Tropical Coasts 13 Mobilizing Stakeholder Participation and Ownership through ICM: Lessons from , By Dr. Praparsiri Kanchanopas-Barnette, Department of Aquatic Science, FacultyF lt offSi Science, BuraphaB h University,Ui it ChChonburi,bi ThThailand; il d Mr.M ChatchaiCh t h i Thimkrajang, Sriracha Municipality, Chonburi, Thailand; and Dr. Kashane Chalermwat, Department of Aquatic Science, Faculty of Science, , Chonburi, Thailand.

honburi is a coastal province in Thailand, 80 km southeast of . Situated along the inner , Cit has a 160 km-long coastline and is rich in natural resources and well known for its manufacturing industry and tourism. Apart from its industries, the province is the center of marine fisheries and aquaculture in the inner Gulf of Thailand. It has a rapidly growing local and migrant population of 1.3 million living within the confines of its 4,363 km2 area, considered to be a moderately high population density for a Thai province.

The economic significance of the province is evident through the Thai government’s commitment to develop the province’s infrastructure from the early 1980s to the present. A major industrial manufacturing center, Chonburi is also a gateway for imports and exports with the deep sea . It is a new energy hub for the country. The Eastern Seaboard Project of Thailand is aimed to develop the region as the new economic zone, based on major manufacturing industries, seafood resource and agricultural business. The development envisages distributing economic and industrial growth at the local level.

Chonburi province with major highways, railroad Since the early stages of its development, the province has been and offshore islands. beset by numerous issues related to conflicting use of coastal resources, habitat loss and pollution. Rapid and unregulated coastal development and urbanization over the past 20 years *Author’s email: [email protected]. have posed threats to its ecological resources, cultural and 14 July 2012

Box 1. Blueing the crab and greening the turtles and mussels.

A “crab condominium” or “crab condo” project was initiated by the Sriracha Municipality to provide a protected temporary refuge for berried blue swimming crabs. The “crab condo” concept is to create public awareness and allow berried female crabs to be able to survive harvest and live to spawn. The berried females are maintained in stacked basket containers (“condos”) and are hung in rafts out at sea. This project has been in operation for the past six years in five different municipalities namely: Sriracha; Bang Pra; Laem Chabang; Bang Sare; and Sattahip. In addition, crab juveniles are released into the wild at least twice annually in conjunction with the King’s and Queen’s birthdays. In 2009, a project for aquatic resource enhancement was established with a goal to release 3 million one-month old crab juveniles. The project received a budget of Baht 500,000 (fiscal year 2009–2010) The former Mayor of Sriracha and the nine locations for release were in Muang Chonburi district Municipality, Mr. Chatchai to Sattahip. At each location, the local community played a Thimkrajang, receiving significant role in organization of crab release details, as well as municipal guests interested in the monitoring of crab resources utilization. Water quality checks the innovative mussel farming were frequently made and plans were made to attempt to measure practices of Sriracha Bay. the impacts of the crab release on crab landing statistics. Because of the high levels of interest and publicity from such projects, an integration of climate change knowledge into such programs can Eco-friendly Mussel Farming be readily made to promote awareness and understanding of the phenomenon. Innovative mussel farming systems have also been developed along the coast. Floating mussel farms are a new method of raising green mussels in Sriracha Bay. This method has resulted in additional income generation for fishers and aquaculturists in the area. The farmers utilizing this method have formed an association with technical assistance on the biology and ecology of green mussels from government institutions and universities in the area. Since 2004, Kasetsart and Burapha Universities have assisted the association members in studies relating to growth and mortality of green mussels. The Sriracha municipality granted Baht 200,000 in 2007 to Burapha University to study the epidemiology of mussel mass mortalities reported in the area. It was later found that there had been occasional outbreaks of predatory and parasitic flatworms. Such outbreaks have been scientifically linked to climate change and global warming.

Promotion activities for the “crab condominium” project in Sriracha municipality.

