Castiglione and the Yuanrning Yuan Collections

Victoria Siu

he 300th anniversary of Giuseppe five major complexes and gardens. A all its descendants are in good order. TCastiglione offers a rare opportunity British map of the entire Yuanming Respectfully, we face our ancestors now in to examine the works of art which Yuan (Fig. l), dated 1860, shows that, paradise ...The shrine is full of vast recep- remain as a legacy of East-West in its heyday under the reign of tion halls. roof dragons look at cultural convergences during the Qing Emperor Qianlong (r. 1735-95), the each other. The sleeping rooms are deep enough to contain all the phoenix tables dynasty (1 644-1 91 l), particularly those Yuanming Yuan retreat could ac- necessary to serve feasts... Therefore we found in the Yuanming Yuan (Garden commodate the Qing court not only in must come to worship them (the ancestors) of Perfect Clarity, HsBB). The the summer but throughout the year. the fust and fifteenth of each month, and burning and looting of this palace/ Two of these multiple buildings, the all princes must compare among themselves garden complex, also knoHfn as the Audience Hall and the Ancestral who comes fust [to the shrine]. There are Old , by Franco-British Shrine, are shown in a (Fig. double services of the gold sacrificial troops under Lord Elgin and General 2), which is number seventeen of a instruments and vessels, and the flutes and de Montauban in 1860 confirmed the set depicting the forty designated lanterns are of white nephrite.' Chinese belief that foreigners were Yuanming Yuan scenic views by court (Translated by the author) barbarians and, at the same time, artists Shen Yuan (act. c. 1745) and enriched the West with many superior Tang Dai (act. 1707-50). The Ancestral One of three summer residences art objects. Shrine was perhaps one of the most erected by the Manchu rulers, the This author's research toward com- spacious of all the numerous Buddhist Yuanming Yuan was situated about pleting a history of the Yuanrning and Daoist shrines in the complex, ten miles northwest of , south Yuan, which continues the work begun which is indicative of the filial re- of the Great Wall and east of the in the 1930's by her father, has led her sponsibility that the emperor and Western Mountains. The Emperor to become interested in the restoration the Chinese people expressed towards Kangxi (r. 1662-1722) initiated the of these palaces planned by the Com- their ancestors. The immense temple extensive work on the existing palaces mittee for Restoring the Yuanming is depicted among tall trees and and gardens northwest of the capital. Yuan. Discussing a subject as yet hills, with numerous dependent halls, The main palace gate built at that time unaddressed by any publication, the pavilions, arches and bridges, all of was carved with characters written unfinished monograph documents the glazed tiles and painted wood. It is by Kangxi: BsBM Yuanming Yuan. dispersal of many art treasures from noteworthy that these court artists, Later, the entire area was enlarged and the Yuanming Yuan, which are now who collaborated with Castiglione in embellished by the Emperor Qianlong. located in , England and the the Imperial Academy of Painting, The five sections of the Yuanming . This research augments used relatively bright colours in Yuan, from east to west, were the that of Chinese and international the forty scenes, perhaps reflecting Changchun Yuan (Garden of the scholars who hope to recreate the Western influence. Long Spring, SSB), Yuanrning Yuan appearance of the Yuanming Yuan A woodcut (Fig. 3), depicting the proper, Wanshou Shan (Imperial before its destruction. The Committee same shrine, is also number seventeen Longevity Hill, ;$;Sm), Yuquan Shan has encouraged the gathering of data of a set of the forty scenes, but the (Hill of the Fountain, %$m) and for the restoration, resulting in the woodcuts are not servile or exact Xiang Shan (Fragrant Hills, SW;also research and publication of papers on copies of the forty . The called the Hunting Park). An impetus historical and art historical aspects of artists, Sun Hu (act. c. 1745) and for these extensions was the presence the Yuanming Yuan. These projects Shen Yuan, originally published the il- of certain Jesuits at court who were have included the study of Jesuit con- lustrations to accompany poems com- able to enhance the Yuanming Yuan tributions to the Chinese arts as well posed by the emperor. The poem with not only buildings and gardens, as the gathering of data in the West describing the Ancestral Shrine reveals but also paintings and other works of in order to analyze it in the light of the richness of the building and its art. Because only scattered ruins of the recent archaeological and archival contents: European Palaces remain, research research in . into these dispersed paintings and The Yuanming Yuan was not a The temples in which the imperial ancestors' works of art as well as pictorial single building or a complex of the robes and crowns are kept have an ancient and verbal accounts can help to kind at Versailles, but thousands origin. .. Heaven has blessed our dynasty 'reconstruct' the Yuanming Yuan, magnificently furnished buildings until today. From generation to generation at least in book form.

