COCONUT RIMS

ID Oft 018 S 018 091 TITLE Addresses and Reports, Annual Meeting of the National Science Teachers Association (22nd, Chicago,

Illinois, March 15-19, 1974). INSTITUTION National Science Teachers Association, Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Mar 74 NOTE 178p.

ERRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$9.00 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS Abstracts; *Conference Reports; *Elementary School Science; National Organizations; *Science Education; *Secondary School Science; *Teacher Education IDENTIFIERS *National Science Teachers Association; NSTA ABSTRACT Contained in this publicationare abstracts of the various contributed papers, speeches, concurrentsessions, science seminars, forums, and curbstone clinics ofthe 22nd annual meeting of the National &Aerie° Teachers Association.Materials from the affiliated grnups: Association fur the Educationof Teachers in Science (AETS), Council for Elementary ScienceInternational (CESI), and the national Science Supervisors Association(NSSA) are also included. (PES) %I OlivAlitMINT op stilatftt, toithttpti MULOANIII NtIMOWAL ttlitttutil OP OUtAttes Not Mu' otOr ItheiPt:th KtPOt. tit a t I V PA Pt (7 t. Pot 0 INN* 104 Of RUN OP tonAh:# A t 11,4111,0.th at hitt* so 0I4 01144104s *Itort, tki hot ht ikAstst a at- Pat st*itr.tl it As ha tows.itotift,tt.ow Out A t .t.!1/4 atyst t tots uss tttlt icy.

nsta twenty-second annual meeting

ADDRESSES AND REPORTS

Chicago, Illinois March 15-19, 1974

Stock Nuinbet 471.14670

NATIONAL SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION 1201 Sixteenth St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Suction Programs

AETSNSSA Annual Luncheon 1

AETS Joint Goma! Session 11 2 ACTS Campion% Sessions 3

CES1 Opening General Session 43

CESI CamelMit SOSSiOliS 44

NSSA Concuirent Sessions and Curbstone Clinics 50

NSTA General Sessions and &mom 53

NSTASunoco &wilco Seminars (Abstracts) 63

NSTA Forums 67

NSTA Concurrent Panels and Symposia 77

A. ,stracts of Conti ibuted Pows 149

AETS Association for die Education of TuJCllursin Science

CESI Council for Elementary Science International

NSSA National Science Supervisors Association

NSTA National Science Teachers Association SECTION PROGRAMS AETSNSSA ANNUAL LUNCHEON S. ThepreparatoryfunctionoftheLlementaty. secondary school will again be a primary emphasis, HUMANISM BEYOND tHE CLASSROOM The growth and popularity of vocationtechnical pm( high school institutions will (,:ontintte, Hobert1:, Yagel. Plesident AI IS, Professor of ilia Programs in all edneahonal units will be more Selene` NItIcalititt, Univi rsity. of tows, toWa city varied because of social pressures, the loh tIlitiiisetintil experiences, NlalllanlsIttinthe ClasslOoill, human;stic Sulu!' systems for the regulation of all himmitishcteaching are levels of terms which oxen plat)the education wilt be formed. Such an organization will intetest and cimeein fin "humanism" in the pl ifessional result in It as emphasis on fiscal separateness, It will commuluty. Useof humanisminterms ofspeeitic result in new pressure groups and new alignments classroom situations, in connection with teachingstrat of regulatory groups, hoards, and professionals. (Ties, with respect to curriculum patterns does not do 7. Education will continue to ascend asa "power" in justice` to hnlltauiatt as a eolleept in societies oft law society. Education will become inure central to the MyreliMiks fall within three sets of seven points daily workings of' society especially In the Amu. winch ate likened to the branching and interrelati mship economic and political arenas. of heel antlers. The first set of parts is concerno, with Basic problems ill terms of how modem man looks the seven maim trends whieli charm:1011e theertelit athimself have educationalimplications,These educationalsceneand which arelikely.tointensify "People Problems" also affect how we look into diningtheyearsahead. The secondsetof points the crystal ball for a glimpse of the future, People memo major humanproblems %%inch charactriie problemswhichme importantinconsidering today's society.. The final set of p1111115represent seven humanism in education include the following: ideas Windt Woldd exemplify'bilManisnt beyond .he Man has an instittetive tendency. hi tightchang,t... classrotn Change is generally. reeognited as a constant force; Itis always difficult at hest tt predict the future, It however We still light it. This resistance to change is often difficult to analvee the present. However. Mei comes from fear,Itthreatens the stability of the all the risks I offer the following seven characteristi:s of known. The reaction of such tnreats is describedas the educational scene both now and in the immediate beingthe sameregardless of thetimeorthe future. Such a listis not meant to he exhaustive, and it situation. People first try to ignore it: next try to isnotmeant toimplyapproval or any other value rationalizeitaway; and finallyresortto name judgment. I. Sellout enrollments %% ill continue to(eam.. Man at least during the past decadeseems to lack reflecting the decreases in the birth rate. During the faith thatall problems can he solved. Throughout 108.70 yearsthebirthratedecreased by 3 the history of recorded time man has had that percent;duringl97072the decreasewas 9 faith. It has always been impossible to imagineany percent: the repott for the I47274 years has not problems conceived by num that1111111 could not bt.ienreleased. However, the percentagesare not also solve.Ideas are assumed to he as natural as even in terms of the socioeconomic levels of men in they are inevitable. Ideas are premises for solving today'ssociety. The decreaseshave been more problems. Today problems of the economy, rural pronounced witl.inthe high socioeconomic level shortages, the socalled energy crisis seem tocreate than M the low socioeconomic group. Thecon feelings of despondency and fatalism. untieddeclineutnumbers andthechangein 3. Modern man has become complacent about himself makeup of each new school level will havemany as an individual. The is complacent about education. ntiplications for the future. lie assumes that the awarding of degrees is identical turmoilobservedduringrecentyears with to an education. lie assumes that our technology respecttosellout governance will ointillue. The makes us a more advanced civilkition. Ithuts been adversary. roles of the top administratiw and the said that man is less creative when he hasa "full instructionalstaffwillbecome even more pro. stomach." Modern society itself has bred man's nounced. The awkwardposition of themiddle complacency concerning his fate and his thought of administrative positions will continue to grow. his own role in that society. 3. Problems concerning the funding for educationat 4. Itis all too uncommon to let words do our thinking. alllevels willincrease. This situation will become An unknown phenomenon can be allied something worse as dollars stabilise and greater emphasis is and then all too quickly itis something. labels such placed upon cost effectiveness. These problems will asliberal,conservative. permissive. individualited, testi!tin more complications, confrontations. and coin pet ency based, and humanism are too often used competition for the same tax dollars. The conflicts in a variety of ways with a variety of meanings. will include public es private, elementary vs second. 5. Modern man assumes that he is a member of the arys collegiate levels. local vs regional vs state Units. most literate. the most informed, the most intelligent 4. Hut:animal goals will continue to receive study and society that has ever existed.Itis all too easy to ledefinItion. Students. coninvinity representatives, forget (Mr failings, the state of outliteracy, the representatives Irimt iganiiat ions, andsociety problems thatour advancements- have caused. generally will become more active and involved in Ignoranceisthe basic factor in all of out public studying the role of schools and educational units problems. We too easily forget that learning need is intoday's society. Such efforts are likely to result out-distancing our attainments. inminorbreaksin thetraditions which have Asignificantnumber of individualsintuba' ' diaracterieed education for the past one hundred society seem to lack commitmet :mil a senst years. direction for their lives. Too ma w persons have remorse for yesterday Wilde fearand apprehension societal role and one beyond the usual &summit chatactettie their feelings for 'tomorrow, Too few definition, reatlie we need to concentrate upon the only time $, Educatorsmustbecomeprofessionalte"., , concept Ned to 1w we have now. Concentrating 00 the present is (Teacher as a termand as perhaps the best preparation for the future,This abandoned?) It been said that learning an best lack of commitment for current activities and the be teamed frot,t others who theitiselves ore active maintenance of a healthy sense of direction, par. learners. MicEael Mitten of the Syracuse University ticularly, explain the sepaiation of generations. It is Research Corptuatkm has said that professionalism among educators is merely an act of ego massage easy to criticlie what the older generationcould have done. In a similar fashion it is all too easy tospend until such educational leaders do become learners time and effort worrying aboutwhat the new genera. first and foremost. 0. The lines that separate groups must be lessened it' lionwill do. students and 7. A major "people problem" is the tack of humility not erased. The interface between humility in weighing one's own worth, the value of teachers, schools and communities, college students one's ideas, one's interaction in cooperative efforts. and high school students, educators and menthers of other professions, vat lints classes within modern Perhapstheproblemisan emphasis upon an egocenteied philosophFor example. too often society must be matte less distinct. Communication amoue all k desiredif we are to work together the dialogueatinofessional meetings isreally a series of monhogues concerning What we aredoltItt, cooperatively in solving the problems of our day. our program. how we resolve that issue.Benjamin 7. New schema for identifying, measuring, anti de. Eranklin once said that humility was the trait of all scribing progress are needed. Our ideas concerning be altered. We thetraits of man for which lw most yearned. success and our definition of it must However. he purportedly slowed the search for he need new criteria and new bases for judgment. We leaned that once he had the trait he would he so must conic to retail', that we are dependent upon allof our human proud of it that it would be lost. Perhaps itis the Manua judgmentinnearly sincere wan* for humility that should hethe goal. associations. Seven points have been advanced to characterise To accomplish humanism beyond the classroom we is going. Seven points need common men with uncommon views of themselves. whene education is and where it rebuilding have been advanced which represent major problems of I am reminded of a Nvorite story told of the man which have slowed his cultural evolutionand his of the Cathedral of London after World War II. As you to meet the problems of today's world. Seven may recall, Sir ChristopherWren was commissioned to ability On oneoccasionsir nowadvancedto exemplify humanism accomplishthe restoration. pointsare Christopher decided to visit with some of his workmen beyondtheclassroom.These sevennoints may he siewed as ideas as premises that are needed it' we are to who were busy in the court yard. lie approached each he learners and leaders in teacher education. of the then hidividually with the same question: "And I.We need to remind ourselves regularly of the sizable what, my good man, are you doing'?" Each of the workmen responded with a different answer. 11w first incompleteness of our understanding of ourselves. re. of nature. of the world. We should map our areas responded, "I am cutting stones." The second of ignorance based on the knowledge we have. We sponded, "I am building a wall," and the third replied, should make less of the inforauttion explosion and "I am helping Sir Christopher Wren rebuild the ('tithe. more of the gaps in the information. Weshould he drat." Each man was involved in the same activity and job. My hope aware of and concerned for the knowledge which yet each had a different perception of his we do not even know exists. Normanilackerman. for our NSSA and our ALTS members is that we have point many who are cathedral builders asopposed to stone presidentofRiceUniversity,makes this the utmost wellinhis editorial includedinthe cutters. The kind of people we have is of particularly importance as we consider ourfutures.As we all Mardi S issue of Scienw. future. humanism (man's The knowledge we have, as meagre as itis. should dedicateourselvestothe he used for understanding ourselves and our world. respectfor111;111) can and must go beyond the class. The importance of using knowledge to whet our room! naturalcuriosity and our innate desire fur more knowledge should he stressed in all of our being. AETSNSSi', JOINT GENERAL SESSION II (Abstract) PROMISES AND PROBLEMS ON THE WAY TO 1984 Thisisthe fascination of Ilk' anthe essence of being human. We must begin to use systems and institutions for Edward J. Kormndy, The Evergreen State College, meeting societal and human goals rather than having Olympia. Washington systems and institutions as goals. In our own en. rate of ninienIininnownseriesof experiencesin Theseare rapidlychangingtimes whose the niche into which we are horn and in which we change will certainly accelerate between now and I9S4. ltyo and die we too often forget that the systems Such conditionswarranttapidresponse fromsoci:il and institim,ins around us are Of human creation systems, but, matured by years and structure, mosthave created initially to solve man. become so stable and status-quo-oriented as to he largely 4. The community itself needs to become a learning incapable of speedy remedy. That can and must he k:entei. The school as a reflection of such a concept altered. The educatic nal system needs to he prescient, Can hi`Cinnt'a dynamic communit center where risk-taking, and given to clystalballing. Most importantly nelsons 1 all kindsof all ages from all education it must engage the learning process in the realworld of levels come toyether to consider solutions toprob- dynamic change if itis to be pertinent to the nines and lems that lace us all. The new tole for schools is a relevant to the leainer. SESSION C gait age of Americans will rise frontMI to 35. expectoiwy lot womenwill Increase trout COM M NI TV INVOLVEMENT, COOPERATING 7to75 and that of men from 3 to 69, AGENCIES, AND INFORMATION NETWORKS 4. Six of tett people will live in metropolitan areas ofone Million ormoro, population (today David Archbald,Environmental Consultant, itistour of ten). The Ulaek and other Madison Public Schools, Madison, Wisconsin nonwhite population of the centralcity will rise from 22% to Today's total of 4,4 The basic processes deseribed in titispress nation million farm workers will drop by 55% as were published in the 14)72 January/February issue of machines and chelitialS take over most of the the Journal the Wisconsin Education Association, farm work. 11w key ideas covered were: S. An average work week is expected to be 3( I. Career/environment education interfacing basedon hoursinsteadof37.2hours.However, the key environmental educationconcepts iden employees will probably be free to set sad- titled at the University of Wisconsin and thekey tiles to lit their needs; thus most willsqueen career education concepts identifiedatthe Uni week's work into threedaysto provide more versity of Texas and Ohio State Ilniversity. This timefor adult education or recreation, The interfacing was carriedoutthrough aTitleIII family income will rise front $13,000 annually ploiect. to $23,000 annually in 1974 dollars. Education .n.Ormation (ED Systema student 6, The energy crisis will be solved through alter. operated system so students can match the talents native energy sources such as the use of solar and expertiseorcommunity resource individuals and converters for home heating, masstransit for groups with school needs. metropolitan areas, and small people mover 3. The key ecological principles for ecology education. vehicles. Tiw main shortage in the tuture will 4.Community goal setting and informationprocesses be water as our needs rise from 400 billion based on citien feedback with studentparticipa gallons daily to over I lion. trillion gallons, 7. The diet of Americans will Ee basedupon the 5, A simulation to provide handson experiences with greater use of substitutes for protein other ;01 of the above, The simulation thus providesa than mot. "training and exercise mat'' for studentwitty into 8. The basic causes of heart disease andcancer real community experiences. will he identified aod a way to prevention.ina lasting cure will be found. Spareartssurgery SESSION D will b ecome commonplace. 9, We will have three-dimensional television, wide. SCIENCE EDUCATION FOR THE FUTURE: spread use of tape cassettes tin' home viewing TOMORROW NEVER COMES and computer hookups on which peoplemay obtain information, place merchandise orders, !ierald II. Krockover. Assistant Professor of Science and pay bills without leaving their homes. UCPtion,PurdueUniversity,West Lafayette, As we look forward to these future happenings,we must prepare element ary and secondary teachers as wellas college science educators to melt these rapid changes in Ina recent issue of CS. News and World Report our lives and in the lives of our children, III a'ries of predictions were made regaidrang our life In1972, the Walla Walla, Washington Board of inthe.21stCentury. Several of these predit:tions are Education established a committee of three students, that: seven patents, three teachers, and five administrators to I. Airliners fly through the stratosphere at develop a series of goals for improving the educational 4,001) miles per hour. processatthelocallevel.The committee made six Educationwiltbe a continuous process no recommendations: 121 hinge'rigidlycompressedintothe years of 1. To seek more community (especially parent ) :hildhood and youth. lime number of college involvement in the educational programs of the students will rise from 0.2 million today to 10 schooldistrict,thatis, curriculum planning, million with many of these students learning instruction, conferences. extracurricular activ- offcampus with the aid of television cassettes, ities, volunteer programs, and public relations. studykit..andotherelectronicteaching Toplomote an increased community awareness devices.lime number of community colleges intheprogramsinthelocaldistrictwith will increase. Pupils of high school age will not particular emphasis on career awareness. intem- he a in classroomatall. but outearning personal relationship skills and attitudes,lei- academic credit by working full time at jobs suretittleactivities, and the role of students fur specified periods. Emphasis on the learning and parents in the important family unit. tedinical skillsis expected to gain atthe To promote programs necessar frartime devel- expense of a more traditional liberal-arts edu- pmentofpositiveattitudesandskills cation. employed in effective interpersonal andgroup Familiessill he smaller and of varied struc- communicatiranls. one. traenetic engineering will be available so 4. To promote a continual 0:Jinni:Own of the that babies can be obtained with specified hair learning process with pattwulat emphasison colt» and eyy color and perhaps other desired the lidlowing: phsracal and mental characteristics. The tied- a. how individuals learn,

