Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies

Volume 8 Article 4

1995 The aN ture and Authority of Scripture: Implications for Hindu-Christian Dialogue Anantanand Rambachan

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs

Recommended Citation Rambachan, Anantanand (1995) "The aN ture and Authority of Scripture: Implications for Hindu-Christian Dialogue," Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies: Vol. 8, Article 4. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1109

The Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies is a publication of the Society for Hindu-Christian Studies. The digital version is made available by Digital Commons @ Butler University. For questions about the Journal or the Society, please contact [email protected]. For more information about Digital Commons @ Butler University, please contact [email protected]. Rambachan: The Nature and Authority of Scripture: Implications for Hindu-Christian Dialogue

The Nature and Authority of Scripture : Implications for Hindu-Christian Dialogue .

Anantanand Rambachan St Olaf College

IN A THOUGHTFUL series of reflections Klostermaier laments the trend in on the future of Hindu-Christian Dialogue, contemporary Christianity and Hinduism "to Klaus Klostermaier observes that there are dismiss the intellectual approach to religion "few Hindus who are interested in (con­ as irrelevant and to cultivate only its temporary) Christian theology, and there are emotional and pragmatic sides". Arguing fewer still who have a desire to enter into that intellectuals and scholars must be dialogue with their Christian counter­ allowed to playa more vital and central role parts".1 Others have noted that, with few in the development of these traditions, notable exceptions, the initiatives for Klostermaier affirms that Hindu-Christian dialogue in recent times have been from the dialogue 2 Christian side. In an earlier study, I must recover the intellectual substance suggested, briefly, a few possible reasons of Hinduism and Christianity and must for this lack of interest on the Hindu side. contribute actively to the ongoing search The memories of colonialism and its for truth/reality in all spheres of life. association with aggressive Christian The intellectual dimension of life has missionary activity, misrepresentation of not lost its importance in our time. 4 other religions, and the lack of genuine The loss of intellectual vigour in interest in the study and understanding of contemporary Hinduism is a matter of deep these traditions are not easily erased. There 3 concern and the causes are many and are still barriers of mistrust to overcome. complex. There are also serious implications I interpreted this lack of interest also as a for the Hindu interest in dialogue with reflection of certain popular Hindu attitudes Christians and for the nature of such towards religious pluralism. The famous dialogue. In this article, I want to identify Rgveda text, "One is the Truth, the sages what I perceive to be one major cause for speak of it differently" (1.64.46), is often the erosion of intellectual life in Hinduism employed to explain away doctrinal and its divorce from spirituality. I wish to differences as merely semantic ones. The reflect also on the significance of this for point of this text, as its context makes quite Hindu-Christian dialogue. clear, is not really to dismiss the It is my contention that the decline in the significance of the different ways in which significance of Vedic exegesis and the we speak of the One or to see these ways as reinterpretation of the authority of the Vedas equally valid. The text is really a comment in contemporary times vis-a-vis personal on the limited nature of human language. experience are connected closely with the Such language must by nature be diverse in weakening of scholarship in Hinduism and its attempts to describe that which is One its lack of interest in vigorous dialogue with and finally indescribable. The text, however, Christianity. It is not possible here to is widely cited in ways that seem to make describe in detail and to trace the historical interreligious dialogue redundant. roots of this process of reinterpretation; I

Hindu-Christian Studies Bulletin 8 (1995) 20-27 Published by Digital Commons @ Butler University, 1995 1 Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 8 [1995], Art. 4 The Nature and Authority of Scripture 21