72 (Fig. 1) Detail of a British map of Yuanming Yuan. 1860 British War Office

(Fig. 2, below lefl) Ancestral Shrine By Shen Yuan (act. c. 1745) and Tang Dai (act. 1707-50) Colour on silk Bibliothtque Nationale,

(Fig. 3, below righl) Ancestral Shrine By Sun Hu (act. c. 1745) and Shen Yuan (act. c. 1745) Woodblock print Bibliothtque Nationale. Paris

astiglione arrived in Beijing to still provoke criticism. On the other as serious, yet unmarked by care, as he C find that Jesuit colleagues had hand, his portraits and paintings of was inaugurated at the age of twenty- already selected his Chinese name, horses, as those in the portrait of one. These two portraits studied side Lang Shining B#!%. In retrospect, Qianlong (Fig. 4), are recognized as by side illustrate the changes which rarely has a Chinese name, meaning masterpieces. The artist used very light may have prompted the Emperor to 'most gentle in nature and of great shadowing on the face because of the write in a poem that as a white- virtue', reflected the personality of Chinese dislike for shadows, but he haired old man, he could barely its bearer so accurately. was able to capture the inner vitality recognize himself in the youthful For an artist as accomplished as of Qianlong in the act of performing portrait. (See Zhu Jiajin's article in this Castiglione, he faced the difficulty an official duty with great dignity. Any issue 'Castiglione's Tieluo Paintings', of being obliged to paint under the artist prevented from expressing his pp. 80-83.) The Emperor looked at this direct supervision of the emperor, and personality through his preferred work only three times in his life- the Emperor Qianlong in particular style and media would appreciate the when the painting was finished, on thought nothing of dictating changes, severity of Castiglione's trial. But far his seventieth birthday and on the such as moving the position of a bird from letting this be a deterrant, Cas- occasion of his abdication - so this in a painting. For the most part, the tiglione diligently developed an ability reference to his youth, captured so well European also had to give up painting to adapt European pictorial techniques by the artist, is deeply poignant. in oils, which Qianlong, unlike his to Chinese media. A touching friendship between grandfather Kangxi, disliked. Also, he Compare a portrait of the mature Qianlong and Castiglione survived had to cultivate the calligraphic brush Qianlong (Fig. 5) with one he executed throughout the Jesuit's life. The style which eventually earned him twenty years earlier (Fig. 4) which was emperor trusted him with the delicate recognition from fellow court painters, originally displayed in the Yuanming task of depicting his empress (Fig. 5) although his flower and bird pictures Yuan. The artist depicts the Emperor as well as the young emperor's eleven (Fig. 4, right) Detail of Kazakhs Presenling Horses in Tribule By Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766) Painting on paper Height 45 cm, width 247 cm MusCe Guimet, Paris

(Fig. 5, below) Detail of Inauguration Porlrail of Emperor Qianlong By Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766) Ink and colour on silk Height 52.9 cm, length 688.3 cm The Cleveland of Art

consorts. The inscription carved on the box for Castiglione's painting was, 'In my heart there is the power to reign peaceably'. It is interesting to note that the newly arrived missionary Jean- Denis Attiret (1702-68) was advised to I learn the art of depicting imperial consorts by painting concubines. When Castiglione died at age seventy-eight in 1766, there seemed little to show for fifty-one years of service at the court, at least from f- Attiret's point of view. What were a few bolts of silk and the rank of Mandarin compared with the sacrifice Castiglione had made, serving the > emperors of a foreign country and religion? However, an imperial edict engraved on the stele marking Cas- tiglione's grave testifies to Qianlong's esteem for the Jesuit and his contribu- ( tion to the buildings and gardens of the i. (Fig. 6, left) Head of the Monkey originally emperor's beloved Yuanming Yuan. from the Great Fountain in front of the Haiyan A few illustrations can provide an Tang, dated c. 1750 insight into the co-operative accom- By Guiseppe Castiglione (1688-1766) plishments of Chinese and Western Height 48.3 cm artists in the Yuanming Yuan. Al- Collection of My Humble House, though focusing primarily on Casti- Photograph courtesy of the collector glione as an artist and architect, this article will also discuss a few of the (Fig. 7, middle) Pillage of the Yuanming buildings, gardens and their embellish- Yuan in 1860, 1860 ments, as well as the origin of dispersed Signed 'Sodeeroy Durand' materials, unrelated to Castiglione, First ~ublishedin L'flIustratibn from the Yuanming Yuan and now in (~fte;Giuseppe Castiglione: A Jesuit Pointer Western collections. Three methods at the Court of the Chinese Emperors. by Cecile and Michel Beurdeley. Rutland, 1971) will be used to identify objects from the Yuanming Yuan, the first is simply (Fig. 8, bottom) Prince's Palace in the through citation in a published source Yuanming Yuan written by a specialist. The second is Probably by a student of Giuseppe by mention in an auction catalogue or Castiglione (1688-1766) appearance in an illustrated journal which contains verbal or visual iden- tification of that same object. A problem arises in the case of auction catalogues in which the seller is often anonymous and objects may be falsely identified as from the Yuanming Yuan in order to raise the price. However, if the seller can be identified as an officer involved in the 1860 incident who has written a published descrip- tion, the origin of the item auctioned would be considered authentic. Lastly, in cases where an item is held in a museum or a private collection, the likelihood of accurate provenance is strong.

