Notes

INTRODUCTION r. In the notes that follow, they are distinguished from reports in English by the inclusion of the Islamic date. 2. Elizabeth Monroe, Britain's Moment in the , 1914-1956 (London, 1965) ch. 3 ('The Years of Good Management, 1922-1945 ') pp. 7'--94· 3· Ibid., p. 8r. 4· LJP&Sjr8, B478, 'Oil Concessions in the Arab Sheikhdoms of the ', r 3 Mar I 944· 5. Al-Anwar ( daily newspaper), 22 Aug '973· Luckily, no one was seriously injured.

CHAPTER 1 r. L/P&Sjro, P6r9/07(7), P4389Jro, Naval Commander-in-Chief to Admir• alty, 30 Dec 1910 (telegram). 2. For an account of the European rivalry in the Gulf region during this period, see B. C. Busch, Britain and the Persian Gulf, lllf)4-I914 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif., 1967). 3· J. G. Lorimer, Gazetteer rif the Persian Gulf, and Central Arabia, 2 vols (Calcutta, 1908-I915) vol. n, p. '437· 4· LjP&Sj2o, C242, 'Military Report and Route Book: The Arabian States of the Persian Gulf, prepared by the General Staff, India, '939· 5· Although British treaty relations with the shaykhdoms on the Coast did not technically claim any overall right by the British Government to make laws for peace and order, the Political Resident did exercise a certain jurisdiction. This jurisdiction had no legal basis and had grown up by long usage, relying very much on the paramount influence of the British Government. The same case applied to British jurisdiction over foreigners; legally, the rulers of the Coast had jurisdiction over all individuals in their respective states, but did not seem to be aware

199 200 The Origins if the

of this fact. Since the only foreign community that seriously concerned the British authorities was that of the Indians, it was with some relief that the Political Resident in I936 noted that 'I believe that the Shaikhs are under the wholesome impression that they cannot touch British subjects' (R/I 5/2/ I 865, Political Resident to Political Agent , 5 July I936). When negotiations for oil concessions were underway two years later, the British authorities brought up the question of extra-territorial jurisdiction before foreign employees of oil companies began to arrive in sizable numbers. The officiating Political Resident urged that the concessions proceed without any legal complications, arguing that the matter could be settled if and when the oil company started drilling and foreign em• ployees arrived. It was not until December I946 that Orders-in-Council for the Coast were enacted; they provided extra-territorial jurisdiction for British subjects, British-protected persons and non-Muslim foreigners. 6. Sir Rupert Hay, 'The Persian Gulf States and their Boundary Disputes', Geographical Journal, cxx (I 954) 435· 7. One of the principal obligations of , zakat is an alms tax levied on different kinds of property and distributed amongst the needy. Its evolution into the form referred to above has its roots in the initial reluctance of the to pay it, as a result of which payment had to be enforced. 8. See Sir Charles D. Belgrave, 'Pearl Diving in Bahrain', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, XXI (I934); Richard le B. Bowen, Jr, 'Pearl Fisheries of the Persian Gulf', Middle East Journal v (I 95 I), and ' Marine Industries of Eastern Arabia', Geographical Review XLI (I95I). g. In I939, it was estimated that about 20 per cent of the population of was made up of Persians and Baluchis, excluding the Hindus and Khojahs. In foreign merchants made for 4 per cent of the total population, but for there are no available figures. (L/P&Sj2o, C242.) 10. John B. Kelly, Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1795-I88o (Oxford, I968) p. 834· I 1. L/P&S/I8, B407, 'Slavery in the Persian Gulf, Sep Ig28. I2. Major-General Sir , 'Some Excursions in Oman', Geographical Journal, LXVI (I925) 200. I 3· After Nuhayyan, ancestor of the Al-bu-Falah. I4. The ' are sometimes considered a separate tribe. Bertram Thomas regarded them in this light, but qualified the consideration by adding that they were a 'section of the Minasir with whom they are in close touch' (L/P&S/ I I /294, P669oj28, Thomas to Political Resident, I3 June I927). In I934, the Residency Agent counted them as a section of the (R/I5/2/544, Residency Agent to Officiating Political Resident, 9 Jumada II I353 (I9 Sep I934). Lorimer, in his Gazetteer, vo!. II, p. I933, also placed them within the Bani Yas, but said that the Mazari' outside Abu Dhabi town and Liwa 'may or may not be identical with this section of the Bani Yas '. I5. Lorimer, Gazetteer, vo!. n, pp. I932-4. I6. Ibid., vol. II, p. I I64. I 7. Ibid., vol. II p. 405. Notes 201

I8. Ibid. It must be noted here, however, that in the historical section of the Gazetteer, Lorimer states that Buraimi 'became almost an annexe of the principality of Abu Dhabi' (ibid., vol. I, p. 77I ). Ig. Cox, in Geographical Journal, LXVI, 207. 20. S. B. Miles, The Countries and Tribes rif the Persian Gulf, new edition (London, Ig66) p. 539· 2r. Lorimer, Gazetteer, vol. n, p. 4I4. 22. W. Thesiger, 'A Further Journey across the Empty Quarter', Geographical Journal, cxru (I 949) 39-40. Thesiger was the first European in modern times to visit Liwa; although he was not far from Liwa in I946 after he crossed the Rub' al-Khali, he did not actually visit Liwa until late I948. 23. Lorimer, Gazetteer, vol. n, p. 405. Lorimer's belief was based on the fact that Shaykh Zayid's influence was predominant in al-Khatam. 24. Ibid., vol. I, pp. 772-4. 25. Hay, in Geographical Journal, cxx, 439· 26. See Sir Charles D. Belgrave, The Pirate Coast (London, Ig66); Kelly, Britain and the Persian Gulf, I795-I88o; Lorimer, Gazetteer; Miles, Countries and Tribes rif the Persian Gulf; H. Moyse-Barlett, The Pirates rif Trucial Oman (London, Ig66); Sir Arnold T. Wilson, The Persian Gulf (Oxford, I928). 27. C. U. Aitchison, A Collection rif Treaties, Engagements and Sanads Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries, fifth edition (Delhi, I933), vol. XI, pp. 245--8.

CHAPTER 2 r. Sir Percy Zachariah Cox (r864-1937), who was Political Resident in Bushire from Igog to I920, after five years as Acting Resident there. His career included service as Chief Political Officer, Indian Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia, I9I4-I8; Acting Minister , I9I8-2o; and High Commissioner in , I920-3. See Philip Graves, The Life rif Sir Percy Cox (London, I94I). 2. See Busch, Britain and the Persian Gulf, r8g4-1914; and Ravinder Kumar, India and the Persian Gulf, r8J8-I907· A Study rif British Imperial Policy (New York, I965). 3· A district within the Ottoman administration, ruled by a qa'immaqam. 4· Lorimer, Gazetteer, vol. I, pp. 2638-g. 5· Parliamentary Debates, fourth ser., vol. cxxr, p. I348. 6. The adviser was Charles Belgrave, who remained rn Bahrain from I926 to I957, and exercised the greatest personal influence in the shaykhdom. For an account of his years in Bahrain, see his autobiography, Personal Column (London, rg6o). 7· L/P&S/ro, P595/I927(I), P4575/27, Government of India to India Office, 8 Sep I92 7. 8. R/I5/I/268, Political Resident to Political Agent Bahrain, 25 Apr I924. g. L/P&S/Io, P4535/I928(8), Viceroy to Secretary of State for India, 5 Oct I928 (telegraph), first of five parts. ro. Ibid., second of five parts. I r. Ibid, I6 Oct Ig28, fourth of five parts. 202 The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

I2. Ibid. I3. PG22, 3I Oct Ig28. Available in LJP&Sjw, P4535/Ig28(8). I4. LJP&S/I8, B4I9, 'Future Policy on the Trucial Coast' (P384oj2g, Political Resident to Government of India, 23 Apr I929). I 5· LJP&Sj I 2/3747, PZ 1724/39, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 5 Feb I 939· Enclosed in Political Resident to Government of India, 2 I Feb I939· I 6. Busch, Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1894-1914, p. 386. I 7. The Political Agency in Muscat was initially established in I8oo. I 8. From I goo to I 904, an Assistant Political Agent was posted to Bahrain. In I904 the position became that of Political Agent. Ig. The first Political Agent to was sent in I904. 20. For details of the setting up of the Committee, see B. C. Busch, Britain, India and the , 1914-1921 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif., I97I) pp. 456--63. 21. CAB 23/24, 7(2I)2, I4 Feb I92I. 22. Established in Igo2, the CID was until I939 the principal advisory and consultative body on all matters concerned with home and overseas defence. 23. CID no. I74-D, PG (sub) I8. 24. This recommendation was approved by the Cabinet on 30 July I930 (CAB 23/24, 46(30)8, 30 July I93o). 25. On these points, the Secretary of State for India reported, 'The appoint• ment is already sufficiently attractive from the aspect of prestige and remuneration ... and [I doubt] whether it is necessary to associate the Imperial Government, who have already in practice an opportunity of expressing their views before an Officer is posted to Bushire, more closely with the appointments' (ibid.). 26. CAB 23/76, 48(33)6, 26 July I933· 2 7. Texts available in Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, vol. XI, pp. 256-7. 28. Ibid, vol. XI, 238. 29. For details of the events leading to this, see Busch, Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1894-1914, pp. 94-I I3. 30. See Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, vol. XI, p. 262, for text. 31. Ibid., vol. XI, pp. 262-3. 32. Ibid., vol. XI, p. 263. 33· Ibid., vol. xi, pp. 265-6. 34· Ibid., vol. XI, 258-61. 35· Ibid., vol. XI, p. 257. 36. Ibid., vol. XI p. 263. 37. Ibid., vol. XI, pp. 264-5. 38. Ibid., vol. XI, p. 239. 39· 'Let it not be hidden from you that we agree, if oil is expected to be found in our territory, not to grant any concession in this connection to any one except to the person appointed by the High British Government' (Undertaking by the ruler of Dubai, signed on 2 May I922, ibid., vol. XI, 26I). 40. For a description of the varied duties of the Political Resident, see the account given by a former Resident, Sir Rupert Hay, The Persian Gulf States (Washington DC, I959) pp. I9-27. Notes 203

41. LjP&Sji2/3747, P64o6j29, Political Resident to Government of India, I Sep I929. 42. Ibid., P287o/3o, Political Resident to Government of India, 9 Apr I930. 43· Ibid., PZ2870/30, Political Resident to Government of India, I4 Mar I930. 44· It is interesting to note that in I926 the Government of India proposed that the post be reduced from a first-class to a second-class appointment. However, in view of the responsibilities of the office, the difficulty of the duties, and the unhealthy climate of the Gulf, it also recommended that the Resident be given a special payment. (L/P&S/IO, PsiB4/I9I3, Viceroy to Secretary of State for India, 20 Sep I926 (telegram).) These proposals were dropped, and the Resident continued to hold a first-class appointment; in I927 the appointment of a personal assistant to the Resident was sanctioned by India. 45· LjP&Sji2/3747, minute by Laithwaite (India Office), I I Nov I929. 46. (Luoted ibid. 47· LjP&SjiB, B4I9, 'Future Policy on the Trucial Coast' (P3840/29, Political Resident to Government of India, 23 Apr I929). 48. Ibid. (P64o6j29, Political Resident to Government of India, 5 Sep I929)· 49· LjP&S/I2/3747, P2870/3o, Political Resident to Government of India, I4 Mar I930. 50. LjP&S/I2/I965, Political Resident to Residency Agent, II Dec I932. 51. Except in Kuwait, where the expenses were shared equally with the Foreign Office. 52. LjP&Sj I 2/3645, PZ753 I /33, Political Resident to Government of India, 30 Oct I933· 53· For an account of the life and work of one of these missionaries, see the autobiography of Paul W. Harrison, Doctor in Arabia (London, I943l· 54· This fact particularly shocked Ameen Rihani when he visited the Coast. See Ameen Rihani, Around the Coasts of Arabia (London, 1930) p. 262. 55· Olaf Caroe, Wells of Power (London, I95I) p. I IO. Sir Olaf Caroe was an Officer of the Indian Political Service and in 1937 he was Officiating Political Resident in Bushire. He later became Secretary of the External Affairs Department and Governor of the North-West Frontier Province in India. 56. LjP&Sjr2/3867, PZ833/36, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident,. 2I Feb 1935. 57· Donald Hawley, The (London, 1970) p. 226. 58. See J. F. Standish, 'British Maritime Policy in the Persian Gulf', Middle East Studies, III, no. 4 (I967). 59· Captain R. St P. Parry, 'The Navy in the Persian Gulf', Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, LXXV (May, 1930).

CHAPTER 3 1. Lorimer, Gazetteer, vol. II, p. I933· 2. Ibid., vol. II, p. 1547. 204 The Origins rif the United Arab Emirates

3· Ibid., vol. 11, p. 1932. 4· A large Ghafiri tribe whose dirah stretched from each of Ras al-Khaimah town into the Dahirah. A settled branch of the Bani Qjtab lived in Dhayd, an oasis about fifty miles east of Sharjah town. In the nineteenth century the Bani Qjtab formed the basis of the land power of their allies the Qawasim, but by 1891 they had attached themselves to Zayid bin Khalifah of Abu Dhabi. (Ibid., vol. 1, p. 771.) Later, however, as the standing of the ruler of Abu Dhabi declined, the Bani Qjtab ceased to be influenced by that shaykhdom. 5· R/15/1/265, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 1 Sep 1922 (trans- lation). 6. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, g Nov 1922 (translation). 7· Ibid., Sa'id bin Ahmad to Political Resident, 23 Oct 1922 (translation). 8. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 3 Aug 1923 (translation). g. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 29 Sep 1923 (translation). 10. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 27 Oct 1923 (translation). 11. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 11 Nov 1923 (translation). 12. Ibid., Political Resident to Government of India, 19 Mar 1924. 13. Ibid., Political Resident to Government of India, 20 Feb 1929. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid., Political Resident to Government of India, 17 Mar 1929. 16. Compare this entire account with Hawley, The Trucial States, p. 348, where he states that Ahmad bin Rashid succeeded his father, Rashid bin Ahmad, in 1929. 17. R/15/1/265, Political Resident to Government of India, 17 Mar 1929. 18. R/15/1/275, extract from Senior Naval Officer's memo. no. 31/61g, 27 July 1935 19. R/15/2/916, 'Dubai Ruling Family', n.d. 20. R/15/1/265, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 29 Dhu'l Hijjah 1340 (23 Aug 1922). These grievances were described to the Residency Agent by Saqr bin Zayid. 21. L/P&S/11/22, P1719/23, Political Resident to Government of India, 18 Mar 1922. 22. R/15/1/265, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 13 Aug 1926 (trans• lation). 23. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 17 Nov 1926 (extract). 24. Ibid., 3 Ramadan 1345(7 Mar 1927). Also on 4 Ramadan 1345(8 Mar 1927), in which his brother 'Abd al-Rahman referred to the boys as the sons of Shaytan (Satan), a play on the name 'Sultan'. 25. L/P&S/II/195, P1345/21, Political Resident to Government of India, 13 Dec 1927. 26. This is recorded in R/15/I/205, Shakhbut and Hazza' to Ahmad bin Khalifah, n.d. 27. According to a messenger of the Residency Agent, this consisted of 400 armed men, twelve boats and two bums (cargo vessels used in Gulf waters) which had four guns (ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 9 Mar 1927). The Resident at Bushire reacted strongly to the force, and he warned Saqr that he would not 'tolerate any breach of the maritime peace' (ibid., Political Resident to Saqr bin Zayid, 23 July 1927). Notes

28. Principally Bani Yas from Dafrah, who migrated to the island m winter. 29. R/I5/I/265, Shakbut and Hazza' to Ahmad bin Khalifah, n. d. 30. Clarence C. Mann, Abu Dhabi (Beirut, I969) p. 71. 31. R/ I5/ I /265, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 25 Jan I928. 32. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 27 Aug I928. 33· L/P&S/I I/222, P3935/22, Political Resident to Government of India, 20 Apr I928 (enclosed in P256Ij28). 34· R/I5/I/236, 'Arab States News Summary', no. 9 of I930 (Sep I930). 35· The claim was based on the right of 'Abd al-Rahman, as a member of the Al-bu-Shamis, to a Na'im position. 36. The agreement is available in R/ I 5/ I /267. It was signed by Khalid, 'Abd al-Rahman, the Residency Agent, and Captain Pearson on 8 January I92I. 37· LfP&S/I I/I95, PI343/2I: Political Resident to Government of India, I3 May I92I. Humayd brought on the anger of the British authorities by appealing to Ibn Sa'ud for help against 'Abd al-Rahman. 38. R/I5/I/268, 'Abd al-Rahman bin Muhammad to Residency Agent, I6 Dhu'l Hijjah I34I(3oJuly I923). 39· Available ibid., I8 Dhu'l Hijjah I34I (I Aug I923). 40. Available in R/I5/I/268, 22 Jumada I I343 (3I Dec I923). 41. Ibid., same date. 42. R/I5/I/268, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 10 Jumada II I342 (I8Jan I924). 43· Sultan had obviously hired non-residents of Sharjah to join his forces, for in I939 an Omani resident of Dubai appealed to the imam to help him retrieve from Sultan bin Saqr the fee he had been promised for fighting against Khalid in I924. The imam wrote to Sultan, who ignored the letter. The British authorities decided not to press Sultan for payment, since by I939 Khalid had become regent of and was necessary for help with the oil concessions; knowledge of the claim might have antagonised him. (R/I5/2/6I7.) 44· Available in R/IS/I/276, I4 Rabi' II I343 (I2 Nov I924). HMS Cyclamen had arrived off the coast of Sharjah on IO November, in case British subjects needed protection and in case she was needed to transmit information of the events to Bahrain and Bushire. 45· R/I5/2/6I7, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 8 Dhu'l Hijjah I345 (9 June I927). 46. The name Ras al-.1\haimah, literally 'the point of the tent', refers to a tent, erected on a low hill in the place formerly called Julfar, above which a torch was lit as a guide for sailors passing through the Straits of Hormuz. 47· Sultan bin Saqr became shaykh of the Qawasim in I803, but in I8o9 the Wahhabis, who had arrived in Buraimi nine years before and had begun to assume great authority on the Coast, deposed him and exiled him to Dar'iyyah. In I8I2 Sultan escaped, but in I8I4 agreed with Sa'id bin Sultan of Muscat to relinquish all claims to Ras al-Khaimah, which was governed by Hasan bin Rahmah, and to confine himself to Sharjah and the Persian port of Lingah. In I82o, after a British naval force had bombarded Ras al-Khaimah 206 The Origins if the United Arab Emirates

town, Hasan bin Rahmah was deposed by W. G. Kcir, the commander of the British expedition, and Ras al-Khaimah was restored to Sultan. See Kelly, Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1795-IB&J, ch. 4; Miles, Countries and Tribes of the Persian Gulf, ch. 5; and Wilson, The Persian Gulf, ch. I3. 48. Lorimer, Gazetteer, vol. I, p. 756. 49· Ibid., vol. I, pp. 756-63. 50. LJP&S/I I/3I, P34I2/Igi2, Political Resident to Government of India, 4 Aug I9I2. See Ch. 8 below. 51. R/I5/I/244• Residency Agent to Political Resident, I4 Shawwal I337 (I3 July Igig). 52. L/P&Sji I/3I, PI I47/2I, Political Resident to Government of India, 22 Dec I920. 53· Ibid. 54· Ibid. 55· Ibid., P4552/2I, Political Resident to Government of India, 30 Aug I92 I. s6. Cox, in Geographical Journal, LXVI, 205. 57· R/I5/I/244, Residency Agent to Political Resident, I I Rajah I345 (I5 Jan I927). 58. R/I5/2/gi6, 'Dubai Ruling Family', n. d. 59· For a study on the position of women in the Trucial Coast, and a consideration of the role played by Hussah hint Murr, see P. A. Lienhardt, 'Some Social Aspects of the Trucial States', in The : Society and Politics, ed. D. Hopwood (London, I972) pp. 2I9-30. 6o. See below, Ch. 6. 61. LjP&Sji2/3827 P5783/29, Commanding Officer HMS Lupin to Senior Naval Officer, 2I Apr I929. 62. Ibid., P292Ij2g, Political Resident to India Office, I7 Apr I929 (tele• gram). 63. Ibid., P2964/29, HMS Lupin to Admiralty, I8 Apr I929 (telegram).