3 b. teacite4shident relationships Bite import Will science olticalion programsheable to respond atria' of empathy to our needs in the 2Ist Century? Ate the goals lust 4. activity- teaming versa` a stutb- of htag stated any more noble or do they differ significantly molted facts, fromthe goals statedten years ago by the NSTA examining the piesent grading and report booklet, TheoryMt* Actlim:'What changes ean we nig process at the secondary level. make tit meet our future science education needs? Will To poimote progiamsthatplacea strong tomorrow ever come? continuous emphasis on teaching students how Perhaps the wonderful words of the art's and 70's to establish successful life relationships in the will finally be implemented. Teaching by inquiry, help present and Immo. ing children to become decision makers and thinkers To 'minnow the hamation of a districtwide must he practiced not preached! ourieulum advisory committee open to anyone Perhaps the fine examples set by our elementary who can display a genuine positive interest in science programs such as SCIS and USS will spread to the students and instructional programs In the middle and secondary schools and to the colleges and district. universities. The elementary science programs allow for Uooutpiesent science education offerings attempt to integration with other subjects, learning centers individ fulfillthe needs expressed inthese six secommenda- mill/Atkin, and most important, can he used by all tions? children regardless of R), reading ability, sex, or age, Mostof oursecondaryscienceprogramsarestill Albeit1110/, .210 AAAS Commis.,ion designed for a minority of students and concerned with on Science 1..ducation, states that most of out pressing the artificial labeling of topics: biology, chemistry, or prlblems can be put undo the heading or the lion. II's: population, pollution, poverty, and the pursuit of 'leave. physics. When will we have a chemistry or physics high school cons se finall children, notjust the 20 percent Inaddition, he also proposes four(''s as educational guidelines for the 70's that will enable us to create a goinr.to college or designated as "scienceinterested?" inscientificallyliterate new generation of people who willunderstand the Scienceteaching mustresult power, the responsibilities. and the limitations of sci- citions. To date we have tailed to reach this goal, ence. They are:curiosity-, creativity, competence, and Our efforts to Improve science education methods compassion. Curiosity refers to the spirit of inquiry that courses have been meager to say the least. !low much Longercan we affordto haveapreserviceteacher charactervestheapproach of ascientist. Creativity reters to thespirit of change through creative design. graduate from a science methods course sit that he can Competence refers to the utilization of one's knowledge be trained to use a new science program in an inset vice course'? The primary weak link in a science teacher's and skills to successfully complete a task. And last, but education is his science methods course. Many inserviee most important, compassion. to insure that science is wisely used for the betterment of humanity. PI "We teachers evaluate their methods courses as worthlessIISI, will need pioneers who are already endowed with the The education of the science educator must be four ("stoinvent ways of injecting them into the modified to meetthegoals andneeds of the 21st education of the future."141 As science educators, are Century. We willrequire outstanding science educator we really to accept the challenges expressed by the four teachers in the future, not just publishers or researchers, C's? Ilaye the NSF-generated science programs Failed to Doctoral programs inscience education should place meet the needs expressed by the four C's? Ilaw the equal emphasis upon the development of the person as a science teachers and educators itt' the past failed to meet competent teacher as many now place upon his develop- these needs? ment as a researcher or publisher. lit Sekne, Don Phillips states that, "science educa non. indeed all education, must develop in the students References both au awareness of the difficulties facing our society and the capability to contribute toward their solution. A 1. "What Life Will He like 20 Years In The Future," curriculum attempting to accomplish these ends must be U.S. News and World Report,January 14, 1974, multidisciplinary and innst concentrate on developing pp. 72-75. problem solving capabilities." Ile further states, and this "For the Schools,"Science Mutation News,Ameri- is a very important point: "the broadening of the skills can Association forthe Advancemat of Science, required of scientists suggests an additional challenge: Washington, D.C., November, 1473, p.1. the separationittscientists and nonscientists in the 3. Albert V. Baez, "Educational Goals for the Seven- classroom at the very least must he delayed until later in ties."Science Education News,Americtin Associa- the educational process than the middle or secondary tion for the Advancement of Science. Washington, grades and at the very best must be based on different D.C., October. 1473, pp. 1-2. or additional criteria other than high IQ's, high standard- 4.Ibid. p.2. wed testscoies, and high gradepoint averages."151 5. Don I. Phillips, "Challenges for Science Education." Thus, children need to loam at an early agethata Science, Vol. 182, December 7, P)73,pp. scientistis not always themanin thelong white coat 1048-1044. workingstlthtesttubesinthelahoratory.16IThat 6. DonaldJ.Schmidt. "The Long White Coat and chemistry and physics are not justfor college hound Other Misconceptions,"Science and Children,Vol. sitid..los. That s,:ience is history: science is art: science is 8, No. 7, April. 1971, pp. 28.21). music; scienceis mathematics. scienceis reading; and 7. TheoryintoAction,NationalScienceTeachers science is for everyone. Most importantly: science is Association, Washington. D.C., 1464, p 8. designed to help people learn to think through problem- 8. Something of Value: A Summary of Findings and solving situattlms. Recommendations ft)r Improing Elementary

4 StitlIt`th tit iftaNtlektiNtit ItarVard ilitiversity, Cam. responsibility. This responsibility is to the students who Initipt, Massachusetts, Minch, 1973,p.I, are dependent on hint for development of their aca- HartyF. Fulton, Richard W. Gates. and Gerald IL demic ability; awareness tif the Challenges in the en. klockvo. vironment around them; aesthetic expressions thatcan Science in the lilementaty School: At lids PointIn Clow from them; and RU1111(105 and vaitteS about Mem Time1411197.1,"SchihriScience and Maw. selves and others with whom they mustlivedaily. M4111 '.c,Vol. LXX111, No, 7, October, 1973, Fulfilling these demanding tesponsildlities takesmost of 5S5.5410. a teacher's thinking and daily effort. Rut lonely as the taskis,itisnut completely unique .other teachers SESSION E continuouslyface similarisolations. Whatis needed are ways to permit teachers to come into contact with NEW DIMENSIONS FOR A other teachers who face or have faced similar problems PROFESSIONAL SEQUENCE and to exchange professional ideas. The lonely isolated teacher needs time and opportunity to "lookover the Patricia P. Mosso, Assistant Piolessor of Science shoulder" of others. I:ducation, The Ohio State University, ColuMbus Continuing education implies that there hea con- tinuous stream of inputavailableforteachers, and In this session, presented by the members of the experience indicates that this inputt will be most useful AFTS Committee on Guidelines forthe Professional when itis relevant to the teachers' needs. Combining Sequence, an overview of theI9(17 Guidelines was edaeation also recognizes that completion or require. presentedforreaction..andcomments. The major Ments for certification does not representtotal com- question was: Should these Guidelines he changed to pletion of the need to learn. An engineer's preparation is reflect changes in preparing preservice teachers? expected to need complete renewal every liveyears. A One of the emphases with which teacher educators, paint job on the outside of a house is expected to need inscience and other fields, have to dealis'Terror: renewal every seven years. What are logical expectations inatice.hased certification" or "competency-based for teacher's preparation or professional renewal'? te'ache'r education." Definitions of these termsvary from Teacher centersart'oneveldcle which canfa- meaning only thatcriteriaforcertification benade cilitate the renewal of a teacher's profesSionalcompe- explicit to very detailed lists of skills and competencie. tenee. This renewal requires concern about the amount individuals must learn to exhibit.Isthis concern for of input to be provided for the teacher, the substance of preparing "competent" teachers a lasting one? Or, 01 it that input, and the resources available for thatinput. join the coic curriculum, the nongraded classroom, the Commonly education of science teachers has been middle school, and open classroomsas another ethIca continuedthroughinstitute programsinwhichthe tional innovation with which people have been preoccu- teacher returnedto a college campus for additional pied for a time and which then decreases in cutworm'? training.Participation may have been encouraged by Iftherealpurpose of stressing teacher requirementsforadvanced degrees or stipends from tencies is that of maktni, teachers more effective, making foundation support. Feedback from teacherssuggests them better ableto helptheir students learn, then that the "return-to-college-campus" strategy usuallyre- teachereducatorsneedto be concerned withthis sultedina greater amount of knowledge than they terminalskill of being able to help learners. Science could assimilate in the time provided. The substance of educators should guard against becomingso nreoccunied the input was usually very relevantto the researcher. withtransitionalskillsthatthey ignore thisto prol't,ssor who gave it, butmany tittles quite unrelated skill.They needalso to guard against stressing only to the reality of the teacher's responsibilities. Frequently, those transitional skills which can easily he measured. the resources for providing the inputwere people whose II the science education community wishes to have sincerity was matched equally by their lack ofawareness some new written guidelinesfor the professional se- of the real world of teachers. Clearly,an alternative to queue. the members of this community need to devote college institutes is needed, time to long-range planning as well as ifgearing up to A second strategyfor teacher renewal has been meetthe demands of state certification agencies and inservice or continuing education programs within the teacher organ izat ions. school building ordistrict. Here teachers have many opportunities to shale with other teachers who wink withsimilarchildren andresponsibilities.Thus the SESSION F amount of theinputisusually quite desirable. The substance of the input, however, is many times that of DOCTORAL GUIDELINES IN '.CIENCE EDUCATION consensus or hoot-strap lifting. The resources available for the input vary widely. It seems to dependon the TEACHER CENTERS: VEHICLES FOR CHANGE IN priority teacher renewal has in the reference frame of SCIENCE TEACHING the school administrators or decision makers rather than inthe needs teachers have. Teacher renewal basedon DavidP.Butts, ProfessorofScience Education, political expendiency may help, but it usually lacksthe Science Education ('enter, The University of Texas, depth and direction which teachers state they need. ,lust in A thirdstrategyforcontinuingeducationor teachers is a teacher center. While examples of teacher Teaching is a lonely task. Although ateacher is centers can he found in both England and America, surrounded with many other adults and students, the theirorigin,operation andtargetpopulationshave t cachet.isot en isolated from opportunities to share distinct contrasts. As illustrated by the teachercenters withothersthetaskofthinking abouthismajor in Texas, such as those atthe University of Houston,

5 7r.