Sea Turtle Conservation A sea turtle conservation program is being implemented in close cooperation with the sea turtle conservation center of the , wherein sea turtles are released annually to their natural habitat with wide public participation. Under this program, the local municipality and the Royal Thai Navy have taken an active role in sea turtle conservation. They set up a sea turtle hatchery and encouraged local fishers to rescue sea turtles caught by fishing nets, providing collection ponds in the city park where the turtles are fed and treated for wounds and diseases. Turtles from the hatchery and from the parks are then released back to the wild. The annual release of sea turtles has been designed to enhance stakeholder awareness and participation in coastal resource conservation, attracting the participation of local fishers and citizens, the private sector, academe, government agencies and Sea turtle release activities co-sponsored by the Royal Thai administrative units, as well as the media. Navy, universities and municipalities. Tropical Coasts 15

traditional heritage, social security, Scaling up ICM increases this year to the Chonburi Provincial economic growth and overall quality of interactions and strengthens Administrative Organization in response life. relationships of various to the scaling up of ICM implementation stakeholders — resulting in to the entire province. In accordance with Because socioeconomic activities in increased, lasting trust provincial policies, the monitoring and the coastal areas are conventionally evaluation of participation by the various managed by different line agencies, The Chonburi Coastal Strategy serves municipalities was a high priority. many institutions are directly or indirectly as an integrated plan for activities involved with coastal and marine contributing towards sustainable In March 2011, all 99 local governments governance. Therefore, a natural resource development of the province. The of the Chonburi ICM network initiated and environmental management system, implementation plan of the Coastal the development of ICM plans for which employs an integrative, holistic Strategy (or the CSIP) provides a basis for consolidation into the updated Coastal approach leading to interactive policy the development of annual municipal Strategy Implementation Plan (CSIP) for making, planning and implementation development plans; the allocation of years 2012–2014 and integration into their is needed to integrate and coordinate local budgets; and the identification respective municipal development plans coastal management. This ensures that of roles and responsibilities of various and the provincial development plan. the management strategies formulated stakeholders. The CSIP review and are responsive to collective ecological, planning process is undertaken annually It is very apparent that the Chonburi ICM social and economic issues. This optimizes in Chonburi as part of the planning for program has progressively gained buy-in the utilization of coastal resources. the next fiscal year. This ensures that across the whole province. The scaling ICM implementation is in-line with the up has been clearly grounded on three In August 2001, the Chonburi provincial national strategy for marine and coastal principles: government, in collaboration with management and the provincial plan, and PEMSEA, initiated development and addresses key local issues. It also ensures 1. Fidelity to context. The problems in implementation of an integrated coastal the availability of funds to support the Chonburi are highly context- management (ICM) demonstration project. ICM program, and identifies areas needing specific because they are driven by This led to the adoption of ICM concepts support from various partners. physical, environmental, economic, in policymaking and management. ICM social, cultural, institution and ensures that coastal management efforts To implement the identified ICM activities, governance dimensions that are of the various stakeholders do not conflict a high-level multiagency and multisectoral nuanced particularly to the province. with one another and are not duplicated. Provincial ICM Coordinating Committee As well, these issues are seen as very has been in operation since 2006. Headed dynamic and perpetually changing. Starting from a demonstration by the Vice Governor (and recently by Hence an “organic” or constantly area covering five municipalities — the Governor) of , it evolving, revised and maturing comprising18 percent of the provincial provides guidance to ICM implementation Coastal Strategy for the province and coastline — and through consistent and facilitates interagency and cross- its action plans are being tailored awareness and capacity building and visits sectoral collaboration. An ICM Program to local conditions, experiences to other ICM sites, ICM implementation in Management Office (PMO) is responsible and knowledge. Most importantly, Chonburi has scaled up over the recent for coordinating implementation of they were tabled during regular years. By the late 2008, all 26 coastal the ICM program. Headed by an ICM meetings and during planning and local governments had become part of Program Director, it consists of a local decisionmaking processes. the Chonburi ICM Network. Eventually, government consultative board, four in 2010 the Network expanded to cover divisions responsible for planning, The Chonburi initial risk assessment the entire province, or a total of 99 local financial management, communication, (IRA) identified priority environmental governments. and information, and a secretariat for day- issues of concern in the area, as well to-day operations. The local government as the technical gaps present. The Chonburi today stands at a crossroad consultative board is composed of results of the IRA have been used after 10 years of ICM implementation. It is mayors or heads of local governments, as inputs to the development of the most opportune time to evaluate the where an ICM Director is elected every programs and the setting of priorities lessons learned in the implementation two years. The board also agrees on the for implementation. Management- and scaling up of ICM and relate these assignment of local governments in the oriented social and scientific research to emerging issues which Chonburi various divisions under the PMO. The has also been undertaken to address faces, including climate change and the ICM Secretariat was located in Sriracha specific coastal management and risk associated risks and impacts. Municipality, until it was transferred issues. 16 July 2012

