<<

THE SPIRITUAL INFLUENCE OF WESTERN ON THE FIRST GENERATION OF ARAB-AMERICAN IMMIGRANT WRITERS

A Thesis

Presented to

The Graduate Faculty at the University of Akron

In Partial Fulfillment

for the Requirements for the Degree

Master of English

Rawan Alshareif

May, 2018

THE SPIRITUAL INFLUENCE OF WESTERN WRITERS ON THE FIRST GENERATION OF ARAB-AMERICAN IMMIGRANT WRITERS

Rawan Alshareif

Thesis

Approved: Accepted:

Advisor Dean of the Collage Dr. Hillary Nunn Dr. John Green

Faculty Reader Dr. Joseph Ceccio Dean of Graduate School Dr. Chand Midha

Faculty Reader Date Dr. Heather Bruan

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 4

II. ’S INFLUENCE ON ’S THE BOOK OF KHALID (1911) ...... 10

Transcendentalism ...... 11

Rihani's life as Shaping force for Khalid ………………………………………,,,,,,….14

III. THE INFLUENCE OF WILLIAM ’S ON GIBRAN KHALIL GIBRAN IN (1923)...... 32

Defining ...... 34

Blake and Gibran ...... 35

Gibran Khalil Gibran… ...... 36

IV. RUSSIAN LITERATURE AND 'S INFLUENCE ON IN THE BOOK OF MIRDAD (1948) ...... 48

Literature and Morality for Tolstoy and Naimy ...... 50

The influence of Tolstoy in The Book of Mirdad ...... 55

V. CONCLUSION ...... 64

REFERENCES ...... 68

iii

INTRODUCTION

This thesis focuses on the influence of elements of Western literature as exemplified by specific writers on immigrants who came to the United States between 1911 and 1950. In 1920 in , a small group of Arab-American writers formed a literary society under the name of the Pen League, also called "al-

Mahjar” which aimed to create a literary bridge between the East and the West (Kayyali

126). Its members decided to write their own works in English as well as translate significant examples of (Kayyali 126). Salma Jayyusi describes how these early Arab-American writers came to the United States as immigrants with the desire for change and thus to break away from the traditions of Arabic writing (131). At that time the Turkish military ruled most of the Arabic speaking world and thus wielded a tremendous amount of power which impeded free expression. This prevented Arabic literature from developing (Al Maleh 314). However, these writers who had formed the

Pen League were able to write freely once they arrived in the United States, and subsequently their literature made a great impact both inside and outside of the United

States. Most of the Pen League writers, predominantly Christians, had immigrated from

Lebanon and (O’Connor 98). It is important to point out that the members of the

Pen League considered writing in the United State to be an opportunity, because here they could express their thoughts freely in contrast to their home countries (Kayyali 126).

4 Ameen Rihani, Gibran Khalil Gibran, and Mikhail Naimy are the Pen League writers on whom I focus, whose work clearly demonstrates this reflection of Western literature whether they wrote in Arabic or English (Al Maleh 314).

These three writers likewise have in common the influence of Western religious philosophy and its writers. The Book of Khalid (1911) by Rihani, The Prophet (1923) by

Gibran, and The Book of Mirdad by Naimy all reflect the influence of Western religious writers in many aspects. For example, either directly or indirectly, each presents his protagonist as a prophet. Additionally, these characters deliver enlightening wisdom to their people, just as the prophets had done, about morality, and thus offer readers a better understanding of life, as well as advice about spirituality, religion, and . Rihani's novel The Book of Khalid tells Khalid's story, the struggles that he faces when he emigrates to the United States, while trying to understand his identity. As a result of the identity struggle, Khalid undergoes a personal and spiritual change. Then, Khalid decides to go back to his home country, , to rescue it from the rule of the Ottoman

Empire, which he attempts to do by giving political speeches that encourage the people to rebel. The story ends with Khalid’s disappearance as the had pressured him to stop his political activities. Gibran’s The Prophet presents a character who will rescue the people through his wisdom in life. The book starts with a farewell; a prophet wants to leave, but a group of people encourage him to stay longer to give them advice about different topics. The prophet agrees and talks about many different aspects of life,

5 such as love, marriage, joy, and sorrow. Mirdad in Naimy's The Book of Mirdad, gives speeches that inspire his group members. All three of these works use the same method to deliver the writers’ thoughts through their protagonists, advising the people with moral lessons about matters which pertain to life, as well as thoughts about religion and God.

The first chapter discusses the influence of the Transcendentalist Ralph

Waldo Emerson on Ameen Rihani, as shown in The Book of Khalid. In this chapter, I first identify and define and its relationship to Ralph Waldo Emerson.

Then, I analyze the novel to show how Ameen Rihani made use of this influence. Both of these writers are linked in that they share similar philosophical perspectives about life, such as understanding the relationship between oneself and God and how nature is the source of spirituality (Funk & Sitka 56). For both Rihani and Emerson, seeing nature as central to spirituality will result in making the individual trust his intuition as a primary source to develop society and understand the value of individualism and its importance for spiritual growth, as presented in the character of the protagonist Khalid. Khalid is a

Lebanese man who emigrates to the United States to work. Khalid goes through a spiritual awakening that results in changing his prospective about life. These changes happen when Khalid travels to the United States and occur due to the influence of the

Western philosophers that he starts to read. Emerson is one of these writers that the character Khalid reads. Khalid’s character reflects Emerson’s influence; not only does the book mention Khalid's reading of Emerson but also depicts Khalid quoting Emerson.

Through the inspiration of Emerson, Khalid starts to connect with nature, and he sees

God in nature (Al M Maleh 318). Then, Khalid comes to understand the importance of one's own intention and its link to the individual’s growth. All these inner changes that

6 Khalid goes through make him turn against social norms, and he starts to criticize both the United States and his home country (Funk& Sitka 55). Presented as a prophet, Khalid wants to change and enlighten his society. In the novel, Rihani wanted to send a message to the readers, which is saying that in order to create a better world the East and the West should cooperate. He blends his views with those of the transcendentalist Emerson. Thus, it can be said that Rihani was influenced by Transcendentalism and by Emerson, and that is revealed in his novel The Book of Khalid through the character of Khalid.

The second chapter is about the influence of Romanticism, especially Blake, on

Gibran's The Prophet. Gibran's book is a collection of poems and prose poems. These poems and prose poems give advice about many different elements of life as told by a prophet. Gibran was influenced by most of the writers from the Romantic era (Jayyusi

362), but he is especially influenced by Blake (Imangulieva 10). There are similarities that can be seen between Blake's and Gibran's , which occur in two aspects: both use an ideal hero who narrates their poems, and both emphasize the importance of the individual and freedom to achieve self-growth. Additionally, Blake and Gibran wrote about similar matters, such as the concept of love, its relation to truth and the concept of good and evil, and how both are essential to balance life. Also, both borrowed imagery from nature in their poems (Imangulieva 11). In this chapter, I refer to Aida Imangulieva in several points, because she describes most of the similarities between Blake and

Gibran in terms of the concept of good and evil and nature imagery. What I add to her research is the concept of the hero -- in other words, the ideal hero who narrates the poems of both Blake and Gibran. To build this chapter further, I used different poems of

7 Blake and compare them to Gibran's book The Prophet. Gibran reflects Blake's writing as can be clearly seen in The Prophet.

The third chapter studies Russian Literature and Leo Tolstoy’s influence on

Mikhail Naimy as seen in The Book of Mirdad (1948). Naimy is one of the Pen League writers who was influenced by Western writers, though in a different way from the other

Pen League writers. Naimy was influenced by Russian literature (Swanson 49). In contrast to the others he studied at an Orthodox school in Lebanon, and at that time these schools were established by the Russians (Marks 95). Also, he was an outstanding student and consequently was sent to continue his studies in Poltavian, Ukraine, which was then part of the Russian Empire (Swanson 49). Thus, Naimy read Russian literature when he was in the Orthodox school. One of the Russians that Naimy read and was influenced by in his philosophy was Tolstoy. Naimy's philosophical book The Book of

Mirdad illustrates the influence of Tolstoy's philosophical thoughts on his work. In this chapter, I reference Imangulieva’s and Swanson’s studies demonstrating how Tolstoy's philosophy influenced Naimy. I add to this analysis, comparing Naimy's The Book of

Mirdad and Tolstoy's philosophy, as seen in some parts of his book A Confession. This book by Tolstoy discusses his journey of faith, and it can be said that Naimy was influenced by this book since there are some similarities of thought that can be seen in

The Book of Mirdad, specifically the nature of good and evil, concepts of faith and spirituality, and the importance of self-improvement for the individual to understand God and faith. This analysis will prove Mikhail Naimy's was influenced by the Russian writer and philosopher Leo Tolstoy.

8 For the most part, these three writers of the Pen League show the impact of these

Western writers, and that impact shaped their views of religious thought that is shown in their works. That influence made their religious thought more liberated, which they could express more freely in the United States but were not always celebrated in the Arab world. In fact, some Arab critics reject their ideas. Said Ghamdi says some of the modern writers, such as Gibran, wanted to bring new ideas in his writing, and that resulted in bringing new views of religion that conflicts with the religion’s truth. Also, he calls

Gibran's style of writing the destroyer (Ghamdi 134). This shows that the works of the three writers carry new perspectives in shaping religious viewpoints, which are not always accepted in the Arab world. However, these three writers did not adopt all their religious insights from Western writers, but they were inspired by them. In other words, the three writers were influenced by the Western writers, and they blended some of these

Western writers’ points of view concerning religion and spirituality in creating their own interpretations.

9

CHAPTER I

RALPH WALDO EMERSON’S INFLUENCE ON AMEEN RIHANI’S THE BOOK OF KHALID (1911)

This thesis begins with Ameen Rihani’s The Book of Khalid, which has been called the first Arab-American novel (Wail 38). Most criticism of the novel, which was published in 1911, focuses on the influence of Western movements and schools, most particularly Romanticism, on the Pen League writers, specifically Ameen Rihani. The writers of the first wave of Arab-American emigrants were in need of new inspiration to refresh their ways of writing, since Arabic literature was at that time confined by traditional forms. In other words, it was Arabic literature which had stopped developing, maintaining only specific types of writing (Jayyusi 131). This is why Rihani was influenced by the Western literature. He read European Romanticism and the

Transcendentalism of that time (Al Maleh 314). Transcendentalism was a result of the

New Romanticism in the 1830s and the 1840s. Critics describe transcendentalism as a movement that was held by intellectual in . This movement of philosophic thoughts were driven from the European Romanticism, but it was affected by the characteristics of American culture. For example, it called for individuality and the freedom of thinking (Murray 1149).

This chapter will focus on the influence of Transcendentalist writer Ralph Waldo

Emerson on Ameen Rihani's The Book of Khalid. In “Emerson’s Transcendentalism”

10 Régis Michaud noted that Emerson's name is always linked with the Transcendentalism

(73). He is one of the remarkable authors of the Transcendentalist movement and has a clear influence on Rihani's The Book of Khalid. Consequently, this chapter will start by defining what Transcendentalism is, and who the important figures in that movement are, their relationship to Ralph Waldo Emerson and how ultimately, they have an influence on

Ameen Rihani, especially in his novel The Book of Khalid. There is a parallel that can be seen between Ralph Waldo Emerson and Ameen Rihani's view of life; both of them share the same philosophical about life, such as the relationship to understanding oneself and God and how nature is the source of spiritually. Furthermore, they both value individualism and its significant role for the spiritual growth, and how that will result in making the individual trust his intuition as a primary source to develop society.

Transcendentalism

Before discussing Rihani's work, it is helpful to establish a working understanding of Transcendentalism and Emerson's role within it. Transcendentalism was a philosophical movement established in America, but as is true in so many cases had its roots in Europe. Many scholars have written to define Transcendentalism as a philosophical movement that encourages liberal spiritually, and the individual's power.

