditches. Chemical methods were not successful, partly because of pollution restrictions and partly it was though, because of the more temperate climate. Hormones (phenoxyacetic acid) have been tried on emergent weeds by spraying, particularly phragmites communis, and aromatic solvents has been injected for submerged woods, but neither was very effective. In the latter case a difficulty was that the water was stagnant.
In the Sudan the greatest number of methods have been used, including wed-eatinge fish, which have proved disappointing. The launch and heavy chain have bear found the most effective, Toxic chemicals cannot be used, as the water must remain potable.
Chemicals tried were methoxone, aromatic solvents and copper sulphate, Methoxone applied at a rate of 10-20 parts per million acid equivalent was reasonably effective except against globalaris. There were no kills, but growth was retarded. Aromatic solvents at 300 parts per million were not very satisfactory.
/The best - 53 -
The best results were obtained, with copper sulphate. A continuous dose of 2 parts per million was pumped into the heads of the canals and found effective over 75 per cent of the length. Growth usually begins in November and is at its maximum in February and March. At the beginning of February 1954, the dosage was stopped and there was little re-growth after two months. As costs are high; experiments will now be made to find out whether a smaller dose will be effective. Mechanical and hand methods are the cheapest, at £15/10/ = per km (£25 per mile), the hormone treatment at intervals costing three tines as much and the continuous copper-sulphate treatment 11 times as much.
Experiments were also carried out in the Sudan to try and measure the degree of infestation in the early stages of growth to indicate when treatment was necessary. As weeds increase the value of "n" in Manning’s formula, it was thought possible to express the degree, of growth by ratios of "n", but attempts have been unsuccessful so far. It had been noted that weeds seldom grew in water depths of over 3.6 m (12 ft).
Copper sulphate has also been used in the south of France in rice areas and has been found effective with a dosage of 396 kg/km2 (3.5 lb/acre) applied by means of crystals at the openings to the rice fields. It gave a selective action on algaes and mosses, killing in 24 hours.
It has been found that 2, 4-D control is ineffective against phragmites, but good for bull rushes. The dosage used is 1.5 kg in 1.6 m3 (3.3 lb in 350 gallons) of water and 3.5 m3 (800 gallons) of solution are used to spray 4,047 m2 (1 acre). PROBLEMS OF FLOOD CONTROL1/
Opinions differ on the best measures to control or reduce the intensity of floods, which makes it difficult to proceed with the work even when schemes are ready and funds are available. Identical examples are quoted by the advocates of opposite theories to support contrary arguments. Some will say that embankments such as those on the Mahanadi in India and the ______/Yellow River 1/ Abstracted from Mithal, M.D.: "Problems of Flood Control", Bhagirath, New Delhi, March 1955, pp. 326-328 - 54 -
Yellow River in China are the solution, while their opponents claim that they give a false sense of security. There is a similar controversy about the efficacy of artificial reservoirs for short- and long-term storage, about soil conservation measures, spurs, revetments, silting up of river beds, etc.
It has been suggested to blow up sand banks with depth charges in order to divert the flow. A newspaper has even published a suggestion to cut a deep river section by using atomic energy, and then line it.
It will thus be necessary to clarify the ideas even on the fundamentals of flood control.
The rivers carry silt all the time, and more so during floods. Part of this silt builds up the alluvial plains and the balance washes down to the sea, extending the delta at the seaboard. Left to itself the river changes its course, in an attempt to find its own level, and runs down to areas on either side until these parts rise up in their turn through silting.
Some content that a river, if confined within artificial embankments, will cease to silt up and to raise its bed and water levels, while others oppose this view. According to geology the sea used to wash the feet of the Himalayas at one time. But through eons it has been gradually, by built- up land, pushed south of what is now Calcutta (India) in the east and Karachi (Pakistan) in the west. Thus Chatra (Nepal), where the Kosi river emerges from the Himalayas, is about 102 in (340 ft) above sea level. Similarly the level of the Brahmaputra at Dibrugarh (India) is 102 in (340 ft); that of the Yamuna at Tajewala (India) in the Himalayan foothills is 25.5 in (850 ft).
The nearest analogy to a river is a canal. A canal has (a) a defined cross-section, (b) embankments with sufficient height above water level to prevent overflow, (c) more regular and uniform water supply than a river and (d) artificial devices to exclude silt at its head as well as to eject it from its channel. And yet even canals, apart from silting up themselves, raise the level of the area irrigated, though imperceptibly. Embanked rivers, which do not enjoy the advantages of canals, may, therefore, be expected to silt up their beds at a somewhat greater rate than a canal or than a river before it is embanked. /Well-designed - 55 -
Well-designed protective embankments, on the other hand, are built quite a distance away from the river channel. They are brought into use only during the period of floods. At such times most of the silt is carried to the sea-board and to the sea. Of the balance of the silt, the major portion is deposited at the river edge and a smaller portion on land further away and consequently near the embankments. A fraction remains suspended. The existence or absence of embankments should, therefore, have little effect on the rate of rise of bed levels of the river channels.
The tendency of a river to silt up its bed and then to break through into low-lying neighbouring land cannot be stopped completely. It may, however, be possible to bring it within safe limits by adopting measures which reduce the difference in rising between those river sections which are confined within embankments and those which are not. One such measure would be to silt up adjoining land in a planned and regulated way instead of letting it be raised erratically by an unbridled waterway.
The flood-retention basins recently devised in China can serve this purpose. Such basins are filled up with silt-laden excess waters which are released when the crisis is over. The basins retain part of the silt and thus silt up in the course of time. Because of the shallow depths of such basins, they have to cover very large areas and the silting takes place at an accelerated rate. If the area of the basins is compared to the over-all area normally flooded, there is perhaps not much difference. But the retention basins can concentrate the trouble on to one single large area instead of letting it spread to small areas dotted all over the valley. The life of such basins is not likely to be long; they should be set up only in places where the land is comparatively valueless and sparsely populated.
Some feel that there is a fundamental difference between a storage reservoir and a retention reservoir. The major differences between the two are their situation and the period over which, and the purposes for which, the water is retained in them. A dam is generally constructed in a gorge, where the river section is narrow and deep and where the waters stored behind it are utilized for irrigation, power-generation or flood-moderation or any combination of these. In the case of retention reservoirs, the water /is retained - 56 -
is retained generally for short periods and let out as soon as the discharge in the river has gone down to safe limits. Where no water is needed either for power or for irrigation, a dam also can lend itself to similar treatment. In the case of a small retention reservoir the rate of silt deposit may not be different from that in a storage reservoir, as any reduction due to the shorter period over which the water is retained may be more or less counter balanced by lesser velocities in the latter than in the former.
From the point of view of flood control, therefore, there is no real difference between a storage and a retention dam and the economics of the two alternatives should decide which one is to be adopted in any particular area,
A great deal of faith is rightly placed in soil-conservation measures within catchment areas above flood-control dams, and more so where the catchment area is mountainous or hilly. This solution raises the question whether it is possible to afforest snow-clad hills or whether it would be economically possible to let the forest wealth go untapped from generation to generation, or to ban grazing at the expense of cattle wealth. In any case, soil-conservâtion should not be relied upon as the only flood-control measure.
In India, the cost of contour-bunding even in flat areas like Sholapur is aoutb Rs 150 per hectare (Rs 60 per acre). It will be much higher where hill-sides have steep slopes. Assuming a rate of Rs 250 per hectare (Rs 100 per acre) the cost of contour-bunding the Kosi catchment of about 64,775 km2 (25,000 sq mi), even if it were possible to do so, would be Rs 1,600 million. The figure would perhaps be ten times as high for treating only the Himalayan rivers. Nothing can or need be done in a large part of the catchment of the Kosi which is under glaciers. Soil-conservation measures would be confined to the cultivable and forest areas. Here cultivation is practised over a small proportion of the area with vegetable cover, the hill sides being too steep.
