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1 France: an Introduction 1. for the Patterns of Housing and The Notes 1 France: An Introduction 1. For the patterns of housing and the distinctive ways of life developed around the textile industry in the Nord in the nineteenth century, see Hilden (1986). 2. Not women, who did not achieve political rights in France until 1944. 3. For the move away of the population, especially the male population, from church-going, see Dupeux (1976, pp. 168, 186--7). 4. For a discussion of women and the Republic see Sian Reynolds, 'Marianne's Citizens', in Reynolds (1986). 2 The Constitutional FriUilework I. The concept of a loyal opposition, with recognised leaders who may even draw an official salary, and who take their places on state occasions as part of the formal constitutional structure, remains unknown in France. 2. The major biography has been translated into English: Lacouture (1990, 1991). For a brief, vivid pen portrait, see Wright (1989). 3. A resolution which would start the amendment procedure was approved by 408 votes to 165 in May 1958. 4. Rene Remond, 'La creation du systeme', in Duhamel and Parodi (1985). 5. Debre began his career with degrees in law and political science, and in 1935 joined the elite civil service corps of the Council of State, the main governmental legal advisory body. He distinguished himself in the Resistance, and in 1945 was brought back from a post as governmental representative in the provinces to undertake a major programme of administrative reform. A committed Gaullist, he became a senator and was a fierce critic of the political and constitutional system of the Fourth Republic. 6. They were the Socialist Guy Mollet, the Christian Democrat Pierre Pflimlin, Felix Houphouet-Boigny representing the parties of the French territories in Africa, and Louis Jacquinot, an independent. Mollet had been prime minister from january 1956 to May 1957 and Pflimlin had briefly held that office during the closing days of the Fourth Republic, from 13 to 28 May 1958. 332 Notes 333 7. George Ross, 'Adieu vieilles idees: the middle strata and the decline of Resistance-Liberation Left discourse. in France', in Howorth and Ross (1986, pp. 57-83). 8. See Dreyfus and D' Arcy ( 1993, p. 158) on freedom of association. 9. Abraham Lincoln at the dedication of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg, 19 November 1863. 10. A similar provision appears in the Basic Law of (formerly West) Germany of 1949. II. The procedure- provided for by Article 85- was used once, in 1960. 12. One of the ministers at the time, Pierre Sudreau, resigned because in his view the government was acting unconstitutionally. 13. Quermonne (1980, p. 65), quoting Noel (1976, p. 223). 14. See Debre's speech to the Conseil d'Etat on 27 August 1958, printed in Quermonne ( 1980, p. 621). 15. Williams (1972, p. 438). See ch. 30 for a brilliant discussion of the IV Republican 'system' against which the framers of the V Republic were reacting. 16. France Observateur (7 August 1958), quoted in Claude Emeri, 'Les deconvenues de Ia doctrine', in Duhamel and Parodi (1985, p. 80). 17. Candidates for election must nowadays, since the Organic Law of 1976, be nominated by 500 sponsors, who must be elected mayors of commu­ nes, elected members of the council of a dipartement, members of the Economic and Social Council, or members of Parliament. They must come from at least thirty different dipartements or overseas territories. 18. Odile Rudelle, 'Le general de Gaulle et !'election directe du president de Ia Republique', in Duhamel and Parodi ( 1985, p. 117). 19. See Fran~ois Goguel, 'Introduction', in Duhamel and Parodi (1985, p. 130). 20. A list of all the members of the Council from 1959 to 1992, with brief biographical details is given in Avril and Gicquel (1992, pp. 148-52). 21. Figures from Loic Philip, 'Bilan et effets de Ia Saisine du Conseil Constitutionell', in Duhamel and Parodi (1985). 22. Of the 45 referrals by members of Parliament between 1974 and 1981 all but one arose from members of the opposition. The exception was the referral of the law on abortion in 1975. In 1976 the finance bill was referred simultaneously by the opposition, the majority and the prime minister. See Avril and Gicquel (1992, p. 63) . 3 The Presidency I. Quoted in The Guardian Weekend, 6 May 1995, p. 13. 2. President Mitterrand, speech of 13 June 1990, quoted in Maus (1991, p. 40). 3. Quoted in Quermonne (1980, p. 176). 4. Quermonne (1980, p. 195) gives examples of a number of important issues on which de Gaulle and Giscard d'Estaing sought the views of each minister in turn. See also Giroud ( 1977, pp. 26-43). Schifres and Sarazin ( 1985, p. 194) say that President Mitterrand never did this. 334 Notes 5. The photograph published as Plate 33 in Horne (1977) shows young servicemen listening to the radio broadcast. 