From Experience to Theory
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Ingrid Duchhart 2007 Process of Reflective Learning from Case-study Projects in Kenya A Theory Designing Sustainable Landscapes: From Experience to Designing Sustainable Landscapes From Experience to Theory A Process of Reflective Learning from Case-study Projects in Kenya Designing Sustainable Landscapes: From Experience to Theory A process of reflective learning from case-study projects in Kenya Ingrid Duchhart Wageningen University, The Netherlands, 2007 Ingrid Duchhart Designing Sustainable Landscapes: From Experience to Theory A Process of Reflective Learning from Case-study Projects in Kenya Promotor: Prof. ir. K. Kerkstra Hoogleraar Landschapsarchitectuur, Wageningen Universiteit Co-Promotor: Prof. F.R. Steiner PhD, University of Texas, USA Dean School of Architecture, Henry M. Rockwell Chair in Architecture Promotie Commissie: Prof. dr. A.J. Dietz, Universiteit van Amsterdam Prof. dr. ir. L. Stroosnijder, Wageningen Universiteit Prof. dr. A.J.J. van der Valk, Wageningen Universiteit Ir. D. Sijmons, H+N+S Landschapsarchitecten Utrecht Designing Sustainable Landscapes: From Experience to Theory A Process of Reflective Learning from Case-study Projects in Kenya Ingrid Duchhart Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit Prof. dr. M.J. Kropff in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 18 juni 2007 des namiddags te 13.30 in de Aula. Duchhart, I. Designing Sustainable Landscapes: From Experience to Theory A Process of Reflective Learning from Case-study Projects in Kenya Wageningen University, The Netherlands ISBN 978-90-8504-675-2 Key Words: Kenya, participatory landscape planning and design, landscape architecture, sustainable development, empirical experience, theory development, physical planning, Kenyan landscapes Foreword and Acknowledgments Contents Introduction 5 Part 1: Theoretical Starting Notions 1.1 Landscape Architecture in The Netherlands - An Outline 13 1.2 Theoretical Starting Notions 15 1.3 Conclusions 21 Part 2: Shaping the Land 2.1 Historical Perspective 29 2.2 Characteristic Contemporary Landscapes 45 2.3 Institutional Context 63 Part 3: Empirical Case-Study Projects 3.1 Landscape Plans for Bura’s Irrigation and Settlement Scheme 79 3.2 Landscape Development Plans for Kathama and Kakuyuni 87 3.3 Sustainable Smallholders’ Irrigation in South-West Kano - A Choice! 101 3.4 Suggestions for an Improved Living Environment in an Informal Neighbourhood of Nairobi 111 3.5 Landscape Development Concepts for the towns Kisii, Homa Bay, and Busia 119 Part 4: Evolved Theoretical Notions and their Application for Green Towns 4.1 Evolved Theoretical Notions Underlying the Green Towns Application Project 139 4.2 General Introduction to the Green Towns Project 147 4.3 Training of Trainers Course in Applied Environmental Planning 153 4.4 Community-based Workshop in Participatory Environmental Planning 171 4.5 Immediate Results of the Training Programmes - Institutionalisation and Public Action 177 4.6 Evaluation 183 Part 5: Concluding Theoretical Notions 5.1 Theoretical Starting Notions Revisited 193 5.2 Answering the Research Question 201 5.3 Discussion 203 Summary 205 Samenvatting 208 Sommaire 211 Appendix Biography Dedicated to the Green Towns children: Anna, Boni, Edwin (Mazingira), Shalin, Rashid, Owino, Tom, Keith, Ngina, Nasimiyu, and Jabali It was 1986 when the late Wageningen University the explicit choice to focus on Kenya. That summer, Foreword and Professor Nico de Jonge suggested that I should base while tutoring students in Indonesia, I had become a doctoral research on my interest in the role landscape increasingly aware of the cultural complexity of that archi-tecture could play in developing countries. Asian country. Although I felt competent to raise the Acknowledgments In the Netherlands Professor De Jonge had worked right questions, I doubted if I could come to practicable exten-sively as a landscape architect in Walcheren, and durable design solutions. The Indonesian context the new polders, and on many relocation projects. was so different! Looking across a blue-grey sawah He strongly believed that landscape architecture had covered with an early morning mist I made my a contribution to make to countries on the brink of decision. It would be Kenya. I had already a network modern development. Professor De Jonge shared of contacts there. Wageningen University staff were much of his experience with me during our many running a variety of soil science, vegetation, agronomy, field trips. Together, we marvelled at the superb form and agro-forestry projects. Kenya was an African of trees he had planted 30 years earlier as they stood country with reasonable economic development and etched against intensely coloured skies. He made me political stability and a concentration-country for aware of the beauty of nature in a world created by development aid from The Netherlands Government. humans. Having seen many examples of immensely This made it possible to find funding for several of beautiful Dutch landscapes, I began to wonder if the case-study