The geological crumbling of rocks is augmented by growth of trees, along the roots of which rain water travels to greater depths into the rocks. When earthquakes occur, mighty trees - roots and all - crash along with crumbled rocks. The soil cover and the hill sides crack up and fall, and the detritus and humus are flooded down to the plains during the monsoons.
/EQUIPMENT AND - 57 -
EQUIPMENT PROGRAMME OF HYDRAULIC LABORATORIES IN 1954
In a special issue of Flood Control Journal (ST/ECAFE/SER.C/9, November 1951) particulars were published of research, facilities and the 1950 programme of work of hydraulic laboratories in the various countries of the ECAFE region, as well as in Australia and New Zealand. Information for the year 1951 was given in the October 1953 issue (ST/ECAFE/SER.C/12) , that for 1952 in the September and December 1953 issues (ST/ECAFE/SER.C/16 and 17) and that for 1953 in the September and December 1954 issues (ST/ECAFE/SER.C/20 and 21).
Particulars for 1954 are given hereinafter, with special mention of equipment added during the year and details of work: programmes.
AUSTRALIA
Hydraulic Research Station, State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, Werribee, Victoria
2. Director - S.R. Carr; Number of technical staff - 2
5. Programme of work
Continuing projects
A. Dethridge Meter Wheels
(1) Research project. Full size.
(2) Programme of investigation
The fundamental principles of operation are being investigated in an effort to obtain a constant discharge per revolution at all rates of flow and under normal conditions of varying head and tail water levels.
B. Mildura Weir Model
(1) Research and practiced model. Scale H and V - 1:12.
(2) Programme of investigation
To determine the best method for clearing sand from sill of a moveable weir across the Murray Weir, /(3) Important results - 58 -
(3) Important results obtained
Qualitatively, the best locations and angles for high-velocity water jets were found and the similarity criterion determined.
(4) Completed in 1954.
(5) Internal memo.
C. Channel structures (Scour)
(1) Practical study. Scale H and V - 1:4.
(2) Programme of investigation
To develop standard designs for channel structures to operate without any downstream scour.
(3) Important results obtained
Designs for checks and drops have been completed and a pre-cast buried-pipe off-take is at present under test.
(4) Commenced 1953. Completion date indefinite.
(5) Internal.
New projects
D.nelChan structures (head loss)
(1) Practical model study. Scales ranging from 1:4 to 1:12.
(2) Programme of investigation
To reduce head losses through bridges, culverts and siphons.
(3) Important results obtained
The greatest loss of head occurred at the outlet end and the following gave the least loss consistent with economy: Wingwall splay 1:5. Slope of floor of outlet 1:3.
(4) Commenced May 1954. Completed August 1954.
(5) Internal.
/E. Tarago Weir - 59 -
E. Tarago Weir
(1) Practical model study. Scale 1:16.
(2) Programme of investigations
To check the design of the weir on erodible foundations.
(3) Important results obtained
A satisfactory design was developed.
(4) Commenced August 1954. Completed October 1954.
(5) Internal.
F. Goulburn - Warranga Channel
Measuring weir and control structure
(1) Practical model study. Scale 1:12.
(2) Programme of investigations
To check the safety of the weir on erodible foundations and to determine whether a large rock outcrop exposed during site excavation required removal.
(3) Important results obtained
The original design proved satisfactory but the rock had to be removed.
(4) Commenced November 1954. Completed December 1954.
(5) Internal memo.
G. Rodney Main Channel check and drop structures
(1) Practical model study. Scale 1:12.
(2) Programme of investigations
To determine head losses through the structures and check downstream erosion if any.
/(3) Important results - 60 -
(3) Important results obtained with a downstream channel depth of 1.8 in (6 ft). It was found that up to 0.9 in (3 ft) of drop bars could be inserted in the check structure without causing appreciable loss. In practice the difficulty of manually removing bars at greater depths than 0.9 in (3 ft) makes this result desirable.
(4) Commenced January 1955. Completed April 1955.
(5) Internal memo.
H. Constant head orifice turn-out
(1) (1) Practical study.
(2) Programme of investigations
To check the characteristics of US Bureau of Reclamation Design Turn-out.
I. "Byham" Automatic Weir Discharge Regulator
(1) Experimental.
(2) Programme of investigation
To investigate the characteristics of a recorder devised by H. Byham.
The recorder, which measures the total quantity of water passing over a weir on a revolution counter and indicates the instantaneous flow rate , is worked by water power. No clockwork mechanism is required and no charts are used.
(3) Important results obtained
The recorder gives accurate results over a discharge range of 8 to 1 and works satisfactorily wherever there is a 15.24 cm (6 in) drop of head between crest of weir and downstream water level,
(4) Laboratory tests completed. Field installation is to be carried out.
(5) Internal memo.
/ Water Conservation - 61 -
Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Hydraulic Laboratory, King Street, Manly Vale, New South Wales
5. Programme of work
New project
A. Burringuck Dam Right Spillway
(1) Practical model study. Scales H and V - 1:48.
(2) Programme of investigations
Flow conditions generally. Existing penstock protection. Existing training wall stability.
(3) No conclusive results have yet been obtained.
(4) Commenced 10 January 1955- Completed 30 April 1955.
(5) Departmental report, June 1955, in English.
Public Works Department, Hydraulic Laboratory, Manly Vale, New South Wales
2. Director - Department of Public Works. Number of technical staff - 5.
3- Available space and discharge
Indoor 42 in x 18 in Q - 0.1 m3/sec H - 18 in gravity (140 ft x 60 ft) (3 cfs) (60 ft)
Outdoor 1,347 m2 Not yet equipped (14,500 sq ft)
/4. Essential equipment - 62 -
4. Essential equipment
A. Experimental flumes
Two - rendered, brick with glass inspection panels.
E. Measurement of forces
One capacitance pressure gauge + 0.035 kg/cm2 (½ Ib/sq in)
5. Programme of work
Continuing projects
A. Port Sembla Harbour Model
(1) Practical model study. There are two models: the first for the investigations in the outer harbour is to an undistorted scale of 1:100 and the second, in which is modelled the proposed inner harbour, has scales H - 1:400, V - 1:100.
(2) Programme of investigations
To investigate means of reducing range action in both the outer harbour and the proposed inner harbour.
(3) Important results obtained
Prototype studies have been completed and ocean wave lengths, periods, heights and directions determined.
(4) Work commenced November 1950. Date of completion uncertain.
B. Hume Reservoir Sectional Model
C. Campbell’s River Dam Spillway
D. Hume Reservoir Comprehensive Model
E. Adaminaby Diversion Tunnel Outlet Model
/(1) Practical study. - 63 -
(1) Practical study. Scale H and V - 1:50.
(2) Programme of investigations
To determine the scour to be expected at the tunnel exit for floods between 184 m3/sec (7,000 cfs) and 395 m/sec3 (15,000 cfs) discharging:
(a) Directly into the river during the construction period
(b) With 1, 2 and 3 bays of the proposed energy dissipation installed.
(3) Important result obtained
Satisfactory outlet design.
(4) Work commenced December 1953. Completed March 1955.
F. Flume investigations of wave filters
G. Hunter River Investigation of siltation
New projects
H. Adaminaby Dam Wave Run-up (1) Practical model study. (2) Programme of investigations (a) To determine the maximum run-up on the upstream slope of Adminaby Dam
(b) To determine, over a range of wave heights and periods, the wave run-up on various surface materials at different slopes.
(3) Experimental work has just commenced and no results have yet been obtained.
I. Oberon Dam Spillway Model
(1) Practical model study. Scale 1:50.
(2) Programme of investigations
To design a satisfactory energy dissipator.
