18 2014 Dwelling on Courtyards Exploring the energy efficiency and comfort potential of courtyards for dwellings in the Netherlands Mohammad Taleghani Dwelling on Courtyards Exploring the energy efficiency and comfort potential of courtyards for dwellings in the Netherlands Mohammad Taleghani Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Department of Architectural Engineering + Technology i i Dwelling on Courtyards Exploring the energy efficiency and comfort potential of courtyards for dwellings in the Netherlands Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Technische Universiteit Delft, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof.ir. K.C.A.M. Luyben, voorzitter van het College voor Promoties, in het openbaar te verdedigen op 3 december 2014 om 12.30 uur door Mohammad TALEGHANI Master of Science in Architecture Engineering University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran geboren te Shahrood, Iran i Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotor: Prof.dr.ir. A.A.J.F. van den Dobbelsteen Copromotor Dr.ir. M.J. Tenpierik Samenstelling promotiecommissie: Rector Magnificus, voorzitter Prof.dr.ir. A.A.J.F. van den Dobbelsteen, Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor Dr.ir. M.J. Tenpierik, Technische Universiteit Delft, copromotor Prof. Dr. D.J. Sailor, Portland State University, USA Prof. Dr. K. Steemers, MPhil PhD RIBA University of Cambridge, UK Prof.dr.ir. L. Schrijver, University of Antwerp, Belgium Prof.dr.ir. B.J.E. Blocken, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven Prof.dr.ir. P.M. Bluyssen, Technische Universiteit Delft Prof.ir. P.G. Luscuere, Technische Universiteit Delft, reservelid abe.tudelft.nl Design: Sirene Ontwerpers, Rotterdam Cover image: Marrakesh (Bruno Barbey / Magnum Photos) ISBN 978-94-6186-395-9 ISSN 2212-3202 © 2014 Mohammad Taleghani i i Painting by Farzaneh Fakhredin i سوگند به روز و به شب چون در آن می آرامد که پروردگارت هرگز با تو وداع نکرده و تو را تنها نگذاشته بزودى پروردگارت نعمتی به تو خواهد بخشید که خشنود شوى مگرنه تو را سرگشته دید و هدایت کرد و تو را تنگدست دید و بی نیاز گردانید پس یتیم را هرگز میازار و فقیر را مران و نعمت پروردگار را بر خویش بشمار سوره ضحی 5 i i تقدیم به فاطمه و رضا 7 i i Contents List of tables 19 List of figures 21 Summary 29 Samenvatting 31 1 Introduction 37 1.1 General Introduction 37 1.2 Terminology 38 1.3 Problem statement 39 1.4 Research objectives 41 1.5 Boundary conditions 41 1.6 Research questions 42 1.7 Research method 43 1.7.1 Research steps and approach 43 1.7.2 Research tools 46 1.8 Dissertation outline 47 11 Contents i PART 1 Literature review 2 Introduction into courtyard buildings in different climates 53 2.1 Introduction 56 2.1.1 Objectives 56 2.1.2 Research questions 56 2.1.3 Methodology of the literature review 57 2.2 Problem analysis 57 2.2.1 Climate change and buildings 57 2.2.2 The effect of residential buildings and courtyards 58 2.3 Literature overview 59 2.4 Courtyard buildings 62 2.4.1 Definition of courtyard buildings 62 2.4.2 Historical evolution of courtyards 63 2.4.2.1 Ancient civilisations 64 2.4.2.2 Classical civilisations 65 2.4.2.3 The middle ages and renaissance civilisation 66 2.4.2.4 Courtyards in modern era 66 2.5 Impacts of courtyards 67 2.5.1 Social- cultural impacts 67 2.5.2 Formal impacts 68 2.5.3 Environmental impacts 68 2.6 Comparative characteristics of courtyard buildings in four climates 69 2.6.1 The courtyard in a hot arid climate 70 2.6.2 The courtyard in a snow climate 73 2.6.3 The courtyard in a temperate climate 75 2.6.4 The courtyard in a tropical climate 78 2.7 Conclusions and discussion 80 2.7.1 Conclusions 80 2.7.2 Discussion for further studies 81 12 Dwelling on Courtyards i 3 Introduction into thermal comfort in buildings 87 3.1 Introduction 90 3.2 Development of the concept of human thermal comfort 90 3.2.1 Steady-state studies 92 3.2.2 Field studies 97 3.3 Adaptive thermal comfort standards 101 3.3.1 ASHRAE 55-2010 103 3.3.2 EN15251 106 3.3.3 ATG 107 3.4 Comparison and discussion 110 3.5 Conclusions 113 PART 2 Indoor study 4 Indoor thermal comfort in different building blocks 123 4.1 Introduction 126 4.2 Method and models 127 4.3 Thermal comfort in summer 132 4.4 Results and discussion 134 4.4.1 Energy consumption 134 4.4.1.1 One storey models 135 4.4.1.2 Multi-storey models 137 4.4.2 Summer thermal comfort 141 