Fire today ManagemeVolume 76 • No. 1 • 2018nt
Fire Impacts on Water Quality Smoke Science Plan Ordering on a Fire and more …
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Fire Management today Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018
On the Cover: Contents Anchor Point Coping With Change...... 4 Shawna Legarza
Learning To Live With Fire...... 6 Thomas L. Tidwell
Water Quality Impacts of Wildland Fires...... 9 Aregai Tecle and Daniel Neary
Joint Fire Science Program Smoke Science Plan, 2010–2016: Results and Impacts...... 16 Allen Riebau, Douglas Fox, and Cindy Huber
Ordering on a Fire: Getting What You Need...... 25 Firefighters on the 2017 Thomas Fire on the Los Padres National Forest Ed Delaney near Ventura, CA. The Thomas Fire was the largest wildfire in California history. Photo: Los Padres National Saving Lives, Property, and Tax Dollars in Nebraska...... 27 Forest, Forest Service. Deloris Pittman
Minnesota Programs Benefit Rural Fire Departments...... 28 Christi Powers
Assessing Fire Management Needs in the Pacific Islands: A Collaborative Approach...... 30 The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Clay Trauernicht, Elizabeth Pickett, Pablo Beimler, Christian P. Giardina, Management Staff has adopted a logo Susan Cordell, J.B. Friday, Eric Moller, and Creighton M. Litton reflecting three central principles of wildland fire management: • Innovation: We will respect and value Fire Control and the 2015 Canyon Creek Complex Fire...... 36 thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of Hutch Brown those that challenge the status quo while focusing on the greater good. • Execution: We will do what we say we The Role of Trust in Homeowner Firewise Actions...... 42 will do. Achieving program objectives, Josh McDaniel improving diversity, and accomplishing targets are essential to our credibility. • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. 50th Meeting of the Northeast Forest Fire Supervisors...... 44 Fiscal, managerial, and operational Maris G. Gabliks discipline are at the core of our ability to fulfill our mission. Guidelines for Contributors...... 46
Firefighter and public safety is our first priority.
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 3 By Shawna A. Legarza, Psy.D. Anchor Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point USDA Forest Service
Coping With Change*
ver the past decade, we also our employees overwhelmed that can become highly stressful have wanted and seen both by the stress and implications of and profoundly unhealthy. You Oorganizational and system- change. Employees who become can become addicted to the risk atic changes in the wildland fire overwhelmed have difficulty of change and the speed of the community. Change is constant managing stress and, thus, emergency without truly knowing and transformation takes time, lessen the connections with their the long-term physiological and yet even the most experienced fire coworkers and families. psychological effects. managers may feel overwhelmed, confused, and uncertain—both In the competitive subculture of within themselves and with regard Is it plausible to relax firefighting, we often forget to to the decisions of fire management take care of ourselves and others agencies. Although we continue and communicate in because we, too, have become to work diligently to keep up with moments of uncertainty obsessed with trying to understand changes and obtain good results, we and keep up with all the changes often feel our lives spinning out of and confusion? that make us uneasy—and control; and, thus, the cycle contin- sometimes outright unmanageable. ues. It seems we have less and less During this negative reinforcing free time to communicate effective- So we must ask: How do we become loop, communication and personal ly with our families and take care receptive to the effects that change reflection become even more of our inner selves. Where have our has upon ourselves as well as our important. Personal reflection will fundamental priorities gone? coworkers, subordinates, and allow you to evaluate yourself. families? Is it plausible to relax As we balance our fate and ideology and communicate in moments of In time, you might find a as wildland firefighters, we need to uncertainty and confusion? relationship between your inner allow time for personal reflection self and the observed chaos in the and remember our fundamental Historically, it is clear that change outside world. By understanding priorities. I believe we need to be can raise doubts about personal this inner reflection, it can the leaders of organizational and beliefs and the existing order. become easier to embrace change systematic change; we need to Statistical comparisons show that and differentiate between the continue to develop the wildland the inability to deal with change fundamental variables defining your firefighting culture within our closely correlates to a negative personal and professional life styles. doctrine in order to take better subliminal behavior exhibited Take time to slow down. care of ourselves, our families, and briefly during times of undue stress. our employees. With that said, understanding the Individual Leadership process and the effects of change is Traits The Ultimate Challenge a challenge for any leader. During your career, the connection between I believe we all have unique While enduring political, global, challenges in your personal life leadership traits in our internal and ecological challenges and the and organizational changes in toolbox. The traits in your toolbox structured flows of technology, we your professional career can evolve will allow you to manage the often find not only ourselves but into a complex web of confusion transformation of change on an
* The article is adapted from the summer 2009 issue of Fire Management Today (volume 69(3), pp. 13–14). Fire Management Today 4 You may become addicted to the risk of change Embracing Change and the speed of the emergency, while not As leaders in the wildland fire community, we need to continue truly knowing the long-term physiological and to embrace change while educating psychological effects. our employees about taking effective care of themselves (self- leadership) and their employees individual basis. Some people is contemplating your own (leadership). I believe the essence of may add various skills to their experiences with trials and leadership is leading your passion toolbox and use them to their tribulations. During some within through the challenges in utmost, others just a little or not leadership opportunities in the life. To honestly believe what is true at all. It is your choice to accept past, you might have used trial to you is the most reflective self- and understand change, just as and error to learn lessons for next leadership discipline. it is your choice to be a leader, a time. If you make substantial follower, or a leader of leaders. changes within yourself following Dig deep to find your answers. your mistakes, you can learn to Remember, the most consistent Individuals have different communicate more effectively event in your life will be the leadership traits, supported by about your feelings. You can challenge of coping with change. different types of incremental express your feelings about change With the global challenges change; and with all levels of to yourself, your coworkers, and we are now facing, we need leadership come individual your family, thereby reducing to continuously embrace the challenges and complexities. We the stress-related effects of transformation of change by must continue to lead within sensemaking—the ability to see being adaptive and creative during times of uncertainty, things how they are and to be in both our personal and our to communicate honestly with open to other frameworks during professional lives. We will all ourselves and with others, and times of change, and the ability learn from those who remember to find peace within and on the to find your passion and connect the fundamental priorities and outside. Knowing how to effectively your passion with leadership. To embrace the transformation of lead yourself during times of understand and communicate change within themselves and change is difficult for even the most effectively within yourself is self- their organizations. ■ gifted individuals. leadership; to understand yourself is to understand life. All the while, The principal difficulty in understanding the success of your evaluating your own success life is to understand the variables of incremental change over time.
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 5 Learning To Live With Fire
Thomas L. Tidwell
None of this is true. The issue is private lands each year—and national in scope. As Americans, in some years far less. It was we are all in this together. We need only about 18 percent in 2010, to learn to live with fire. for example, and only about 14 percent in 2004. On average each year, only 1 in 10 wildfires breaks out on the So why does the myth persist that National Forest System (NICC most fires happen on the national 2017), even though the national forests and grasslands? Perhaps forests and grasslands protect because Smokey Bear is a Forest almost 20 percent of the Nation’s Service symbol—and perhaps forest lands. Most wildfires, about because the media often feature 7 in 10, happen on State and Forest Service firefighters and private lands. aircraft during fire season. Such imagery might create the mistaken impression that wildfires typically happen on Federal lands. ach year, the wildfire season Most wildfires, about 7 in the Western United in 10, happen on In reality, the vast majority of EStates brings headlines and State and private lands. wildfires break out on State and news reports, mostly factual but private land, and the first responders sometimes misleading. This year is are therefore typically local no different, a case in point being firefighters. Rural volunteer fire “Let Forest Fires Burn? What the The area burned on Federal and departments deserve tremendous Black-Backed Woodpecker Knows” Tribal lands is larger—about 59 recognition—much more than they (Gillis 2017). percent of the total area burned— get. So do the State and Federal but that only stands to reason. partnership programs that supply Stories like this feed widespread Many wildfires on Federal lands them with the equipment they misperceptions in the United are remote and hard to reach. need to be as effective as they are in States: that most wildfires burn Moreover, the Federal and Tribal defending homes and communities on the national forests and agencies manage many wildfires from wildfire. grasslands; that the Forest Service in remote areas for resource does most of the firefighting, benefits, including habitat for In fact, the entire wildland fire suppressing every fire it can; fire-dependent species such as community works together to and that the Forest Service is the black-backed woodpecker. manage wildland fire through responsible for most of the effects, Recognizing the natural role of the National Cohesive Wildland including homes lost and wildlife wildland fire, land managers want Fire Management Strategy, habitat destroyed. certain areas to burn. completed in 2014. Under the strategy, a major goal is to return Still, the area burned on the the natural role of fire to fire- Tom Tidwell was Chief of the Forest Service national forests and grasslands adapted landscapes in order to from 2009 to 2017, Washington Office, averages only about 53 percent restore healthy, resilient forest Washington, DC. of the area burned on State and and grassland ecosystems. Where Fire Management Today 6 Federal land managers can safely Where Federal land managers can safely use fire, use fire, they do—for example, in many national parks and they do—for example, in many national parks and wilderness areas. wilderness areas.
Unfortunately, letting natural fires burn, even under carefully expanding homes and communities all housing units in the United controlled conditions, is often too into the wildland–urban interface States, and many WUI areas are dangerous. For the past 50 years (WUI). The WUI now has about 44 seasonally prone to wildland fire. or more, Americans in search of million homes (Martinuzzi and Not surprisingly, the expansion of natural amenities (clean air, scenic others 2015), about one-third of the WUI in the last 50 years closely beauty, and the like) have been correlates with the expanding number of homes destroyed by wildfire (ICC 2008; NICC 2017).
The wildland fire community has an obligation to protect lives, homes, and communities from the ravages of wildfire. Accordingly, local, State, Tribal, and Federal land managers work together to suppress wildfires before they can threaten the WUI.
However, scientists have found that the best protection from wildfires is for homeowners to take steps to protect their own properties (Calkin and others 2014; Cohen 2000, 2008, 2010; Schoennagel and others 2016), such as using fireproof building materials and removing fire hazards near their homes. Accordingly, another major goal of the National Cohesive Strategy is to help build fire-adapted human communities. The Forest Service is working with partners through programs like Firewise to help homeowners take responsibility for protecting their own homes and communities from wildfire.
The bottom line is this: Americans are all in this together. Most American landscapes are adapted to fire, having evolved over millions of years with wildland fire; sooner or later, they will Black-backed woodpecker on a conifer. Black-backed woodpeckers require burned forests burn—and they should. Therefore, with standing dead trees for feeding habitat. Photo: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 7 Scientists have found that the best protection Martinuzzi, S.; Stewart, S.I.; Helmers, D.P. [and others]. 2015. The 2010 wildland– from wildfires is for homeowners to take steps to urban interface of the conterminous United States. Res. Map NRS–8. protect their own properties. Newtown Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 124 p. http://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/rmap/ rmap_nrs8.pdf. (August 9, 2017). we need to learn to live with fire. of the fire exclusion paradigm. Forest NICC (National Interagency Coordination The safer America’s homes and History Today. Fall: 20–26. http:// Center). 2017. Intelligence: NICC foresthistory.org/Publications/FHT/ wildland fire annual reports. Boise, communities in the WUI can FHTFall2008/Cohen.pdf. (August 9, ID: National Interagency Fire Center, become from wildfire, the more 2017). Predictive Services. https://www. fire we can return to the land and Cohen, J.D. 2010. The wildland-urban predictiveservices.nifc.gov/intelligence/ the healthier our fire-adapted interface fire problem. Fremontia. intelligence.htm. (August 9, 2017). Reinhardt, E.D.; Keane, R.E.; Calkin, landscapes will become. ■ 38(2)–38(3): 16–22. http://www.fs.fed.us/ rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2010_cohen_j002. D.E.; Cohen, J.D. 2008. Objectives pdf?. (August 9, 2017). and considerations for wildland fuel References Gillis, R. 2017. Let forest fires burn? What treatment in forested ecosystems of the black-backed woodpecker knows. the interior western United States. Calkin, D.E.; Cohen, J.D.; Finney, M.A.; New York Times. August 6; sect. D: 1. Forest Ecology and Management. 256: Thompson, M.P. 2014. How risk https://mobile.nytimes.com/2017/08/06/ 1997–2006. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/ management can prevent future wildfire science/let-forest-fires-burn-what- pubs_other/rmrs_2008_reinhardt_e001. disasters in the wildland-urban interface. the-black-backed-woodpecker-knows. pdf. (August 9, 2017). PNAS. 111(2): 746–751. http://www. html?smid=tw-nytimes&smtyp=cur&re Schoennagel, T.; Morgan, P.; Balch, J. fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2014_ ferer=https://t.co/REXuAkldXW. (August [and others]. 2016. Insights from calkin_d002.pdf?. (August 9, 2017). 9, 2017). wildfire science: a resource for fire Cohen, J.D. 2000. Preventing disaster: ICC (International Code Council). 2008. policy discussions. Bozeman, MT: Home ignitability in the wildland- Blue Ribbon Panel report of wildland Headwaters Economics. 9 p. https:// urban interface. Journal of Forestry. urban interface fire. Washington, headwaterseconomics.org/wildfire/ 98(3): 15–21. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/ DC: International Code Council insights/. (August 9, 2017). pubs_other/rmrs_2000_cohen_j002.pdf?. Headquarters. 40 p. http://www. (August 9, 2017). iawfonline.org/NWUI/BlueRibbonReport- Cohen, J.D. 2008. The wildland-urban Low.pdf. (August 9, 2017). interface fire problem: A consequence
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Fire Management Today 8 Water Quality Impacts of Wildland Fires*
Aregai Tecle and Daniel Neary