CHAPTER 4 1. Calculated as follows: $MT 3 = 4 rupees; and I5 rupees £I sterling. 2. Lorimer, Gazetteer, vol. n, p. 409. 3· In I907 the shaykhdom had only seventy boats, as compared with 410, 360 and 335 in Abu Dhabi, Sharjah and Dubai respectively (ibid., vol. I, p. 2256). 4· Ibid., vol. I, p. 2285. 5· Ibid., vol. I, pp. 2284-7. 6. Rj I 5/ I /239, Residency Agent to Deputy Political Resident, 27 Safar I338(2o Nov Igig). 7· Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, I Rabi' I I338(I4 Dec I gig). 8. Ibid., Political Resident to Rashid bin Ahmad, I I Dec Igig. g. Ibid., Political Resident to Sultan bin Salim, I3 Sep I923 (translation). Notes

IO. Ibid., Political Resident to Sultan bin Salim, 8 Dec I923 (translation). I I. Today, however, claim to it is contested by Sharjah and Fujairah. I2. Here it should be noted that in the winter of I97I-2 an expedition sent out by the Royal Geographical Society in London explored the Musandam peninsula for the first time in history. See N. L. Falcon, 'The Musandam (Northern Oman) Expedition I97I-I972 ', Geographical journal, CXXXIX ( I973). I3. Bertram Thomas, 'The Musandam Peninsula and its People the Shihuh', Journal rif the Central Asian Sociery, XVI ( I929) p. 79· See also Walter Dostal, 'The Shihuh of Northern Oman: A Contribution to Cultural Ecology', Geographical Journal, cxxxvm (I972). I4. Thomas, in ]CAS, XVI, p. 75· I5. A Ghafiri tribe whose settled population was in Rams, and whose bedouin section roamed the area around the Dhayd oasis in Sharjah. I 6. These included 209 divers from Dubai, 2 I 3 from Sharjah, and about I oo from U mm al-Qaiwain, Ajman and Lingah (L/P&S/ II /2 I 3, PI6ooj22, Political Resident to Government of India, 25 Feb I922). I 7. Sultan bin Salim apparently was suspected of having instigated the murder, but, apart from a note to that effect in the files of the Bushire Residency, no further information is available (R/I5/I/275, n. d.). I8. LfP&S/I I/2I3, PI6ooj22, Political Resident to Government of India, 25 Feb I922. I9. Ibid. 20. A translation of the agreements is enclosed ibid., PI777/22, Political Resident to Government of India, I4 Mar I922. 2 I. Relations between the ruler and the village of Rams remained good until I933, when Rams suffered great losses from an epidemic and a stagnant trade situation, and could not therefore afford to send the annual tribute agreed on in I922. In I934, I30 rupees was all that the village could spare. This was unacceptable to Sultan bin Salim, who insisted on the full amount. The wali of Rams consequently appealed to the Senior Naval Officer for help. The latter gave it as his opinion to the Political Resident that the wali of Rams was capable of launching a successful attack on Ras al-Khaimah, since he could depend on the help of the Shilhuh, but that he was obviously anxious to reach a solution (R/I5/I/275, Senior Naval Officer to Political Resident, 23 Oct I934). The Naval Officer told the wali that if Sultan bin Salim presserl him again for the tribute, he was to say that the matter had been referred to the Political Resident. That there is no further mention of the case indicates the success of the Senior Naval Officer's plan. 22. R/I5/I/267, Senior Naval Officer to Political Resident, I3 Jan I92I. 23. L/P&S/I I/I95, PI343/2I (P303I/2I), Political Resident to Government of India, I3 May I92I. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 26. R/I5/I/279, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 4 Rabi' n I344(22 Oct I 925). 27. Ibid., Political Resident to Government of India, I3 Feb I926. 208 The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

28. A leading merchant of Bahrain who was a banker, an agent for steamer lines, and agent for the Anglo-Persian Oil Co., Yusuf Kanu was a figure of considerable importance in the Gulf region and in . He had a great interest in political affairs, to which he devoted much of his time. 29. Available in R/15/1/279, 9Jumada n 1344(25 Dec 1925). 30. Ibid., 28 Sha'ban 1344 (13 Mar 1926). 31. Ibid., Political Resident to Government of India, 13 Feb 1926. 32. LjP&S/11/195, P1343/21 (P2494/26), Political Resident to Government of India, 26 June 1926. 33· Ibid. 34· R/15/1/236, 'Arab States News Summary', no. 9 of 1929, Sep 1929. 35· Ibid., no. 2 of 1931, Feb 1931. 36. R/I5/I/268, Saqr bin Sultan to Residency Agent, 28 July 1933 (trans• lation). 37· Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 29 July 1933 (telegram). 38. L/P&S/I2/37IO, Senior Naval Officer to Commander-in-Chief East Indies Station, 14 Oct 1933 (extract). 39· R/I5/I/268, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 27 Jan 1934 (telegram). 40. L/P&S/ 10, P595/ I927 ( 1), P3996/27, Political Resident to Government of India, 30 Apr and 7 May I927. Enclosed in P4575/27, 8 Sep I 927. It is interesting to note that, two years later, in a lecture given to the Central Asian Society in London, Haworth upheld the policy of non-interference, specifically citing the case of Abu Dhabi, and argued that interference 'would entail control on the mainland which we have no desire to assume, it would mean an extension of the British ' (Journal of the Central Asian Sociery, XVI (I929) 50 I). 4I. Lorimer, Gazetteer, vo!. I, pp. 777-84. 42. Ibid., vol. I, p. 2639. 43· R/I5/6/239, Thomas to Political Resident, 24 June 1926, from which this account has been drawn. A copy of the peace agreement is available in R/IS/1/278, 21 May 1926. The other signatories were Salih bin Muhammad, Shihhi the Shaykh of Dibba; Muhammad and Saqr bin Sultan of the Na'im; and Salim bin Duyayn of the Bani Ka'b. 44· R/I5/I/278, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 16 Rabi' I 1345 (24 Sep I926). 45· Ibid., Political Resident to Political Agent Muscat, 5 Nov 1926 (tele• gram). 46. Ibid., Thomas to Political Agent Muscat, 12 Feb I927. 47· Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 24 Dhu'l Hijjah I346 (20 Nov 1927). The agreement is available ibid.

CHAPTER 5 1. See Fu'ad Hamzah, Al-Bilad al-'Arabiyyah al Sa'udiyyah (Mecca, I937, and Riyadh, Iq68); Kelly, Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1795-18&; H. St J. B. Philby, Saudi Arabza (London, 1955); Ameen Rihani, Tarikh wa Mulhaqatihi, new edition (Beirut, I972); Hafiz Wahbah, Jazirat al-'Arabji'l-Qarn al 'lshrin (Cairo, I967). Notes 209

2. See A. Cunningham, 'The Wrong Horse: A Study of Anglo-Turkish Relations before the First World War', (St Antony's Papers, no. I 7), Middle Eastern Affairs, no. 4 (Ig65). 3· Aitchison, A Collection qf Treaties, vol. XI, pp. 206-8. For an account of early Anglo-Saudi relations, see Gary Troeller, The Birth qf Saudi Arabia (London, I976). 4· L/P&S/10, P5027j22, P2749/26, Secretary of State for India to Viceroy, 2I Aug Ig26 (telegram). 5· Cmd 295I of I927, in Aitchison, A Collection qf Treaties, vol. XI, pp. 227--9· 6. For an account of the fall of the Ikhwan, see H. R. P. Dickson, Kuwait and her Neighbours (London, Ig68); J. B. Glubb, War in the Desert (London, Ig6o). 7· Philby, Saudi Arabia, p. 337· 8. The Conference held between Cox and Ibn Sa'ud to delineate the borders of Nejd with Iraq, Transjordan and Kuwait. This followed the Treaty of Muhammarah early in I922, which had been drawn up by Cox and contested by Ibn Sa'ud. See H. St J. B. Philby, 'A Survey of Wahhabi Arabia, I 929 ', Journal qf the Central Asian Sociery, XVI (I929), and Arabian Jubilee (London, I952); Ameen Rihani, Ibn Sa'oud qf Arabia (London, Ig28); and 'The Iraq-Najd Frontier', Journal qf the Central Asian Sociery, XVII (I 930) g. Rihani, Ibn Sa'oud, p. 67. IO. LJP&S/I I/294, P66gojig28, Thomas to Political Resident, I3 June I927. I 1. Note in R/I5/2/474 3 Mar I933· It is interesting to note that a strikingly similar tale is told of the Wahhabis in the nineteenth century, an indication of the influence and power of historical precedent, by which tradition could be confused with reality. I2. L/P&S/I I/222, P5027/22, Political Resident to Government of India, I3 May I92I. I3. Ibid., Political Resident to Government of India, 10 Nov I922. I4. In an interesting minute G. A. Simpson of the Political Department of the India Office remarked uneasily, 'it would have been a better sign if Ibn Saud had argued the point bitterly and fiercely' (ibid., P73I/23, 2 Mar I923). I5. LJP&S/I I/222, P5875/3o, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 2 Aug I930. Enclosed in Political Resident to Government of India, I8 Aug I930. I6. R. M. Burrdl, 'Britain, and the Persian Gulf: Some Aspects of the Situation in the I g2os and I 930s ', in The Arabian Peninsula: Sociery and Politics, ed. Derek Hopwood (London, I972). I 7. Tunb lies about seventeen miles south of the south-west corner of Qjshm, and Little Tunb (Nabiyu Tunb) is an uninhabited island about one mile long and lying eight miles west of Tunb. Sparsely inhabited and almost waterless, Tunb had deposits of red oxide. Generally speaking, Little Tunb was not explicitly referred to in the dispute, but it was included with Tunb. I8. Larger and more populous than Tunb, lies closer to Sharjah than to Lingah. It had good supplies of water and valuable deposits of red oxide. The population of Tunb and Abu Musa varied with 2 1 o The Origins rif the United Arab Emirates

the season. In winter, Tunb had about twenty-five Arabs to every four Iranians, exclusive of their families; in the summer, the Arabs would go to the pearl fisheries and only the Iranians remained. The Iranian population consisted of the shaykh of Ras al-Khaimah's servant, and two men employed as water-carriers for the staff of the lighthouse. The population of Abu Musa was estimated in I929 to be made up of fifty Arabs, two Iranians and three Baluchis. (L/P&S/ 10, P4535/28(2), P6794/29, Political Resident to Government of India, 25 Sep I929.) I9. Forty miles south by west of Bustaneh, the nearest point on the Iranian coast, Sirri was more prosperous and fertile than Tunb. 20. It is outside the scope of this study to discuss the claim that Iran made to Bahrain in I 92 7, various studies of which are listed below. The claim was based on the fact that Persia occupied Bahrain early in the seventeenth century and remained until I 783, when ancestors of the present ruling family, the Khalifah, conquered it. Persia, however, never accepted the sovereignty of the Khalifah, and it was not until I970 that the Iranian Government finally renounced its claim. See Fereydoun Adamiyat, Bahrain Islands, A Legal and Diplomatic Study rif the British~Iranian Controversy (New York, I955); Husain M. Al-Baharna, The Legal Status rif the Arabian Gulf States (Manchester, I968); Malek Esmail, Le Golfe persique et /es iles de Bahrein (Paris, I9:18); Abbas Faroughy, The Bahrain Islands (7so~I95l) (New York, I95I). J. B. Kelly, 'The Persian Claim to Bahrain', International Affairs, I957; Majid Khadduri, 'Iran's Claim to Sovereignty of Bahrain', American Journal rif International Law, I95I; Arnold Toynbee, 'The Dispute between Persia and Great Britain over Bahrain (I927~I934) ', Survey of International Affairs, I 934· 21. Lorimer, Gazetteer, vol. I, pp. 746 and 2I38. 22. LjP&Sjw, P4949/1:.!(I), P2664/23, British Minister Tehran to Foreign Office, I8 May I923 (copy). 23. Ibid., PI625/23, British Minister Tehran to Foreign Office, 27 Apr I923 (copy of telegram). 24. L/P&S/I Ij262, P2243/26, British Minister Tehran to Foreign Office, 3I May I926 (copy). 25. It was the money from this tax that went to finance the Trans-Iranian Railway, work on which was started in I927. 26. LjP&Sjw, P4535/I928(I I), P4783j28, Viceroy to Secretary of State for India, 4 Sep I928 (telegram). 27. LjP&S/I I/222, P5027/22, Political Resident to Government of India, I8 Aug I930. 28. A branch of the Khariji sect of Islam, predominant in Oman. See Roberto Rubinacci, 'The Ibadis ', in Religion in the Middle East, ed. A. J. Arberry, vol. n (Cambridge, I969). In the eighteenth century the founder of the present Al-bu-Sa'id dynasty changed his title from imam to sultan, and at the beginning of the present century a separate movement under an imam was formed inland, with headquarters at Nizwa. It challenged the authority of the sultan, who, with British support, could control only the coastal areas of . Notes 21 I

29. A Ghafiri tribe whose range extended through the Rub' al-Khali and north to Buraimi. Described by Bertram Thomas as follows: 'Trea• cherous, poor and a universal terror. They speak intelligible , not grunts mentioned in books; roam everywhere but bazaar and Buraimi ... a loose confederacy, every section a law unto itself' (L/P&S/I 1(294, P6690(28, Thomas to Political Resident, 13 June 1927). 30. A Ghafiri tribe who had been previously at war with the 'Awamir. Their main centre was at Tun'um in Dahirah, although their range extended from Dahirat al-Sir to Buraimi. 31. A Ghafiri tribe that had been a branch of the Na'im but that in the twentieth century assumed an entity of their own, the Al-bu-Shamis were led by Shaykh Rashid bin Hamad, who lived in Hamasah, a village in the Buraimi oasis. There seems to be conflicting evidence on the participation of the Al-bu-Shamis in this dispute. The Residency Agent, who sent an agent to collect information on Dafrah and Buraimi about ten years later, did not include them in his account of events. (R/15/2/544, Residency Agent to Officiating Political Resident, 9 Jumada II I353 (19 Sep I934).) J. B. Kelly, Eastern Arabian Frontiers (London, I964), p. I I5, referred to them in this context. 32. Some of the , the Al-bu-Mundhir section under Shavkh Q!ran bin Mani', as well as certain members of the .l\1azari', decided to remain in Hasa, and Q!ran was still there in I934· (R/I5/2/544, Resi• dency Agent to Officiating Political Resident, 9 Jumada II I353 (I9 Sep I934).) On the Mazari', see above, Ch. I, note I4. 33· Rj I 5/ I j250, note from Political Agent Bahrain to Political kesident, I2 Feb I925. 34· Although the report from which this entire account has been drawn refers specifically to al-Falayah more than once, the I40 miles separating this village from al-Mu'tarid make it an unlikely place for attack and counter-attack from Buraimi. The number of spelling errors that exist in the report suggest, however, a possible mistake, and that Aflaj Bani Q!tab, a cluster of tiny settlements located in the Dahirah, north-west of 'lbri and south of Dhank, and inhabited by the Bani Q!tab, was the scene of the fighting. (R/ I 5/ I (250, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 25 Safar I343 (25 Sep I924).) 35· Whose home was in Mahadah in the Dahirah. Captain G. J. Eccles, who accompanied a D' Arcy Exploration Company survey to Oman in I 925 described him as 'altogether more polished, more intelligent and broad-minded, though no less virile, than his Bedouin brother' ('Sultanate of Muscat and 'Oman', Journal of the Central Asian Society, XIV (I 927) 36). His brother Mu'adad lived in Sharm and murdered Salim in I930, when he became Shaykh of Bani Ka'b. He was later removed from power by Salim's sons. 36. The shaykh of 'lbri, a large settlement in the Omani section of the Dahirah, was an lbadi of the Bani Ya'aqib tribe. In I925 he was replaced by 'Abdallah bin Rashid, who was under the influence of 'lsa bin Salih and the imam. 37· At the time, the shaykh was 'Abdallah bin 'Ali bin Huwayydin, but, as he was ill, and died on I6 December I925, the man referred 2 1 2 The Origins rif the United Arab Emirates

to in the report by the Residency Agent from which this account has been drawn was probably his brother and successor, Muhammad. 38. R/15/I/250, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 2 Ramadan 1343 (27 Mar 1925). 39· One of the oldest tribes in Arabia, the Al-Murrah had a range extending from Hasa to Riyadh, and were thus well within the confines of Ibn Sa'ud's authority. 40. There seems to be some confusion as to his complete name. He has been referred to as Su'ayyid bin Faysal and as Su'ayyid bin 'Arafah. For the sake of simplicity, he is referred to here as Su'ayyid, the same name given to him by the Residency Agent in Sharjah. (R/I5/2/544, Residency Agent to Officiating Political Resident, 9 Jumada II I353 (I9 Sep 1934).} 41. LfP&S/II/222, P2433{26, Political Resident to Colonial Office, 9 June I926. 42. R/IS/2/544• Residency Agent to Officiating Political Resident, 9 Jumada II I353 (I9 Sep I934)· 43· L/P&S/I I/222, P2433{26, Political Resident to Colonial Office, 9 June I926. 44· LfP&S/I I{294, P6690{28, Thomas to Political Resident, I3 June I927. See also Bertram Thomas, Alarms and Excursions in Arabia (London, I93I ). 45· R/IS/6/39, Shaykh Rashid bin 'Uzayz (Minister for Religious Affairs, Muscat Council of Ministers) to Political Agent Muscat, n. d. (trans• lation). 46. Ibid., Clerk of the wali of Sohar to Council of Ministers, Muscat and Oman, I I Dhu'l Hijjah I 343 (4 July I925). 47· He claimed that the purpose of their visit was to inspect their date gardens in the Batinah, and he told the Residency Agent that he was not in the least afraid of Ibn Jaluwi (ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 7 Oct I925). 48. Al-Shura, edited by Muhammad 'Ali Tahir, who previously had lived in the Hijaz under Hashimi rule, was in print only from I924 to I931. 49· Originally from Tripoli, Libya, al-Nafusi went to Muscat in I924. Two years later he became Finance Minister to the imam of Oman. A powerful man who was regarded with great suspicion by the British authorities in Muscat and Bushire, al-Nafusi was also a friend of King Faisal of Iraq, and in I929 he left Oman to live in Basrah and Baghdad. At first refused re-entry into Muscat, he returned in I938, this time to work for the sultan. 50. R/Is/6/39, note by Soofi (Munshi, or scribe, at the Political Agency in Muscat) to Political Agent Muscat, 29 Nov I925. Soofi also mentioned that Sa'id had been so nervous about the possibility of Wahhabi aggres• sion that he had an Arab from Zubayr who was visiting Dubai deported merely because he 'spoke an ill-word' about Ibn Sa'ud. 51. !OJumada I I344 (27 Nov I925). Translation enclosed in LfP&S/I I/222, P2433{26, Political Resident to Colonial Office, 9 June I926. 52. Details available in R/ I s/6/39· See also Eccles, in Journal of the Central Asian Society, XIV; J. B. Kelly, 'A Prevalence of Furies: Tribes, Politics, Notes 213

and Religion in Oman and Trucial Oman', in The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics ed. Derek Hopwood (London, I972). 53· Before the outcome of '!sa's expedition had become known, the rulers on the Coast were naturally apprehensive of the possibility of a Wahhabi counter-move, which inevitably would have had violent repercussions in the different shaykhdoms. It obviously was the wrong time for the perpetuation of a feud between Abu Dhabi and the Bani Qitab, so Hamad bin Ibrahim of Umm al-Qaiwain successfully arranged for the conclusion of peace between Sultan bin Zayd and Muhammad bin 'Ali bin Huwayydin early in December I925. (R/I5/I/250, Residency Agent to Political Resident, I 7 Jumada I I 344 (4 Dec I925) and 2 Jumada II I344 (I8 Dec I925).) Sultan had little choice but to agree to the terms of the peace agreement, his tribal control in the area that his father had commanded with ease being severely challenged by the presence of the W ahhabi ;:akat collectors. 54· L/P&S/I I/294, P66go/28, Thomas to Political Resident, I3 June I927. 55· L/P&S/I I/222, P2433/Ig26, Political Resident to Colonial Office, 9 June Ig26. 56. LfP&S/I I/I95, PI343/2I (P2494/26), Political Resident to Government of India, 26 June Ig26. 57· Ameen Rihani, the Lebanese writer, was present when Hazza' bin Sultan arrived in Riyadh, and he gave his impressions of the scene: 'a boy of fifteen, who came with a retinue of and slaves and a gift of ten beautiful Oman dromedaries ;-came riding across the many deserts from Dubai on the Gulf to al-Riyadh ... bringing the salaam of his father, the biggest of the sheikhs of Oman .... And this son of Ibn Zaied carried a big jewelled sword, walked barefoot, and wore, as another mark of distinction, an embroidered head-kerchief of Cashmere weave' (Ibn Sa'oud, p. 230). In return, Hazza' was given 8ooo rupees (£70) twenty rifles and two mares; each of his twenty men was given a suit of clothes and a sum of money (ibid., p. 23I ). 58. R/I5/2/544· Residency Agent to Officiating Political Resident, g Jumada II I353 (Ig Sep I934)· 59· L/P&S/IO, P595/I927(I), P4575/27 (P3gg6/27), Political Resident to Government of India, 30 Apr and 7 May I927. 6o. L/P&S/ I I /277, Pig58/27, P3945/27, Report from Senior Naval Officer to India Office, I May 1927. 61. Ibid., Pig58/27, P2367/27, Secretary of Political Resident to British Minister Tehran, I4 Apr I927 (telegram). 62. L/P&S/IO, P40I I/I923(2), P3077/28, Political Resident to Government of India, I2 June Ig28 (telegram). 63. Ibid., P5 I 25/28, Political Resident to Government of India, 20 Sep Ig28. 64. L/P&S/IO, P4535/Ig28(2), P40I7/28, Senior Naval Officer to Admiralty, 30 July Ig28 (telegram). 65. In the treaty of I82o Britain undertook to protect the Trucial Coast from attack by sea, and in that of I892 the rulers of the Trucial Coast were forbidden to enter into any agreement or correspondence with any country other than Great Britain. In I903 Curzon promised 214 The Origins if the United Arab Emirates

that, while the treaties were binding on the rulers, 'they are also binding in their reciprocal effect upon the British Government, and so long as they are faithfully observed by the Chiefs, there is no fear that anyone else will be allowed to tamper with your rights and liberties' (Lorimer, Gazetteer, vol. 1, p. 2638). 66. LjP&Sj10, P4535/1928(2), P4078j28, Political Resident to India Office, 2 Aug 1928 (telegram). 67. Ibid., P4I57/28, Viceroy to Secretary of State for India, 7 Aug Ig28. 68. Ibid., P42Igj28, British Charge d'Affaires in Tehran to Foreign Office, 8 Aug Ig28 (telegram). 6g. Ibid., P5470j28, Political Resident to Government of India, 8 Oct Ig28 (telegram). 70. Ibid., P6I I9/28, enclosure no. 2, letter of proceedings from Senior Naval Officer to Commander-in-Chief East Indies 17 Aug Ig28. 71. Ibid., minute, I 2 Dec 1928. 72. A claim had been put to the Iranian Government on 7 February I929 for a compensation fee of 5000 rupees. 73· 'Surely the answer is fairly obvious. It was owing to diplomatic action by His Majesty's representatives that the release of the dhow and passengers was secured. . . . . Considering what might have happened to the women and children passengers, that surely is a substantial achievement to which we can point. (I can hardly believe that the Arabs would have obtained as good results by a cutting-out expedition; rather I should imagine that by saving them from such a rash act we have done them another good service)' (L/P&S/10, P4535/1928(2), P3034/ I 929, Treasury to Foreign Office, 3 Apr I 929 (copy)). 74· Burrell, in The Arabian Peninsula, ed. Hopwood, pp. I 72-3. 75· LjP&Sj10, P4535/1g28(2): Quoted in Political Resident to Government of India, 20 June I929 (telegram). 76. Ibid., P576g, Rende! (Foreign Office) to Walton (India Office), 2 Sep I929. 77· Ibid., P8o86j2g, Government of India to Political Resident, 7 Nov 1929 (telegram).