(3) Important results obtained
A suitable ski-jump spillway has been developed.
/(4) Work commenced - 64 -
(4) Work commenced. May 1954. Completed April 1955.
(5) Comprehensive report not yet completed.
J. Hunter River Flood-Mitigation Model
(1) Practical model study.
(2) Programme of investigation
To study flood-mitigation proposals for the Hunter Valley.
Robin Hydraulic Laboratory, The University of Adelaide. Adelaide, South Australia
2. Director - Professor F.B. Bull. Staff 3.
3. Available space and discharge
Out door 511 m2 Q - 0.4 m3/sec H - 30 - 3.6 m (5,500 sq ft) (15 cfs) (10 - 12 ft)
4. Essential equipment • •••• • • • • •••••
D. Discharge measurement
2 calibrated bends capacity up to 0.057 m3/sec (2 cfs)
5. Programme of work
Continuing projects
A. Spillway investigation for dam on Myponga Creek
(1) Practical model study. Scale H and V - 1:48.
(2) Programme of investigations
To determine the behaviour of several proposed spillway forms and their effect.
(3) Important results obtained
Model suitably modified and satisfactory spillway flow condition obtained. The pool to receive the jet has now been studied and a satisfactory baffle wall and weir arrangement fixed.
/(4) Study completed. - 65 -
(4) Study completed.
(5) Departmental report
Engineer-in-Chief, Engineering and. Water Supply Department, Victoria Square, Adelaide, South Australia.
B. Wave research project
(1) Research project. Full-scale study.
(2) Programme of investigations
To investigate wave generation, breaking criteria and later wave pressure on breaking. Further instrumentation work has been done and will be completed in 1955. A full-scale study of solitary-wave phenomena from passing vessels will be continued in the tank.
(3) Solitary-wave studies have yielded a simple theoretical explanation of the phenomena.
C. Wind loading on structures
(1) Model studies. Full scale.
(2) Programme of investigations
To investigate model prototype testing conditions.
D. Water hammer
(1) Research project.
(2) Programme of investigations
Theoretical investigations of shock-wave dissipation affecting water hammer. Pipe-line and valve-closing arrangements erected and preliminary runs made with equipment. Modifications being made and further instruments being prepared.
/New projects - 66 -
New projects
E. Pt. Augusta condensate cooling water study
(1) Practical model study. Scale H and V - 1:50.
(2) Programme of investigations
To establish optimum location of flow cut-off walls between inlet and outlet ducting of condensate cooling water.
Model nearing completion.
Special controls developed for tides and for tidal currents in the model.
(4) Commenced January 1955. Completion expected December 1955 (first plan).
/CEYLON - 67 -
CEYLON
Irrigation Research Laboratories 11, Jawatte Road, Colombo 5 • • • • • • • • • • • • •
4. Essential equipment
C. Velocity measurement
2 current meters
F. Silt
2 silt samplers
5. Programme of work
Continuing projects
A. KaluGanga Flood Protection Scheme • •••• • • • • • •• • •
(3) Important results obtained
Field surveys (after completion of model tests) completed. Designs being prepared.
(4) Commenced 1948. Designs will be completed in 1955.
(5) Interior report in English.
B. Spillway for Katupotha Tank, North-Western Province
(1) Practical model study. Scale H and V - 1:30.
(2) Programme of investigations
To evolve anti-scour measures below spillways.
(3) Important results obtained
Model test completed. Field construction in progress.
/(4) Commenced December - 68 -
(4) Commenced. December 1953. Completed 1954.
(5) Report available in English.
C. Protection of Getambe Area, near Kandy, from flood.
• •••• • • • • • • •
(3) Comparison tests on proposed, twin tunnels completed.
Original location found more suitable.
(4) Started January 1951. Completed 1954.
(5) Report available in English.
D. Kirindi Oya, Eastern Province, silt-exclusion in channels
(3) Data for field collected, analysed, model tests completed.
Recommendations made.
(4) Started May 1952. Completed 1954.
(5) Report available in English,
E. Kalu Ganga Estuary Model
(3) Adjustment of model complete. Tests in progress.
(4) Commenced February 1953.
(5) Annual report of Station in English.
F. Elahera Channel Augmentation (headworks and channel), North-Western Province
(3) Tests completed. Slight modification recommended.
(4) Commenced December 1953. Completed 1954.
(5) Report available in English.
/G. Study of - 69 -
G. Study of channel performances
(3) Collection of data being continued.
(4) Started December 1951.
(5) Annual report of Station in English.
H. Beach-erosion study at Negambo, Western Province
(3) A series of jetties recommended. Model tests may have to be carried out to test performances of the same.
(4) Started October 1951.
(5) Report available in English.
I. Goiyapana Outlet, Southern Province
(3) Study concluded. A system of jetties recommended to keep the outlet open and also prevent erosion.
(4) Commenced July 1953.
(5) Report available in English.
New projects
J. Parakrama Samudra Scheme
(1) Practical model study. Scale H - 1:10, V - 1:5.
(2) To evolve suitable silt-excluding device.
(3) Model tests on vortex type of silt ejector completed.
(4) Commenced January 1954.
(5) Report under preparation.
/K. Kelani Ganga - 70 -
K. Kelani Ganga Scour Model
(1) Practical model study. Scale H - 1:100; V - 1:50.
(2) To determine cause of scour on right bank of the river and to devise measures 'bo prevent the same.
(3) Model completed. Three parallel groynes tested -worked well with surface currents, but direction of bed current was still damaging the bed. Tests being continued.
(4) Commenced January 1954.
(5) Report available in English.
/CHINA: TAIWAN - 71 -
CHINA ; TAIWAN
Taipei Hydraulic Laboratory, National Taiwan University, Taipei
4. Essential equipment
B. Water level measurement
25 point gauges 25 hook gauges 1 Steven's electric contact gauge.
C. Velocity measurement
6 Pilot tubes 1 Steven's Fotocel Register.
D. Discharge measurement 2 Venturimeters 0.028 m3/sec (1 cfs) 2 Propeloflo meters 0.57 m3/sec (2 cfs).
H. Other equipment
2 soil shear test machines
1 hydraulic ram.
5. Programme of work
New project
A. Model study on the gravity spillway of Shihmen Reservoir Project
(1) Model study. Scales H and V - 1:30.
(2) Programme of investigations
To investigate the adequacy of the proposed gravity spillway and to select either a horizontal-apron or bucket- type basin to dissipate energy below the spillway.
/(A) Commenced - 72 -
(4) Commenced December 1954. Completed June 1955.
(5) Publication of report, July 1955^ Taiwan, China (English).
6. List of important publications
1. Mao, S.P.: Model study on the spillway of Gen-Sun-Bay Reservoir (Taiwan, March 1953)
2. Mao, S.P.: Soil and water conservation (Taiwan, June 1954)
3. Mao, S.P.: Model study on the gravity spillway of the Shihmen Reservoir Project (Taiwan, July 1955) .
/ INDIA - 73 -
INDIA
Central Water and Power Research Station 20 Bombay-Poona Road, Poona 3
3. Available space Indoor 929 m2 (10,000 sq ft)
Outdoor 0.6 km2 (150 acres)
4. Essential equipment A. Experimental flumes 1 R.C. flume 45 in (150 ft) long, glass-panelled for high-head studies
1 masonry flume 120 in (400 ft) long, glass-panelled for wave studies
H. Other equipment Interferometer - Dr Favre's design Electronic photometer Mechanical vibrator of variable speed and force Triaxial shear (Vicksberg type) with pore pressure and volume change attachment.
5. Programme of work
The following problems were handled during 1954: (1) Improved method of recording waves in models. (2) Improving the suitability of saw-dust for use in hydraulic models. (3) Training of the Luni river at the railway bridge (Rajasthan).