n the arid and semiarid General Wildfire Effects Southwestern United States, Large fires have In recent years, the Western United Ithe forest understory vegetation tremendous effects States has seen dramatic increases (mostly grasses, forbs, and in the number and intensity of shrubs) is dry and susceptible to on the characteristics wildfires, causing enormous wildland fires. Fire in the form of water-producing damage to forests, rangelands, of prescribed burning is often and other rural parts of Arizona used to protect these areas from watersheds and the and the Southwest. In 2013 alone, wildfire. However, wildland fire quality of the water for example, five Federal agencies suppression has resulted in dense (the Bureau of Land Management, forest fuels in many watersheds. coming out of them. Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Fish Such fuel buildups, along with and Wildlife Service, National frequently recurring drought and Park Service, and Forest Service) widespread insect infestations, have In addition to causing economic together spent $1,740,934,000 to made forest systems susceptible to losses, these burns have suppress wildfires nationwide (NIFC catastrophic fires that scorch many tremendous effects on the 2014). Such costs, though very of the Nation’s forests, rangelands, characteristics of water-producing large, do not include the monetary parklands, and private properties watersheds and the quality of and material expenditures by other (Safford and others 2008; Lutz and the water coming out of them, Federal, State, and local agencies others 2009; Stein and others 2013). especially the quality of surface and by private entities. State land water. Surface water is the main departments as well as rural and In 2013, lightning started a total of source of water for most domestic, urban community firefighters 9,230 wildfires in the United States, industrial, and commercial water and land managers also spend burning 3,057,566 acres. In the supplies in the United States. substantial amounts to suppress same year, 38,349 human-caused Most surface water results from wildfires at the State and local level. wildfires burned 1,261,980 acres. runoff from precipitation that falls The total area burned by both types as snow or rain on forested and In the last 15 years, three very of fires in 2013 was 4,319,546 acres rangeland watersheds. large fires in Arizona cost the (NIFC 2014). From 2000 to 2011, State greatly in terms of financial, such fires accounted for a total This article discusses the effects environmental, and other valuable of $13.7 billion in total economic of wildland fires on water quality resources. From smallest to largest, losses in the United States, and suggests ways of managing they are the Cave Creek Complex including $7.9 billion in insured fire-prone forested water source Fire, the Rodeo–Chediski Fire, losses (Haldane 2013; IAWF 2013). areas to prevent their degradation and the Wallow Fire. The Cave from wildfires. The article uses Creek Complex in 2005 burned Aregai Tecle is a professor of hydrology in information from three major fires 248,310 acres of public and private the School of Forestry at Northern Arizona property in central Arizona, costing University, Flagstaff, AZ; and Daniel Neary in Arizona to demonstrate the is a supervisory research soil scientist for the effects of wildfires on water quality. $16,471,000 to suppress. The 2002 Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Rodeo–Chediski burned 468,638 Station, Flagstaff, AZ. acres and destroyed 491 structures
* The article appears in a 2015 issue of the Journal of Pollution Effects and Control 3: 140. DOI: 10.4172/2375-4397.1000140. Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 9 in the White Mountains, part of Peak flows in burned areas in the Southwest 7.2 million acres that burned nationwide that year. The Wallow commonly increase in magnitude from 500 to Fire in 2011, the largest fire in 9,600 percent during the summer months. Arizona history, burned 535,039 acres, destroyed 72 buildings, and injured 16 people, mainly on the Factors Affecting Soils additional chemicals come from the Apache–Sitgreaves National Forest. Wildfire not only burns the disturbed and bare ground; others vegetation cover but also destroys are produced from burned plant Such big fires have many damaging material on the forest floor, leaving material. Increases in streamflow effects, some immediate and the ground bare and sometimes also change with time following others delayed. The effects can with hydrophobic soils that slow fire disturbance. In general, be short and/or long term. The infiltration and allow for more and Hibbert (1971) and Hibbert and fires damage or destroy valuable faster surface water movement others (1982) found that first-year resources such as timber, wildlife (DeBano 1981; Morgan and Erickson water yield from various burned and wildlife habitat, understory 1995; Zwolinski 2000; Neary and watersheds in Arizona increased vegetation, soil and soil chemicals, others 2008; Verma and Jayakumar from as little as 12 percent to more historical artifacts, and residential 2012). Soil hydrophobicity than 1,400 percent of normal flow. homes and other structures. The disappears when soil temperatures delayed effects include postfire in areas burned reach 572 °F (300 The effects of fires on storm peak environmental degradation such °C), but temperatures usually flows are highly variable; the as loss of vegetation cover, which remain below this level, leading magnitude and variability of peak leaves the land exposed to impacts to hydrophobicity and subsequent flows depend on factors such as from rainfall, runoff, wind, and increases in flowing water (Dlapa topography, soil and vegetation cover solar radiation. The result is soil and others 2006). Apart from characteristics, fire severity, and hydrophobicity (DeBano and others decreased infiltration and faster precipitation intensity. Peak flows 1998); flooding and soil erosion; surface flow, the other major effect in burned areas in the Southwest and offsite downstream degradation of wildland fires is on water quality. commonly increase in magnitude of streams, lakes, and reservoirs from 500 to 9,600 percent during (Morgan and Rickson 1995; Veenhuis Factors Affecting Waterflows the summer months (table 1), when 2002). A good understanding of intense monsoonal thunderstorms these possibilities is important for The factors that affect postfire are the norm in the area. For developing appropriate forest and water quality are complex and vary example, the Salt River peak flow other landscape management to significantly from place to place, rose by 4,000 percent in the year minimize the effects of wildland fires depending on effective precipitation; following the Rodeo–Chediski and on water quality. soil and vegetation cover Wallow Fires. The increases can characteristics; and the geologic, even be higher, as table 1 shows for topographic, and fire severity Fire Effects on Water a burned chaparral watershed, with conditions in the area (Robichaud peak flow increasing by as much as Quality and Flooding and others 2000). The water quality 45,000 percent. Such results indicate With respect to wildfires, the main concerns may be grouped into the need for careful management concerns for hydrologists and water physical- and chemical-related of southwestern watersheds to resource managers are fire effects problems. The physical water quality minimize the occurrence of severe on water quality and peak flow. The and associated problems that follow wildfires that disrupt the normal hydrologic influence of vegetation wildland fires include erosion and quality and quantity of water flowing cover ranges from intercepting sediment yield, turbidity, flooding, from forested areas. precipitation and reducing the and increased water temperature. The chemical water quality problems amount of it reaching the ground Fire Impacts on Water to enhancing the rate of infiltration may include decreased oxygen levels and thereby decreasing the amount as well as increased production of Quality and rate of surface flow. macronutrients, micronutrients, and The influence of wildfires on basic and acidic ions. Some of the water quality can be substantial,
Fire Management Today 10 Table 1—Percent increase in peak flow following wildland fires, by location and vegetation type. Location Vegetation type Percent increase References Eastern Oregon Ponderosa pine 45 Anderson and others (1976) Central Arizona Mixed conifer 500–1,500 Rich (1962) Central Arizona Ponderosa pine 9,600 Anderson and others (1976) Northern Arizona Ponderosa pine 200–5,000 Leao (2005) Cape Region, South Africa Monterey pine 290 Scott (1993) Southwestern United States Chaparral 200–45,000 Sinclair and Hamilton (1955); Glendening and others (1961) depending on the severity of the resulting in significant fish kill. The most destructive of the wildfire, the nature of vegetation Lakes such as Helsey Lake and Ackre three big fires was the Rodeo– cover, and the physical and Lake were filled with sediment Chediski Fire of 2002, with major chemical characteristics of the and suffered the most, with their environmental effects in the burned area (DeBano and others entire fish populations killed. Also, form of physical and chemical 1998). Large and fast streamflows a number of Apache trout and Gila problems that affected downstream from burned areas can transport trout streams suffered significant waterquality. Various water quality large amounts of debris, sediment, fish kill, including the South Fork parameters measured at the Salt and chemicals that significantly of the Little Colorado River, Bear River entrance to Roosevelt Lake affect the quality and use of water Wallow Creek, Hannagan Creek, KP showed significant increases downstream. Also, wildfires interrupt Creek, Raspberry Creek, and upper in the concentration of the or terminate nutrient uptake while Coleman Creek. However, the effects major macronutrients calcium, increasing mineralization and of ash flows and flooding were magnesium, and potassium (fig. 1), mineral weathering. highly variable, with greater impacts as well as sulfate, phosphorus, and on fish populations in some areas total nitrogen (fig. 2). than in others (Meyer 2011). Large and fast streamflows from burned areas can Macronutrient concentrations in Salt River water at entrance to Roosevelt Lake significantly affect the 160 Calcium (mg/L) Magnesium (in mg/L) Potassium (in mg/L) quality and use of water 140
downstream. 120
100
The Cave Creek Complex Fire of 80 2005 generated huge amounts of 60 sediment load in streams. The 40 most obvious environmental mg/L (in Concentrations effects of the Wallow Fire of 2011 were in the form of bedload and 20 suspended sediments in lakes, 0 reservoirs, and streamflows, affecting fish and other wildlife. Oct-01 Oct-02 Apr-01 Apr-02 Feb-01 Jun-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-01 Aug-02 Area reservoirs such as Nelson, Sampling dates River, and Luna received large ash Figure 1—Macronutrient concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and potassium following flows from severely burned areas, the 2002 Rodeo–Chediski Fire in the Salt River at the entrance to Roosevelt Lake. Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 11 Despite increases in calcium and nitrogen, however, the respective following Rodeo–Chediski in the Sulfate concentration in Salt River water at Phosphorus concentration in Salt River sulfur concentrations following concentrations rose to twice, 5 entrance to SaltRoosevelt River Lake where it enterswater Lake at entrance to Roosevelt Lake 180 45 the fire, the values remained times, 390 times, and160 22 times Roosevelt. The values40 were high 140 35 30 less than half of the standard their standard levels. 120 and dangerous, rising to about 25 100 concentrations set by the U.S. 6,850 percent, 300 percent,20 3,000 Environmental Protection Figure 3 shows the concentrations80 percent, and 460 percent15 of the 60 10 Agency (EPA). For magnesium, of the hazardous chemicals40 respective EPA standards.5 arsenic, copper, iron, and20 lead Phosphorus conc. (mg/L) 0 potassium, phosphorus, and total Sulfate conc. (mg/L) 0 Figure 4 shows the physical factors Oct-01 Oct-02 Apr-01 Apr-02 Jun-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-01 Aug-02 Oct-01 Oct-02 Apr-01 Apr-02 Feb-01 Jun-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-01 Aug-02 Sampling dates Sampling dates
Sulfate concentration in Salt River water at Phosphorus concentration in Salt River Total nitrogen concentration in Salt River at entrance to Roosevelt Lake water at entrance to Roosevelt Lake entrance to Roosevelt Lake 250 180 45 160 40 200 140 35 150 30 120 100 25 100 50 20 (mg/L ) 0 80 15 60 10 otal nitrogen conc. T Oct-01 Oct-02 Apr-02 Apr-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 40 Feb-01 Jun-01 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-02 5 Aug-01 Phosphorus conc. (mg/L) 20 0 Sampling dates
Sulfate conc. (mg/L) 0 Oct-01 Oct-02 Apr-02 Apr-01 Jun-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-01 Aug-02 Oct-01 Oct-02 Apr-01 Apr-02 Feb-01 Jun-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-01 Aug-02 Sampling dates Sampling dates
Total nitrogen concentration in Salt River at Figure 2—Macronutrient concentrationsentrance of sulfur, to Roosevelt phosphorus, Lake and nitrogen following the 2002 Rodeo–Chediski Fire in the Salt River at 250 the entrance to Roosevelt Lake.200 150 100 50 (mg/L ) 0 Iron concentration in Salt River water at Lead concentration in Salt River water at entrance to Roosevelt Lake otal nitrogen conc.
entranceT to Roosevelt Lake 100000 Oct-02 Oct-01 Apr-02 Apr-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 Feb-01 Jun-01 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-02 800 Aug-01 700 Sampling dates 80000 600 60000 500 400 40000 300 20000 200 100 0 0 Iron conc. (micrograms/L) Lead conc. (micrograms/L) Oct-02 Oct-01 Apr-02 Apr-01 Feb-03 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-01 Jun-01 Dec-02 Dec-01 Aug-02 Aug-01 May-76 May-78 May-80 May-82 May-84 May-86 May-88 May-90 May-92 May-94 May-96 May-98 May-00 May-02 Sampling dates Sampling dates Copper concentration in Salt River water at entrance to Roosevelt Lake Arsenic concentration in Salt River water at 400 entrance to Roosevelt Lake 350 800 300 700 250 600 200 500 150 400 100 300 50 200 100 0 0 Copper conc. (micrograms/L) Jul-02 Oct-01 Oct-02 Jan-02 Apr-02 Jan-03 Jun-02 Feb-02 Mar-02 Feb-03 Sep-01 Sep-02 Dec-01 Dec-02 Nov-01 Nov-02 May-02 Aug-02 Arsenic (micrograms/L) conc. Arsenic Oct-01 Oct-02 Apr-01 Apr-02 Feb-01 Jun-01 Jun-02 Feb-02 Feb-03 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-01 Sampling dates Aug-02 Sampling dates
Figure 3—Hazardous mineral concentrations following the 2002 Rodeo–Chediski Fire in the Salt River at the entrance to Roosevelt Lake. Fire Management Today 12 of flooding, turbidity, temperature, Wildfire can have devastating effects on water and specific conductivity in the Salt River following Rodeo– quality and on water-dependent living things and Chediski. The flood magnitude the physical environment. increased by 6,000 percent. Turbidity and specific conductivity measurements showed, To summarize, wildfire can have reservoir water nontransparent and respectively, about 1,500,000 devastating effects on water practically too dark for any limnetic percent and 422 percent of EPA quality and on water-dependent and deeper dwelling aquatic standards, and the temperature living things and the physical organisms to function properly. rose to an uncomfortably high environment, as shown by the level of 84 °F (29 °C). Table 2 chemical concentrations and Likewise, the high temperature shows values associated with physical water quality levels in table value as well as the highly elevated water quality parameters following 2. Most of these values are very high presence of salts and other the Rodeo–Chediski Fire, and and dangerous to aquatic life and chemicals would make the water it compares the values with other living things. For example, unsuitable for many organisms, standard values for drinking water the turbidity value of 51,000 as shown following the Wallow established by the World Health nephelometric turbidity units, Fire, when all the fish died in Lake Organization and the EPA. if it persisted, would make the Helsey and Lake Ackre. The very
Table 2—Rodeo–Chediski fire effects on water quality in the Salt River at the entrance to Roosevelt Lake, by parameters. Guidelines for drinking water quality Postfire water World Health Environmental Parameter quality level Organization Protection Agency Arsenic 0.685 mg/L 0.01 mg/L 0.01 mg/L Bicarbonate 312 mg/L n.i. 380 mg/L Calcium 144 mg/L n.i. 380 mg/L Chloride 2,110 mg/L (>250 mg/L) 250 mg/La Copper 0.375 mg/L 2 mg/L 1.3 mg/L Iron 90 mg/L 2 mg/L 0.3 mg/La Lead 0.690 mg/L 0.010 mg/L 0.015 mg/L Magnesium 45 mg/L n.i. 20 mg/La Mercury 0.7 mg/L 0.006 mg/L 0.002 mg/L Phosphorus 39 mg/ n.i. 0.1 mg/La Potassium 26 mg/L n.i. 5 mg/L Sulfate 170 mg/L (>250 mg/L) 250 mg/L Total nitrogen 220 mg/L n.i. 10 mg/La Dissolved oxygen 7.4 mg/L n.i. >5 mg/La Suspended sediment 25,800 mg/L >600 mg/L (TDS) 500 mg/L (TDS)a Specific conductivity 6,970 μS/cm n.i. 1650 μS/cm Temperature 29 °C n.i. 18–20 °C (for adult trout and salmon)b Turbidity 51,000 NTU n.i. 1 NTUa a Secondary drinking water standard. b U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2003). Note: n.i. = no information; μS/cm = microsiemens per centimeter; TDS = total dissolved solids; NTU = nephelometric turbidity units.