have already attempted this elsewhere. 5 I pursuit of the same inquiry. Finally, the will, however, highlight some of the salient doctrine of Vedic infallibility was abolished and relevant historical developments and in 1850.7 Perhaps the main reason for draw attention to their significance for Tagore's rejection of the doctrine of Hindu-Christian dialogue. infallibility was his refusal to accept The Western impact on India in the passages in the Upanishads affirming the eighteenth century had far-reaching identity of atman and brahman. He chose to implications for almost every aspect of see brahman as lord and regulator of the Indian life and served as a catalyst for the universe and to see the atman as dependent cultivation of attitudes of rational inquiry on brahman for its existence. 8 and criticism. The earliest Hindu reformer From that tirne onwards, the non­ to reflect the impact of the West in his authoritative status of any text became thinking about Hinduism is the Brahmo enshrined in the creed of the Brahmo Samaj. Samaj leader, Rammohun Roy. While Roy's Nature and intuition took the place of attitude to the authority of the Vedas had an scripture as twin sources of knowledge. The element of ambiguity about it, even among basis of Brahmoism became "the pure heart his own followers, it is quite clear that his filled with the light of intuitive knowledge". approach to the texts was different from Tagore himself became increasingly reliant orthodox Pllrva Mfma,!,sa exegetes or from on personal intuition as his authority and the the Advaita Vedanta interpreter, Sankara. notion of divine command (adesa) assumed Roy applied an extrascriptural criterion of a significant role in his life. "true" religion in his evaluation of the worth Tagore's successor to the leadership of of any text, including the Vedas. He did not the Brahmo Samaj, the charismatic Keshub see religious truth as being limited to the Chandra Sen (1838-1884), rejoiced in the texts of the Vedas or see the Vedas as being rejection of Vedic infallibility. He saw it as indispensable for our knowledge of God. a grand step in the evolution of the Samaj The texts themselves and not only their and its embrace of monotheism which interpretations, he argued, must be subject was not confined to Hindoo books, to to rational analysis. the scriptures of their own countrymen, What I perceive as a watershed in the but was to be found in human nature in attitude of contemporary Hindu interpreters all the races and tribes and nations of to the authority of the Vedas occurred under the world.9 the leadership of Roy's successor, Keshub propagated a general theory of Debendranath Tagore (1817 -1905). The revelation in which he included nature, change was initiated as a consequence of a history, by which he means "great men", debate sparked by the conversion to and inspiration. He clearly emphasized Christianity of Umesh Chandra Sarkar and inspiration as the most direct and significant his wife. Sarkar was a student at Alexander form of revelation. He described it as Duff's school, and there was vigorous opposition to the school. Duff responded the direct breathing-in of God's spirit - with a challenge to the doctrines of the which infuses an altogether new life into Brahmo Samaj, questioning in particular the the soul, and exalts it above all that is belief in Vedic infallibility. 6 The Samaj earthly and impure. It is more powerful, initially defended the doctrine, but this being God's direct and immediate action stirred a great degree of unease in its ranks. on the human soul, while revelation made through physical nature and In an effort to resolve this issue, biography is indirect and mediate. to Debendranath Tagore sent four brahmin youths to Benares to study the Vedas. His Sen went much further than Tagore in own visit to the city in 1847 was partly in his denunciation of what he regarded to be

http://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol8/iss1/4 2 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1109 Rambachan: The Nature and Authority of Scripture: Implications for Hindu-Christian Dialogue 22 Anantanand Rambachan