CHAPTER 6 1. G. W. Bentley, 'The Development of the Air Route in the Persian Gulf', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, xx (Apr I933). 2. LjP&Sj10, P595/I927(1), P7451/29, Political Resident to Government of India, 23 Aug Ig2g. 3· Ibid. 4· In I9I3 the Government of India, with the concurrence of the ruler of Sharjah, had erected a lighthouse on Tunb island. This became a symbol of its Qasimi ownership. 5· L/P&Sjio, P595/I927(I), P3o83j2g, Political Resident to Government of India, 4 Nov Ig2g. 6. LjP&S/I2/3747, P3I65/3o, Political Resident to Government of India, g Apr 1930. 7· Ibid. 8. LjP&Sji2/Ig66, Biscoe to Walton (India Office), 30 Mar I932. g. L/P&Sji8, B4I9, 'Future Policy on the Trucial Coast', Ig2g. Notes 215

10. L/P&S/10, P595/1927(3), P3999/3o, Political Resident to Government of India, 29 May 1930 (telegram). 1 1. Ibid., P3516/30, Political Resident to Government of India, 4 June 1930. 12. Ibid., minute by Laithwaite (India Office) at P3516/3o, 4 June 1930. 13. It is interesting to note here that Bentley, in Journal qf the Royal Central Asian Sociery, xx, omits to mention the seizure of the Ras al-Khai• mah pearling fleet: 'Lengthy negotiations followed, and at last the Shaikh, acting on the advice of his relative the Shaikh of Sharjah, agreed to allow aircraft to use the lagoon unmolested and to guard the fuel' (p. 183). 14. L/P&S/10, P595/1927(3), P4195/3o, Political Resident to Government of India, 23 June 1930. 15. Biscoe described the negotiations as follows: 'The Shaikh of Sharjah would come on board in the morning with some ridiculous proposal and when that was refused return to the shore for another 24 hours and so it went on' (ibid.). 16. Ibid., P3742/30, Political Resident to India Office, 15 June 1930 (tele• gram). 17. R/15/I/226, 'Arab States News Summary', no. 6 of 1930, June 1930. The question of who would pay for the guard was not settled. Sultan asked that the British Government should cover the costs, and suggested a salary of 100 rupees per month; but the matter was left standing when the Resident left Ras al-Khaimah in June, and in October the same year the Residency Agent reported that Sultan was adamant that he could not be made responsible for the costs. 'lsa accordingly offered Sultan some money on account, but Sultan refused to accept it, saying that if he did it would preclude further discussion with the Resident on the subject of the barge, which he now wanted to have removed. Sultan confided to 'lsa that he was afraid that, having made one concession, he would be obliged to give more and thus gradually lose his sovereignty. 18. Which in 1940 became the British Overseas Airways Corporation. 19. CAB 23/67, 40(31)5, 30 July 1931. 20. L/P&S/12/1955. PZ7920/31, Political Resident to Government of India, 20 Dec 1931 (telegram). 21. Ibid., PZ1429/32, Political Resident to Government of India, 3 Mar 1932 (telegram). 22. L/P&S/12/1966, PZ6o85/32, Appendix no. 1 to Senior Naval Officer, Communication no. 126/587, 10 June 1932. 23. Ibid., PZ2736/32, Political Resident to Government of India, 5 May 1932 (telegram). Before presenting Sultan with this ultimatum, the Resident had ascertained the extent of the opposition to the signing of an air agreement. He admitted that Muhammad bin Saqr, who lived in the same house as his brother, thus making Sultan particularly vulnerable to attack, was supported in his opposition by the rulers of Ajman, Dubai and Ras al-Khaimah; also, that the ruler of Ras al-Khaimah had threatened to kill Sultan bin Saqr if he signed. Further• more, Sultan had asked for an additional sum of 5000 rupees per annum for the facilities, so that he could subsidise his younger brothers. 216 The Origins r.if the United Arab Emirates

24. Ibid., PZ6o85/32, Appendix no. 1 to Senior Naval Officer, Communica- tion no. 126/587, 10 June 1932. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid., PZ3859/32, Political Resident to Government of India, 21 June 1932. 28. Ibid. 29. Dickson belonged to a British family that for two generations before him had had ties in the Near East. His grandfather had been a physician at the British Embassy in Constantinople, and his father was British Consul-General in Damascus when his son Harold was born in Beirut in 1881. After an education at Oxford, H. R. P. Dickson joined the Indian Army and during World War I served in Mesopotamia, at which time he was transferred to the Political Department. After service as Political Agent in Bahrain and Secretary to the Political Resident at Bushire, he became Political Agent in Kuwait from 1929 to 1936. He spent the remainder of his life, until 1959, in Kuwait, as chief local representative of the Kuwait Oil Com• pany. Dickson published two books that are invaluable to any study of Arabia: Kuwait and her Neighbours (London, 1968), and The Arabs of the Desert (London, 1967). His wife and daughter also recorded their reminiscences of life in Kuwait: Violet Dickson, Forty Years in Kuwait (London, 1970); and Zahra Freeth, Kuwait was my Home (London, 1956). go. For an account of Biscoe's death and funeral, see Dickson, Kuwait and her Neighbours, pp. 346-7. 31. Enclosed in L/P&S/12/1966, PZ4664/32, Political Resident to Govern• ment of India, 26 July 1932. 32. Ibid., PZ5015/32, Political Agent Kuwait to Government of India, 4 Aug '932. 33· Ibid. 34· L/P&S/12/1963, Political Resident to Sa'id bin Hamad, 5 Mar '933· Enclosed in PZ2239/33, Political Resident to India Office, 24 Mar '933· 35· Ibid., PZ1815/33, extract from report of proceedings of the Commander- in-Chief East Indies, n.d. g6. Ibid., Officiating Political Agent Bahrain to Politicai Resident, 23 May 1936 (extract). Enclosed in PZg881jg6, Political Resident to India Office, 29 May 1936. 37· Ibid., PZ3902/36, Political Resident to India Office, 6 June 1936 (tele• gram). g8. L/P&S/12/1966, Political Agent Kuwait to Sultan bin Saqr, 22 July 1932. Enclosed in PZ4664/32, Political Resident to Government of India, 26 July 1932. 39· The question then was whether Kalba belonged to Sharjah or to Muscat; the Government of India decided in favour of Sharjah (Lorimer, Gazetteer vol. 1, p. 783). 40. L/P&S/12/1963, Ininute by S. Hood (India Office) at PZ3902jg6, 9 June 1936. The Shaykh of Sharjah, however, had been present at the 1903 durbar. Notes

4'- Ibid. 42. Ibid., PZ3902/36, India Office to Political Resident (draft telegram, sent on 19 June 1936). 43· Ibid., PZ4385/36, Political Resident to India Office, 22 June 1936 (telegram), first of two parts. 44· Ibid., second of two parts. 45· Ibid. Signed by Hickinbotham and Sa'id bin Hamad. Enclosed in PZ7109/36, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 21 Sep 1936. The agreement was to last twelve years. 46. Enclosed ibid., PZ7109/36. 4 7. Fowle could see 'no reason we should do something for nothing for the Shaikh of Abu Dhabi' (L/P&S/I 2/3835, PZ5260/34, Political Resi• dent to Political Agent Bahrain, 9 Aug 1934). 48. LjP&S/I2/Ig63, PZ7109/36, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 2 I Sep 1936. 49· Copy available in LjP&S/!2/Iggo, PZI47I/35· Enclosed in Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 17 Feb 1935. so. LjP&S/12/3767, PZ3612/35, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. 9 of 1935, 1-15 May 1935. 51. Ibid. 52. LjP&S/!2/Iggo, PZ3525/35, Political Resident to India Office, 15 May 1935· 53· Ibid., PZ4076/35, Political Resident to India Office, 12 June 1935 (telegram), first of two parts. 54· Ibid., second of two parts. 55· Ibid., PZ4405/35, Political Resident to India Office, 26 June 1935 (telegram). 56. LjP&Sji2/I978, PZs866j36, Political Resident to India Office, 13 Aug 1936 (telegram). 57· Ibid., PZ3181/37, Political Resident to India Office, 2 May 1937. 58. Ibid., PZ3752/37, Political Resident to India Office, 8 June 1937 (tele• gram). 59· Ibid., PZ5576/36, enclosed in Political Resident to India Office, 5 Aug 1937· 6o. See below, Ch. 10. 61. L/P&S/I2/Ig78, PZ4168/38, Political Resident to India Office, 10 June 1938. The agreement was to take effect on 22 July 1938. 62. LjP&S/12/3747, PZ410/39, Political Resident to Political Agent Bahrain, 5 Jan 1939·

CHAPTER 7 1. 'We are not going to throw this century of costly and triumphant enterprise; we shall not wipe out the most unselfish page in history' (extract from Lord Curzon's speech at the 1903 Sharjah durbar). 2. A comprehensive account of the early history of oil in Saudi Arabia, from the early, abortive efforts to secure concessions (in the 1920s) to the signing of the concession with the Standard Oil Company of California in 1933, is given in H. St J. B. Philby, Arabian Oil Ventures (Washington DC, 1964). The 1933 concession not only renewed interest in the hinterland of the Trucial shaykhdoms (as discussed :.n8 The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

later in this chapter), but also, in response to fears of the expansion of American interests, tightened British control of the development of oil on the Coast. 3· LjP&Sji2/3835, PZ3432/35, Political Resident to India Office, 27 Apr I935· 4· Ibid., PZ5593/35, Political Resident to India Office, I3 Aug I935 (telegram). 5· For an account of his unusual life, see W. E. Stanton-Hope, Arabian Adventurer: The Story of Hajji Williamson (London, I95I ). 6. LjP&Sji2/3835, PZ7ooi/35, Political Resident to India Office, I Oct I935 (telegram). 7· Here it must be noted that the was operated as a thoroughly British company, despite shares held by Dutch, American and French interests, and the 5 per cent owned by Gulbenkian. The APOC owned 23·75 per cent of the shares. For the history of the companies, see David H. Finnie, Desert Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., I958); and Stephen H. Longrigg, Oil in the Middle East (London, Ig68). Other useful studies are George Lenczowski, Oil and State in the Middle East (Ithaca, NY, Ig6o); B. Schwadran, The Middle East, Oil and the Great Powers (New York, I959). 8. LfP&S/ I 2/3835, PZ27 I /35, note by Laithwaite of discussion at India Office with the APOC, 10 Jan I935· g. Following the granting of a new concession in Iraq in I925, the old Turkish Petroleum Company was absorbed into the IPC. The Red Line Agreement was a pledge by the participants in the new company not to operate within the area of the former Ottoman Empire except through the IPC. See Longrigg, Oil in the Middle East, pp. 67~70. I o. Regarding the events leading up to the conclusion of the Saudi oil concession, Philby explained that 'Ibn Saud, strangely enough, like a bird mesmerized by a snake, was known to be personally desirous of giving this very Hasa concession to a British company, if only he could get something solid in return' (Arabian Oil Ventures, p. I26). Longrigg, who negotiated on behalf of the IPC, realised why the American company won through despite the king's desire to grant the concession to the British: 'the IPC Directors were slow and cautious in their offers and would speak only of rupees when gold was demanded. Their negotiator, so handicapped, could do little' (Oil in the Middle East, p. I07). I 1. These culminated in a decision in April I 932 to adhere to an 'open-door policy' regarding American oil interests. Previously, the United States Government had protested against the Colonial Office's insistence on the inclusion of a British nationality clause in any transfer of the option obtained by Frank Holmes for Eastern and General Syndicate, and urged that American interests be allowed equal opportunities in a commercial concession with Kuwait. The Foreign Office was averse to the adoption of a 'dog-in-the-manger' attitude regarding the entry of American interests, but suggested that Sir John Cadman, Chairman of the APOC, be consulted first. (CAB 23/71, 20(32)6, 6 Apr 1932.) On g April, however, the Foreign Secretary officially informed the Nutes

US Minister in London that the British Government would not insist on a British nationality clause in the Kuwait concession. Cadman did not object when told of the policy, and on I3 April I932 the Cabinet formally approved it. (CAB 23/7I, 2I(32)2, I3 Apr I932.) I2. Known as Abu-.Najt (The Father of Oil) in Arabia. No account of the history of oil concessions is complete without reference to the mining engineer from New Zealand who, with almost supernatural insight, foresaw the great potential of Arabia long before anyone else. It was mainly owing to his personal efforts that the large oil companies began to show an interest in the area. In I920 he registered in London the Eastern and General Syndicate-a company that would buy oil concessions from Arabia and sell them to the larger companies. In I922 he attended the 'Uqayr Conference between the British Government and Ibn Sa'ud (its aim was to define the borders of Iraq and Jordan with Nejd) and personally impressed Ibn Sa'ud, who granted him a concession in I923 despite Percy Cox's obvious dislike of him. Holmes was a controversial figure: the British authorities always viewed him with distaste and suspicion, probably one of the main reasons that the great wealth of Arabian oil eluded him. He was popular primarily with the Arabs. 'His intimate relationships with the shaikhs and rulers were the envy of the few Englishmen in the area, who could find no explanation for the success of a man who refused to bother with learning the simplest Arabic phrases' (Wayne Mineau, The Go-Devils (London, I958) p. I82). An account of his relationship with Ibn Sa'ud is included in Philby, Arabian Oil Ventures, which notes, interestingly (p. 70), that Holmes and his I923 concession from Ibn Sa'ud is entirely ignored in Olaf Caroe's account (Wells of Power) of the history of oil in south-west Asia. It was Holmes who, through the Eastern and General, first obtained an option to explore the Neutral Zone of Kuwait in 1924, and Bahrain in I925. Holmes also acted as representative in Kuwait of the Gulf Oil Corporation, which finally shared the conces• sion for the shaykhdom. I3. LjP&Sji2/3835, Holmes to Political Resident, 28 May I935· Enclosed in PZ4I26/35, Political Resident to India Office, 5 June I935· I4. Ibid., PZ7762/35, Holmes to India Office, 24 Oct I935· I5. Ibid., PZ6577/35, proceedings of Senior Naval Officer, I-31 July I935 (extract). I6. Ibid., PZ7948/35, Political Resident to India Office, 4 Nov I935· I 7. Recorded ibid., Political Resident to India Office, 3 Oct I935· I8. Contained ibid., draft letter to Skliros, I2 Dec I935· I9. The problem is succinctly put forward in Sir Rupert Hay, 'The Persian Gulf States and their Boundary Problems', Geographical Journal, cxx (I954l· 20. LjP&Sji2/3835, PZI254/36, notes of conclusions of meeting, 2I Feb I936. 2 I. Sir George W. Rende!, Head of Eastern Department of the Foreign Office, I930-3. 22. LjP&Sji2/3835, PZ46o6j36, Political Resident to India Office, 2 June I936. 23. Ibid., PZ946/36, Skliros to India Office, 6 Feb I936. 220 The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

24. Copies of letters addressed to the rulers available ibid., PZ205 I }36, 9 Mar I936. 25. Copies of letters addressed to the rulers available ibid., PZ2723}36, I4 Apr I936. 26. Quoted in LjP&Sji2/3836, PZ6366j36, Longrigg to India Office, 2 Sep I936. 27. This was agreed at a meeting at the India Office on 8 October; Fowle, on leave in London, was present (ibid., PZ7265/36, minute, n.d.). 28. Ibid., PZ739}37, Political Resident to India Office, I5 Jan I937· 29. Ibid., PZI445}37, Political Resident to India Office, I5 Jan I937· 30. The meeting was recorded by Clauson of the India Office (ibid., PZ742I}36, I6 Oct I936. 31. Ibid., PZ8679}36, India Office to Ballantyne, I6 Dec I936. 32. In I944, Casoc became the Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco), and two years later the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and the Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now the Mobil Oil Corporation) became participants. 33· LJP&S/ I 2}3836, PZ89o6}36, Political Resident to India Office, I4 Dec I936 (telegram), part 1. 34· Ibid., part n. 35· Ibid., PZ9o8o}36, Political Resident to India Office, 2I Dec I936 (telegram). 36. Ibid., PZI964/36, Political Resident to Government of India, I Mar I937· 37. Ibid., PZI 76I 137, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, I 2 Feb I937· 38. Ibid., PZ7I I2}36, Political Resident to India Office, 23 Sep I936. 39· LjP&Sji2}3886, PZ3448}37, Political Resident to India Office, 25 May I937· 40. LjP&Sji2}3836, PZ76I3}37, B. H. Lermitte (who replaced Holmes as representative of Petroleum Concessions Ltd) to Political Agent Bah• rain, I4 Oct I937 (copy). 41. Ibid., Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 23 Oct I937· 42. David Finnie, Desert Enterprise, p. 45· 43· L/P&Sj r 2}3836, PZ3759}37, Political Resident to India Office, 8 June 1937 (telegram). 44· Ibid., PZ3833}37, Political Resident to India Office, 12 June 1937 (telegram). 45· Ibid., PZ3759/37, Political Resident to India Office, 8 June 1937 (tele• gram). 46. LjP&Sjr2}3837, PZ4230}39, Political Resident to India Office, 3 July 1939· 47· LjP&Sjr2/3836, PZ3759}37, Political Resident to India Office, 8 June 1937· 48. Ibid., PZ3833}37, India Office to Political Resident, 17 June 1937 (telegram). 49· Ibid., PZ5753}37, Political Resident to India Office, 12 Aug 1937. Sultan did exactly so. He contacted Socal in secret, but the company was obliged to turn him down. (Ibid., PZ66o8}37, record of meeting Notes 221

with Ballantyne at the India Office, 6 Oct 1937.) so. Roughly translated, 'hot air'. (Ibid., PZ1624/38, Political Resident to India Office, 3 Mar 1938). 51. The demands included a 20 per cent interest in the company, 1000 rifles, the establishment of a school, the appointment of his representative at a salary of £soo in gold, and the right to try all foreigners in local courts (ibid., PZ6722/37, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 10 Sep 1937 (extract)). 52. L/P&S/12/3886, PZ4370/37, Political Resident to India Office, 4 July 1937 (telegram). 53· Ibid., PZ4578/37, Political Resident to India Office, 12 July 1937 (telegram). 54· Ibid., PZ1241/38, Political Resident to India Office, 16 Feb 1938. 55· Ibid., PZ2253/38, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 27 Mar 1938. See also L/P&S/18, B467, 'Sharjah Oil Concession'. 56. L/P&S/12/3836, PZ2689/38, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 11 Apr 1938. 57· Ibid., PZ2420/38, Longrigg to India Office, 5 Apr 1938. 58. Ibid., PZ4942/38, Fowle to Peel (India Office), 6 July 1938. 59· The question of inland exploration is discussed separately later. 6o. LfP&S/ 12/3836, PZ217 /39, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 13 Dec 1938. 61. Ibid., PZ8362/38, enclosed in Lewisohn (Petroleum Concessions) to India Office, 19 Dec 1938. 62. Ibid., Ext. 4844/46, enclosed, in Longrigg to India Office, 16 July 1945· 63. L/P&S/12/39o1, PZ6232/38, India Office to Longrigg, 28 Sep 1938 (draft). 64. Reported by Ballantyne tc. Gibson on a visit to the India Office. L/P&S/12/3836, PZ3881/38, note by Gibson, 1 June 1938. 65. Ibid., PZwog/38, meeting recorded in a note by A. Simon, India Office, 1 Feb 1938. 66. Ibid., PZ1237/38, Political Resident to India Office, 15 Feb 1938. 67. Ibid. 68. For a reference to Basil Lermitte as a 'sort of Lawrence of Arabia of the Truda! Coast', see Richard H. Sanger, The Arabian Peninsula (Ithaca, NY, 1954) pp. 148-so. 6g. 'Abd al-Razzaq was in many ways different from his predecessor, who had been the third member of his family to be the Residency Agent at Sharjah. 'Abd al-Razzaq was educated in India, where he took a degree in law. He then entered the Indian Civil Service, and in 1922 he was munski of the Political Resident in Bushire. He was a rich man, and 'invariably took the side of the poor man and fought strenuously against the tyranny of the shaikhs and the attempts of the rich merchants to victimise the peasantry' (Raymond O'Shea, Sand Kings of Uman (London, 1947, p. 71 ). 70. L/P&S/12/4099, "PZ2456/38, Political Resident to Political Agent Bahrain, 4 Mar 1938. 71. L/P&S/12/3767, PZ3545/38, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. 8 of 1938, 16-30 Apr 1938. 222 The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

72. Ibid., PZ4679/38, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. 10 of 1938, 16 May~15 June 1938. 73· Ibid. 74· R/15/1/228, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 2 June 1938. 75· An agreement had been reached whereby Saudi Arabia would enforce regulations to stop the importation of slaves into the kingdom. The regulations were promulgated under Article 1 (2) issued on 2 October 1936 by the Government of Saudi Arabia. 76. LjP&S/12/4099, PZ3270/38, India Office to Political Resident, 28 May 1938 (draft). 77· Ibid., PZ4402/38, Political Resident to India Office, 19 June 1938. 78. Ibid. 79· Ibid., minute, 29 June 1938. 8o. Ibid., PZ5038/38, minute, 25 July 1938. 81. LjP&S/12/3836, PZ6290/38, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 3 Sep 1938. 82. LjP&S/12/3837, PZ36/39, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 3 Jan 1939 (telegram). 83. Copy available in LjP&S/12/3910. Enclosed in PZ5o8/39, Lewisohn to India Office, 23 Jan 1939. The political agreement was signed on 11 April 1940. At ibid., PZ1938/40. 84. Ibid., PZ776/39, Longrigg to Petroleum Concessions, 13 Jan 1939. Enclosed in Longrigg to Political Agent Bahrain, 12 Jan 1939. 85. Ibid., PZ776/39, Political Resident to India Office, 26 Jan 1939. 86. Note inscribed in margin, ibid., at the India Office. In the meantime, Fowle had changed his mind about the proposed action against Shakhbut. After investigations and consideration of the evidence (including that of an unnamed secret agent engaged for the purpose), Weightman was satisfied that Shakhbut was quite innocent of the charges against him of complicity in the slave trade. Furthermore, Fowle acknowledged that it would be wise to cultivate better relations with the ruler of Abu Dhabi, especially in view of the strong anti-British sentiments in Palestine at the time. Anglo-Arab relations could only be further exacerbated if the fort of an Arab ruler were bombarded by British guns. Fowle also felt that Shakhbut had suffered sufficient inconvenience from the withdrawal of his travel papers and that they should therefore be restored to him. (L/P&S/ 12/4099, PZ2114/39, Political Resident to India Office, 18 Mar 1939.) 87. Longrigg, Oil in the Middle East, p. 116.