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 13 high macro- and micronutrient vegetation cover is left in lack of dissolved oxygen can cause values would also lead to increased watersheds after wildfires and eutrophication, destroying aquatic algal growth and eutrophication because soils become hydrophobic, life. As a result, downstream of the water, making it unfit for most precipitation is readily ecosystems and socioeconomic drinking and for aquatic habitat. converted to surface flow, which conditions deteriorate. moves downstream with little Luckily, the serious effect of the or no difficulty. Such flows may To remedy the problem, it is Wallow Fire on the various water be large, with velocities forceful important that land managers quality parameters did not persist enough to severely disturb and and other interested parties make for long (Paterson and others damage watersheds and stream every effort to minimize the 2002; Wondzell and others 2003). channels. This may produce occurrence of damaging fires. As figures 1–4 show, the highly large quantities of sediment and This can be done through forest elevated levels of the various Salt other chemical contaminants thinning at the right level made River water quality parameters that can be detrimental to with the appropriate harvesting decreased rapidly within a short downstream ecosystems. Wildfires methods or through a carefully time after the burn period. can also interrupt or terminate designed prescribed fire. To nutrient uptake, increase soil use such methods successfully, Postfire Watershed mineralization, and lead to forest managers should pay mineral weathering. Increased careful attention to the causes of Degradation water temperatures decrease wildfires and other harmful forest The impacts of wildfires on dissolved oxygen; along with the disturbances. Land managers peak flow and water quality can introduction of nutrients and need help from well-educated greatly vary. Because insufficient toxic materials into water bodies, and insightful decision makers;
Specific conductance of Salt River water at entrance to Roosevelt Lake 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000
Conductance (in 1000 microsiemens/cm) 0 Oct-01 Oct-02 Apr-01 Apr-02 Feb-01 Jun-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-01 Aug-02 Sampling dates Turbidity in Sat River water at entrance to Salt River water temperature at entrance to Roosevelt Lake roosevelt Lake 100000 35 30 10000 25 1000 20 15 100 celcius) Units) 10 10 5
1 (in degree Temperature 0 Turbidity (nNephelometric Turbidity Oct-01 Oct-02 Apr-01 Apr-02 Oct-01 Oct-02 Feb-01 Jun-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 Apr-01 Apr-02 Dec-01 Dec-02 Feb-01 Jun-01 Feb-02 Jun-02 Feb-03 Dec-01 Dec-02 Aug-01 Aug-02 Aug-01 Aug-02 Sampling dates Measurement dates
Figure 4—Flooding and physical water quality effects of the 2002 Rodeo–Chediski Fire in the Salt River at the entrance to Roosevelt Lake. Fire Management Today 14 appropriate rules and regulations Forest and Range Experiment Station: Scott, D.F. 1993. The hydrologic effect to serve as guidelines; and 382–389. of fire in South African mountain IAWF (International Association of catchments. Journal of Hydrology. 150: adequate budgets, along with Wildland Fire). 2013. Wildland-urban 409–432. skilled workers to prevent and interface fact sheet. August 1. 11 p. Sinclair, J.D.; Hamilton, E.L. 1955. control wildfires. Preventing http://www.iawfonline.org/pdf/WUI_ Stream flow reactions to a fire damaged wildfires is preferable to postfire Fact_Sheet_08012013.pdf. (July 2017). watershed. In: Proceedings of the remediation because restoring Leao, D.S. 2005. Water yield and peak Hydraulic Division. New York, NY: discharges resulting from disturbances in American Society of Civil Engineers. burned and/or degraded forested a Northern Arizona watershed. Master’s 81(629): 1–17. watersheds to predisturbance thesis, School of Forestry, Northern Stein, S.M.; Menakis, J.; Carr, M.A. [and conditions is extremely expensive Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ. others]. 2013. Wildfire, wildlands, and and takes a very long time. ■ Lutz, J.A.; van Wagtendonk, J.W.; Thode, people: understanding and preparing A.E. [and others]. 2009. Climate for wildfire in the wildland-urban lightning ignitions and fire severity interface— a Forests on the Edge report. References in Yosemite National Park, CA, U.S.A. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–299. Fort International Journal of Wildland Fire. Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Anderson, H.W.; Hoover, M.D.; Reinhart, 18(7): 765–774. DOI: 10.1071/WF08117. Mountain Research Station. 36 p. K.G. 1976. Forests and water: effects Meyer, K. 2011. Wallow Fire 2011: large Veenhuis, J.E. 2002. Effects of wildfire of forest management on floods, scale event recovery rapid assessment on the hydrology of Capulin and Rio sedimentation, and water supply. Gen. team. Fisheries report, Apache-Sitgreaves De Los Frijoles Canyons, Bandelier Tech. Rep. PSW–18. Berkeley, CA: USDA National Forests. 31 July. Pinetop, AZ: National Monument, New Mexico. Water Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest Arizona Game and Fish. 21 p. Resources Investigations Report 02- and Range Experiment Station. 115 p. Morgan, R.P.C.; Rickson, R.J. 1995. Slope 4152. Albuquerque, NM: U.S. Geological DeBano, L.F. 1981. Water repellant soils: stabilization and erosion control: a Survey. 39 p. a state-of-the-art. Gen. Tech. Rep. bioengineering approach. London, Great Verma, S.; Jayakumar, S. 2012. Impact PSW–46. Berkeley, CA: USDA Forest Britain: Chapman and Hall. 288 p. of forest fire on physical, chemical Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and NIFC (National Interagency Fire Center). and biological properties of soils: a Range Experiment Station. 21 p. 2014. NIFC fire information—wildland review. Proceedings of the International DeBano, L.F.; Neary, D.G.; Ffolliott, P.F. fire statistics (1997–2013). Boise, ID. Academy of Ecology and Environmental 1998. Fires’ effect on ecosystems. New Available at http://www.nifc.gov/fireinfo/ Sciences. 2(3): 168–176. York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. 352 p. fireinfo_ stats_totalfires.html. (July Wondzell, S.M.; King, J.G. 2003. Post- Dlapa, P.; Simkovic, I.; Somsak, L. 2006. 2017). fire erosional processes in the Pacific Effect of wild fire on water repellency of Neary, D.G.; Ryan, K.C.; DeBano, L.F. 2008. Northwest and Rocky Mountain region. sandy forest soils. 18th World Congress Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects Forest Ecology and Management. 178: of Soil Science; 9–15 July 2006; of fire on soils and water. Gen. Tech. 75–87. Philadelphia, PA. International Union of Rep. RMRS–GTR–42–vol.4. Ogden, UT: Zwolinski, M.J. 2000. The role of fire in Soil Sciences. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain management of watershed responses. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Research Station. 250 p. In: Ffolliott, P.F.; Baker, M.B., Jr.; Agency). 2003. EPA Region 10 guidance Paterson, A.M.; Motimoto, D.S.; Edminister, C.B. [and others], eds. Land for Pacific Northwest State and Tribal Cumming, B.F. [and others]. 2002. stewardship in the 21st century: The temperature water quality standards. A paleolimnological investigation of contribution of watershed management. Seattle, WA: Region 10 Office of Water. the effects of forest fire on lake water Proceedings RMRS–P–13m. Fort EPA 910–B–03–002. 49 p. quality in northwestern Ontario over Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Glendening, G.E.; Pase, C.P.; Ingebo, P. the past ca. 150 years. Canadian Journal Mountain Research Station: 367–370. 1961. Preliminary hydrologic impacts of of Botany. 80(12): 1329–1336. wildfire in chaparral. In: Johnson, R., ed. Rich, L.R. 1962. Erosion and sediment Proceedings of the 5th Annual Arizona movement following a wildfire in a Watershed Symposium; 21 September ponderosa pine forest of Central Arizona. 1961; Phoenix, AZ. Arizona Water Res. Note 76. Fort Collins, CO: USDA Resources Committee and Watershed Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest Management Division, State Land and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. Department: 12–15. Robichaud, P.R.; Beyers, I.L.; Neary, D.G. Haldane, M. 2013. Insurers, government 2000. Evaluating the effectiveness of grapple with costs of growth in wildland- postfire rehabilitation treatments. urban interface. Insurance Journal. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–63. Fort August 15. Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Hibbert, A.R. 1971. Increases in streamflow Mountain Research Station. 85 p. after converting chaparral to grass. Safford, H.D.; Miller, J.; Schmidt, D. [and Water Resources Bulletin. 8: 71–80. others]. 2008. BAER soil burn severity Hibbert, A.R.; Davis, E.A.; Knipe, O.D. maps do not measure fire effects to 1982. Water yield changes resulting vegetation. A comment on Odion and from treatment of Arizona chaparral. Hanson (2006). Ecosystems 11(1). DOI: Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW–58. Berkeley, CA: 10.1007/s10021-007-9094-z USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 15 Joint Fire Science Program Smoke Science Plan, 2010–2016: Results and Impacts Allen Riebau, Douglas Fox, and Cindy Huber
he Smoke Science Plan (SSP) was built upon personal Tinterviews and an extensive web-based needs identification with scientists, fire managers, and air quality managers using online questionnaires (Riebau and Fox 2010a, 2010b). It is structured around four themes, which are conceptualized as complementary investigative areas to further smoke science as well as smoke and air quality management. The themes are:
1. Smoke emissions inventory research, 2. Fire and smoke model validation, 3. Smoke and populations, and 4. Smoke and climate change. Figure 1—The Smoke Science Plan (SSP) unites four themes, each addressing a need. Each need results from a large “driver” that has historically affected and will continue to affect wildland fire management in the United States. Source: LeQuire and Hunter Since 2010, the Joint Fire Science (2012). Program (JFSP) has carried out the SSP using a series of The Four Themes and The objective of the smoke competitive grant awards and Associated Research emissions inventory research smaller targeted supplemental theme is to develop science and contracts. In this paper, we review Projects knowledge needed to improve the desired outcome of each of the The SSP’s four themes target national wildland fire emissions four themes in the SSP and the specific needs of fire, smoke, and air inventories, paving the way for progress made in each thematic quality managers. The themes were the design of a national consensus area. Finally, we suggest some designed to address large societal inventory system. “knowledge gaps” and application forces (or “drivers”) influencing fire needs that may remain after and air quality managers (fig. 1). The objective of the fire and completion of the SSP in 2016. The themes suggest incremental smoke model validation theme research projects for JFSP funding, is to identify the scientific scope, which in turn lead to achieving techniques, and partnerships Allen Riebau is the principal scientist for specific objectives. Thus, research needed to objectively validate smoke Nine Points South Technical Pty. Ltd., under the SSP is not an open-ended and fire models using field data. Clarkson, Australia; Douglas Fox is senior search for new knowledge about scientist for Nine Points South Technical smoke but rather a targeted activity The objectives of the smoke and Pty. Ltd; and Cindy Huber is a consultant for Nine Points South Technical Pty. Ltd., to address high-priority needs. populations theme are to quantify Clarkson, Australia. the impact of wildland fire smoke
Fire Management Today 16 on population centers and on scenarios outlined by the United emissions used to model smoke firefighters and to elucidate the Nations Intergovernmental Panel concentrations to aid operational mechanisms of public smoke on Climate Change (IPCC). decision making during fire events acceptance, in light of the needed or during a series of geographically balance between human exposure related smoke events. to risks from smoke and the risks to ecosystems associated Fire and smoke model The second type is retrospective with fire (and smoke) exclusion. validation has been a for regulatory purposes: using Ultimately, the research under focus of fire science for fire emissions data corrected this theme is designed to help and quality assured after the in the development of a national some time. fire to help quantify fire impacts smoke-hazard warning system/ on the measured air quality methodology based on best science. during and following fire Smoke Emissions Inventory events. This quantification is The objectives of the smoke and Research needed both for planning future climate change theme are to emissions limitations (State understand the implications of Emissions inventories are implementation plans) and for climate change for smoke from fundamental to air quality segregating human from natural wildland fires; and, conversely, management. For smoke, at least contributions (exceptional events to delineate the implications two distinct types of emissions policy). Of course, this is a broad of smoke from wildland fires inventories are needed. One simplification; but clearly these on climate change using, for type is for real-time (or as two inventory categories address guidance, the future climate close as possible to real-time) different scientific questions
Table 1—Projects funded under the SSP emissions inventory research theme. JFSP Project Completed/ Primary User Number/ Principal Title Expected Communities Benefited Investigator Completion Date by Project 09–1–3–01 Experimental Determination of Secondary Organic Atmospheric research scientists Yes Jeffrey Collett Aerosol Production from Biomass Combustion and air quality modelers 11–1–5–16 Influence of Fuel Moisture and Density on Black Fire, smoke, and air quality Brian Benscoter Carbon Formation During Combustion of Boreal Yes managers Peat Fuels 11–1–6–06 Deterministic and Empirical Assessment of Smoke Fire, smoke, and air quality Yes Tom Moore Contribution to Ozone managers 12–1–7–01 Critical Assessment of Wildland Fire Emissions Air quality modelers and 2017 Wei Min Hao Inventories: Methodology, Uncertainty, Effectiveness managers 12–1–7–02 Assessment of Prescribed Fire Emissions and Air quality modelers and 2017 Sim Larkin Inventories managers 12–1–8–31 Particulate Matter Deterministic and Empirical Fire, smoke, and air quality 2017 Tom Moore Tagging and Assessment of Impacts on Levels managers 14–1–03–44 Phase Dynamics of Wildland Fire Smoke Emissions Atmospheric research scientists Yes Sonia Kreidenweis and Their Secondary Organic Aerosols and air quality modelers 14–1–04–16 Synthesis of Comprehensive Emissions Atmospheric research scientists Kelley Barsanti Measurements and Multi-scale Modeling for and air quality modelers 2017 Understanding Secondary Organic Aerosol Chemistry in Wildland Fire Smoke Plumes 15–1–01–1 Mapping Fuels for Regional Smoke Management and Fire, smoke, and air quality 2018 Nancy French Emissions Inventories managers 16–1–08–1 Southern Integrated Prescribed Fire Information Fire, smoke, and air quality 2018 Talat Odman System for Air Quality and Health Impacts managers Note: SSP = Smoke Science Plan; JFSP = Joint Fire Science Program. Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 17 and relevant time and space Smoke from wildland fires can affect not only the wildland– scales (Battye and Battye 2002; urban interface but also large urban areas some distance Fox and Riebau 2000). Under the emissions inventory theme, away from the fires. JFSP research has sought to provide the science needed to clarify and improve both types of 1), and work by Barsanti (table evaluate model performance but also inventories. 1) is testing the implementation guide future model development. of new photochemical modeling Incorporated into the SSP, these Before the SSP, fire emission mechanisms to better simulate projects represent incremental inventories existed, but many fire’s contributions to the secondary research that both validates generated different results. organic aerosols making up regional component models and clarifies Methods used to create fine particulate matter. The final the scope of the effort needed for a inventories were not necessarily projects funded under this theme large-scale model validation activity. transparent or well documented. include improving the national SSP research has focused on mapping of fuels for building A wide variety of models are used to critically evaluating emission emission inventories (French, project and analyze smoke and its factors in general (Hao, table 1) table 1) and developing a southern impacts on people and resources. and for boreal fuels (Benscoter, prescribed fire information system Some models and supporting table 1) and prescribed fire with the Southern Fire Exchange data are incorporated into such (Larkin, table 1). It has also been (Odman, table 1). application systems as BlueSky directed toward understanding (http://www.airfire.org/) and how smoke emissions contribute Fire and Smoke Model Validation Western Regional Air Partnership to ambient air quality ozone and Fire and smoke model validation tools (https://www.wraptools.org/), fine particulate matter (PM2.5). has been a focus of the JFSP and which facilitate the application Perhaps the greatest opportunity of fire science for some time of models for both fire and air arose in working with States to (Sandburg and others 1999). This quality managers’ use. However, develop two automated systems to is especially true for fire behavior. demonstrating and quantifying calculate emissions from validated just how well the models work for postfire data (Moore, table 1). As the SSP came into being, a general fire applications remain These systems (DEASCO3 and significant portfolio of smoke model elusive. Uncertainties with respect PMDETAIL) form, in essence, validation research was in progress. to fire emissions and fire behavior a prototype retrospective fire Projects included work on fuels modeling cascade into uncertainties emissions inventory system based consumption model validation for regarding plume rise, plume on validated data. emissions calculation (Ottmar, table chemistry, and smoke dispersion, 2) and “superfog” formation in the thereby compounding errors. The JFSP determined that more Eastern States (Princevac, table 2). information was needed on the Additional outstanding work was The single scientific need most formation of secondary organic being accomplished on plume rise identified in developing the SSP aerosols in fire emissions, and conceptualization (Liu, table 2) and was the validation of smoke models the program started to fund the model validation (Odman, table and their modeling systems. corresponding research. Collett’s 2). Two projects focused on smoke Validation of smoke modeling project (table 1) measured transport from lower intensity has been and continues to be emissions from fires at the Missoula subcanopy fires (Heilman, table limited by insufficient quantity Fire Laboratory chamber and 2; Strand, table 2), and another and quality of field data. Indeed, experimentally quantified secondary project used new techniques to track the lack of data limits even the organic aerosols resulting from the smoke dispersion more accurately development of new conceptual corresponding biomass burning. In (Urbanski, table 2). The Smoke and models. However, because of the addition, research has continued to Emissions Model Intercomparison complexity and diversity of the data address secondary organic aerosols Project (Larkin, table 2) gathered needed, the data deficiency cannot and related questions about fire datasets and evaluated a suite of be rectified by any one scientific emissions (Kreidenweis, table models against the data to not only group (Bytnerowicz and others