Box 2. Habitat restoration, resource protection and management.

The development of the Chonburi coastal area is a continuing process, which has entailed land reclamation and the resulting destruction and loss of mangroves. Four decades ago, the mangrove forests in Muang Chonburi district covered an area of about 8,000 km2. Development along the coast and subsequent deforestation left only 960 km2 from 1977. The coral reefs in the area are also under threat, especially in years with recorded drought and high temperatures. The reef losses have not been valued due to lack of an evaluation system. To compound problems, land use conflicts exist between residents and areas designated as protected.

Eventually, communities realized the value of mangrove forests for fisheries productivity and storm and tidal surge protection. A mangrove conservation and restoration program was initiated, with active replanting of mangrove trees by communities along the coastline. Programs for the restoration of mangrove forests have been conducted by the Chai Thale community of Muang Chonburi Municipality, Ban Thai Community of Ang- sila Municipality, and Community of Saensuk Municipality. Numerous conservation projects provide activities

Seagrass planting activity participated by local government, municipal schools and communities in Sriracha Municipality.

for the youth, such as educational field trips and mangrove planting excursions. The youth share their experiences with other communities. Again, knowledge on climate change has been integrated into all local government programs related to school activities.

Seagrass planting has always been a popular activity for school children. A project for restoration and transplantation of seagrass in Sriracha Bay has been conducted for several years. The project successfully transplanted seagrasses from Kung Kraben Bay in Chantaburi province to Sriracha Bay near Koh Loi district, with a present day survival rate of 26 percent. Accompanying scientific studies demonstrated the significance of sediment quality for seagrass survival. The project has also served as a demonstration project to enhance public awareness on the value of seagrass beds and promote public participation. The seagrass transplantation activity has involved technical staff from , staff from Sriracha Municipality Cooperation of the community and government officials in and municipal schools, as well as local fishers and fishing mangrove replanting programs along the coast of Chonburi. communities. Tropical Coasts 17

2. On linking with the development led to a Provincial Development communities have received support in processes. The ICM program, as a Plan integrating public education terms of information and knowledge, natural resource and environmental and awareness solely focused materials, equipment and cooperative management system for Chonburi, on fisheries and aquaculture. implementation of approved projects. is viewed from a planning and Presently, the majority of the Capacity development and knowledge- development perspective. As development plans of the local sharing activities have included training an inclusive and collaborative government units (LGUs) integrate workshops and consultations, public approach, it facilitates coherence public education and awareness on awareness and stakeholder mobilization. among municipalities while natural resources and environment. Numerous scientific studies dealing complementing those espoused with the protection and rehabilitation by national, regional and provincial of coastal and marine resources and (and even international) policies. Scaling up ICM ensures improving wastewater management integrative collaborative have also been initiated. 3. Integration among stakeholders. governance — it broadens Before ICM was adopted, perspectives for innovative The adoption and implementation of there was no mechanism for interventions the Chonburi CSIP, which requires local multisectoral consultation and governments to allocate budgets for decisionmaking. Local government The implementation of ICM in specified activities, ensures the long- leaders made decisions for their own Chonburi, especially in Sriracha Bay, term financial sustainability of ICM respective areas. As a consequence, has focused on the protection and implementation in Chonburi. Annual limited resources were being rehabilitation of natural resources allocations have been provided since allocated for coastal management. and the marine environment. The 2006. The CSIP is also used as a basis for For example, prior to the adoption municipalities involved have worked requesting central government funds for of the ICM program in Chonburi, in close cooperation with relevant various coastal management activities. a local communication plan for authorities, state enterprises, the private A budget for capacity building is usually fisheries and natural resources was sector, the community in general, and allocated by each participating local already available. This eventually educational institutions. The coastal government as indicated in the CSIP.