West Texas State. and The University of Texas at El Witingand staff is as important to the success Paso, ateachercenterisusually characterized by a of a teacher center as the experiences in both England group of dedicated college staff working with under andTexasindicate,isitpossibleforthediverse giadtlate or prospective ciassroont teachers in a field schoolbased and intiversitybased centers to be merged based competencybased teacher education program. into a single functioning unit? Incontrast,teachercentersinEngland(e.g., SouthamptonantiPlymouth) arebasicallya 11011 university based group of teachers working with quite Pelt;anEnglishteacher center, afulltime staff autonomous school heads involving about g5 percent manages the variety of center activities. This staff may experiencedteachers in cooperative etitirts of setting include a variety of parttime advisors who themsg,ilves aims, goals, and curriculum alternatives that will n t their are viewed as curriculum development leaders rather own needs, than inspectors or supervisors. University faculty's direct Thecontrastorsimilaritiesor Englishteacher involvementin centerprogramsis nut COMMO11. The c'e'nters and their inure recent American counterpart, can success of an individual center clearly is dependent on be observed in comparing 1110 organization. the people. the vision and ability of its staff. The participants in andtheprogram of the two kinds or centers. A center activities are mainly experienced teachers. Quite Ct Inimon element is their development tohelp cope with logicallythepeopleinthe center view educational the isolation of lonely educators the classroom teacher. questions or concerns From an experienced teacher's frame of reference. Closely related to the participation Organi:ath)n in the center is the teacher's openness to ideas. In the Englishteachercentersarelocatedina non successful centers. teachers come and actively participate university. setting.In effect. they are on neutral turf because they perceive the program of the center to be neither university nor public %hoot, They focus their relevant to their needs. eflomi on what teachers perceive as relevant so that Texan teacher centers have substantial university through the center's operation, the professionalism of faculty participation. They rarely have a full-time staff teachers can be both matured and encouraged. The unlesstheyaretemporarily operating on externally parity of the teacher's input and the center's program is funded grants. As in the English centers, success or any obvious. The center has no program other than that teacher centeiisdependent on itsparticipants both delineated by the participating teachers' perception of staff' and teachers, Successful centers are characterized t heirneeds. A significantaspectof Englishteacher by staff and students who invest many more hours and centersisthe readiness of the institution for change. energy in the task than is observable in more traditional The impetus or stimulus which caused their establish. programs. This personal and professional commitment is ment in many locations is a response to the dramatic asubstantial source of the center's success.In most reorganizationofEnglish schools fromthe Primary, TexanCenters,thefocusisonpreseryiceteacher Junior, Grammar or Comprehensive schools to the new education as most of the participants are prospective organization of First,Middle, and Secondary schools teachers. Since prospective teachers are not yet asking including mandatory attendance change from age fifteen many questionsfor which a center is a place to develop ti' age sixteen. Local school authorities or diSttiCtS and answers parity of the participants is quite a different their teachers were faced with a massive reorganization problemthanforEnglishcenters,This openness of of schools. Thiough the teacher center, dialogue es prospective teachers for new ideas is quite a different sentialtothis transition has been both necessary and order of priority since they are usually participating at useful. Thus, the main thrust of English teacher centers their point of entry into the teaching profession rather is to assist in defining newgoals and programs to fit a thanfromabaseof experience andinsightinto new school organization. problems for which they de:re help. Bycontrast,theteachercentersinTexas are If the participants in a teaoher center are to have usually found either on a university campus or near parity in their control of the direction of the services of enoughto be adequate:y financed and controlled by theteachercenter,isitpm siiilleto build abridge funds administered by the college. While the input from between the widely separated concerns of experienced public school teachers is periodically sampled in some and prospective teachers so thatthe center can serve centers. usually the importance of experienced teachers both groups in a meaningful way? is minimal. Rarely do experienced teachers perceive the teacher center asa place or source for their personal Pnwrain contribution or benefit. The readiness of the sponsoring A variety of operations or focal points characterise institution varies. Most cuirent teacher centers are the the program of an English teacher center. The locos is response of serious and committed collegefaculty to the on realproblems as eXperieNced by the participating requirements for a competency-based teacher education teachers. The dynamics 01. the program are encased in pu+grain leadingit) eventual competency - basedcertifi- teachers' sharing and redesigning of problems they have cation. Thus, the main focus of Texas teacher centers is experienced. Thus in many centers the main thrust of on teacher education prom ants as they are applicable to the centerisserving asa forum furctirticilhinide. prospective teacher prepaiation. Accountability for the velopment. In some situations the school heads are fitsi per h muliaticeofthegraduates or anundergraduate involvedinestablishing appropriate goals which their [cacheteducation piogram may well be a significant teachers use to develop curriculum. ',hailingtot cc inthe readiness of colleges to change. The piogiam of teacher centers in Texas Is usually hesent evidence suggests that this aconnitability has not devotedto competency-basedteachereducation. The e \tended in such a was to ineaningfullinvolve public locus of such a program necessard is on specifying the schools. Thus, the locus ot the teacher center Is quite aila of competencies desired and developingalteinative sel'alme horn Public schoolconcerns.Itthe organl- 'nodular appro3chesit)citable piospective teacheis to these etuttpetetteldit.Beeittito the target pop- fold, Matted of having jtist a tatite of kiened as atiny ulationisprimarilyprospectiveteachers,aheavy part of time traditional classical curriculum, those college emphasis on field - bowel experiences isessential, The graduates who sought secondary school teaching post. goals of the variety of activities in the Texan center are lions could now come to the high schools not just as usually established by the university faculty responsible "teachers," but as "physicists" and "chemists," for the prospective teacher's performance. During the, years following the War Between the Determiningthedirectionof aprogramisa States, there began to be a tendency to change the high significantissue, Should Walter education goals come schoolfromitselitistpositiontothe educational from teachers oruniversity stair Can or should re- hierarchy; secondary education began to be seen more as sponsibilities be shared? Can or should there be common a necessity for time preparation of the informed %Ann elements in education for experienced and prospective rather than as the stepping stone to higher education, teachers? Educators began to propose that the high school he freed from slavishness to the colleges and universities, One finds, for example, a Maine educator proclaiming in SESSION J 1868:"If' our colleaguespersistin adhering to the ancient curriculum in ignoring the demand of the age STATUS STUDY OF SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION forpracticaleducation,letthem sufferthe4:0118e- quences, but we protest against the sacrifice of our High THE PREPARATION OF HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE Schools to the insatiable demands of the Colleges for TEACHERS Greek and Latin, The High School should be the grand temple of the common school system, not the vestibule SidneyRosen, University of Illinois, Champaign- of a college,"1161 Urbana, Illinois The exhibition of products from manual training classes in European secondary schools to time public at Up until thelast two decades of the nineteenth theCentennialExpositionof 1876inPhiladelphia century, the maximum preparation for any teacher in a sparked a desire to make the high school a vocational secondary school in the United States was the possession training school, where the student would he prepared of a diploma from some college or university. For some for"life" rather than for higher education, Such an states,notably New England,this was a minimum attitude was supported through the last three decades of requirement. The prospectus of the first publicly gip- the nineteenth century and into the twentieth by the ported high school inthe United States, the 1:41ish flood of immigrants from Europe to ill.: United States. Classical School in Boston, Massachusetts (1821), read in The children of these newcomers became pupils in the part:".,thatit he required of the masters and ushers public schools, pupils of vastly varying backgrounds and as anecessary qualification that they shall have been abilities; this was democracy with a vengeance. In order regularly educated at some university."(41 to teach such children, the high school and the hillt Normal schools essentially trained teachers for the school teacher attuned to traditional academic niceties elementary schools. Such preparation usually involved no longer served, One teacher in 190S saw her stu.k.its oneor two years beyond thehighschool.Itwas as: "the girl whose mother cannot read or wr;te in possible for a Normal school graduate to find aigh anylanguage; foreigners who neverhearintelligible school teaching position, especially in the hinterlands, Englishat home; the stunted little fellow who carries but this was the exception rather than the rule. Normal telegrams till midnight; the sleepy boy who was up at school student bodies tended to be almost completely half pastfour and driving amilk wagon.. ,the boy composedoffemales,whilemale; dominatedthe whose father brings home every night a 'yellow journal:' secondary school scene. the boy who does not own a single good book, ..our 01 course, graduation from a college or university pupils have no inheritance of culture; nor, indeed, does did not guarantee excellence in science t:aching (nor in their future promise more titan their past...Our pupils an other area). In fact, good science teaching was not at graduation leave behind the world of study. They are even guaranteed at the college level. Me is reminded of now todeal, not with books, except with account the chemistry course offered atthe Harvard Medical books, but with machines, with customers, with kitchen School during the period, 18274, by the infamous Dr. furniture, 'ancy work, and chafing dishes. These con- John Webster. where: "Ile gave the class two or three ditionstheteachersinanEnglishhighschool ac- chemical lectures, which were brought to a sudden end cept. .."[211 1.has show experimentcalledthe volcanoalarge So, beginning with thefirst established chair of heap of sugar and potassium chlorate piled on a slab of educationattheUniversity of Iowain1873, then? soapstone.Alia he had lighteditwitha drop of began to be a demand for additional training fat 141. sulfuric acid, he saved himself by dodging out of the school teachers; thatis, a demand for the addition to room, and in a very few seconds all the members of his traditional subject matter courses in the curriculum of classfound themselves obligedto jump out of the coursesthatdealt with the "art of teaching." Many %vindow."1261 Normal schools extended their two-year curricula to four The end ofthecenturysaw higher education andbecame"TeachersColleges-thatofferedthe ahead,: beginning to he dominated by the concept of 13accalaurate degree. Liberal arts colleges added "teacher L: le graduate college and the "specialist,- imported from education" programs, so that as much as one-fourth of Germany. All academic fields of study were ruled by the theinstruction could be taken as formal work in the specialist who, in the words of Arthur Maier Schlesinget. field of education.It was a time when education itself "wedded askeletonbride, whose osseous kisses and began to he called a "science.-1141 rattling embrace rewarded hint with an ecstasy beyond While members ofliberalartsfaculties seemed Ik-len's."1281 'itil the abilityto major ina scient.fic willingto cooperate with such agencies as the Ninth