/(4) Distribution - 74 -
(4) Distribution of the water in the Bhadar river (Gujarat). (5) Deflecting spur upstream of railway bridge near Mehmadabad on Watrak (Gujarat). (6) Vaitarna Dam spillway (Bombay). (7) Kakrapar weir on the Tapi river - behaviour in floods of 1954. (8) 5 in (10 ft) fall in Mini river (Baroda). (9) Experiments with Kosi models No. 1 and 2. (10) Brahmaputra river at Dibrugarh. (11) Model experiments on Mahanadi System below Naraj for flood control (Orissa). (12) Sabarmati river at Fatehwadi Canal off-take near Ahmedabad (Gujarat). (13) Mohor river at Kathial village ( Gujarat). (14) Geophysical investigations carried out in 1954 at different dam and weir sites. (15) Photoelastic studies of Hirakud Dam spillway section (Bihar). (16) Photoelastic studies of Bhakra Dam river outlets (Punjab) (17) Analysis of the minimum section between the sluice gate operation gallery and the downstream face of the Hirakud Dam. (18) Vaitarna-cum-Tansa Scheme (Bombay). Testing spillway and the bucket design in a composite model of Vaitarna Dam Spillway. (19) Jawai Dam Project Testing divide walls and protecting measures at the toe of the spillway. (20) Gandhisagar Dam Project Testing design of sluices and spillway with ski-jump buckets.
/(21) Gandhisagar - 75 -
(21) Gandhisagar Dam Project Testing the anti-scour protective measures and design of training walls and divide walls. (22) Umtru Hydro-Electric Project Testing the design of spillway and downstream protective works. (23) Kotah Barrage Project Testing discharging capacity of the barrage and downstream protective works. (24) Gambheri Irrigation Project Determination of afflux caused on Kadmali river. (25) Model tests regarding the proposed Hanumannagar Barrage on the Kosi river. (26) Foundation studies of rock - Koyna Dam (Bombay). (27) Studies on wave velocity in concrete. (28) Comparison of elasticities obtained by various methods. (29) Effects of various types of face masonry on discharge and cavitation. (30) Prototype experiments on volute siphons at Hirebhasgar Dam (Mysore). (31) Air-entrainment studies in high-velocity flow. (32) Vibration studies of volute siphons at Hirebhasgar group working of siphons 1, 4 and 6 (August 1954) (33) Gangapur Dam Project Testing the gate lip forms for the Left-Bank Canal Outlet. (34) Irrigation outlet in Left Dyke Gap No. 2 Hirakud Dam Project - Testing design of outlet and protective works. - 76 -
(35) Irrigation outlet in Left Dyke Gap No. 4, Hirakud Dam Project Testing design of outlet and protective works. (36) Canal falls on Damodar Valley Project. (37) Experimental stress analysis of 18 in (60 ft) filled spandrel arch for roads. (38) Growth of rain-gauging stations in Indian States. (39) Run-off of the Tapi catchment at Rathore. (40) More catchments data subscribe to Khosla's Rational Concept with the exponential arrangement. (41) Minerological composition of Indian soils in relation to their engineering characteristics. (42) Changes in some of the physical properties of black cotton soil effected by ionic substitution. (43) Study of base exchange reactions with special reference to aluminium, sodium (a) Exchangeable aluminium
(b) Exchangeable sodium and calcium. (44) Effect of removal of iron oxide on dispersion of soil. (45) Soil aggregation - effect of soil conditioner krillium. (46) Shrinkage characteristics of soils. (47) Effect of heating at various temperatures on mechanical composition and Atterberg's Limits of soils. (48) Variation of shear strength with moisture and density. (49) Membrane foundations on black cotton soil. (50) Electrical drainage ox soils. (51) Consolidation characteristics of soils. (52) Ukai Dam investigations. (53) Kosi Project investigations. (54) Suitability of foundations for the Aroor Bridge. (55) Foundation studies for the Ernakulam two-berth scheme.
/(56) -77 -
(56) Foundation characteristics of wet dock in Madras Harbour. (57) Prevention of weathering of stones used in the construction of Somnath Temple in Saurashtra. (58) Physico-chemical properties of typical black cotton soils and red soils of Kakrapar region. (59) Some physico-chemical characteristics of alkali soils of Surat District (Bombay). (60) Experiments with partial recession of the Fulta Point in Hooghly Estuary model. (61) Improving Hastings Bar reach in Hooghly (1/300 : 1/60 Hooghly Port Model). (62) Study of the influence of the existing approach jetty of K.G. docks on flow conditions and improvement of manoeuvring facilities at K.G. dock entrance - Port model of the Hooghly . (63) Analysis of the data of Rupnarain bed sand samples and the curvature of the Rupnarain. (64) Is there a salinity variation pattern in the tidal reach of the Hooghly river? (65) Effect of Fulta Point recession on Brul reach conditions - model of Hooghly Estuary. (66) Reduction of range in Madras Harbour. (67) Mangalore Port Model experiments. (68) Proving Kandla Models. (69) Permeable groynes for temporary bank protection in Kandla Creek. (70) Development of a wax blend for construction of ship models for use in the ship-testing tank - preliminary studies. (71) Experimental stress analyses of reinforced concrete rigid building frame. (72) Design of mixes for the Mindhola Aqueduct.
/(73) - 78 -
(73) Stabilization of soils. (74) Use of cinder as building material. (75) Heat of hydration of Portland cement.
6. Publications
(1) Annual report on technical work done during 1954 (2) Joglekar, D.V., Pesai, S.C. and Wadekar, G.T. ; "Training of rivers for sand control at canal headworks with the help of hydraulic models", International Irrigation and Drainage Annual Bulletin, 1954 (3) Joglekar, D.V. (Director of the Central Water and Power Research Station) and Nagaraja, V.N. : "River valley projects and CWPRS", International Drainage and Irrigation Journal (4) Ghotankar, S.T.: Hydraulic model investigations of the Hooghly to improve its Navigability (international Association of Hydraulic Research) (5) Mulekar, S.N.: "Model studies to reduce silting in Cochin Harbour", Port Engineer (6) Chitale, S.V. : "Requirements of fresh water supply from Ganga into Bhagirathi to ensure non-saline water supply to Calcutta", Port Engineer (7) "Activities of the Central Water & Power Research Station, Poona", Bhagirath (8) "Design of anti-scour protective apron at the toe of the Jawai Dam Spillway developed after hydraulic model tests at the Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona", Bhagirath (9) Pant, B. (A.R.O.) and Roy, Dr S.K. (C.R.O.): On Comparative Studies in Biharmonic Relaxation and Photoelastic Method for Stress Analysis
/(10) - 79 -
(10) Pant, B. (A.R.O.), Rao, M.G. (R.A.) and Ram, Dr Gurdas (C.R.O. ): Photoelastic Studies of Stress Concentration around the Sluice Gate Gallery of the Hirakud Dam (11) Luthra, S.D. L. (A.R.O.): Effect of Impervious Strata on Pressures under a Weir and Testing Stability of an Existing Weir by Electrical Method (12) Luthra, S.D.L. (A.R.O.): Study of Ground-Water Plow through Layers of Diffèrent Permeabilities below a Structure by Electrical Method (13) Luthra, S.D.L. (A.R.O.): Electrical Method for Testing Design of Inlet Curves for Canal Sluices (14) Roy, Dr S.K. (C.R.O.): On a Stable Vortex System (15) Deb, Dr B.C. (C.R.O.) and Chadha,S.P; (R.A.): Effect of Soil/water Ratio on the pH of Soils (16) Deb, Dr B.C. (C.R.O.); The Soil of Sabarmati Command Area (17) Guha, S.K. (A.R.O.), Rao, G.V. (R.A.) and Ram, Dr Gurdas (C.R.O.): Studies on Seismicity and Seismic Forces on Dams, Part II (18) Guha, S.K. (A.R.O.), Rao, G.V. (R.A.) and Ram, Dr Gurdas (C.R.O.): Vibration Experiments on Hirebhasgar Dam during the Working of Siphon Nos. 4 and 10 and Undersluices (August 1953)
Irrigation Research Station, Madras Public Works Department, Poodi, Madras
2. Directors - Shri N. Padmanabha Iyer, B.E., M.I.E., I.S.E., and Shri U. Ananda Rao, B.E., I.S.E., Chief Engineers (General),
Public Works Department Staff 9.