American Transcendentalism as a movement aimed for change. According to Joel

11 Myerson, American Transcendentalism meetings took place in Boston starting in

June,1836. This started when a minister at Bangor, Maine, Frederic Henry Hedge, invited

Ralph Waldo Emerson and others from Unitarian churches. That meeting was named the

Transcendental Club. The purpose from the Transcendental Club and its meetings is to discuss the issues that was happening at that time. They discussed philosophy and religion (Myerson 197-198). The Club did not have specific known members, but there were frequent visitors such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, George Ripley and George

Putman. Transcendentalism was influenced by and also by

Immanuel Kant (Sceery 9). Dana Rus says in an article The Role of Transcendentalism in

Shaping American cultural Ideology that this movement focused on individualism and self-confidence. It encouraged the person to look on the concepts of life with their own point of view, away from religion or social traditional perspective (249). This movement was formed based on the concept that man can reach to the “fundamental truth” by using his inner sensation. A man does not need experience in order to understand things around him when he has the power of his intuitive understanding. Transcendentalists see the man as spiritually the “center of the universe”. Each individual is the center of the universe because he is in the center of the attention, and in the position of power. Moreover, they give man abilities that usually are characteristics associated with divinity. The philosophical theory of Transcendentalism wants to say that human ability has no limits

(Rus 247). It is only limited when one does not understand his inner spirituality.

Transcendentalism represents the philosophy of the “emotional escape” (Rus

248), and it is the American response to Romanticism and to challenge the European culture. The emotional escape is to look on aspects of life with a personal perspective and

12 understanding. Transcendentalism shows how the American culture formed an original philosophical thinking that reshaped the perspective of things in life, such as man, nature, and God (Rust 248). Transcendentalism is also about the concept of the American dream,

“the concept of the New World as a place to start over and affirm one’s capacities to the fullest and an ardent belief in the powers of a self-reliant American (Rust 248). Ralph

Waldo Emerson is considered one of the important figures who established

Transcendentalism in America. It is an original American movement that was formed to get out of the European tradition of philosophies (Rust 250). They called for shifting the authority from religion and tradition to the individual's intuition.

Furthermore, transcendentalism does believe in the existence of God, but He is not existent in church only. However, God does not have the full authority on people.

Transcendentalism gives the authority to the individual and they give him godlike qualities in defining life's mortality; the person’s consciousness is the scale of mortality, and “man is the intermediary whose form is the result of his function as an organic link between man and God, in process which combines man, God, physical laws and moral laws.” (Rust 251). This shows that Transcendentalism says that the laws of morality are in the individual instincts.

There is a strong link between Transcendentalism and Emerson because he was a preacher who attended Hedge's meetings and developed central thoughts on religion. He sees that all religion is associated with the individual understanding (Michaud 75-76). In other words, Emerson believes that each individual in any religion should have the right to grasp his or her religion based on their own understanding. They do not need a preacher or a scholar to lecture them on how they should spirituality feel toward God.

13 Other transcendentalists saw that this movement called for liberating , while

Emerson saw it as creating a better understanding of religion by making a relation between what is ideal and what is real. He wanted to create a new philosophical foundation to spirituality (Michaud 78). His philosophy says that it is crucial for the individual to have his spiritual freedom and self-reliance. His philosophy is present in his writing, for example, “Nature” because when he wrote it he wanted to teach the individual the way to “access his own faith” (Michaud 78). He wants to prove that the belief in the self-intuition is an important element and a source of knowledge. The one can reach to the truth by understanding the world around him through his intuition.

Rihani's life as Shaping Force for Khalid

Again, Ameen Rihani's background has an influence on his work. He was born in

1876 in a Lebanon village, Furayka. Then, in 1888 he moved with his family at the age of twelve to America and settled in New York (Beshara 163). When he went to America, he worked with his father's business, which is how he mastered speaking English, and at the same time he had the time to read (Donovan 9). He also attended American public schools. His went back to Lebanon in 1897 (Kaufman 209). Then he went back to

America and settled in New York, and he visited to Lebanon constantly. Rihani started his writing career with short stories and articles both in Arabic and English. He published his works both in Lebanon, and in America. Rihani, and others Lebanese writers, established the Pen League group in May 1917 (Kaufman 210). Rihani's life ended in an accident while he was riding his motorcycle in Lebanon, and he was buried there

(Beshara 163).

14 Rihani is one of the Arab-American writers who published some of their work both in Arabic and English. He wanted to have an American audience. He wanted to create a space that could link both cultures, the East and the West. Rihani wrote in

English, even though not many knew English, or were fluent to read his novels that were written in English. Sometimes he would write his poems in Arabic, then translate them to English, and sometimes he would write directly in English, like with his novel

The Book of Khalid. One of the reasons that made Rihani write in English is that he wanted his work to be read in America, because he did not want to write in Arabic and make his literature only accessible by the East. In The Book of Khalid, he uses Arabic idioms and references, and sometimes he uses references from the American culture

(Nash 18). This clearly emphasizes the reason why Rihani wrote in English, since he was trying to present the Arabic culture to the American readers. In order to do that successfully he needed to make these connection between the Arabic culture and the

American clear to all of his readers. Rihani presents this idea in his novel The Book of

Khalid, when he is showing that there will be a better life for everyone if the East and the

West cooperate (Nash 25). They will gather in the middle and form a ground that will hold all of them.

It can be argued that Rihani had a lot in common with the protagonist of the novel

Khalid. They have similarities in the background and also in their philosophical ideas, thoughts about having a better community and, political point of view. Rihani came to the

United State as a Lebanese emigrant, as did the character of Khalid. Even that Rihani settled in America, he felt that he belonged to the East. But he viewed the West as the place of opportunities. Rihani lived his life between Lebanon and America which affected his belonging and resulted in him being out of place (Funk & Sitka 5). This

15 struggle of identity made him feel like he has two identities. However, Rihani did find a solution and he embraced his situation. He was proud of his ethnicity and appreciated traditions (Beshara 166). That also is seen in the story of Khalid when he returned to his homeland. In the novel, Khalid says “The West for me means ambition, the East contentment.” (Rihani 179). He sees the best in the East and the best in the West. His imagination pictures America as a land of opportunities. Khalid tells how a person in

America can turn sand into gold (Rihani 36). This is why he wanted the two sides to learn the best from each other. However, he mostly focusses on the East, because that is where his home country is.

Also, Rihani's interests toward politics made him want to solve issues concerns with his home country. One of Rihani's political and philosophic thoughts is that wanted to create democracy and to find justice in the Middle East, and that can be done by a corporation between the east and the west (Beshara 164). Before Rihani started writing, he paid his attention to politics. He was traveling back and forth from Lebanon to the

United States during World War 1. At that time, the Ottoman Empire was still in control.

Rihani started his political activities in 1898. When Rihani started giving speeches in

Lebanon, he was always talking about freeing Syria. He also wanted to make a Syrian union, as he wanted all Muslim and Christian Syrian to form one nation. He also stood with Arab rights against the Ottoman Empire (Beshara165). Rihani wrote about political situations in a more philosophical way (Al Maleh 313). It was the lens that he used when writing. In the novel Khalid come to the United States to live in the new world, and he also sees it as the land of opportunities. However, Khalid did not stay in the United States for the rest of his life. He feels that urge to go back to his homeland and to make things better. He wants to improve the political situation in his homeland based on what he

16 learns when he was away. One of his philosophical say that deal with the improvement of the political situations in his country is that the east should learn from the west. Khalid criticizes his country by saying that they had a lot of influences from the west. However, the influence is only limited to the materialistic elements: “We are beginning to know and appreciate English whiskey, but not English freedom; we know the French grisettes, but not the French sages; we guzzle German beer, but of German wisdom we taste not a drop

“(Rihani 211).

The story concludes with Khalid's return after a long traveling in Lebanon's mountains. He wanders into his country to see with his own eyes how people are living.

He realizes that his country's situation is more corruption than he imagined. Khalid continues to describe the positives of the West that the East are ignoring, and he notes that the East is only getting the West material's benefits. This shows how Rihani wanted to deliver through Khalid the idea of the good influence that could come from the West.

If only people knew that the influence should not be limited to the materials.

At the same time, Ameen Rihani was influenced by Emerson and the philosophy of Transcendentalism as shown in The Book of Khalid. This influence liberated Rihani and gave him a new vision when writing his novel (Al Maleh 314). The main theme of this novel is to show how an Arab immigrate name Khalid struggles in adapting with his society because of his philosophical thoughts. His society considers these philosophical points of view odd and not acceptable. What Rihani brought new to the Arabic literature by writing this novel is the philosophic influence that delivered in his writing. The Book of Khalid, the influence of Transcendentalism and Emerson is clear, not only by the

17 philosophical through, but also was mentioned directly. Ameen Rihani mirrored

Emerson’s philosophical view of life. These philosophical thoughts can be seen in

Khalid's character, and which can be spotted in the relationship to understanding oneself and God and how values nature is the sources of spiritually. Besides, the reader can see how Khalid presents Emerson's value of individualism and its significant role for the spiritual growth, and how that will result in making the individual trust his intuition as a primary source to develop the society.

The novel The Book of Khalid opens by an editor, who is a fictional character in the novel that narrated Khalid’s story. This character reads Khalid's story on a modern

Arabic manuscript when he was in the Khedivial Library in . The editor asks for permission to publish the manuscript that contains Khalid's story. Then the editor feels that he knew Khalid, and he wants to complete his story, but in order to do that he starts searching for more information about Khalid. He then meets with Khalid's friend Shakib, who then tells him that he wrote a biography that talks about his friend Khalid who had disappeared in Cairo, but the editor refuses to write a biography about Khalid based on the manuscript, because he does not really know Khalid in person and does not know his character. So, the editor tells us the story of Khalid based on the two manuscripts that he gathered, and he also added his own interpretation and perspective (Al Maleh 315-316).

The novel is narrated by three characters: the editor, Khalid and his friend Shakib. When the editor is in a person point narrated voice based on the Arabic manuscript that he found and translated it into English. The story is about two emigrant friends, Khalid and

Shakib. Their story is divided and named into three sections: the first section is “Al-

Fatihah”, the second is “To Nature” and the third one is “In Kulmakan”. The novel starts

18 when both Khalid and Shkib decide to travel to the United States to create a new life. The reason why Khalid wants to go to America is because he did not want to work in his father's store for the rest of his life. Furthermore, he had to have regular visits to his uncle, who was the one who raised him after his father died, but his uncle was not treating him well. He also was in love with his uncle's daughter. So, Khalid wants to travel to America to start a new life, but for Shkib, the reader does not get a lot of reasons. Shkib only wants to travel to America to make a fortune. Their trip to America is not easy; they settle in New York City and live in an old basement for a while and they start work as peddlers. Khalid starts to read a lot of books and he starts to change. He undergoes a lot of changes and his friend Shakib always tries to help him. Khalid stops work as a peddler because he starts to get busy with his reading and understanding the world around him in a philosophical view. At that time, Shakib helps him by providing money for their living. He tries to make him work with him, but Khalid refuses. Shakib does not stop paying off for both of their living. Then, the story shifts its setting when

Khalid and Shakib decides to go back to their home land. The reason that Khalid wants to go back is because he starts to criticize the West. However, he realizes that he also sees a lot of issues in the East. Then, he gets into a lot of troubles because he wants to make a change, and he does not succeed. The story ends by telling the reader that Khalid flees to

Egypt, and he disappears under obscure circumstances: “He has disappeared some ten days ago”, he then said, “and I no not whither.” Therefore, ask us not, O gentle Reader, what became of him. How can we know?” (Rihani 252).