Box 3. Water use and supply management.

Chonburi historically has had shortages of freshwater due on regulatory measures, such as the polluter-pays principle, to overuse of available resources in reservoirs. Presently, and considering methods of achieving better wastewater water is piped in from reservoirs in province. As of handling protocols. Attention is also being paid to 2009, 742 artesian wells were operated by the private sector reuse treated wastewater. Water resources management and an additional 1,536 wells by government agencies. in Chonburi for sustainable development has been Nevertheless, there are still severe shortages. Droughts occur strengthened based on the goals set by local governments, frequently even in relatively high rainfall years and the rate of especially through ICM implementation, in conjunction with water receding in the reservoirs has been alarming. Programs the participation of the stakeholders and the multisector to monitor water levels for rivers, reservoirs and wells were users. implemented. Most importantly, the municipalities instituted mechanisms to stop leakages in water distribution systems Proposed water conservation projects in preparation for and improve water quality for human consumption (e.g., potential shortages in the future due to climate change were reverse osmosis facilities have been installed to remove included in the development of water catchment areas, the fluoride and iron from the water supply). digging of irrigation canals, as well as the development of plans for water resources utilization. Contingency plans were The water management plan in Chonburi emphasizes developed for flood and drought prevention at the local suitable and equitable water allocation for all water use community level with integration into larger provincial and sectors. The implementation of the national decentralization regional flood and drought projects. policy that delegated greater water resources management authority to local governments has enhanced the Reuse of treated wastewater in some municipalities is also implementation of public awareness activities during being practiced. Such projects reuse treated wastewater from national and religious holidays with the participation of the municipal wastewater treatment plants for utilization in stakeholders. In addition, policymakers are now focusing watering municipal parks and the sides of highways. 18 July 2012

Box 4. Solid waste management.

Garbage bank projects have been established in many municipalities, organized by local communities with support from the municipal office. The programs serve to reduce the volume of municipal and household solid wastes before being transported to disposal sites. The garbage is separated into different streams; some are reused and others are recycled. There are two primary locations for separation activities, separation at the community level and separation in schools.

Volume reduction in solid wastes from 2008 stemming from the establishment of a garbage bank has resulted Community solid waste separation site in Sriracha municipality. in a reduction of solid wastes that would have ended up in landfills. An example is at Sriracha Municipality where Mr. Chumrueng Attanat along with 15 volunteers yielding a net income of approximately Baht 18,000. provided data that the municipality separated 385 tons, This is equivalent to 2.76 percent of daily garbage load from a disposal rate of 35 tons per day, of paper, plastic, in Chonburi province. In Chonburi province, there are and glass bottles in a 75-day experiment. They were able 20 community garbage banks plus an additional 200 to separate recycled materials of approximately 10.6 tons locations in schools.

