Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 1 / 32
Introduction to Sociology: Concepts, Theories and Models
Dirk Helbing and Research Team
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation
May 27, 2008
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 1 / 32
Chapter 12 Social Movements and Social Change
Dirk Helbing www.soms.ethz.ch [email protected]
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 2 / 32 Social Movements
Social Movements Social Movement is an organized activity that encourages or discourages social change.
1 Alterative social movements serve to help certain people to alter their lives. 2 Redemptive social movements target specific people and seek radical change. 3 Reformative social movements aim for limited social change, but target everyone. 4 Revolutionary social movements seek the basic transformation of an entire society.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 3 / 32 Social Movements Claims Making Claims Making
Claims Making is the process of trying to convince the public and public officials of the importance of joining a social movement to address a particular issue. That is, some issue has to be defined as a problem that demands public attention. Example: Need to take public action such as medical research and safer sex campaigns to fight HIV and AIDS.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 4 / 32 Social Movements Deprivation Theory Deprivation Theory
Relative Deprivation is a perceived discadvantage arising from some specific comparison.
The worst-off people are not necessarily the most likely to organize for change. Example: A revolution occured first in France, where peasants had seen improvements in their lives that made them hope for more change. German peasants, in contrast, knew nothing else but feudal servitude at the time of the French Revolution, and they learned to live with this situation.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 5 / 32 Social Movements Mass-Society Theory Mass-Society Theory
Mass-Society Theory assumes that socially isolated people seek out social movements as a way to gain a sense of belonging and importance.
Accordingly, social movements are most likely to arise in impersonal mass societies. Flawed people rather than a flawed society are responsible for social movements. People who are well integrated are unlikely to seek membership in a social movement. Example: Prison inmates are more likely to protest their conditions, if programs promoting social ties among them are suspended.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 6 / 32 Social Movements Structural-Strain Theory Structural-Strain Theory
1 Social movements begin to emerge when people come to think their society has some serious problems (structural conductiveness). 2 People begin to experience relative deprivation when society fails to meet their expectations (structural strain). 3 Forming a well-organized social movement requires a clear statement not only of the problem, but also of its causes and its solutions (growth and spread of an explanation). 4 Some specific event sparks collective action when there is a historic opportunity (precipitating factors). 5 A mobilization for action may cause that the rate of change becomes faster and faster. 6 The social movement depends on the non-intervention of political officials, police, and the military (lack of social control). Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 7 / 32 Social Movements Resource-Mobilization and Culture Theory Resource-Mobilization and Culture Theory Resource-Mobilization Theory The success of a social movement depends on substantial resources and, therefore, often on a positive public image. It raises and falls with how well it attracts resources, mobilizes people, and forges alliances. Example: Prior to the Iraq War, two individuals using their computers were able to get 120,000 people in 190 countries to sign a petition opposing the war. Today, in principle everybody can organize an own movement. Culture Theory Mobilization depends not only on a sense of injustice, but also on cultural symbols.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 8 / 32 Social Movements Political-Economy and New Social Movements Theory Political-Economy and New Social Movements Theory
Political-Economy Theory According to Karl Marx, social movements arise within capitalist societies because the economic system and institutional structures fail to meet the needs of the majority of people.
New Social Movements focus on improving of our social and physical surrounding (→ global warming, women and gay rights, etc.). They tend to become global (using mass media and new information technology) and to draw support from the middle and upper-middle classes.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 9 / 32 Social Movements Theories of Social Movements
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 10 / 32 Stages in Social Movements Emergence and Coalescence Emergence and Coalescence
Stage I. Emergence of Social Movements A social movement is triggered by the perception that something is not ok.
Stage II. Coalescence Leaders must determine policies, decide on tactics, build morale, recruit new members, and attract the attention of the media.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 11 / 32 Stages in Social Movements Bureaucratization Bureaucratization
Stage III. Bureaucratization To become a political force, a social movement must become an established organization. As this happens, the movement depends less on the charisma and talents of a few leaders and relies more on a professional staff.
However, becoming more bureaucratic can also hurt a social movement, when neglecting the need to keep people “fired up” for change.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 12 / 32 Stages in Social Movements Decline Reasons of Decline Stage IV: Decline 1 The social movement may have met its goals. But winning one victory often leads to new goals. 2 Organizational failures, e.g. poor leadership, internal conflicts, day-to-day routine, loss of interest among members, insufficient funds, or repression by authorities. 3 “Selling out” by attracting leaders by offers of money, prestige, or power from within the established system. 4 Repression by the established system, e.g. frightening away participants, discouraging new recruits, imprisoning leaders. 5 The social movement may also “go mainstream”, become an accepted part of the system rather than challenging the status quo. Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 13 / 32 Stages in Social Movements Stages in the Lives of Social Movements
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 14 / 32 Social Change
Social Change
Social Change is the transformation of culture and social institutions over time.
Cultural Lag Material culture (technology) usually changes faster than nonmaterial culture (ideas, attitudes, and norms).