It can be argued that Ameen Rihani reflected his ideas through the man character

Khalid. That can be seen on two sides; both share the same conditions on the personal level, and they share the same philosophic view of life. Starting by explaining how they

19 both share the same conditions, Rhiani came to the United States as an immigrate, and he also went back to his home country the same reason Khalid had to go back, which is a health issue that needed to be cared of in their home country. In the second section of the novel, when the doctor tells Khalid” he will either return home on his own account or die in New York” (Rihani 98). Khalid's health issue is not clearly explained. As on the philosophic aspect from the beginning Khalid was presented to the readers as a character who started reading many books when he came to America. He had a rule that he read

“one book at a time” and then he burns the book when he finishes is as a way to honor that book. Rihani did not burn books after reading them, but he was known of his love of reading and passion to learn more, and that was especially when he was in America and wanted to read from the western culture philosophy. Rihani observed his philosophy from the western society; he came to America when he was eleven years old and got his education there.

The Book of Khalid draws attention to American transcendentalism writers, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson (Choueiri 399). Rihani not only brings out the importance of nature as a reflection from Emerson's philosophical thoughts, but also quotes him directly. Throughout the novel, Khalid offers philosophical ideas that value of nature and its relationship to understanding oneself and God and how there is a value of the soul and spirituality over materialism. Both his views and Emerson's value individualism, not following the social order and how it's important for the individual to develop spirituality before deciding to maintain a change. Furthermore, they share the same philosophical ideas toward religion, and its relation to the individual's intuition.

20 The characteristic of Khalid shares similarities with Emerson's philosophy about nature. These similarities show when Khalid quotes Emerson directly in the novel. To explain more, Transcendentalism values nature, and its importance for one to connect with nature to understand their inner-self and God. In the novel, Khalid sees himself connected with nature. In the third chapter of the Second Book the narrator tells the reader that Khalid's love toward nature started when he goes to the Bronx Park when he was in America, and he says that this park “awakened in him his long dormant love to nature” (Rihani 103). Khalid's love of nature played an important part through the whole novel. He seeks his philosophy, observing nature, moreover, he expresses his philosophical points of view by using nature. That passion that's within Khalid about nature continues throughout the novel; moreover, he directly quotes Emerson’s philosophy about nature and adds his own interpretation of nature:

The beauty of Nature,' Emerson again, 'must always seem unreal and

mocking until the has human figures, that are as good as itself.'

And 'tis well, if they are but half as good, To me, the discovery of a

woodman in the woodman in the Wadi were as pleasing as the discovery

of a woodchuck or a woodswallow or woodbine. For in the soul of the

woodman is a song, I muse, as sweet as the rhythmic strains of the

goldfinch, if it cold be evoked, (Rihani146)

Khalid quotes Emerson when he talks about nature to make sense of things around him.

In addition, he expresses his passion and love toward nature, and how each person should awaken his love to nature. Khalid found his shelter in nature (Al M Maleh 318). He wanted to deliverer his ideas through the character of Khalid, and his thoughts are influenced by Emerson. Emerson philosophy is that he believed that nature is not only an

21 object, but also something that reflects the inner spirit, and there is a connection between the nature and the moral law. It is when a one observes nature and analyzes its mechanism and structure, then understand how the human nature is the same as nature's mechanism and also part of it. This observation of nature result in understanding that connection is wisdom. Furthermore, when the one learns to sufficiently experience nature, the one will create their own spiritual world (Funk & Sitka 63-64). This is what

Khalid feels when he goes out in nature. He feels that he is spiritually linked with nature; moreover, he experiences and observes that connection with nature to understand the moral law. He feels the God's spirit in nature.

Transcendentalism values nature and sees that it is linked with spiritually and understanding God, and transcendentalists see that spirituality surpasses the material.

They explain that by saying that the inner person is the real world, and not the material world. In fact, the one sees everything with their spirit (Funk & Sitka 56). For the person to live a better life, one should accept his inner spirit. Then he will reinforce the material world to help develop his life (Funk & Sitka 57). Emerson believed that to understand our inner spirit, one should be free from all boundaries because each individual's spirit possesses its own uniqueness; consequently, when individuals observe the material world from inward, their vision will not be similar to others’. The one should be willed enough to experience life by following his inner spirit (Funk & Sitka 57). Also,

Transcendentalism values spiritual faith more than religious creeds. It claims that everyone has the divine inside of them which means that they can connect to God not only in religious places like churches (Funk & Sitka 62). One can experience the divine

22 anytime and in any place. Moreover, they see nature as the best place that one can find

God. That means they do not believe in a specific religious creed, and do not link the spiritual faith of the individual with it.

Khalid not only quotes Emerson as he changes his ideas of material goods, he also shows transcendental philosophy that comes through in his actions. Khalid is a Christian, but he does not show his religions part in most of the novel, but he always shows his belief in following his own spirit and allowed himself to be free from the materialistic world. He is not detached from the materialistic world at the beginning of his journey; that lesson of not relating to materialism took time. When he came to America, he wanted to get money fast, so he and his friend Shakib started as peddlers. They will sell their goods and they claim that they brought it from the holy land to entice more customers:

“where he purchases a few boxes of trinketry,--scapulars, -beads, crosses, jewelry, gewgaws, and such like,-- all said to be made in the Holy Land” (Rihani 39). Khalid was doing something against the morals that he wanted to achieve, that is because he was valuing money and materialism. However, the reader can see how Khalid has changed by the ending of the first book and become more spiritual, and this can be seen when he did not want to continue as a peddler. Shakib tries to make him continue working with him, but Khalid refuses. One day he agrees to go with him, but instead of actually working he says he only goes with him to walk. Then, when they want to take a break from walking,

Khalid suddenly decides to burn his goods, and Shakib says: “The bottle was filled with kerosene, and in a jiffy the box was covered with the flame, Yes; and so quickly, so neatly it was done, that I could not do aught to prevent it” (Rihani 70). Khalid burned the goods as a way to rebel on his old self. He did not want to continue their commerce. He

23 wanted to discontinue their business, because he sees that there is corrupted in their business. Khalid's action can be named as a crazy act, but he labels it with a different name which is he was obeying this urge inside of him, which is following his inner spirit.

Also, the novel shares Emerson's concept of the individual, and its importance for the spiritual self-development and then the person will be ready to make a change. Khalid believes that everyone has a mission in this life, and each individual can make a difference and can affect others. Additionally, the individual’s beliefs can be spread and adopted by others (Funk & Sitka 59). These changes that happen to the soul through time allows the soul to be able to develop and grow. We see that in Khalid, his spirit guides him to change. This first started when he traveled from Lebanon to the United States. He was enthusiastic for not only a status change, but also for spiritual change. After Khalid was spending time being a peddler, he realizes that this is not the that he wanted to do for the rest of his life and he needed a change. He was happy when he starts to work as a peddler when he first came, but the time and the circumstances affected him and changed his soul and helped it to grow and to want more than being just a peddler. He needed that change to grow and make a change in his society; when he goes back to Lebanon, he could give his people a new perspective that they did not think about before. He could come with a different thinking than other because he is looking to the world from a different lens. For example, on the third book, chapter five, when he was looking on the social structure and analyzing the social class in his society: “I had to be silent as the pines in which I put up, until I become as healthy as the swallows, my companions there.

When we meet, I shall recount to you the many curious incidents of my solitude and my journey in the sacred hills of Lebanon (Rihani 203). Khalid here was sending to his friend

Shakib to tell him how after isolating himself he could gain more wisdom. In this quote it

24 can be seen how Khalid is learning from nature. As we said earlier, he appreciates nature and seeks lessons from observing it. His solitude in Lebanon's mountains taught him about the issues of his society. In other words, he individually guided him to develop himself, and then how to improve his society. This shows the importance of the individuality element in the novel.

It can be said that The Book of Khalid supports that transcendentalism thought.

Khalid's main struggle is about making a change, and though his thoughts about change were ignored or rejected. The reason why his ideas were rejected is because it did not match with the social order. He did not only criticize the East but also the West. (Al

Maleh 316). Khalid want to change the society and always tries to challenge the social norms. The reader can see that when he went back to Lebanon he did not return the same person. He stopped accepting the Eastern social norms that is not built on good reasoning.

For example, he rejects the church's rules structure, and he sees that the is following its own benefits. He also sees that the church uses its holiness to make people follow its rules without the ability to reject or complain. However, Khalid differs from other people, and he questions the churches intentions and. He did that without the fear of being excluded from the society. That resulted in him being rejected from his society, so he had to leave. The rejection was so intense that he had to flee from Lebanon to Egypt. By the end of the novel, that rejection was the reason behind his disappearance.

That shows how the character of Khalid reveals an influence by Emerson's transcendentalism as they share the same philosophical ideas toward religion, and its relation to the individual's intuition.

25 It can be said that Khalid has the same philosophic view of religion with

Emerson's transcendentalism. Emerson stated that both creeds and authority destroy the concept of religion and faith, and does not associate God with church, but he associates

God with nature. He sees that religion in the past was significantly stronger because if was free from the restrictions of the creeds and authority. At the beginning of the novel,

Khalid was introduced to the reader that he is a Christian, however, at the end of the novel Khalid was asked whether he was Christian or Muslim. He is not showing any clear faith, yet he is always discussing the import of spirituality. In the third part of the novel,

Khalid has a conversation with a person who admired his thoughts. That person told him that he thought he is Mohammedan, which was another name of Muslim, and he asked him” Then, are you Christian?” “I am a Christian too” (Rihani 214). Khalid then explains his answer more and says talking about religions:” I embrace truth, wheresoever I find it.

Indeed, every religion is good and true, if it serves the low purpose of its founder. And they are false, all of them, when they serve the low purpose of their high priests. (Rihani

215). This shows how Khalid does not believe that one religion is the truth, but all religions are the truth if they served its spiritual purpose in of making the one a better person. It can be seen that this idea is also a transcendentalist.

As mentioned earlier, Emerson believes in nature as a tool to understand religion; nature teaches people how to worship (Funk & Sitka 62). Emerson also rebel against the

Church and its rules; he wants to break from traditions that were created by the church.

(Hamilton 86). Nevertheless, Emerson sees that nature can teach the person's spirituality and therefore to connect with God. His philosophy of nature is that the individual will find (Hamilton 87). The impact that nature have on the individuals is a better guide than the what the Church's teaching. The reason why is that the nature is God's creation, while

26 the Church is a human-being creation. In Emerson's Nature, he explains some of his philosophical views of religion and God in the introduction: “Why should not we also enjoy an original relation to the universe? Why should not we have a poetry and philosophy of insight and not of tradition, a religion by revelation to us, and not the history of theirs” (Emerson 1). He wants to say why we as individuals cannot obtain an original relationship with God and religion. Emerson sees the Church as something that was created by humans. Thus, the individual does not need to follow the church's rules in order to connect with God. Emerson's philosophic thought goes against the orthodox

Christianity. He says that the church does not help the soul to grow and find its spirituality. (Hamilton 87-88).

Likewise, the character of Khalid, Emerson sees that the person does not have to follow the church or sees it as an authority over the self-reliance. The individual must believe in his own intention that he can get from different sources, and one of these sources is nature. Therefore, he sees how religion and nature are linked to reach spirituality and linking authority and creeds with religion will make it lose its meaning.

One example of this is that when Khalid was criticizing both Christians and Muslims, he was not biased to any religion. He also criticizes religion in both East and West. He leaves America because he hated the value of materialism over spiritualism. So, when he went back to Lebanon he was surprised that materialism went far to the East as well. (Al

Maleh 312). His influence from Transcendentalism changes his point of view; he was not like that from the beginning of the novel. Khalid faces rejection from the church and get into an argument with them.

One example that shows how Khalid argues with established religion and does not accept how the church presents it is when he wanted to marry his cousin Najma and the

27 church disprove the marriage because they are cousins. He had a mutual love with his cousin before he went to America, and when he returned to his homeland he was still in love with her and wanted to marry her. The church does not approve cousin's marriage; however, they will allow them to get married if they agreed to pay five hundred piasters, but Khalid rejection that condition. This is the dialogue that is between Khalid and the priest made clear that Khalid will not obey the church's rules:

But can we not obtain this sanction without paying for it?