Local governments are also working University; and Aquatic Resources increasing the implementation space closely with universities in the area (e.g., Research Institute, Chulalongkorn where problems are analyzed and solved, Burapha University, Fisheries Research University. These universities also and solutions shared. Station of Kasetsart University and have their own funds to complement Aquatic Resource Research Institute of municipal initiatives in ICM. In accordance with an agreement Chulalongkorn University) to address reached through the Project various technical information needs to Such mechanisms have greatly benefited Coordinating Committee (PCC), all enhance decisionmaking (e.g., technical from the integrative platforms (i.e., participating local governments are also study on the impacts of sea-based coordinating mechanisms, planning required to allocate Baht 50,000 each to transfer of cassava flour and other dusty processes, legislation, communication support the operations of the Chonburi commodities in Sriracha Bay; research plans, etc.) which the ICM program put ICM Secretariat in Sriracha Municipality. to address sea turtle diseases in the in place. Scaling up activities have also The involvement of City and conservation ponds; green mussel strengthened collaborative governance. the Chonburi provincial administrative diseases; seagrass transplantation; oil spill All of which have led to at least three organization in the Chonburi ICM impacts; ocean circulation; etc.). Numerous realizations, as follows: network, which have sizeable budgets, university faculty and staff are already also provides a potential source of involved in climate change research. These 1. Widening the policy and financial assistance for some financially- personnel serve as facilitators for the implementation spaces. The very constrained municipalities. expansion of climate change knowledge complex problems in Chonburi and know-how for the local governments. are the very impetus to requiring a Chonburi is also receiving financial broader, more comprehensive, and assistance from the GEF-UNDP Small Several universities and research more inclusive framework where the Grants Programme (SGP), as part of the institutions are found in Chonburi namely, local governments, NGOs, business, SGP-PEMSEA Joint Communiqué. An the Sriracha Fisheries Research Station universities and other stakeholders SGP project developed with the support of Kasetsart University and Kasetsart operate. This is to accommodate of PEMSEA, which includes mangrove University, Sriracha Campus; Department the many and varied perspectives reforestation, expansion of the “crab of Aquatic Science (Faculty of Science), (and scientific information) needed condominium” (Box 1), and community- and Marine Science Institute, Burapha to evaluate alternatives and based waste management, was University; Rajamangala University of ways to successfully implement completed in 2010. Although systematic Technology, Eastern Region; Thamasart interventions. It all boils down to studies on harvest and income have not Tropical Coasts 19

been conducted, local fishers have (MOU) with Underwater World use and supply management (Box noted improvements in the catch Pattaya for cooperation in sea turtle 3) and waste management (Box 4) of crabs and other fish species. Two conservation. — has consistently been observed. other SGP projects were initiated in People actually participate in events 2011 covering 9 communities in 7 2. When there is a crisis in Chonburi, it and activities at their own cost (e.g., municipalities to scale up community- is within their capacity to resolve it. transportation, food) as they view ICM based waste management. Because all local issues are public activities as opportunities for learning, concerns, people are willing sharing experiences, and social growth. The private/commercial/industrial to participate in ICM activities. Scaling up ICM activities has actually sector has also been supportive Increasing participation in empowered “public coalitions” in of the program, contributing to coastal management activities addressing problems. In essence, various activities. For example, — in issues that concern habitat solutions are forthcoming when Sriracha Municipality has signed a restoration, resource protection enough political will and social support Memorandum of Understanding and management (Box 2), water are likewise strong.

Box 5. What is climate change doing to the coastal areas of Chonburi Province?

Coral reef bleaching and ocean acidification The first report on the mass bleaching of soft coral reef colonies in Chonburi occurred in October 2006. Almost 95 percent of all visible soft coral colonies were completely bleached, especially coral at depths of 1-2 m below mean sea level. During the periods of bleaching, the highest ambient seawater temperature in the area was 33.78oC and the highest salinity was 33 psu (practical salinity unit). Under normal conditions, the temperature and salinity in the area should average 28oC and 30–31 psu, respectively. This incidence could be related Mass mortalities of venus clams along the coast of to climate change and global warming. Corals have been Chonburi in 2005 shown to bleach through the combined effects of elevated sea temperature and high solar radiation. Elevated levels of carbon Increase in the incidence of disease in marine organisms dioxide may lower the pH of seawater resulting in harmful effects on marine organisms, especially those with shells or Venus clams are abundant along the coast of Chonburi. In March exoskeletons made of calcium carbonate. 2009, massive mortalities were reported along the coast of Bang Phra district. An earlier mass mortality had also been reported along the beaches of Sri Chang Island off the coast of Sriracha in 2005. It was noted that the mass mortalities occurred during the summer months of March and April when seawater temperatures were between 33-35oC. Salinities were also between 33-35 psu. Seawater temperatures and salinities recorded since 2007 have been about 2 psu and 2oC higher than in previous years. These elevations may have resulted in disease and parasites proliferating in the bivalves.