CHAPTER 8 1. Burrell, in The Arabian Peninsula, ed. Hopwood, pp. 172~3. 2. Ibid. 3· LjP&Sj10, P4535/1928(2), P6794/29, Political Resident to Government of India, 5 Sep 1929. 4· Ibid., P2958/3o, Political Resident to India Office, 11 May 1930 (tele• gram). 5· LjP&S/12/3709, list of conditions enclosed in PZ3254/31, Political Resi• dent to Government of India, 11 May 1931. Notes 223

6. Ibid., PZ6I30/33, Political Resident to Government of India, 25 Sep I933 (telegram). 7· Ibid., PZ7757/33, Political Resident to British Minister Tehran, I6 Nov I933 (telegram). 8. Ibid., PZ5820/33, Senior Naval Officer to Political Resident, 4 Sep I933 (telegram). This had been communicated to the SNO by the Residency Agent. g. Ibid., PZ3360/34, Senior Naval Officer to Commander-in-Chief East Indies, I7 May I934 (telegram). 10. Ibid., PZ4383/34, Foreign Office to India Office, 2 July I934· I 1. Ibid., PZ5735/34, Political Resident to British Minister Tehran, I Sep I934 (telegram). I2. Ibid., PZ46/35, Political Resident to India Office, 2 Jan I935 (telegram). I3. Ibid., PZI2I/35, Political Resident to Government of India, 5 Jan I935 (telegram). I 4· Ibid., PZ5o4/35, Political Resident to Government of India, 22 Jan I935 (telegram). I5. Ibid., PZI22/35, Political Resident to India Office, 5 Jan I935· I6. Eugene Staley, 'Business and Politics in the Persian Gulf: The Story of the Wonckhaus Firm', Political Science Quarterly, Sep 1933. See also Busch, Britain and the Persian Gulf 1894-1914, pp. 369-72. I7. LjP&Sji2/3798, PZ43I3/34, Political Resident to India Office, 28 June I934 (telegram). 18. Ibid., PZ6269/34, translation of agreement signed by Shaykh of Sharjah, 2 7 J umada 1 I 353 ( 7 Sep I 934). The option cost 500 rupees. Ig. Rji5/2/58g, Political Agent Bahrain to Residency Agent, 3 July 1934. 20. J. B. Kelly, 'A Prevalence of Furies: Tribes, Politics, and Religion in Oman and Trucial Oman', in The Arabian Peninsula, ed. Hopwood. 21. R/I5/6/39, Muhammad bin Sultan to Residency Agent, 14 Nov I925 (translation). Enclosed in Residency Agent to Political Resident, I7 Nov I925. 22. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, I7 Nov I925. 23. This greatly annoyed Salim bin Dayayn of the Bani Ka'b, who strongly disliked the Wahhabis, but, as an ally of the Na'im, was presented with a fait accompli (Eccles, in Journal rif the Central Asian Society, XIV, p. 36). It also angered Hamad bin Ahmad al-Yahyayyi, the chief of Dhank, who expressed this in a letter to the Muscat Council on I January Ig26 (available in R/I5/6/3g). 24. After the death of Sultan bin Muhammad al-Hammudah, paramount shaykh of the Na'im and shaykh of Buraimi town, his sons Saqr and Muhammad succeeded him. At first they were influenced by Abu Sanda, their wali, who had originally been a slave. When Thomas made his journey in I927, he regarded Muhammad as the shaykh of Buraimi, since he was living in the fort of the town. The brothers seem at first to have acted together, but over the years Saqr became the stronger. In I936 the Na'im were so annoyed with the duumVIrate that they revolted against the brothers; they claimed that the disparity between Saqr and Muhammad divided the Na'im territory into two parts, each one ruled without concern for the other (R/I5/2/I865, 224 The Origins rif the United Arab Emirates

'Sharjah News Report', no. 8 of I936 (Apr I936)). The Na'im asked Rashid bin Humayd of Ajman to intervene, but he was unsuccessful. It was only the Bani Qitab and Al-bu-Shamis who lived around Buraimi who were able to settle the dispute. In I939, when Muhammad died, he was ruling in Dhank, and Saqr was in Buraimi. The latter then assumed complete control of the Na'im. 25. L/P&S/I I/294, copy of letter available in P66go{I928, Thomas to Politi- cal Resident, I 3 June I927, Appendix D (translation). 26. R{I5/6/39, Thomas to Political Agent Muscat, 9 Mar I928. 27. R/I5/I/236, 'Arab States Monthly Summary', no. 2 of I929. 28. R{I5/6/39, Thomas to Political Agent Muscat, 10 Sep I930. 29. R/I5/2/544, Residency Agent to Officiating Political Resident, 9 Jumada II I353 (I9 Sept I934). 30. An interesting note on the ;:;akat paid by the Manasir and the 'Awamir was made by the Senior Naval Officer in I93 1. He stated that it was no secret that the tribute paid to Ibn Sa'ud by these tribes 'came originally from the loot captured from the Trucial Coast principali• ties'. (L/P&S/I2/I955, extract from Senior Naval Officer's letter of proceedings, I 2 Oct I 93 1.) 31. LfP&S/I I/222, P2433{26, Political Resident to Colonial Office, 9 June I926. 32. R/I5/2/544, Residency Agent to Officiating Political Resident, 9 Jumada II I353 (I9 Sep I934)· 33· R/I5/I/250, enclosure in Commanding Officer HMS Pen;:;arue to Senior Naval Officer, 26 June I93 1. 34· Abu Dhabi were Hinawi, the others all Ghafiri. 35· Although news of the truce was reported by the Residency Agent to the Commander of HMS Hastings, Hazza' bin Sultan denied that it had taken place; he did admit, however, that Sa'id bin Maktum was trying to reach a peaceful solution. 36. R/I5/I/250, HMS Hastings to Senior Naval Officer, I I July I93I (tele• gram). 37· LfP&S/I2/373I, PZ6573{3I, 'Arab States News Summary', Aug I93I. 38. See J. C. Hurewitz, Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East (Princeton, NJ, I956) vol. I, pp. 269-72. 39· LfP&S/ I 2{38oo, PZ43 I /34, Political Resident to India Office, I 7 Jan I934 (telegram). 40. Ibid., PZ7 I 2{34, Political Resident to Government of India, 29 Jan I934 (telegram). 4I. This rumour originated from the Air Officer Commanding in Iraq (ibid., PZI703{34, Political Resident to India Office, 22 Dec I933l· 42. Ibid., PZq88{34, Political Resident to India Office, I I Mar I934 (telegram). 43· Ibid., PZ2300{34, Political Resident to India Office, 5 Apr I934 (tele• gram). 44· Ibid., PZ2854/34, Political Resident to India Office, 22 Apr I934 (telegram). 45· Copy available at L/P&S/I8, B444. 46. A copy of the mulhaq is available at L/P&S/ I 2{3848, PZ6396{35, 6 Notes

Jumada 1 1354 (6 Aug 1935). Enclosed m Political Resident to India Office, 29 Aug I935· 4 7. The disclosure of the existence of direct correspondence between Ibn Sa'ud and 'Abdallah, in defiance of the treaty relations of the latter with Britain, caused the British Minister in Jeddah to protest to the king. 48. Arbitration for the Settlement rif the Territorial Dispute between Muscat and Abu Dhabi on One Side and Saudi Arabia on the Other, Memorial of the Government of Saudi Arabia, 3 vols (Cairo, I955)· 49· For a complete account of the conversations, see ibid. See also Arbitration Concerning Buraimi and the Common Frontier between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia, Memorial submitted by the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 2 vols (London, I955); and J. B. Kelly, Eastern Arabian Frontiers. 50. For an' account by Rende! of this visit, see George W. Rende!, The Sword and the Olive (London, I957). 51. L/P&S/12/3837, PZ7019/37, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 27 Aug I937· 52. Ibid., PZ70I9/37, memorandum from Residency Agent to Political Agent Bahrain, 22 Aug I 937. Copy enclosed in Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 27 Aug I937· 53· Ibid. 54· Ibid., PZ70I9/37, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 27 Aug I937· 55· Ibid., PZ473/38, Foreign Office to India Office, 22 Jan I938. 56. Ibid., PZ629I/38, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 3 Sep I938. 57· Ibid. 58. Ibid., PZ629I/38, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 3 Sep I938. 59· Ibid., PZ8o37/38, Political Resident to India Office, 23 Nov I938. 6o. He was not strictly correct, for Petroleum Concessions geologists had paid a short visit to Buraimi in May I937· For an account of Cox's visit, see Cox, in Geographical Journal, LXVI. 61. L/P&S/I2/3837, PZ470/39, Assistant Political Agent Bahrain to Offici• ating Political Resident, 2 I Dec I938. Enclosed in Political Resident to India Office, 9 Jan I939· 62. These included the above-mentioned report, plus information supplied by an unnamed agent sent to the area. 63. Quoted by Fowle in a letter to Peel (India Office): L/P&S/I2/3837, PZI I9I/39, I6 Feb I939· 64. CAB 23/94, 35(38)10, 27 July I938.

CHAPTER 9 1. L/P&S/I2/3836, PZ7I I2/36, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 23 Sep I936. 2. LfP&S/I2/3767, PZ8357/37, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. 20 of I937 (I-I5 Nov I937). The Origins if the United Arab Emirates

3· LjP&Sji2/3837, PZ5407/37, Political Resident to Political Agent Bahrain, 25 July I935· 4· Ibid., PZ634I/37, Walton to Longrigg, I2 Oct I937 (draft). 5· Ibid., note to Walton written at India Office by Fowle, 25 Oct I937· 6. Ibid., PZ634I (37, note from Clauson to Symon (Assistant Principal), 25 Sep I937· 7· Ibid., PZ3227/39, Political Resident to India Office, 4 May I939· 8. The visit had been planned for an earlier date, but was delayed because of the death of the wife of the shaykh of Buraimi (R/I5/I/276, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 25 Shawwal I 346 (I 7 Apr Ig28)). g. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 25 Dhu'l Qa'dah I 346 (I6 May Ig28). 10. Ibid., Sultan bin Salim to Sultan bin Saqr, Dhu'l Qa'dah I346 (May Ig28) (copy). Although he did not contest the transfer of Dhayd to Ras al-Khaimah, Sultan never recognised it, and today Dhayd is still within the shaykhdom of Sharjah. I I. Muhammad bin Saqr, brother of Sultan, had raided Hamriyyah and Umm al-Qaiwain with considerable plunder of the latter; it was so serious that no one was cmssing from Umm al-Qaiwain to Sharjah (R/ I 5/ I /276, Residency Agent to Political Resident, 8 Dhu'l Hijjah I345 (gJune I927)). I 2. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Resident, 29 Dhu'l Hijjah I 345 (30 June I927), in which the Residency Agent enclosed copies of the agreement. I3. R/I5/I/236, 'Arab States Monthly Summary', no. 7 of I93I (Aug I93 I). I4. R/I5/I/268, 'Diary of Trucial Oman', no. 23 (extract), I5-3I Dec I933· I5. LjP&Sji2/3837, PZ5803/37, Longrigg to India Office, I Sep I937· I6. Ibid., PZ824I/37, Political Resident to Longrigg, IO Dec I937· I7. Ibid., PZI243/38, Political Resident to India Office, I6 Feb I938. I8. Ibid., PZI626/38, Political Resident to India Office, 4 Mar I938. I g. Ibid., PZ3549/38, Political Resident to India Office, I 3 May I938. 20. Ibid. 2!. Ibid., PZ3549/38, note to Legal Adviser of the India Office, 3 June I938. 22. Ibid., PZ555I(38, Political Resident to India Office, 2I July I938. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid., PZ555I(38, minute, 3 Sep I938. 25. L/P&S/I 2(3goi, PZ525 I /38, Longrigg to India Office, 25 July I938. 26. LjP&S(I2(3837, PZ62gi(38, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 3 Sep I938. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid., PZ62gij38, note by Symon (India Office) regarding discussion, 23 Sep I938. 29. Ibid., PZ2347/39, Longrigg to India Office, 20 Apr I939· 30. R/I5/2/58g, Residency Agent to Political Agent Bahrain, 4 Aug I937, with enclosures on the territory claimed by each ruler. Notes

31. R/ 15/1/294, Political Agent Bahrain to Assistant Political Agent Bahrain, 18 Sep 1937. 32. LjP&S/12/3837, PZ8241/37, Political Resident to Longrigg, 10 Dec 1937· 33· Ibid., PZ3549/38, Political Resident to India Office, 13 May 1938. 34· Ibid., PZ470/39, Assistant Political Agent Bahrain to Officiating Political Resident, 21 Dec 1938. Enclosed in Political Resident to India Office, 9 Jan 1939· 35· Ibid., PZ2945/39, minutes of meeting held with representatives of Petro• leum Concessions and Political Agent Bahrain, 27-9 Apr 1939. Enclosed in Longrigg to India Office, 10 May 1939.

CHAPTER 10 1. K. G. Fenelon, The United Arab Emirates, (London, 1973) p. 61. 2. L(P&S/12/3827, PZ5710j3I, Political Resident to Government of India, 31 July I93I. 3· Ibid., PZ6337/3 I, Political Resident to Government of India, 3 Sep I93I. 4· Ibid., PZ6637 /34, Political Resident to Government of India, 24 Oct I 934 (telegram), first part. 5· lbid., second part. 6. Ibid., PZ6g4/33, memorandum from HMS Lupin, 4 Nov 1934. 7· For example, a report from Dubai had it that in November I935 Rashid bin Butti was crossing the creek of Dubai with a number of people; he was talking with someone from Sharjah, whom he suddenly threw into the sea and beat severely. Rashid's victim reported the incident to Shaykh Sa'id, but never received a reply. (R/15/2/1865, 'News Report' (Sharjah), no. 22 of 1935.) 8. Ibid., 'News Report' (Sharjah), no. 2 of 1936. g. Ibid., 'News Report' (Sharjah), no. 19 of I936. 10. Five days later, on I9 October, Maktum bin Rashid hit one of Sa'id bin Butti's men who was on duty as a night guard. Sa'id bin Maktum was not in Dubai at the time, so the wali complained to Sa'id's son Rashid, who decided to put off the matter till his father's return. (Ibid., 'News Report' (Sharjah), no. 20 of 1936.) 11. Ibid., 'News Report' (Sharjah), no. 13 of I936. 12. Between March 1937 and March I938, forty-seven slaves, mostly from Dubai, were set free (R/I5/I/227, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 17 Mar 1938 (telegram)). 13. LjP&S/12/2198, PZ2145/38, Political Resident to India Office, 2I Mar I938. 14. R!I5/1(227, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, I5 Mar 1938 (telegram). I5. LjP&S/I2/2Ig8, PZ2I45/38, Political Resident to India Office, 21 Mar I938. I6. Available in R/I5/I/227, 25 Mar I938. I 7· Rais Muhammad Rasul finally· left on 26 March, and Khalaf 'Ali Zamani left on 8 April (LjP&Sji2/2Ig8, PZ2855/38, Political Agent The Origins qf the United Arab Emirates

Bahrain to India Office, 19 Apr 1938). The leading men of the Al-bu-Falasah did not refer to the matter again, although it was reported that Umm Rashid was very much annoyed that the two men had been made to leave Dubai. I8. R/IS/I/675, Political Resident to India Office, 12 Apr I937 (telegram). 19. Ibid., Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, IS May I937 (telegram). 20. R/IS/I/227, Residency Agent to Political Agent Bahrain, I9 Mar 1938. 21. L/P&S/ I 2/2198, PZ2252/28, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 27 Mar I938. The agreement was renewed on 22 July 1938, for five years. 22. L/P&S/I2/3767, PZ4679/38, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', I6 May-IS June I938. 23. Ibid., 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', I6--go June I938. 24. L/P&S/I2/3827, PZsowfg8, Political Resident to India Office, 8 July I938. 25. R/I5/I/9I6, 'Dubai Ruling Family', n. d. 26. L!P&S/I2/3827, PZsowfg8, Political Resident to India Office, 8 July 1938. 27. In June I937, during the period of indecision following the death of the ruler of Kalba, whose son was only seven years old, Sultan bin Salim ignored the Political Resident's warning to the Trucial shaykhs that they should not interfere, and went to Kalba. There he got into difficulties with the people, and had to be taken away by sloop to Bahrain, where he was suitably housed but not allowed to receive visitors. A few days later he was given permission to go home. See below, Ch. I2. 28. L/P&S/I2/3827, PZ7832/38, Political Resident to Sa'id bin Maktum, I Oct I938. Enclosure in letter of 8 Nov from Political Resident to India Office. 29. Ibid. go. Ibid., PZ69I I/38, Political Agent Bahrain to India Office, 9 Oct I938 (telegram). 31. Ibid., PZ532/39, 'Persian Gulf Intelligence Report', Oct Igg8. 32. Ibid., PZ6973/38, Political Agent Bahrain to India Office, I I Oct I938 (telegram). A movement calling for reform in Kuwait was estab• lished in July I938, when the ruler signed a document giving power to an elected council. 33· Ibid., PZ7612/38, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, I8 Oct I938 (telegram). 34· The Indian merchants strongly opposed this form of taxation, and it was only with the help of the Residency Agent that the matter was resolved. 35· The correspondence is available in R/I5/2/I882. For a transcription and annotation of the entire correspondence, see Rosemarie J. Said, 'The I938 Reform Movement in Dubai ', Al-Abhath, xxm (I970) 264-3I8. g6. R/I5/2/I882, Mani' bin Rashid to Sa'id bin Maktum, 27 Ramadan 1357 (20 Nov 1938). Notes 229

37· Ibid., Hashar bin Rashid to Sa'id bin Maktum, 7 Muharram 1358 (27 Feb 1939). 38. Ibid., Mani' bin Rashid to Residency Agent, 27 Shawwal 1357 (20 Dec 1938). 39· Ibid., Mani' bin Rashid to Sa'id bin Maktum, 24 Ramadan 1357 (17 Nov 1<)38) . .to. Ibid., Mani' bin Rashid to Sa'id bin Maktum, 11 Dhu'l Qa'dah i357 (2 Jan 1939). 41. Ibid., Hashar bin Rashid to Sa'id bin Maktum, 7 Muharram 1358 (27 Feb 1939). 42. Ibid., Hashar bin Rashid to Residency Agent, 23 Dhu'l Hiijah 1357 (13 Feb 1939). The role of the Residency Agent during the few months for which the majlis survived reflected the official British policy of non-interference in internal affairs. Although the majlis kept the Agent informed of developments in Dubai, he did little to help either it or the ruler. When trouble broke out between the two in March 1939, he wrote to Mani', who had appealed to him for help, that he could in no way mterfere with internal affairs (ibid., Residency Agent to Mani' bin Rashid, 5 Safar 1358 (26 Mar 1939)). 43· Ibid., Hasnar bin Rashid to Sa'id bin Maktum, 26 Dhu'l Hiijah 1357 (16 Feb 1939). 44· Ibid. 45· Ibid., Hashar bin Rashid to Sa'id bin Maktum, 9 Muharram 1358 (1 Mar 1939). 46. L/P&S/12/3827, PZ2705/39, Political Resident to India Office, 20 Apr 1939· 4 7. This sum was expected to cover not only his personal, but also his official, expenses, such as the subsidies paid to visiting bedouin. 48. R/15/2/1882, Hashar bin Rashid to Sa'id bin Maktum, I I Muharram 1358 (3 Mar 1939). 49· Ibid., Sa'id bin Maktum to Hashar bin Rashid, 17 Muharram 1358 (9 Mar 1939). 50. I am grateful to Mr Ali Tajir of Dubai for this information on Shaykhah Latifah. 51. Although Mani' complained to Sa'id about their unruly behaviour, he did not mention to which tribe they belonged, referring to them simply as bedouin (R/15/2/1882, Mani' bin Rashid to Sa'id bin Maktum, 8 Safar 1358 (30 Mar 1939). Mr Ali Tajir has informed me that the desert bedouin did not take part in the actual fi'lhting; the only ones involved m the conflict were, on Shaykh Sa'id's side, his own men ana those of his son Rashid. 52. I am grateful to Mr Ali Tajir for this information. 53· L/P&S/12/3827, PZ2705/39, Political Resident to India Office, 20 Apr 1939· 54· Fighting did finally break out in 1930, but it 'was a gentlemanly affair, and both sides used to go out at night to recover the solid cannonballs which they had fired from their ancient cannons in the previous day' (Hawlev. The Trucial States, p. 340). The war resulted in a stalemate and the desire by Sultan bm Saqr of Sharjah to help 230 The Origins rif the United Arab Emirates

Mani' leave the area entirely; Mani' went to Bombay on 24 April, leaving his family behind in Buraimi. 55· L{P&S{I2{3827, PZ6g73{3g, Political Resident to India Office, 6 Nov Ig3g (telegram). 56. An interesting postscript to the career of Mani' bin Rashid is disclosed by the existence of a detailed map in Arabic of the pearl banks from Ru'us al-Jibal to ; this was published in Bombay in July Ig4o and is by Mani' himself. A note on the map makes reference to his own career in pearl fisheries and his need then for a good map. (Available in R/I5/I/6I6.)