4.4.2.1 One-storey models 141 4.4.2.2 Multi-storey models 141 4.4.3 Energy versus comfort 142 4.5 Conclusion 144 13 Contents i 5 Indoor thermal comfort in courtyard buildings 149 5.1 Introduction 152 5.1.1 Thermal behaviour of courtyard buildings 152 5.1.2 Highly reflective materials and cool roofs 153 5.2 Methodology 153 5.2.1 Energy modelling 158 5.2.2 Thermal comfort model 159 5.2.3 Climate of the Netherlands 159 5.3 Results 160 5.3.1 Phase 1: Parametric simulations 160 5.3.1.1 Courtyards with different orientations 160 5.3.1.2 Future climate scenario and heat mitigation strategies 162 5.3.1.3 The position effect 166 5.3.1.4 Detailed analysis of a single family house with different roofs 168 5.3.2 Phase 2: Scale model experiment 170 5.3.3 Phase 3: An actual courtyard house experiment 172 5.4 Conclusions 174 6 Indoor thermal comfort in a courtyard/atrium dwelling 179 6.1 Introduction 182 6.1.1 Background 182 6.1.2 Climate change in the Netherlands 183 6.2 Methodology 186 6.2.1 Modelling and simulations 186 6.2.2 Summer thermal comfort calculation 190 6.2.3 Weather data 191 6.3 Results and discussion 194 6.3.1 Phase zero: The reference model- Building I 194 6.3.2 Phase one: The effect(s) of a courtyard- Buildings IIc and IIIc 197 6.3.3 Phase two: The effect(s) of an atrium- Buildings IIa and IIIa 199 6.3.4 Phase three: Optimisation 202 6.4 Conclusions 205 14 Dwelling on Courtyards i PART 3 Outdoor study 7 Outdoor thermal comfort within different building blocks 211 7.1 Introduction 214 7.1.1 Outdoor thermal comfort indices 214 7.1.2 Urban typology study 216 7.2 Methodology 218 7.2.1 Models 219 7.2.2 Simulations 221 7.2.3 Weather data 224 7.2.4 Validation of ENVI-met 225 7.2.4.1 Measurement versus simulation 225 7.2.4.2 Computational domain size sensitivity check 227 7.2.4.3 Discussion on reliability of ENVI-met 230 7.3 Results and discussion 230 7.4 Conclusions 238 8 Outdoor thermal comfort within different courtyard buildings 245 8.1 Introduction 248 8.2 Background 249 8.3 Methodology 252 8.3.1 Simulations 255 8.3.2 Climatic data 255 8.3.3 Validation of ENVI-met 257 8.3.3.1 Measurement versus simulation 257 8.3.3.2 Calibration of the ENVI-met simulations 259 15 Contents i 8.4 Results 261 8.4.1 Phase 1: Reference study 261 8.4.1.1 Solar radiation 261 8.4.1.2 Mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) 265 8.4.2 Phase 2: the climate of 2050 266 8.4.3 Phase 3: The albedo effect 268 8.4.4 Phase 4: The effect of water 270 8.4.5 Phase 5: The effect of vegetation 270 8.5 Discussion 271 8.6 Conclusions 273 9 Heat mitigation strategies on courtyard buildings in summer 281 9.1 Introduction 284 9.2 2. Literature review on heat mitigation strategies 284 9.3 Methodology 286 9.3.1 Field measurements 288 9.3.2 Simulations 288 9.3.3 Climate of Portland 289 9.4 Results and discussion 290 9.4.1 Scale 1: the campus microclimate 290 9.4.2 Scale 2: the three courtyards 295 9.4.3 Scale 3: Shattuck Hall 299 9.5 Conclusion 304 10 Heat mitigation strategies on courtyard buildings in winter 311 10.1 Introduction 314 10.2 Methodology 315 16 Dwelling on Courtyards i 10.3 Results and discussion 319 10.3.1 Summer study, the case of Portland (OR), USA 319 10.3.1.1 The three different courtyards 319 10.3.1.2 Park cool effect in Portland 321 10.3.2 Winter study, the case of Delft, the Netherlands 322 10.3.2.1 The three different courtyards 322 10.3.2.2 Park cool effect in Delft 324 10.3.2.3 Three different roofs 325 10.3.3 Scale model experiment 328 10.4 Conclusions 329 11 Conclusions 335 11.1 Introduction 335 11.2 Answers to the research questions 335 11.2.1 Answers to the sub-research questions 336 11.2.2 Answers to the main research questions 340 11.3 Limitations of this research 342 11.4 Conclusions of findings 343 11.4.1 Indoor thermal comfort and energy use 343 11.4.2 Outdoor thermal comfort 344 11.4.3 Design recommendations based on the results 345 11.5 Recommendations 346 11.5.1 Recommendations for future research 346 11.5.2 Recommendations for the market 346 11.6 Value of this dissertation 347 Acknowledgements 349 Curriculum vitae 351 List of publications 353 17 Contents i 18 Dwelling on Courtyards i List of tables Chapter 1 Introduction Table 7 Suggested applicability for the categories and Table 1 their associated acceptable temperature ranges The measurement tools of the dissertation 47 (table after [100]).