Fire Management Today 18 2009). In simple terms, the effort plan to address the data needed places than anything else, even needed is large and extremely to validate models (Brown, table if its impacts are not always expensive, and it requires ground- 2). As a capstone to this theme, catastrophic.” In recent years, based and airborne measurements. the JFSP is working with the U.S. it has become clear that smoke Clearly, no single group has the Environmental Protection Agency from wildland fires can affect not resources or scientific capabilities (EPA), National Aeronautics and only the wildland–urban interface needed. Thus, the objectives of Space Administration (NASA), but also large urban areas some this theme are to develop the National Oceanic and Atmospheric distance away from the fires. vision and to identify potential Administration (NOAA), and partnerships needed to accomplish Federal land managers to plan and In 2010, the JFSP funded research such a large undertaking. execute highly instrumented field on public acceptance of smoke measurements of a few intense (Hall, table 3; Toman, table 3), In 2011, the SSP participated prescribed burns through the and their projects have been in evaluating and planning the Fire and Smoke Model Evaluation incorporated into the SSP. The RxCADRE project, a successful Experiment. funded projects addressed the comprehensive field study focused public’s perception of smoke on fire behavior and emissions Smoke and Populations and examined the influence of (Ottmar, table 2). In 2013, a special A sage once opined, “Smoke is the communications and partnerships project was developed to identify most widespread of fire impacts on the perception of smoke the scope and magnitude of a on the wildland–urban interface, management, but they did not comprehensive interdisciplinary impacting more people and more answer fundamental questions
Table 2—Research projects under the SSP fire and smoke model validation research theme. JFSP Project Completed/ Primary User Number/Principal Title Expected Communities Benefited Investigator Completion Date by Project 08–1–6–01 Validation of Fuel Consumption Models for Smoke Fire, smoke, and air quality Yes Roger Ottmar Management Planning in the Eastern Regions of the US managers 08–1–6–04 Evaluation of Smoke Models and Sensitivity Analysis Air quality modelers and air Yes Talat Odman for Determining Their Emission Related Uncertainties quality managers 08–1–6–06 Evaluation and Improvement of Smoke Plume Rise Air quality modelers Yes Yong Liu Modeling 08–1–6–09 Airborne and Lidar Experiments for the Validation of Atmospheric research Yes Shawn Urbanski Smoke Transport Models scientists 08–1–6–10 Creation of a Smoke and Emissions Model Atmospheric research Sim Larkin Intercomparison Project (SEMIP) and Evaluation of Yes scientists and air quality Current Models modelers 09–1–4–01 Development of Modeling Tools for Predicting Smoke Fire, smoke, and air quality Yes Warren Heilman Dispersion from Low-Intensity Fires managers 09–1–4–02 Sub-Canopy Transport and Dispersion of Smoke: A Atmospheric research Tara Strand Unique Observation Dataset and Model Evaluation Yes scientists and smoke managers 09–1–4–05 Superfog Formation: Laboratory Experiments and Atmospheric research Marko Princevac Model Development Yes scientists and smoke managers 11–2–1–11 Data Set for Fuels, Fire Behaviour, Smoke and Fire Atmospheric research Yes Roger Ottmar Effects Model Development and Evaluation (Rx Cadre) scientists 13–S–01–01 Fire and Smoke Model Validation Workshop Atmospheric research Yes Tim Brown scientists 15–S–01–01 Fire and Smoke Model Evaluation Experiment, Phase I Atmospheric research 2017 Roger Ottmar scientists Note: SSP = Smoke Science Plan; JFSP = Joint Fire Science Program. Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 19 Table 3—Projects funded under the SSP smoke and populations research theme. JFSP Project Number/ Completed/Expected Primary User Communities Title Principal Investigator Completion Date Benefited by Project 10–1–3–02 Examining the Influence of Social scientists and health Troy Hall Communication Programs and officials Yes Partnerships on Perceptions of Smoke Management 10–1–3–07 Public Perceptions of Smoke: Fire managers Eric Toman Contrasting Tolerance Amongst WUI Yes and Urban Communities in the Interior West and the SE US 13–1–02–14 Wildland Fire Smoke Health Effects on Fire, smoke, and air quality 2017 Joe Domitrovich Wildland Fire Fighters and the Public managers and health officials 13–C–01–01 Visual Range and Particulate Matter Smoke and air quality managers Yes William Malm Data Analysis and Literature Review 14–1–04–16 The Role of Composition and Particle Fire, smoke, and air quality Ian Gilmour Size on the Toxicity of Wildfire 2017 managers and health officials Emissions 14–1–04–5 Health Effects From Wildfire Air Fire, smoke, and air quality Michael Jerrett Pollution: A Spatiotemporal Modeling 2017 managers and health officials Approach 14–1–04–9 Estimating Fire Smoke Related Health Fire, smoke, and air quality Brian Reich Burden and Novel Tools to Manage 2017 managers and health officials Impacts on Urban Populations 15–1–02–2 AIRPACT—Fire Enhanced Air quality modelers Joseph Vaughn Communication of Human Health 2018 Risk with Improved Wildfire Smoke Modelling 15–1–02–4 US Smoke Hazard Warning System: Fire, smoke, and air quality Sim Larkin Prototype and Enhancements to 2018 managers and health officials Operational Systems Note: SSP = Smoke Science Plan; JFSP = Joint Fire Science Program. about actual health impacts National Wildfire Coordinating climate change. It is apparent that from smoke. Group’s Smoke Committee, climate and smoke emissions are clarified relationships between interrelated (Westerling and others The SSP chose to focus on impaired visibility and fine 2006; Williams and others 2005), providing additional insight particulate matter health standards but generating science useful to into the actual concentrations (Malm, table 3); the study has been fire managers in this area has of fine particulate matter and used in a recent publication for fire proven problematic. The JFSP other pollutants that adversely managers (Hyde and others 2016). has chosen to focus on how fire affect public health. Ongoing As a capstone to this theme, two emissions and resultant air quality projects are studying health projects were funded to develop a impacts are likely to be altered effects of smoke from wildfires prototype operational National Fire under a changed climate. Other on firefighters (Domitrovich, Smoke Hazard Warning System important issues include how table 3) and the general public (Larkin, table 3) and improve smoke emissions and the associated (Reich, table 3; Jerrett, table 3). a smoke-modeling system to atmospheric chemical processing One project, in cooperation with enhance its ability to communicate will feed back into the climate EPA, is examining the actual health risks (Vaughn, table 3). system; black carbon emissions toxicology of smoke from forest from fire and their impacts; and fuels (Gilmour, table 3). A special Smoke and Climate Change identifying large population centers project, formulated in response One of the most important issues in the United States that might to a concern expressed by the facing forest management is be at greatest risk from smoke
Fire Management Today 20 exposure from megafires in the National Wildfire Coordinating concentrations of black carbon climate-changed future. Group’s Smoke Committee, and its rates of deposition in the three projects addressing black Western United States (Chung, Before the SSP, there was carbon were funded. One project table 4). Two megacity and significant concern about smoke (Kreidenweis, table 4) made aircraft megafire projects approached the and climate change. Speculation measurements of black carbon and problem differently, one building and dramatic projections were associated carbon forms in smoke a simulation model of future appearing in the literature, plumes from experimental burns ecosystems and fire regimes based occasionally based on dubious on military lands in the Southeast on IPCC climate models (Liu, table modeling results, not so much (in cooperation with the U.S. 4) and the second constructing a of future climate but of future Department of Defense Strategic statistical model of potential fire and ecosystems, fuel loadings, and Environmental Research and smoke impacts (Larkin, table 4). fire regimes. The SSP sought Development Program). Another to move the research toward project identified conditions The SSP also developed two special more mainstream climate and needed for smoke from wildfires projects under the smoke and ecosystem (fuel and fire regimes) in the United States to transport climate change theme to develop research by linking work to the black carbon to the Arctic (Larkin, critical review papers. The first research results of the United table 4). The third black carbon assessed the state of the science Nations’ IPCC. Responding in project modeled fire’s contribution of simulating effects of climate part to concerns raised by the to regional atmospheric change on forest ecosystems,
Table 4—Funded projects under the SSP smoke and climate change research theme. JFSP Project Number/ Completed/Expected Primary User Communities Title Principal Investigator Completion Date Benefited by Project 10–S–2–01 Identification of Necessary Conditions Fire managers Sim Larkin for Arctic Transport of Smoke from US Yes Fires 11–1–5–12 Measuring the Optical Properties and Air quality modelers and Sonia Kreidenweis Climate Impacts of Aerosol from Wild Yes atmospheric research scientists and Prescribed Fires in the US 11–1–5–13 Modeling Study of the Contribution Air quality modelers and Serena Chung of Fire Emissions on Black Carbon Yes atmospheric research scientists Concentrations and Deposition Rates 11–1–7–02 Impacts of Mega-Fires on Large US Fire, smoke, and air quality Yong Liu Urban Area Air Quality Under Changing Yes managers Climate and Fuels 11–1–7–04 Future Mega-Fires and Smoke Impacts Fire, smoke, and air quality Yes Sim Larkin managers 12–S–1–02 Smoke Consequences of IPCC’s Fire and climate change research Don McKenzie Scenarios Projected Climate and scientists Yes Ecosystems Changes in the US—Review Paper 13–1–01–16 Assessing the Impacts on Smoke, Fire and climate change research Uma Shankar Fire and Air Quality Due to Changes scientists and fire planners 2017 in Climate, Fuel Loads, and Wildfire Activity over the SE United States 13–1–01–4 Estimating the Effects of Changing Fire and climate change research Jeffrey Pierce Climate on Fires and Consequences for scientists and fire planners 2017 US Air Quality Using a Set of Global and Regional Climate Models 16-S-01-2 Potential Climate Feedbacks of Fire and climate change research Richard Birdsey Changing Fire Regimes in the US: A Yes scientists Review Note: SSP = Smoke Science Plan; JFSP = Joint Fire Science Program. Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 21 The JFSP has begun implementing a formal Smoke necessarily imply that prescribed Communications Plan to ensure that Smoke Science Plan fire will be more restricted in the future, but they do imply that fire products are effectively delivered. managers will need to become even more engaged in regulatory analysis, fuels, fire regimes, and smoke some are already supported by the debate, and decision making with air from wildland fires (McKenzie and EPA and the State air agencies. quality managers and State and local others 2014). The second project However, a remaining limitation regulatory agencies. assessed the state of science in developing useful emissions on simulating feedbacks from inventories is the lack of accurate Fire and Smoke Model Validation landscape change, fire, and smoke and complete fire-activity data. The objectives of this theme were on the climate (Birdsey, table 4). The JFSP has funded projects to based on a cooperative program of Finally, two ongoing projects are evaluate the effectiveness of remote work that could only be achieved using IPCC climate scenarios and sensing techniques to obtain this as a multiyear, multiagency legacy their global-scale modeling results information for use in emissions activity, with the JFSP acting for the mid- to late 21st century inventories, but time and again, as a partner and mentor and to drive dynamic downscaling air quality practitioners tell us that cooperating with other agencies, from the global-scale climate, to the available fire-activity data are especially with the U.S. Department regional-scale climates, to local- insufficient to attribute emissions of Defense, EPA, NASA, and NOAA. scale climates. The projects will to particular sources. This The objectives will be largely simulate changed ecosystems, issue is being tackled regionally achieved through the planning vegetation, and fire regimes to through the Odman project for and execution of the currently estimate resulting smoke and the Southeast but will need to be developing Fire and Smoke Model air quality at the national scale expanded to include all States to Evaluation Experiment. (Pierce, table 4) and at a regional fully address the limitation. scale for the Southeastern United A new consideration in States (Shankar, table 4). In part as a result of the research smoke model validation is the that the JFSP has funded, it is emerging understanding that Future Prospects becoming clearer that organic wildfire emissions have been aerosols from biomass burning, consistently underestimated. The The SSP will accomplish most of both primary emissions and assumption has been that wildfire its thematic goals by 2018, but secondary formations, are emissions were much the same outstanding questions will remain important and are not fully as prescribed fire emissions in to be addressed in the future. This understood. Organic aerosol their constituents but on a larger section explores some of those issues are closely tied to newly scale. Wildfire emissions could questions and issues. promulgated and tightened therefore be calculated by simply ambient air quality standards for scaling up and apportioning Smoke Emissions Inventory both ozone (in 2015) and fine emissions between the flaming Research already completed, plus particulate matter (in 2013); to and smoldering fire phases. new results anticipated over the planned revisions of the EPA’s This assumption has led toward next few years, will give solid regional haze regulations; and misrepresenting emissions (for answers regarding the distribution to recently codified new policies example, emissions chemistry, of black-carbon fire emissions, on exceptional events. EPA has particle size distributions, and the quantification of fire impacts specifically addressed wildfire in plume entrainment), with a bias on concentrations of both ozone both the proposed regional haze toward underestimation. and particulate matter, and the regulations (https://www.epa.gov/ identification of strengths and visibility/visibility-regulatory- Future field studies will need to weaknesses in existing inventory actions) and in the new exceptional focus on larger fires that replicate methods. The research portfolio -events policy (http://www2.epa. wildfire conditions. The effects for the smoke-emissions theme gov/air-quality-analysis/treatment- on public health from long-range will deliver improved systems for data-influenced-exceptional- transport of wildfire smoke may be inventorying smoke emissions; events). The new rules do not larger than we have anticipated. Fire Management Today 22 The implications for regional exposure studies. The complexities observations are starting to show haze and air standards may also and confounding factors associated feedbacks exacerbating greenhouse be larger than anticipated. A with such studies will require gas concentrations on a planetary new understanding of wildfire new research approaches. scale (such as boreal feedbacks for intensity, emissions profiles, Understanding and defining long- both carbon dioxide and methane). and smoke transport is needed, term health consequences to smoke The complexity of vegetation and along with development of new exposure, combined with what climate feedbacks is fundamental, and perhaps more challenging we are learning about the health and it is far from being completely research techniques. effects of short-term exposures, explained by current science, will be pivotal in improving public especially as the rate of change in Smoke and Populations awareness of smoke hazards and the climate system accelerates. The JFSP-funded projects the importance of protecting the With respect to wildland fire should result in vastly improved health of firefighters. management, the potential knowledge about the impacts of feedback between vegetation and ambient smoke concentrations on Smoke and Climate Change climate at subregional scales is a the public. They should also help We believe that ongoing funded critical issue for fire ecology. researchers better understand and research projects will make quantify the biochemical pathways progress toward achieving stated Communicating Results affected by smoke constituents. theme objectives. Every year, As a necessary complement to Progress is also being made in however, new climate change the SSP, the JFSP has begun understanding the short-term research is improving our implementing a formal Smoke health impacts of smoke on understanding of the nature of Communications Plan, a newly firefighters, and several completed future climates and creating better designed activity to ensure that projects have clarified our projections of potential future SSP products are effectively understanding of public perceptions impacts (IPCC 2013). SSP-funded delivered to users nationwide of smoke. The knowledge base for research will conclude in 2018, though the JFSP Fire Exchange developing a smoke-risk warning having developed new foundational Network of technology transfer system will soon be more complete science and information; but consortia. The communication of than ever before and will help in because the magnitude of the issue SSP research results has been a establishing a research prototype is larger and more difficult than hallmark of the JFSP as it works risk warning system. ever, research will need to continue. not only to foster better science but also to ensure that new science However, this theme is so broad Perhaps the most significant thing is communicated appropriately. that important issues will remain. we have learned is that vegetation Each SSP project team is required An unexpected and increasing models must be linked to climate to write a formal report of results public concern is the impacts models to provide a two-way and science impacts (such as of long-term smoke exposure information exchange. Most publications, seminars, and on the health of firefighters and previous modeling approaches workshops). A project summary the public. Recent studies have have changed climate without based on the final reports is widely suggested that long-term exposure considering vegetation changes distributed through the consortia. to smoke will likely have different or changed vegetation without Finally, a webinar is conducted and health consequences than short- considering how the changes placed in a video archive that can term exposure in terms of the altered the climate at regional be accessed at any time by anyone type and severity of the impacts or subregional scales. Moreover, interested in project results. as well as the affected population statistical approaches are likely to cohorts (USDA Forest Service 1997; be of only limited value in both Rappold and others 2011). Using downscaling future climates to After the SSP Concludes our existing work on short-term the scales needed to study fire and The true measure of success for smoke exposure as a foundation, smoke impacts and in projecting the SSP is the scientific progress thematic research on smoke ecosystem and fire regime changes. made and how much it benefits and populations should begin to This issue is becoming one of those involved in managing smoke. shift in focus toward longer term increasing concern, because The SSP has resulted in significant Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 23 progress in its thematic research investigators. We have been McKenzie, D.; Shankar, U.; Keane, R.E. [and areas. Smoke research has been a fortunate to have seen a wide others]. 