You are not paying for it, my child; you are only contributing some alms to the

Church.

You come to us, therefore, as a beggar, not as a spiritual father and guide.

That is not good speaking. You misunderstand my purpose (Rihani 133)

Khalid did not pay for the church, and then he faced the consequences; the church accused him that he is corrupt, and they put him in prison while they were preparing for his cousin Najma to another man that obeys the church religious law. The church put

Khalid in prison, and Najma's father conformed the church's advice in finding a better husband to marry his daughter. Therefore, he married his daughter to a man from a high class and obeys church's law, over her will. Najma wanted to wait for Khalid to get out of prison and run way with him, but that did not happen. Khalid did not regret disagreeing with the church rules, but he was still in love with her, and she still loves him. He did not obey the church because he sees that the church was corrupt. And he sees that human should not follow rules written by religious men. In so doing, Khalid agrees with the

28 concept of Emerson's spirituality. Rihani also reflects the idea of self-reliance and mentions it so many times in the novel (Al Maleh 313). This is how we see Rahini's

Transcendental thoughts reflected on Khalid's character.

Like Khalid, Transcendentalism values spiritual faith more than religious creeds.

It claims that everyone has the divine inside of them which means that they can connect to God not only in religious places like churches. (Funk & Sitka 62). One can experience the divine anytime and in any place. Moreover, they see nature as the best place that one can find God. That means they do not believe in a specific religious creed, and do not link the spiritual faith of the individual with it Khalid, having the same beliefs as

American Transcendentalism and Emerson, sees the primary source for knowledge in one's intuition. Khalid is a character that is self-educated himself, since he always reads, and discusses his thought with the used book seller Jerry. He also attends lecturers about atheism. However, Khalid realizes that the way to gain more wisdom is by having faith and trust in his own intuition. (56 Funk & Nathan). Khalid shares this Transcendentalism believe in intuition. This belief in intuition is in Khalid, as well as in Transcendentalism.

He knows that he cannot rely only on the knowledge that he gains from books and discussions; rather, he needs more to add on to that which is in the beliefs of his own intuitions. Khalid says that “Our intuition … never lies” (65 Rihani). Khalid believes that intuition is an important element as a source of knowledge. (Michaud 74). He realizes after reading so many books, and in his ways in exploring life that his intuition is the one element that can never be mistaken. The person can reach to the truth of understanding the world around him through his own intuition.

29 To conclude, Ameen Rihani was influenced by Emerson's Transcendentalism, and this influence is explicit in his novel The Book of Khalid. Rihani wrote this main character Khalid, that showed his influence of the American Transcendentalism and

Emerson. Khalid undergoes change in understanding his inner-self and then understanding God by connecting to nature. Then he learns to value the inner spirit more than the materialist world. He then realizes that he should depend on his intention and becomes more individual. His intention drives him to go against the social norms and made him want to change his surroundings. Khalid is the character Rihani used to deliver his transcendentalist thoughts. By the end of the novel, Khalid tells his people the conclusion that he found after years of rebelling against the typical thinking on his final speech, which was the speech that was full of rebellions thought that the government declare, and he had to flee to Egypt to be forgotten. He said in his speech that to reach to the reformation “The soul must be free, and the mind, before one has the right to be a member of a free Government” (Rihani 212). It is not clear if Rihani intentionally wanted to echo Emerson's philosophy through Khalid, but the reader can see how Khalid quote

Emerson and talk about him as a heroic figure.

30

CHAPTER II

THE INFLUENCE OF ’S ON GIBRAN KHALIL GIBRAN IN THE PROPHET (1923)

The influence of Western culture is evident in Arab-American writers. One of the

Western literary movements that made a substantial impact on the Arab-American writer is Romanticism. Poets are the most familiar writers of the Romantic movement (Punter

106), and one of the best known of the era’s poets is William Blake who influenced

Gibran Khalil Gibran's writing (Maleh 79). Gibran was influenced not only by Blake's style, but also by his philosophical vision. For example, both of them agree that there is a unity between materialism and spirituality to connect life and God. In other words, both believe that the spirit is linked to the human body. The materialism element goes beyond the human body. However, in this chapter, the focus is about the aspect of the human body. Thus, both the body and the soul are the vehicles through which humans can understand the world and be connected to God (Imangulieva 11). This shows how both of them were pioneers of their respective times, because they shared some philosophical thoughts that were new to their society; both added something new in their works

(Chandler 2). William Blake and Gibran Khalil Gibran call for renewal aimed at breaking the traditional way of writing literature. For example, Gibran added new use OF symbols

31 to Arabic literature and said” I'm the maker of symbols”, as some of his symbols were considered to be originally his. He uses symbols to create a stronger impact on the reader

(Gibran& Bushrui 1), as influenced by the Western traditions in writing (Nafchi 91).

There are common interests between Blake and Gibran; both of them are not only known for their poetry, but there is likewise a further connection in that they are also known for their sketches (Brantlinger 702). Both are simultaneously both poets and artists whose poems and paintings made a significant impact.

The connection between Blake and Gibran can be seen in both their philosophical views and in some of their poems (Imangulieva 10). Thus, the focus will be on the philosophical aspect in some of the poems. Blake's influences on Gibran and

Romanticism is shown at the philosophical level and also in the themes both used in some of their poems. The philosophical influence contains two elements: the use of the hero figures and the ideal hero who narrates their poems. Another philosophical aspect highlights the importance of the individual and the freedom of people to promote self- growth. Thematically, the two poets wrote about similar matters, such as the concept of love and its relation to truth, good and evil, and how both are essential in balancing the world. Finally, they both borrowed imagery from nature in their poems (Imangulieva 11).

In this chapter I am using Imangulieva's approach in comparing Gibran's and Blake's poetry. Then I will address Imangulieva's analysis and expand on it, and that will be by adding an analysis of the concept of the hero figure in both Blake and Gibran's poetry.

The focus will be on Gibran's best-known work, The Prophet, which shows the influence of Blake's poems and Romanticism.

32

Defining Romanticism

It is not simple to accurately say what Romanticism is. Rhyne R. Putman suggests that Romanticism is something as complex as postmodernism to define (70). However, it can be said that Romanticism is a movement that resulted in the rejection of the nationalism and the industrialism that occurred in Europe in the late eighteenth century, after the period known as the Enlightenment (70). Also, the word Romantic was not used until the eighteenth century. The Romantic Movement period is known by the "Age of feelings," and the "Age of individual," as well as the "Age of lyric" (Fermanis 3).

Romanticism was a significant movement broadly influencing intellectual thought. That is why the changes occurred in many different fields (Rosenthal 37) such as history, philosophy, and also literature (Putman 70-71). In literature, many new things were added due to the influence of the Romantic Movement. For example, poets expressed their passionate love and emotions by developing lyrical poetry (Moscovici 51). They wanted to express their reactions to the materialistic world by using some of these new ideas to deliver their feelings (Fermanis 4).

Indeed, scholars see Romanticism cannot be universally defined. The only concept that they all agreed on is that some change occurred between 1700 and 1800

(Fermanis 6). The literary school of Romanticism was a reaction to , and it called for individualism, the rejection of organized religions and industrialism (Murray

33 104). Lyrical and Critical Ballads by and

(1798) are considered as the start of the Romanticism in , presenting "a shift from neoclassical 'mimesis' to 'expressionism'” (Fermanis 6). Thus, this shift in literature, especially in poetry, emphasized the expression of emotions as compared to neo-classicism.

The definition of Romanticism that I will focus on in this paper is by the German writer and theoretical . He says that the is “a progressive universal poetry”. It says that the poetry is universal, and all genres of poetry, such as poetry and prose poetry are linked with philosophy. Also, poetry leads to develop many elements of human life. Schlegel calls for poetry’s unity to create beauty in life. In other words, he sees poetry as all of geners of poetry and have a touch of philosophy and rhetoric (Rudnytzky& Grugan 5-6). This definition fits the best because in this paper the focus is in Blake’s and Gibran’s poetry. In addition, it shows the similarity of their poetry, both are rhetorical poetry that presents a kind of philosophy.

Blake and Gibran

One of the most well-known Romantic poets and artists is William Blake (1757-

1827). He is a poet and draughtsman, engraver, and painter. He was born in ,

London. At the age of ten, he left school to join Henry Pars Drawing Academy. When he turned fifteen, he finished his education at the academy. After that, he started learning to

34 engrave and was taught by ; Blake began as an engraver because he could not afford an apprenticeship to become a painter, but he did draw and write, which he did only in his spare time as a pleasure. Then, he got an internship that lasted for six years.

After that, he joined the Royal Academy of Art as a poet. However, Blake's talent in writing poetry started at the age of thirteen. He wrote poems as an adult and could publish them with the help of his friends who paid for them. Blake's journey of writing continued till his death in 1827. After his death, some of his works were destroyed because some saw his work are politically, and socially unacceptable (Rosenthal 152).

Blake’s romanticism, philosophy, and poetry influenced Gibran’s The Prophet.

The philosophical aspect is seen in the use of the hero figure in their writing, and in the value of the person’s freedom to achieve growth. In the poetry, both wrote about similar theme, for example, the link between the meaning of love and finding the truth, and the importance of good and evil in balancing the world. Also, both used imagery from nature to form their ideas.

Gibran

As has been noted, Gibran Kahlil Gibran (1883-1931) is one of the most well- known Arab-American writers of his time; he was a pioneer in this field in writing both in English and in Arabic. He is best known for his use of simple, yet highly effective language. Gibran became a global figure, and his works were translated into many

35 languages. Gibran is known as a philosopher, a novelist, a painter and one of the writers who renewed Arabic literature. (Chandler 2). He wrote both in Arabic and in English

(Maleh 65). Gibran was born in 1883 , in a village located in Lebanon (Gibran &

Gibran 4). In 1890, Gibran's family immigrated to the United States due to economic reasons. They settled down in Boston because they had relatives there, and because of its ethnic and racial diversity. (21). Two months later, Gibran started his education in a public school, but he was first placed in classes that are designed for new immigrants to teach them the English Language (26). He was the only one of his siblings that was able to be educated because of his family's financial situation (27). Gibran was first exposed to literature at the Denison House. The Denison House is a settlement house that was sponsored by the College Settlement Association. This place held poetry readings and dramas. At that settlement, they also created a Shakespearean Club. This settlement aimed to prevent children from spending time on the streets. At that time, Gibran was the first Syrian immigrant who started to attend in 1895 (32). Gibran moved from Boston to

New York in 1912, where he began his writing career (Barkan 135).

Not all scholars took Gibran seriously or look at his work critically. Rather, they consider his poems as "fast food" to be read only as an escape (Maleh 66). It has also been argued that scholars categorized Gibran in this way because of the popularity that he gained, especially in the U.S. (Maleh 67). His best-known work is The Prophet (1923).

Gibran started working on it in 1918 and it was first published in New York in English, only being translated into Arabic after Gibran's death (Imangulieva 75-76). Then, the book was translated into over forty different languages, and sold more than one hundred million copies (Chandler 3).

36 The Prophet is a collection of poems and prose poems that is delivered through a character of a prophet. The book starts with a prophet who intended to leave the city of

Orphalese. While he was waiting for his ship, a group of people gathered around him to ask him for words of wisdom before he leaves. They ask him about different general topics, such as life, love, friendship, children and so on. This prophet speaks with a sense responsibility for this group of people by using a simple and clear language so they all can understand his talk. He gave them his philosophical views in the shape of prose poems on these various topics to be their guide. The book ends with the prophet giving his farewell to the crowd. Gibran's work inspired many people. Fayeq Oweis says that many Americans were inspired by Gibran's writing, and he says thst“Including President

John F. Kennedy when he said, ' Ask not what your country can do for you- ask what you can do for your country?' ” (135). Gibran's writing influenced people from all over the world, and some considered his writing a . Gibran's book The Prophet wants to deliver his moral lessons by being idealistic. His vision of the world is “high Romantic pathos” (Imangulieva 78).

