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Professional-Broadca ROFESSIONAL BROADCASTING' A HA FE INTLIDIDUCTICSI JOHN R.BITTNER Urofessional rroalcasting: a Uric' introduction JOHN R. BITTNER The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill PRENTICE-HALL, INC. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Bittner, John R 1943- Professional broadcasting. Includes index. I. Broadcasting. I. Title. PNI990.8.B54 384.54 80-16152 ISBN 0-13-725465-2 ©1981 by Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Editorial production/supervision and interior design by Barbara Kelly Cover design by Jorge Hernandez Manufacturing Buyer: Edmund W. Leone Prentice-Hall International, Inc., London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall of Canada, Ltd., Toronto Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Prentice-Hall of Southeast Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Whitehall Books Limited, Wellington, New Zealand for Donald a very special son Contents Reface xiii Acknowledgments xiv Introduction xv 1 RADIO PREVIEW 1 STATION DIVERSITY 2 Personnel 2 Equipment 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO 3 Early programming concepts 3 Becoming specialized 4 Toward portability 7 The transistor 7 LOOKING BACK: THE BEGINNINGS OF RADIO 7 Marconi: the person 8 Marconi: the experimenter 9 The transatlantic broadcast 10 Developments in tube and circuit design 12 Voice broadcasting 12 GOVERNMENT CONTROLS AND RADIO'S GROW IH 16 Acts of 1910 and 1912 16 Pioneer stations 18 Patch-up legislation: the radio act of 1927 19 Patent battles 20 THE IMPACT OF FM 21 Armstrong's contributions 21 Factors influencing FM growth 21 FM QUAD 22 AM STEREO 23 RADIO NETWORKS 23 EARLY BEGINNINGS: NBC AND ABC 24 CBS and Mutual 24 ABC'S demographic networks 25 State, educational, and informal cooperative networks 26 UPI AUDIO AND AP RADIO 28 PUBLIC RADIO AND NPR 28 RADIO FREQUENCIES 28 Characteristics of radio waves 29 Sharing the spectrum 30 CLASSES OF STATIONS 31 Clear 31 Regional 31 Local 31 DAYTIME AND DIRECTIONAL STATIONS 32 UNDERSTANDING MODULATION 32 Amplitude modulation 33 Frequency modulation 33 THE FUTURE OF RADIO 34 SUMMARY 35 FOCUS ON FURTHER LEARNING 36 2 TELEVISION PREVIEW 37 THE SCOPE OF TELEVISION 38 TELEVISION'S EARLY HISTORY 41 Nipkow uses selenium and the scanning disc 41 Zworykin and Farnsworth 41 Improving scanning 42 Sarnoff and RCA 43 False starts: the freeze 43 Approving a color system 44 VHF-UHF closing the gap 45 ASSIGNING TELEVISION CHANNELS 45 COMMERCIAL TELEVISION NETWORKS 46 ABC 46 CBS 47 NBC 49 vi EDUCATIONAL/INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION 5/ Applications 51 Defining ETV and ITV 51 Airborne experiments 51 Satellites take over 52 Portable equipment: lessening resistance 53 ETWITV IN BUSINESS 53 Internal communication 53 Marketing 54 PUBLIC TELEVISION 56 Early funding and support 56 CPB and PBS 56 SUMMARY 58 FOCUS ON FURTHER LEARNING 60 BROADCAST TECHNOLOGY PREVIEW 61 CABLE THE BASIC CONCEPT 62 Early applications 62 Size of the industry 63 CONSTRUCTING A CABLE SYSTEM 64 The head end 64 Distribution system 65 Home terminal 66 Fiber optics 67 SATELLITES 68 Telstar 68 Synchronous orbit satellites 69 COMSAT and INTELSAT 69 INTELSAT satellites 70 RCA satcom: domestic satellite system 73 Western union's westar 73 Oscar 73 USING MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGY IN BROADCASTING 74 Broadcast relay 75 Electronic news gathering 77 VIDEOTAPE 79 VIDEODISCS 80 COMPUTERS 80 Automation 81 Live programming 81 Preparing playlists 84 Production and editing 84 Writing broadcast news 85 TELETEXT 86 vil VIDEOTEXT 87 CLOSED-CAPTIONING 88 SUMMARY 88 FOCUS ON FURTHER LEARNING 90 4 STATION, STUDIO, AND CONTROLS PREVIEW 91 STATION ORGANIZATION 92 Owners and managers 92 Sales department 93 Programming 94 News 94 Engineering 95 Other personnel 95 THE RADIO STUDIO 95 Studio design 96 Microphones 96 Recording equipment 100 The turntable 104 RADIO CONTROL AREA 105 The control board 105 Program monitoring 106 On the air 109 THE TELEVISION STUDIO 109 Set and scenery construction 110 Lighting instruments 11 1 Television cameras and lens 115 Camera mountings and pedestals 117 Gainera cranes and arms 119 TELEVISION CONTROL AREA 119 Video switcher 119 Additional control room hardware 121 SUMMARY 122 FOCUS ON FURTHER LEARNING 123 UNDERSTANDING PRODUCTION PREVIEW 124 viii RADIO PRODUCTION 125 Creating a mental image 125 Visual limitations 126 Complimenting copy and sound 126 Radio production in daily programming 127 New technology and creative production 128 PLANNING TELEVISION PRODUCTION 129 The blend of dialogue and setting 129 Writing the script 129 Revising the script 130 PRODUCING THE PROGRAM 131 Lighting setups 131 Production terms 133 Final editing 134 PRODUCING COMMERCIAL