2014. Smoke consequences of new wildfire regimes driven by climate major investment topic and line of array of distinguished scientists, change. Earth’s Future. 2(2): 35–29. work for the JFSP. As important as both in the United States and Riebau, A.R.; Fox, D.G. 1987. Smoke and air smoke is and has been historically, internationally, vie for research resource management—peering through the JFSP must now rebalance funding under the SSP. The the haze. In: Davis, J.B.; Martin, R.E., tech. the focus of its entire program of accomplishments of these coords. Proceedings of the symposium on wildland fire 2000; 27–30 April 1987; research with current realities. investigators have surely resulted South Lake Tahoe, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. Major issues that the JFSP faces in a body of publications and other PSW–GTR–101. Berkeley, CA: USDA are organized as “lines of work.” products that will truly transform Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest Smoke has been a line of work the practice of smoke and air and Range Experiment Station: 99–104. Riebau, A.R.; Fox, D.G. 2010a. Joint Fire since 2008. In the future, smoke quality management during the Science Program Smoke Science Plan. research will no longer be a formal next two decades. ■ Clarkson, Western Australia, Australia: line of work for the JFSP and will Nine Points South Technical Pty. Ltd.; not be organized under a formal References final report; Joint Fire Science Program follow-on smoke science plan. project 10–C–01–01. 58 p. Submitted to: Battye, W.; Battye, R. 2002. Development USDA and U.S. Department of the Interior, of emissions inventory methods for Washington, DC. https://www.firescience. Since the JFSP will not have a wildland fire. Research Triangle Park, NC: gov/documents/smoke/2010_JFSP_ formal smoke line of work, its Environmental Protection Agency; final Smoke_Science_Plan_Final_Version_ smoke research investments report; EPA contract 68–D–98–046. 82 p. without_Appendix_B_1.0.pdf. (August 10, Bytnerowicz, A.; Arbaugh, M.; Riebau, A.; 2017.) may decrease as the program Andersen, C., eds. 2009. Wildland fires Riebau, A.R., and D.G. Fox. 2010b. The rebalances its investment strategy and air pollution. Developments in results of a brief web-based questionnaire to better meet the needs of its Environmental Science 8. Amsterdam, on wildland fire smoke. Fire Management various constituencies. Smoke The Netherlands: Elsevier. 638 p. https:// Today. 70(3): 19–24. needs will not be abandoned but www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch13/related/ Rappold, A.G.; Stone, S.L.; Cascio, W.E. firerept.pdf. (August 10, 2017). [and others]. 2011. Peat bog wildfire rather addressed by focused shorter Fox, D.G.; Riebau, A.R. 2000. Technically smoke exposure in rural North Carolina term investments rather than a advanced smoke estimation tools is associated with cardiopulmonary formal version II SSP. Perhaps the (TASET). [Place of publication unknown]: emergency department visits assessed testament to the SSP’s success is [Publisher unknown]; final report; through syndromic surveillance. Joint Fire Smoke Project 98–1–9–03. Environmental Health Perspectives. that its objectives will have been so 99 p. Submitted to: The National Park 119(10): 1415–1420. well met by the portfolio of research Service and the Joint Fire Science Sandburg, D.V.; Hardy, C.C.; Ottmar, R.D. it engendered that a follow-on plan Program. https://www.firescience.gov/ [and others]. 1999. National strategic is not seen as needed. projects/98-1-9-03/project/98-1-9- plan: modeling and data systems for 03_98_1_9_03tasetfinalreport.pdf. (August wildland fire and air quality. Gen. Tech. 10, 2017). Rep. PNW–GTR–450. Portland, OR: USDA Acknowledgments Hyde, J.C.; Blades, J.; Hall, T. [and others]. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research 2016. Smoke management photographic Station. 60 p. The authors would like to thank guide: a visual aid for communicating Sharkey, B. 1997. Health hazards of smoke— the JFSP and especially its impacts. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW–GTR–925. recommendations of the Consensus program manager, John Cissel Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Conference, April 1997. 5100–Fire, (now retired), for support of the Northwest Research Station. 59 p. 9751–2836–MTDC. Missoula, MT: USDA IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Forest Service, Missoula Technology and SSP and the smoke line of work. Change). 2013. Climate change 2013: the Development Center. 84 p. We would also like to thank physical science basis. Contribution of Westerling, A.L.; Hidalgo, H.G.; Cayan, D.R.; everyone who advised us in our Working Group I to the fifth assessment Swetnam, T.W. 2006. Warming and earlier work through completing online report of the Intergovernmental Panel spring increase western U.S. forest wildfire surveys and communicating with on Climate Change. Stocker, T.F.; Qin, activity. Science. 313: 940–943. D.; Plattner, G.-K. [and others], eds. Williams, J.; Hamilton, L.; Mann, R. [and us in many other ways, formal and Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New others]. 2005. The mega-fire phenomenon: informal. Of special note has been York: Cambridge University Press. 1535 p. toward a more effective management our partnership with the National LeQuire, E.; Hunter, M. 2012. Smoke Science model. A concept paper. Washington, Wildfire Coordinating Group’s Plan: the path forward. In: Fire Science DC: The Brookings Institution Center Digest. Boise, ID: Joint Fire Science for Public Policy Education. 19 p. http:// Smoke Committee. Program. 14 (September): 1–11. https:// www.bushfirecrc.com/sites/default/files/ www.firescience.gov/Digest/FSdigest14. managed/resource/mega-fire_concept_ Finally, it is impossible to pdf. (August 10, 2017). paper_september_20_2005.pdf. (August complete science without 10, 2017.) Fire Management Today 24 Ordering on a Fire: Getting What You Need Ed Delaney
ildland fire management involves specialization Remember, you will be communicating Wand a division of labor. When you order supplies on a requirements to nonspecialists. wildland fire, you should keep that in mind. In your own specialty area, you need support from others On a new and growing incident, communicating a request for who don’t necessarily have your local staff with purchasing goods or services, but it’s what we level of knowledge. To get what you capabilities might be called on have to work with. So how do we need, you have to communicate to get you what you need. On an pursue the best possible outcomes clearly. Remember, you will be established or rapidly growing under imperfect conditions? There communicating requirements to fire, a buying team might be are a few basic things you can do nonspecialists. called in. Either way, someone to get your message across. has to obtain whatever it is you need—and understand what it is First, make sure that the form is Ordering What You Need you want. legible. If people joke about your If you’re working on a fire, you handwriting, print (or get someone need certain things in place to Why is it sometimes so difficult else to print) your message. succeed. If you’re a medical unit to explain to the person doing the Remember, your form will leader, you might need splints, buying that you just wanted X, not generally be faxed, which will add eyewash, pain relievers, and Y or Z? My purpose here is to help distortion to the image arriving on so forth. If you’re a helibase make sure that what you really the other end. manager, you might need a case need is what you get. of antifreeze to activate ping- Second, when ordering several pong balls for a burnout. If you A few suggestions: items, put them into related are a hotshot superintendent, you groups. Don’t mix chainsaw might need chainsaw bar nuts, • Describe items generically. parts with medical supplies, for chains, spark plugs, and wedges. Avoid brand names unless no example. Ideally, send a separate substitutions are allowed. General Message form for each The process for placing an order • Briefly explain how an item will class or category of things (or through Dispatch is twofold: be used and give its dimensions, services) you need. for example, so a buyer can look 1. You complete a General for suitable alternatives. Third, get someone else, like Message form (ICS 213); and • Check your spelling and the ordering manager, to read 2. You submit the form through handwriting. your General Message form. your chain of command to • Submit multiple General Pretend that your proofreader the ordering manager on the Message forms when is not operationally trained. incident. appropriate and/or group items Could someone new to the by type. job understand the acronyms, abbreviations, and technical terms When he wrote and submitted the article, General Message Form you have used? Ed Delaney was the lead fire contracting officer for the Bureau of Land Management The General Message form is in Oregon and Washington. admittedly an imperfect tool for Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 25 Be Specific Be Clear or 1-inch (2.5-cm)? The person When you place an order for a Keep in mind, miscommunication placing the order couldn’t be type 2 dozer, you are going to get and especially ambiguity create contacted, so an arbitrary decision 5 a crawler tractor with 100 to 199 delay. When Dispatch receives was made and a pair of /8-inch horsepower. There’s a standard an unclear order, it might spend (1.6-cm) chokers were sent out definition that has been agreed considerable time trying to figure to the line. It turned out to be upon, and you can count on a out exactly what you mean. Or just what was needed, but it was a terse order for a type 2 dozer to Dispatch might not understand lucky guess. convey enough information. the potential for specific characteristics and just pass your Using brand names is one way to But when you place orders for ambiguous order on for purchase. reduce confusion but can limit items not in the National Fire your ability to buy what you Equipment System, especially Small-town suppliers might not be need in the quantity you need. those with trade names or unusual able to offer unusual items (such If generic diphenhydramine will names, it’s in your best interest as long lengths of large camlock work, specifying the trade name to be clear about what you need. hose). If it has to be ordered for the original product might If you need a 2½-gallon (9.5-L) from hundreds of miles away, it limit you to 3 or 4 units, whereas plastic gas can for mixing saw gas, might take a long time to receive the generic product would be placing an order for a “Dolmar” and then additional time to be available in the 25 units you might not get you what you need delivered where needed. If you get ordered. Especially for medical when you need it. the wrong thing, it might be more supplies, you might face delays in days before what you requested getting what you need unless you If you are ordering something like arrives. You might no longer need follow the brand name with “or antifreeze, stating the purpose (to it by the time it arrives, and it equivalent.” ignite ping-pong balls) only takes might be nonreturnable. a few more penstrokes but can be Foolproof Ordering critical in getting what you need. As President William Howard Taft When ordering incendiary ping- Get someone else, like put it, “Don’t write so that you can pong balls, stating the adjective be understood. Write so that you “incendiary” could be very the ordering manager, can’t be misunderstood.” important. The story is true about to read your General a buying team scouring sporting Message form. Even if your request is urgent, goods stores for 1,000 table tennis make it foolproof. Taking a few balls for a helibase. extra moments to check the clarity (including the legibility If you are ordering 300 feet (90 m) If your spelling is atrocious or and spelling) of your request—or of 3-inch (7.5-cm) camlock hose, your usage imprecise, beware! having it proofread—can save is that enough information? The hours or days (and acres burned) person charged with obtaining In 2015, a buying team spent time in getting you what you need. ■ the hose might not know that with Dispatch trying to figure out intake hose is different from what a “30 coker with looper bail” discharge hose. Is accordion hose was. The mystery was solved when acceptable? Can the 300 feet (91 someone suggested it might be a m) be in three 100-foot (30-m) “30-foot [9-m] choker with loop lengths? Bottom line: The more bail.” It turned out that a logging specific you are, the better for you supplier could make it onsite, but and your operation. what size cable was needed— 5 /8-inch (1.6-cm), ¾-inch (1.9-cm),
Fire Management Today 26 Saving Lives, Property, and Tax Dollars in Nebraska Deloris Pittman
n 2012, the Mead Volunteer Fire and Rescue Department in INebraska found itself in a tight spot. Equipment needed to be updated, and purchasing a brand new truck was not feasible. The department’s executive board met with the Nebraska Rural Fire District Board to discuss how best to use taxpayer money while giving the community the best possible fire protection. Mead Volunteer Fire and Rescue Department HEMMTs in action. Standard size for these heavy-duty vehicles is over 30 feet (9.1 m) long, 8 feet (2.4 m) wide, and 9 feet (2.7 m) high. Photo: Nick Raver, Mead Volunteer Fire and Rescue Department.
By making the trucks offered a 2,500-gallon (9,464-L) More Capacity With into multiple-use heavy expanded-mobility tactical Cost Savings truck (HEMTT). emergency vehicles, In 2015, the department acquired a the department has HEMTTs are used by the U.S. Army. second HEMTT, making it capable of transporting 5,000 gallons saved the district The 8-by-8 offroad trucks are capable of fording water crossings (18,927 L) of water. Both trucks about $600,000. up to 48 inches (122 cm) deep. are equipped with spray bars and Standard size for these heavy-duty monitoring guns for field fires. The vehicles is over 30 feet (9.1 m) second truck was also outfitted with long, 8 feet (2.4 m) wide, and 9 a PyroLance, a specialized, ultra- high-pressure spraying tool for Heavy-Duty Fire Trucks feet (2.7 m) high. With this type of build, the HEMTT seemed to be firefighting. Fire Chief Nick Raver met with a good fit for the Mead Volunteer Lew Sieber, manager of the Fire and Rescue Department. “Since getting the two trucks,” Nebraska Forest Service Fire Raver noted, “we have been mutual- Shop, to see whether the Fire The department took delivery of aided to five different counties. We Shop could help in finding a the tanker in 2013 and spent about have used the trucks for all fires, car truck that would work for the $55,000 to get it up and running. accidents, snowstorms, and most department. The department recently, a water rescue.” needed a tanker that could hold at “We made the truck so it only took least 2,000 gallons (7,571 L) and one firefighter to run the truck,” By making the trucks into multiple- could go offroad. The Fire Shop said Raver. “After using the truck use emergency vehicles, the for a couple years, we went back department has saved the district to the rural board and requested about $600,000. The trucks also Deloris Pittman is the marketing and another HEMTT.” serve as a great recruiting tool: It’s promotions manager for the University not every day you see a fire truck of Nebraska Agricultural Research and like this! ■ Development Center near Mead, NE. Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 27 Minnesota Programs Benefit Rural Fire Departments Christi Powers
he Brimson Fire Department is now better prepared to The new addition to the Brimson fleet will aid in Tfight fires, thanks to the Minnesota Department of Natural area fire suppression efforts. Resources’s (DNR’s) partnership with the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). The DNR’s Rural Fire Department program, in cooperation with the DoD’s Firefighter Property Program, delivers equipment to rural fire departments.
An Affordable Acquisition In July 2016, the 14-member Brimson Fire Department northeast of Duluth, MN, added a 2009 water tender to its aging fleet of firefighting vehicles. The department saved thousands of dollars by acquiring the vehicle through military surplus.
“We paid about $4,300 to acquire Brimson Fire Department water tender. Photo: Paul Tiné, Brimson Fire Department. the vehicle and another $10,000 for paint and accessories for a truck that costs nearly $100,000 The department works closely “This new water tender has a new,” said Fire Chief Paul Tiné, a with the Forest Service and the higher wheel base and will give us founding member of the Brimson Minnesota DNR to fight wildfires. better clearance over grass and on Fire Department. rough terrain.” The six-cylinder diesel-fueled The volunteer fire department, water tender can haul 1,200 Through municipal and established in 1981, offers fire gallons (4,542 L) of water to interagency agreements, other suppression and emergency service a pumper and is easier organizations will benefit from services to a 360-square-mile (930- to drive offroad than the vehicle the acquisition. The Brimson km2) area that includes portions of it replaced. Over the years, the Fire Department has helped the the Superior National Forest and Brimson Fire Department received DNR office in Two Harbors, MN, the Cloquet Valley State Forest. many calls to assist on wildfires in on wildfires. The new addition to the area. the Brimson fleet will aid in fire suppression efforts throughout Christi Powers is a public information “We have more wildland fires the area. officer for the Minnesota Interagency Fire Center, Grand Rapids, MN. than structural fires,” said Tiné.