7 Central Association of Colleges and Seeottdary Schools quirements, used the stale university as a standard; that and the Committee on College Entrance Requirements, is, the prospective teacher had to have a background of professors in general tended to look down their noses at eight years of secondary and higher education, plus one colleagues who taught courses in educational psycho! year of graduate study (which could consistof a ogy, educational administration, and methods of teach. hulfyear of advanced study in a special field and a nig,This entempt wasfurther it by the early half year at a "well.quipped training school directed by admission of female prfessins to the educationfa. the nepartment of Education."161 The alternative to enitk,s. An t.s.,nnot, of this sign ofmale einnivonsm ean these requirements was twenty months of experience as be found in the details of the rise of Teachers College at a regular teacher or principal "with decidol success" iu Columbia University: "In additiol, there was the any reputable secondary school,171 hostileattitude of some members of the University While Thorndike, in his 191)9 study for the Bureau facultyitself towardallcomses on :Lineation, and of Education, found that not more than SS percent or towardthepresence of women in higher education, thehighschoolteachershithe countryLail"an Outward mann...stations of thisanimosity were evi adequate pedagogical training:" the availability of such deuced h the consistent defeat of any measure ad. trainingwasincreasing.Coursesspecificallygeared %cated Ikan Russell (elf Teachets College) in the toward thetrainingofsecondaryschoolteachers Uoiversi4 Council, by hostility to the appointment of a appeared at the following universities during the latter 'normal school' man (David R. Smith) to a podessor partof the nineteenth century:MichiganUniversity ship, by the 'while warning to President Hutto that the (1879), Johns I 1011killS University (graduate work only, ieputation of the UniVersity wcuhl be jeopartNed by MSS 11, CornellUniversity(1880, OhioUniversity, further coddling t this parvenu institution, and by the Athens (18861, Columbia University Teachers College lathing of 1 20th Street as 'hairpin alley'." 1 1 S 11888),NorthwesternUniversity(1888), ClarkUni Such animosity still persists in higher education in versify (graduate work only, 1859), New York Univer this country. Before he b..catne president of 11:avard city(1800), and the University of Illinois (Urbana, University inI433, .lames Bryant Conant found that 15901,181 "...early inlily'eareer as airotssor of chemistry,I 'n1907,the Committee of Seventeen (of the' became aware of the hostility of the members of my National Education Association) released their historicin profession to schools or faeulties of education.I shared Report on Ni: Projessional Preparation of Iligh School the views of themajority of my colleagues on the teachers,Briefly,thisReporturgedthatallsuch faeulty or acts and sciences that there was no excuse for teachers follow the traditional specialized curriculum of the existence of people who sought teach otheis how the undergraduate college in the fields they expected to to teach.Ifelt confident thatI w is an !xcellent teacher teach. In addition, there ought to he some dipping andI had developed my skill by experience, without other fields of knowledge fur "some insight" and "to benefit of piofessors of educationI saw no reason why avoid the dangers of overspecialisation," Teachers ought otherscouldnot do likewise,includingthose who to have one or more subjects from the social sciences, graduated from college with honors in chemistry and along with a course in general psychology, and at least wished to teach in high school. As a joint author, with one from the area of philosophy, ethics, and logic "for the my former chemistry teacher, of a high school chemist* proper outlook upon education as the development of the textbook, I was quite certainI knew all about the way individual ."191 the subjectshould be presented:Idoubted that my But'his was not all. The Committee also recom. understanding was shared by any professors of educa mcnded ''edagogicalstudios that ir:luded educational lion. When any issue involving benefits to the graduate psy'chol.qty, Iii,tory of education, principles of oduea. school of education caune before the faculty of arts and Lion,siecial methods insubjects!:tbe taught, the sciences,Iautomatically voted with those who looked management and organization of schools,and school with contempt upon the of ethleatioll1111Ill FillatlY,itwas recommended thatthere he the mid.1030's, an innovative program for the prep. made availabletheopportunityfortheprospective ;nation of high school teachers. the Master of Arts in teacher to observe experienced teachers working in the Teaching Program, was accepted atHarvard by both classioom andto do a certain amount of practice faculties with some initial reluctance: however, it was teaching them,. ;yes.It was suggested that university not until after Woild War II that this fifth.year program might artankv the latter by affiliating itself with nearby begin to flourish under the leadership of Dean Frank schools, by treating and maintaining its own Keppel of the Graduate School of Education. secondary' school, Such it complex and intensive training Liberal arts faculties. then, tended to ignore the rise program wouldliebest accomplished in four under. of teachers colleges and education colleges at the same time graduate years and one graduate year that these "Johnny.come.latelys" on the scene of higher The ReiN,ri of the Committee had a considerable education were exerting more and more influence on the impact not only upon existing teachei twining institu- centers of power whew public education was controlled. tions, but also on those to come. In la, tWith only a 'Fins influence made itself felthi the increase of state fewvariationsoverthe years, the averagtstatere- laws passed stating the qualifications necessary for the quitements fig certification are based essentully upon certification of teachers. By 1911, approximately thirty. suchan educational background.Inmost,:aces, the four statesrequireo seekers of high school teaching graduate year is voluntary rather than required. certificationtohold a diploma from an accredited Critics of education courses have abounded since collegettruniversity.fhlMany also required the ap- the 1907 Report, one example is a book that became a plicantto lake examinations, either written or oral, or popular "best seller,"hIncati, nal Wastelands, by Atthur both, in liberal ao subject matter areas, as well as in Nestor, a history professor (1953) and was cmsidered ,neas ofprofessional education. California, one of the bymanytohetheapogeeofallattacksupon leadingstatesinthe explication of certificationre. 'educationkt..." TenyearsafterthepuhliLation --Boson%. book, Conant, afterttwideratiging study of vitriled out concerning the %IOUs of the, art and. what.;: teachei education in the United States. e imetukted that: diatoms occurred in the artitself'? ",Pro/emits.% e;fittritti hart' Mil yet dist. atm/ I IP The filetis that there were certain pre and post. agn't'd UM 01 a oanntn body elf knowledge that they all Sputnik publications in science education that had the feelsheath! be held by seltoot tatchers &Pre the plomise of being watersheds in the field, that contained student takes his first tufftime bib, To put it another within them the seeds of necessary change supported by way. I have no reason to believe that stttdents who have reliable data (or the lack of it) and reasonable area completed the sequence of courses in education in one meats. Half a dozen or more of the mole prominent college' of tioiversitN have considered the satire', or even a ones can he ticked off in chronological sequence!.4 similar, set of facts or principlesastheir eontemporaries PrtNram Teachhat Science (NS% 31st Yearbook), in another institution even in the saute state."1121tit 1032; The Itiltwathat of the Science Malta (Report of tact, Omani coneluded, the one.orthwhile element in the Subcommittee on Teacher Education of the National professional education was practice teaching.liestilt. Committee on Science Teaching), 141; Critical )'ears vested that colleges and universities adopt the concept Ahead ire &Mal' Teaching (Harvard University ), 1053; ofthe"clinical"professorinmedicalschools by "Course Requirementsforhour,. Science Teachers" appointing an experienced teacher as a "Professor of (Watson in Scientific Ithmtldt.).1 -57: Current Concern Teaching." and Issuesin Science Educatioa (AFTS Convention Itmust be admitted, however, that de Pero, the Report), 10b0; Rethinking Seien !Vacation (NS:31,. problems of mass education in the United States were 50111 Yearbook), 1060; "Unrest)! :dIssues in Certain tackled most realistically by the professor of education Fields for Investigation in Science" (Coordinating ('om ratherthan by the liberal arts professor.It was the millet.of NARST and Office of Education Science influence of the "educationists" that gave final shape to Specialists),I 0b1 ; Guidelines lir,. Preparation hem:rams theregulation of finaleducation by local and state of Teachers of Se eondasy Schot Science and Math cotters of power; it was also their influence that shaped manes Teach ,' PreparationCertification Study, thpicture of the typical high school teacher in the public NationalAssoLsationof StateDirectors of Teacher mind. As Conant pointed out, liberal arts professors, in EduAtion and Certification and the American Associa general "turned their hacks upon the problem of mass Lionforthe Advancement of Science),I061; 71w secondary education and eyed with envy Great Britain Research on Sciencv Education Survey (liarvarki Grath! andt he Continent. where suchproblems didnot ate School of Education), 1068.1 exist."(131 Each of the documents listed takes a look at the One would somehow expect that the fantastic rate preparation of high school science teachers and finds it of change in technology that has occurred during the wanting; each makes suggestions for improvement or past four decades would have effected a similar rate of change. The traditional goals of science teaching are changeintnepreparationof scienceteachersfor stated and restated. Broudy has summed them up most secondary schools. Or,if not the rate of el ange in succinctly: "What doe.; the traditional science program technological innovation, the innovative breakthioughs promise?First,asapartof generaleducation,it in scientific conceptualisation. And what of the effect promises a more precise, critical and fruitful way of of the tremendous national and international upheavals thinking about the physical world. Science is regarded as on the economic, sociological, and political scene? And essential to the armamentorium of a mind coping with a how about the impact of the new science courses whose modern technologicalsociety.Second, the study of rubricsparallelthose of the New Deal: PSSC, CBA, science is held to he one of the more profitable avenues CHEM& BSCS, IIPP, etc.? to the world of work in a technological society."121 It seems somewhat disheartening to find that liberal And, Broudy points out thatallof this assumes the artsfacultiesarestillbeing accused of alackof validityof transfer of training.121 Such goals, then, responsibilityfor the education of high school teak:h oughtto he bestachievedinthe classroom by the ers 1201, and that "education faculties in colleges and teacher whose preparation has moved him successfully universities tend, by and large, to maintain the status through thetypicalspecialized science curriculum in quo rather than to change it.(101 Meanwhile, the U.S. college, emerging with a major, for example, in physics Office of Education stillfinds it necessary to fund a and a minor in mathematics. In addition, of course, the Study Commission on the Undergraduate Education of teacher would need the necessary education courses for Teachers (basedattheUniversity of Nebraska): Pro. certification, and a few electives outside of his major fessor Harr!,Broudy, a prominent educational philos - and minor fields for "broadening." pher, findsitne'ce'ssaryto question the preparing of There is the beginning of a change in the suggested .science teachers by the same undergraduate curriculum background of science teachers in the 194I Report of used to prepare researchscientistsI I (; and Professor the Subcommittee on Science Teaching. This committee James Raths of the Bureau of Educational Research and was headed by Samuel Powers of Teachers College and Held Services at the University of Maryland Inow tt ,ne the Report was largely put together by R. Will Burnett University of Illinois) finds it necessary to question the of theUniversity of Illinois in Urbana. Here. for the validity of much of the research being carried out in firsttime, one findsart awareness of the economic. science education.[251 So, one is tempted to inquire: sociological, and cultural effects of a rapidly changing what went on diving the past four decades in the area technologyin the United States and its people, and an ofscienceteacherpreparation? Whatresearch was assessment of how this awareness ought to affect the preparation of the science teacher. The chapter headings tellthestory; "The Teacher as an Individual and a litis interesting to note thatfor even, paper published concerning the preparation of %ciente teachers. there seem to he Citizen." with such intriguing subtitles as "The Teach- tar more papers citnterned v,ith sktence curricula and teaching er Should Understand Himself and Others" and "The methods; one sunders shat ratio a count %%mild shim. Teacher should Develop Satisfying Conceptions of the

9 . 71iooil Thing* in LifeLife:" ;' "The u Person With suceess of Matins Who handle the content -cif a ProficiencyinFunctionalAreas of Science," with particular science field with comfort and ability, This subtopics, ,'the Problem of Specialization" and "The kind of rating, nevertheless, simply replicates the way Teacher should Develop a Realistic Understanding of college professors are usually rated by students in higher Science and Funetional Knowledge of Scientific Meth- level specialited courses: the good professor "knows his od:" andfinally."TheResponsibility of Teachers' st tilt'." Colleges and Departments of Education,' which includes It became apparent, fur example, with the intro. "Ike Place of Professional Education in Preparing the duction of PSSC physics (conceivedin1956) into Science Teacher," "The Science Teacher and the Com- American high schools that such a course could only he munity," and "Professional Orientation and Philosophy of taught by teachers who "knew their stuff," Where were Science Education," 1221 such teachers to be round? Not in the high schools of The preface to the Repot t, after a brief history of the United States, apparently; for once the course was scienceeducation,states:" . ,Scienceteachers and ready, special training seminars had to he established for science departments have been committed to the dove!. physics teachers to learn the "stuff" they had to know, opment andperpetuation of academic disciplines intact, the impact of time new sciencecourses Oft which, valuable as they are, have been separated from teacher preparation curricula does not seem to have the actual processes of community hie of which they beenverygreat.InmostCases,itconsists of the areessentialelements.Drivenbythe demands of provision of "Band-Aid" assistance it' the form of special subject-matteraccomplishmentandacademicallyim- inservice and summer workshops and seminars, where posedstandards whichallto frequently- ignorethe teachers may acquire the speoialized information needed relationship of knowledge to intelligent behavior, the to teach the particular course. teacher with scientific competence has been allocated to, Itwas the Harvard ROSES Report,inthe last and circumscribed by, classrooms, demonstridion halls, analysis, that provided the evidence that was hard to laboratories and curriculums, and too seldom catches swallow: that in the long run, in spite of the papers and glimpses of the forces and processes determining the reports that had been published, there was very little in community's destiny.1.131 And further on: "The teach. the way of objective evidence concerning the effective- erisfirst of alla person. To the extent that he is ness of science teacher training programs.1171 lIy 196S, intelligent, informed, sociallyconscious, and happily many of the old problems remained unsolved: time gap adjustedin his life and his views, he may become an betweenthe scienceeducators andtheliberalarts out standing teacher. To the extent that he is poorly people, and, worse, the acceptance of most training adjusted, poorly informed, misanthropic, and confused programs as acts of faith, with no attempt to have inhispersonalviews andhis outlook on lire,his feedback or follow-up infort»ation for support of valid- teaching suffers, This is true for all teachers, regardless ity. The ROSES Report concluded: "the Chaos in the of field. The science teacher may consider himself to be profession,. probably one consequence of the inabil- a specialist, but he should not lose sight of the rim that ity of science educators to confer about and agree upon his basic work is to give instruction and that his primary thegoalsandstructureof theteacherpreparation functionisto offer aidto individuals and society in program in the sciences. "(181 meeting their problems successfully.124I One has only to browse through the pages of the Sixteen years elapsed and SputnikI flew in space latest Handbook of Research on Teaching (1973) to before Watson's short paper, "Course Requirements for discover that there isstill a lack of replicable, experi- Future Science Teachers," was published. In it, he asked mental data that can be usedto construct a valid, why prospective science teachers needed to have many general definition of the "good" teacher, or, for that of the advanced science courses required of the major, matter, of what constitutes "good" teaching. One finds courses that were going to he useful primarily to those Clifford writing that "prevailing styles of' teacher prepa- who would he going into industry, graduate study, and ration have not adequately introduced prospective teach- research.1.101lie suggested teacher preparation curricula ers to accumulated research, spelled out enough of its that did nut provide a "good solid major" in a single implications, nor developed attitudes favorable to inser- science area: instead, the student would get "a smatter- vice interest in applied research. The pervasive culture of ing of knowledge in many areas and not too much in teacher trainingis one of, in Mencken's term, 'empty any one." The painful realities of public school teaching technic,' of vapid methods textbooks, a disinterested most often required a "science" teacher to teach courses educational psychology, of a 'survival-training' mentality in more than one area (often, nonscience areas: it took among itsparticipants.1101These arc harsh accusa- the ROSES Report of 1%8 to make that painfully tions, indeed. McNeil and Popham, in their assessment clear). Watson also deplored the lack of background on of teacher competence, conclude: "Teacher educators the part of most science teachers in the history and err when they promote teaching skills that are approxi- philosophy of science.1301 The strong belief in the mately consistent with scientific conclusions as if these necessityofsuchahackground to provoke student skillswere certain, confirmed answers about how a motivationled eventually to the creation of Harvard teacher should proceed to effect desirable consequences Protect Physics by Holton, Rutherford. and Watson. inlearners.Instead,suchskillsshould he regarded Inmostof the papers thatdiscussed the best as hypotheses to he tested." 1201 possible curricula for the preparation of science teachers. Perhaps the above causes one to approach the latest there was stillimplicitthe assumption that the good influenceonteachertraining programs, Performance teacher must voris his %vay through tin course require- Based Teacher Education withahitof caution. A ments furali..chelol's degreo in.1,10 major scientific consequence of behaviorist psychology, PBT has be- field. The scientifiL and leclintdogical soph.st..:ation of come fashionable. 1)131-1:springs from afairlyrecent mail' of the projects of science fair winners is considered concern with accountability in education and essentially bypi otessional and laymanaliketo exemplifythe hastodo with working out alistof skillsand