6. De Gaulle made eight such broadcasts in 1960 and six in 1961 as a result of the turbulence in Algeria. In 1962, which saw not only Algerian independence but also the referendum on the constitution, he made eleven, whilst the student disturbances of 1968 produced seven broad­ casts. See Andre Passeron (Le Monde, 12 septembre 1991). 7. The President never appears before Parliament and there is no regular or formal equivalent of the Queen's speech or the State of the Union address. Compared with the United Kingdom, Parliament in France is much less able to insist on being told about important policy initiatives ahead of the press or on statements about major events being made to them. Consequently news of policy developments is often conveyed initally through the media. 8. M . Harrison, 'The President, Cultural Politics and Media Policy', in Hayward (1993). 9. The phrase was used by Massot (1987) as a chapter heading. See Anne Stevens, 'The Presidential Staff', in Hayward (1993). 10. In many ways Foccart and his secretariat operated as if they were an autonomous ministry, rather than a branch of an exective office. In 1974 the separate status of the secretariat was abolished, although African affairs have always had a somewhat individual position within the Elysee. II. Jolyon Howorth, 'The President's Special Role in Foreign and Defence Policy', in Hayward (1993). See also Howorth (1991, pp. 3-16). 12. Not to be confused with the Secretary General of the Government, a senior official based in the Prime Minister's department with responsi­ bilities not dissimilar from those of the British Cabinet Secretary. 13. Giesbert (1990, p.l39). See also Favier and Martin-Roland (1990, p. 433) . 14. Etienne Burin des Roziers in Pilleul (1979, p. 225). Interviews with former members of President Giscard's staff and with former ministerial cabinet members (Paris, September 1991). 15. The incumbents have all been male, although there has been a female deputy secretary-general. 16. Portelli (1987, pp. 114-15) and L. Hamon, 'Du Referendum a Ia Democratie Continue', in Duhamel and Parodi (1985, pp. 504-21). l 7. Quoted in Quermonne ( 1980, p. 181) . 4 The Governmental Machine I. Quoted in Quermonne (1980, p. 637). 2. In the 1988 Rocard government the Minister for the Civil Service, Michel Durafour, was a full cabinet minister, a status that has con­ tinued, reflecting the priority given to administrative reform and modernisation and also, under Balladur and Juppe, to reducing public spending. Notes 335 3. Jean Massot, 'Le President de Ia Republique et le Premier Ministre', in Chagnollaud (1991, p. 26). 4. Volkmar Lauber, 'Economic Policy', in McCarthy (1987). 5. In Jacques Chirac's 1986 government there were 43 ministers, in May 1988 Michel Rocard's government contained 49, and in Edith Cresson's 1991 government there were 45 (not including the prime minister). 6. Thus in 1991 such a title was held by Jean-Pierre Soisson, the leading non-Socialist minister in the Council of Ministers, no doubt to mark the government's desire to extend its support towards the political centre that Soisson represented. AlainJuppe did not use the title in either of his 1995 governments. 7. This pattern again contrasts with that of the United Kingdom. The number of ministers and junior ministers in the United Kingdom, at around 100, is approximately twice that in France. Partly, but not entirely, because of the need to have a spokesman in the House of Lords - French ministers can freely attend and speak, but not vote, in both houses of Parliament - most UK Cabinet ministers have a team of at least three or four junior ministers attached to them. 8. It is hard to believe that the existence of the President's mistress (housed for some of the time in official accommodation) and a daughter would have gone unremarked, or at least unreported, through two election campaigns and some thirteen years in office in most western countries. 9. In Hayward 1993 p. 216 10. Figures from Fournier (1987, p. 109). 11. Pascal Lamy, head of the cabinet ofJacques Delors during his time as President of the Commission of the European Communities, observed the difficulties of his compatriots in this respect: interview in Esprit, no. 10 October 1991, p. 70 cited in Pierre Muller, 'Le modele fran~ais de !'administration face a Ia constitution d'un espace public europeen' (Muller, 1992, p. 23 ). 5 The Ac:bninistrative System. in France I. Daniele Lochak 'Les hauts fonctionnaires et l'alternance: quelle politi­ sation?' in Muller (1992, p. 47). 2. Stephen E. Bornstein, 'The Politics of Scandal', in Hall, Hayward and Machin (1994, p. 270). 3. All the midiateurs up to the present have been male. 4. Jack Hayward, 'Mobilising Private Interests in the Service of French Policy Style?', in Richardson (1982).
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