Fire Management Today 28 Rural Fire Programs Minnesota’s rural fire program delivers surplus Aside from its Federal equipment at low cost to communities that might partnerships, the DNR has several programs for assisting fire not otherwise afford it. departments in rural Minnesota through low-cost equipment, cost- share grants, technical assistance, and wildland fire training. “Communities give us their wish do counties and communities lists and we scout surplus programs with a community wildfire The Wildland Fire Equipment to suit their needs.” protection plan or a county all- Sales program, also known as hazard mitigation plan. Additional “fire cache sales,” offers wildland The Volunteer Fire Assistance considerations include the type fire suppression equipment to Grant program is a cost-share of project, fire runs, and previous Minnesota fire departments at a program that gives financial and funding received. low cost. Equipment sold through technical assistance to Minnesota this program meets wildland fire fire departments in cities or Oland estimated that nearly specifications. communities with populations $3 million worth of surplus under 10,000. The main goals of equipment was delivered to “Our rural fire program delivers the program are saving lives and Minnesota rural fire departments surplus equipment at low cost protecting property in rural areas. in 2015. ■ to communities that might not otherwise afford it,” said Tim Oland, Fire departments with the rural fire department coordinator. greatest need take priority, as
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 29 Assessing Fire Management Needs in the Pacific Islands: A Collaborative Approach Clay Trauernicht, Elizabeth Pickett, Pablo Beimler, Christian P. Giardina, Susan Cordell, J.B. Friday, Eric Moller, and Creighton M. Litton
ildland fire is a significant and growing threat to To meet our objectives, we developed a Wcommunities and natural resources on Hawaii and the U.S.- stakeholder assessment process specifically affiliated Pacific Islands, including designed to guide the activities of the Pacific Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Fire Exchange. Mariana Islands, the Republic of Palau, the Federated States exchange among practitioners providing information that is of Micronesia, and the Republic and researchers and to bridge the accurate [and] credible” (Kocher of the Marshall Islands (see, for “science–management divide” and others 2012). The Joint example, Trauernicht and others remains a challenge (Roux and Fire Science Program’s (JFSP’s) 2015). Collaborative approaches others 2006). Fire Science Exchange Network to fire management are critical was created as a direct response because multiple interacting Here, we outline our process of to the need for improved two- factors—including climate, facilitating bidirectional knowledge way communication between ecosystem composition, land use exchange to meet fire management practitioners and researchers history, social-ecological impacts, needs for the Pacific Island region (Wright 2010; LeQuire 2011). The and cultural perceptions—create through an initial assessment Fire Science Exchange Network highly complex problems (Dellasala of on-the-ground needs of consists of 15 consortia working and others 2004). However, stakeholders. Our objectives were towards improving fire-focused identifying effective strategies to to provide an opportunity for active knowledge exchange across all the promote dialogue and knowledge engagement among stakeholders, major ecoregions of the United to create a foundation for States (http://www.firescience. Clay Trauernicht is an assistant specialist identifying the availability and gov/JFSP_exchanges.cfm). The in wildland fire extension at the College relevance of existing information guiding principles for the network of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai i at Manoa, based on management needs, and stress inclusivity, impartiality, Honolulu, HI; Elizabeth Pickett is the to inform the development of new facilitation, and (most executive director and Pablo Beimler is the fire science. importantly) the development community outreach coordinator for the and delivery of information based Hawai i Wildfire Management Organization, on the needs of and continuous Kamuela, HI; Christian Giardina is a Facilitating Knowledge research ecologist and Susan Cordell is a feedback from the end users. research ecologist for the Forest Service, Exchange Through Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Hilo, Boundary Organizations Effective knowledge exchange HI; J.B. Friday is an associate specialist requires identifying not only whom in forestry extension at the College of Recent work has stressed Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, the importance of “boundary to engage but also how to engage University of Hawai i at Manoa, Honolulu, organizations” that can them. Stakeholders are typically HI; Eric Moller is fire chief for Fire and facilitate knowledge exchange identified based on the problem Emergency Services at the U.S. Army by “understanding the decision at hand; but differentiating them Pohakuloa Training Area, Hilo, HI; and based on, for example, their Creighton Litton is an associate professor context and stakeholder at the College of Tropical Agriculture and perspective, developing strong relative degrees of interest in a Human Resources, University of Hawai i at stakeholder relationships, and problem and their relative abilities Manoa, Honolulu, HI. Fire Management Today 30 to influence its outcome can be The context in which fire occurs on and affects useful for targeting key sources of information and identifying Pacific Island landscapes can be markedly different underrepresented groups (Reed from continental systems. and others 2009). Successful stakeholder engagement, on the other hand, is best approached as lightning strikes. The region was indicate that the proportion of a structured, continuous process one of the last places on Earth total land area burned annually that identifies explicit, agreed- to be colonized by people (1,000 on these islands in some years upon objectives and emphasizes to 3,000 years ago), and they exceeds that of the Western empowerment, equity, trust, brought with them the use of United States (see, for example, and learning (Reed 2008). The fire for agriculture and clearing Trauernicht and others 2015). success of the JFSP’s Fire Science land. For instance, burning Exchange Network and other by early Polynesian settlers in The impacts of wildland fire are “boundary organizations” therefore New Zealand has been linked to particularly acute on Pacific depends upon their ability to widespread habitat conversion Islands, given the region’s facilitate communication and (Perry and others 2012). Similarly, limited land area, the relative relationships and thereby provide in Micronesia, the establishment sensitivity of its native ecosystems a service that may be outside the and persistence of native savanna to fire, and the proximity of scope of work or skillset of the vegetation has been attributed upland and coastal resources. stakeholders involved. to frequent burning by people However, development of fire (Athens and Ward 2004), a research and management To meet our objectives, we practice that continues today. knowledge on Pacific Islands is developed a stakeholder limited relative to continental assessment process specifically More recently, the flammability ecosystems. Established tools for designed to guide the activities of of many Pacific Island landscapes fire prediction and operational the Pacific Fire Exchange (PFX; has increased dramatically due response, such as standard http://www.pacificfireexchange. to the introduction and rapid fuel and fire-spread models org/). The PFX is a JFSP spread of nonnative fire-prone and the National Fire Danger knowledge exchange consortium grasses and shrubs. These species Rating System, have uncertain established to serve Hawaii and have altered fuel composition and applicability due to extremely the U.S.-affiliated Pacific Islands. loads in Fijian and Micronesian steep environmental gradients, Although specific to the Pacific savannas, and they form the sparse weather data, and novel Island region, the process we dominant vegetation cover fuel types (Fujioka and others developed might be a useful model across nearly one-quarter of the 2000; Weise and others 2010; for stakeholder engagement inhabited Hawaiian archipelago but see Pierce and others 2014). elsewhere, and our results (Trauernicht and others 2015). Given the knowledge gaps, it is offer insight into the needs and The consequent increase in the imperative that efforts to develop challenges inherent in bridging availability and continuity of fine fire science in the Pacific Island fire science and management. fuels, combined with drought, region explicitly meet the needs of topographically defined dry land managers, fire managers, and Wildland Fire on Pacific ecosystems, and abundant human- fire responders. Islands caused ignitions, has created conditions for frequent, often The Need for Fire Science The context in which fire occurs year-round occurrence of wildland on and affects Pacific Island fire throughout the region. For Knowledge Exchange landscapes can be markedly instance, it is estimated that 20 In 2011, the Forest Service’s different from continental percent of Yap burned under Institute of Pacific Island Forestry, systems. Prior to human arrival, severe drought conditions during the Hawaii Wildfire Management wildland fire was relatively the 1998 El Niño (FSM–DRD Organization, and the College of infrequent and limited locally 2010), while wildland fire records Tropical Agriculture and Human to volcanic events and rare from Hawaii, Guam, and Palau Resources of the University of Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 31 Hawai i at Ma–noa partnered to these patterns; they pointed to a diverse range of perspectives develop the PFX. The exchange’s a pressing need for something and expertise to ensure that PFX overarching goal is to improve like the PFX. In addition, most deliverables address stakeholder communication between respondents (72 percent) identified needs. The experts convened at the science and practitioner “improved partner communication the workshop included 14 fire communities in Hawaii and the and collaboration” as the greatest managers, fire responders, land U.S.-affiliated Pacific Islands by communication need for enhancing managers, cooperative extension increasing collaboration and by fire management in the region. specialists, and researchers developing and disseminating representing the following agencies science-based best practices and organizations: the Center for fire management based on The impacts of wildland for Environmental Management stakeholder needs. of Military Lands; the Hawaii fire are particularly Division of Forestry and Wildlife; In 2011, the PFX conducted acute on Pacific Islands. the Hawaii Wildfire Management an initial needs assessment Organization; Kamehameha among 46 individual scientists, Schools; the Oahu Army Natural educators, land managers, and fire Resources Program; the Pacific responders in Hawaii and the Identifying PFX Knowledge Disaster Center; University of Pacific Island region as part Themes Hawaii Cooperative Extension; of a national survey developed the University of Hawaii at Manoa; Given the challenge of bridging by the JFSP (Kocher and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; these information needs, the PFX others 2012). The top fire- and the USDA Forest Service and Steering Committee undertook related concerns identified by Natural Resources Conservation a collaborative effort to identify respondents were watershed Service. The participants were and prioritize fire management protection, land management, divided into two groups to knowledge gaps for the Pacific and native and invasive/nonnative brainstorm and discuss any and all Island region. In September 2013, species, concerns that reflect the wildfire-related knowledge gaps and we organized a workshop at the drivers and impacts of wildfire. information needs for the region, University of Hawaii at Manoa Stakeholders are attuned to such categorized broadly into research to elicit the expert opinion of issues, even though a statewide fire and management needs. After members of both the PFX Steering assessment did not exist until 2015. about 40 minutes, the participants Committee and the Advisory regrouped, outlined the topics Panel. These two governing bodies Although the percentage of brought up, and included any meet monthly and biannually, practitioners who ranked fire as a additional ideas raised. respectively, bringing together high-priority issue was large (75 to 86 percent), most respondents consulted fire science information only “sometimes,” “rarely,” or “never.” When split across professions, the percentage who responded in these three ways was 60 percent for fire suppression, 57 percent for habitat restoration, and 75 percent for both mitigation/ fuels management and education/ outreach. The top two challenges to accessing scientific information on fire management identified by respondents—“the lack of regionally relevant information” Figure 1—Stakeholder rankings (1 = low priority, 9 = high priority) of the nine Pacific Fire Exchange (PFX) Knowledge Themes that emerged from a PFX Advisory Panel and “no centralized source of workshop of key stakeholders in fire and land management and research for the Pacific information”—likely explain Island region Fire Management Today 32 Among the main Knowledge Themes, Pre-Fire After the workshop, we organized the resulting topics into a master Management was ranked the highest priority by far list of 9 “PFX Knowledge Themes,” among information needs. each with 5 to 10 subtopics (fig. 1). Given the diversity of needs identified, the PFX Knowledge Hawaiian island (50 percent); all in proactive land management Themes allowed us to structure Hawaiian Islands (22 percent); strategies to reduce wildfire risk. stakeholder concerns in a manner Hawaii and the U.S.-affiliated The top-ranked subtopics for reflecting the JFSP’s “lines of Pacific Islands (22 percent); and this particular theme included work” (http://www.firescience. the U.S.-affiliated Pacific Islands Firebreaks and Fuelbreaks, gov/JFSP_line_of_work.cfm). only (6 percent). Community Wildfire Protection This approach acknowledges that Plans, Greenstrips or Living/ fire management problems are Respondents were given a brief Shaded Fuelbreaks, and Pre-Fire complex, require the integration explanation of the nine PFX Planning for Land Managers (fig. of multiple information Knowledge Themes and then 2). Prioritizing these subtopics components, and demand a asked to rank them in order of not only helps focus future PFX central role for stakeholders importance to their work areas. product development but also in defining information needs. For the Pre-Fire Management allows for the identification The PFX Knowledge Themes Knowledge Theme, for instance, of research needs based on also allowed us to identify how we gave examples of the subtopics the availability of existing Pacific Island fire management within the theme, such as fuels information. For example, needs align with the overarching reduction, fuelbreaks, and resources are available for prefire goals of fire-resilient landscapes, prefire planning. We then asked planning and fuelbreak placement fire-adapted communities, and participants to separately rank all and specifications even in tropical improved fire suppression outlined subtopics identified within each nonnative grasslands. By contrast, in the National Cohesive Strategy Knowledge Theme in order of the design of greenstrips might for Wildland Fire Management importance. differ greatly on the Pacific Islands (Jewell and Vilsack 2014). from temperate continental Survey Highlights systems, where most existing Prioritizing Knowledge information comes from. The Among the main PFX Knowledge Themes differences might be in terms of Themes, Pre-Fire Management management objectives (such as After the PFX Knowledge Themes was ranked the highest priority shading out tropical grasses) and and corresponding subtopics were by far among information needs the species that are best suited for outlined, we asked stakeholders (fig. 1), reflecting the interest this use. to prioritize the development of knowledge exchange products and activities from the list. We sent out a survey (using kwiksurvey.com) in February 2014 and received responses from 66 participants, who gave their relevant work field(s) as land management (70 percent); fire response (17 percent); research (23 percent); agriculture/ranching (12 percent); outreach/education (23 percent); planning (17 percent); and other (11 percent). The respondents also designated Figure 2—Stakeholder rankings (l = low priority, 8 = high priority) of the eight subtopics their work area as a single organized within the Pre-Fire Management Knowledge Theme. Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 33 The next two highest ranked habitats; by contrast, wildfire risk agricultural lands (Trauernicht Knowledge Themes were in Hawaii’s WUI is primarily and others 2015). These concerns Prevention/Outreach/Education linked to the expansion of were also reflected in the top- and the Wildland–Urban Interface nonnative fire-prone vegetation ranked subtopics within the (WUI). These priorities highlight and the abandonment of Drivers of Wildfire Knowledge the recognition that human agricultural lands around Theme: Vegetation and Fuels, dimensions and social issues existing communities. Identifying Effects of Different Land/ are critical to improving fire these issues also indicates how Resource Uses, Fire Behavior, and management on Pacific Islands. the dissemination of existing Introduced Species. The vast majority of wildfires resources can be prioritized. For in the Pacific Island region are example, statewide community For the Post-Fire Response human caused (see, for example, hazard maps are now available Knowledge Theme, Preparedness Trauernicht and others 2015), yet through the Hawai i Wildfire for Post-Fire Conditions ranked no research available for the region Management Organization highest among subtopics, examines social questions such as (http://www.hawaiiwildfire.org/ reflecting the challenges in Hawai risk perception or the effectiveness wildfire-hazard-assessments), i and other Pacific Islands of of fire prevention messaging. providing a perfect opportunity to obtaining sufficient quantities develop strategies for effectively of native plant material for site Wildfire Preparedness Materials delivering this resource to rehabilitation and of using wildfires and Workshops were ranked interested stakeholders. as restoration opportunities (Loh highest among the subtopics and others 2009). The low ranking within the Prevention/Outreach/ of Wildfire Impacts among the Education Knowledge Theme. Wildfire preparedness PFX Knowledge Themes may These priorities highlight the reflect a general understanding importance of efforts to engage materials and that wildfires largely have communities in fire issues workshops were ranked negative impacts on Pacific Island through organizations such as landscapes and that there is greater the Hawaii Wildfire Management highest among the need for information on how to Organization. There is also a subtopics within the proactively mitigate those impacts. need to integrate local contexts Among Wildfire Impact subtopics, and cultural perspectives into Prevention/Outreach/ Addressing Watershed and wildfire outreach information. Education Knowledge Landscape Spatial Scales ranked For example, the Hawaii Wildfire highest, followed by Native Habitat Management Organization Theme. and Species and by Soils. collaborated with the University of Hawaii Cooperative Extension Lessons Learned program to put together images and data from a PFX synthesis The need to address local issues The PFX Knowledge Themes of Hawai‘i’s fire history for the is also related to the Wildfire emerged intuitively from the production of a Ready, Set, Go! Suppression Knowledge Theme. topics identified by the PFX guide for wildfire preparedness Hawai i’s novel fuel types and Advisory Panel. However, asking specific to Hawai‘i. sharp gradients in rainfall respondents to sort more than five and elevation present unique items can limit any meaningful The high priority given to challenges that confound many distinctions among the “middle prefire management and WUI of the predictive tools applied in ground” categories. Therefore, issues in Hawaii and the Pacific the continental United States. In the survey for ranking subtopics Island region also attests to particular, nonnative grasslands within each PFX Knowledge the need to develop regionally in Hawai i attain incredibly high Theme might have been more relevant information. On the U.S. fine fuel loads (that is, 7 to 15 effective had we asked participants mainland, for instance, wildfire tons per acre (15,685–27,885 kg/ to score the importance of each risk increases as development ha)) and cover vast expanses due subtopic individually (such as on a pushes into native fire-prone to widespread abandonment of Likert scale of 1 to 5).