10 competencies that teachers ought to have and to he 2,ibid. P, 228. able to display in the classroom. Such skills can then he 3.Mid. pp. 232.33, made an integral part of the teacher preparation currie. 4.Brown, John Franklin. The Training of Teachers jr ulum; what is more. a checker can sit in a classroom and Secondary &hook in Germany and the United( tick items off the list as the teacher is observed at work. States, Macmillan, New York, 1971, P,234, The difficulties with MIL especially when it assumes S. Mkt P.213. the dimensions of a faddist bandwagon are obvious, and 6, Mid, P. 212, one can only predict protracted warfare between the 7. Mkt P.209. program's piopments and detractors. 8. Mid, P.239. Malin can he said. in conclusion, about the status of 9. Mkt P,256. the preparation of secondary school science teachers? In 10.Clifford, Geraldine Joncich. "A History of the sotnehat simplified terms. no one seems yet to have ImpactofResearchonTeaching."In Second provided a satisfactory answer to two vital questions: (a) Handbookof Research onTeaching.(editor) what should a high school science teacher know? (h) R.M.W. Travers, Rand McNally, Chicago, Illinois. what should a high school science teacher do with what 1973. P.36. he or she knows? 1.Conant, James Bryant, The Education of American The general image of the ideal teacher as a kind of Teachers. McGraw-IIIII, New York. 1963. P,1. (Such supermancombilationofscientificspecialist-child animositystillpersists;see Aron, Arnold. "Edu- psychologistsociologistintune withthetimes,the cationalPractices AnExpertView of Current community. and thestudent seems to exist only in Trends." The Physic's Teacher 11:8;487.1973, a publishedpapers. From arealisticpoint of view,it lampoon based on "educationist" jargon. seems quite reasonable to guess that neither the compe- 12.Ibid. P. 141. tence of the prospective teacher in a specific science 13. Mkt P.5. area, nor his getting an "A" in educational psychology, 14. Cremin, LawrenceA.: Shannon. D.A.: and M.E. nor the smattering of humanities he may pick up along Townsend. "A History of Teachers College, Colum- the way have very much to do with the ability to. it'I biaUniversity." Columbia University Press, New may borrow a phrase From the "now" generation. "turn York. 1925. P.7. students on to science." Who knows what factors have 15.Ibid. P.70. the highest correlation with student motivation? Rosen- 16.Fletcher,G.T. "highSchools." Maine Normal shine and Furst have concluded that "-It is possible 2:4:141. April 1868. thatthe patterns of effective teachingfurdifferent 17.Harvard Graduate School of Education. The Re- endsaresoidiosyncraticthattheywillnever be searh on Science' Education Survey: The Status of isolated...127iInfact. this leads to a third, almost TeacherEducationProgramsinOw Sciences hereticalquestion: does a good high schoolscience /965-67. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1968. teacher (good in the sense of effective) need to have 18.Ibid. P.120. been a college science major? 19.Massialas, Byron G. Education and the Political The above three questions are deceptively simple. System.Addison- Wesley,Reading.Massachusetts, The research that has to be carried out to provide valid 19,;9. P.132 answers will probably lead to a general questioning of 20. McNeil, John D., and W. James Popham. "The the validity of the philosophy of education that per- Assessment of Teacher Competence." In Second vades the teacher training curricula and departments of Handbookof Research onTeaching.(editor) education. Itis the same old question: if the philosophy R.M.W. Travers, Rand McNally. Chicago. Illinois. of teachers needs changing. who is going to change the 1973. P.241. philosophy of those who train the teachers? 21. Miner, Lilian B. "Voluntary Reading in the English As Broody points out, the entire point of what highSchool." School Review 13:2;181. February highschoolscienceisgoodforinterms ofthe 1905. non-schoollifeof the high school graduate must be 2.National Committee onScienceTeaching.The clarified."As citizens. we usescientific knowledge. Education of the Science Teacher. Report of the methods. and attitudes notto solve (which requires Subcommittee on Teacher Education. Original off- technological knowledge) problems, but to understand set copy. June 1941. them. We use the theoretical schemata of the disciplines 23.Ibid. P.10. toclassify,analyze, andtoreconstructthe diverse 24.Ibid. P.25. contexts of societal problems. This is the primary use of 25.Raths.James."TheEmperor's('lushes:Phe- knowledge b a nonspecialist. but we need research to nomenon inScience Education .." Journal of Re- map out the use of scientific schemata the citizen makes search in Science Teaching 10:3;201-11. 1073, in reading and discussion...We need researched answers 26.Rosen, Sidney. "The Rise of High School Chem- on the way school leanings are used interpretively, to istry in America." Journal of Chemical Education build the conceptual contexts in. which the nature of life 33:627. 1957. problems becomes intelligible." (31 27.Rosenshine, Barak and Norma Furst. "The Use of If 13roudy and the others quoted above are right. Direct Observation to Study Teaching." In Sec' and then the time has come for a full-scale revolution in the Ilindhookof ResearchonTeaching.(editor) preparation of our secondary school teachers. R.M.W. Travers, Rand McNally, Chicago, Illinois. 1973. P.175. References 28.Schlesinger. Arthur Meier. The Rise of ('in'. Macmillan, New York. 1033. P.220. I. liroud. !harryS."('anResearch Provide a Ra- tionalefortheStudyof Science ?'' Journal of it).Silberman. Charles. As quoted in News/et/yr of the Reward, in Science l'eaehing 10:3;227.233. 1073. Study Commission on Undergraduate Eihution

11 and the tihwation of Teachers,University of Some of the "fullures" resulted from uncontrollable Nebraska. August 1913.P.1. external events. Some of the successes were related to 30, Watson,Fletcher G. "CourseRequirementsfor an unforeseen degree of enthusiasm in acceptance of the Future Science Teaeiters." The Scientific 31,hly new strategies. No projects tailed completely. 85 :6:320-323, December 1957. For the future, we anticipate a strengthened evalua- tion component, We Arcady have undertaken a cam- paign of third party evaluations, Based on the results of SESSION K these evaluations, we may reduce our investment in exploratory projects, ai'd increase the number of program MODEL PROGRAMS FOR SCIENCE TEACHER ED- development efforts aimed at adapting and implementing UCATION the earlier advances. Donald C. McGuire, Experimental Program Group, National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C'. SESSION I. The National Science Foundation, in January 1968, UNIQUE APPROACHES TO INSERVICE EDUCATION initiated a series of grants that supported the develop- ment of 25 models of preservice science teacher educa- Paul G. Koutnik, Coordinator, Inquiry SkillRe- tion. Eight projects were in elementary teacher prepara- search Development and Adaptation Program, Mid- tion, fourteen were secondary, two were intermediate, continent Regional Educational Laboratory, Kansas and one included all three levels. City, Missouri The projects are additive creating new offerings thatwillbe recommendedinadditiontocurrent For the purposes of the position paper, the author coursesinfourcases. "Courses" here means instruc- definesinserviceteacher educationastraining which tional experiences not necessarily lectures. Nine projects occurs subsequenttoreceipt of the teaching degree. altered previous offerings, in six cases intending mina- takes place on-site or near the teachers' districts, and ally to replace them. One project spent several months consists of summer and/or academic year work while the inpreparatorywork,thenreplacedallitsscience teacher is employed. Traditionally, this form of training instruction for prospective elementary teachers immedi- hasbeensponsored byaschool ordistrictwhile ately.Later changes were made "on the line." In11 originated by an outside institution such as a teacher's projects, some courses wer' replaced and others added. college which provides academic credit. Inservice training Among the changes instituted by the projects, new has not commonly been established or perceived by the instructionalactivities were the most frequent, with trainees themselves as inseparable from "preservice" in major revision or addition of courses in 17 cases. A few terms of attainingprofessional growthforits own of these instructional changes have been revolutionary rewardsof increasedcompetence.And, commonly, with outstanding results. Even some of the less dramatic inservice training has given less attention to the estab- changes have increased the enthusiasm of students and lishment of mechanisms to support and nurture the faculty alike. "innovations" after the trainers have left than to the Science teaching resource centers, limited to under- formal training itseU. graduateuse, werecreated byfourprojects.More Louis .1, Rubin'sconceptoftheself-evolving general centers, some with library, laboratory, classroom teacheris described as important in advocating what and all with a well-stocked lending center for inservice should be a reason for inservice education, and Robert as well as preservice teachers, are components of seven N. Bush's description of the "Curriculum-Proof" teacher peojects. These centers seem destined to become the and his intrinsic reward system is offered as an alterna- most visible of the traces remaining after the projects tive goalfor inservice education.111 And, the impor- assumefullself-support.Their impact makes them tance of the practioner- client analogy to the teacher- regional facilities in a very worthy sense. studentrelationshipispointed outtoreinforcethe Formal study of the "new science" or "new math" truism that student needs are the only basic justification curricula is part of six projects. We have been informed for any kind of teaching. thatfrequently undergraduates find science study de- A positionistakenthatthescience education signedforthe elementarygradesaschallengingas community should emphasize initsinservice training traditional "core" requirements. The problem is to get effortsprograms which(a)offergeneralizabilityof them to tackle it seriously. When they do, they seem to teaching skills to subject matter in addition to science, learn as much science for themselves as they learn about (b) include a system to assure that the innovations, or materials for pupils. upgraded performances will have a chance to continue Direct and frequent cooperation with schools is a when the trainer has left, and (c) can he appraised for component of 11projects, with less intense collabora- their effect in terms of student outcomes. tion in 6 others. Early responsible classroom teaching by James C. Stone's analysis of the Ford Foundation's prospectiveteacherscharacterizessixprojects.Less Breakthrough programs is reviewed because it presents a formal participation occurs in nine others. Content and paradigm forthe conceiving, planning, implementing, methods instruction is combined in 7 projects and there and supporting of innovation and is empirically derived is some linking in13 others. Classroom teachers are from areview of actual project histories.121Several members of project staffs or major committees in five inservicestaff development projects are examined in projects, and have lesser responsibility in seven others. light of Stone's paradigm and the author's position and Formal evaluation has been minimal. "Success." the suggestion is made that information on new strate- judged on the usual intuitive grounds, has been high giesfor inservice education of science teachers which exceptinsixcases, with some advances even there. address the issue of support for innovations after formal

12 priiiect. institute or workshop experience he accuntu picture of the workaday world of the school. Based on hied in one place and be made available to theAFTS an industrial model, the American school of today is a tumbership. product of an age now past where standardization of skills and jobs was of prime importance. The school is References structured as a hierarchy with teachers playing the role of hureaticratic functionaires replaceable cogs in the big I. Rubin, Louis J. /on/weir/rag In-Serpiev Earmuffft organizational machine. The schools ".. .areessentially Ph) h ;sal s and procedure's few change.Allyn and educational dispensaries apothecary shops charged with Bacon, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts. 1971, the distribution of information and skills deemed bette'. Stone, James C, Breakthrough in 7i'aeber Educa- vial to the social, vocational, and intellectual health of tion.Jossey.Bass,Inc.,Publishers,pp.178.190. the immature." (71Alvin loftier writes: "The most 1968. criticizedfeatures of educationtt. Jay the -egimenta. tion, the lack of individualization, the rigid systems of seating, grouping, grading, and markim the authori- SESSION M tarian role of the teacher are precisely those that made public education so effectivefor its place and time." THE REGIONALIZATION OF TEACHER EDUCATION: (Taller, 1970, p. 400) THE NEXT STEP IN PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Beingproductsof theindustrialage we have embedded within our national psyche the idea that the William I.. Sharp, Science Education Center, Univer- industrial model is universally acceptable, is the American sity of Iowa, Iowa City way, the way many of us were brought up and thus remains an effective model for education. The curriculum development efforts witnessedin Elwood Cubberly articulatedthis point backin secondaryscienceoverthepast decade and ahalf 1916: "Our schools are in a sense factories in which the represent one of the most significant efforts in history raw products (children) are to he shaped and fashioned atcoordinating the variousparts of the educational into products to meet the various demands of life. The system. Never before have academicians, educationists, specifications for manufacturing come from the demands and practitioners so pooled their energies to produce of twentieth century civilization." (Cubberly, 1916, p. curriculum materials in such philosophical harmony with 338) the substance and syntax of the disciplines. The marvel- Whether or not Osgood's cultural lag theoryfits ous arrayof textbooks, manuals, andinstructional here is speculative. However, the demands of twentieth support systems has been developed out of the very century civilization are far different now than they were bestpredictions of today'sneedsinprovidingthe in 191641] The school as a social institution and to a scientific understandings necessary for the fullest and largeextent,theeducationalexpectations of many mosteffectiveparticipationinthislasthalt' of the people, have yet to recognize the need to catch up. twentieth century. Inquiryas an educational goal. for many schools Onthe other hand,itis now clearthatlittle remains largely misunderstood or is viewed as inappro- optimism is warranted over the effectiveness of efforts priate, illegitimate, or unimportant. The school is per- to implement the national science curriculum into the ceived as a dispensary and teaching is thought to consist daily patterns of most schools. Although millions upon of prepackaged information distribution. Furthermore, millionsof dollarshave beenspentuponinservice the task is perceived as easy and routine and becomes training and education programs ostensibly designed and most cost effective when working with large groups in funded tierexactlythatpurpose, many "alphabet" lecture/discussions. Inquiry on the other hand is expen- materials suffer either lineamentunder the dust of sive, requiring smaller groups, and longer times for the storageshelvesorperhapsworse,misguidedand same amount of product, product being defined as that inappropriate usage. which is most easily measured. The issue defined herein concerns the remaining work of effecting real change in school science instruc- Pseudo-Authority tion through the proper implementation of the national Consequent to the view of the school as a dispen- curricula and their inherent philosophies and pedagogic sary and the perfunctory nature of the task of teaching strategies. Three points to he discussed are: is the fact that teachers are given little real professional I. that the national science curriculum materials rep- authority. The syllabus, the texts, the schedules, the resent too abrupt a shiftin educati.mal expecta- length of sessions etc. are all controlled by supervisory tions and are incompatible with the basic structure personnel. The teacher is expected to work all day, he of the American school; suffersfromalackof ananalytical and inquiring thatthe collaborative efforts among schools and tradition and in many cases has been trained through a universities, initiated in development of the curric- vocationally oriented teacher education program. ula will he vital to the success of their implementa- A type of pseudo-professional authority does develop tion: and however. Schaefer alludestothequasiinstruc- 3. thata regionalized concept of teacher education, tional freedom that develops from the "isolation of both preservice and inservice, shows promise of being teachersinwalled -oft'classroomcubicles."171The all effective agent of change. teacher has the ability to close the door to other adults andtherebyprotecthis "kingdom" from excessive supervisory control. Through this isolation he enjoys a The Structure of the School kind of autonomy thatshould not be mistaken for Inhi, hook The School as a Center of Inquiry, developed professional authority. lie is free to behave as RobertSchaefer( 1%7) presents avivid and realistic he chooses inrespectto personal teaching style, or