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 15 / 32 Social Change Culture and Change Culture and Change
Discovery occurs when people notice new elements of the existing world.
Invention produces new objects, ideas, and social patterns.
Diffusion creates change as products, people, and information spread.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 16 / 32 Social Change Other Mechanisms of Change Other Mechanisms of Change
Conflict and Change Karl Marx saw class conflict as the engine that drives societies from one historical era to another.
Ideas and Change Max Weber traced the roots of most social change to ideas. For example, people with charisma can carry a message that sometimes changes the world.
Demographic Change Population patterns and population growth also play a significant part in social change.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 17 / 32 Modernity Four Dimensions of Modernization Four Dimensions of Modernization Modernity means social patterns resulting from industrialization (from 1750). 1 Decline of small, traditional communities such as family and neighborhood. Traditional world gave each person a well-defined place offering a strong sense of identity, belonging, and purpose. 2 Expansions of personal choice (e.g. lifestyle) through individualization, as tradition weakens. 3 Increasing social diversity with growth of cities, expansion of impersonal bureaucracy, and social mix of people with diverse backgrounds. 4 Orientation toward the future and a growing awareness of time, e.g. through introduction of clocks.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 18 / 32 Modernity Ferdinand T¨onnies Ferdinand Tonnies¨ (1855–1937)
Viewed modernization as the progressive loss of Gemeinschaft, or human community. The Industrial Revolution weakened the social fabric of family and tradition by introducing a business-like emphasis on facts, efficiency, and money. Most people lived among strangers, and trust was hard to build up in a mobile and anonymous society. European and North American societies gradually became rootless and impersonal, as people came to associate mostly on the basis of self-interest rather than group loyality. Key inventions: Telephones, television, rapid transportation
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 19 / 32 Modernity Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)
Defined modernization by an increasing division of labor, i.e. specialized economic activity requiring highly specific roles. The point is not a loss of community, but the change from community based on bonds of likeness (kinship and neighborhood) to a community based on economic interdependence. But diversity may lead to collapse into anomie, a condition in which norms and values are so weak and inconsistent that society provides little moral guidance to individuals (→ increased self-suicide rate). Preindustrial societies are held together by mechanical solidarity, or shared moral sentiments. They view everybody basically alike. In industrialized societies, organic solidarity, i.e. mutual dependency between people engaged in specialized work takes over. All of us must depend on others to meet most of our needs.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 20 / 32 Modernity Max Weber Max Weber (1864–1920)
Viewed modernity as replacement of a traditional worldview with a rational way of thinking. To traditional people, “truth” is roughly the same as “what has always been”. To modern people, “truth” is the result of rational calculation. Weber declared modern society to be “disenchanted”. The unquestioned truth of earlier times has been challenged by rational thinking, i.e. modern society turns away from the gods. The capitalist, the scientist, and the bureaucrat are representatives of the new, rationalized worldview that dominates humanity during the era of modernity. Weber feared that rationalization, especially in bureaucracies, would erode the human spirit with endless rules and regulations (→ alienation).
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 21 / 32 Modernity Max Weber Karl Marx (1818–1883)
For Karl Marx, modern society was synonymous with capitalism. He saw the Industrial Revolution as primarily a capitalist revolution. He traced the emergence of the bourgeoisie in medieval Europe to the expansion of commerce. The bourgeoisie gradually displaced the feudal aristocracy as the Industrial Revolution gave it a powerful new productive system. Moreover, capitalism draws population from farms and small towns to an ever-expanding market system centered in cities. Specialization is needed for efficient factories. And rationality is exemplified by the capitalists’ endless pursuit of profit. The stifling effects of bureaucracy are as bad as, or even worse than, the dehumanizing aspects of capitalism.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 22 / 32 Modernity Modernity as Mass Society Modernity as Mass Society A mass society is a society in which prosperity and bureaucracy have weakened traditional social ties (→ weak kinship, impersonal neighborhods, social isolation). Before, gossip was an effective way to ensure conformity, while mass societies are spiritually weak, with moral uncertainty about how to live. This comes with individual rights and freedom of choice, and minorities get greater freedom and influence. But the face-to-face communication of the village is eventually replaced by the impersonal mass media, creating a national culture: newspapers, radio, television, and computer networks. Large state organizations steadily assume more responsibility for the daily tasks that once were carried out by family, friends, and neighbors. As the ever-growing centralized bureaucracy progresses, political leaders gain a far larger power than even absolute monarchs had. These often unresponsive bureaucracies leave people in local communities little control over their lives and undermine the autonomy of families. Individuals are left isolated, powerless, and materialistic. Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 23 / 32 Modernity Modernity as Class Society Modernity as Class Society