3. Available space and discharge A mobile pump unit of 5 hp has been purchased as a part of the circulating system.
5. Programme - 80 -
5. Programme of work
New projects
A. Manglam Project Spillway studies on energy dissipation (1) Model study - Scale H and V - 1:36. (2) Programme of investigations Mangalam Dam was to be built across a jungle stream for storage of flood waters and utilization for irrigation purposes. Owing to the hilly nature of the terrain with sudden occurrences of high-intensity floods and to the remoteness of the dam site from the township, which rendered it generally inaccessible, an uncontrolled spillway has been proposed. The river sluices portion and nearly half the length of the spillway is accommodated in the river course, whilst the other half of the spillway is built up on the sloping hill, flanking the river. The surplus from the abutment portion as well as from the spillway in the river portion has to be so treated as to give out an efficient energy-dissipating arrangement at an economical cost. (3) Important results obtained The flow over the spillway directly joins the river portion. The portion beyond the river margin has to spill over and across the hill-flanked abutment. This cross-flow acting along with the flow over the spillway from the river course has a tendency to shoot across and disrupt the bank opposite to the side-long spill. The cross-flow was negotiated with a series of cascades, by providing a curved-end training wall and building up baffles connecting the glacis and the end wall. The resulting flow was fairly innocuous. (4) Commenced December 1953. Completed April 1954. (5) Irrigation Research Report for 1954. B. Manimuthar Project spillway energy dissipation (1) Model study. Scale H and v - 1:60 (2) Programme of investigations A dam 33-3 in (111 ft) high with an overflow of 4.5 in (15 ft) over the crest of the spillway was to be built across the Manimuthar
/river. - 81 -
river. Since rock was available just 1.5 in (5 ft) below the river bed, energy-dissipation arrangements had to be carried to suit site conditions. (3) Important results obtained With baffle of suitable height and a row of friction blocks, a very satisfactory design was evolved. (4) Commenced January 1954. Completed April 1954. (5) Irrigation Research Report 1954. C. Walayar Project river and canal sluices (1) Model study. Scale H and V - 1:12. (2) Programme of investigations In the Walayar Dam a river sluice and a canal sluice at different- sill elevations - the canal sluice being higher by about 6 in (20 ft) - had been provided, contiguous with each other and adjoining the spillway with effective dividing barriers separating them. Energy dissipation arrangements had to be so perfected as to keep the edge of the apron beyond the stilling basin in the sluices and the spillway in a line with each other, in order to avoid differential effects on the apron during retrogression with consequent- vulnerability on the component structures. (3) Important results obtained Initially, a. glacis of 1:4 for the river sluice and 1:3 for canal sluice was proposed. The length of these aprons extended beyond the spillway protection and had, therefore, to be curtailed. Hence an alternative to the routine glacis was necessary. Based on the shape of the jet which would take a parabolic profile under nominal gate openings, a suitable profile was evolved and tested for freedom from negative pressure. In the finalized design, the stilling arrangements are perfect. (4) Commenced April 1954. Completed September 1954. (5) Irrigation Research Report 1954.
/ D. Mangalam - 82 -
D. Mangalam Project canal sluices (1) Model study. Scale H and V - 1:24. (2) Programme of investigations The alignment of the canal immediately below the sluices takes a course oblique to that of the sluice block and hence the transition between the sluices and canal has to be properly negotiated. Suitable energy-dissipating arrangments had to be evolved and the distribution of velocity due to the curvature had to be examined. (3) Important results obtained By depressing the exit portal along with the necessary flaring of ends to have a constant sectional area of the vent, the energy dissipation was satisfactory. Correction to the bed was effected by the incorporation of a row of blocks on the downstream at the commencement of the curve. Velocity distributions showed that a uniform distribution across the section had been realized. (4) Commenced in October 1954. Completed in February 1955. (5) Irrigation Research Report 1954.
Mysore Engineering Research Station Krishnarajasagar, Mysore
2. Technical staff - 5 3. Available space Outdoor - additional 557 m 2 ; alteration 372 m2 (6,000 sq ft) (4,000 sq ft)
4. Essential equipment A. Experimental flumes 6 masonry fixed B. Water-level measurement 2 hook gauges C. Velocity measurement 1 Pilot tube 1 Mercury manometer
/ D. Discharge - 83 -
D. Discharge measurement 1 tank 15.8 m3 (560 cu ft) 1 tank 0.56 m3 (20 cu ft) 1 Cipolletti weir 0.71 to 1.41 m3/sec (25 to 50 cfs) 1 " " 0.43 to 0.71 m3/sec (15 to 25 cfs) 5 " " 0.28 to 0.62 m3/sec (10 to 22 cfs) 1 " " 0.17 to 0.28 m3/sec ( 6 to 10 cfs) 3 ’’ ” 0.056 to 0.14 m3/sec (2 to 5 cfs) 1 V-Notch 0.56 to 0.71 m3/sec (20 to 25 cfs) 2 " 0.41 m3/sec ( 5 cfs)
5. Programme of work New projects A. Nugu (1) Scale H and V - 1:36. (2) Programme of investigations Protective works. (3) Results given in Report No. 889. (4) Commenced December 1953. Completed December 1954. (5) Annual Report of the Station, in English. B. Bhadra (1) Scales H and V - 1:48 " 1:24 (2) Programme of investigations (a) Protective works (b) Bellmouth for sluices, etc. (3) Active. (4) Commenced December 1954. Completion expected after two years. (5) Annual Reports of the Station, in English.
6. Publications
(1) Annual report on work done during 1953. Obtainable from the Research officer, Mysore Engineering Research Station, Krishnarajasagar.
/(2) - 84 -
(2) Doddiah, D. (Research Officer, Mysore Engineering Research Station, Krishnarajasagar): Design of Siphon Spillway for Bams
Irrigation and Power Research Institute, Amritsar Hydraulic Research Station, Malakpur (Gurdaspur), Punjab
2. Technical staff 20
3. Available space and discharge Indoor 60m x 15m Q - 0.37 m3/sec head 9m pumping (200ft x 50ft) (13 cfs) (30 ft) Outdoor 2,100m x 150m (7,000ft x 500ft) Q - 2.8 m3/sec 600m x 180m (100 cfs) (2,000ft x 600ft)
4. Essential equipment
A. Flumes 1 27m x 9m Q - 2.8 m3/sec outdoor (90ft x 30ft) (100 cfs) B. Water level measurement 20 point gauges G. Velocity measurement 12 Pilot tubes. B. Discharge measurement 1 9m (30 ft) high head tank 2 Venturi meters 0.19 m3/sec (8 cfs) and 0.34 m3/sec (12 cfs).
F. Silt sampling and analysis 4 instantaneous type samplers, 2-litre capacity. G. Ground-water measurement 1 stream line flow tank H. 1 electronic apparatus for measuring density of cement concrete.
5. Programme of work
New projects A. Brahmaputra River Training Project /(l) - 85 -
(1) Practical model study. Scale H - 1:300, V - 1:40. (2) Model studies on design of training works, movement of silt bars, etc. (3) Work in progress. (4) Started September 1954. To be completed by end of 1955. (5) Report to be published in 1956. B. Training of dry torrents, cuts, river Jhelum in Kashmir Valley (1) Practical model study. Scale H - 1:100, V - 1:30. (2) Model studies in designs of training works, movement of silt bars, etc. (3) Work in progress. (4) Started September 1954. To be completed by end of 1955. (5) Report to be published in 1956.