projects presented in this thesis. At it would be possible to apply Professor De Jonge’s the same time I could rely on the help and support of approach also in much poorer countries. What aspects Frédèrique Grootenhuis. Frédèrique was a landscape of professional rational would stand ground? Once architect trained in Wageningen who was now living the cosmetic embellishments were removed what in Kenya. She shared her long practical experience would remain and may, thus, prove to be the core of and helped me avoid the most elementary mistakes. the landscape-architecture profession? After Professor She became my friend and soul mate. With her I could De Jonge’s retirement Professor Klaas Kerkstra continue discussing the potentials and restrictions took on the role of my research promoter. Professor of working as landscape architects in a country Kerkstra was convinced that the theoretical notions like Kenya. She introduced me to organisations underlying landscape architecture in the Netherlands like the Undugu Society, United States Agency for were universal. He continued to challenge me to keep International Development (USAID), International searching for the universal core of our profession even Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), and when I felt it had left me empty handed. Matrix Development Consultants and when I was in The Netherlands, she had always been willing to Why did I choose Kenya, a country without real roots follow contacts and clarify proposals for me. in the landscape-architecture profession? I had worked with students in many different countries and I could Moreover, from my first stay in Kenya, I had been have chosen for comparative research between these captured by the beauty of the country. On camping experiences, for example. In 1984, however, I made tours with Frédèrique and her husband, Jan-Geu, I 1 had come to know and appreciate the uniqueness of compared these landscapes with the landscapes of the terms of sociophysical organisation principles proved Kenyan wildlife. With them, I gazed at timeless grass polders I had visited in the Netherlands with Prof. De extremely important. Using this model I could link my savannahs where zebra and wildebeests stood guard Jonge. I could not understand why projects that had practical learning experiences to theory. During the over their defenceless young and where at night, el- been funded with Dutch money in Kenya had often years I worked on this research Professor Kleefmann ephants and buffalos roamed freely around our tents. left behind barren landscapes while in the Netherlands helped me develop sound argumentation and I am Oebele van de Wal showed me the tea landscapes of similar projects had led to beautifully sheltered places. profoundly grateful to him for the time and support Kericho that - from a distance - took the contours of Frédèrique’s work, including her designs for the Lake he gave me. There were also times when I found that, Japanese moss gardens. Together with my study mate View Estate in Nairobi, showed me that it was pos- although I had thought out a conceptual approach to Hanny Heetman, I gazed at bare, unrealistic moon- sible that in Kenya too development can enrich the achieving a sustainable landscape, I lacked insight scapes dominated by the colours pink, copper-green, landscape. I began to realise the enormous challenges into practical techniques. Here I needed input from and black east of Lake Turkana. Many Kenyans wel- and potentials of sharing my landscape-architecture disciplines and technologies such as irrigation, soil comed me in their homes. Nikki Musa took me deep expertise with Kenyans. As time passed the Kenyans and water conservation, agroforestry, tree-nursery into Luo land, and through his family I learned how themselves became the driving force. Especially the management, engineering and communication science. their culture had shaped their land and their society. hard working and ambitious Green Towners pushed Many people willingly shared their expertise and Professor dr. Gideon Mutiso talked to me all about me to the limit. Together we were able to achieve insights with me. Here I can only mention a few. They land and politics and his parents demonstrated the results none of us could have dreamed possible. include the late Peter van Bolhuis, Pieter Germeraad, potentials of good land management even under semi- Although there were many people I should mention, David Campbell, Jos Frijns, Kuria Gathuru, Esther arid conditions. With Wilfred Korir I experienced the here, I want to mention the late Charity Gatari, Joyce Kabati, Paul Kirai, Joseph Makopa, Kibe Muigai, blood-red sunsets of his Kericho homeland just after Kiringo and Esther Mwaura from the Green Towns Kaleb Murilla, N. Nyariki, Sylvester Povel, Diane the ever-timely rains and - in 1992 - Chris Njomo, office and Geoffrey Karume, the Chairman of the Rocheleau, John Raintree, Cor Veer, Remko Vonk and the father of my son, “offered” me the high peaks of Green Towns Partnership Association who became Freerk Wiersum. Alan Fowler, Graham Alder, Sarah Mount Kenya on a late afternoon.