Fire Management Today 34 Yet a conservative interpretation how stakeholder needs change as gov/Digest/FSdigest11.pdf. (August 10, focused on the top and bottom communication and information 2017.) Loh, R.; Ainsworth, A.; Tunison, T; rankings still affords a clear availability improve. Finally, D’Antonio, C. 2009. Testing native species understanding of stakeholder this process established the response to fire—A first step towards priorities. In addition, initially importance of stakeholder input building fire resilient plant communities dividing the PFX Advisory Panel for PFX products and activities at at Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. into separate discussions on the outset and set a precedent for Tech. Rep. 167. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, University of research and management might maintaining feedback and building Hawai‘i at Manoa. not have served our objectives relationships that will increase Perry, G.L.W.; Wilmshurst, J.M.; McGlone, and was likely unnecessary, given the impact and application of fire M.S. [and others]. 2012. Explaining the considerable overlap science moving forward. fire‐driven landscape transformation during the Initial Burning Period of New in participant contributions Zealand’s prehistory. Global Change between these two categories. References Biology. 18(5): 1609–1621. Finally, we highly recommend Pierce, A.D.; McDaniel, S.; Wasser, M. [and Athens, J.S.; Ward, J.V. 2004. Holocene others]. 2014. Using a prescribed fire to the use of “diverging stacked vegetation, savanna origins and human test custom and standard fuel models for bar charts,” as shown in figures settlement of Guam. In: Attenbrow, fire behaviour prediction in a non‐native, V.; Fullagar, R., eds. A Pacific Odyssey: 1 and 2, to effectively visualize, grass‐invaded tropical dry shrubland. archaeology and anthropology in the interpret, and communicate Applied Vegetation Science. 17(4): Western Pacific. Papers in honour of Jim 700–710. the types of data produced by Specht. Records of the Australian Museum Reed, M.S. 2008. Stakeholder participation stakeholder assessments (Robbins Supplement. Sydney, Australia: Australian for environmental management: a Museum. 29: 15–30. and others 2011). literature review. Biological Conservation. Dellasala, D.A.; Williams, J.E.; Williams, 141(10): 2417–2431. C.D.; Franklin, J.E. 2004. Beyond smoke The dual-stage approach employed Reed, M.S.; Graves, A.; Dandy, N. [and and mirrors: a synthesis of fire policy others]. 2009. Who’s in and why? A here to identify stakeholder needs and science. Conservation Biology. 18(4): typology of stakeholder analysis methods was a productive way to engage 976–986. for natural resource management. Journal FSM–DRD (Federated States of partners and effectively identify of Environmental Management. 90(5): Micronesia Department of Resources fire management needs in the 1933–1949. and Development). 2010. Federated Robbins, N.B.; Heiberger, R.M.; Court, Pacific Island region. Drawing on States of Micronesia state-wide C.; Hall, S. 2011. Plotting Likert and decades of collective experience assessment and resource strategy. other rating scales. In: Statistics: an all- Palikir, Phonpei: Federated States of in wildland fire research, encompassing discipline: Proceedings of Micronesia Department of Resources and management, and response among the 2011 Joint Statistical Meeting, section Development. 215 p. key stakeholders on the PFX on survey research methods. Alexandria, Fujioka, F.M.; Weise, D.R.; Burgan, R.E. VA: American Statistical Association: Steering Committee and Advisory 2000. A high resolution fire danger rating 1058–1066. Panel helped rapidly identify system for Hawaii. 3rd Symposium on Fire Roux, D.J.; Rogers, K.H.; Biggs, H.C. [and and Forest Meteorology; 9–14 January; the major areas of concern. others]. 2006. Bridging the science- Long Beach, CA; 80th Annual Meeting Structuring these needs across management divide: moving from of the American Meteorological Society: unidirectional knowledge transfer to the PFX Knowledge Themes 103–106. knowledge interfacing and sharing. streamlined the prioritization Jewell, S.; Vilsack, T.J. 2014. The national Ecology and Society. 11(1): 4. strategy: the final phase in the process involving a wider group of Trauernicht, C.; Pickett, E.; Giardina, C. [and development of the National Cohesive stakeholders who are concerned others]. 2015. The contemporary scale Wildland Fire Management Strategy. about fire but may lack the and context of wildfire in Hawaii. Pacific Washington, DC: USDA/U.S. Department Science. 69(4): 427–444. expertise to identify the full range of the Interior. 93 p. https://www.esrl. Weise, D.R.; Stephens, S.L.; Fujioka, F.M. of fire-related needs. noaa.gov/csd/projects/firex/2014-National- [and others]. 2010. Estimation of fire Cohesive-Wildland-Fire-Management- danger in Hawai’i using limited weather Strategy.pdf. (August 11, 2017.) The initial outcome for the PFX data and simulation. Pacific Science. Kocher, S.D.; Toman, E.; Trainor, S.F. [and 64(2): 199–220. is a “roadmap” for guiding the others]. 2012. How can we span the Wright, V. 2010. Influences to the success development and dissemination boundaries between wildland fire science of fire science delivery: Perspectives of and management in the United States? of best practices for fire potential benefits of fire/fuels science Journal of Forestry. 110(8): 421–428. management over the coming users. [Missoula, MT]: USDA Forest LeQuire, E. 2011. Knowledge exchange: a decade. This information will Service, Rocky Mountain Research two-way street. In: Fire Science Digest. Station; final report; Joint Fire Science also allow PFX project leaders Boise, ID: Joint Fire Science Program. 11 Program project 04–4–2–01. 62 p. and others to assess whether and (August): 1–15. https://www.firescience.
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 35 Fire Control and the 2015 Canyon Creek Complex Fire
Hutch Brown
ire control—the notion that all wildland fires can and Arguments on both sides focused on wildland Fshould be quickly controlled, with fire largely excluded from the firefighting, with few questions asked about how landscape—is ingrained in public well prepared homes were. expectations of government in the United States. A review of the issue for the International Code Council summarized the thinking of many Accordingly, the average annual disaster strikes and homes burn homeowners in the wildland–urban risk of a wildfire destroying a home down, the natural reaction is to interface (WUI): in the WUI was less than 1 one- blame the Forest Service for fire hundredth of 1 percent. control failure and for the Forest In the event that a wildland Service to blame fuels, weather, fire should break out near your Of course, the risk is much higher insufficient resources—anything peaceful sanctuary, government in fire-prone parts of the South but the susceptibility of the firefighting agencies will and West, but so are expectations homes themselves to ignition and respond with “quasi military” that government firefighters will destruction. might. You won’t see a bill come to the rescue (NWCG 2001; for their services. And if your Pyne 2015; Stein and others 2013). Investigative Report home burns down, insurance Confident that they can shape wild landscapes to their liking, people A classic case was an instance of money will build you another investigative reporting on the Forest … coupled with the “it won’t have bought homes in the WUI believing that wildfires could be Service’s response to a disastrous happen to me” syndrome, [is]one wildfire in Oregon in 2015 of the explanations why so many controlled (Bramwell 2014; Gorte 1995). They did so in part because (Gunderson and Sickinger 2016). are making the decision to live On August 12, under severe drought in these areas (Bailey 2007). the Forest Service had told them so. For most of its history, the conditions, lightning ignited fires agency waged a relentless war on on the Malheur National Forest, A False Sense of Security wildfire (Pyne 1982, 2001, 2015), which lies in the spectacular Blue In fact, the chance of any given “creating a false sense of security Mountains about 5 miles (8 km) home in the WUI burning down and outsized expectations from south of the town of John Day in in a wildfire in any given year is homeowners” (Bramwell 2014). eastern Oregon (fig. 1). Driven negligible. From 2010 to 2016, for by high winds, the fires burned example, 3,754 structures burned The expectations persist. During together to form the Canyon Creek on average in wildfires each year fire season, the prevailing Complex Fire. Vigorously fought (NICC 2017), whereas the WUI mindset in the public, the from the start, the fire was finally nationwide had 43.8 million homes media, and the Forest Service declared controlled on November 5, (Martinuzzi and others 2015). alike revolves around wildland but not before it had spread across fire suppression, despite the 110,261 acres (44,621 ha) and limitations of fire control—and destroyed 43 homes and at least 100 Hutch Brown is the editor of Fire outbuildings. It was the most homes Management Today. When he wrote the despite the responsibility of article, he was a policy analyst for the homeowners for treating fuels in destroyed by a wildfire in Oregon Forest Service in the Washington Office, and around their homes. So when since the Bandon Fire in 1936. Washington, DC. Fire Management Today 36 restoration (Brown 2016). But the investigative reporters focused almost entirely on wildland fire suppression, blaming “poor planning and tactical errors” for a “monster wildfire that could have been tamed” (Gunderson and Sickinger 2016). Setting the theme for the article, the reporters quoted a distraught homeowner: “They should have put this fire out.”
That judgment was followed in the article by a litany of complaints about the Forest Service, such as failing to hoard firefighting resources for local use, using excessive caution to protect firefighter safety, and conducting morning briefings instead of fighting the fire (Gunderson and Sickinger 2016). In response, the Forest Service noted that the Pacific Northwest Region was dealing with 88 new fires at the Figure 1—Fire perimeter (dotted red line) of the Canyon Creek Complex Fire, August 12 time, including 17 uncontained to November 4, 2015. Structures burned included 39 homes along U.S. Route 395 during large fires and 12 new fire starts the first major fire run (August 14) and 4 homes along Indian Creek Road during the third major fire run (August 29). Although the fire burned structures along Pine Creek on the Malheur National Forest Road during the second major fire run (August 26), no homes were lost in the Pine Creek alone. Accordingly, all incident community, which had an active Firewise program. Source: Blue Mountain Eagle (2016). management teams in the region were overtaxed and understaffed. Most of the damage was in a scenic (the Southern Blues Restoration canyon along U.S. Route 395 (fig. Coalition Project) under the Forest 1), which follows Canyon Creek Service’s Collaborative Forest north to John Day. Canyon Creek Landscape Restoration Program. reaches deep into the interior As part of the restoration project, of the Blue Mountains, and its the Canyon Creek area had been canyon floor was historically an scheduled for thinning treatments, open woodland made up of conifers followed by the reintroduction of (ponderosa pine, western larch, low-severity fire (MNF 2016). and Douglas-fir), with frequent fire return intervals (0 to 30 years) Fire Control Failure? and low-severity fires. A century The Canyon Creek Complex of fire control had left the area Fire preempted many of the overgrown by dense mixed-conifer planned restoration treatments, forest, with many missed fire Forest Service Chief Tom Tidwell and highlighting delays associated return intervals and the threat of Oregon Governor Kate Brown at a briefing with collaborative projects, an uncharacteristically severe fire. on the Canyon Creek Complex Fire on environmental analysis under the August 19, 2015. Source: NWCG (2016); National Environmental Policy photo: Lori Iverson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Much of the Malheur National Act, and a lack of sufficient Forest Service. Forest is part of a large-scale, Service funding for ecological long-term restoration project Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 37 Forest Service Chief Tom Tidwell, Grant County—where the fire took Complex Fire unscathed, with no who came to the Canyon Creek place—had signed a community homes lost (NWCG 2015; Zaitz Complex Fire for briefings, wildfire protection plan in 2013 2015). The community members later emphasized the difficulty (Jerome 2013). had pruned, mowed, thinned trees, of making wildland firefighting The countywide plan was and improved local access routes. decisions during “a record year designed to encourage individual They had located water sources for large, hot, destructive, and communities to adopt plans of and set up sprinklers. Before costly wildfires” (Tidwell 2016). their own or to become Firewise the fire made a run toward their A Forest Service report called the communities. Whether the community on August 26, they 2015 fire season in the Pacific community along Canyon Creek had evacuated their homes. Upon Northwest “the most severe in had taken corresponding steps returning, they found that the fire modern history from a number is unclear; none were reported had bypassed their homes, which of standpoints,” including the (Gunderson and Sickinger 2016), engine crews from fire departments number of wildfires (3,800) and and apparently some homes were in the John Day area could protect the extent of the area burned (1.6 unprepared (fig. 2). For example, by extinguishing spot fires. Every million acres (0.6 million ha)) one homeowner tried to defend his home had survived. (Blue Mountain Eagle 2016). home with a hose until “the pine tree next to the house suddenly The Firewise success story was Homes Unprepared burst into flames, sending a ball reported at the time by The of super-heated gases under the Oregonian (Zaitz 2015), the same Whatever their merits, the eaves” (Gunderson and Sickinger paper that carried the subsequent arguments on both sides focused 2016). That home, bordered by investigative report (Gunderson on wildland firefighting, with few a combustible pine, went up and Sickinger 2016). Yet the questions asked about how well in flames. investigative reporters made no prepared homes in the Canyon mention of the Pine Creek story, Creek WUI were for surviving a By contrast, the John Day focusing instead on the Forest megafire like the Canyon Creek community of Pine Creek, Service’s supposed failure to Complex. For an investigative registered in the Firewise prevent the destruction of homes report that was months in the Community Program since along Canyon Creek. making, that is surprising because 2014, survived the Canyon Creek Safety First Sensational reporting about “monster fires” notwithstanding, the Canyon Creek Complex Fire was neither unusual nor unexpected, given regional drought and decades of fuel buildups. Canyon Creek was only the latest in a series of 13 megafires in Oregon since 2000 (see the sidebar), several of them much larger than Canyon Creek. The only thing distinctive about Canyon Creek was the number of homes burned.
Extinguishing the fire in the first day or two would have done nothing to alter the explosive burning conditions; it Figure 2—Area of dense vegetation and uncleared ladder fuels allows a crown fire around would have only postponed the a home. Source: NWCG (2016); photo: Forest Service. Fire Management Today 38 inevitable. After winds drove the fire out of control 2 days after it started, firefighters did what they normally do on large wind- driven fires: they stopped trying to control the fire and started protecting points of value, such as infrastructure and individual communities, by evacuating large areas and using backfires and burnouts to “herd” the fire around sensitive points. Despite the steep and difficult terrain and the extreme fire behavior—such as multiple fire runs across more than 10,000 acres (4,000 ha) in a single burning period (on Homes with trees widely spaced August 14, 26, and 29)—nobody and pruned up high provide defensible space. was seriously hurt on the fire, a remarkable success; safety is the Home that is firesafe, with enough defensible space. Source: NWCG (2016); photo: Forest first priority on any fire. Service. After burning through the Canyon Creek area on August 14, Megafires in Oregon, 2000–2015 the fire threatened other WUI 2015 communities, yet no more than Canyon Creek Complex...... 110,261 acres (44,621 ha) a handful of homes were lost Comet–Windy Ridge...... 102,089 acres (41,314 ha) (fig. 1), partly due to successful point protection by firefighters. 2014 And as the fire spread into the Buzzard Complex...... 395,747 acres (160,153 ha) backcountry, it burned areas 2012 long overdue for a wildland fire, Long Draw...... 557,628 acres (225,664 ha) restoring fire to vast areas of fire- Miller Homestead...... 160,853 acres (65,095 ha) adapted forest that desperately 2011 needed it—a beneficial effect of any High Cascades...... (108,154 acres (43,768 ha) large fire like Canyon Creek. 2007 Egley Complex...... 140,359 acres (56,809 ha) Lessons Learned 2006 In short, the Canyon Creek fire South End Complex...... 117,553 acres (47,572 ha) disaster was not a lesson in Columbia Complex...... 109,259 acres (44,216 ha) suppression gone awry but in WUI fuels done wrong—and done right 2002 by the Pine Creek community. Biscuit...... 500,068 acres (202,370 ha) Sooner or later, fire-adapted Tool Box Complex...... 120,085 acres (48,597 ha) landscapes in places like the Blue 2001 Mountains will burn. The best Lakeview Complex...... 179,400 acres (72,601 ha) way of protecting the WUI on their outskirts, in Oregon and 2000 elsewhere across the country, is for Jackson...... 108,000 acres (43,706 ha) homeowners to take responsibility Source: NIFC (2016). for altering the fuels in and around
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 39 their own homes (Calkin and The community of Pine Creek, registered in the others 2014; Cohen 2000, 2008, 2010; Reinhardt and others 2008). Firewise Community Program since 2014, survived the Canyon Creek Complex Fire Clearly, wildland fire suppression is often needed to protect homes, unscathed, with no homes lost. communities, infrastructure, and other values. But the fire control mindset of so many in the Wildland fire organizations can References public—and in the wildland fire help by featuring Firewise success Bailey, D.W. 2007. The wildland/urban community—is a holdover from stories, acknowledging the interface crisis: Is there a solution? a bygone era. Based on wishful corresponding accomplishments, United Nations International Strategy for thinking about conditions that no and giving awards. Organizing Disaster Reduction; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; longer exist (if ever they did), it an event featuring the Firewise distracts from what actually needs European Commission. Actas de la IV community of Pine Creek, for Conferencia Internacional sobre Incendios to be done: managing fuels within example, might have shifted the Forestales [CD–ROM]; 13–18 de mayo a 100-foot (30-m) home ignition focus and changed the story of de 2007; Sevilla, España. NIPO 311–07– zone so that a home in the WUI the Canyon Creek Complex Fire, 014–7. [Place of publication unknown]. can survive even a severe wildland Session 5. 17 p. http://www.iawfonline.org/ saving firefighters from undeserved WUI%20WARS%20ARTICLE%20DAN%20 fire (fig. 3). blame. ■ BAILEY.pdf. (August 11, 2017). Blue Mountain Eagle [John Day, OR]. 2016. FS releases new report about Canyon Creek Complex. May 27. http:// www.bluemountaineagle.com/Local_ News/20160527/fs-releases-new-report- about-canyon-creek-complex. (August 11, 2017). Bramwell, L. 2014. Wilderburbs: communities on the edge. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. Brown, H. 2016. Wildland fire management and the USDA Forest Service: A history. Unpublished report. On file with: USDA Forest Service, Policy Analysis Staff, Washington Office, Washington, DC. Calkin, D.E.; Cohen, J.D.; Finney, M.A.; Thompson, M.P. 2014. How risk management can prevent future wildfire disasters in the wildland-urban interface. PNAS. 111(2): 746–751. Cohen, J.D. 2000. Preventing disaster: Home ignitability in the wildland-urban interface. Journal of Forestry. 98(3): 15–21. Cohen, J.D. 2008. The wildland-urban interface fire problem: A consequence of the fire exclusion paradigm. Forest History Today. Fall: 20–26. Cohen, J.D. 2010. The wildland-urban interface fire problem. Fremontia. 38(2)–38(3): 16–22. Figure 3—Measures for managing fuels within a 100-foot (30-m) home ignition zone, as prescribed by the Firewise program. Source: Gabbert (2015).