13 individuil relations with teachers, so long as he main of inquiry. The pupil must learn what has meaning, tains a degree of disciplinary control over his classes. what enlarges his horizon, instead of mere trivialities. lie Institutionally deprived in the analysis of pedagogic must become acquainted with truths, instead of things issues, the teacher isrestricted to a mere illusion of that were regarded as such fifty years ago, or that are professionalism. Removed from genuine control over his taken as interesting by the misunderstanding of a partially professionallife,unaware oruncertain of legitimate educated teacher.Itis difficult to see how these ends theoretical bases from which to operate, isolated, and can be reached except a3 the most advanced part of the insecure, the pseudo professional lives in a world of fear educational system is in complete interaction with the and suspicion.lieisunwilling to admit to personal most rudimentary." (Dewey, 1899, p. 92.93) deficiencies, andoften choosestohide behind the The success of the development phase of a national "wall" of practical experience. Ills "professional" con- science curriculum isin large part, a function of the cerns are limited to a strong, well deserved, but often articulationandcollaboration among personsrepre- hard-nosed stance on teacher rights. His rhetoric is often senting all phases of the education community. The job punctuatedwithcynicism towardthose beyond his of implementation was left up to the institutions of reach .the administration, sometimes the students, and higher learning and textbook publishers. Considering the the "ivory tower" idiots at the university. mass of the problem from the perspective of the radical Dependency on A uthority changes inthinking and school structure, the teachers One major unfortunate consequence of restricting wno were able to receive inservice training were far too the teacher to a pseudo-professional status is the fact few to create any lasting widespread impact. For all practicalpurposes, inlight of the money and effort thatitstrips him of a sense of personal capability for expended in this direction, implementation efforts over genuine participation in finding the way. He isoften at once authoritarian and dependent the past ten years or so have failed. upon authority from whom he expects answers to be The most important element affecting the success short, to the point, and without ambiguity. Virtually or failure of inquiry-based curricula is the professional nothing in his "professional" training provides him with quality of the teacher. Further, tl'e most effective means the basic skills of inquiry. More important, nothing in of establishing a tradition of inquiry and higher profes- his preparation provides him with a tradition of inquiry. sional involvement among the "rank and file" teachers is The theoretical and philosophical underpinnings which toprovideforthecloseandfrequentinteraction between school and university personnel. serveas guidepostsinmakingcriticaleducational decisions lie outside his realm and render him in a sense HerbertThelan seesprofession asbeing "com- professionally impotent. Three common responses often posed of people who think they are professional and encountered when working with secondary teachers and who seek...to clarify and live up to what they mean by being a professional." He maintains that the only way to related to this sense of helplessness are: generate the profession is through the interactions of the 1. to develop naive dependence on some authority. this can lead to difficulties stemming from unreal- various parts. "They must give each other information, istic expectations from the authority; share, experience, plan together and take part in all that to naively reject all authority, carte blanche; or we usually mean by formal and informal communi- cation. They must also engage in reflective and human 3. tovacillatebetweenauthority dependence and rejection of authority on the basis of the quality of communion that builds the sense of community."181 their respective rhetorics or congruence with pre- The successful implementation of inquiry will re- disposed beliefs. quirethe development of a community of scholar- These factors: the industrial model of the school, the teachers who are organically linked to the academic vision of schools as knowledge dispensaries, the lack of world through a university faculty (Schaefer 1962). The inquiring tradition in the school and the supression of teacher must intellectually and physically, be a part of genuine professional development of teachers are seen as the curriculum development effort. No matter how major influences resisting the establishment of inquiry- complete a "package" may be, its full value lies in the quality of the human intervention of a wise teacher. orientedcurricula.Unlessthisbasic structure of the The schooland universitymust become active schoolisunderstood,unlessthe schoolisradically changed and inquiry as well as teaching is emphasized, partners in inquiry. As David Hawkins (1970) suggests, our national curricula will remain an interesting curio teachers must not be shown the way, but must become outside the mainstream of mass education. They simply part of the effort tofindthe way. If the university are not compatible with the current consciousness of assumes afacilitationrolein enabling the school to investigate and deal with its own problems, the school in what comprises a legitimate education. return will become a source of research strength, and an School-University Collaboration enthusiastic participant in inquiry. "There is much of utter triviality of subject matter in elementary and secondary education. When we inves- Teacher Education tigateit. we find thatitis full of facts taught that are One of the most fundamental questions now facing not facts. which have to he unlearned later on. Now this teachereducationiswhether ornotteachingisa happens because the "lower" parts of our system are technical 1.rocess.15j For years, efforts have been made not in vital connection with the "higher." The university to define effective techniques of teaching which clearly orcollege.initsidea.isa place of research where showsigniticantadvantagesasexpressedinlearner inwstigation is goingon. a placeof librariesand differences. For years the results have been dissappoint- museums, wherethe hostresources of thepastare ingly the same no difference or no replicable differ- gathered. maintained, and organised.Itis, however, as ences. true in the school as intile university that the spirit of A technique, as defined by Hlul [3iis a standard- inquir can he got only through and with the attitude ized way to achieve a predetermined end. In spite of the

14 current noise surrounding the issue of competency or the State Department of Public Instruction, and institu performance-based teacher education, few it' any clearly Units of higher learning in an etThrt to improve scienee defined and measurable skills of real significance have instruction.From itsinception ASSIST defined been recognized. In fact, recent studies of the subject ultimate goal as the improvement of science instrut show that no entirely satisfactory description of perk.- through the creation of aspirit of cooperation mance-basedteacher educationhas been formed.121 common mission with the schools of the state. Itis a From all appearances performance-based teacher educa- fluidconceptthat becomes defined operationallyat tion can be defined as "a slogan system in search of local and regional levels on the basis of negotiation with followers,"151 school officials. Its purpose is to define the needs of the Teachingisnot asciencein the sensethatit schools and to provide mechanisms whereby those needs comprises theory with reasonable powers of explanation; can be dealt with. The program seeks to facilitate the or in the sense that there can be defined a single correct professional development of practioners and to assist way to accomplish a thing. Unfortunately many pro- theminimplementing the programs they and their fessors of education pretend to know what the tech- schools perceive as being worthwhile within the context niques of teaching are and create false expectations on of their local situation. the part of students who come to their classes expecting to have the closely guarded secrets revealed to them. Regional involvement On the other hand, we can define the science of Abasic premise of' Project ASSIST is that persons teaching as being the continuing and dynamic search for closely involved with students and classroom activities creating more effective learning environments. need to play a major role in (a) the development of any Teacher educationmust becomeless concerned new approach to the implementation of effective science with information and techniques already discovered and programs and (b) preservice and inservice efforts to become far more interested in the strategies for acquir- develop teachers with the pedagogical skills and philo- ing new knowledge. We must consider our goal to he the sophical equipment to teach them. preparation of beginning professionals who possess the Aregionalized conceptcomprising 18centers trainedcapacity and attitudes necessaryfor life-long throughoutthestate was adopted. Key leaders were learnings, not the production of polished practitioners. selected from the ranks of teachers and science super- 171. 161 visors in each of the centers to serve as coordinators of ASSIST programs. The programs are designed inre- Preservice Teacher Educathm sponse to defined needs within each of the respective The academic preparation of thescholar-teacher centers and include needs assessments, program evalua- should include philosophy in the form of epistemology ting,inservice teachereducation,preserviceteacher and the philosophy of science. It should include under education, and community involvement. The regional psychology: research methodology, experimental design, coordinator is.1 member of the community the center observational techniques, and measurement. Educational serves,has ma.iy personal andprofessionalcontacts sociologywould beanotherimportantcomponent through which the within the community, and works to ensure that center preservice teacher would discover activitiesare indeedresponsive to the needs of that analytical tools for understanding subcultures and pupil community. The regional concept has had major impact characteristics.Inplace of the methods of teaching simply because where one it has provided a mechanism through talksabouttechniques, there should be which teachers, administrators, students, and community laboratory experiences andapprenticeships in schools representatives can participate in the definition of needs which inturn should comprise the critical analysis of and become a part of the effort to meet them. Thus teaching behaviors and the logic of pedagogic strategies. plans developed at the regional level are congruent with In short, the beginning professional should enter his local expectations. field with a tradition of inquiry, a notion of the pressing questions facing him, and a felt responsibility to engage The Regional Center concept has allowed a greater in a continuous search for effective means of interven- involvement of school personnelintheprocessof tion with curriculum for enhanced student learning. inquiring into their prolesmon. Conferences and meetings comprised of teachers and administrators served to focus Rcgionalized Teacher Education on professional concerns, and the effectiveness of exis- Traditionally, many problems interfere with efforts ting programs, and have resulted in a "tooling-up" to of educationists to gain greater access to the arena of meet newly recognized demands. Two major curriculum practicethe schools. Strangely, the respective missions areaswidelydefinedhave beenelementaryschool of each are often perceived as incompatible rather than science and environmental science. Inservice programs in theform of workshops,minicourses, and extension complementary andmutually supportive. Thereisa courses have been developed in many regional centers perceivablecredibilitygap betweentheschooland university that may reflect the gap between theory and with universityassistance and personnel. New lite has practice. been sparked intocurriculum development and imple- A inodelofschool universitycollaborationthat mentation, throughout the state. shows some promise of affecting the interface between A major benefit of the developing close-working these parts of the educational system is luand in Iowa. relationship between the university and the school at the In 1072theUniversity of Iowa withthefinancial regional level has been the development of a new avenue support of the National Science Foundation initiated a for genuine professional involvement by teachers with concept of teacher education known as Project ASSIST. the support of the university through formal training Simph,stat...d.the basic goal of Project ASSIST is and consultant services, and most important. the oppor- to enhance and huffierthe articulation of thought. tunity to share concerns with both university personnel manpower. and mission between the schools of Iowa, and colleagues both across the hall and across the street. Cooperative Et) Ort of the instructional packages they helped to develop are Embedded within the notion of Regional Centers is now being finalized. the concept of sharing the financial burdens associated Itis important to stress that in Project ASSIST with ASSIST programs. The regionalization of services inservice needs are determined at the regional level. The contains many economic advantages related to travel school and the university negotiate the nature of the costs and resource sharing that will allow the Project to program on the basis of the need perceived and the become self sufficient as it must, if itis to carry on resources available. Teachers within the region play an beyond theperiod funded by the National Science important role by coordinating and by helping to define Foundation.Further,asaphilosophicalp)int,itis the design of workshops and other inservice activities. believedthatto he roceptiv! and effective, progriniF To date, research involvement of regional personnel require the commitment and financial participatiot: of has been restricted to the collecting of data for a major all involved participants. Things offered for "free" are needs assessment project associated with the project. The generally devalued in the minds of the recipient, often enthusiasm and cooperation of school personnel in this interfering with full involvement. effort create an anticipation of their greater involvement with future research programs within the schools, thus Preservice Goals coming onestepclosertothe developmentof a The increased communication capability developed completely viable and lasting professional relationship throughProjectASSIST hasfunctioned to enhance between the school and the university. preservice teacher education in many ways. The beginning steps taken towards greater integra- 1. interaction Among Statewide Resources. Meetings tion of the school and university have promise of creating and discussions catalyzed by ASSIST have identified real change in the pattern of science education in Iowa, the human andmaterial resourcesscattered The national curriculum projects arc being implemented throughout the many colleges and universities with- in a professional manner by professional practitioners in the state. Areas for possible sharing of resources who understand their value and can articulatetheir to fit regional needs were outlined. worthinterms understood by the school and the Identification of Master Teachers. The closeness to community. the "grass roots" allowed by the regional structure Preservice teachers arc experiencing the problems of of ASSIST has greatly aided the recognition of realworldteaching through curriculum development programs and of outstanding teachers who are willing efforts and clinical internships with cooperating teachers. to serve as human resources. Administrators and community leaders are kept involved 3. Administrative Arrangements. The Projectisex- with current questions relating to the regional educa- ploring means of creating administrative or contrac- tional needs in light of curriculum trends. The effecton tual arrangements between schools and the univer- kids in classrooms? Time will tell. sity which better serve the needs of the preservice teacher and the school. An example would he the References arrangement between the Sioux City schools and a local college where master teachers are given release Boulding, D. E, Meaning of the Twentieth Century, time to participate in a college science methods Harper & Row, New York, 1965. courseinreturnforthe assistance afforded by Elam, S., A Resume of Performance-Based Teacher teacher interns. Education.AmericanAssociationof Collegesfor 4.Clnnumication. The enhancement of communi- Teacher Education, 1972. cation between schools,the university, and the 3.Ellul, J., The Technological Society. Vintage Press, State Department of Public Instruction has been a New York, 1964, major accomplishment of the project to date. 4.Hawkins, D., Statement on Environmental Educa- 5.Certification Criteria. The improved communication tion, mimeographed, University of Colorado, 1970, capability and newly recognized goals and needs 5.Kliebard, H. M., "The Question in Teacher Educa- havestimulatedascrutinizing of the appropri- tion," In Donald J. McCarty (Ed.) New Perspectives ateness of present certification criteria. on Teacher Education, Jossey-Bass Inc., San Fran- cisco, 1973. Inservice Teacher Education 6.Marks, M.B., "Research: The Preservice Missing The inservice component of Project ASSIST prom- Link," Journal of Teacher Education 23:453-6, Win- ises to he one of the most important. Clearly. one of ter, 1972. the goals of ASSIST is to provide continuity between 7.Schaefer, R. J., The School as a center of Inquiry, preservice and inserviceteacher education. The early Harper & Row, Publishers, New York, 1967, identification of practioners willing to work toward the 8.Thelen,11.A.. "Profession Anyone," in Donald J. development of new teachers has already been a re- McCarty (Ed.) New Perspectives on Teacher Echica- warding andeffectivemechanism for enhancingthe Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco, 1973. P. 201, professional growth of both. Theory and practice conic closer together through the harmonious working rela- tionship of a university student and an "Old Pro." To SESSION N date ASSIST has functioned to create summer curric- ulum development workshops comprised of teams made HUMANISM, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION ur of a practitioner, a preservice teacher, and a graduate student. They developed a hew kind of wholesome rela- David IL Ost, Associate Professor of Science Educa- tionship based ilium mutual respectfor the comple- tion, California State College. Bakersfield ment:tit- skills possessed by each team member. Plans for Learning theory has been dominated in recent years the inclusion of preset vice teachers in the implementation by the behavioristic school of psychology. The emphasis

