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Food Security and Coping Mechanisms in Marginal Areas: the Case of West Pokot, Kenya, 1920-1995 Nangulu, A.K

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Food Security and Coping Mechanisms in Marginal Areas: the Case of West Pokot, Kenya, 1920-1995 Nangulu, A.K Food security and coping mechanisms in marginal areas: the case of West Pokot, Kenya, 1920-1995 Nangulu, A.K. Citation Nangulu, A. K. (2009). Food security and coping mechanisms in marginal areas: the case of West Pokot, Kenya, 1920-1995. Leiden: African Studies Centre. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/13788 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) License: Leiden University Non-exclusive license Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/13788 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). Food security and coping mechanisms in marginal areas African Studies Centre African Studies Collection, vol. 15 Food security and coping mechanisms in marginal areas. The case of West Pokot, Kenya, 1920-1995 Anne Kisaka Nangulu Published by: African Studies Centre P.O. Box 9555 2300 RB Leiden The Netherlands [email protected] http://www.ascleiden.nl Cover design: Heike Slingerland Printed by PrintPartners Ipskamp BV, Enschede ISSN: 1876-018X ISBN: 978-90-5448-085-3 © Anne Kisaka Nangulu, 2009 Contents List of tables viii List of maps ix List of abbreviations x Preface xii 1 INTRODUCTION 1 The study area 3 The study 5 Conceptual framework 8 Literature review 11 Methodology 17 Conclusion 18 2 ADMINISTRATION, POPULATION TRENDS AND LAND TENURE 21 Introduction 21 Administrative history 22 Taxation 27 History of population development 30 The land 35 Conclusion 43 3 FURROW IRRIGATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION IN COLONIAL WEST POKOT, 1920-1963 45 Introduction 45 Furrow irrigation, labour and seasonality 46 Agricultural activities in the colonial period, 1920-1939 52 Agricultural activities, 1939-1963 63 Conclusion 70 4 STRIVING FOR FOOD SECURITY: CROP DEVELOPMENT IN POST-COLONIAL WEST POKOT, 1963-1995 73 Introduction 73 Crop development: The case of hybrid maize 76 Crop development: Provision of credit to farmers to enhance production 83 Grains, legumes, tubers and other crops 91 Soil conservation measures 95 Conclusion 96 5 LIVESTOCK KEEPING, HUNTING AND GATHERING AS COPING MECHANISMS, 1920-1995 99 Introduction 99 Livestock keeping: Grazing, labour management and social networks 100 Livestock keeping and the impact of colonialism: The case of destocking, 1920-1963 105 Livestock keeping and the impact of colonialism: Grazing schemes, 1930-1963 110 Livestock insecurity: Drought, diseases and cattle raids, 1920-1963 115 Grazing schemes, grade and cross breed stock in the post-colonial period, 1963-1995 119 Livestock insecurity: Disease and prevention measures, 1963-1995 127 Livestock insecurity: Border clashes and cattle raids, 1963-1995 132 Hunting and gathering as coping mechanisms 137 Conclusion 141 6 TRADE, WAGE LABOUR, MINING, AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SECURITY 143 Introduction 143 Trade in the colonial period, 1920-1935 145 Trade in the post-depression and World War II period, 1935-1945 148 Trade in the post-World war II period, 1945-1963 153 Trade in livestock and livestock products in the post-colonial period, 1963-1995 163 Trade in farm produce, miraa and beer, 1963-1995 168 Wage labour as a coping mechanism in colonial and post-colonial West Pokot 177 Mining as a coping mechanism in colonial and post-colonial West Pokot 186 Conclusion 191 vi 7 EXTERNAL INTERVENTION: GOVERNMENT/DONOR INTERVENTIONS WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO IRRIGATION AND FAMINE RELIEF, AND THEIR IMPACT ON FOOD SECURITY 193 Introduction 193 Irrigation projects 195 Demerits of irrigation projects and lessons to be learned 206 Famine relief 213 Conclusion 226 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 229 Summary 229 Conclusion and lessons to be learned 233 Annex: Maps 237 References 243 vii List of tables 1.1 Rainfall pattern in West Pokot, 1982-1992 5 2.1 Annual hut tax collection from 1915/16 to 1922 (rupees) 28 2.2 Annual hut tax collection from 1922 to 1926 (shillings) 28 2.3 West Pokot population estimates, 1924-1943 30 2.4 West Pokot population trends, 1948 to 1989 32 2.5 Saboat, Nandi and Bukusu human and livestock population in Mnagei location, 1947 33 2.6 West Pokot population projections by division 34 2.7 West Pokot population density by division, 1979-1994 34 3.1 Demonstration plots in West Pokot, 1935 61 3.2 Seed issues in West Pokot, 1936 62 3.3 Beans and root crop production in West Pokot, 1955 69 4.1 Maize planting in West Pokot, 1970 80 4.2 Maize planting in West Pokot, 1972 81 4.3 Maize planting in West Pokot, 1975-1976 81 4.4 Maize planting in West Pokot, 1978-1979 81 4.5 Fertilizer used in West Pokot, 1976 83 4.6 Co-operative society loans granted and recovery process in West Pokot, 1979 88 4.7 IADP loan recovery through co-operative societies, 1978/79 89 4.8 Seasonal credit scheme co-operative society loans, 1980 90 4.9 Estimates of potato production in West Pokot, 1973-1981 94 4.10 Soil conservation