Fire Management Today 40 Gabbert, B. 2015. How to provide defensible NICC (National Interagency Coordination Pyne, S.J. 2001. Year of the fires: the story of space around structure. Wildfire Today. Center). 2017. Intelligence: NICC wildland the great fires of 1910. New York: Viking. 21 June. fire annual reports. Boise, ID: Predictive Pyne, S.J. 2015. Between two fires: a fire Gorte, R.W. 1995. Forest fires and forest Services, National Interagency Fire history of contemporary America. Tucson: health. Report for Congress. 95–511 ENR. Center. https://www.predictiveservices. The University of Arizona Press. Washington, DC: Congressional Research nifc.gov/intelligence/intelligence.htm. Reinhardt, E.D.; Keane, R.E.; Calkin, Service, Environment and Natural (August 9, 2017). D.E.; Cohen, J.D. 2008. Objectives and Resources Policy Division. 6p. NIFC (National Interagency Fire Center). considerations for wildland fuel treatment Gunderson, L.; Sickinger, T. 2016. Burned: 2016. 1997-2015 large fires (100,000+ in forested ecosystems of the interior Poor planning and tactical errors fueled a acres). Online statistics. National western United States. Forest Ecology and wildfire catastrophe. Portland Oregonian. Interagency Fire Center, Boise, ID. https:// Management. 256: 1997–2006. August 14. http://www.oregonlive.com/ www.nifc.gov/fireInfo/fireInfo_stats_ Stein, S.M.; Menakis, J.; Carr, M.A. [and wildfires/index.ssf/page/canyon_creek_fire. lgFires.html (August 11, 2017). others]. 2013. Wildfire, wildlands, and html. (August 11, 2017). NWCG (National Wildfire Coordinating people: Understanding and preparing for Jerome, I.K. 2013. Grant County Oregon Group). 2001. Review and update of the wildfire in the wildland–urban interface. CWPP: Community wildfire protection 1995 federal wildland fire management A Forests on the Edge Report. Gen. Tech. plan. John Day, OR: Jerome Natural policy. Boise, ID: National Interagency Rep. RMRS–GTR–299. Fort Collins, CO: Resource Consultants, Inc. http://www. Fire Center. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain grantcountycwpp.com/. (August 11, 2017). NWCG (National Wildfire Coordinating Research Station. Martinuzzi, S.; Stewart, S.I.; Helmers, D.P. Group). 2015. Pine Creek community and Tidwell, T. 2016. The field decisions in [and others]. 2015. The 2010 wildland– the Firewise program. InciWeb: Canyon fighting wildfire are tough and costly. urban interface of the conterminous Creek Complex news release; September Portland Oregonian. August 10. Opinion. United States. Res. Map NRS–8. Newtown 6; Malheur National Forest, John Day, http://www.oregonlive.com/opinion/ Square, PA: USDA Forest Service, OR. https://inciweb.nwcg.gov/incident/ index.ssf/2016/08/the_field_decisions_in_ Northern Research Station. 124 p. http:// article/4495/29306/. (August 11, 2017). fightin.html. (August 18, 2017.) www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/rmap/rmap_nrs8. NWCG (National Wildfire Coordinating Zaitz, L. 2015. Volunteers take stand between pdf. (August 9, 2017). Group). 2016. InciWeb: Canyon Creek Canyon Creek wildfire and rural homes. MNF (Malheur National Forest). 2016. Complex photographs. Online photos. Portland Oregonian. September 1. http:// Malheur National Forest accelerated Malheur National Forest, John Day, www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest- restoration priority watersheds: FY OR. https://inciweb.nwcg.gov/incident/ news/index.ssf/2015/09/volunteers_ planned project decisions. Online map. photographs/4495/0/. (August 11, 2017). answer_call_to_spar.html (August 11, Malheur National Forest, John Day, OR. Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: a cultural 2017). http://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_ history of wildland and rural fire. Seattle: DOCUMENTS/fseprd507521.pdf. (August University of Washington Press. 11, 2017).
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 41 The Role of Trust in Homeowner Firewise Actions*
Josh McDaniel
onsider this situation: A it is important to link the abstract steps designed to increase the homeowner living in the concept of trust to specific actions fire resistance of the home (such Cfire-prone wildland–urban and behavior on the ground. as using fire-resistant building interface is told by a Forest Service materials, cleaning roofs and community outreach representative “Trust is complex and the gutters of ignitable material, and that she should replace the windows situations in which it acts are moving firewood and lumber away in her house with double-paned complex,” said Absher. “It is from the structure) and to protect tempered-glass windows to increase important to pull back and their properties (such as planting fire resistance. This renovation will see which aspects of trust are fire-resistant species, moving likely cost thousands of dollars. important, and in what ways.” plants away from the home, and However, the representative has increasing spacing between plants). presented a great deal of convincing Absher and Vaske conducted a data on the effectiveness of this step mail survey of rural landowners The survey yielded an interesting in reducing the risk that the home in heavily forested counties along set of results. First, trust in will be destroyed by fire. the Front Range of Colorado. Forest Service information They asked questions designed and competence was relatively How much does the homeowner to measure respondents’ trust high among the respondents: trust the information presented? in (1) the information that the between 82 percent and 87 How much does she trust the Forest Service provided regarding percent trusted the information, competency of the agency forest fires, and (2) the agency’s and between 64 percent and 85 involved? How does trust competency in responding to percent agreed that Government influence her decision to take the fires and conducting other land agencies competently handled step or not? management activities (specifically, fires and fuels projects. Second, prescribed burns and thinning). respondents perceived the These are the questions that surveyed Firewise actions as James Absher and Jerry Vaske effective in reducing fire risk, and asked in a recent study published Trust in Forest most had taken at least a few of in the International Journal of Service information the steps and intended to take Wildland Fire exploring linkages further actions. in measures of trust and specific and competence was Firewise actions taken by relatively high among However, Absher and Vaske homeowners (Absher and others went further and analyzed the 2009). According to Absher, trust the respondents. relationship between the trust is always identified by Federal factors and past and intended agencies as a critical component actions. They found that the in working with communities and Next, respondents were perceived effectiveness of actions individuals on fire risk mitigation asked about (1) the perceived predicted most of the recent on their homes and properties, but effectiveness of a set of Firewise Firewise actions and that past actions, (2) previous Firewise Firewise actions were the greatest actions they had taken, and (3) predictor of future actions. As *The piece, published in spring 2011, is their intentions to complete measured, trust factors had little adapted from Advances in Fire Practice, a website maintained by the interagency Firewise actions in the future. observable influence on either past Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Center. The Firewise actions covered actions or intended actions. Fire Management Today 42 Getting people to take minimal Firewise steps Reference Absher, J.D.; Vaske, J.J.; Shelby, L.B. 2009. can lead to further, more significant actions in Residents’ responses to wildland fire the long term. programs: a review of cognitive and behavioral studies. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW–GTR–223. Albany, CA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Absher said that the practical “This study shows that residents’ Station. 31 p. lesson to be drawn from this trust of agency recommendations study is that efforts designed to is often strong,” said Absher. get people to take at least the “If you don’t have trust, you minimal Firewise steps can lead to may need to establish it before further, more significant actions you can convince people of the in the long term. He also said effectiveness of some of these that the findings do not discount actions. But once you have it, you the value of trust in affecting still have work to do in order to homeowner decisions. Specific change behaviors.” ■ communities may have very different pathways to mitigating losses of homes to wildfires.
Contributors Wanted! We need your fire-related articles and photographs for Fire Management Today! Subjects of published material include: • Aviation • Firefighting Experiences • Communication • Incident Management • Cooperation/Partnerships • Information Management (including Systems) • Ecological Restoration • Personnel • Education • Planning (including Budgeting) • Equipment and Technology • Preparedness • Fire Behavior • Prevention • Fire Ecology • Safety • Fire Effects • Suppression • Fire History • Training • Fire Use (including Prescribed Fire) • Weather • Fuels Management • Wildland–Urban Interface
Contact the editor via email at [email protected].
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 43 50th Meeting of the Northeast Forest Fire Supervisors Maris G. Gabliks
n June 2016, the Northeast Forest Fire Supervisors (NFFS) Iheld their 50th annual meeting in King of Prussia, PA. The NFFS, made up of State forest fire supervisors from the 20 Northeastern States, operates as a committee of the Northeastern Area Association of State Foresters. The group works closely with the Forest Service and other Federal partners in coordinating and encouraging forest fire protection and management activities across the 20-State area. State wildland fire supervisors—members of the Northeast Forest Fire Supervisors In their 2016 meeting, the (NFFS)—pose for a photo during a 2012 meeting in Connecticut under the theme attendees discussed critical “Improving Fire Management Programs.” Photo: Maris Gabliks, Forest Service. wildland fire management issues. They also participated in a wildland fire leadership staff ride States—the lead individuals in The original purpose of the in Pennsylvania’s Valley Forge the State forestry programs who organization was to improve National Park that culminated in oversaw wildland fire control and efficiency in the protection of a visit to historic Philadelphia. fire management. The original rural areas and wildlands from The staff ride and Philadelphia executive committee consisted of damage by fire. Its objective was visit were both facilitated by three State forest fire supervisors, the least number of fires possible, the U.S. Army Combat Studies the Forest Service’s Chief of Fire with the least damage and cost. Institute and the Forest Service’s Control for the Eastern Region, Accordingly, the organization Northeastern Area. and the Chief of Fire Control from stimulated the development the Northeastern Area’s office for and use of specialized forest fire Created in 1966, the NFFS held State and Private Forestry. equipment; better techniques in its first meeting in Philadelphia, fire prevention, presuppression, PA, on January 17–19, 1967. The and suppression; and improved organization was originally named The original purpose of training and safety methods. the Northeast Forest Fire Control Supervisors, and its members were the organization was to In the mid-1970s, the organization the forest fire control supervisors improve efficiency in the changed its name to the Northeast from the 20 Northeastern Forest Fire Supervisors to better protection of rural areas reflect its responsibilities in and wildlands from forest fire management beyond Maris Gabliks is a cooperative fire just fire control. In 2006, the specialist for the Forest Service, damage by fire. NFFS became a committee of the Northeastern Area, Fire and Aviation Management, Newtown Square, PA. Northeastern Area Association Fire Management Today 44 In the mid-1970s, the organization changed its name to the Northeast Forest Fire Supervisors to better reflect its responsibilities in forest fire management beyond just fire control. of State Foresters to better coordinate activities among all forest-related committees At the 50th NFFS meeting, the U.S. Army Combat Studies Institute hosted a leadership staff ride at Valley Forge National Park in Pennsylvania. The staff ride included wildland operating in the Northeast. fire management topics and leadership issues related to military leadership and management. Topics included training, logistics, and leadership. The session was based Over the years, the NFFS has on the Continental Army’s encampment during the winter of 1777. Photo: Maris Gabliks, played a role in developing Forest Service. such wildland fire management programs as the Roscommon aviation, railroads, training, NFFS also works closely with Equipment Center partnership mobilization, fire prevention, representatives from the Western with the State of Michigan in public information, equipment Fire Managers and Southern Fire 1971; the North East Area Training development and testing, and the Chiefs and with the National committee concept in 1984; and wildland–urban interface. Association of State Foresters Fire the Northeastern Area States Director in addressing wildland Aviation Committee in 1997. Today, the NFFS Leadership fire management on a national All have played a national role Team consists of four State fire level. For 50 years, the NFFS has in wildland fire management. supervisors, a State Forester been and continues to be a leader Since 1967, the NFFS has had liaison, and a liaison from the in wildland fire protection across various working committees on Northeastern Area’s Fire and the Northeast and the entire topics such as film, research, Aviation Management staff. The United States. ■
Volume 76 • No. 1 • 2018 45 Guidelines for Contributors
Fire Management Today (FMT) captions and photographer’s name clear writing, use the active voice is an international quarterly and affiliation at the end of the (for example, write “Fire managers magazine for the wildland fire manuscript. Submit charts and know…” and not “It is known…”). community. The purpose of FMT graphs along with the electronic Give spellouts for all abbreviations. is to share information and raise source files or data needed to issues related to wildland fire reconstruct them and any special Tables. Tables should be logical management for the benefit of instructions for layout. Include a and understandable without the wildland fire community. FMT description of each illustration at reading the text. Include tables welcomes unsolicited manuscripts the end of the manuscript for use at the end of the manuscript with from readers on any subject in the caption. appropriate titles. related to fire management. For all submissions, include Photographs and Illustrations. However, FMT is not a forum for the complete name(s), title(s), Figures, illustrations, and clear airing personal grievances or for affiliation(s), and address(es) photographs are often essential marketing commercial products. of the author(s), illustrator(s), to the understanding of articles. The Forest Service’s Fire and and photographer(s), as well Clearly label all photographs Aviation Management staff reserves as their telephone number(s) and illustrations (figure 1, 2, the right to decline submissions and email address(es). If the 3; photograph A, B, C). At the that do not meet the purpose of same or a similar manuscript is end of the manuscript, include the journal. being submitted for publication clear, thorough figure and photo elsewhere, include that captions labeled in the same way Submissions. Send electronic files information also. Authors should as the corresponding material by email or traditional mail to: submit a photograph of themselves (figure 1, 2, 3; photograph A, B, C). or a logo for their agency, Captions should make photographs USDA Forest Service institution, or organization. and illustrations understandable Fire Management Today without reading the text. For 201 14th Street, SW Style. Authors are responsible for photographs, indicate the name Washington, D.C. 20250 using wildland fire terminology and affiliation of the photographer Email: firemanagementtoday@ that conforms to the latest and the year the photo was taken. fs.fed.us standards set by the National Wildfire Coordinating Group Release Authorization. Non- Submit electronic files in PC under the National Interagency Federal Government authors must format. Submit manuscripts in Incident Management System. FMT sign a release to allow their work to Word (.doc or .docx). Submit uses the spelling, capitalization, be placed in the public domain and illustrations and photographs as hyphenation, and other styles on the World Wide Web. In addition, separate files; do not include visual recommended in the U.S. all photographs and illustrations materials (such as photographs, Government Printing Office created by a non-Federal employee maps, charts, or graphs) as Style Manual, as required by the require a written release by the embedded illustrations in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. photographer or illustrator. The electronic manuscript file. You Authors should use the U.S. author, photograph, and illustration may submit digital photographs system of weight and measure, release forms are available upon in JPEG, TIFF, EPS, or other with equivalent values in the request at firemanagementtoday@ format; they must be at high metric system. Keep titles concise fs.fed.us. resolution: at least 300 dpi at a and descriptive; subheadings and minimum size of 4 by 7 inches. bulleted material are useful and Include information for photo help readability. As a general rule of
Fire Management Today 46