6. Important publications
(1) Uppal, Dr H.L. and Gupta, D.V. : Studies in the Design of Jet Plow Gate and River Outlets of Bhakra Dam with the Help of Models (2) Uppal, Dr H.L. and Jaswant Singh: Studies in Hydraulic Downfall on the Model of Emergency Gate of the River Outlet, Bhakra Dam (3) Gulhhti, T.D. and Sharma, B.D.: Studies in the Diversion of Sutlej River at Nangal Dam by Means of Models and a Comparison of the Model Results with Prototype Observations (4) Uppal, Dr H.L. and Gajinder Singh: A Study of the Behaviour of the Chakki River at Dhangu after the Construction of the Rail-Road Bridge and Measures to Deal with the Same.
Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttar Pradesh
3. Available space Outdoor 105 x 180 m (350 x 600 ft)
/ 4. Essential - 86 -
4. Essential equipment
B. Water-level measurement 20 point gauges C. Velocity measurement 6 Pilot tubes D. Discharge measurement 5 Rehbock's sharp-crested-weirs 0.014 to 0.43 m3/sec (0.5 to 15 cfs)
F. Silt sampling and analysis Silt samplers 6 Puri's Bottle capacity 1 litre 1 Puri's Bed silt 1.37 kg (3 lb) Silt analysis 1 Puri's Siltometer 0.065 mm to 0.02 mm G. Ground-water measurement 2 flumes 10.5 x 7.5 x 1.2 in (35 x 25 x 4 ft) 1 flume 7.5 in (25 ft) diameter, 2.1 in (7 ft) high 2 electrical analogy trays 6 glass-faced chambers for determining flow lines in earth dams and conducting experiments on types of tube-wells. H. Other equipment 10 differential oil gauges 1 Fortin's Barometer.
5. Programme of work
New projects A. Training Ganga river at Kanpur Power House (1) Practical model study. Scale H - 1:240, V - 1:4-0 (2) Programme of investigations To suggest suitable device to keep the Ganga river along the right bank to feed the power-house situated there. (3) Important results obtained The Ganga river course had been along its left bank at
/Kanpur - 87 -
Kanpur since 1945 when a long channel used to be dug to feed the power-house situated at the right bank. In 1951, the river diverted its course along the right bank. A 1,104 in (3,680 ft) long curved pitched embankment was suggested at the right bank, about 2.4 km (1.5 mi) upstream of the power-house to keep the river along the said bank and at the toe of the power-house, lest it should divert again to its left bank course. (4) Commenced December 1953. Completed March 1954. (5) Publication: U.P. Technical Memorandum No. 24, Roorkee. In English. B. Sediment ejector in Sarda Canal 360 in (1,200 ft) below the Head Regulator (1) Practical model study. Scale H - 1:40, V - 1:16. (2) Programme of investigations To evolve a suitable design of sediment ejector for the exclusion of coarse sand shingle from Sarda Canal. (3) Important results obtained Coarse sand and fine shingle are anticipated to deposit in the head reach of Sarda Canal during monsoons when it would run continuously for Khatima Power-House. A 60-tunnel sediment ejector was designed to be sited at a distance of 360 in (1,200 ft) below the canal head regulator, which would extract the said material that entered the canal. (4) Commenced December 1953. Completed March 1954. (5) U. P. Technical Memorandum No. 24, Roorkee. In English C. Training Ram Ganga river upstream of Raini Weir (1) Practical model study. Scales H - 1:120, V - 1:24. (2) Programme of investigations To suggest suitable measures to divert on to Raini Weir, the Ram Ganga river which changed its course after the floods of 1954. (3) Important results obtained Raini Weir across Ram Ganga river was built for taking out a pumped canal of 5.66 m3/sec (200 cfs). The river has been spilling
along its left bank for the last few years as a result of which
/both the - 88 -
both the left-bank marginal and afflux embankments were damaged. The river breached both embankments in August 1954 and left Raini Weir dry. Three spurs of lengths 450 in (1,500 ft), 75 in (250 ft) and 530 in (1,100 ft) on the left marginal embankment at the entry and exit of the curved loop where the breach occurred were found to keep the river away from it and maintain its flow over the weir. (4) Commenced January 1955. Completed April 1955. (5) U. P. Technical Memorandum No. 25, Roorkee. In English. D. Training Yamuna River above Tajewala for Eastern Yamuna Canal (1) Practical model study. Scales H - 1:150, V - 1:50 (2) Programme of investigations (i) To find out suitable alignment and location of head for Eastern Yamuna Canal for minimum sediment entry into it. (ii) To design a suitable device for feeding the canal in low river supplies. (3) Important results obtained Eastern Yamuna canal takes off from the left bank of Yamuna river about 3.2 km (2 mi) below Faizabad Weir. The river hugs the left bank in this reach, takes a swing at the canal head to flow parallel to old weir which makes an angle of 48° with the head
and then moves to the right to feed Western Yamuna Canal at Tajewala. The canal head which is thus situated in a dead pocket draws in a good amount of shingle and great difficulty is experienced to feed it during floods. Again during lower river supplies forcing embankments are built in the river in front of the canal head to pass flow into it and a good deal of precious time, important for rice irrigation, is spent in their construction at the end of the monsoons. After study on a model the following modifications were suggested to improve flow conditions at the canal head: (a) The crest of the under-sluices which is at the same level as the canal head, is to be lowered by 0.6 in (2 ft), to provide free passage to bed load to move downstream. - 89 -
(b) The upstream left protective embankment is to be re-aligned at an angle of 122° to the river sluices to induce favourable
curvature of flow to wash sediment in front of the canal head. (c) The canal head is to be shifted upstream to a distance of 82.5 in (275 ft) from the river sluices and aligned at 90° to
the left protective embankment. (d) A suitable weir is to be built to raise the pond level during low river supplies to feed the canal. The proposals are under study. (4) Commenced April 1954. (5) U. P. Technical Memorandum No. 25, Roorkee. In English. E. Design of earth sections for Mata Tila Dam and Sarda Sagar Bund (1) and (2) Soil tests and designs by electrical-analogy and hydraulic-model studies. (3) Earth sections in various reaches were designed. (4) Commenced 1 April 1954. Completed 31 March 1955. (5) U. P. Irrigation Research Technical Memorandum, 26 June 1955. F. Remodelling of Jagbura Siphon (1) Model study - Scale H and V 1:120. (2) The investigations were carried out to determine uplift pressures below the floor of Jagbura Siphon. Three dimensional hydraulic and electrical-analogy experiments were carried out to determine these pressures. (3) In the problems concerning the design of masonry structures on permeable foundation three-dimensional study is indispensable. A three-dimensional electrical-analogy model gives quick and reliable results. (4) Commenced 1 December 1954. Completed 31 March 1955. (5) U. P. Irrigation Research Technical Memorandum No. 26.
G. Electro-chemical treatment of clays
(1) Research project. (2) and (3) To effect hardening of clays, a device passing electric current through them has proved useful. The accompanying chemical reactions have been studied. /(4) - 90 -
(4) Commenced 1 April 1954.
(5) U. P. Irrigation Research Technical Memorandum No. 26, June 1955.
6. Publications (Not for sale: Can be obtained from the Director of irrigation Research, Roorkee, U.P.
(1) Irrigation Research Institute Roorkee: Annual Research Report for the Year 1953 (U. P. Technical Memorandum No. 24, Superintendent Printing and Stationery, Lucknow, U.P.)