Outbreaks of parasitic and predatory flatworms that can infest mussel farms have caused increased mortality for green mussels from raft-grown mussels. Severe mortality in mussel farms has been attributed from infection of at least two species of flatworms. The recent spread of flatworms seems to be correlated Mass bleaching of shallow soft coral reef, Sarcophyton with increases in seawater salinity due to decreased rainfall. spp. colonies at Sattahip coast (Courtesy of Suchana Damage from flatworm invasion has resulted in a 20 percent Chavanich). decrease in farmer income concurrent with a 30 percent decrease in mussel output. Continued in page 21... 20 July 2012

3. Higher benefits compared to cost. ICM benefits and costs associated with ICM Coastal habitats are being lost scaling up is contributing significantly to implementation depends on the extent and converted to accommodate the building of local capacity to address of implementation of the CSIP of each settlements and other land uses. various challenges to sustainable coastal participating local government. Not only is Chonburi losing its development though contributions natural protection from natural from various stakeholder groups, hazards, human impacts on ocean including: (1) local governments (e.g., Scaling up ICM institutionalizes ecosystems, such as mangroves and increased allocation for marine and a mechanism to drive sequential seagrass beds, have significantly coastal management; support for the attention to developmental risks reduced the capacity of these ICM Secretariat; human resources; and opportunities. ecosystems to sequester carbon from use of facilities; etc.); (2) government the atmosphere. agencies (e.g., financial contribution ICM programs are never short-term of the Wastewater Management engagements. They are long-term; even ICM provides a framework and Authority to support school essay life-long. As exemplified by Chonburi, process that “covers” climate change writing contests, sea turtle release and over the years the issues have ranged adaptation. That is, there is no need other public education and mobilization and shifted from marine pollution to to establish a separate mechanism activities, and crab conservation; use environmental protection to conservation to address climate change; climate of the boats of the Royal Thai Navy and of key species. Several approaches change adaptations can build on the for various activities have also become evident and evolved: existing ICM mechanism. including the sea turtle release program; from adaptive and ecosystem-based technical support from the Marine management to an emphasis on 2. There is value in sequential Department and Pollution Control sustainable livelihood approaches. The attention to developmental risks Department in developing the local recent attention to vulnerability and and opportunities. As a long-term oil spill contingency plan for Chonburi; resilience is an outcome of the threat of the endeavour, ICM is based upon the etc); (3) private sector (e.g., good source increasing frequency and magnitude of need to structure the distant goals of knowledge on climate change and natural and manmade disasters. of sustainable forms of government global warming and its potential impacts into stages; starting the “harvest on coastal communities; contribution ICM as an approach has matured over of the low hanging fruit” and of the Restaurant Association through the years and now looks at integrative, leveraging initial successes into the installation and promotion of grease traps collaborative governance to encompass next step. Scaling up is a pragmatic in restaurants; financial contributions all risks; be they climate or non-climate mechanism, which utilizes the strong from oil companies (i.e., Thai Oil; Esso stressors. fundamentals that have been initially Thailand; PTT) for crab conservation, created in the development of ICM tourism promotion, public health Chonburi is showing at least two learnings: programs; lessons abound from park, marine environmental learning these initial experiences. center, and demonstration of oil spill 1. Adaptation to coastal risks is an clean up techniques); (4) local schools/ ongoing process. Chonburi is now Conclusion universities (e.g., financial contribution cognizant of the fact that adaptation of Duangmanee School for crab to climate and non-climate stressors ICM implementation in Chonburi has conservation; mobilization of local is a process of coping that shifts. It established a mechanism whereby local school administrators and personnel ranges from addressing current realities governments and various stakeholders to set up and operate ‘Garbage Banks’ and environmental emergencies to collaborate to solve common problems. in schools; use of the equipment and anticipation of future risks. It involves Solutions have involved significant facilities of the Kasetsart University and learning of changing scenarios and commitments by participating local Burapha University for various activities); constantly shifting development governments and sectors, in terms and (5) fishers and communities pressures and opportunities. of political, technical and financial (e.g., contribution of the Fisherman’s support. As ICM is a continuing and Association in maintaining the Crab Recent studies conducted in Chonburi iterative process, commitment and Condos; participation in various ICM have shown correlation of environmental support should continue to grow, along activities). emergencies to changing climate with awareness and capacity, to deal (Box 5). The link between ecological with current and emerging concerns The additional investments by the degradation, caused by man’s activities, including climate change, utilizing stakeholders are considered to be and the increasing vulnerability to and existing multistakeholder processes and worthwhile and will lead to greater impacts of natural hazards and climate building on lessons learned in the past benefits. The distribution of the change is increasingly being validated. ten years. Tropical Coasts 21