doctrine and dogma, and in his unfavourable Ramakrishna possessed a deep aversion comparison of these with the "fire of to formal learning and education. Learned inspiration". Doctrine and dogma which persons were likened by him to kites and relate to intellectual cognition, reasoning and vultures, which soar to great heights in the logical thought were cold and lifeless and sky but whose eyes are forever focused on had nothing to do with the attainment of the decaying carcasses below. They were salvation. He spoke of direct perception as also described as similar to foolish people in the only reliable, conclusive and self-evident an orchard who count the leaves and fruit means of gaining spiritual knowledge and and argue to estimate their value instead of saw this perception as affirmed in the plucking and relishing the juicy fruit. Upanishads. Reason and the intellectual life received little No expression is more frequently used attention or recognition in his teachings. in the Upanishads than the "perception" Ramakrishna confessed scepticism about of God (darsan). It appears that Hindu the value of scriptural study. The scriptures sages, not content with intellectual are diluted, containing, as he puts it, a conceptions of the Almighty or abstract "mixture of sand and sugar", difficult to contemplation of certain Divine distinguish and separate. They are of no use attributes, sought earnestly and indeed in conveying the feeling of God: successfully, to behold the Supreme This feeling is something very different Spirit directly and to apprehend Him as from book-learning. Books, scriptures, a distinct and vivid reality in their inner and science appear as mere dirt and consciousness. 11 straw after the realization of God. Towards the end of his life, Sen, like Like with Keshub Chandra Sen, the direct Debendranath Tagore before him, gave vision of God was the main theme of his increasing prominence to the authority of instruction. It was the only form of divine command (adesa) and claimed to verification: have received a special revelation and dispensation from God. The significance of But seeing is far better than hearing. scriptural revelation was reduced by his Then all doubts disappear. It is true that claim that the texts of this New Dispensation many things are recorded in the (Nava-Vidhan) included "the whole of scripture; but all these are useless without the direct realization of . science, physical, metaphysical and moral 12 and also the science of religion". God. At the time of Keshub's death in 1884, Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), the the centre of religious attention in Calcutta foremost disciple of Ramakrishna, has, more had already shifted to Ramakrishna (1836- than any other Hindu in recent times, 1886) who had taken up residence in the influenced the popular understanding of KalI temple at Dakshineshwar. Primarily Hinduism in India and abroad. There is very through Vivekananda and the Ramakrishna little in modern Hindu, particularly Vedanta, Mission founded in 1897, Ramakrishna, like apologetic writing that does not carry the the Brahmo Samaj, has exerted significant imprint of Vivekananda's influence. His influence on the character of contemporary attitude to scriptural authority was shaped by Hindu attitudes to scriptural authority. While the teachings of Ramakrishna, but also by Ramakrishna's background was different the stand of the Brahmo Samaj in whose from that of the Brahmo Samaj leaders in circles he was active as a youth. He that he was virtually unexposed to developed the suggestions and outlines from westernizing influences, he concurred with these sources into an elaborate rejection of them in his disdain for scripture and in his the necessity for scripture. championing of personal experience.

Published by Digital Commons @ Butler University, 1995 3 Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 8 [1995], Art. 4 The Nature and Authority of Scripture 23

Vivekananda followed his teacher, become a rsi... The chief characteristic of rsi.. Ramakrishna, in attributing a low value to status is the possibility of a direct scriptures and in upholding the supremacy of apprehension of truth. The possibility and personal experience. The adequacy of requirement of every individual to become scriptures is compared to the utility of a map an rsi is one of the important points of to a traveller, before visiting a country. 13 contrast that Vivekananda emphasized The map, according to Vivekananda, can between Hinduism and other religious create only curiosity for first-hand traditions. In the latter, he claims, insight is knowledge of the place and can limited to a few select individuals through communicate only a vague conception of its whom truth is made available to the many. reality. Maps are in no way equivalent to the Truth came to Jesus of Nazareth, and direct knowledge of the country, gathered by we must all obey him.. But the truth actually being there. came to the rsis of India - the mantra­ Vivekananda understands the Vedas to drastiis - the seers of thought - and will be records of the spiritual discoveries of conie to all ~~is in the future, not to others and the methods by which such talkers, not to book-swallowers, not to discoveries have been made. These findings, scholars, not to philologists, but to seers however, have no validity unless they are of thought. (CW, 3:283) personally rediscovered by each person: Vivekananda often asserted that only in There are certain religious facts which, becoming a rsi does one understand the as in external science, have to be scripture prop·erly. His argument appears to perceived and upon them religion will be that as products and records of direct be built. Of course, the extreme claim perception, these texts were not written for that you must believe every dogma of a the intellect, or for understanding through a religion is degrading to the human process of rational inquiry and analysis. mind. The man who asks you to believe They become meaningful only when one has everything, degrades himself, and, if lifted oneself to the same heights of you believe, degrades you too. The sages of the world have only the right perception. At that point, however, they are to tell us that they have analysed their useful only to the extent that they confirm minds and have found these facts, and if what one has known directly (cw, 4: 165, we do the same we shall also believe, 7:85,89). An opinion like this seems to and not before. That is all there is in deprive the scriptures from having even the religion. (CW, 2: 163) prelim,inary worth of a map. Scriptural analysis is described by The proof of the truth of the Vedas is the Vivekananda as intellectual opium eating direct knowledge of the individual, not the (see 1 :45, 4: 168). Scriptures are fact of its embodiment in any text. The cw, specified by him as unsatisfactory theoretical individual must verify the text and this religion and included among the non­ verification is likened to_ ordinary direct essentials of religion. Among other non­ perception. essentials he listed doctrines, dogmas, The proof, therefore, of the Vedas is rituals, temples, images and forms. just the same as the proof of this table S. Wesley Ariarajah identifies four before me, pratyak~a, direct perception. different types of interreligious dialogue, This I see with the senses, and the each with its unique contribution to truths of spirituality we also see in a make. 14 Dialogue of life is an encounter superconscious state of the human soul. which takes place in the course of everyday (CW,3:253) life among people of different traditions who The imperative, therefore, for live in the same community. There is no Vivekananda, is that everyone should conscious or explicit articulation and