CHAPTER II 1. L{P&S{I2{3747, PZ4113{38, Political Resident to Government of India, 23 May Ig38. 2. Here it must be noted that the deliberate isolation of the Coast from any outside influence made it simpler to take such drastic action; it could be reasonably assumed that no word of the bombardments would reach beyond official circles in London and Delhi. 3· LfP&S/I I{Ig5, PI343/2I (PI5gg{22), Political Resident to Government of India, 25 Feb Ig22. 4· Ibid. 5· Ibid., PI343/2I (P2867{22), Political Resident to Government of India, II May Ig22. 6. R{I5{6{23g, Political Resident to Government of India, 2 May Ig25. 7· Ibid. 8. This amount Prideaux promised to return if Hamad freed the slave (ibid.). g. LfP&Sfi8, B4Ig, 'Future Policy on the Trucial Coast' (P64o6{2g, Political Resident to Government of India, 5 Sep Ig2g). 10. L/P&S/I2{Ig66, PZI8I5{33, proceedings of Commander-in-Chief East Indies, I5-I6 Dec Ig32 (extract). I 1. L{P&S{I2{3626, P674I{2g, Political Resident to Government of India, 4 Aug Ig2g. I2. Ibid., P8o47{2g, Political Resident to Government of India, 24 Aug Ig2g. I 3· A copy of the declaration of independence is available in R/ I 5/ I {276. I4. This was the figure quoted by Khalid bin Ahmad in Ig24 (ibid., Khalid bin Ahmad to Political Resident (Prideaux), 25 Rabi' 11 I343 (24 Nov Ig24)). It was also the figure reported to Barrett in Ig2g (LfP&Sfi8, B4Ig: see above, note g). I5. Ibid. I6. R/I5/I/27g, Political Resident to Senior Naval Officer, I7 July Ig26. I7. LfP&Sfi8, B4Ig: see above, note g. I8. L{P&S{I2{3626, PZ50I5{32, Political Agent Kuwait to Government of India, 4 Aug Ig32 (extract). Ig. R/I5/I/277, Commander of HMS Crocus to Senior Naval Officer, 2g Nov Ig2g. 20. Ibid., Senior Naval Officer to Political Resident, I8 Dec Ig2g. 2 I. The nearest telegraphic facilities were at Bahrain. Notes 231

22. R/15/1/276, Khalid bin Ahmad to Political Resident, Rabi' II 1343 (Nov 1924). 23. R/15/1/267, Humayd bin 'Abd al-Aziz to Political Resident, Shawwal 1338 Qune, 1920). 24. Ibid., Ibn Sa'ud to Political Agent Bahrain, 1 Mar 1921 (translation). Enclosed in Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 29 Mar 192 I. 25. R/15/I/275, Commanding Officer HMS Fowey to Senior Naval Officer July 1934· 26. '!sa's relationship with the Indian merchants who lived on the Coast is an excellent example of this. Their special position as British subjects was a constant challenge to the Agent's omnipotence. Furthermore, his own commercial interests overlapped with his duties as Agent, and one of the most common causes of strife between him and the Indians was the matter of enforcing the payment of debts. 27. L/P&S/12/1966, PZ5015/32, Political Agent Kuwait to Government of India, 4 Aug 1932. 28. L/P&S/12/1965, PZ6975/32, memorandum by Captain K. Mackay (Royal Engineers), 18 Oct 1932. Enclosed in Air Ministry to India Office, 17 Nov 1932. 29. Of the men who belonged to the Political Service Philip Woodruff remarked, 'They were picked men, picked from picked men. The service presented the possibility of a career, which, as Lord Curzon had said, might be as fascinating as any the history of could offer' The Men Who Ruled India: The Guardians (London, 1954) p. 270). 30. He later published an account of these visits: Travels in the Middle East (London, 1916). 31. R/1/4/143, Crown Representative Records. 32. Althougn Cox·s appreciation of Fowle IS not available in R/1/4/143, the references made to it there are not particularly laudatory. Further light on Fowle's early career in Mesopotamia is shed by H. St J. B. Philby, his colleague in those days. Trying to understand why Cox was obviously pleased with his work, Philby ruminated, 'Perhaps we shone by contrast with the lesser luminaries of the Political mess, of whom I would single out for special mention Leachman . . . and T. C. Fowle .... The latter was an intelligent but uninspired person who always said the commonplace thing in a commonplace way and scorned every enthusiasm for any cause or thing. I twitted him one day ... with always talking like a leading article in the Daily Telegraph and I think he took it as a compliment' (Arabian Days (London, 1948) p. 135)· 33· Sir Ronald Wingate, Not in the Limelight (London, 1959) p. 73· Wingate served as Political Agent in Muscat from 1919 to 1921. 34· One of the most eloquent expressions of this was written by Lieutenant• Colonel Sir A. T. Wilson, himself Officiating Political Resident from 1918 to 1920: 'We have maintained order and thereby promoted trade; we have raised the standard of living and thereby encouraged the spread of education; we have thus fostered the growth of individual The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

freedom and of aspiration to succeed in life. This is what we understand as civilisation and what we call progress lies in the changes of structure in the social organism which entail such consequences' (The Persian Gulf, p. 272). 35· A former Political Agent at Bahrain gave his views thus: 'Conditions there [on the Trucial Coast] are not unlike those on our own border in the fifteenth century-indeed, I have found a study of early Scottish history invaluable in helping me to understand their somewhat mediaeval ways' (Lieutenant-Colonel G. Dalyell of the Binns (formerly Lt-Col. Loch), 'The Persian Gulf', Journal rif the Royal Central Asian Society, XXV (I938)). 36. 'As a jealous veils his favourite wife, so the British authorities shroud conditions in the Arab states [of the Gulf] in such thick mystery that ill-disposed propagandists might almost be excused for thinking that something dreadful is going on there' (A. R. Lindt, 'Politics in the Persian Gulf', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society XXVI (I939) p. 622). 37· 'The whole affair reminds one of the old Scotch, or North Country, ballads .... Incidentally, it shows that in spite of an air route, air facilities, and the general opening up of the Trucial Coast, the folk there are still quite "primitive"' (L/P&S/I2/37IO, PZI970/35, Political Resident to India Office, 28 Feb I935). 38. LjP&Sji2/3747, PZ7I99/34, Political Resident to Government of India, I6 Nov I934· 39· Ibid. 40. With the granting of oil concessions to American companies by Bahrain in I932 and Saudi Arabia in I933, American commercial interests in the Gulf became a force regarded with continual fear and suspicion by the British authorities. Japanese trade interests in Bahrain and Kuwait were particularly strong; and by I938, when Bahrain was the only oil-producing state in the Gulf, Japanese trade held the predomi• nant share of the Bahrain market. (L/P&S/I2/3797, PZ5638/38, Political Agent Bahrain to Government of India, 6 Apr I938). 41. LjP&S/I2/3747, PZI365/35, Air Ministry to India Office, 26 Feb I935· 42. Ibid., PZ2853/35, Government of India to India Office, 22 Apr I935 (telegram in three parts). 43· Ibid., minutes of Forty-Second Meeting of Middle-East (Official) Sub• Committee of CID, 24 Sep I935 (copy). 44· Ibid., PZ2853/35, Political Resident to India Office, 2 I Feb I935 (extract). 45· LjP&S/I2/I990, PZ4I I5/35, Political Resident to India Office, I4 June I935 (telegram). 46. LjP&S/I2/3747, PZ2367/38, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 22 Mar I938. For information on secret-service funds and how they were allocated for the Gulf Shaykhdoms, see R/ I 5/2/922. 47· Ibid., PZ4I I I/38, Political Resident to India Office, I9 May I938. 48. Ibid., PZI 724/39, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 5 Feb I939· Enclosed in Political Resident to Government oflndia, 2I Feb I939· 49· Ibid. Notes 233 so. Ibid., PZ4544/39, Political Resident to India Office, I2 July I939· 51. Ibid.

CHAPTER I2 I. L/P&S/20, C252. 2. Ibid., p. I24. 3· Ibid., p. I 22. 4· L/P&Sji2/3837, Assistant Political Agent Bahrain to Political Agent Bahrain, 2I Dec I938. Enclosed in PZ470/39, Political Resident to India Office, 9 Jan I939· 5· Ibid., PZ629 I /38, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 3 Sep I938. 6. Ibid., Assistant Political Agent Bahrain to Political Agent Bahrain, 2 I Dec I938. Enclosed in PZ470/39, Political Resident to India Office, 9 Jan I939· 7· Ibid., PZ36I6/39, Political Resident to India Office, 9 June I939 (tele• gram). 8. K. G. Fenelon, The Trucial States (Beirut, Ig6g) p. 76. g. 'Rashid-Merchant Prince of the Persian Gulf', Christian Science Monitor, 9 Aug I973· 10. R/I5/2/I6go, Residency Agent to Political Agent Bahrain, 23 Rabi' I I355 (I3 June I936). The document itself was said to be in the safekeeping of 'Abd al-Rahman (R/IS/294, Political Agent Bahrain to Assistant Political Resident, I8 Sept I937)· I I. In I940, following the uneasy truce between Sharjah and Dubai, 'Abdal• lah bin Faris was sent to Dubai to discuss the terms for peace. On his returning, he was found to be trying to smuggle in ammunition concealed at the bottom of a tin of nails (L/P&S/I2/3767, PZ2443/4o, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. 7 of I940 (I-IS Apr I940). I2. L/P&S/I2/3767, PZ4830/4o, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. I3 of I940 (I-IS July I940). I 3· These were Kalba, Hirah, Dibba, Fujairah, Dhayd and Hamriyyah. Hamriyyah, for example, was so strong that in I937 the Political Agent in Bahrain, Hickinbotham, suggested that Britain enter into treaty relations with its headman, Humayd bin 'Abd al-Rahman, who had succeeded in I 93 I when his father was murdered by his nephew (R/15/I/277, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 5 July I937). I4. LfP&S/I2/3767, PZ4679/38, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. IO of I938, I6 May -I5 June I938. I5. Ibid., PZII15{39, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. 3 of 1939 (1-15 Feb 1939). 16. Ibid:, PZ7567/39, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. 21 of 1939 (1-15 Nov 1939). 17. Copy of letter available in R/15{4/1. 18. Ibid., Residency Agent to Political Agent Bahrain, 5 Oct 1939. 19. L{P&S/12{3838, Ext. 2236/43, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resi• dent, 14 May 1944. 20. Ibid. 234 The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

21. LjP&SjiO, P595/I927(3), PZI I6oj31, Senior Naval Officer to Com• mander-in-Chief East Indies, 18 Nov 1930 (extract). 22. LjP&Sji2/3767, PZ1562, 'Bahrain Intelligence Summary', no. 6 of I935 (I5-3I Mar I935). 23. R/I5/I/677, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, 3I July I937· 24. LjP&Sji2/3882, PZ3286/37, Political Resident to Government of India, I9 May I937 (telegram). 25. Ibid., PZ4I40/37, Political Resident to Government of India, 24 June I937 (telegram). 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid., PZ5958/37, 'Persian Gulf Intelligence Report', June I937 (extracts). 28. Ibid., PZ76I5/37, Officiating Political Resident to India Office, I3 Nov I937· 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33· A translation of the undertaking, signed on I I Rajab I 356 (I 7 Sep I937), is enclosed ibid. 34· 'Handsome in a negro fashion, he was a sulky-looking youth and, I was confidentially informed, was already a past-master in the traditional desert intrigues (O'Shea, The Sand Kings of Oman, p. 24). 35· R/I5/I/284, Sultan bin Saqr to Political Resident, 27 Safar I353 (I I June I934)· 36. Ibid., 29 Muharram I353 (I4 May I934)· 37· Ibid., minute, 6 Nov I934· 38. R/I5/2/9I6, 'Dubai Ruling Family', n. d.

CHAPTER I3 1. J. E. H. Boustead, 'Abu Dhabi, I76I-I963 ', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, L (I963) 273. 2. L/P&S/I2j3837, PZ6237/37, Political Agent Bahrain to Political Resident, I2 Aug I937· Enclosed in Officiating Political Resident to India Office, 27 Aug I937· 3· L/P&Sji2/3828, Political Resident to India Office, 28 Oct I945 (tele• gram). 4· Arbitration Concerning Buraimi . . . (UK memorial); and Arbitration for the Settlement of the Territorial Dispute ... (Saudi memorial). 5· The USA was the first country to claim ownership of its continental shelf, defined as the area of the seabed running from the coast down to a depth of IOO fathoms (i.e. regardless of whether or not it was covered by the pre-war definition of the extent of territorial waters). By being able to claim ownership of its continental shelf, the riparian state acquired ownership of such oil deposits as lay beneath it. 6. The ADMA was later to give up a portion of its concession to the Abu Dhabi Oil (Japan) Company. 7. In I965 the ADPC gave up part of its concession, and this was taken over by Philips Petroleum. Notes

8. Ragei El Mallakh, 'The Challenge of Affluence: Abu Dhabi', Middle East Journal, XXIV (I 970). g. The political situation in Aden during the last two years of British rule was dominated by the emergence of two nationalist organisations: the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY), and the National Liberation Front (NLF). It was the latter that claimed the creation of the People's Republic of South Yemen (known today as the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen) when the British forces hurriedly evacuated in November I967. IO. Trevelyan, in Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, LX, 254· Appendix 1: Genealogy of the Ruling Families of the Trucial States 'Abdallah

of

1g14

regent

Kalba,

of

ruler

I

•g37-431

KHALID

of

24;

Sharjah,

Mul)ammad

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A~mad

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1go\'ernor

Rashid

Salim

Khalid

of

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al-

1868--

Ras

~

I

of

Sul!an

Ras

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I

truler

1g21-48)

SULTA:-.:

Khaimah,

of

UAE)

'---,----r-----,

Sharjah,

SALIM

of !?AQR

of

1948-

(ruler ai-Khaimah,

go\'ernor

Kalba

of

l

1972-

------,

83:

I

Ras

ai-Khaimah,

rruler

Justice

Al)mad

(ruler

Mul)ammad

of

SULTAN

and

Sharjah,

I

(Minister

Sharjah,

1

T

Mu~ammad

Sharjah,

1g14)

Sharjah,

of

~

I

L

1866-8)

of

KHALID

of

$AQR

1g65-72)

KHALID

1883

I

1ruler

al-Khaimah

rruler

(ruler

Rashid

Ras

I

Umm

bin

l;lamad

of

I

Sharjah,

'Ali

55)

of

daugh10r,

m.

Sharjah

al-Qaiwain

of Sharjah

I_

I

!

of

I

1848

!?AQR

'Abdallah

(ruler

•g51-65)

1g24-51)

Sharjah,

SULTAN

'Abdallah

Ras

(ruler

tawn,

gov~rnf'd

of

'

Family

r86g-1goo)

I;IUMAYD

I

Khaimah

ai-Khaimah,

!ruler

771

66)

Khalid

al-

1goo-8)

l8oJ)

f

I

(governor,

I

I

I

1727

~AQR

Ras

MATAR

Sharjah

RASHID

Ruling

'18o3

SULTAN

RAI;IMAN

"777

\C·

I

1838-46)

~aqr

Kalba,

Mu~ammad

of

town,

(go\'erned

1937-5•)

I;IAMAD

(ruler

of

Qawasim:

Kalba,

bin

_

I

I

of

1900)

Majid

SA'ID

l;lamad

ai-Khaimah, 1g36-7)"

(governor

Sharjah

Khalid

Al)mad

daughter,

(ruler

Ras

of

m.

Ras

bin

of

1866-7)

IBRAHIM

Fujairah

ai-Khaimah,

(ruler

daughter,

J:lamad

'Abdallah

of

m.

"'

.._.

~ The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

Al-bii-Khurayban (Na'im): Ruling Family of Ajman

RASHID (pre-1820-38)

l;IUMAYD 'ABD AL-'AZIZ 'Ali \ !838-4! (1841-8) and 1848-73)

I I RASHID Mu~ammad Na~ir 'ABD AL-'AZfZ daughter, married to (I 873--9 I) (Igoo-IO) m. Al]mad bin 'Abdallah of Umm ai-Qaiwain, mother of Rashid bin Al]mad

I;IUMAYD I;IUMAYD (I8gi-Igoo) ( 19!0-28)

I I RASHID 'Abd ai-'Azlz (1928-- )

'Abd ai-'Aziz (first Minister of Communications of UAE, later Minister for Social Affairs) Appendix 1: Genealogy qf the Ruling Families 239

Sharqiyyin: Ruling Family of Fujairah

'Abdallah Surur Mul}ammad

I I:Iamad (governor of Fujairah) I MUJ:IAMMAD (first independent ruler of Fujairah, 195 2 -75) I J:IAMAD (1975- ) (Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries of UAE)

~ ~

<::>-

~ ~

~ ~

~ ~

~ ~

"' "' ~ ~

s. s. ~· ~· ~ ~ a a

"' "'

0 0

"' "'

~ ~

~­

*"" *""

Suhayl Suhayl

I I

Mul;lammad Mul;lammad

Suhayl Suhayl

BUTT! BUTT!

(1906-12) (1906-12)

·-~ ·-~

Rashid Rashid

Sa'id Sa'id

Maktiim Maktiim

Butti Butti

Dubai Dubai

of of

Defence Defence

l;lashar l;lashar

of of

Family Family

UAE) UAE)

of of

Mani' Mani'

-1---~ -1---~

Mul;lammad Mul;lammad

SA'ID SA'ID

Minister Minister

(1852-9) (1852-9)

Ruling Ruling

r r

RASHID RASHID

(1886-94) (1886-94)

Butti Butti

(first (first

Yas): Yas):

Suhayl Suhayl

(Bani (Bani

Finance Finance

Butp Butp

of of

Minister Minister

I I

I I

(1833-52) (1833-52)

l;lashar l;lashar

MAKTUM MAKTUM

Prime Prime

Industry) Industry)

Minister Minister

Sa'id Sa'id

l;lamdan l;lamdan

and and Al-bu-Falasah Al-bu-Falasah

later later

deputy deputy

Khalifah Khalifah

Jum'ah Jum'ah

(first (first

UAE, UAE,

of of

I I

Vice-

of of

(185r86) (185r86)

l;lASHAR l;lASHAR

MAKTUM MAKTUM

(1894-1906) (1894-1906)

I I

first first

I I

r r

; ;

SA'ID SA'ID

UAE) UAE)

Minister Minister

(1912-1958) (1912-1958)

RASHID RASHID

,-

President President

UAE) UAE)

1958-

Maktiim Maktiim

of of

Prime Prime

( ( (first (first Appendix 1 : Genealogy rif the Ruling Families

Al-bu-Falal]. (Bani Yas): Ruling Family of Abu Dhabi

SHAKHBUT (1793-1816)

MUHAMMAD TAI:INUN KHALIFAH (1iJI6-18) (1818--33) (1833-45)

I I I I Hamdan SA'ID ~aqr ZAYID (1845-55) (1855-1909)

Khalifah TAHNUN Sa'ld ~AQR HAMDAN SULTAN MuJ;lammad (19~-12) ~~) .--(-19_1_2_-2_2_),-----(-1-92-'-~--6-).,------, l:lamdan Dhiyab SHAKHBUT Hazza' ZAYID Khalid (1966- ; first President XI of UAE) I Sa'id Sultan Khalifah (first Prime Minister of Abu Dhabi) The Origins if the United Arab Emirates

Al-'Al!: Ruling Family of Umm al-Qaiwain

MAJID I RASHID I 'ABDALLAH (pre-1820-53) I

'ALI Al;IMAD (1853--c. 73) (c. 1873-1904)

RASHID Ibrahim Sa'id 'Abdallah 'Abd al-Rai).man (1904-22) I I I I I 'ABDALLAH Al;IMAD 'Ali daughter, l;IAMAD 'Abdallah ( 1922-3) ( 1929-- ) m. 'Abdallah bin Sa'id ( 1923-9)

Rashid Sultan (first Minist~r of Health of UAE) Appendix 2: British Representatives~

BUSHIRE:

1. Political Resident

April I904: Major P. Z. Cox to act as Political Resident. October I905: Cox appointed P.R. protem. Jan. I909: Cox confirmed as Political Resident. August Igog-March 1910: Major A. P. Trevor in charge during Cox's leave. March 1910-December I9I3: Major P. Z. Cox. December I9I3-February I9I4: J. G. Lorimer m charge during Cox's leave, and died in office. February I 9 I4: Captain L. Bird wood in charge. March 19I4: MajorS. G. Knox in charge during Cox's absence. November I9I4-January I9I5: Sir Percy Cox resumed charge. January to April I9I5: Major S. G. Knox on special duty. April I9I5-November I9I7: Major A. P. Trevor designated as Deputy Political Resident. November I9I7-September I9I9: J. H. Bill, Deputy Political Resident.

1 Compiled from a list prepared by the staff of the India Office Records, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London. The dates shown here are those of the appoint• ment of the individual officers. However, an officer may have at times assumed his duties before the official confirmation of his appointment, hence the occasional discrepancy between the date of the performance of his duties and that of his actual appointment. Other discrepancies arise from the complexity of the records.