nder the early Qing emperors, u East-West co-operative efforts resulted in the building of the baroque European Palaces in the Yuanming Yuan, giving rise to the design and production of gardens, buildings and objects by both European and Chinese craftsmen. The largest and most elaborate building in this section was the Haiyan Tang (Palace of the Calm Sea, %B@), built to house the hydraulic pumps for the fountains designed by the Jesuit Father Michel Benoist (1715-74). Twelve fantastic figures with the heads of animals clad in human garb were arranged around the cir- cular fountain, each of them as- signed by Chinese cosmology to two hours of the horary cycle. They served as a by spouting, in turn, at two hour intervals, except at noon, when they all spouted together. In the autumn of 1987, the bronze head of the monkey (Fig. 6) and the boar from this set of twelve bronze figures were painted the work Storming the Camp at Gadan-Ola in 1765, the engraving (Fig. 11) was executed for Qianlong in France under the direction of C.N. Cochin from 1769-74. This battle scene is one of a series of sixteen entitled The Conquests of Qianlong, most of the drawings for which were executed by Jesuits. The engraving shows the Chinese cavalry attacking and defeat- ing the troops of Amursana, an eastern Mongol leader who had subdued his rival Dawaci with the emperor's military support, only to turn against his benefactor. The enemy army is depicted seeking safety in the moun- tain gorges, but escape is impossible because Chinese reserves are in the distance. Castiglione's consideration of Chinese sensibilities is evident in the lack of any dead or wounded Chinese in the depiction. Castiglione, who was restricted by the emperor's directives, interested his patron in the European process of engraving on copper as a means of advertising his military achievements. The adoption of this medium allowed Castiglione, toward the end of his career, to express himself on a large scale, working with subject matter that required both landscapes and figures in motion. The general composition as well as the background landscape, however, are thoroughly Chinese while the subject matter and medium enabled Castiglione to use both Eastern and Western techniques. Castiglione and Attiret died before the sixteen engravings were delivered he can capture its essence. (See Tseng (Fig. 10, top) The emperor receiving barbarians to the emperor in 1775. Impressed with Yu's article, 'Castiglione: First Western at the Foot of Wanshou Shun, dated c. 1800 the results, Qianlong subsequently Painter of Underwater Fish', in this By an unknown Chinese artist, probably a student of Castiglione ordered similar engravings to com- issue for a counterargument, pp. Painting on glass memorate his other major victories, 52-60.) In depicting Ayuxi Assail- Height 112.5 cm, width 187.5 cm commissioning the Chinese artists ing the Rebels with a Lance (Fig. 12) Victoria and Albert Museum. London trained by the Jesuits to execute them. Castiglione easily caught the aggressive (Fig. 11, bottom) Storming the Camp at According to recent critics of Qing attitude of the rider astride his gallop- Gadan-Ola one of sixteen battle scenes paintings, these less appreciated ing steed; the accomplished baroque Executed from drawings by Giuseppe historical paintings and collaborative artist probably delighted in captur- Castiglione (1688-1766) documentary scenes by Castiglione ing such dramatic subject-matter. Height 51 cm, width 89.2 cm and Chinese court painters are equally However, the artist chose to depict Bibliothkque Nationale, Paris (After Giuseppe Castiglione: A Jesuit Painter deserving of admiration as his por- the horse to static perfection, down at the Court of the Chinese Emperors, by traits and his paintings of horses. to the graceful loops of the slack reins. Cecile and Michel BeurdeIey, Rutland, 1971) Portraying a galloping horse with all four feet off the ground was a method lthough only a few portraits at- of depiction which Chinese painters Atributed to Castiglione survive, had used consistently but Western numerous paintings of horses, some of painters had not yet developed. Accord- due to the influence of Chinese them on a large scale, testify to his ing to S. Reinach, in B. Laufer's models, beginning with a popular mastery of Chinese formulas in animal Christian Art in China, this flying French engraving in 1794 and spread- art. Specifically, he mastered the time- gallop, which was also used in the six- ing to Germany where it was in fre- honoured Daoist tradition in which the teen 'war' engravings executed in the quent use by 1837. The Jesuit drawings artist so understands his subject that West, became widespread in Europe then, may have been a vehicle for the demonstrates East-West co-operation, Leonard de Broussard oversaw the CATALOGUE an engraving (Fig. 7), of the Haiyan