http://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol8/iss1/4 4 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1109 Q Rambachan: The Nature and Authority of Scripture: Implications for Hindu-Christian Dialogue

24 Anantanand Rambachan

exchange of religious belief. Such explicit dialogue with Christianity. The dialogue of exchange of beliefs and perspectives is a discourse is most enriching when it occurs characteristic of the dialogue of discourse. among participants whose lives reflect the In the dialogue of spirituality, participants integration of both. seek "to go beyond words to encounter the The divorce to which I am referring can other at the level of the heart". It attracts be illustrated by highlighting the classic those "who feel that the essential unity of approach of Sankara or Ramanuja. For humanity cannot be expressed in words, but Sankara , the Vedas are the definitive and must be celebrated in worship and unique source of our knowledge of brahman, meditation". Finally, the dialogue of action the gain of which leads to the discovery of is characterized by cooperation among moksa. The Vedas are a valid source of people of different faiths for the attainment knowledge in the form of words (sabda­ of desirable ends of their common existence pramaf}a) and saving knowledge depends on such as peace, justice, protection of the the proper comprehension of the meaning of environment, human rights etc. these words. Scriptural learning and exegesis While acknowledging the various forms therefore become very important along with of interreligious dialogue, it appears to me such disciplines as grammar and etymology that what Ariarajah calls the dialogue of that aid interpretation. Proper principles for discourse will continue to be one of its arriving at the meaning of the text are necessary and vital forms. While not important. 15 prominent in the other forms, it seems to be The acceptance of the Vedas as an implied in them. The sharing of thought and authoritative source of knowledge did not reflection, the understanding of the scope mean the abandonment of a very important and limits of reason and language in other role for reason. Reason is important for traditions, and the mutual enrichment which deciding between different interpretations of comes from exposure to each other's passages and for reconciling conflicting wisdom (jiitina) are facets of dialogue ones. Reason also plays an important role in which, if engaged in with commitment, assessing and responding to rival views. humility and a passion for truth, can never Sankara obviously takes differences of become "ivory tower" intellectualism. Such doctrine very seriously and in responding to dialogue needs to find a prominent place in the claims of rival systems which do not the meeting of Hinduism and Christianity. accept the authority of the Vedas, he is The decline of intellectual vigour in any constrained to demonstrate the validity of tradition through the denigration of reason Advaita on the basis of the reasonableness of and the intellect will be reflected in the its propositions. quality of its interest in other traditions and The decline of the significance of the in the kind of interreligious dialogue in Vedas as a pramtif}a and its characterization which it desires to engage. The championing as second-hand religion has contributed to in contemporary Hinduism of personal the devaluing of scriptural scholarship. Its experience over the authority of scripture, study, exegesis and interpretation are not of which I have briefly traced in this essay, has utmost significance. Vivekananda contributed to the divorce of scholarship contemptuously dismisses scriptural from spirituality. Examples of scholarship scholarship as an activity at the theoretical without religious commitment and religious and intellectual level. With an emphasis in commitment lacking the self-critical insights contemporary Hinduism on the gain of of scholarship abound. The creative knowledge through the transcendence of combination of scholarship and spirituality is reason and not on its mediation, reason, rare in modern Hinduism. Their argument and intellectual activity, all disconnection limits the quality of the Hindu important qualities of interreligious dialogue,