243 244 The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

March I 9 I 8: Lt. Col. Sir A. T. Wilson officiating. September I9I9: Major C. H. Gabriel in charge. October I920: Lt. Col. Wilson P.R. protem (replacing Cox). November I920: Lt. Col. A. P. Trevor officiating. Title of Deputy Political Resident abolished. April I923: Col. S. G. Knox acted during Colonel Trevor's leave. October I923: Colonel Trevor resumed charge. April I 924: Lt. Col. F. B. Prideaux assumed charge. June I92S: Lt. Col. C. G. Crosthwaite assumed charge during Prideaux's leave. October I925: Col. Prideaux resumed charge. January I927: Lt. Col. Lionel Haworth became Resident. November I 928: Sir Frederick W. Johnston became Resident. April I 929: Lt. Col. C. C. ]. Barrett. November I929: Lt. Col. H. V. Biscoe. May I93I: Major T. C. Fowle acted during Biscoe's leave. October I 93 I : Biscoe resumed charge. I 9 July I 932 : Biscoe died in office. 28 July I932: Lt. Col. T. C. Fowle took charge. September I932: Fowle confirmed as Political Resident. July-October I933: Loch in charge during Fowle's leave. July-October I934: Loch in charge during Fowle's leave. July-October I935: Loch in charge during Fowle's leave. July-October I936: Loch in charge during Fowle's leave. August-November I937: Olaf K. Caroe acted during Fowle's leave. August-September I938: H. Weightman acted during Sir T. C. Fowle's absence. September I 939: Lt. Col. C. G. Prior became Resident. October I94I: Lt. Col. W. R. Hay officiated as Resident. September I 942 : Lt. Col. Prior resumed charge. October I944: Major T. Hickinbotham. November I944: Sir Geoffrey Prior. May-November I945: Lt. Col. A. C. Galloway in charge during Prior's leave. November I945-May I946: Lt. Col. Sir G. Prior. May I946-June I947: Lt. Col. W. R. Hay. August I 946: Residency moved to Bahrain. November 1946: Lt. Col. Hay resumed charge. June-October I 94 7 : Galloway officiating. October I 94 7-July I 948 : Hay resumed charge. July-October I948: Galloway in charge. October I948: Sir Rupert Hay resumed charge. Appendix 2: British Representatiues

2. Assistant to The Political Resident

August I904: Captain A. P. Trevor. July I906: J. H. H. Bill temp. From November I907 he was on special duty under orders of Political Resident. July I909: Major A. P. Trevor was in charge as Political Resident from August I909 to early I910. April I 910: Lt. R. L. Bird wood. February I9J4: Lt. P. G. Loch. March-August I9IS: Lt. Col. R. E. A. Hamilton. August I9I5: Major M. E. Rae. January-November I9I9: Major C. H. Gabriel. November I9I9: Captain D. de M. S. Fraser. March-August I92I: C. H. Gidney. Now called Secretary to Political Resident instead of I st Assistant. August-October I92 I: Major M. E. Rae. October I92I: Major G. F. W. Anson. November I922: H. D. G. Law. May-November I924: Captain G. L. Mallam. November I924: Captain B. Stuart-Horner. April-December I927: Captain C. G. Prior. December I927: Captain R. P. Watts. December I928: Major H. R. P. Dickson. May-November I929: Captain A. A. Russell. November I929: Major T. C. Fowle. June I930: Captain A. A. Russell. December I93I: Captain E. H. Gastrell. June-October I934: Captain A. C. Galloway. October I934: Major R. P. Watts. June to November I935: G. Bazalgette. November I935: Major C. C. L. Ryan. April-November I937: Captain A. C. Galloway. November I937: Captain T. Hickinbotham. March-November I939: Captain D. H. Rushton. November I939: Captain A. C. Stewart. December I942: Captain J. B. Howes. May I943: P. J. Keen. June I943: R. G. Daubney. July-November I945: T. E. Rogers. November I945: C. J. Pelly. March-May I947: Major G. I. Pettigrew. May-June I947: G. N. Jackson. June-December I947: Major Pettigrew. December I947: Major A. L. A. Dredge. The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

BAHRAIN:

I. Political Agent

I904: The appointment of a Graded Officer, Political Department approved. In August, Captain F. B. Prideaux took charge as Assistant Political Agent. September I905: Personal and local rank of Political Agent con• ferred. May I909: Captain C. F. Mackenzie. November I910: Major S. G. Knox. April I9I I: Captain D. L. R. Lorimer. November I9I2: Major A. P. Trevor. May I9I4: Captain T. H. Keyes. March-July I9I6: Major H. Stewart. July-November I9I6: Captain T. C. Fowle (acting). November I9I6-March I9I8: Captain P. G. Loch. March-December I9I8: G. A. Mungavin. December I9I8-June I9I9: Captain N. N. E. Bray. June-November I9I9: Syed Siddiq Hasan (acting). November I9I9: Major H. R. P. Dickson. November I920: Syed Siddiq Hasan (acting). January I92I: Captain C. K. Daly. May I92S: Captain G. L. Mallam (acting). November I925: Lieutenant-Colonel C. K. Daly resumed charge. September I926: Colonel C. C. J. Barrett. April-November I927: Major R. G. E. W. Alban. November I927: Colonel Barrett. April I929: Captain C. G. Prior. November I932: Colonel P. G. Loch. July-November I933: Colonel E. H. Gastrell (acting). November I933: Colonel P. G. Loch. July-October I934: M. Worth (acting). October I 934: Colonel Loch resumed charge. March-October I935: Captain G. A. Cole (acting). October I 935 : Colonel Loch resumed charge. May-October I936: Captain T. Hickinbotham (acting). October I 936: Colonel Loch resumed charge. April-August I937: Captain T. Hickinbotham (acting). August-September I937: Lieutenant B. L. M. Tomlinson (acting). September-October I937: Captain T. Hickinbotham (acting). October 1937: Hugh Weightman. August-September I938: Captain]. B. Howes (acting). September I938: H. Weightman resumed charge. October I940: Major R. G. E. W. Alban. Appendix 2: British Representatives 247

January 1942: B. B. Wakefield. August-October 1943: Captain M. G. Dixon (acting). One day in October 1943: Mr. Wakefield resumed charge. 7 October 1943: Major T. Hickinbotham. July-August 1944: T. E. Rogers (acting). August 1944: Major Hickinbotham resumed charge. March-November 1945: C. J. Pelly. November 1945: Lieutenant Colonel A. C. Galloway. July-September 1946: Major H. D. H. Rance. September-October 1946: Colonel A. C. Galloway. October-November 1946: Major Rance. November 1946: Colonel A. C. Galloway. March-July 1947: C. J. Pelly. One week in July 1947: G. N. Jackson. July-August 1947: Major H. D. H. Rance. August-November 1947: G. N. Jackson. November 1947: C. J. Pelly. IO days in June 1949: P. D. Stobart. June-October 1949: H. G. Jakins. October-November I 949: J. A. F. Gethin. November 1949: C.]. Pelly.

2. Assistant Political Agent

February 1900: J. C. Gaskin appointed temporarily. June 1901: J. C. Gaskin appointed. October 1904: Captain F. B. Prideaux. January 1905: Captain Prideaux appointed Assistant Political Agent. May 1924: Sanction given to temporary appointment for six months of military probationer for Political Department of Govern• ment of India as Assistant to Political Agent Bahrain. Captain D. R. Smith appointed. In October 1924, Captain Smith was transferred and Government of India said another officer could not be spared. March 1934: Government of India agreed to temporary post as ex-cadre appointment to be filled by junior officer of Political Department for six months at first, but it was prolonged from time to time and was still temporary for one year from March 1947· May 1934: M. Marth assumed duties. March-April 1935: Captain G. A. Cole. April-October 1935: Lt. R. D. Metcalfe. October, 1935: Captain G. A. Cole. April-May 1936: Captain T. Hickinbotham. The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

May-December I 936: Lt. J. B. Howes. December I 936: Captain A. C. Stewart. April-November I937: Lt. B. L. M. Tomlinson. November I937: Captain A. C. Galloway. February-September I 938: Lt. R. E. R. Bird. September I 938: Captain J. B. Howes. May I 939: R. I. Hallows. March-July I940: C. R. Latimer (acting). July I940: Captain R. D. Metcalfe (acting). January I94I: G. N. Jackson took charge from R. I. Hallows. June I942: Captain M. G. Dixon. December I 942: R. M. Hadow. August-October I943: Captain M. P. O'C. Tandy (acting). October-December I943: Captain M. G. Dixon. December I943: R. M. Hadow. June-July I944: T. E. Rogers. July-August I944: R. M. Hadow in addition to Political Officer, Trucial Coast. August-October I944: T. E. Rogers. October-November I944: R. M. Hadow. November I944: Captain M. P. O'C. Tandy. February-March I945: Captain R. E. R. Bird. March-April I945: Captain Tandy. April I945: Captain Bird. February-July I946: Captain H. D. H. Rance. July-September I946: Captain J. E. H. Hudson. September-October I 946: Captain Rance. October-November I946: Captain Hudson. November I946: Captain Rance. June-July I947: C. J. Pelly (in addition to Political Agent). July-August I947: G. N. Jackson. August-November I947: G. N. Jackson (in addition to Political Agent). One week in November I947: G. N. Jackson. November I947: C. J. Pelly (in addition to Political Agent). January-August I948: Major J. E. H. Hudson. August-September I948: P. D. Stobart. September I948: Major Hudson.

RESIDENCY AGENTS IN SHARJAH

I890-I9og: K. B. 'Abd al-Latif I909-I935: K. B. 'lsa bin 'Abd al-Latif Appendix 2: British Representatives 249

I935: K. S. Husayn 'lmad (interim) I936: K. B. 'Abd al-Razzaq Razzuqi al-Mahmud I945: Jasim bin Muhammad Kadmar.t (Appointment abolished in I949)

MUSCAT

Political Agent

January I904: Captain W. G. Grey. July-November I9o6: Captain W. H. I. Shakespear. November I906: Major W. G. Grey. April-July I908: Captain N. Scott. July-November I9o8: Captain F. McConaghey. November I908: Mr. R. E. Holland. April I910: Major A. P. Trevor. April I9I I: Major S. G. Knox. March I 914: Lt. Col. R. A. E. Benn. October I9IS: Major H. Stewart. January-February I9I6: Lt. Col. C. T. Ducat. February-March I9I6: Major H. Stewart. March-June I9I6: Lt. Col. C. T. Ducat. 8 days in June I9I6: Major A. R. Burton (acting). June-October I9I6: Major E. B. Howell. October-November I9I6: Major A. R. L. King-Mason (acting). November I9I6: Major L. B. H. Haworth. November-December I9I 7: Captain J. M. Brickman (acting). December I9I 7: Major L. B. H. Haworth. October I9I9: R. E. L. Wingate. October I92I: Major R. E. Rae. March-September I923: R. E. L. Wingate. I8 days in September I923: M. J. Gadzar. September I923: Major R. G. Hinde. October I924: Lt. Col. C. G. Crosthwaite. April-October I925: Captain R. G. E. W. Alban (acting). October I925: Lt. Col. C. G. Crosthwaite. February-September I926: Major C. C. J. Barrett. I3 days in September I926: G. A. Richardson (acting). September I926: Major G. P. Murphy. June I930: Major T. C. Fowle. April-November I93I: Captain R. G. Alban (acting).

1 Donald Hawley, op. cit., p. 328. The Origins rif the United Arab Emirates

November I93I: Major T. C. Fowle. July-November I932: Captain R. G. Alban (acting). November I932: Major C. E. U. Bremmer. March-June I933: Captain R. G. Alban. June I933: Major C. E. U. Bremmer. June I935: Major R. P. Watts. April I939: Capt. T. Hickinbotham. April-June I940: Captain]. B. Howes (acting). July I940: Captain T. Hickinbotham. August I94I: Captain]. B. Howes. January-May I942: Major R. G. E. W. Alban. May I942: C. ]. Pelly. September-November I943: Captain R. E. R. Bird. November I943: Captain R. D. Metcalfe. October I944: Lt. Col. A. C. Galloway. April I 945: R. I. Hallows. 9 days in November I946: Major]. E. H. Hudson. November I946: Major A. C. Stewart. June-August I947: Captain]. E. H. Hudson. August I947: Major A. C. Stewart. April-August I948: P. D. Stobart. August I 948: R. E. Ellison. July-September I949: R. McC. Andrew. September I949: Major F. C. L. Chauncy. Bibliography

INDIA OFFICE RECORDS (FOREIGN AND COMMONWEALTH OFFICE, LONDON)*

R/15 Persian Gulf Territories, Residency Records

R/15/1 Bushire, Political Residency

The records of the Persian Gulf Residency at Bushire cover the period 1763-1948. They were deposited with the India Office Library and Records in 1957--65 and include correspondence between the Resident and the Political Agents in the Gulf; the Government of India; various Departments of the British Government; the Air Officer Commanding, Iraq; the Senior Naval Officer Persian Gulf Division; the British Minister in Tehran; the High Commission in Baghdad; local rulers and notables; the Residency Agent at Sharjah; and various oil companies. For the period covered in this study these records were organised into subject files. General subjects have a number, and a second number indicates the specific topic within that general subject. The files also include internal minutes, which can be found at the end of each volume.

* For a complete guide to these records with relevance to the Gulf, see Penelope Tuson, The Records of the British Residency and Agencies in the Persian Gulf (London: HM Stationery Office, forthcoming). The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

The following files were the most useful for this study:

Slave Trade: vols 199-234 Arab Coast and Islands: vols 239--94 Arab Coast Miscellaneous Judicial: vols 295-3 I 2 Bahrain: vols 314-77 Muscat: vols 408-47 Kuwait: vols 478--85, 513-49

R/15/2 Bahrain Political Agency

The Agency at Bahrain had three separate offices: the Confidential Office, the English Office and the Vernacular Office. The files of the Confidential Office were based on a subject-file system: each subject was given a number and each file on the subject a part number. The files are organised at the India Office Records according to the three different methods of classification used, at different times, at the Agency. The groups are as follows: !899-1921, files R/15/2/1-72; 1921-32, files R/15/2/73-138; and 1932-50, files R/15/2/139-916. The English Office files (R/15/2/946--1823) run from 1907 to 1950 and are organised on the same basic principles as the Confidential Office files (i.e. by subject). The Vernacular Office files (R/I5/2/I824-198o) contain two different kinds of correspon• dence: first, consular and judicial; and, second, translations of docu• ments sent and received by the Agency. For the present study, the most valuable files from the different offices were those in the following subject groups:

Confidential Political Administration Bahrain State Saudi Relations Shipping Diaries Trucial Coast Qatar Arab Coast Slavery Royal Air Force Saudi Arabia Treaties Visits Bibliography 253

English Bahrain State Trade and Commerce Shipping Qatar Consular Slave Trade

Vernacular Slavery Miscellaneous Claims Miscellaneous Correspondence

R/ I 5/4 Political Agency, Trucial Oman

When, in 1939, a Political Officer for the Trucial Coast was appointed, his headquarters were in Sharjah. Only ten files survive, the remainder probably having been destroyed. Of these the following are at present open to readers:

Rj15/4/1 Sharjah affairs, 1937-48 R/15/4/2 Fujairah affairs, 1941--8 R/ 15/4/3 Boundaries, 1935-49 R/15/4/4 Copies of agreements, concessions, etc., 193o-48

Rj 15/5 Political Agency, Kuwait

The Political Agency in Kuwait was established in 1904, and the Agency files preserved in the India Office Records cover the period 1904-49. They are basically all classified by subject.

Rj 15/6 Political Agency, Muscat

Although the Political Agency in Muscat was founded in 18oo, little has been preserved from before 1865. Classification is by subject. For the purposes of the present study, reference was made to files in the following subject groups:

Arms Traffic Aviation Books and Publications Establishment Foreign Interests Judicial Muscat State Affairs 254 The Origins if the United Arab Emirates

Naval and Shipping Political Trade and Commerce Visitors, Suspects and Undesirables Travels in Oman Internal Politics and Relations with Oman

LfP& Sf 10 Departmental Papers: Political and Secret Subject Files, I902-3I LfP&Sfu Departmental Papers: Political and Secret Annual Files, I9I2-30 (vols. 3o-3o8) LfP&S/12 Departmental Records: Political (External) Files and Collections, c. I 93 I -so

Until I930, the Political Department of the India Office, with just one secretary, was concerned with both the affairs of the Indian states and the foreign policy of the Government of India. L/P&S/IO and L/P&S/I I contain political and secret (P&S) subject and annual files, respectively; the individual papers of the Political Department at this time all had the prefix P. After I930, the work of the Political Department was divided between two new sections, each with its own secretary: the Political (Internal) Department, concerned with all work related to the Indian states; and the Political (External) Department, which dealt with foreign affairs. It is in the records of the latter, LJP&S/I2, that post-I930 Political Department records relating to the Gulf are to be found. In the L/P&S/ I 2 records, the individual papers all have a prefix of PZ, to distinguish them from those of the Political (Internal) Department, PY. In I94I, when the Political (External) Department became the External Department, the prefix was changed to Ext. Of the fifty-nine subject divisions, or collections, in L/P&Sj I 2, the following were used for the present study:

Aircraft and Aviation : vols I 94 7--66 Arabia : vols 2064-I s8 Arms and Ammunition and Arms Traffic: vols 2I86-2I2 Establishment and Secretariat Procedure: vols 2773, 2782-4, 2790-I, 2800 Muscat : vols 295 I --95 Orders-in-Council: vols 3304, 3306, 33I2, 3314-I9, 332I-38 Passports: vols 3369--84 Persia, Persian Gulf (HM Consuls and Consulates in): vols 355I-698 Bibliography 255

Persian Gulf: vols 3709-967 Slavery and Slave Trade: vols 4088-gg Telegraphs, Postal, Wireless: vols 4125-37, 4143-8 Travellers: vols 4252, 4256, 4338-40 War (Defence, Protective and Other Measures): vols 4487-500

LjP&Sj18 Political and Secret Memoranda, Section B (includes Persian Gulf)

B367 Foreign Office Memorandum on Arabian Policy. Major H. W. Young, c. Jan 1921. 18 pp., confidential

B368 Eastern (Arabia). Memorandum by Col. Kinahan Cornwallis on the Future Policy of His Majesty's Government with Regard to Subsidies to the Chiefs of the Arabian Peninsula. Foreign Office, 16 Dec 1920. 7 pp.

B376 Arabia. Subsidies to Rulers. Oct 1923. 2 pp.

B381 Anglo-Turkish Agreement. Collection of Documents Signed on July 29, 1913. Foreign Office (Asiatic and Arabia), 29 Jul 1913. Section 5· 14 pp., map; confidential

B385 The Kuwait Order in Council, 1925. Buckingham Palace, 17 Mar 1925

B386 Arabia. Agreements with the Sultan of Nejd Regarding Cer• tain Questions Relating to the Nejd-Transjordan and Nejd-Iraq frontier. Parliamentary Papers (House of Commons), 1924-5, vol. xxx, Cmd 2566.

B387 Memorandum by the Political Department, India Office, on Treaties and Agreements between the British Government and the Various Rulers and Chiefs in Arabia and the Persian Gulf. D. T. Monteath, July 1927. 6 pp., confidential

B389 Treaty between His Majesty and His Majesty the King of Hejaz and of Nejd and its Dependencies, May 2oth 1927, together with Notes Exchanged, May 19th-21st 1927. Parliamentary Papers (House of Commons), 1927, vol. XXVI, Cmd 2951. 8 pp. The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

B390 Memorandum: (a) the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman, (b) His Highness The Sultan Saiyid Taimur bin Faisal bin Turki. Bertram Thomas, Wazir, I928. 5 pp.

B39 I British Political Relations with Koweit. J. W. Field, Foreign Office, 29 Mar I9'2'2, 3 pp., confidential

B392 Wireless Telegraph Stations in the Persian Gulf. Aug I9'28. 3 pp., confidential

B393 Political Control in the Persian Gulf. J. G. Laithwaite, 5 Oct I9'28. 3 pp., confidential

B394 Quarantine control in the Persian Gulf. J. G. Laithwaite, I9 Aug I928. 6 pp., confidential

B395 Koweit, I908-I928. J. G. Laithwaite, I Oct I928. I4 pp., confidential

B396 Bahrein, I908-I928. J. G. Laithwaite, 8 Oct I928. I'2 pp., confidential

B397 Status of the Islands of Tamb, Little Tamb, Abu Musa, and Sirri. J. G. Laithwaite, 24 Aug I928. 8 pp., confidential

B398 The Rebellion against the Sultan of Muscat, May I9I3-July I9I6. Gertrude Bell. I I pp. (Received from the Chief Political Officer, Basra, under cover of Sir Percy Cox's letter of I8 Aug I9I6)

B399 Status of Certain Groups of Islands in the Persian Gulf. J. G. Laithwaite, 27 Aug I9'28. 4 pp., confidential

B400 Muscat, I90o--28. J. G. Laithwaite, 25 Aug I928. I 7 pp., confidential

B40I Lighting and Buoying of the Persian Gulf, I908-I928. M. J. Clauson, 29 Aug I928. 6 pp., confidential

B402 El Katr, I908-r9r6. J. G. Laithwaite, 5 Sep I9'28. 2 pp., confidential

B403 The Trucial Chiefs, I908-I928. J. G. Laithwaite, 4 Oct I928. 8 pp., confidential Bibliography 257

B404 Position and Rights of His Majesty's Government in Basidu. J. G. Laithwaite, I Oct I928. 6 pp., confidential

B405 Henjam. Position and Rights of His Majesty's Government in the Island of Henjam. The Sheikh of Henjam and His Affairs. J. G. Laithwaite, 26 Sep I928. 8 pp., confidential

B4o6 Question of British Consular representation in El Rasa and Qatif. J. G. Laithwaite, 24 Sep I928. 2 pp., confidential

B407 Slavery in the Persian Gulf. J. G. Laithwaite, 29 Sep I928. 4 pp., confidential

B4o8 Persian Complaints of Smuggling in the Persian Gulf. J. G. Laithwaite, I Oct I928. 2 pp., confidential

B409 Precis of Treaties and Engagements between the British Government and the Chiefs of the Arabian Coast of the Persian Gulf. 29 Sep I928. 6 pp., confidential

B4ro Arms Traffic in the Persian Gulf, I908-I928. J. G. Laithwaite, 8 Oct I923. 4 pp., confidential

B4I I Note on Trade in the Persian Gulf (Communicated by the Board of Trade). Oct I928. 4 pp., confidential

B4I2 Persian Coasting Trade (Communicated by the Board of Trade, 20 Aug I928). Oct I928. 2 pp., confidential

B4I3 Oil Interests in the Persian Gulf. Communicated by the Board of Trade and Revised to 28 June I928. Oct I928. I p., confidential

B4I4 Air Communication in the Persian Gulf (Communicated by the Air Ministry, 23 August I928). Sep I928. 5 pp., confidential

B4I5 Question of Issue of Persian Passports or Travelling Passes (Ilm-o-khabar) to subjects of Bahrein, I9IO-I922. J. G. Laithwaite, I4 Aug I928. 8 pp. 258 The Origins if the United Arab Emirates

B416 Report on Sur. Major G. P. Murphy IA, Indian Political Department, Political Agent Muscat. (Corrected up to 10th October 1928.) Jan 1928. 20 pp., confidential

B41 7 Grant by Certain Political Officers in the Persian Gulf of Licences to Ply the Coasting Trade and Fly the British Flag. Question of the Extension of this Practice to Cover the Subjects of the Arab . J. G. Laithwaite, 15 Feb 1929. 5 pp.

B419 Future Policy on the Trucial Coast. Correspondence between the Secretary of State for India, the Government of India and the Political Resident in the Persian Gulf (1929). J. G. Laithwaite, 23 Oct 1929. 10 pp., confidential

B420 Question of British Interference in the Administration of Bahrein. Despatch no. 385S from the Hon. Lt.-Col. C. C. J. Barrett CSI, CIE, Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, to the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, Simla (28 August 1929). Oct 1929. 8 pp., secret

B42 1 Situation of Persian Gulf Residency. Arguments for and against Koweit and Bahrein as alternatives to Bushire. Lt.-Col. C. C. J. Barrett, Jul-Aug 1929. 10 Jan 1930. 5 pp., secret

B422 Exercise of Jurisdiction in Cases Affecting Foreign Subjects in Bahrein by the British Political Authorities. ]. G. Laithwaite, 3 Mar 1930. 4 pp., confidential

B425 Translation of Lease by Sheikh Mubarak of Koweit of the Bunder Shweikh lands and of the Acceptance of that Lease by the Political Agent, Koweit, both dated 15 October 1907. 17 pp.

B426 Oil Concessions Signed by the Sheikh of Bahrein in Favour of the Eastern and General Syndicate on the. 2nd December 1925. Aug 1933. 7 PP·

B427 Final Record of a Meeting Held at the Foreign Office on Thursday, 5 Oct [ 1933] to Discuss Relations between His Bibliography 259 Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom and the Sheikh of Koweit. I7 pp. Including note by Sir A. Ryan on 'Ibn Saud's attitude towards Koweit', with provisional note by J. G. Laithwaite on 'Obliga• tions of His Majesty's Government towards the Sheikh of Koweit'. I I Oct I933· 8 pp., confidential

B429 Text of Treaty, Dated November 3, 19I6 and Ratified on March 23, I9I8, between His Majesty's Government and Sheikh Abdullah-bin-Jasim-bin-Thani of al-Katar. Dec I933· 3 PP·

B430 The Southern Boundary of Qatar and the Connected Pro• blems. J. G. Laithwaite, 26 Jan I934· 9 pp., secret With Note on Discussion with Sir Percy Cox on 24th February on Question of Boundaries of Qatar. J. G. Laithwaite, 27 Feb I934· 2 pp.