Gibran was influenced by Blake and Romantic philosophical thinking. This influence can be seen in the use of historical figures, and also in the concept of individuality and the importance he places on personal freedom. Thus, these aspects are revealed in both Blake’s and Gibran's thoughts.

Starting with an explanation of the use of the heroic figure in Gibran’s The

Prophet, the book contains ideas that are linked to Romanticism, such as the presence of the hero who wants to save the humanity (Imangulieva 82). This hero should be brave,

37 strong, and courageous; moreover, he should be wise and honorable. The hero should have all these specifications to be appreciated by the readers and make an impact on them

(Spencer 41). Michael Ferber said that the romantic character sees herself as a hero who must save others, and the role also involves seeing herself as a prophet that has a message to deliver (32). This perspective is also evident in Gibran's work, The Prophet, in which the character that tells the story is the messenger. This demonstrates the influence of

Romantic writers on Gibran. His hero figure is a prophet; a chosen one who helps the others.

In Gibran's work, his hero is the prophet who wants to help the crowd by giving them advice from his wisdom, and he travels alone. In literature, the image presented of the hero is as one who is highly independent, ideal, and authoritative to determine the rules of the society (Spencer 52). There is uniqueness in Gibran's hero in The Prophet is the prophet who is close to the people and understands their needs. He knows the best advice that will help them with details that can guides them in life, for example, one of the crowd tells the prophet “Yet this we ask ere you leave us, that you speak to us and gives us of your truth./ And We will give it unto our children, and they unto their children, and it shall not perish” (Gibran 10). This shows how this group of people wants to hear the prophet's wisdom. The concept of the "self and the people" is one of the most recognized themes in Romanticism (Imangulieva 80). The Prophet is about that, the prophet, and the people. He also wants to be their hero by helping them with his words and showing his kindness before he leaves. This shows that the prophet is wise, and people need to learn from him about different concepts of life. Furthermore, the reader will comprehend that the narrator of the book, the prophet, is a “heroic figure”.

38 However, Gibran’s heroic figure is humbler; this prophet hero did not want to appear superior to that group of people. He wants to give them his wisdom to help them, not to say that he is better or more knowledgeable than they. For example, after the prophet gives all of his words of wisdom to the people, he says: Less than promises I have given, and yet more generous have you been to me (Gibran 96). It shows that the prophet does not see himself as a superior, and he thanks the people for listening as well as they thank him for his talk of wisdom. Moreover, being a prophet does not make him holy. That is one of the features of the who is not an unusual person, in other words, The hero is someone who is normal human that does not carry godlike features (Imangulieva 82). The prophet still thinks that he can not only give wisdom to this crowd, but he also gains from them. For example, at the end of the book when he is done with sharing his knowledge, and he is about to leave the city he said:

Wise men have come to give you of their wisdom. I came to take of your wisdom.

It is a flame spirit in you never gathering more of itself,

While you, heedless of its expansion, bewail the withering of your days.

It is life in quest of life in bodies fears (Gibran 95).

This demonstrates an element of the romantic hero. The prophet is telling the crowd that he learns from them the love of life and their energy in wanting to make a change. He does not see himself above those people, but he sees himself to be just like them. Both of them, the prophet and the crowd, are seeking wisdom from each other.

39 By using a prophet as a hero, Gibran did break from the traditional Arabic roles of writing poetry. The use of a prophet as the poet's voice is not usual to the Arabic readers.

Antonius Bashir, who translated The Prophet into Arabic, said that upon looking at the title of the book for the first time he thought that Gibran was an atheist, and he would not have translated the book if that was true. However, the translator looked at Gibran's title as someone who was influenced by Western culture and its liberty (Imangulieva 76). The reason why the title is a problem to Eastern readers at first is that using a higher voiced narrative, a prophet of God, is considered a taboo. Neither Islamic nor Christian Arab culture accepts that usage in their writing, and they found something holy that should be avoided. For the Arab Islamic people, the last prophet is the one who was sent to the

Muslims, Muhammad, and in Arab Christianity, that word is strictly used for the biblical prophets. Paul-Gordon Chandler says that the first time he knew about the book The

Prophet was when he met a friend in his school, a Muslim who was originally from

Lebanon. He thought that the book talked about his prophet Muhammad (1). Thus, the use of narrative in Gibran’s The Prophet is something new to the Arabic culture.

Moreover, some scholars said his use of this description of wise, sharp, and instructional was influenced by the European Romantic poems (Maleh 80- 81). According to Angela

Esterhammer, one the Romantic concepts of the poet is that he is as a prophet who speaks to people and guide them through their lives. The role that the poet plays is that he is a connection between God and people. This is also seen in some of Blake's writing. For example, at the introduction of Blake's work Songs of Experience, the fictional hero that he uses says that he is the one that was chosen by God to help people (50). This shows

40 that Gibran's use of the prophet as the narrative in his book was influenced by European

Romantic, specifically Blake.

There is another common philosophical aspect that both Blake and Gibran share which is calling for individuality. Blake lived through the , and he was a rebel who called for freedom and individuality. He sees that to gain "social stability" one should gain his individuality first (Brantlinger 703). Gibran also advises people to seek for individuality and freedom. In the book, the prophet states, “You shall be free indeed not when your days are without a care nor your nights without a want and a grief,

/ But rather when these things girdle your life, and yet you rise above them naked and unbound" (Gibran 51-51). He advises the people to become more individual to gain freedom. If a person wants to be free, he should work by himself to get his freedom. This instance shows the philosophy of Romanticism in calling for individuality (Imangulieva

78). Blake said something similar in calling for individuality in his poem "Auguries of

Innocence,” in which he wrote: A Robin redbreast in a cage. / Puts all heaven in Rage

(146). This case shows how Blake valued individuality and freedom. Blake wants to explain his love of individuality as the truth (Brantlinger 703). In other words, the word of truth for Blake is the one that comes out of the individual and the freedom of the self.

This case shows how both Gibran and Blake have similar philosophical thoughts concerning the concept of freedom and individuality.

Another topic that Gibran shares his philosophical views with Blake in his book

The Prophet is the consent of good and evil. Similarly, Vassiliadis' says that Blake wrote his philosophy of what is good and what is evil in his book of poems The Marriage of

41 Heaven and (6). Both Gibran and Blake had their philosophical point of view in good and evil in this world. They did not share all the exact thoughts; however, they shared the idea that good and evil are not two distinct things. In fact, they are both swimming in the same zone to make a balance in life. Gibran said by the tongue of the prophet in the poem Good and Evil:” But in some of you that longing is a torrent rushing with might to the sea, carrying the secrets of the hillsides and the songs of the forest. /

And in others, it is a flat stream that loses itself in angles and bends and lingers before it reaches the shore “(72). Here, Gibran's philosophy says that good and evil are both linked together, and that one has both inside of oneself. He says that both good and evil are like the ocean inside of the person, and sometimes one power gains control over the other.

Therefore, the evil is something that cannot be erased. Gibran did not see human nature as completely good; rather, he believes in the existence of evil. He believes that both are in the human, but they should fight to bring good always.

Similarly, Blake's philosophy of how life has good and evil is similar. From his collection of poems, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a poem about this similar theme

The Argument, in which he says:

Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and

Repulsion, reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are

necessary to Human existence.

From these contraries what the religious call

Good & Evil. Good is the passive that obeys Reason.

42 Evil is the active springing from Energy.

Good is Heaven. Evil is Hell (Blake 48)

Blake says that the human experiences need to have good and evil to grow. He did not see evil as something that should be dissolved, but he sees it as one of the essences of life. Blake understands that the meaning of life is present in the contraries of things.

There would be no meaning for good if there were no evil (Vassiliadis 7-8). Thus, it can be seen that both Blake and Gibran have the philosophy, and in these stanzas, both of them have the same perspective on good and evil, and how both of them appear in the life of the human being.

The other theme that is shared in both Gibran and Blake is the use of nature imagery in their poems. Scholars see that Romanticism influenced Gibran in his poetry, and one of that influences is reflected in his use of nature in his poems (Imangulieva 7).

The Prophet poems hold a lot of metaphors of nature; he uses symbols of nature to describe his thought (Nafchi 91). Examples of the symbols of nature that Gibran uses are vast; some is the water, the sky and so on. He uses the water as a symbol of freedom and purity (Nafchi 92). At the beginning of the book before the prophet leaves, he describes the sea as a thirsty mother that misses her child: "And you, vast sea, sleeping mother, who alone are peace and freedom to the river and the stream" (Gibran 6). This instance shows Gibran's connection with nature. The use of the water as a symbol of the mother shows nature's value in his philosophy. In Eastern culture water is a symbol that refers to many similar things; water is the essence of life, immortality and the highly spiritual

43 element of nature (Nafchi 88). That love of nature is a Romantic element, and this reveals the influence of it on Gibran.

Additionally, nature is one of the elements that appear in Gibran’s and Blake's poems. Both writers did not address the nature theme directly. However, they both used the imagery of nature in their writing. Some critics argue that Blake is an anti-nature as well as a romantic writer (Hutchings 4). He seems to consider nature as a cruel and useless thing (Hutchings 38). However, he uses nature to express his thoughts in his poems (Hutchings 32). In Blake's Nurse's Song poem from The Songs of Innocence, the poem is not about nature, but it does admire the beauty and the joy of nature (Trumpener

203). Blake describes how the children are enjoying themselves in nature, noting that

“the voices of children are heard on the green, / And laughing is heard on the hill” (1-2).

When one reads these lines, he can notice the link between joy and nature. It shows how these children are finding comfort connecting with the nature. Blake also continues:

Then come home, my children, the sun is gone down,

And the dews of arise;

Come, come, leave off , and let us away

Till the morning appears in the skies (Blake 5-8).

As Hutchings said, these lines present to its reader that how children see nature related to the timing of the day (32). In other words, they see how the day ends with the sunset.

This shows that the importance of nature is something linked to joy, and humans are influenced by it.

44 Similarity, Gibran’s poems also depict imagery that is borrowed from nature. For example, in The Prophet, one of the topics that he related is Eating and Drinking where the prophet said based on the people's request:” Would that you could live on the fragrance of the earth, and like an air plant be sustained by /the light” (Gibran 24). Gibran sees that nature is pure and harmless. He wishes that human nature would have been like the nature of Earth. Through the character of the prophet in The Prophet, It is clear that

Gibran appreciates nature and sees it as something that cannot bring harm to anything.

This is Romanticism as depicted in Gibran's perspective of nature.

Another example that shows how Gibran's poems have links with nature is the prose poem from his book The Prophet titled On Beauty. In this poem, the prophet explains the concept of beauty. He uses a lot of imagery that is borrowed from nature. It says, “At night the watchmen of the city say, ‘Beauty shall rise with the dawn from the east’ (82). These lines are similar to how Blake's Nurse's Song described how the children are playing outside in nature in a daylight. Here Gibran said that beauty is not seen as one thing; rather different people see beauty as what they want it to be. The watchmen want to rest, and he can rest when his job hours are done linking it with the sunrise. This shows how both Gibran and Blake see nature and its circumstances as linked to human happiness. Again, in Blake, the children will end their day by the sunset, while in Gibran, the watchman will end his day by the sunrise.

There are conclusions that can be drawn in both Gibran’s and Blake's philosophical point of views and in some of their literary research. Both share the use of the hierarchical figures in their writings which are characteristic of romanticism in their

45 writings. The person who narrates their poems portray him as a hero who will save the others. Along with the concept of a hero, another aspect that both Gibran and Blake share is the theme of their poems, like the value of freedom for individual growth and the meaning of good and evil. Also, both of them show attention to nature. Blake was not like most of the Romantic poets who appreciate nature, but he used it in his poems to reflect the beauty, joy and the connection of nature and humanity. Thus, the prose poems that he wrote in The Prophet are a result of his literary sense, along with what he read.