(2) Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee: Annual Research Report for the Year 1954 (U.P. Technical Memorandum No. 25. Superintendent Printing and Stationery, Lucknow, U.P.)
(3) Kathpalie, K.N. : "Research and tube-wells” (Symposium on Groundwater, Central Board of Geophysics, New Delhi, 1 and 2 February 1955).
(4) Kathpalia, K.N. and Shukla, K.P.; "Groundwater problems and small- scale models" (ibid.)
(5) Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee: Annual Research Report for the Year 1955 (U.P. Technical Memorandum No. 26. Superintendent Printing and Stationery, Lucknow, U. P.).
/ Japan - 91 -
JAPAN
Central Research Institute of the Electric Power Industry, Technical Research Laboratory, 1229 Iwato, Komae-machi, Kitatama-gun, Tokyo
5. Programme of work
Continuing projects
A. Model test on the flood discharge conduit of Tonoyama Dam
B. Model test on the spillway and apron of Sakuma Dam
(1) Practical model study. Scales H and V - 1:90 and 1:45
C. Model test on the spillway and apron of Okuizumi Dam
(3) Important results obtained
Chute blocks on flip bucket are found to be useful to spread jet over wide area of spillway basin.
D. Measurement of water temperature at water power plants
New projects
E. Experimental study on pressures at the base of free fall nappe
(1) Research project.
F. Model test on the spillway and apron of Ikawa Dam
(1) Practical model study. Scale H and V - 1:50
/G. - 92 -
G. Model test on the spillway and apron of Ouchibara Dam
(1) Practical model study. Scale H and V - 1:70
H. Model test on the spillway of head tank of Kamiiwamatsu Power Plant
(1) Practical model study. Scale H and V - 1:15.
6. Publications
(1) Sakamoto, T., Senshu, S. and Naomura, T. : "Report on the hydraulic model test of the spillway of Kamishiba Dam”, July 1954 (Technical Report of Ç.R.I.E.P.I. ; not for sale)
(2) Senshu, S.: "Report on the model surge tank of Kuba Power Plant”, September 1954 (Technical Report of C.R.I.E.P.I.; not for sale)
(3) Senshu, S.: "Report on the measurement of head loss in spherical branch of model penstocks”, December 1954. (Technical Report of C.R.I.E.P.I.; not for sale)
(4) Nabeoka, S.: "Report on the test of pressure rise in the delivery pipe of Segawa Irrigation Pumping Station”, December 1954 (Technical Report of C.R.I.E.P.I.; not for sale).
Water Works Laboratory, Waseda University Totsuka-machi, Shinzyuku-ku, Tokyo
(2) Director-Prof. Kusuo Aoki. Staff 5.
(3) Available space and discharge
Indoor Q = 0.10 m3/sec H - 5 tn pumping (3.53 cfs) (16.4 ft)
(5) Programme of work
Continuing projects
A. Discharge characteristics of gates
(1) Research project.
/ (2) - 93 -
(2) Programme of investigations
Measurement of flow characteristics and its numerical analysis.
(3) Discharge coefficient calculated.
(4) Commenced April 1953. Completed March 1955.
B. Study on the coefficient of velocity in flood discharge formulae
(1) Research project.
(2) Some relations between the coefficient and width of river are being studied.
(4) Commenced 1954.
Hydraulic Laboratory, Engineering Research Institute, Kyoto University, Yoshida - honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto-shi
2. Technical staff 4
4. Essential equipment
A. Plumes
1 glass and concrete fixed.
5.Programme of work
Continuing projects
A. Thin sheet flow and its effect on bed material.
(1) Research project.
/ (2) Laws - 94 -
(2) Laws of resistance in thin sheet flow, their application to rain water run-off and soil erosion due to it and to beach erosion due to waves.
(3) The effects of free surface flow on rough surface were studied by combining mixing length of turbulence with instability of flow, and it was shown that the resistance to turbulent flow in both smooth and rough open channels becomes larger than in pipes with the increase of Froude Number.
(4) From April 1949 to September 1954,
(5) March 1955 (Proc. of the 4th Japan National Congress for Applied Mechanics, 1954; Science Council of Japan, Tokyo) English.
B. Hydraulic characteristics of roll-wave trains
(1) Research project.
(2) Investigations on hydraulic characteristics of roll-wave trains and their effect on soil erosion and sediment transportation.
(3) Comparison between theoretically-derived characteristics of roll-wave trains with no air entrainment in both laminar and turbulent flow and experimental results obtained shows that they agree. The criterion for formation of rell-wavc trains with any cross-section and any law of resistance is derived. Studies on the effects of roll-wave trains on soil erosion and sediment transportation are in progress.
(4) From April 1950 to March 1955.
(5) Jan. 1955 (jour, of J.S.C.E., Vol. 40, No. 1, Tokyo) Japanese. Mar. 1955 (Bulletin of the Engg. Res. Inst., Kyoto University, Kyoto) Japanese.
C. Hydraulic studies on run-off phenomena
(1) Research project.
(2) Mathematical analysis and experiments on the unsteady flow in open channel with lateral inflow, and run-off analysis in natural rivers by the method of characteristics.
(3) Hydrographs resulting; from the abrupt increase and decrease of rate of lateral inflow changing stepwise along the flume were obtained using the approximate method of characteristics, and they were in good agreement with the experimental results obtained from the flow tests that were performed under the same conditions as computed.
/ Moreover, the - 95 -
Moreover, the application of this method to run-off analysis in the Daido river showed that it is very suitable for the estimation of the run-off in rivers with considerable steep slopes.
(4) From April 1953 to March 1956.
(5) Nov. 1954 (Jour. of J.S.C.E., Vol. 39, No. 11; Tokyo) Japanese. Mar. 1955 (Proc. of the 4th Japan National Congress for Applied Mechanics, 1954; Science Council of Japan, Tokyo) English.
New projects
D. Studies on water-drop erosion
(1) Research project.
(2) Erosion of dry, wet and inundated sand and soil by a water drop. Effect of water drops on soil erosion by running water.
(3) It was found that eroded volumes of sand and soil are proportional to momentum of water drop, and are also very much affected by porosity and water contents of sand and soil. Effect of water drop was made clear.
(4) From April 1954 to March 1956.
(5) Unpublished.
E. Critical tractive force
(1) Research project.
(2) Theoretical analysis of the critical friction velocity in initiation of sand movement by turbulence theory. Experiments by small water tunnel and open channel.
(3) Relation between critical friction velocity and roughness Reynolds Number was derived theoretically. New formulae for critical tractive force were proposed, based on the theoretical and experimental results.
(4) From April 1954 to March 1956.
(5) Unpublished.
F. Studies on high-velocity flows
(1) Research project.
(2) Theoretical and experimental studies on the high-velocity flows, the mechanism of air entrainment and the hydraulic properties of air entrained and no-air-entrained flows on steep slopes.
/ (3) The criterion - 96 -
(3) The criterion for initial instability of high velocity flows is derived mathematically and the undular type of transition for sub-critical flows is also studied. The development of boundary layers in initially super-critical flows on steep slopes is under investigation.
(4) From April 1954 to March 1957.
(5) June 1955 (Jour. of J.S.C.E., Vol. 40, No. 6 Tokyo) Japanese.
G. Equilibrium profiles of sea beaches and movement of beach sands by sea waves
(1) Research project.
(2) Experimental studies on equilibrium profiles of beaches, relation between characteristics of breakers and sand drifts.
(3) Relation between equilibrium profiles of sea beaches and characteristics of incoming waves were studied experimentally.
(4) From April 1954 to March 1958.
(5) Nov. 1954 (Trans, of Studies of Coastal Engg., Kwansai Branch of J.S.C.E., Osaka) Japanese.