B43I Relations between His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom and the Sheikh of Koweit. Foreign Office, I934· 20 pp., secret

B432 Koweit Oil. I. Political Agreement of 5th March 1934 between His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom and the Kuwait Oil Company. 2. Commercial Agreement of 23rd December I934 between His Excellency the Sheikh of Koweit and the Kuwait Oil Company. Mar 1935. I I pp., confidential

B433 Red Oxide on Abu Musa, 1898-1934· J. G. Laithwaite, May I934· 6 pp.

B434 Koweit Civil Air Agreement (23 May 1934). July 1934. 6 pp., confidential With typescript copy amended to July 1940. 7 pp., confidential

B435 Bahrein Civil Air Agreement (6 June I934). July 1934, 5 pp., confidential The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

With typescript copy amended to July I940. 7 pp., confidential

B436 Historical Memorandum on Bahrein. J. G. Laithwaite, I4 July I934· 46 pp., confidential

B437 Historical Memorandum on the Relations of the Wahabi Amirs and Ibn Saud with Eastern Arabia and the British Government, I8oO-I934· ]. G. Laithwaite, I Sep I934· Revised version: 26 Sep I934· 55 pp., map; confidential

B438 Muscat. Question of Whether a Naval Station Could be Established for Use by His Majesty's Ships at Khor Quwai or Elsewhere in Muscat Territory Compatibly with the Exist• ing International Agreements of His Majesty's Government. ]. G. Laithwaite, 2 Nov I934· I 2 pp., confidential

B440 Air Navigation Regulations for Civil Aircraft for the Territory of Bahrein, and Conditions Governing the Use of the Aero• drome at Muharraq Approved by His Excellency Sheikh Hamad bin 'lsa AI Khalifah csi, Ruler of Bahrein. Aug I934· 3 PP· With duplicate of B435

B44I Air Navigation Regulations for Civil Aircraft for the Territory of Koweit, and the Conditions Governing the Use of the Aerodrome at Koweit, Approved by His Excellency Sheikh Sir Ahmad Al-Jabir As-Sabah KCIE, csi, Ruler of Koweit. Aug I934· 3 PP·

B442 Territory of Muscat and Oman. 1. Air Navigation Regulations for Civil Aircraft Made by His Highness the Sultan of Muscat and Oman. 2. Gwadur Aerodrome. Conditions Laid Down with the Approval of the Sultan to Govern the Use of the Aerodrome. May I935· 4 PP·

B443 Muscat Civil Air Agreement. June I935· 8 pp., confidential

B444 Oil Concession Granted by Shaikh of Qatar to the Anglo-Per• sian Oil Co. Ltd., Dated I 7th May I935· Feb I936. 7 pp., confidential Bibliography

With typescript copy of 'Agreement Relating to the Transfer of the Qatar Oil Concession' (to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. Ltd, 5 Feb I937). I p.

B445 Political Agreement of 5th June I935 between His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company Ltd. I935· 7 pp., confidential

B446 The Seven Independent Arabian States (Yemen, Asir, Hejaz, Nejd, Koweit, Jebel Shammar and Jauf). W. J. Childs, Foreign Office, May I935· I9 pp., confidential

B450 The Persian Gulf. 25 June I935· 4 pp., secret

B452 His Excellency Sheikh Hamad bin Sheikh Issa Al Khalifah Sheikh of Bahrein and the Bahrein Petroleum Company Limited. Lease. 29 Dec I934· I5 pp., map

B453 His Excellency Shaikh Sir Hamad bin Shaikh 'lsa Al Khalifah KCIE, csi, Shaikh of Bahrein and the Bahrein Petroleum Co. Ltd. Deed of Modification of Lease, dated 29 December I934· 3 June I936. 4 pp.

B454 Note on Bahrein Islands. N.d. 5 pp.

B456 Agreement between His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom and Petroleum Concessions Limited relating to the Debai Oil Concession. 5 Feb I937· 4 PP·

B467 Sharjah Oil Concession, I 938.

B4 78 Oil Concessions in the Arab Sheikhdoms of the Persian Gulf, I 3 March I 944·

LjP&Sj2o

C252 Military Report and Route Book: The Arabian States of the Persian Gulf. Prepared by General Staff, India, I939 262 The Origins qf the United Arab Emirates

R/1/4/143 Crown Representative Records

PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE

F0371 Eastern Affairs CAB Cabinet Conclusions

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS

Admiralty (Naval Intelligence Division), Iraq and the Persian Gulf (London, 1944). Aitchison, C. U., A Collection qf Treaties, Engagements and Sanads Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries, fifth edition (Delhi, 1933), vol. XI. Arbitration Concerning Buraimi and the Common Frontier between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia, Memorial submitted by the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 2 vols (London, 1955). Arbitration for the Settlement qf the Territorial Dispute between Muscat and Abu Dhabi on One Side and Saudi Arabia on the Other, Memorial of the Government of Saudi Arabia, 3 vols (Cairo, 1955). J. G. Lorimer, Gazetteer qf the Persian Gulf, 'Oman and Central Arabia, 5 vols (Calcutta, 1908-15). The Persian Gulf Pilot, seventh edition (London: HM Stationery Office, 1924).

ARABIC PUBLICATIONS

al-'Aqqad,~ala9, Al-Ist'imar jl'l-Khali} al-Fiirisz (Cairo, 1956). al-'Aqqad, ~ala9, Al-Tayyarat al-Siyasiyyah fi'l-Khatzj al-'Arab'i (Cairo, 1965). al-Burayn1, A9mad Qasim, Al-Imarat al-Sab'a 'ala'l-Sii4il al-Akhqar (Beirut, 1957). al-Dawud, Ma9mud 'Ali, Al-Khatzj al-'Arabz wa'l-'Alaqiit al-Duwaliyyah I8!Jiri9I4 (Cairo, 1963). J:lamzah, Fu'ad, Al-Bilad al-'Arabiyyah al-Sa'udiyyah (Mecca, 1937, and Riyadh, 1968). J:lamzah, Fu'ad, Qjllb ]azzrat al-'Arab (Cairo, 1933). Nawfal, al-Sayyid Mu9ammad 'Ali, Al-Awrfii' al-Siyasiyyah li Imara·t al-Khatzj al-'Arabl (Cairo, 1960). Qasim, Jamal Zakariyya, Al-Khatzj al-'Arabz, 1914-19 (Cairo, 1973). Rayyis, Riyaq Najrb, $ira' al-Wii4at w'al-Naft. (Beirut, 1973). Bibliographtj

RicJa, 'Adil, 'Uman wa'l Khallj (Cairo, 1969). Rihani, Ameen, Muliik al-'Arab (Beirut, 1925). Rihani, Ameen, Tarikh Najd wa Mul~aqatihi, new edition (Beirut, 1972). al-Salimf, Mu}:lammad, bin 'Abdallah and Najf 'Assaf, Tafikh . .. ratakallam (Damascus, 1963). al-Shaybani, Mu}:lammad Sharif, Imarat Q_a~ar al-'Arabiyyah bayn al-Ma(z wa'l-/farfir (Beirut, 1962). Sinan, Ma}:lmud Bahjat, Tar!kh Qa~ar al-'Am (Baghdad, 1966). al-Siyabf, Salim bin l:lamud, Is'af al-' Ayan fi Ansab Ahl 'Uman (Beirut, I965). al-Takriti, SalimTaha, al-$ira' 'ala al-Khatzj al-'Arab! (Baghdad, I966). Wahbah, l:lafiz, ]azzrat al-'Arab jl'l-Q_arn al-'lshrzn (Cairo, I967). Zallum, 'Abd al-Qadir, 'Uman wa'l Imarat al-Sab'a (Beirut, I963).

EUROPEAN PUBLICATIONS

Books

Place of publication London, unless otherwise stated. Abir, Mordechai, Oil, Power and Politics: Conflict in Arabia, the Red Sea and the Gulf (I974). Adamiyat, Fereydoun, Bahrain Islands, A Legal and Diplomatic Study rif the British-Iranian Controversy (New York, I 955). Alfree, P. S., Warlords rif Oman (I967). Anthony, John Duke, Arab States rif the Lower Gulf: People, Politics, Petroleum (Washington DC, I975)- Aramco, Oman and the Southern Shore rif the Persian Gulf (Cairo, I952). Arberry, A. J. (ed), Religion in the Middle East, vol. n (Cambridge, I969). Armstrong, H. C., Lord rif Arabia (Beirut, I966). Avery, Peter, Modern Iran (I965). al-Baharana, Husain M., The Legal Status rif the Arabian Gulf States (Manchester, I968). Belgrave, Sir Charles Dalyrymple, Personal Column (I 960). Belgrave, Sir Charles Dalyrymple, The Pirate Coast (I 966). Bell, Gertrude, The Arab War (I940). Benoist-Mechin, Le Roi Saud ou !'Orient a l'heure des releves (Paris, I96o). Benoist-Mechin, Le Loup et le Leopard, Ibn Seoud (Paris, I955)• Berreby,]. ]., Le Golfe persique (Paris, I959)· Boustead, Colonel Sir Hugh, The Wind rif Morning (I972). Bullard, Sir Reader, Britain and the Middle East (I95I). The Origins rif the United Arab Emirates

Bullard, Sir Reader, The Camels Must Go: An Autobiography ( I96I ). Busch, Briton C., Britain and the Persian Gulf, I894-1914 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif., I 967). Busch, Briton C., Britain, India and the Arabs, 1914-1921 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif., I 97 I). Caroe, Olaf, Wells rif Power (I95I). Cheesman, R. E., In Unknown Arabia (I926). Chisholm, Archibald H. T., The First Kuwait Oil Concession Agreement: A Record rif the Negotiations, 19II-1934 (I975)· Coen, Terence Greagh, The Indian Political Service (I97I). Dickson, H. R. P., The Arab rif the Desert (I967). Dickson, H. R. P., Kuwait and her Neighbours (I968). Dickson, Violet, Forty Years in Kuwait (I97I). Dodwell, H. H. (ed.), The Cambridge History rif India, vol. VI (Delhi, 1958). Esmail, Malek, Le _Golfe persique et les iles de Bahrein (Paris, 1938). Faroughy, Abbas, The Bahrein Islands (75cr1951) (New York, 1951). Fenelon, K. G., The Trucial States (Beirut, 1969). Fenelon, K. G., The United Arab Emirates (1973). Finnie, David H., Desert Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1958). Fowle, Captain T. C. W., Travels in the Middle East (1916). Fraser, Lovat, India Under Curzon and After (191 1). Freeth, Zahra, Kuwait was "!)I Home (1958). Gaury, Lieutenant-Colonel Gerald de, Arabian Journey and Other Desert Travels ( 1950). Gaury, Lieutenant-Colonel Gerald de, Arabia Phoenix (1946). Gaury, Lieutenant-Colonel Gerald de, Faisal: King rif Saudi Arabia (1966). Gaury, Lieutenant-Colonel Gerald de, Three Kings in Baghdad, 1921-1958 (1961). Glubb, Sir John Bagot, War in the Desert: An RAF Frontier Campaign (1960). Gooch, G. P. and Temperley, H. W. V., British Documents on the Origins rif the War, 1~1914 (1938). Graves, Philip, The Life rif Sir Percy Cox (1941). Hanighen, F. C., The Secret War (New York, 1934). Harrison, David, Footsteps in the Sand (1959). Harrison, Paul W., The Arab at Home (1924). Harrison, Paul W., Doctor in Arabia (1943). Hawley, Donald, The Trucial States (1970). Hay, Sir Rupert, The Persian Gulf States (Washington DC, 1959). Hopwood, Derek (ed.), The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics ( 1972 ). Humaidan, Ali, Les Princes de /'or noir, evolution politique du Golfe persique (Paris, 1968). Bibliography

Hurewitz, J. C., Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East, 2 vols (Princeton, NJ, I956). Kelly, J. B., Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1795-18&1 (Oxford, I968). Kelly, J. B., Eastern Arabian Frontiers (I964). Kumar, Ravinder, India and the Persian Gulf, 1858-1907, A Study of British Imperial Policy (New York, I965). Landen, Robert Geran, Oman since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society (Princeton, NJ, I967). Lenczowski, George, Oil and State in the Middle East (Ithaca, NY, I96o). Longrigg, Stephen H., Oil in the Middle East (I968). Mann, Clarence C., Abu Dhabi (Beirut, I969). Marlowe, John, The Persian Gulf in the Twentieth Century (New York, I962). Masani, Sir Rustum Pestonji, Britain in India: An Account of British Rule in the Indian Subcontinent (I 960). Medlicott, W. N., British Foreign Policy Since Versailles, 1919-1¢3, (I 968). Miles, S. B., The Countries and Tribes of the Persian Gulf (repr. London, I966). Mineau, Wayne, The Go-Devils (I958). Monroe, Elizabeth, Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914-1956 (I 965). Monroe, Elizabeth, The Changing Balance of Power in the Persian Gulf, American Universities Field Staff (New York, I972). Moyse-Bartlett, H., The Pirates of Trucial Oman (I966). Murphy, C. C. R., Soldiers of the Prophet (I92I). Nevakivi, J ukka, Britain, France, and the Arab Middle East, 1914-1920 ( I969). O'Shea, Raymond, The Sand Kings of Oman (I947). Owen, Roderic, Away to Eden (I96o). Owen, Rod eric, Golden Bubble (I 95 7). Philby, H. St J. B., Arabian Oil Ventures (Washington DC, I964). Philby, H. St J. B., Arabian Days (I948). Philby, H. St J. B., Arabian Jubilee (I952). Philby, H. St J. B., The Empty Quarter (I933). Phillips, Wendell, Oman: A History (I967). Phillips, Wendell, Unknown Oman (Beirut, I97I). Ramazani, Rouhallah K., The Persian Gulf: Iran's Role (Charlottesville Va, I972). Raswan, Carl, The Black Tents of Arabia (I 935). Raunkiaer, Barclay, Through Wahhabiland on Camelback, intro. Gerald de Gaury (I969). Rendel, Sir George W., The Sword and the Olive (I957). Rihani, Ameen, Around the Coasts of Arabia ( I 930). The Origins qf the United Arab Emirates

Rihani, Ameen, Ibn Sa'oud of Arabia (I928). Roskill, Stephen, Hankey, Man qf Secrets, vol. I: I877-I9I8 (I970). Sanger, Richard H., The Arabian Peninsula (Ithaca, NY, I954l· Shwadran, Benjamin, The Middle East, Oil and the Great Powers (New York, I959). Stanford Research Institute, Area Handbook for the Peripheral States qf the Arabian Peninsula (Washington DC, I 97 I). Stanton-Hope, W. E., Arabian Adventurer: The Story qf Haji Williamson ( I95I ). Stanton-Hope, W. E., The Battle for Oil (I958). Sykes, Brigadier-General Sir Percy, A History rif Persia, 2 vols. (I958). Thomas, Bertram, Alarms and Excursions in Arabia (I 93 I). Troeller, Gary, The Birth rif Saudi Arabia: Britain and the Rise rif the House rif Sa'ud (I976). Tweedy, Maureen, Bahrain and the Persian Gulf (England, I952). Twitchell, K. S., Saudi Arabia (Princeton, NJ, I958). Vadala, R., Le Golfe persique (Paris, I92o). Van der Meulen, D., The Wells rif Ibn Sa'ud (I957). Vidal, F. S., The Oasis rif al-Hasa (New York, I955l· Villiers, Alan, Sons qf Sindbad (I 940). Wilson, Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Arnold T., The Persian Gulf (Oxford, I928). Wilson, Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Arnold T., South West Persia: A Political Officer's Diary, 1!)07-191 4 (I 94 I). Winder, R. Bayley, Saudi Arabia in the Nineteenth Century (New York, I965). Wingate, Ronald, Not in the Limelight (I959). Woodruff, Phillip, The Men who Ruled India: The Guardians ( I954l· Young, H., The Independent Arab (I933).

Articles

Ajjaj, Ali, 'Social Development of the Pirate Coast', Middle East Forum, Summer I 962. Anthony, John Duke, 'The Union of Arab Emirates', Middle East Journal, XXVI (I 972). Belgrave, Sir Charles Dalyrymple, 'Pearl Diving in Bahrain', Journal rif the Royal Central Asian Society, XXI (I 934). Belgrave, Sir Charles Dalyrymple, 'Persian Gulf-Past and Present', Journal rif the Royal Central Asian Society, LV (I 968). Bentley, G. W., 'The Development of the Air Route in the Persian Gulf' Journal rif the Royal Central Asian Society, xx ( 1 933). Bcrreby, Jean-Jacques, 'Progres et evolution des principautes arabes du Golfe pcrsique', Orient, no. 25 (I963). Bibliography

Bidwell, Robin, 'A British Official Guide to the Gulf', Geographical Journal, CXXXVIII (I 972). Boustead, J. E. H., 'Abu Dhabi, I76I-I963', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, L (I 963). Bowen, Richard Le B., Jr, 'Marine Industries of Eastern Arabia', Geographical Review, xu (I 95 I). Bowen, Richard Le B., J r, 'Pearl Fisheries of the Persian Gulf', Middle East Journal, v (I 95 I). Burchall, Colonel H. D. S. 0., 'The Political Aspect of Commercial Air Routes', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, xx (I933). Caskel, Werner, 'The Bedouinization of Arabia', in Studies in Islamic Cultural History, ed. G. E. von Grunebaum (American Anthropologi• cal Association, Apr I 954). Codrai, Ronald, 'Desert Sheikhdoms of Arabia's Pirate Coast', National Geographical Magazine, July I956. Cox, Sir Percy Z., 'Some Gulf Memories', Times of India Annual, 1928. Cox, Sir Percy, Z., 'Some Excursions in Oman', Geographical Journal, LXVI (I925). Cunningham, A., 'The Wrong Horse~A Study of Anglo-Turkish Relations before the First World War' ( St Antony's Papers, no. I7), Middle Eastern Affairs, no. 4 (I965). Dalyell of the Binns, Lieutenant-Colonel G., 'The Persian Gulf', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, xxv (I938). Dame, L. P., 'From Bahrein to Taif: A Missionary Journey Across Arabia', Muslim World, xxm (I933). Dostal, Walter, 'The Shilflfr.t of Northern Oman: A Contribution to Cultural Ecology', Geographical Journal, CXXXVIII (I 972). Eccles, Captain G. J., 'The Sultanate of Muscat and Oman', Journal of the Central Asian Society, XIV (I927). Falcon, N. L., 'The Musandam (Northern Oman) Expedition I97I-I972 ', Geographical Journal, cxxxix (I973l· Gaury, Gerald de, 'The End of Arabian Isolation', Foreign Affairs, XXV (I946). Harrison, P. W., 'Economic and Social Conditions in East Arabia', Muslim World, XIV (I924). Harrison, P. W., and Storm, W. H., 'The Arabs of Oman', Muslim World, XXIV (I934). Haworth, Colonel Sir Lionel, 'Persia and the Persian Gulf', Journal of the Central Asian Society, XVI (I 929). Hay, Sir Rupert, 'The Impact of the Oil Industry on the Persian Gulf Sheikhdoms', Middle East Journal, IX (I955). Hay, Sir Rupert, 'The Persian Gulf States and their Boundary Problems', Geographical Journal, cxx (I954). The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

Hay, Sir Rupert, 'Great Britain's Relations with Yemen and Oman', Middle Eastern Affairs, XI (I96o). Heard-Bey, Frauke, 'The Gulf States and Oman in Transition', Asian Affairs, ux (n.s., III) (I972). Hogarth, D. G., 'Wahhabism and British Interests', Journal qf the British Institute qf International Affairs, IV (I925). Hoskins, H. L., 'Background of the British Position in Arabia', Middle East Journal, I ( I 94 7) . 'The Iraq-N ajd Frontier', Journal qf the Central Asian Sociery, xvn (I930). Jong, Garett de, 'Slavery in Arabia', Muslin World, XXXIII (I934). Kelfy, J B., 'The Persian Claim to Bahrain', International Affairs, XXXIII (I957). Kelly, J. B., 'Legal and Historic Basis of the British Position in the Persian Gulf', St Antony's Papers, no. 4 (I958). Kelly, J. B., 'The Persian Claim to Bahrain', International Affairs, xxxiii (I957l· Khadduri, Majid, 'Iran's Claim to Sovereignty of Bahrain', American Journal of International Law (I 95 I ) . Kumar, Ravinder, 'The Dismemberment of Oman and British Policy towards the Persian Gulf', Islamic Culture, XXXVI (I 962). Lees, G. M., 'The Physical Geography of Southern Arabia', Geographi• cal Journal, LXXI (I 928). Liebesny, Herbert J., 'Administration and Legal Development in Arabia: the Persian Gulf Principalities', Middle East Journal, x ( I956). Liebesny, Herbert J., 'British Jurisdiction in the States of the Persian Gulf', Middle East Journal, III (I949). Liebesny, Herbert J., 'The International Relations of Arabia: The Dependent Areas', Middle East Journal, I (I 94 7). Lindt, Dr A. R., 'Politics in the Persian Gulf', Journal qf the Royal Central Asian Sociery, XXVI (I 939). Lockhart, L., 'Outline of the History of Kuwait', Journal qf the Royal Central Asian Sociery, XXXIV ( I94 7). Mackie, J. B., 'Hasa: An Arabian Oasis', Geographical journal, LXIII ( I924). Mahan, A. T., 'The Persian Gulf and International Relations', National Review, XL ( I902) . Mallakh, Ragei El, 'The Challenge of Affiuence: Abu Dhabi', Middle East Journal, XXIV (I97o). MicKitterick, T. E. M., 'Politics and Economics in the Middle East', Political Q.uarter!J, XXVI, no. I Qan I955). Melamid, Alexander, 'Boundaries and Petroleum Developments m Saudi Arabia', Geographical Review, XLVIII (I957). Bibliography 269

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UNPUBLISHED MATERIAL

Talley, Robert E. L., 'Dubai, Past, Present and Future', 2 vols, master's dissertation, American University of Beirut, I967. Index