16 has been on observable behaviors rather than thoughts The purist who rejects this position and maintains and feelings, on extrinsic pressures rather than intrinsic thatscienceis completely autonomous is also saying motivation, and only on those concepts, no matter how thatscienceis nonhuman, divorced from values, and trivial,that can easily he evaluated. This influence on intrinsicallyworthwhile, (A conclusionto he drawn positivistic behaviorism has resulted in learning theorists from the related rationale of "basic research for the sake and other person in education emphasizing behavior of research" is that even the most trivial research can be rather than mint/. impressive when may methodologicalcriteria are ap- Basically the humanistic movement is an Ntempt to plied.) This mind set, this religious doctrine, states that considertheindividualas a unique person with the value juiigments lie outside the realm of science, outside abilityto experience and interactwithreality. This the realm of knowledge and understanding. This doc- uniquely human ability has resulted in the development trine has fostered a public antiscience attitude. of attributes which provide Man with behavioral quali- Sciencemaybeobjective,amoral,andself- tiesthatarethe basis of cultural evolution. Choice, correcting. The scientist and science educator, however, self-discipline. imagination, introspection, self-criticism, do operate withinavalue system whichisneither andthoughts of thefutureare but a few of the objectivenor self-correcting.Scienceisnot generally characteristics unique to man. considered humanistic[341, however,scientists and Perhaps the most basic theory of humanism is that science educators can be. A student of science can learn theindividual has internal components which affect to base decisions on hard data but must also he aware perception.thought.feeling,and,mostimportant, of the significance of his perception as wellas related action. Murray and Kluckhon describe some internal factors such as how the subject under study was selected components which might be classified as basic instincts. or what biases determined what data was collected. [261Maslow delineates a hierarchy of needs.[231 Before the current philosophicallyrigidattitude Factors such aslife styles also have causal influence developed, early science was a means of responding to upon perception according to Maslow [231, Allport [21, the basic needs of man primarily motivated by devotion and Murray 1251. but must be learned. This is not to to and love of people. Much of science was related to say that external factors, as ascribed to by behaviorists, medicine or to explain phenomena man experiences. are inconsequential but rather that human interaction Science now deals with a plethora of abstract areas far with the environment must he considered as a function removed from the lives of man. It might be legitimate to of internal forces. Cultural and sociological forces, such askthequestion, of whatvalueisscienceto the as peer group and role pressures do not exist outside the individual? experiences of the individual but interact in a complex Science offers the individual a systematic mechan- manner with the internal components. ism for objective analysis of reality, the reality of the One of the theories of humanistic psychology of individual. For example, science might be a vital process special interest to educators is that of the hierarchy of for value clarification. It is insufficient to simply ignore needs and subsequent forms of gratification developed values. What is perceived and how itis interpreted is of by Maslow. This theory is presented as a representative of importance to each individual and his subsequent action. a basic thrust of humanism throughout the remainder of To expand, if Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of the paper. (This is an oversimplification.) needs is correct, one might test one's owo action against AccordingtoMaslow, theindividualprogresses the theory in a scientific manner. Not billy would such through the hierarchy (psychological, safety, belonging- a systematic approach to introspection provide data for 'less. self-esteem, and self-actualization needs) beginning understanding self but also the understanding of other with the most basic biological needs. Before the person persons.Theneedsaretheoreticallythe same for begins to feel the safety needs and to react to them, a everybody: the means of gratifying those needs may he majority of the physiological needs must be gratified. differentfor eachindividual. The behaviors of the The individual does not necessarily gratify the needs at student of science, the teacher of science, the profes- one level completely before feeling the needs of a higher sional science educator, and the scientists are all lune- level. There may he some gratification of a higher level tions of the hierarchy of needs and subsequent gratifica- need before a more basic need is fully gratified. In any tion. case, this hypothesis isa useful basis for a conceptual- Maslow and others [41, [71, [281 have suggested ization of humani,.ic psychology. that science can he a path to the greatest fulfillment and Humanism isnotmerely a pleasure principle as self-actualization for an individual. While itis true that Smarr and Be() ll would have the public believe [321. science is only one means of attaining knowledge of the Humanism provides the science teacher a basis for better natural, social, and psychological aspects of reality, itis understanding the student, the interaction of individuals. perhaps the one most potentially available to the masses. and society with scientific knowledge and processes, and The public apparently conceives science as a large body thekind ofeducation students will need to accom- of knowledge.It must be clarified that science is not modate to a rapidly changing society largely influenced only a collection of static intellectual constructs but also by science and technology. a dynamic method of understanding appropriate for the Science is an intellectual tool created by man as a perception of self result of his interaction with his environment. Although There are many ambiguities of science which are it may he true that laws, concepts. and general under- significant.particularlyasrelatedto humanism. Al- st.mdingareresult.; of science and are founded on thoughscienceisnotitself avalue systemitisa reality. their interpretations are a function of the mind functionof values.Thisnotionisparticularlywell ormaim. Thehumanists wouldsuggestthatman's developed by Bronowski [51, Maslow [231, and Barber perception. conceptual thought. and inferences are all a [41.Rationality, utilitarianism, and meliorism are cul- Function of internal components which determine the tural values which have a positive congruence with the individual's response. operations of science.Inessence,theposition from

17 which anyone operates is a priori, determined by a value application of skills in the development of solutions to the system. problems. Another ambiguity of science is that characterized Curricula are in constant states or modification, by Cohen 11 when he wines. "...itis not only rewrite, and renewal. The criteria for determiniq the type analytic.,it has a synthetic character as well " Science of change is based largely within the structure of the forms a framework in which one attempts to learn bits discipline.Factors such as criticalthinking, scientific and pieces of reality through an analytic approach to problem solving, science, and society have been included the separate inquiry structures. At the same time science among goals for new curricula since the late 50's. However also is the process of synthesizing such hits and pieces iMplententation efforts of such curricula focused on the together into an objective picture of reality.Itis this latter component of the nature of science which is most In recent years increased attention has been given to useful to the non-scientist.Itis not enough merely to humanism and the science curricula. The Environmental provideanindividual withtheintellectualtoolsto Studies Program 1131is one which explicitly deals with dissecthislife,toidentifyneeds, drives, and other humanistic theory and its relationship to the teaching- factors of self. One must also learn to assemble these learning environment. Concern is exhibited throughout hits of information into an acceptable. objective, and the materials for the individual and his experience and the holistie view in order to make decisions about the future needs of the teacher as well as of the student. in a realistic manner. Returning to Maslow, it' one makes the questionable assumption that the majority of students have most of In science. as well as in technolgie studies, a basic their physiological needs gratified (and in many parts of skillisthat of optimization. Often a decision must he this country and the world, this statementisindeed made based on the data available although the researcher questionable), then itfollows that safety needs are the knows the theoryor answer developed may not he next to he identified.It is here that the curricula of the correct or sufficientl refined. Therefore, a solution or 60's. with their emphasis on discovery, inquiry, and theoryisalways opentorefinementas new data openness encountereddifficultyinacceptance. If'a becomes available.Optimizationispartof theself- student has needs of structure, order, and limits which are correcting aspect of science and allows for growth. unfulfilled, then it is difficult, if' not impossible, for him Inhumanisticterms, optimitationispartkularly to function in an environment which seemingly does not significant as related to the st//.it is a unique sensation provide for those needs. Perhaps that is why revisions of for members of the American public to believe that many of the curricula have resulted in increased order. what one does is worthwhile. Acceptance of self is not structure, and limitsin their respective materials. The easy. Glasser puts it very bluntly when he writes: inability of teachers and others (including students) to Therefore, all symptoms, psychological or psychoso. satisfy personal psychological needs explains atleast a matic and all hostile, aggressive, irrational behaviors portion of the lack of acceptance of the more "open" are products of loneliness and personal failure. 1161 elementary curriculain favor of the more structured AlthoughGlasserwoulddealwithsuchproblems programs. through behaviormodificationtechniques.1151itis This phenomena is also of interest in analyzing the important to point out that for many individuals needs writings of science educators such as Romey. 1301 These are unfulfilled. Such individuals must learn to deal with authors have intuitively or by some other means begun realitin an objective manner. Willers 1331 has i.ter- working to provide mechanisms which resultinthe preted Glasser to mean that being human results in the gratificationof higher orderneeds. Again, ifI am rediscovers,redefinition. orft:verificationof whatit interpreting Maslow correctly, ..nd if his theory is correct, meansto hefree.andto work with, enjoy, and then it follows that the "belongingness and self-esteem" cooperate with others. needs must he in a large part fulfilled before the student Humanism places emphasis on the development of a (orteacher) can begin to develop his fullpotential, strong self-concept. This idea is very important but it is a whether that he critical thinking, creative thinking, or static concept. Singer speaks of the "future-focused role simplybecominga thoughtfulscientificallyliterate image" 1311 whichissomewhatsimilartothe citizen. self-at:wall/mgconceptof Maslow.Bothideasare Itisdifficultif notimpossible for teachers and predicated on the ability of the individual to assimilate corege professors to assist studentsinfulfillingtheir new data and modify his position accordingly. This is various needs when the instructors have nut yet attained optimi/ation of the level of the individual. Persons who Brat fication of their own lower level needs. The teacher have learned this skill will be better prepared not only to who still needs respect through authority, the professor accommodate to the future but to make inferences and who is not secure in what he is doing or certain why he is predictions as to their roles in the flume. doingit,willhavedifficultyincreatinglearning Theintstrecentlargescalescience curriculum environments which will encourage growth in students. mtweinent j;innaril emphasized discipline-orientedre-. References 161, 1131, 1301 suggest sources for materials, searchtechniquesandleartunginquirstructuresof techniques, and models which have been developed and specific disciplines. The current move of the curriculum tested to help teachers deal with their own needs, as well pendulumishackto problem centered!caching and as to develop skills which will he usable with students. sararegic,,is well as to a more iocialluseful The American Association for the Advancement of understanlow of science. The Report of the Fstes Park ScienceinthenationalpublicationGrenichne% and conteronce 1291 :I school progiam which is Standardsif)rtheFdactitm SecynklaryS(.11thd not onl% ploblemt.-enterd but based on problems real to Teachers Qt- Science and MatheinaM.s 1.11 has recogin/ed the student. The conferees claim that such an approach the significance of the humanistic movement in science would he moie meaningful to the students. interdi,o teacher education. The first Guideline of the document plinar ni nal me. And result in increased leatinn,!. through states.