The influence of Romanticism is a common subject when talking about the Pen League writers. However, some of them were influenced by another school. For instance, Mikhail

Naimy came under the influence of Realism. That will be discussed in the following chapter.

46 CHAPTER III

RUSSIAN LITERATURE AND LEO TOLSTOY'S INFLUENCE ON MIKHAIL

NAIMY IN THE BOOK OF MIRDAD (1948)

Mikhail Naimy (1889-1988) is one of the writers of the Pen League. Naimy was one of the outstanding writers of his time, and he wanted to improve Arabic literature. He was the secretary to the leader of Pen League, which was Gibran (Roger 287). Just like most of the Pen League writers, such as Ameen Rihani and Gibran Khalil Gibran,

Mikhail Naimy had freedom of expression in writing in the United State (Layton 15).

Also, Naimy saw that the Arab world needed a new inspiration, and he focuses of the need for inspiration in literature. He compared the East to a thirsty man who should reach for water, and the amount of water that he needed in the Western world (Roger 287).

European literature had a great influence on Naimy, but unlike most of the Pen

League writers, Russian literature was his source for what he introduced into Arabic literature (Moreh 39). At that time, Arabic literature was limited to journalists who wrote on political topics and, as was mentioned in the previous chapters. The old traditions, such as the use of metaphors and style, still formed the basis of Arabic literature

(Swanson 56). Layla Al Maleh says that most of the Pen League writers read Western literature and were influenced by it because they needed to refresh their style of writing.

The “ in Arabic Literary Biography: 1850-1950” says that in the first meeting of the Pen League, Naimy said that the purpose of the Pen League's writing is to add new

47 ideas and change the traditional style of writing: “… to lift Arabic literature from the quagmire of stagnation and imitation, and to infuse a new life into its veins so as to make of it an active force in the building up of the Arab nation” (Allen 185). This quote is what

Naimy said in the Pen League first meeting. It shows that Naimy aimed to change the

Arabic literature with his writing.

The reason behind this is the lack of development in Arabic literature that goes to the fact that the Turkish military ruled most of the Arabian countries at that time. The

Turkish military rule had drawbacks on the Arabic literature, and that meant the Arabic literature remained in its old traditions style that emphasized “medieval artistry and traditional scholasticism” (314). In other words, the Arabic literature did not make a noticeable progress at that time. The Pen League challenged the classical style of literature. Naimy, as well as the rest of the Pen League writers, invested in liberating

Arabic literature. Most critics say that time was the time of an Arab literary entanglement which was referred to as Al- “the awakening”; a cultural movement started in the late that called for a change (Frosini & Biagi 4). That time of entanglement formed a major influence on Arabic literature (Imangulieva 172). Also, the Pen League writers, such as Naimy, had a role in this cultural movement.

Due to the limitations of Arabic literature, Naimy needed to get inspiration to write. That inspiration was from the Russian literature, which he encountered early because his education mostly focused on the Russian literature. He wanted to transform

Arabic literature by introducing new concepts and thoughts on life found in Russian literature. He was driven to find more liberal answers to his questions about morality and

48 religion, most significantly concerning concepts of good and evil (Swanson 325). These themes are present in Western literature in more liberated way than tin Arabic literature.

Subsequently, Naimy adopted some answers to his questions in the philosophical writings of Russian authors and blended these answers with the answers from his upbringing. He had always sought answers to these seemingly forbidden questions, such as questions about the existence of God. These questions considered questions that push boundaries in the Arabic culture of that time.While both scholars Imangulieva and Swanson have outlined the relationship between Naimy and the Russian writers, and how Tolstoy's philosophy influenced Naimy, they have not analyses or makes a that closely studies that shows how this influence is mirrored in Naimy's writing. This chapter will use both of these scholars' studies to show the link that between Tolstoy's on Naimy's

The Book of Mirdad. Also, will expand on both critics’ work by comparing Naimy's The

Book of Mirdad and Tolstoy's A Confession to show that both call for spiritual individuality, also, how both of their books shows signs of believing in God in their writing, and how the universe is something that cannot be fully explained.

Literature and Morality for Tolstoy and Naimy

Leo Tolstoy (1828- 1910) is one of the most celebrated writers and thinkers in the

Western canon (Bartlett 3). Born into a wealthy Moscow family (Marks 102), Tolstoy's works often focus on solving social problems, such as class equality and poverty, and the desire for a world with a greater sense of ethics and morality as well as a call for spiritual individuality (Bartlett 7). Tolstoy also wrote about his journey of faith describing his

49 struggles and religious points of view revealed when he started having suicidal thoughts in 1878 (Bartlett 113). Moreover, he had had doubts about his faith and religion already in his adolescence (Marks 103). His journey of faith started to be clearer to him in 1879-

80, at the time he wrote The Confession which discusses his faith and beliefs (Bartlett 4).

Tolstoy’s views about religion were liberal for his time. He had studied and most of the Asian religions such as Judaism, , and Buddhism. Through this intensive study he came to his conclusion that all men are the sons of God (Marks 106).

Thus, his concept of religion became reflected in most of his subsequent writing.

Tolstoy’s literature and philosophic outlook have inspired people broadly. He is well-known globally, and his works have been translated into many different languages, including Arabic (Marks 123). His works were even translated into Arabic during the time that he was still alive by Orthodox seminary student (Marks 126); however, Naimy was not one of these students. His popularity in the East stems from the fact that his ideas have a particular resonance for readers in that area, especially his thoughts on ethics and his philosophy of seeking peace (Imangulieva, 141). The reflection of his works can be found in Arabic writers and also Arab- Americans such as Mikhail Naimy.

Mikhail Naimy, one of the most significant members of the Pen League, has also inspired many writers. Naimy was born in , a village in Lebanon, in 1889 and lived until 1988. His village reflected a traditional agricultural society which included both Maronite and Orthodox Christians. It was a place of poverty from which most

Lebanese at that time were emigrating to find jobs. When Naimy was ten, his father emigrated to the United States, leaving his mother to raise him alone. He attended

50 primary school and then he continued his studies in the new Russian Orthodox school that had been built in his home town. Because of his outstanding performance in the

Russian Orthodox schools, Naimy was sent to continue his studies in Nazareth at the

Russian Teachers’ College where he focused on taking classes in both Arabic and

Russian literature. Then he went to the Russian Orthodox seminary in Poltava, Ukraine to continue his studies. (Allen 253). Naimy returned to Lebanon but his admiration for

Poltava remained. Then while he was in Lebanon his brother Adib returned from the

United States to convince his brother to return back with him. Naimy agreed and applied to the University of Washington for a bachelor’s in law and program in Seattle in the fall of 1911, and he studied English there (Allen 254). In the United States Naimy started to write literary criticism, essays, and literature with the intention of igniting a revolution in Arabic literature, first writing in Arabic while he was beginning his studies (Allen 254-

255). Subsequently, when he graduated from the University of Washington, he moved to

New York, where he joined the Pen League writers that began in 1920 (Layton 15). The reason for Naimy to become a member in the Pen League is that this group was pursuing the same goals as he was, specifically to renew and reinvigorate Arabic literature (Allen

257). Naimy was the secretary of the group; the leader was Gibran.

Even though Naimy now lived in the United States and was consequently exposed to a new kind of literature, Russian literature and culture remained his motivating force

(Swanson 55). His studies in Russia and the influence that he got from the Russian culture stayed with him. He had observed Russian society outside the classroom, and he was interested in Russian literature, art, and music, as well as the turbulent political

51 situation. When he was in Russia he even tried to learn how to perform the traditional , and how to play the violin (Swanson 54).

Furthermore, Russian literature and its writers became his spiritual guides for

Naimy. In Poltavan in Ukraine, a part of the Russian Empire, he read and studied the works of authors such as Vissarion, Belinskil, Lermontov, Turgenev, and and he saw that their literature helped him to analyze the political and social condition of his own home country (Swanson 53-54). However, he was more interested in Russian literature because of the philosophical views that it possessed. Naimy felt bound to the Orthodox Church. however, he did not find answers in the Orthodox Church. The church only gave him traditional unsatisfactory answers to his questions about the nature of good and evil and social justice. Therefore, he searched for answers in Russian literature (Swanson 55).

Naimy had doubts about religion, questions revolving around the nature of good and evil, justice, and what will happen to us humans after death for which the Orthodox church had not provided satisfying answers. He believed that since God creates both good and evil, he should also create justice to save those who are less fortunate in life.

Additionally, if God’s kindness and forgiveness are mighty and unlimited, no sinners will be present on judgment day because God should forgive them all. All these thoughts contradicted Orthodox belief; thus, he could not seek answers for these forbidden questions. Naimy saw that religion prevents human liberation, because it prohibits new movements that call for change using the name of God (Swanson 57). This change of thought developed as a result of being exposed to a different culture and different set

52 philosophical thoughts. His reading of the Russian writers like Tolstoy brought about that change.

Naimy called for spiritual independence, and he stopped following the Church doctrine. It can be said that the influence of the spiritual independence was from reading

Leo Tolstoy. This spiritual independence came from criticizing the church and seeing it as a place that does not address true Christianity (Allen 254). Naimy began his life to be a priest in the Orthodox church, however, his vision toward the meaning of religion and

God shifted as he was going through life. He changed it to create his own philosophical views, and it can be said that Tolstoy’s philosophy was one of the figures that shaped his new vision.

Naimy’s and Tolstoy’s philosophic thoughts about religion reveal a similarity.

Tolstoy likewise had undergone a religious change, writing a number of non-fiction books explaining his quest for God (Laferriere 11). However, as he describes in The

Confession that religious change had occurred when he turned eighteen, well before he had become a famous writer. In this book, Tolstoy summed up his spiritual journey and how his faith changed, and the reason behind that is the contradiction in what the church says about Christianity (Laferriere 89). He did not believe the religion that came from the

Orthodox Church and felt that their answers to his questions were not fulfilling (Tolstoy

70). Similar Tolstoy’s journey of faith, Naimy decided to seek the truth for himself without depending on teachings of the Orthodox Church. Therefore, both Tolstoy and

Naimy shaped their own answers to the religious questions that had troubled them. One of these concepts was the presence of God in moral law representing the real truth

53 (Imangulieva 152). Another example of the shared philosophical views of religion in

Naimy and Tolstoy is the rejection of the ritual side of the religion in the Orthodox church (Swanson 57).

The influence of Tolstoy in The Book of Mirdad

Naimy first wrote The Book of Mirdad in Arabic. Then, Naimy translated it into it in English because he wanted his book to reach a broader audience of readers (Allen

260). This novel shows Naimy’s philosophy of life through the dialog between the main character Mirdad and the abbot of a monastery along with his own disciples (Allen 261).

The novel takes place in a monastery high up in the mountains where Noah’s Ark had stops after the Flood, and that place is called the Ark. This place holds stories, and we come to know the story when one man, who remains unnamed and narrates the story at the beginning, decides to discover the real story behind it. He climbs the mountains and discovers many signs that tell him that it is not safe to go forward on this journey; nevertheless, he continues. Then he meets an abbot who was in the Ark, and the abbot tells him the real story and gives him a book. That book tells the real story of a mystery that surrounds the Ark, and that abbot is the protector of this book. After that, there is a shift in narrative, and that is when the unnamed man leaves the reader with the book that the abbot gives it to him. That book is narrated by one of the Ark's member, and his name is Naronda. The book contains a series of philosophical dialogues between Mirdad, that abbot, and his disciples.