'Abd al-'Aziz al-Qusaybi, 76 'Abdallah bin Sa'id, 39-40, 42 'Abd al-'Aziz bin Humayd, 48 'Abdallah ibn Jaluwi, see Ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz (of Ajman), 48 Jaluwi 'Abd al-Rahman bin Ahmad, 4I Abu Dhabi, xiii, 4, 8-II, I2, 57, 'Abd al-Rahman bin 'I sa, I 70 66-7, I76, I8I, I9o-5 'Abd al-Rahman bin air-route, I03-4, Io6 Muhammad, 46-8, 6o-s, and federation, I94-S 67, 99, I45, I63-5, I69-7I, boundaries, I I3, I I4, I49, I83 I9o-3 'Abd al-Rahman bin Salih, 59, Dafrah and Buraimi, 13o-5, 6o 18I-4, 192-3 'Abd al-Rahman bin Sayf, 48, dynastic struggles, 34--9, 42-5 70, 94, I45, I63-5, I68 oil concessions, I08--23, 'Abd al-Razzaq, I2I, I56, I58, I37-40, I77, 190, 193 r66, I72 ruling family, 24I 'Abdallah al-Qusaybi, 44 slave trade, I2I-3, 177, 178--g 'Abdallah bin Ahmad, 47, 48--g, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd 58, 7o, I45 (ADMA), 193 'Abdallah bin 'Ali bin Abu Musa, 15, 5o-I, 8o, 8r, go, Huwayydin, 48, 144-5 125-30, I95-6 'Abdallah bin Faris, I83, r84 Ahmad al-Salf, r8I 'Abdallah bin Nasir, 42 Ahmad bin 'Abdallah, 38 'Abdallah bin Qasim, 26, 44, Ahmad bin Darwish, 48--g 77-8, I IO, I 35-6 Ahmad bin Hilal, 43, 84, 131, 'Abdallah bin Rashid, 38, 39-41 141, 149 The Origins cif the United Arab Emirates

Ahmad bin Ibrahim, 42 Anglo-Turkish Conventions Ahmad bin Khalaf bin 'U taybah, (I9I3-I4), I35, I36 I25, I4I Arms traffic, I 54-5 Ahmad bin Rashid, 38, I 05, I 76, 'Awamir, 54, 64, 82-6, I 32 I89 Ahmad bin 'Ubayd bin Jum'ah, badu, 4-5 88--g Bahrain, xvii, 29, 65, 76, 8o, 8I, Air-route, xiv-xv, 22, 24, 25, 30, I94-5 67,92-106, I74 air-route, 92-3 Ajab Khan, I I5 and Britain, 2o--I, 22-7 Ajman I5, 58, 6I-5, I45, I8I, and federation, I94-5 I89 gunboat diplomacy, I 63 bombardment, 6I-5, I63 Iranian claim, I30, I94-5 dynastic struggles, 34-5, 37, 46 oil, 30, I 08, 109, I I I oil concessions, 108--I 3, I 23-4 Bahrain Petroleum Company, 30 ruling family, 238 Ballantyne, I I 4 Al-'Ali, I5, I6, 39-42, 242 Bani Qitab, q, 39-40, 83-5, Al-bu-Falah, 9, I o, 36, I 33, 24I I3I, I44-8, I84, I86--7 Al-bu-Falasah, 9, I2, 36--7, 52, influence in Sharjah, I44-8, 54, I5I-6I' 240 I84 Al-bu-Hamir, 9 Bani Shikr, 9 Al-bu-Khurayban, I 5, 238 Bani Yas, xii-xiii, 9, I I, I2, I4, Al-bu-Mundhir, IO 36, 45, 49, 52' 77' 82-6, 87' Al-bu-Rahmah, I o 88 Al-bu-Shamis, 46, 6I-5, 82--6, Barrett, C. C.]., 29, 93-4, I49, I8I I26-8 Al-bu-Sha'r, Io, 44-5 Barut, I 86--7 'Ali bin 'Abdallah, 38 Biscoe, H., 29, 94-6, 97, Ioo, 172 'Ali bin Rashid, 42 Blue Line, I35-6, I92 Al-Murral, 84 Boustead, J. E. H., I90 Al-, I 5 Brandon, Commander, 6o--I, Al-Sultan, 9 I64-5 American interests, 3 I, I 09, I I2, Britain I I4-I5, I I 7, I35, I 75 air-route, 92-106 Anglo-American Corporation of and Iran, 79-8I, I 25-30 South Africa Ltd, I IO and Saudi Arabia, 73-9, Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, I3Q-40 109, I93 oil concessions, I 07-24 Anglo-Persian Oil Company treaties with Arab rulers, (APOC), I9, 79, 108--10, xi-xii, 2, 3, I3, 25-7, I I I , I35-6; see also Anglo• 66--7, 89, I96 Iranian Oil Company British Anglo-Persian Treaty (I9I9), 20, administration, 22-33 79, 8o policy, I 7-22, I42, I54-5, Anglo-Persian Treaty (I928), 96 I62-79 Index 273

representatives, 27-33, I62-79, Hyacinth incident, 2-3, 27, 29, I9o, 243-50 32 British Petroleum, I93, I96 oil concessions, I08-I6, I55, Bullard, Sir R., I37, I92 I93 Buraimi, xiii, 2, 4, IO, I3o--5, reform movement, I5o--6I, I38-4o, 149, I78, I8I, I82, I78, I8I, I83 I92-3 Dubai Marine Areas Ltd, I93 Butti bin Suhayl, 2-3, 52 ', 82-6, I36 Eastern and General Syndicate, California Arabian Standard Oil I IO Company (Casoc), I 14-I5, Exclusive Agreement (I892), xii, I38 2, 3, I7, 89 Caroe, Olaf, I87 Clauson, I43 Fa'iyah, 144-8 Cole, Captain G. A., I04 Fakkan, I4, IS, I88 Committee of Imperial Defence Fowle, Lieutenant-Colonel Sir T. (CID), I40 C. W., 28-3I, IOI-5, 142-g, Compagnie Franc;:aise des I62, I67, I82, I86-g Petroles, I93 career, I 73-9 Cox, Sir P., I7, 27, 28, 52, 74, Dubai reform, I52-8 76, 78, I 25, I 39, I 73 oil concessions, I o8-23, I 35-6 Crabbe, Captain L. E., 98-g Fu'ad Hamzah, I36 Curzon, Lord, I7, I8, 22, 69, Fu'ad Line, see Red Line Agree• 89, I75 ment Fujairah, 14, I 5, 55, 67-7 I, I 02, I47, I65-6, I87-g, 239 Dafrah, xiii, I32-3, I92 Daly, C. K., I7I Gazetteer if the Persian Gulf, Oman Dame, Dr, 3I and Central Arabia 0. G. D'Arcy Exploration Company, Lorimer), xiv I09--Io, I I I-I2, I4I, General Treaty of Peace (I 820), I93 xi-xii, I3, 89 Dawahir, xiii, 43, I 3I-2 Ghafiriyyah, xii, 77, I3I Dawasir, 76 Ghanadah, I9I Dhayd, 2, 4, I5, I44 Gibson,]. P., I22-3 Dhiyab bin Sayr, 43, 44 Green Line, I 36-7 Dibba, I4, I5, I47, I87-g Gulf Oil Corporation, I I o Dickson, R. P., IOo--2, I6g, I72 diyah, 6 hadar, 4 Dubai, xiii, 4, 9, I I-I3, 29, Hafit, I49 56-67, 87, I54-5, I69, I8I, Haj Yusuf bin 'Abdallah, 48 I83 Hamad bin 'Abdallah, 68-7 I, air-route, 97, I05-6 I36, I65-6, I88 and federation, I94-5 Hamad bin Ahmad al-Yahyayyi, boundaries, I4I, I48, I9o--2 83, I3I 274 The Origins rif the United Arab Emirates

Hamad bin Faysal, 69, I 32 Ibn Sa·ud, xiv, I9, 20-I, 24, Hamad bin Ibrahim, 4o-- I, 70, 25, 3I, 43, 44, 73----9, 8I-7, 84, I44-5 IIO, J7I, I8I, I84-5 Hamad bin 'lsa, 20, 76 and oil concessions, I I o, I I 4, Hamad bin Majid, 50 I I5 Hamad bin Muhammad, I88 claims in Trucial States, Hamad bin Sa 'id, I 86-8 I 25--40 Hamasah, I8I-2 Ibrahim bin Ahmad, 39-40, 63 Hamdan bin Zayid, 42-3, 82-3, Ibrahim bin Sultan, 49-50 87 Ibrahim bin 'Uthman, I49, I92 Hamriyyah, bombardment, I63 Ikhwan, 73, 75, 76, 77-8 Hasa, 25, 26, 82 Imperial Airways Ltd, 96-8, Hashar bin Maktum, I 2 I OG- I , 103, I 04-6 Hashar bin Rashid, I2, 53 India, British government of, and Dubai reform, I52-3, I55, and administration of Trucial I6o, I6I States, xv-xvi, 23-5, 3o-3, Hashemite dynasty, 74 8o, I40, 175, I8o Hawamil, 9 air-route, I 02-3 Haworth, Sir L., 44, 54, 66-7 oil concessions, I09--·IO, Hazza' bin Sultan, 43, 45, 87 II2-I4, II7-I8 Henjam, 88-9 Indian merchants, 3, 5, 7-8, I I, Hickinbotham, T., I02, I03, I37 54, 6o, I69 Hinawiyyah, xii, 77 Iran, I9-20, 2I, 72-3, 79-8I, Hirah, 6I-5, I83 88----9I, I25-30 Holmes, Frank, 76, 78, I IO, I I I, air-route, 92-3, 96, 98 I I5-I7, I 55 British influence, 79-80 Horner, Stuart, 62-3 claims to Abu Musa and Tunb, Howes, I39 I 25-30, I94-6 Humayd bin 'Abd al-'Aziz, 46-8, claim to Bahrain, I30, I94-5 6I-5, I63-5, I7I provinces, 79-80 Humayd bin 'Abd al-Rahman, Iraq, 24, 25, 75, I96 I64 Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), Humayd bin 'Abdallah, 49-50 I09-IO, III, II2, I36 Humayd bin 'Ali bin Humayd, 'I sa (of Bahrain), 20, 76 I83 'I sa bin 'Abd al-Latif, 28, 4o-I, Humayd bin Butti, 44 46-8, 62--4, I32, I52, I6o, Husayn bin Hasan 'lmad, I52, I64-5, I67, I85 I56, I72 air-route, 92--6, 97-8, 99 Hussah hint Murr, 52-3, I53 career, I67-72 Hyacinth incident (I9Io), 2-3, 27, 'I sa bin Salih, 85--6, I 3I, I 33 29, 32

Ibn Jaluwi, 'Abdallah, 44, 63, Jabal Fa'iyah, see Fa'iyah 73, 77, 82, 84-6, 87, I32-3 Jabal Hafit, see Hafit Ibn Rashid, 74 Johnston, Sir F. W., 29, 4I Index 275

Jum'ah bin Maktum, 155, 157, Loch, Colonel P. G., 31, 115, 160 I 17, 152, 177 Longrigg, S., 113-14, I 19, 12o-4, Kalba, xiv-xv, xvi, 14, 15, 45, '43, 147 Lorimer, J. G., xiv, 10, 11, g6, 49, 55, 67, 68, 6g-7I, 147, 5~7 184, 18~9 air-route, 101-3, 106 Mackay, Captain K., 172 oil concessions, 1 I g-20 Maharibah, 9 power struggle ( 1839), I 8~8 Maktum bin Butti, 12 ruling family, 237 Maktum bin Hashar, I 2 Khalaf 'Ali al-Zamani, 154-5 Maktum bin Rashid, I s6 Khalid bin Ahmad, 41, 45, 6g, Manasir, xiii, g-Io, 11,44-5, I 68, I 7 I, I 86-8 48--9, 52, 82-6, I 32-4 Regent of Kalba, 45, 49, Mani' bin Rashid, 12, 53-4, 66, 'Ig-2o, '44-s, '47, ,8~8 67, 97, 151-3, 158-g, !61 Shaykh ofSharjah, 41, 45, 51, Masterton-Smith Committee, 23 58, 61, 63-4, 183 Maziri', g, 82-3 Khalid bin Muhammad, 49, 195, Medical Officer on the Trucial 196 Coast, 31--2 Khalid bin Saqr, so--I Military Report and Route Book: Khalid bin Sultan, 43-5, 49 The Arabian States of the Khalifah (ofQatar), 78 Persian Gulf, 181 . Khalifah bin Zayid, 42, 123, 184 Mubarak bin Sabah Al-Sabah, 20 Khawatir, 144, 145 Muhammad al-Sahli al-'Ayf, I 33 Khawr Fakkan, see Fakkan Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Khawr Ghanadah, see Ghanadah Dalmuk, 54, I 55 Khawr Kalba, see Kalba Muhammad bin 'Ali bin Khaz'al (of Muhammarah), 79 Huwayydin, 39, 145, 147, Knox, Colonel S. G., 58 '57, !84, !86-7 Kumazara, 59 Muhammad bin Hamad, 188 Kuwait, 21, 2~7, 65, 75, 81 Muhammad bin Mansur, 132 gunboat diplomacy, 163 Muhammad bin Rahmah, 63, oil concessions, 1 1o, 118, I 94 I 3 I , I 49, I 8 I Wahhabi influence, 7~7 Muhammad bin Salih, 6o Kuwait Oil Company, I 10 Muhammad bin Salim, 50, 92-6 Muhammad bin Saqr, 48-9, gg, Laithwaite,J. G., 175-6 '45 Lansdowne, Lord, 18-1g Muhammad bin Sultan Latifah bint Hamdan, 16o-I al-Hammud, 131-2, 133-4, Lenahan, W., 115 '44, 149, I8I Lermitte, B., I 17, I21 Muhammad bin Zayid, 43 Lingah, 12, 29, 8o Muhammad Ghubash, 185 Little Tunb, see Tunb Islands Muscat, 2I, 82 Liwa, 2 air-route, 92-3 The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

boundaries, II2-I3, II4, I33, Qatar, 26, 30, 3 I, 77-8, I 36, I88, I92-3 I94 British control, 2 I and federation, I94-5 gunboat diplomacy, I63 boundary issue, I 36-7 gunboat diplomacy, I63 Na'im, xiii, I5, 46, 7I, I3I-5, oil concession, I I o-I 8, I 35-6 I49, I8I Qawasim, xii-xiii, 8--9, I2, I3-I4, 36, 37, 45-52, 59, 68-7I, Oil, xv, Ig, 25, 30, 3I, 67, 77, 144, I83-·4, 237 I93-4 Qubaysat, g I4I-9, and boundary issues, Qumzan, g Ig2-3 concessions, 22, 26-7, 30, 52, I 07-24, I 55, I 93 Rais Muhammad Rasul, I 54-5 Oman, I' 32, 59-6I' 82-6 Ras al-Khaimah, xiii, 15, 49-52, Ottoman Empire, I7-I8, Ig, 57--67, 8o-I, 144, 169-70, 2 5-6, 73 q6, I84-7, I95, Ig6 101-3, 106 Parry, Captain, 63-4 air-route, 93-7, gg, I95, Ig6 Pearl trade, 7-8, I I- I 2, 38, and federation, oil concessions, I08-Ig, I66-7, 55-6, 180-1 Pearson, Captain, 47 I85 ruling family, 46, 23I Peel, R. T., r 23 Pelly, Colonel L., 50 secession, 45-6, 48 Perpetual Maritime Truce Rashid bin Ahmad, 39, 58, 63 Rashid bin Ahmad al-Qasimi, (I853), xii, I4 Petroleum Concessions Ltd, I 88--g Rashid bin Hamad, I49, I8I I I0-24, I38-9, I42-9, Rashid bin Humayd, 64-5, I 32, I77·8, I85, I93 Petroleum Development Ltd, 52, 184, 189 Rashid bin Maktum, I 2 I66-7 Rashid bin Mani', 83, 84 Petroleum Development Trucial Rashid bin Muhammad, I44 Coast (PDTC), Ig3 Political Agent in Bahrain, 23, Rashid bin Sa 'id, I 56, I 6o-I ' I83 30, 3 I' J46-7 (Ig28), Political Agent in Dubai, 30 Red Line Agreement Political Agent in Kuwait, 23 IOg, I I I, I36, I92 Political Agent in Muscat, 23, Red oxide concessions, 50-1' I 29 Rendel, G., I I3, 137 32, 249 Political Resident, 5, I 7-20, Residency Agent in Sharjah, 23, . 23--5, 27-8, Igo, 243--4 28-30, Igo, 248--9 Pndeaux, Colonel F. B., 62-3, Rihani, Ameen, 77 I65-6 Riza Shah, xiv, rg-20, 88, 93 Rumaythat, g Qanaysat, g Ryan (Riyadh) Line, I36-7, Qasal, g I92 Index 277

Sa'id bin Ahmad, 39-40 air-route, 103-4 Sa'id bin Butti, 53, 83, 85, 86, boundaries, 141, 149, 191 151-3 Dafrah and Buraimi, 131-5, Sa'id bin Hamad, 69-71, IOI-3, !81-3, 184 !86 oil concessions, 1 1o, 1 1 1, 1 16, Sa'id bin Maktum, 48, 52-4, I 18, 12o--3, J77, 193 6o, 63-7, 85-7, 88, 91, 97, Sharjah, xiii, 4, 13-15, 56-67, 165, 169, 174, 183, 184 8o--1, 144-8,169, 17o--2, air-route, 97, I 04, 105-6 I 77, 181, 183-4, 188 and reform, ISI-61, 178 air-route, 30, 97--106 boundaries, 141, 145, 148, and federation, 195-6 191-2 Bani Qitab in, 144-8, 184 Buraimi, 133-4 dynastic struggles, 34-g, 45-g oil concessions, 1 1o, 1 14, ruling family, 237 I I 5-17 Sharqiyyin, 239 Sa'id bin Taymur, 69, 188 Shawamis, 15 Salamah bint Butti, 45 Shi'ah, 76 Salih bin Muhammad, 61, 70, Shihuh, 59-61, 68-g, 97 71, 96 Shimayliyyah, 1, 4, 68-g, 188 Salim bin Duyayn, 144 Sir Bani Y as, 11, 103-4, I 76, 177 Salim bin Salih, 6o Sirri, So, 126 Salim bin Sultan, 14, 45, 49-50 Skliros, J. S., 1 12 San'a hint Rashid, 161 Slave trade, 8, IOI, 121-3, 154-5, Saqr bin Khalid, 14, 45, 48, 50, I 65-6, I 68, J77, J78, I 79 68, 144 Somali murder case, 57-8 Saqr bin Muhammad, 52, 195-6 Standard Oil Company of Saqr bin Sultan, 49, 127, 144, California (Socal), 31, 108, 195-6 109-10, I 14, 135-6, 138 Saqr bin Sultan al-Hammud, Stewart, Sir Findlater, 143 I 3 I -2, I 49, I 8 I Storm, Dr, 31 Saqr bin Zayid, 43-4, 66, 83, Su'ayyid, 84--5, 132 84, 8s, 87 Suhayl bin Butti, 53, 85 Saudi Arabia, 19, 25, 31, 67, Sulayman al-Baruni al-Nafusi, 85 72-8, 8!-7, 122-3, 130--40 Sulayman bin Himyar, 86 boundaries, II2-I3, 114, Sultan bin Muhammad, 49, 196 125-40, 192-3 Sultan bin Rashid, 83,131 Dafrah and Buraimi, 13o--4o, Sultan bin Salim, 48, 50-2, 192-3 57-61,63,66, 70, 8o--1, 87, oil concessions, 1o8, 1 1o, 1 14 I 44, I 56-7, I 66, I 69-70, Sayf bin Hamad, 188 184 7, 195 Senior Naval Officer, 32-3 air-route, 92-7, 99, 101-2 Shakhbut bin Sultan, 9, 38, 43-5, and Kalba, 186-7 87, 131-5, 138, 140, 157, and Tunb, So--1, 126--30, 185, J76-7, 181-3, 184, 191, 193, 195-6 194 oil concessions, 108--19, 185 The Origins of the United Arab Emirates

Sultan bin Saqr, 14, 37-8, 41, treaties with Britain, xi-xii, 2, 42, 47-9, 62-9, 87, 129, 3, 13, 25-7, 66-7, 89, 196 134, 144-8, 156-7, 165, 172, see also United Arab Emirates 183-4, 187, 192 Tunb Islands, 8o, 81, 8g-9o, air-route, g6, 97-103, 105 125-30, 194-5 oil concessions, 1 18 Sultan bin Zayid, 83-6, 87, 132 'Udayd bin Sa'id, 12 Superior Oil Company, 193 Umm al-Qaiwain, 15-16, 57-8, Symon, A. C. B., 146 q8, 181, 186 air-route, 105, 176 dynastic struggles, 34-42 Tahnun bin Zayid, 42 oil concessions, I o8, I I 1, I 12, Taimurtash, 126-7 I23-4 Texas Company (now Texaco), ruling family, 242 I 14 'Uqayr, Conference of (1922), Thomas, B., 59, 6g-7o, 71, 77, 76, 78, 125 131-2 United Arab Emirates, xi-xviii, Treaty of Jeddah (1927), 25, 74 1-2, 1go--8 Trevor, Colonel A. P., 40-1, 51, 6!-2, 78, !64 Wahhabi, 73-9, 81--gi, 132 Trucial Oman Levies, 191, 192 Warren Fisher Report, 24-5 Trucial States Weightman, H., 22, 38--g, ws-6, air-route, xiv-xv, 22, 24, 25, 121-3, 147> 154, IS8, I6I, 30, 67, 92-106, I 74 177-8 boundary disputes, 1 12-1 3, Williamson, Hajji Abdallah, 109, I 14, 135-40, J4I-g, 188, I I I , I IS-I 7, I I 8 192-3 Wingate, Sir R., I73 British representatives, 27-33, Wonckhaus, 129 162-79, 190, 243-50 Indian population, 3, 5, 7-8, Yemen, 75 I I, 54, 60, 169 Yusuf Kanu, 62 oil, xv, 19, 22, 25, 26--7, 30, YusufYasin, I92 52, 67, 107-24, 141-9, ISS, 192-4 zakat, 6 pearling industry, 7--8, 11-12, Zayid bin Khalifah, xiii, 8--g, 38, ss-6, 18o-1 10, 38,42, 43 , 45, 56,82, political and social fabric, 55-7 I I3I, 144, 197 slave trade, 8, IOI, 121-3, Zayid bin Sultan, 183, lgi-2, I 54-5, I 65-6, I 77, I 78-9 194, 195