manufacture of glass chandeliers that UDu~omUnor Tang recalls the violent circumstances had been designed by Castiglione D'OB JETS of its destruction by Western forces in for the Yuanming Yuan. Researching 1860. First published in L 'Illustration these Chinese artists who produced DE LA CHINE on 22 December 1860, it is identified export wares poses a major problem in Giuseppe Castiglione: A Jesuit because of a lack of information, Painter at the Court of the Chinese especially in Chinese sources. The Emperors (Charles E. Tuttle, Rutland, painting of barbarians being received 197 1) by CCcile and Michel Beurdeley by the emperor, perhaps Jiaqing as as the 'Pillage of the Yuanming Yuan' his reign (1796-1821) coincides with done after a sketch by an officer. But, the Hall family's purchase, does not looking closely at the scene, one notes sacrifice Chinese aesthetics of subtlety a discrepancy with the title in the and refinement, while also drawing on peaceful tone of the racially-mixed a knowledge of Western perspective. audience who stand, squat, ascend or Perhaps this painting demonstrates descend Castiglione's magnificent Castiglione's continued influence and staircase, rather than by the movement his integration of Chinese aesthetics of four groups of swirling figures. with the Western artistic tradition A Chinese-style palace belonging to that he shared with his Chinese col- an uncle of the is leagues and pupils. PANS, WWWKlllE IS USTflu -nLU, 3, IIUE GM.WUtiUSnS illustrated in a painting (Fig. 8) of Among the set of twenty engravings I,U imposing size now owned by the of the European buildings in the Bibliothtque Nationale, Paris. The Changchun Yuan is a depiction of the (Fig. 9) Cover of a catalogue for an auction library catalogue gives neither the Maze (a literal translation of the of objects from the Yuanming Yuan, Paris, name of the artist nor the precise origin Chinese reads, 'flower garden'; see 1861 of the painting, but it was probably Fig. 3 of M. Pitazzaii-t'strsttvens painted by a student of Castiglione article on p. 62) designed by Cas- and was sold at one of the numerous tiglione. It was so called because many auctions of Yuanrning Yuan art objects chrysanthemums were planted there by in Paris and London following 1860 order of Qianlong, who, like the sages (Fig. 9). The painting shows a garden, of ancient times, cherished this flower sold at auction in New York. Accord-. a zigzag bridge, a large building con- for its tenacity in the frost and cold of ing to the auction catalogue, they nected with a long gallery walk, a late autumn. were from the collection of Stuart Tibetan-style pagoda, and a pavilion on According to Achille Poussielque in Blaine and Robert Booth and the an artificial rocky hill which one can Voyage en Chine et Mongolie, the monkey head was sold to the collec- reach by means of steps and a cave. Maze was enclosed by walls on four tion of My Humble House, Taipei. A painting on glass (Fig. 10) depicts sides. Outside these walls were tall Scheduled by Benoist to spout from the emperor receiving barbarians at the trees, while inside them was a deep three to five in the afternoon, the foot of the Wanshou Shan, in the stream bordered by rocks, a Chinese monkey has short pricked ears and its Yuanming Yuan, and not, as identified touch according to Attiret. One entered surface is chased to resemble fur; the by Beurdeley, at the palace gardens the Maze by a bridge and had to face is smooth with open eyes and a in Chengde. According to a 1936 choose the left or right side, but mouth containing even rows of teeth. catalogue of the Victoria and Albert inevitably became lost on the Maze The other bronze animal heads from Museum, this is a 'winter landscape paths, between walls taller than a this fountain have yet to be located. [of] the in Peking man. At the centre was a European The palace gardens, though for- which was destroyed in 1860'. It was style pavilion in which there was a vast malized according to the standards painted by a Chinese artist, probably incense burner. From this point one of French architect AndrC Le Ndtre a pupil of Castiglione, who has been could see the entire maze. Although (1613-1700), contained elements mentioned as having painted on glass. the actual structure has now dis- borrowed from Chinese gardens. Father The art of painting on the back of appeared, this engraving survives, Franqois Bourgeois, a French Jesuit at a mirror glass was imported from allowing a comparison with the maze Qianlong's court, described the ba- Europe about the middle of the eight- at Versailles designed by Le NBtre, and roque edifice as a building with ten eenth century; this particular work the one at Hampton Court designed by casements on the facade. This building was executed as one of a pair between an unknown architect. Both these as well as the other brick and stone 1803 and 