54

As conveyed by the unnamed character, that narrates the beginning of the book, the abbot relates how he met Mirdad and learned from his philosophy and wisdom. The abbot begins by explaining that the Ark should always have nine members, and when one of the members passes away an imbalance occurs. After setting up this backdrop, the abbot tells the unnamed man that a stranger showed up and requested to join them in the

Ark, and that stranger’s name was Mirdad. At first, nobody agreed to allow him to join, because they judged on the basis of what they saw as his weak and fragile appearance and decided that he would not be a reliable man. However, at his insistence they accepted him because they needed one more member un the Ark. Then, the man does not speak for almost seven years, and all of the attempts of the Ark’s members to get him to break his silence fail. Then suddenly one night he spoke to the abbot and the rest of the members in figurative language. When that abbot, the one who tells this story to the unanimous narrative, give him a book that contain the rest of the story. Then, the reader receives the chapters of that book, which is narrated by Naronda. That book expresses philosophical points of view on many things in life like love, the self and the other, the importance of life, and God and religion.

Naimy calls for spiritual individuality when one of Mirdad’s followers asks about the and if it is important to the one’s spirituality or not. Naimy saw that the religious practices do not serve the purpose of making the person closer to God. He did not see that the person needs to do practice religion to get closer to God or to prove his

55 faith. When Bennoon asks, "What of prayer, Master Mirdad? In praying we are made to say too many words and ask for too many things. Yet seldom are we granted any of things we ask for,” Mirdad replays: You pray in vain when you address yourselves to any other but your very selves. For in you is the power to attract, as in you is the power to repel. And in you are the things you would attract, as in you are the things you would repel” (Naimy 76-77). This shows how Naimy gives the person the full power to control his own spirituality. He sees that the person must not be a slave to any kind of ritual prayers to become closer to God. All power of spirituality comes from one’s individuality. For Naimy, as for Tolstoy, prayer and religion rituals do not represent true faith and belief in God (Imangulieva152). This shows how Naimy shares similar philosophical views with Tolstoy.

Even that both Naimy and Tolstoy had doubts about religion and faith, they both showed signs of believing in God in their writing. Naimy's book shows his belief of a stronger power that controls the universe, and that is shown through on of Mirdad's speech. Mirdad says: “There are no accidents in Time and Space. But all things are ordered by the Omniwill which neither errs in anything nor overlooks a thing” (Naimy

106). This element of admitting of a higher power is also seen in Tolstoy's book A confession. Tolstoy shows signs of believing in a higher power that controls life, saying:

“Everything develops and being differentiates itself, moving toward complexity and perfection, and there are laws directing this movement. You are a part of the whole”

(Tolstoy 22). This shows how Tolstoy sees that there is something that moves the world forward. Therefore, it can be said that both Naimy and Tolstoy believed in a higher power that is responsible of controlling life.

56 Tolstoy believes that the universe is something that cannot be fully explained. He recognizes that human being cannot understand the ambiguity of life. He says in his book

A Confession:” I shall not seek the explanation of everything. I know that the explanation of everything, like the commencement of everything, must be concealed in infinity”

(Tolstoy 75). Likewise, Naimy sees that human beings' understanding has a lot of limitations of understanding life. Also, not everything in life can be explained. This is said trough the character of Mirdad: “How much of the life of a single day can you in truth assert you are conscious of? A very trifling part indeed” (Naimy 107). Niamy shares

Tolstoy's philosophy of the mystery of life, and the impossibility for people to understand it. Therefore, it can be said that Naimy was influenced by Tolstoy's writing.

The Book of Mirdad presents Naimy’s philosophy of God and truth mostly derived from Tolstoy’s own philosophy of religion. As mentioned before, Naimy experienced spiritual conflicts, just like Tolstoy. At that time, he was reading Russian literature and found answers not available in the Orthodox church. This is how he was influenced by Tolstoy’s philosophy as reflected in most of his novel The Book of Mirdad.

Their shared philosophy says that the only thing that should guide human law is love

(Imangulieva 152). This law of love is depicted as God. To go along with this, Tolstoy's book A Confession says that we should seek moral law within us, and if the moral law is depicted as God. This implies that God is within each one of us. This concept says that the real goodness in human nature is God; therefore, God and men are not separate beings. It can be said that this philosophy of God is both presented in Tolstoy’s philosophy. In his book A Confession, he says: “Having learnt as far as possible about the whole, and having learnt the law of evolution, you will understand also your place in the

57 whole, and will know yourself” (Tolstoy 22). This shows the same concept that says God is within us. Also, in order to understand God, the individual should first understand himself. In Naimy’s The Book of Mirdad. Mirdad says that mankind should be fully accepted in life, and if it was denied it means that the spirit of God is denied. Naimy sees holiness in humanity as much as the holiness that is in God: “Inseparable, O monks, is

Man from God; therefore, inseparable from his fellow-man and all the creatures that issue from The World” (Naimy 53). The philosophical idea of Naimy says that God is within the human spirit. This continues to show this throughout the novel. For example, in a dialogue between one of the Ark's members and Mirdad, the member says,“Yet dear is man's identity to man. How shall he sink in God and still be aware of this identity?”Mirdad answers “It it a loss for the brook to be lost in the Sea and thus be aware of itself as the Sea? For Man to lose his identity in God is but to lose his shadow and find the shadowless essence of his being” (Naimy 101). This philosophy is similar to

Tolstoy’s philosophy of God. Tolstoy says that God is in each one of us, Steven Marks quotes Tolstoy, wo says“Free will is nothing other than…. God within us, working through us'” (106). Consequently, it can be said that there are similar thoughts in Naimy’s

The Book of Mirdad and some of Tolstoy’s philosophical thoughts on the concept of God.

Another point of Tolstoy’s philosophy that is evident in Naimy’s The Book of

Mirdad is the attitude toward organized religion. Just like Tolstoy, Naimy had questions about why there are many religions that assume that their God is the real God

(Imangulieva 152). He did not find any answer in the Orthodox Church, nor did Tolstoy.

As it was mentioned earlier, Tolstoy studied other religions to analyze and compare, and he came up with his own philosophy. His philosophy says that all people are sons to that

58 one God. This says that no matter what religion the person holds, he will be as strong believer as other people who follow a different religion. This similar philosophy of faith and God can be seen in Naimy’s novel The Book of Mirdad. Mirdad tell his followers:

God is not many. God is one. But many and divers are yet men’s shadows. So

long as men cast shadows on the earth, so long is each man’s god no greater than

his shadow. The shadowless only are all in the light. The shadowless only know

one God. For God is light, and light alone is able to know light. (Naimy 57)

This shows the philosophical view that Naimy carried and presented through the character Mirdad. This philosophy of faith and God says that all men, despite what religion they follow, all are seeking to follow one God.

Another example that shows Naimy’s philosophical views of religion, and the influence of the thoughts of Tolstoy, is when the novel presents through his main character Mirdad the concept of the Judgment day (Matar 59). As was mentioned before,

Naimy had questions that the Orthodox church could not answer, and one of these questions is about the mercy of God. Naimy always wanted to know how God is merciful, yet there is a Judgment Day when sinners will be punished. In The Book of

Mirdad there is a question raised about the Judgment day by one of the students,

Bennoon, that Mirdad responds: “Each day, Bennoon, is Judgment day. Each creature accounts are balanced every twinkling of an eye. Nothing is left unweighed” (Naimy 66).

Here, Mirdad is asked to answer a direct question about what the Judgment day is, but instead, he his answer was more philosophical. He said that people should always examine their actions. In other words, they should always watch what they do and

59 examine whether their actions are good or not. The concept of good and evil is clearer at the end of The Book of Mirdad. This concept says that both good and evil are essential in life; both exist to balance in life. Mirdad says “One is the tree of God and Evil. One is the fruit thereof, You cannot know the taste of Good without at once knowing the taste of

Evil.” (Naimy 188). This acceptance of good and evil can be seen in Tolstoy't A

Confession but is written in a different way. Tolstoy says: “Ambition, love of power, covetousness, lasciviousness, pride, anger, and revenge—were all respected.” (Tolstoy

5). This shows that Tolstoy sees that there are elements in life that go against each other, but that does not mean that this leads to bad consequences. In fact, he says that having this contrary element in life is something important. Thus, it can be seen that Naimy was influenced by Tolstoy's writing.

One of Tolstoy’s philosophical points that influence Naimy’s is self- improvement (Orwin 31). The self-improvement concept says that the person should trust his own instinct in order to do good deeds in life (Rancour-Laferriere 167). In other words, the person should not be a follower of others in order to reach to the built the self.

For self-growth, the person should only be depended in their own vision in life. This concept can be seen in Naimy’s and Tolstoy’s lives when they decided to find their own truth on what the right religion is or explore whether God exists or not. As it was mentioned earlier, they abandoned what they have learned from the Orthodox Church and improvised their own religious definitions. This self- improvement philosophy appears in

The Book of Mirdad, in the main character Mirdad (Imangulieva 145). Mirdad is the teacher who wants to teach his followers how to search for the truth, leaning only on their inner selves, and how to learn to differentiate between good and evil by only trusting

60 their own instinct. The book discusses how people always rely on God to solve their problems and make their wishes come true. But Mirdad calls for people to be responsible for their own matters and hopes. This idea can be linked to Tolstoy's ideas that highlight the role of the individual in solving his own problems and reach to that self- improvement. Mirdad says:

Take not to God your countless cares and hopes. Implore Him not to open for you

whereto He furnished you with keys. But search the vastness of your

hearts. For in the vastness of the heart is found the key to every door. And in the

vastness of the heart are all the things you thirst and hunger after, whether of evil

or of good. (Naimy 78).

This passage shows Mirdad’s lesson for his follower, which says don’t rely on God to resolve your troubles. Instead, God gives you the guidance that you seek, and that guidance is within each individual. Again, it can be said that Naimy’s philosophy that is presented in Mirdad’s dialogue follows the pattern of Tolstoy’s philosophy of self- improvement. They both share the same concept of self-growth.

To conclude, Russian critics have pointed out the influence of their own nineteenth-century literary traditions on young Lebanese writers. Vissarion Krachkovskiī was very interested in Naimy's novels and literary criticism and reading Naimy encouraged him to read more of Arab writers of his time (Swanson 56). This can show how Naimy's impact was not only in Arab countries and the United State, but also in

Russia. In other words, Naimy was influenced by what he read when he was studying

Russian, and that is how he brought that influence on the Arabic literature. Also, he gets

61 the Russian critics' attention, Subsequently, they he made an impact on them. Naimy was influenced by the Russian literature, especially the works of Tolstoy, and the influence of

A Confession is revealed in his book The Book of Mirdad. The main influence that Naimy presents in his book is the importance of the spiritual individuality to the person's faith. In other words, the individual should only focus on his own self in order to reach his own faith and his own concept of spirituality. Also, both Naimy's book and Tolstoy shows sign their beliefs, which is a believe about the existence of God. Furthermore, how the human nature can never fully explain the universe. Naimy wrote his book to present a different perspective of faith and spirituality, and that was especially new at that time. He presents his ideas in his book The Book of Mirdad through his character Mirdad. And

Mirdad was as a prophet who wants to enlighten people, and that is by giving them new perspectives of faith and spirituality.

62

CONCLUSION

To sum up, it can be noted that this research focus on the works of some early

Arab-American literature. According to Carol Fadda-Conrey in her book “Contemporary

Arab-American Literature: Transnational Reconfigurations of Citizenship and

Belonging”, the 1990s were a significant time for Arab-American literature. It was the time where the early Arab emigrant started to publish articles and works of literature.

Also, the 1905 and1906 was the time were Arab-American literature gained popularity

(20). The reason why concentrating on the early Arab-American literature is important is to understand how the cultural exchange links the West and the East, and that is highly shown in the early Arab-American literature. Also, is important to understand the contemporary Arab-American works. For example, analyzing early Arab-American literature helps to understand the themes that were shown in the early period of the Arab-

American literature and continues to show and develop in the contemporary works. In other words, a close reading and of the early Arab-American works helps to make a connection to understand how the Arab-American literature is evolving, because the early and the contemporary Arab-American writers faces similar challenges, and it is presented in their literature. Thus, knowing the root of these struggles when research on the early

Arab-American literature helps to understand the recent works by Arab-American writers.