Box 5. What is climate change doing to the coastal in reservoir levels. Climate changes may have significant areas of Chonburi Province? (continued from page 19) affects on the annual monsoon periods, especially the winter (northeast) monsoons. In Thailand, the summer monsoon Impacts on coastal aquaculture rainfall recorded in September has been decreasing for the past 50 years. For the past 18 years or so there have been shellfish mass mortalities attributed to increased rainfall (flushing) and Elevated rate of coastal erosion prolonged salinity declines along the Chonburi coast. The production of green mussel (Perna viridis) along the northern Coastal erosion especially in the inner Gulf of Thailand and Chonburi coast, which is under influence of riverine discharge Chonburi is a result of both wind and wave action and from the Bangpakong River, declined to 40 percent and 10 anthropogenic activities such as coastal construction and percent in 2008 and 2009, respectively. Rising temperatures sand mining. There are eight municipalities in Chonburi have caused an increase of water evaporation impacting on with problems of coastal erosion (erosion rate can be up to coastal land-based aquaculture. Operators of these land-based 3-5 meters/year in some areas) namely, Klongtamru, Laem farms have had to frequently top up their ponds to desired Chabang, Banglamung, Na Chom Tien, Bangsaray, Sattahip, water levels. Plutaleung and Samaesan.

Reduction of freshwater supply Land subsidence The estimated freshwater demand in Chonburi is 186 million Land subsidence, due to increasing groundwater extraction 3 m for agriculture, industry, tourism, ecological conservation as a result of freshwater shortages, is on the increase. The and domestic use. There has been a serious decrease in water increasing number of coastal wells dug since 2004 has further supply from the nine freshwater reservoirs in Chonburi since compounded the situation. 2004. In 1995, only 20 privately operated underground water wells were permitted. This number has increased to 100 and Areas under risk, especially from flashfloods, mudslides 700 wells in 2004 and 2008, respectively. In 2009, the number and storms of government constructed wells was 1,450. Areas under threat from flashfloods and mudslides due to Elevated earth surface temperatures are believed to change increased severity of coastal storms are found in Sriracha and evaporation regimes of both surface and ground water Sattahip municipalities, as well as in Pattaya City. For example, resources. Changes in rainfall patterns may be responsible for flashfloods occurred in October 2009 in Sriracha and Pattaya, drastic changes in the distribution of freshwater. Droughts where up to 1,389 households were affected. Rice fields were may occur in one area, while floods may occur in others. damaged over a wide area, and losses of livestock seriously Severe droughts were reported in Chonburi in 2004–2005. affected the impacted communities. Transportation was Since then the prevailing weather has been characterized by disrupted along the major highways as well as many country decreased rainfall leading to water shortages, as reflected roads from flooding and from the loss of bridges.

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