1805 and was commissioned mazes were made of trees while Cas- edifices and fountains of the European by an Englishman, Richard Hall tiglione's included flowers. These Palaces are now all in ruins, but the (1764-1834) who eventually bequeathed Chinese details (including the rocks Chinese-style buildings fared worse it to his grandson, Armuyard bordering the stream and the incense because they were made largely of John Hall. The question remains to be burner) may have been encouraged by polished wood, painted vermillion and determined whether or not the glass Qianlong, a connoisseur of Chinese purple, which were consumed by fire. originated from the imperial glass gardens. In contrast to the architecture which workshop, where the Jesuit Gabrielle- Although Castiglione planned and (Fig. 12, above) Ayuxi Assailing the Rebels originally one of a matched pair, female fingers, and huge ones of jade to with a Lance although its mate was damaged ir- be worn by men when they draw the strings By Guiseppe Castiglione (1688-1766) reparably when coolies carrying the of their bows. Boxes with ornaments not Ink and colour on paper already mounted [contained] materials Height 27 cm, width 104 cm gifts from to Beijing . Taipei slipped on the ice. The richly gilded to be transformed into jewels ...unique pair was made for £6000 by Jacques specimens of transparent jade, rock crystal, milky jade, ...uncut diamonds... a regular Droz, a leading European clockmaker. bazaar - not one where everything is The clock consisted of a magician who quoted at nineteen cents-but rather,.. transmission of a striking Chinese could prophesize, a butterfly that 19,000 francs. One of the boxes, on being motif to Europe. could flutter and flowers that opened opened, appeared to send out sparks and It is ironic that the Qianlong and closed, two canaries that sang and sheaves of light ...' (Translated by the emperor was forced to turn to Euro- whistled while hopping from side to author) peans for the technology to construct side, two crystal flutes that produced the elaborate horological fountain and a tune while turning continuously, a good number of jade .pieces other water works in the Yuanming star that changed six colours, and A originally in the Yuanming Yuan Yuan because in previous eras the finally two mirrors with reliefs partially are now held in major museum collec- Chinese had possessed their own made of fine pearls that reflected tions. Among these is the sceptre engineering expertise. In the book all these movements activated either at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Heavenly Clockwork, Joseph separately or together. These aspects New York (Fig. 13). It is important Needham et al. detail such scientific were sketched in a plan that was both for its historical significance and and engineering feats as a boat powered originally in Van Braan Houckgeest's for its artistic value. Herber Bishop by produced during the account of the Dutch East India Com- describes the sceptre in his seminal (1271-1368). By the time pany's embassy to the emperor. It was work, Investigations and Studies in Jesuits arrived, few if any mechanical Castiglione's colleagues who kept the Jade: remained in working order and mechanisms in good repair. ...Color: white with greenish tint ... A large the expertise to manufacture clocks Innumerable objects of precious sceptre of the usual form, carved out of had been forgotten, perhaps because stone were seen at the Yuanming single piece of jade of unusually pure and the Ming rulers associated these mech- Yuan, according to eyewitness accounts pellucid tint, in the form of a polyporous anisms as products of their foreign of the 1860 incident. The French fungus... The handle is slightly engraved predecessors. Therefore, the Euro- officer Count Herisson gave a vivid upon its surface with an inscription in peans assumed the role of clockmakers and concise account: archaic script. at the Qing imperial court. The Jesuits would have been in In the rooms of the empress, the walls of The inscription begins on the top with the closets of the secretaries are furnished charge of regulating the seven-foot from top to bottom with pigeonholes, in two large characters indicating it was tall English clock in the form of an which, one above another, like files of made at the Imperial Manufactory and automated magician, which was sent lawyers' briefs, are red boxes of old Peking continues reading, 'with reverential to Qianlong as tribute in 1795 and lacquer, wonderfully engraved in intaglio, vows for a succession of fertile years housed in the European Palaces. It was in jade, in precious stones, tiny rings for and that throughout the world, every (Fig. 13, left) Ruyi sceptre Kangxi period (1662-1722) Jade Length 45.7 cm, width 12.7 cm X 6 cm Herber Bishop collection The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

