Durham Research Online Deposited in DRO: 13 April 2016 Version of attached le: Published Version Peer-review status of attached le: Unknown Citation for published item: Alam, M.K. (2015) 'The survival of Bashar al-Assad : geopolitics and the resilience of the Syrian Army.', Discussion Paper. Durham University, HH Sheikh Nasser Al-Sabah Programme, Durham. Further information on publisher's website: http://www.dur.ac.uk/alsabah/publications/insights/ Publisher's copyright statement: Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in DRO • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full DRO policy for further details. Durham University Library, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LY, United Kingdom Tel : +44 (0)191 334 3042 | Fax : +44 (0)191 334 2971 https://dro.dur.ac.uk HH Sheikh Nasser al-Mohammad al-Sabah Publication Series The Survival of Bashar al- Assad: Geopolitics and the Resilience of the Syrian Army M K Alam Number 16: November 2015 About the author Kamal Alam is Research Analyst working on Syria, and Syria’s regional relations, at the Royal United Services Institute, London. He has taught strategy, geopolitics of the Middle East and South Asia, at several military academies and defence colleges, including those in the UK, the Middle East and Pakistan. He worked previously as analyst on the Syria Programme of the Aspen Institute bin Berlin. Disclaimer The views expressed in the HH Sheikh Nasser al- Mohammad al-Sabah Publication Series are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect those of the School or of Durham University. These wide ranging Research Working Papers are products of the scholarship under the auspices of the al-Sabah Programme and are disseminated in this early form to encourage debate on the important academic and policy issues of our time. Copyright belongs to the Author(s). Bibliographical references to the HH Sheikh Nasser al-Mohammad al-Sabah Publication Series should be as follows: Author(s), Paper Title (Durham, UK: al-Sabah Number, date). 2 | P a g e The Survival of Bashar al-Assad: Geopolitics and the Resilience of the Syrian Army M K Alam ABSTRACT This paper examines the history and nature of the Syrian armed forces through its evolution in post-colonial era and in particular during the era of Hafez al-Assad. It analyses the history of the political events that led to the rise Hafez al-Assad and the ways in which President Assad successfully removed sectarianism from the Syrian army. It analyses some of the key figures and how they performed along a professional ethos that Assad instilled in the Syrian army. The second part of the paper will investigate the arguments relating to the resilience of the Syrian army as the only Arab army in non-stop combat mode against the Israeli forces since 1973, including during the tense period of civil war since 2012. The key battles in the Lebanese civil war are also explored and the 2003 invasion of Iraq and how Bashar al-Assad inherited a professional army with the sole purpose of guarding against external aggression from Iraq, Israel and Lebanon. 3 | P a g e INTRODUCTION The Syrian army has been engaged in battle on its own soil for more than four years without disintegrating as had been predicted by many commentators. Indeed it is the army of the Syrian Arab Republic (al-Jaysh al-’Arabī as-Sūrī) which has kept the state intact. The Syrian state institutions of which the army is the foremost guarantor have held firm in the onslaught of all the non-state actors as well as regional neighbours. How is it that the Syrian Arab Army has held together? The overwhelming factor in this has been that it is not, contrary to what most observers argue, an Alawite army. Had it been an Alawite army, it would not have been able to hang on for so long. The most prominent Chiefs of Staff and General Staff officers have been a combination of Sunni, Christian and Alawite. It has not been built upon sectarian lines or ethnic lines. To take its three major contemporary personalities, Mustafa Tlass, Fahd Jassem Frejj and the late Daoud Rajiha, they are all respectively Sunni and Greek Orthodox. The elder Tlass is now retired, but is the man who shaped the Syrian armed forces with Hafez al-Assad in the 1970s. Despite support from Russia and Iran, it is the domestic support and resilience of the Syrian Arab Army Officer Corps that has kept the important cities under the control of the Ba’ath Party and the Damascus government. SYRIA ON A MAP Most observers point to the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 as the defining historical moment in the country we now called the Syrian Arab Republic. However perhaps more so than any other geographic region in the world, the countries that now make up Syria, Israel, Iraq, Lebanon and Jordan have their past, present and future intertwined and the weight of history and the relevance of this history is that as the centre of the world’s oldest civilisations and the birthplace of the three monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The situation facing Syria today should not be judged by some pre-conceived abstract or concepts unrelated to reality, they must be consistent with the facts and within itself, theories must be factual, independent and retrospective. In this vein, the paper underlines the importance of geopolitics as a toll for understanding the regional strategic conflict and the functioning nature of the Syrian army. SPACE AND UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING OF SPACE IN THE SYRIAN CONTEXT One of Britain’s most experienced and best boundary makers, Colonel Sir Thomas Holdich asserted that, ‘geographical ignorance may cost us dearly’. Holdich was referring to the commission of which he was in charge marking the boundaries of Afghanistan – where it started and where it ended. Another geographer and army officer, Colonel Thomas Edward Lawrence, who served in a similar context in Syria, was tasked to map where Ottoman Syria started and where it ended all the way south to British-controlled Egypt. According to Lawrence the statesmen in London and Paris had discounted the geopolitical analysis of the 4 | P a g e Levant and Mesopotamia. This relationship between geography and international relations should be the key to stability in General Karl Haushofer’s view, the repetition of wrongs would not lead to a solution; it would only perpetuate conflict and let extreme ideologies breathe into the vacuum of lack of thorough geopolitical analysis. These same ideologies have taken root since the fall of the Ottoman Empire to the rise and fall of Arab nationalism to the birth of Islamic reactionary politics. Four historical references are vital in understanding the current conflict in Syria that have shaped the psyche of not just contemporary Syrians but the inhabitants in the wider region which make up the Levant or belad esSham in Arabic. In the modern era the states of Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel and Iraq all fall in this category. These states along with Turkey remain the ones most affected by the fallout of events currently taking place in Syria. To understand the geopolitical nature of the insurgency in Syria, cursory glances at the flashpoints of history that have led to the arrival at this critical juncture are essential. The first of these is the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus, which was the first great Arab empire which was an imperial state with its capital in Damascus. It was the Umayyad caliph Muawiya and his son Yazid who conducted the military operations in modern day Karbala, Iraq which massacred Hussein, the grandson of the Prophet Mohammed. This event divided the Arab community and Muslim world to this day and much of the ferment today in Lebanon, Syria and Iraq revolves around this incident. The modern entities of the Ba’ath party in Syria, Hezbollah in Lebanon and Sadrists in Iraq all refer to this point in history for their grievances. The actors on the other side of the divide, i.e., the Free Syrian Army, Saudi Arabia and Qatar view this point as the beginning chapter in the struggle between the Sunni and Shia in the Middle East. The second point which is vital to understanding current conditions is the Crusades. T. E. Lawrence understood this point when he arrived at the Syrian castle, Krak de Chevalier which he called the greatest castle in the world. When Lawrence arrived there as a young man he was in hostile territory of the Ottomans, and this remains contested territory even today. This marked a central strategic point for the knights who came to conquer and hold the Holy Land for Christianity: It is a central link of castles across Syria which for three centuries they held against the local Muslim population. The size of the stones, and the tens of thousands of people that built these forts, and the amount of lives and money, energy and fanaticism facilitated this kind of occupation. You could sense at Krak de Chevalier why the Crusades are such an astonishing phenomenon even today. It resonates so strongly that al-Qaeda-linked insurgents in Iraq used this castle and the Crusades as a reference point to drive out and indiscriminately massacre the Christians of Iraq.