63 Ameen Rihani, Gibran Khalil Gibran and Mikhail Naimy were influenced by the ideas and thoughts of various writers after they moved to live in western nations. For

Ameen Rihani, and Gibran Khalil, moving to the United States gave them a new prospective on life, and made them closer to Western literature and influenced their presentation of religious ideals.

Rihani's novel The Book of Khalid shows this influence from Western writers, specifically Ralph Waldo Emerson and Transcendentalism. Both Rihani and Emerson share similar perspectives on the relationship to God in understanding oneself and how nature is the source of spirituality. Also, they both value individualism and its significant role in spiritual growth, which inspires the individual to trust in intuition as the source to promote development. All these similar aspects in Rihani and Emerson are manifest in the character of the protagonist Khalid.

Gibran's The Prophet reflects the influence of Romantic era poets, especially

William Blake. Both Blake’s and Gibran's poetry reveal similarities, such as the use of the hero figure and the significance of individualism and freedom to strive for self- growth. Also, Blake and Gibran share similar ideas about the concept of love, about good and evil and how both are essential to balance life. Moreover, both their poems make use of imagery from nature.

Moving to Poltavian in the Ukraine furthered Mikhail Naimy’s exposure to

Russian literature, especially Leo Tolstoy. This influence is mirrored in his philosophical work The Book of Mirdad. Naimy and Tolstoy shared struggles of faith and discuss religion and beliefs in their writing. The Book of Mirdad gives advice about the nature of good and evil, concepts of faith and spirituality, and the importance of self-

64 improvement for the individual to understand God and faith. Likewise, these themes are also discussed by Tolstoy A Confession and also in what critics, such as Steven Marks, say about Tolstoy's philosophy.

Subsequently, it can be said that these three Arab-American writers reflect similar kinds of influences, in that all their protagonists resemble prophets who want to share their wisdom with the world. These prophets do not advocate for any certain religion.

They do not call people to believe in a particular God or follow specific practices. Rather they focus on developing the individual’s perspectives about life that will result in creating a better world. Emigrating to the United States gave Rihani, Gibran and Naimy more freedom to express their spiritual and religions thoughts, which is reflected in most of their writing.

Therefore, it can be said that emigrating to the United States helped these three writers to create their spiritual individuality. These three writers could create their spiritual individuality in the United States because they could separate themselves from their home cultures, and thereby look at them more critically. Had they not emigrated they might not have had the chance to get out of the social structure that would have led them to have had little chance to achieve their own individual spirituality. Rather they found a new and fresh source of inspiration in Western literature. In other words, they found a new perspective on life, specifically the importance of individual spirituality.

65

References

Abrams, M. H. English Romantic Poets: Modern essays in criticism. University Press,

1975. 55-98.

Allen, Roger M. A., et al., editors. Essays in Arabic Literary Biography: 1850-1950. Otto

Harrassowitz Verlag, 2009. 253-264.

Al Maleh, Layla. “The Literary Parentage of “The Book of Khaild” The Book of Khalid: A

Critical Edition. Edited by TODD FINE, Syracuse, New York, Syracuse University

Press, 2016.312- 337.

Barkan, Robert. Making it in America: A Sourcebook on Eminent Ethnic Americans. ABC-

CLIO, 2001. 135.

Bartlett, Rosamund. Tolstoy: A Russian Life. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011 3-113.

Beshara, Adel. The Origins of Syrian Nationhood: Histories, Pioneers and Identity. ,

Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2012. 163-165.

Boullata, Issa J. “Mikhail Naimy: Poet of Meditative Vision.” Journal of Arabic Literature, vol.

24, no. 2, 1993. 173–184. JSTOR.

Brantlinger, Patrick. “Classic and Romantic: An Augury of Innocence.” College English, vol. 33,

no. 6, 1972. 702–711. JSTOR.

66 Blake, William. The Complete Poetry and Prose of William Blake. Edited by David V. Erdman,

University of California Press, 2008.

Blake, William. The Poems of William Blake. Oxford University, Sep 20, 2007. 167.

Blake, William. The Marriage of Heaven and Hell and A Song of Liberty. Florence Press,

London, 1911. Oct 13, 2011.

Blake, William. "Nurse's Song." Poems of William Blake, Courier Corporation, 2013. 13.

Carmen Casaliggi, and Fermanis, Porscha. Romanticism. A literary and cultural history.

Routledge, 2016. 3.

Chandler, Paul-Gordon. In Search of a Prophet: A Spiritual Journey with Kahlil Gibran.

Rowman & Littlefield, 2017. 3.

Choueiri, Youssef M. “The Romantic Discourse of Ameen Rihani and Percy Shelley” The Book

of Khalid: A Critical Edition. Edited by TODD FINE, Syracuse, New York, Syracuse

University Press, 2016. 338-342.

Cizevskij, Dmitrij, and Dmitrij Tschižewskij. History of Nineteenth-Century Russian Literature,

Volume 2. Vanderbilt University Press, 1974. 4-5.

Donovan, Sandy, The Middle Eastern American Experience. Twenty-First Century Books, 2010,

9.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Nature. J. Munroe, 1849. 1-8.

Esterhammer, Angela. Romantic Poetry. John Benjamins Publishing, 2002. 50.

Ferber, Michael. Romanticism: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford, 2010. 32.

67 Funk, Nathan C., and Belly C Sitka.Ameen Rihani: Bridging East and West: a Pioneering

Call for Arab-American Understanding. University Press of America, 2004. 5-68.

Frosini, Justin, and Francesco Biagi. Political and Constitutional Transitions in North Africa:

Actors and Factors. Routledge, 2014. 4.

Ghamdi, Said. Alenhraf Alaqede fe Adab Alhadatha Wa Afkarha [Divergence in The Modern

Literature and Thought]. Islam Kotob 2003. 134.

Gibran, Kahlil, Suheil Badi Bushrui. The Prophet: A New Annotated Edition. Oneworld

Publications, 2012. 1.

Gibran, Kahlil. The Pophet. Edited by Alfred. A. Knopf. Alfred. A. Knopf, Inc. 2000.

Hamilton, Neil. Rebels and Renegades: A Chronology of Social and Political Dissent in

the United States. Routledge, Oct 11, 2002. 86-88.

Hutchings, Kevin. Imagining Nature: Blake's Environmental Poetics. Princeton University Press,

1997. 438.

Imangulieva, Aida. Gibran, Rihani, & Naimy: East-West Interactions in Early Twentieth-

Century Arab Literature.Anqa. Anqa Publishing, 2009.

Jayyusi, Salma K. Modern : An Anthology. Columbia University Press, 1987. 131-

362.

Kaufman, Asher. Reviving Phoenicia: The Search for Identity in Lebanon. I.B.Tauris, 2014. 209-

210.

Kayyali, Randa A. The Arab Americans. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006.126.

68 Keane, Patrick J. Emerson, Romanticism, and Intuitive Reason: the transatlantic "light of all our

day". Univ. of Missouri Press, 2005. 42.

Kyyali, Randa A. The Arab Americans. Greenwood Press, 2006.126.

Laferriere, Daniel. Tolstoy's Quest for God. Routledge, 2017. 11- 89.

Layton, Rebecca. Arab-American and Muslim Writers Multicultural Voices. Infobase Publishing,

2010. 15.

Matar, Nabil I. “ and the Serpent: Notes on the Theology of Mikhail Naimy.” Journal of

Arabic Literature, vol. 11, 1980. 56–61.

Maleh, Layla Al. Arab voices in diaspora: critical perspectives on anglophone Arab literature.

Rodopi, 2009. 65-92.

Marks, Steven G. How Russia shaped the modern world: from art to anti-Semitism, ballet to

bolshevism. Princeton University Press, 2004. 95-139.

Michaud, Régis. “Emerson's Transcendentalism.” The American Journal of Psychology, vol.

30, no. 1, 1919, pp. 73–82. JSTOR.

Mink, Gwendolyn, and Alice OConnor. Poverty in the United States: an encyclopedia of history,

politics, and policy. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 2004. Web. 17 June 2017. 98.

Moreh, Shmuel.Studies in modern Arabic prose and poetry. E.J. Brill, 1988. 39-82.

Moscovici, Claudia. Romanticism and Postromanticism. Lexington Books, 2007. 51

69 Murray, Christopher John. Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760-1850. Vol. 2, Taylor

& Francis, 2004.

Murray, John. Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760–1850. Routledge, 2013. 104.

Myerson, Joel. “A Calendar of Transcendental Club Meetings.” American Literature, vol.

44, no. 2, 1972. 59–207

Nafchi, Asghar Moulavi, et al. "A Comparative Study of Water Semiology in Sohrab Sepehri's

and Gibran Kahlil Gibran's Works." Advances in Language and Literary Studies, vol. 5,

no. 5, 01 Oct. 2014, pp. 88-93. Google Scholar.

N. Naimy. “The Mind and Thought of Khalil Gibran.” Journal of Arabic Literature, vol. 5, 1974,

pp. 55–71. JSTOR.

Naimy, Mikhail. The book of Mirdad: the strange story of a monastery which was once called

the ark. Watkins Publishing, 2011.

Nelson, Emmanuel Sampath. “The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Multiethnic American

Literature: A - C.”The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Multiethnic American Literature: A -

C, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005. 108.

Oweis, Fayeq. Encyclopedia of Arab American Artists. ABC-CLIO, 2008. 31-135.

Robinson. Jeffrey Cane. The Current of Romantic Passion. University of Wisconsin Press, 1991.

3- 4.

Putman, Rhyne R. In Defense of Doctrine: Evangelicalism, Theology, and Scripture. Augsburg

Fortress Publishers, 2015. 70-71.

70 Rancour-Laferriere, Daniel. Tolstoy on the Couch: Misogyny, Masochism and the Absent

Mother. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1998. 167

Rihani, Ameen Albert. “The “Great City” in ar-Rihaniyyat and The Book Of Khalid” The Book

of Khalid: A Critical Edition. Edited by TODD FINE, Syracuse, New York, Syracuse

University Press, 2016. 417-432.

Rosenthal, Léon. Romanticism. New York, Parkstone Press International, 2008. pp37-152.

Rudnytzky, Leonid and Arthur Grugan. "Romanticism in the Western World: Romanticism Re-

Visited." Ukrainian Quarterly, vol. 72, no. 1-4, Spring-Winter2016. 5-7.

Rus, Dana. "The Role of Transcendentalism in Shaping American Cultural Ideology."

Studia Universitatis Petru Maior - Philologia, no. 14, Jan. 2013, pp. 247-254. EBSCOhost.

Sceery, Edwin James. Transcendentalism; a story of Brook Farm. Boston, Meador Pub.

Co., 1940, pp. 9.

Spencer, Alexander. Romantic Narratives in International Politics: Pirates, Rebels and

Mercenaries.Oxford University Press, 2016. p52.

Swanson, M. L. "The Russian Influence on the Literary and Critical Writings of Mikhail

Naimy." ["Русское влияние на литературные и критические работы Михаила

Нуайме"]. Liberal Arts in Russia / Rossiiskii Gumanitarnyi Zhurnal, vol. 6, no. 1, Jan.

2017, pp. 48-66. EBSCOhost.

Tolstoy, Leo. The Confession. Courier Corporation, 2012.

71 Trumpener, Katie. Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire. Princeton

University Press, 1997.

Vassiliadis, Stefanos. An Analysis of William Blake's? "The Marriage of Heaven and Hell". Grin

Verlag, 2010. 6-8.

Wail, Hassan S. "The Retreat of Cultural Translation." in Immigrant Narratives: Orientalism

and Cultural Translation in Arab American and Arab . Oxford

University Press, 2014. 102.

72