Published by Digital Commons @ Butler University, 1995 5 Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 8 [1995], Art. 4 The Nature and Authority of Scripture 25

assume more of an obstructive character. acknowledges the ultimacy of scriptural There is an impassioned derogation and revelation for our knowledge of the belittlement of the human intellect in absolute, his understanding of the Vivekananda, the leading Neo-Vedanta relationship between scripture and personal interpreter, which is not at all found in his experience (anubhava) is dynamic and classical predecessors: creative. It offers scope for vigorous life of The intellect is only the street-cleaner, the intellect by preserving for it a necessary cleansing the path for us, a secondary role in the spiritual quest. By being more worker, the policeman; but the faithful to the Upani~adic ideal of the unity policeman is not a positive necessity for of learning (srotriyam) and cotnnlitment to the workings of society. (CW, 2:306) spiritual truth (brahinanistham) it offers a more promising and rewarding model for Paradoxically, it would seem that where the Hindu dialogue with Christianity and other Vedas are upheld as a valid means of religions. The complete subordination, on knowledge, reason has a more positive role the other hand, of scriptural revelation to the to play in clarifying, explaining and authority of personal experience and the defending its propositions. Where the associated vilification of reason, the role of attempt is made, on the other hand, to the intellect, discussion and language have supersede the necessity for faith in the sadly engendered scepticism about the worth scripture in the interest of being more of dialogue in which these have a prominent rational, reason becomes almost ~ole. The devaluation of learning and insignificant. Intellectual skills in a prominent heroic . The rejection of the primary authority of interpreter of Hinduism, like Vivekananda, s~r~pture, the derision of scholarship, the must not go unchallenged. ndlcule of dogma and doctrine and the Since the latter half of the 1960s, the belittling of reason, which we see in so Hindu population of the United States has many modern interpreters of Hinduism, have been growing steadily. Until that time, the other important implications for Hindu­ doors of welcome were virtually shut to ~hristian dialogue. Perhaps most important immigrants from Asia. The Chinese IS the tendency to overlook the significance ~xclusion act of 1882 was applied broadly to of doctrinal differences. Because conclusive Include all people of Asian origin. In 1965, insight is understood to be gained through a new immigration law, initiated by John F. an experience which transcends reason Kennedy, abolished quotas based on national interpreters like Vivekananda are able t~ origins and opened the country to dismiss what they perceive to be immigrants from India. Today there are preoccupation of the rational mind. It is only lively and flourishing communities of ?y overlooking and dismissing the Hindus in most of the major cities of North Importance of different doctrinal claims that America and temple construction has rapidly one can so easily assert, as many Hindus do, followed the establishment of such that all paths lead to the same goal. Such communities. Hindus are prominently among scant regard for differences of doctrine is those whom W. C. Smith described as "our often frustrating for many Christians who neighbours, our colleagues, our competitors, engage with Hindus in dialogue. our fellows" . 17 I do not wish to deny the vital role of The context of interrelated living offers the experiential dimension in the human fruitful opportunities for the "dialogue of search for truth or to claim that it is without life" between Hindus and Christians and this significance· in the Hindu tradition. Sankara , is clearly taking place. I think that most himself, at various points in his commentary Hind~s in North America will easily identify on the Brahma-sUtra acknowledges this occaSIOns and moments in their lives when role. 16 While Sankara, as I believe,

http://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol8/iss1/4 6 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1109 Rambachan: The Nature and Authority of Scripture: Implications for Hindu-Christian Dialogue