measures in Kapenguria, Sigor and Chepareria divisions, 1976 95 4.11 Soil conservation measures undertaken in West Pokot, 1981 96 5.1 The four block, four month rotation grazing adopted as the answer for the recovery of semi-arid areas (sequence for development in West Pokot) 112 5.2 Grazing schemes converted into group ranches, 1972-1975 122 5.3 Members of respective group ranches by end of 1975 122 5.4 Adjudicated group ranches in West Pokot, 1983 123 5.5 Number of dairy cattle (grade/cross breed) and milk sold, 1973-1976 126 5.6 Livestock population: estimated number of stock, 1973-1976 126 5.7 Position of SRDP incorporated ranches in West Pokot, 1976 127 5.8 Cases of tick-borne diseases confirmed by laboratory examination, 1966-1969 128 5.9 Selected dipping figures, 1970 129 5.10 Occurrence of diseases (general), 1971-1975 130 5.11 Estimated number of dips in operation, under construction and not operating, 1972-1976 131 5.12 Number of quarantines imposed on West Pokot, 1973-1976 131 5.13 Incidents of cattle raids between the Pokot and their neighbours, 1969 132 6.1 Sheep and goats sold by West Pokot traders, 1927-31 147 6.2 Details of trading licences issued, 1931-33 148 6.3 Trade centers and distribution of business, 1936 148 6.4 Stock sales, 1965-1969 163 6.5 Holding grounds in West Pokot, 1971 164 6.6 Slaughter and non-slaughter livestock sold within and outside West Pokot, 1971 165 6.7 Slaughter livestock sold within and outside West Pokot, 1969-1976 166 6.8 Hides and skins operations, 1967-1975 166 6.9 Revenue collected from hides and skins, 1967-1975 167 6.10 Hides and skins trade: Suspended and ground dried, 1975-1976 167 6.11 Milk and wool sold from West Pokot, 1971, 1974 and 1975 168 viii 6.12 Quantity and value of crop production, 1966-1969 169 6.13 Farm produce sales, 1970 and 1971 170 6.14 Crop sales, 1975-1976 170 6.15 Sorghum and finger millet production, 1967-1976 172 6.16 Potatoes, cassava and banana production, 1970-1971 173 6.17 African labour registered for work outside and within West Pokot, 1924 180 6.18 Gold produced in West Pokot by J.F. van Wyck between 1955 and 1963 189 List of maps 1 Location of West Pokot district in Kenya 237 2 West Suk/West Pokot district headquarters, 1910-83 238 3 West Suk/West Pokot administrative divisons, 1957-83 239 4 Administrative boundaries, West Pokot district, 1983 240 5 Administrative boundaries, 1995 241 6 Irrigation in West Pokot, 1985 242 ix List of abbreviations AADAR African Affairs Department Annual Report AAO Assistant Agricultural Officer ACCK Associated Christian Churches of Kenya ACTS African Center for Technology Studies ADA Assistant Director of Agriculture ADC African District Council AFC Agricultural Finance Corporation ALDEV African Land Development ALMO African Livestock Marketing Organization ASAL Arid and Semi-Arid Lands CLSMB Cotton Lint and Seed Marketing Board CO Colonial Office CPK Church Province of Kenya C&PKAR Colony and Protectorate of Kenya Annual Report DAO District Agricultural Officer DC District Commissioner DFC District Food Committee DIU District Irrigation Unit DLO District Land Officer DO District Officer DFRD District Focus for Rural Development EEC European Economic Community ENDA Environmental Development Action EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FCS Farmers Co-operative Society FFW Food For Work GK Government of Kenya GP Government Printer GSU General Service Unit HMSO His/Her Majesty’s Stationary Office IADP Integrated Agricultural Development Programme IAS Institute of African Studies IDS Institute of Development Studies IRD Integrated Rural Development KAR King’s African Rifles KAU Kenya African Union KCC Kenya Co-operative Creameries KFA Kenya Farmers Association KFFHC Kenya Freedom from Hunger Council KGGCU Kenya Grain Growers Co-operative Union KMC Kenya Meat Commission KNA Kenya National Archives KPCU Kenya Planters Co-operative Union KRDF Kenya Rural Development Fund x KSC Kenya Seed Company KSFS Kenya School Feeding Scheme KVDA Kerio Valley Development Authority LNC Local Native Council MCD Ministry of Co-operative Development MCH Maternal and Child Health MGDAR Mines and Geological Department Annual Report MMB Meat Marketing Board MOA Ministry of Agriculture MPMB Maize and Produce Marketing Board NADAR Native Affairs Department Annual Report NCPB National Cereals and Produce Board NGO Non-Governmental Organization NYS National Youth Service PBK Pyrethrum Board of Kenya PC Provincial Commissioner RDR Regional Development Research RNA Report of Native Affairs RVP Rift Valley Province SCIP Smallholder Coffee Improvement Project SFP School Feeding Programmes SFRC Sigor Food Review Committee SPLA Sudanese People’s Liberation Army SRDP Special Rural Development Programme UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNICEF United Nations Children’s Education Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development WFP World Food Programme WP West Pokot WPDAR West Pokot District Annual Report WSDAR West Suk District Annual Report xi Preface This study analyzes food security and coping mechanisms in semi-arid West Pokot between 1920 and 1995.
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