COPY 134 Developing the script 134 Preparing storyboards 135 PRODUCING ITV PROGRAMMING 138 Toward accountability 139 Preproduction stages 139 Producing the program 140 Postproduction 141 SUMMARY 142 FOCUS ON FURTHER LEARNING 142 C UNDERSTANDING PROGRAMMING PREVIEW 144 THE CONTEXT OF BROADCAST PROGRAMMING 145 UNDERSTANDING RADIO FORMATS 146 SMALL MARKET RADIO: PROGRAM FLEXIBILITY 147 PROGRAMMING STRATEGIES IN COMPETITIVE MARKETS 148 Analyzing the competition 148 Adjusting to formats 149 The radio personality 149 The jingle package 151 SYNDICATED RADIO PROGRAMMING 151 Qualities of syndicated programming 152 Syndication companies 153 TELEVISION PROGRAMMING 153 Network strategies 154 Affiliate's goals 155 SYNDICATED TELEVISION PROGRAMMING 156 ECONOMICS OF SYNDICATED PROGRAMMING 158 The financial commitment 159 Promoting the commitment 159 SELLING SYNDICATION 161 Bidding 161 Barter arrangements 161 CABLE'S LOCAL ORIGINATION AND ACCESS PROGRAMMING 162 Local origination programming 162 Access programming: the concept 162 Examples of access programming 164 Program content 164 SUMMARY 164 FOCUS ON FURTHER LEARNING 165 7 STATION REGULATIONS PREVIEW 167 THE FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION 166 FCC organization 169 Enforcement powers of the FCC 170 PROGRAM LOGGING 170 Basic information 171 Station identification and program dines 171 Identifying programming and commercial matter 173 Listing program sources 174 Listing program types 175 OPERATING LOGS 176 OPERATING LICENSING REQUIREMENTS 178 PUBLIC INSPECTION FILE 179 COMMUNITY NEEDS AND ASCERTAINMENT SURVEYS 180 SECTION 315 183 Equal-time provision 183 Exceptions to the equal-time provision 183 Lowest unit charge 184 THE FAIRNESS DOCTRINE 185 Red lion, personal attack, and editorializing 186 The fairness report 187 Defining acontroversial issue 188 Reconsidering the doctrine 188 PROVISIONS AGAINST LOTTERIES 188 Factors constituting a lottery 189 SUMMARY 189 FOCUS ON FURTHER LEARNING 190 BROADCASTING AS A BUSINESS PREVIEW 192 STATIONS' COMPETITIVE ENVIRONMENT 193 External factors 193 Intel nal factors 196 COMPETING IN PROGRAMMING AND SALES 198 THE STATION RATE CARD 199 Frequency discounts 200 Bulk, saturation, and weekly plans 201 UNDERSTANDING BROADCAST RATINGS 201 Basic methodology: the sample 203 Collecting data 203 Understanding key terms 203 Survey areas 208 Reporting ratings 208 APPLYING RATINGS TO BROADCAST SALES 209 Selling demographics 209 Selling CPM 210 BROADCAST PROMOTION 211 Promoting the medium 211 Promoting broadcast vs. newspapers 211 Promoting the station 213 SUMMARY 214 FOCUS ON FURTHER LEARNING 215 BROADCASTING AS A PROFESSION PREVIEW 216 xi THE SCOPE OF THE INDUSTRY 217 CAREER AREAS 218 Management and ownership 219 Broadcast sales 220 Television news 220 Radio news 221 Sports 222 The disc jockey 222 Program director 222 Television production 223 Educational and industrial television 223 Broadcast promotion 224 Engineering 225 PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL ATTRIBUTES 225 LANDING A JOB 226 Gaining experience 226 Making Contacts 227 The resumé 227 The interview 230 Applying for on-air positions: the audition tape 231 SUMMARY 232 FOCUS ON FURTHER LEARNING 233 Glossary 235 Index 249 xii lerefacc This text is designed for the reader who wants to understand what radio and television are all about and how broadcasting has grown, changed, and affected us. While touching on the history of each medium, the emphasis of the book is on the contemporary operation and role of broadcasting in society. This book is intended for the person planning a career in broad- casting and for the individual who feels the best way to responsibly react to broadcasting in society is to understand how it operates. The text first discusses the media of radio and television and follows with adiscussion of broadcast technology. It next looks inside abroad- casting station, examining programming, production, and broadcast news. It concludes with discussions of advertising and sales, regulations, and careers. Detailed objectives preceed each chapter; selected readings are found at the conclusion of each chapter, and the appendix contains aglossary of terms common to professional broadcasting. Acknowleclirnents A number of people have worked hard to make this book possible. The idea was conceived in discussions with Brian Walker and executed under John Bush's able direction. Continually, the professional people at Prentice-Hall, Inc. contribute their talents. Barbara Kelly, Bruce Kennan, Bobbie Christenberry, Gert Glassen, Ken Quinn, and Pat Cahalan all helped immeasurably. Denise continues to be an inspiration. In addition, Judy Mortell and James Richard Taylor keep aclose tie to the main office. Robert S. Haltiwanger,
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