Class society is a capitalist society with pronounced social stratification (inequality). Most people would be powerless in the face of wealthy elites and multinational corporations, and they would suffer from alienation and uncertainty. Social conflict theory (Marx et al.) criticizes the greed unleashed by capitalism, resting on “naked self-interest” and weakening the social ties. Capitalism would support science as an ideology justifying status quo (human well-being as a technical problem to be solved by engineers). Marcuse (1964) believes that science causes rather than solves the world’s problems, and that modern society fails to meet the needs of many people.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 24 / 32 Modernity Modernity and the Individual Modernity and the Individual Modernity gives freedom to express individuality, but it makes it difficult for many people to establish a coherent identity. However, the freedom of choice has little value without standards (norms) helping us make good decisions. As a result of tolerance and “relativism”, many people move from one identity to another, changing their lifestyles, relationships, and even religions in search of a “true self” (→ identity crisis). In contrast, tradition-directed people think and act alike, as they all act on the basis of the same solid cultural foundation. This implies rigidity, while modernity implies personal flexibility, the capacity to adapt, and the sensitivity to trends, fashions, and others, but at the price of superficiality, inconsistency, and change. Elders as role models are replaced by members of the own generation.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 25 / 32 Modernity Modernity and Progress Modernity and Progress
We typically link modernity to the idea of progress, while stability is seen as stagnation. But most high-income countries show a decline of happiness over the course of the recent decades, possibly because today’s routines are too stressful, with people often having little time to relax and to spend together. According to surveys, science “makes our way of life change too fast”.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 26 / 32 Postmodernity
Postmodernity Postmodernity refers to social patterns characteristic of postindustrial societies, as created, for example, by the Information Revolution. The following is criticized: 1 Modernity has failed to provide a life free from want. 2 In contrast to the idea of progress in modern societies, most adults believe that life is getting worse. 3 Science no longer holds the answers, and often there is no one truth. 4 Cultural debates are intensifying. 5 Social institutions are changing, e.g. families no longer conform to a single pattern of relationship. In conclusion, postmodernity fails to successfully address human needs. Furthermore, the information age threatens privacy.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 27 / 32 Postmodernity Modernization and Our Global Future Modernization and Our Global Future
1 The world is in a desperate need of change. 2 Although the Industrial Revolution enhanced human productivity and raised living standards in many nations, global modernization may be difficult. 3 But the world’s rich societies help poor countries to grow economically. 4 The entire world is developing towards one huge village, as the lives of all people are increasingly linked. 5 Many traditional people lose their cultural identity and values, they are drawn into a global “McCulture”. 6 Balancing individual freedom and personal responsibility is a social dilemma.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 28 / 32 Postmodernity Traditional vs. Modern Societies
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 29 / 32 Civil Rights Movement The Situation The Situation before the Civil Rights Movement
Upto the 1950ies, African Americans were virtually without any political power, although they amounted to about 40% of the population in the South of the US. They had endured even most terrible situations with considerable stoicism, as they believed they must. But when they came to believe that things could become better, a revolution of rising expectations occured. It was triggered by a precipitating event, which served as a symbol of cumulated grievances and signallized that now was the time for resistance and action. It all started with Mrs. Rosa Parks, who was not willing to stand up in the bus section for colored people to provide her seat to a white person, when the bus section for white people was crowded. She was put to prison for this by the police.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 30 / 32 Civil Rights Movement How the Situation Evolved How the Situation Evolved
1 The mother of Rosa Parks called a political leader she knew. 2 The social network through the local church provided support. 3 A bus strike was launched, and white households lacked their personnel. The boycott would be continued until segregated seating was discontinued. 4 African Americans organized a massive carpool. 5 Police began to stop carpool drivers and ticket them for imaginary violations. Drivers responded by driving very slowly and giving exaggerated turn signals. 6 Bombings occured and Martin Luther King was arrested. 7 This made things a national affair, and substantial outside support was starting to build up. 8 U.S. Supreme Court ruled that laws requiring segregated buses were unconstitutional. 9 African Americans started to organize themselves in many other communities.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 31 / 32 Civil Rights Movement Freedom Summer Freedom Summer (Mississippi, 1964)
1 Sixty-thousand armed white men organized for what amounts to everyday terrorism against local African Americans. 2 For example, African Americans trying to register to vote were shot. 3 Then, in Freedom Summer, 1,000 white volunteers recruited from elite colleges and universities came to Mississippi with one goal: to register African American voters. 4 As several of them were shot, there were daily reports all over the nation of idealistic white students from good families risking death on behalf of African Americans. 5 This finally ended the period of race segregation. 6 Most of the volunteers were idealists who continued political activism on other subjects (Vietnam war, nuclear power, feminism, abortion, gay rights, disarmament, etc.). 7 In conclusion, socialChair reality of Sociology, can in beparticular changed of Modeling by and Simulationindividuals, by http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ taking specific actions at specific times. History is the story of human action. Introduction to Sociology Dirk Helbing and Research Team Zurich May 27, 2008 32 / 32 Bibliography
Bibliography
1 Slides 2-28: John J. Macionis: Sociology, 11th edition (Pearson International, 2007), Chap. 23+24. 2 Other slides: Rodney Stark: Sociology, 7th edition (Wadsworth, 2006), Chap. 21.
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation http://www.soms.ethz.ch/