(Fig. 14, below left) Mountain, dated 1784 Qianlong period Jade Height 57.2 cm, length 97.5 cm T.B. Walker Collection Photograph courtesy of the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis

Papal opposition to Jesuit adapta- tion to Chinese thought and culture culminated in a symbolic act - the withdrawal of Papal support for the Jesuits in China. Years later, the destruction and looting of the Yuanrning Yuan, where cultural under- standing had triumphed for a time, symbolized the complete breakdown of that cultural understanding. In the final analysis, Castiglione faced a challenge similar to that facing the Chinese artist today: the achievement of a convincing and genuine synthesis of traditional Chinese and modern Western aesthetics. Ultimately, Cas- tiglione and his fellow Jesuits tran- scended cultural barriers and succeeded in a magnificent East-West co-operative venture, best symbolized by the Yuan- ming Yuan. The Jesuits, Chinese artists and emperors who made this venture possible warrant further study simply because of the rarity of their wish be fulfilled. Respectfully presented figures appear, carved in full relief, on the achievement: a joining of two cultures by his servant Wu Ching, Director of paths and ridges below, where a lily pond based on a common understanding of the Factory'. The museum catalogue is introduced. A cliff with broad, smooth the nature of man and on the essential mentions that war was provoked with surface, bears a long inscription lightly character of Christian and Chinese Great Britain and France whose armies engraved in small characters, and coloured philosophies. red. This text is known as the Lan Ting Xu then marched on Beijing, sacking the or Orchid Pavilion Essay composed by Yuanming Yuan. This magnificent Victoria M. Siu %Z&@ is a Research Associate (321-79), and ever since used at the Institute for Chinese-Western Cultural tuyi sceptre was subsequently purchased as a model of elegant . At the History, University of San Francisco, and is in Paris and, no doubt, it formed part end of the inscription, copied by Qianlong, currently at Fu Jen University, Taipei, . of the spoil. and engraved in the jade directly from his The Walker Art Center in Min- brush, are two small imperial seals and the John Tchoan-pao Siu @#S+! graduated from the neapolis owns another example of jade words 'copied by the Emperor Qianlong, Faculty of Law, University of Paris. The thesis in the spring of the year 1784.' for his doctorate is entitled 'Le droit des gens from the Yuanming Yuan, a huge jade et la Chine antique', Paris, Jouve et cie. 1926. mountain (Fig. 14). This piece com- Adams also states the piece is probably \ memorates a literary club of the fourth Suggested further reading century. In an older catalogue for the the largest mass of sculptured jade Cecile and Michel Beurdeley, Giuseppe Cas- tiglione: A Jesuit Painter at the Court of the i Museum, R.H. Adams described the in existence. According to several i sources, it once occupied a prominent Chinese Emperors, Translated by Michael I piece as such: Bullock, Charles E. Tulle, Rutland, Vermont, place in the Yuanming Yuan. 1971 I ...Blended greenish-white jade (nephrite) The study of the Yuanming Yuan and George R. Loehr, Giuseppe Castiglione (1688- showing a cool light tone of the cultural exchange of East and West 1766), Pittore di Corte di Ch'ien-lung, im- translucent quality, boldly carved into its in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- peratore dellu Cinu lnstituto italiano per il turies reveals interesting experiments in medio ed estremo oriente, Rome, 1940 present form of a mountain, with peaks Rene Picard, Les peintures Jesuites a la cour de and deep ravines. Sheltered nooks disclose artistic exchanges, particularly those of Chine. Editions des 4 Seigneurs. Grenoble, pavilions and habitations. Groups of small Giuseppe Castiglione. The eventual 1973