26 Anantanand Rambachan

they had to articulate some aspect of their Notes faith and practice to people of other religions. Hindus, on the whole, usually 1. Klaus Klostermaier, "The Future of Hindu­ embrace the opportunity to do this. Our Christian Dialogue" in Harold Coward interrelated lives in communities of diversity (Ed.), Hindu-Christian Dialogue. Maryknoll: will also require of us more engagement in Orbis Books, 1989, p.265. the "dialogue of action" through which we 2. See Harold Coward, "Hindu-Christian will be called upon to work with others for Dialogue: A Review", Hindu-Christian the advancement of mutual interests. While Studies Bulletin 1 (Autumn 1988), pp.I-5. 3. See Anantanand Rambachan, "Religious there are many groups in North America Pluralism: A Hindu Perspective", Current whose beliefs and practices are influenced Dialogue 17 (December 1989), pp.25-7. by elements of Hinduism, the "dialogue of 4. Klostermaier, "The Future of Hindu­ spirituality" which Ariarajah describes as Christian Dialogue" p.269. involving participation in each other's 5. Anantanand Rambachan, The Limits of worship and meditation is still exceptional Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of for Hindus. There is only one Hindu-based the Authority of the Vedas. Honolulu: organization, of which I am aware, The University of Hawaii Press, 1994. See International Society of Krishna Chapter 1. Consciousness in West Virginia, which 6. See Sivanath Sastri, History of the Brahmo prominently promotes dialogue of this kind. Samaj, 2nd ed. Calcutta: Brahmo Samaj, Ariarajah points to the concerns which many 1974, p.63. people have about the possibility of 7. It is unfortunate that there are no records of the details of the argument on both sides. meaningfully entering the worship of another Such records would have clarified the tradition and fears of uncritical syncretism. concerns of the Brahmo Samaj about the The dialogue of discourse between authority of the Vedas. Hinduism and Christianity in North America 8. See S. K. Das, The Shadow of the Cross: is lacking both in frequency and depth and Christianity and Hinduism in a Colonial in this essay I have offered another reason Context. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, for what many have discerned to be the lack 1974, pp.70-1. of Hindu interest and initiative for such 9. K. C. Sen, "The Living God in England and dialogue. The questioning of uncritical India" in Discourses and Writings. Calcutta: attitudes about the supremacy of personal Brahmo Tract Society, 1904, p.149. experience, and the recovery of its existing 10. K. C. Sen, "Great Men" in S. D. Collet but overshadowed traditions of vibrant (Ed.) Lectures and Tracts by Keshub learning and spirituality seem to me to be a Chunder Sen. London: Strahan, 1870, p.88. 11. K. C. Sen, "Primitive Faith and Modern necessary condition for fruitful dialogue of Speculations" in Discourses and Writings, discourse between both traditions. Modern p.46. Hindu commentators have not only upheld 12. See Mahendranath Gupta, The Gospel of the authority of personal experience but they Ramakrishna. Swami Nikhilananda (Trans.) have affirmed this to be the uniqueness of New York: Ramakrishna-Vedanta Centre, Hinduism. I am convinced that the 1977, pp.543, 645-6, 476. affirmation of a more creative relationship 13. See The Complete Works of Swami between revelation, reason and experience Vivekananda (CW). 8 vols. Calcutta: Advaita will reveal many more exciting areas of Ashrama, 1964-1971, 1: 185-6. common interest for discussion between our (Documentation is hereafter given in the two religions. text). 14. See S. Wesley Ariarajah, "Pluralism and Harmony", Current Dialogue 25 (December 1993), 17-19.

Published by Digital Commons @ Butler University, 1995 7 Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 8 [1995], Art. 4

The Nature and Authority of Scripture 27

15. For a discussion of the method of Sankara 16. See, for example, his commentary on see Anantanand Rambachan, Accomplishing Brahma-sutra Li.2. the Accomplished: The Vedas as a Source of 17. W. C. Smith, The Faith of Other Men. New Valid Knowledge in Safikara. Honolulu: York: Harper and Row, 1972, p.1l. University of Hawaii Press, 1991.

http://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol8/iss1/4 8 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1109