6. List of publications
(1) Yuichi Iwagaki: On the Fundamental Equations for the Mean Flow of Water in Open Channels (Jour, of J.S.C.E., Vol. 39, No. 9, Sept. 1954, Tokyo), ¥ 100.
(2) Yasuo Ishihara and Hiroaki Yuasa: Application of Electrical Analog Method to Confined Flow of Ground-Water (ibid.), ¥ 100.
(3) Yoshiaki Iwasa; The Criterion for Instability of Steady Uniform Flows in Open Channels (Memoirs of the Fac. of Engg., Kyoto University, Vol. XVI, No. VI, Oct. 1954), not for sale.
(4) Tojiro Ishihara, Shoitiro Hayami and Shigenori Hayashi: On the Electronic Analog Computer for Flood Routing (Proc. of the japan Academy, Vol, 30, No. 9, Tokyo), not for sale.
(5) Yuichi Iwagaki and Tomitaro Sueishi: On the Unsteady Flow in Open Channels with Uniform Lateral Inflow (Jour. of J.S.C.E., Vol. 39, No. 11, Nov. 1954, Tokyo), ¥ 100.
/ (6) - 97 -
(6) Tojiro Ishihara: Current Activities on Coastal Engineering (Trans. of Studies of Coastal Engg., No. 1954, Kwansai Branch of J.S.C.E., Osaka), ¥ 250.
(7) Yuichi Iwagaki: Studies on Beach Erosion (ibid.), ¥ 250.
(8) Yuichi Iwagaki and Yoshiaki Iwasa; On the Hydraulic Characteristics of the Roll-Wave Trains (Jour. of J.S.C.E., Vol. 40, No. 1, Jan. 1955, Tokyo), ¥ 100.
(9) Tojiro Ishihara, Yuichi Iwagaki and Yoshiaki Iwasa: Mechanism of Water Erosion on Land-Surfaces and Roll-Wave Trains (Bulletin of Engineering Research Institute, Kyoto University, Vol. 6, Mar. 1955), not for sale.
(10) Yuichi Iwagaki: On the Laws of Resistance to Turbulent Flow in Open Rough Channels (Proc. of the 4th Japan National Congress for Applied Mechanics, 1954, Mar. 1955, Science Council of Japan, Tokyo), ¥ 1,000.
(11) Yuichi Iwagaki and Tomitaro Sueishi: Approximate Method for Calculation of Unsteady Flow in Open Channels with Lateral Inflow (Ibid.), ¥ 1,000.
(12) Tojiro Ishihara and Yasuo Ishihara; On an Electronic Analog Computer for Flood Routing (Trans. of J.S.C.E., No. 24, Apr. 1955, Tokyo), ¥150.
(13) Yoshiaki Iwasa: The Criterion for Instability of Steady Uniform Flow in Open Channels (Jour. of J.S.C.E., Vol. 40, No. 6, Jun. 1955, Tokyo),¥ 100.
Hydraulic Laboratory, Tokushima University, Minamijyoosanjima, Tokushima-shi
2. Technical staff 4
3. Available space and discharge
Outdoor 30 in x 8 m Q-0.1 m3/sec Pumping (98.4ft x 26.3ft) (3.5 cfs) h - 5. m (16.4 ft)
4. Essential equipment
A. Flumes
1 12m x 0.6 in x 0.6 in (39-3 ft x 2 ft x 2 ft), glass, fixed
/ 1 30 m - 98 -
1 30 mx 1 mx 1 m (98.4 ft x 3.3 ft x 3.3 ft), concrete, fixed. 1 30 mx 4 mx 1 m (98.4 ft x 13.1 ft x 3.3 ft) " " 1 3 in x 0.6 in x 0.2 in (9.8 ft x 2 ft x 0.6 ft) " "
B. Water level measurement
4 point gauges
C. Velocity measurement
1 current meter 1 salt velocity measurement apparatus.
D. Discharge measurement
2 weirs 0.1 and 0.03 m3/sec (3.5 and 1.05 cfs)
1 tank 1 m3 (35 cu ft).
5. Programme of work
Continuing project
A. Study of river flow on gravel beds
(4) Started 1950. To be completed 1960.
(5) To be published in Journal of Japanese Society of Civil Engineers, Tokyo, 1955 - I960 (in Japanese).
6. List of publications (in Japanese)
(1) Kuboo, T. : "On the mean velocity of water flow on a fixed bed" (Journal of the Japanese Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 38, No. 3. March 1953)
(2) Kuboo, T. : "On the roll or fall velocity of gravels in still water" (Journal of the Japanese Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 38, No. 4, April 19551.
Theabove publications can be obtained from Doboku-Gakkai (Japanese Society ofCivil Engineers), No. 4, 2-chome, Ote-machi, Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo, Japan.
/ NEW ZEALAND - 99 -
NEW ZEALAND
Canterbury College School of Engineering Hydraulic Laboratory, P.O. Box 1471, Christchurch C. 1
2. Director - Professor H. J. Hopkins. Staff 3.
4. Essential equipment
A. Experimental flume
1 glass-sided, tilting, 6 in (20 ft) long, 15 cm (6 in) wide Discharge 0.028 m3/sec (1 cfs)
5. Programme of work
Continuing projects
A. Movement of granular bed by fluid flow
(1) Research project.
(2) Experimental determination of critical shear values for movement of balsa wood blocks in wind tunnel, i.e. for magnitudes of solid fluid density ratios intermediate between those usually obtaining for grain-air and grain-water systems.
(3) Results have been in line with Shields' results for grain-water systems.
(4) Started 1953. Experimental work now almost completed.
(5) Publication of report uncertain.
B. Rationing investigation of sluice blocks
(1) Research project.
(2) By direct force measurement on model sluice blocks, to obtain generalized drag coefficients which can be translated into design data.
(3) Some trends are discernible but they tend to be obscured by experimental errors.
/ (4) - 100 -
(4) Started 1953. Working continuing till end of 1955.
(5) Publication of report uncertain.
C. Flow at the toe of a spillway
(3) Results obtained
Theoretical solution obtained. Results confirmed by experiment.
(4) Started June 1953. Experimental work now complete and waiting writing up.
(5) Publication of report uncertain.
New projects
D. Permeability of porous beds
(1) Research project.
(2) Correlation of pore size distribution with particle size distribution. Check on the older permeability formulae such as the Kozeny and newer approaches suggested by Childs and Collis-Genge.
(3) No results yet.
(4) Started 1955. Completion expected end of 1955.
(5) Publication of report uncertain.
E. Flow under dam through permeable foundations
(1) Research project.
(2) Extension of Harzas’ results by obtaining theoretical solutions for the case of one cut-off wall with an under-drain and experimental solutions for the case of two cut-off walls with a drain (this last by an electrolytic plotting tank),
(3) Theoretical work done. Experimental work not started yet.
(4) Started 1954. Completion expected end of 1955.
(5) Publication of report uncertain.
F. Design of stilling basins at base of steep chute
(1) Model study for North Canterbury Catchment Board. / (2) - 101 -
(2) Determination of best proportions for stilling basin at base of steep chute (slope 1 vertical on 2 horizontal)
(3) Model work not yet started.
(4) Started 1955. Completion expected September 1955.
(5) Publication of report uncertain.
/ PAKISTAN - 102 -
PAKISTAN
The Punjab Irrigation Research Institute, Lahore
2. Director - Mian Muzaffar Ahmad, Esq.
5. Available space and discharge
Outdoor Feed channel Q - 14.15 m3/sec (500 cfs) for the Field Hydraulic Research Station completed.
4. Essential equipment
A. Experimental flumes
5 trays (one of them with 15 in (50 ft) spare trolley for carrying measuring instruments and another trolley for the observer).
6. Publications
(1) Annual Report of Irrigation Research Institute for 1946
(2) Annual Report of Irrigation Research Institute for 1947.