Is Teacher education programs should provide exper- same time and in the same place be in the jail iences that foster continuous growth in those human business and in the learning business, we must get qualities of the teacher that will enhance learning by ourselves Out of the jail business, [20J his students. Schools shouldnotbe considered as a perfunctory A. Ateachershouldshowsensitivityto mechanism to husband human resources. students. Although such pressures and forces do exist it should B.Teachers shouldhaveself-esteemand be remembered thatthefunction of schoolsisto confidence. educate -to prepare our youth for their life as the next Thisstatementandtheinformationgiveninthe generation. Schools, curricula, and administrative deci- supportingtextclearly indicate that the concern for sions should be in response to the needs of youth, not the humane science education is more than the reaction ofa problems of adults. few concerned radical educators. The humanistic move- ment has become an integral part of science education and As s:ietal objectives continue to fragment, with science teacher preparation. parallel fragmentation of value systems, the significance of Self-actualization and teacher characteristics value clarification asrelated to science will take on is an increasing importance. Harvey suggests that teachers of activeareaofresearch.Ithas been shownthat self-actualizing teachers demonstrate more concern for science begin by examining their own values and beliefs. [191Science willtake on apersonal value to the students. [271 Self-actualization as a teacher attribute has individual as attitudes and conceptions are clarified. It is been related to critical thinking done by students. IC then that the science teacher will be able to deal openly [ 12] Teacher behaviors of various types have been related with valuesin to self-actualization. [10] Most researchers suggest that a the classroom, the laboratory, orin change inteacher selection and education isin order. everyday living, Such an approach has been of highest Factors related to humanism are significant and should be priority in the minds of many science educators. [1], given serious thought. [18], [22] Science teachers trained to deal with values, The current widespread concern for factors such as will more readily be able to help young people through belongingness, self-esteem, and self-actualization could years in which the developing value system is most fragile. not have come about unless a large number of individuals Scienceeducationcurricula and purposes must had risen to and gratified those needs. Teacher education accommodate changing school structures, whatever they programs will respond to the gratification of these needs may be. It is essential that modifications and subsequent only at the rate staff essentially fulfill the more basic programs be thought through and developed now. If needs. Then and only then will truly humane teacher changes in the schools are imminent, then today's teacher education programs exist. education programs should reflect the needs for tomor- The fact that increasingly large numbers are searching row's science teaching. If the future is undefined then for a success identity is evidence that social institutions, science teacher education should have built intoitv. primarily the schools, have provided their participants mechanism to help teachers accommodate to as many with neither the necessary skills to deal with reality nor forms of change as anticipated. thenecessary experiences to achievegratification of Science and humanism can be the prime vehicles for needs. Few individuals have the ability to judge honestly assistingfuture scimce teachers to accommodate to what they are, what they are doing, or where they are change. If the science teacher uses what Dewey describes going. as a scientific habit of mind [11] to view himself, he will Adults have recognized thefailure of schools to be in a better position to optimize about self and even respond to the needs of young people. The result has been predict his role for the future. An understanding of needs the establishment of a host of alternative schools. A will foster his own growth, thus enabling him to bettet special issue of Ilarrard lilucational Review deals exclu- work with students and their needs. The self-actualizing sively with this topic. L is suggested that the rise and future-role oriented science teacher will be a vital ingre- growth of these programs occurred simultaneously with dient of education in the future. thewidespread humanism movement.1171Pressures Althoughspecializationisperhapsbiologically, which brought humanism to the forefront include: the socially, and intellectually necessary, itis not known at birthrate,the impact of scientific development, tech. what level or to what degree specialization should occur. nological skills, accountability, heavy concentrations of Shouldscience teachers be trained only to canalize urban populations, increasing militancy of all members of youngsters into specific disciplines of science? Should the educ ition community. and the broader involvement science teachers be trained to function only as science of all persons in decision-making related to education. teachers? I believe that the answer to both questions is, These same pressures mitigate against widespread positively not! Even though one becomes a specialist he success of "third force" objectives. Harold C. Ilunt has should retain or attain the capacity to function asa predicted that responses to such pressures will include: a generalist. The needs of society are changing, the future of lengthening of the school day. decreased teacher-student schools is in question, and certainly the role of the science interaction, extension of school years. both downward teacherwillbemodified.TheAssociationforthe and upward. with an increase in structured preschool Education of Teachers in Science might heed the words of programs andtheaddition of gradesthirteenand John W. Gardner, "... in a world of change the versatile fourteen. 121( individual is a priceless asset." (141 The difficulty, is, of Societal pressures may he moving schools toward the course, in educating the "versatile individual." ends predicted 1.)!hint. However, it is essential to heed The most likely way of producing the individual with the warning of John Holt. versatility is to foster those qualities which allow him to SuiLe the jail tunction tot schools) is not a humane hecreative,independent, andself-reliant.These are funciim and works againstthe humane task of qualities that are represented in Maslow's hierarchy of helping learning and growth. since we cannot at the needs as resulting only when the individual has reached

1 9 the abilityto self-actualize. Only then canthefull 12. Drews, "SelfActUalization: A New Focus for potential of the individual he brought out. Education," In Learning and Mental Health in the It' one accepts science as a significant path to man's School Day, pp. 81.99. Edited by W. B. Wactjen and fultillmen and self-actualization, it becomes important to R. R.Leeper, Washington, D.C.:Associationfor consider science teacher education in a new and different Supervisors nd Curriculum Development, 1966. light. Instead of having a past orientation or conscious- 13.Environmental Studies Project and the Earth Science 'less. future perception would serve the science teacher as Teacher Preparation Project, numerous publications. an adaptive mechanism. As the society continues to evolve Boulder, Colorado, beyond the capacity of the educational system to change, 14. Gardner, John W. Self-Renewal, The Individual and the humanistic science teacher would more readily be able the Innovative Society. New York: Harper Colophon to help young people function in an unstable environ- Books. 1965. ment. 15.Glasser, William. Reality Therapy. New York: Harper [low do we educate such super science teachers? I'm and Row. 1962. not sure. But more exposure to open curricular materials, 16. The Identity Society. New York: not less, would help. Greater concern on the part of Harper and Row. 1972. teacher educators for fostering their own growth and 17,Graubard, Allen. "The Free School Mottement." ability to self-actualize, rather than for maintaining the Harvard Educational Review 42(3 ): 351 -73, 1972. comfortable status quo, would help. A lessening of the 18.Ilarmin, Merrill; Kirschenbaum, Howard; and Simon. concernforschooling,withgreateremphasison SidneyB.Teaching "Science With a Focus on education, would help. A breaking down of the calcified Values." The Science Teacher 37(I):16-20. 1970. compartmentalization of science would help. Nourish- 19.Harvey,0.J."BeliefsandBehaviors:Some ment of those qualities within man that make him a free Implications for Education." The Science Teacher and morally responsible being, would help. Realizing that 37(9 ): 10-14, 1970. the self-actualizing individual never feels he or she "has 20.Holt, John. Freedom and Bevond. New York: Dell arrived" or "has it all together" is the major prerequisite if Publishing Co. Inc. 1972. one is to address one's self to the issues raised. It is then 21.Hunt, Harold C. "The Superintendency and the that it becomes clear that: society is not a machine that Changing Times." Paper presentedatthe Alfred need only be maintained. It is then that humanism is seen Dexter Simpson Lecture, Harvard University, Cam- as the prime ingredient of an educational system which bridge, Massachusetts. May 1970. provides a society with individuals which continuously recreate it in response to a-changing environment. 22. Jacobsen, Marion S. "Relating Science and Values." The Science Teacher 39(3):52.53, 1972. 23.Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row. 1954. References 24. "Science and Self-Actualiza- tion." The Manas Reader New York: Grossman 1. Abruscato. Joseph. "A Search For Values." The Publisher. 1971. Science Teacher 39(2):20-24, 1972. Allport. G. W. Pattern and Growth in Personality. 25. Murray, H. A. "Preparations for the Scaffold of a New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1961. Comprehensive System." In Psychology: a study of a 3. AmericanAssociationforthe Advancement of science, Vol. 3.Edited by S. Koch. New York: Science, Guidelines and Standards Pr the Education McGraw-Hill. 1959. and Secondary School Teachers of Science and 26. Murray, H. A. and C. Kluckhohn. "Outline of a Mathematics. Washington, DC: AAAS. Miscellaneous Conception of Personality." In Personality in Nature, Publication 71-9, 1971. Society, and Culture, 2nd ed. Edited by Kluckhohn, 4. Barber.Bernard. Science and Social Order. New Murray, and Scheider. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. York: The Macmillan Company. 1952. 1956. 5. Bronowski, J. Science and Human Values. New 27. Murry, Eloise. "Students' Perception of Self-Actuali- York: Harper and Row. 1956. zation and Non-Self-Actualization Teachrs." Journal of Teacher Education 23(3):383-87, 1972. 6. Bybee, Rodger."TrainingElementaryScience Teachers: A Humanistic Model." Paper presented at 28.Ost, David H. "Humanistic Psychology and Science the 2Ist national convention of the National Science Teacher Education." Paper presented at the national Teachers Association. Detroit, Michigan. March 1973. convention of the Association for the Education of 7. Bybee, Rodger, and David Welch. "The Third Force: Teachers of Science. Detroit, Michigan. March 1973. Humanistic Psychology and Science Education." The 29. Report of the Estes Park Conference on Learning Science Teacher 39(8):18-22. 1972. Through Investigation and Action on Real Problems 8. Coble,CharlesR."Self-Actualizationandthe inSecondarySchools.Newton,Massachusetts: Effective Biology Teacher." The American Biology Education Development Center. 1973. Teacher 3500:479-81, 1973. 30. Romey, William D. Risk-Trust-Love: Learning in a 9. Cohen,RobertS."Individualityand Common Humane Environment, Columbus: Charles E. Merrill, Purpose:ThePhilosophyofScience."Boston 1972. University. 1958. (mimeographed.) 31. Shane. June Grant and I 'amid G. Shane. "The Role 10. Dandes,HerbertM."PsychologicalHealth and of the Future inEducation." Today's Education Teacher Effectiveness. Journal of Teacher Etluation 63( 1 ):72-76, 1974. 17(31:301.7, 1966. 32. Smarr, Erwin and Escoll, Phillip. "Humanism and the

11. Dewey, John. "Science as Subject Matter and As American Work Ethic." Mday'sEducation Method." In John Dewey on I:ducation. New York: 63(1):83 -86, 1974. The Modern Library. 1964. 33.Willers, Jack Conrad. "Value Bases for Curriculum

20 Decisions," Peabody Journal of Education SI: interact with themselves and some of their teachers I473, as openly and honestly as possible, The process is 34. Woodward, Val. "Science ideology: A View from continuous and painful, Only throughopen and Indochina." The American Mawr Teacher honest confrontation with sell and otherscan the ):2I-27, 1474. possibility of growth he enhanced. What is called for is a shift in emphasis froma curriculum characterized by relianceon external SESSION 0 responsibilityfor growth to one characterized by personal responsibility for growth, and froma cur SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION: riculum characterized by talking about Ideas, values WHOSE RESPONSIBILITY? and qualities to one characterized by the discovery and development ofideas,values and qualities Donald G. Ring, Science Coordinator, High School through personal involvement in real andopen rela District 214, Mt, Prospect, Illinois tionships and experiences. 1161 The disparity that exists between theory and practice The question of the responsibility for educating in teaching has frequently been identifiedasit major teachers of science is really misdirected because byany probleminproducing effectiveteachers.1131The measure the responsibility has to he to be assumed by the variations in teaching science in the public schoolas well individual being trained. What agencycan best assist in as the lack of implementation of new teaching techniques providing the experience and insights whichare most incollege makeitdifficult to transfer the concepts beneficialtoachieving theskills necessary to teach developed in methods classes to the reality of public science? Traditionally there has beena separation of the school classrooms. Gallagher[71suggeststhat"a activities each institution would provideas its share of the significant portion of elementary and secondaryschool training. The college has taught the general and specific people have difficulty in reasoning from principlesand subject background and theoretical portion of the student abstractions to actions, and in conceptualizing data and teacher's professional preparation. The public school has experience from reallife situations." lie concludes that been the location for the practice whichwas felt necessary science teachers need experience In conceptualizing and to his professional development. Deviation from these reasoning from principles since this skill isa fundamental roles has occurred in field experiences, in observation,or part of the scientific process. in mini teaching, but very little has been done to integrate Whether the failure to find relevance and actual value the college and public school portions of the professional in the theories commonly taught in methods classes isa education of a student teacher. This distinctioncan also result of the disparity between the college and public be made aboutthe education of practicing teachers. school experience or the inability of teachersto exhibit Extension and summer school course work accurately skills in formal reasoning does not detract fromthe point describesmostcollegeinvolvementintheinservice that a viable teacher education programmust enable the education of teachers. participant to see the relationship of what he leans while The position of this author is that the education of in the program to what he needsto know during his all teachers, whether preservice or inservice, should be the employment as a teacher. Jackson (81 pointsout that the sharedresponsibilityofallagencies which havea conceptual language of teachereducation must not legitimateinterestinitsoutcome.Inreality,these contradict the teacher's sense of realityif' it is to have agencies consist of the student teachers, the students both explanatory and descriptive relevance. Opportunities served by the public schools, the communities which to apply many of the ideas one has been introducedto in provide these students, the school staff, and the college a methods class are often lacking. That is, at least in part, staff. The institutions which represent these constituents due to the separation of the college andpublic school would be the university and public schools forminga institutions. cooperativewhere both have equalopportunityto One of themajor causes of the separation of contribute to the development of the individual strengths institutions in contributing to teacher educationis the of a teacher. Primary requirements of sucha cooperative often assumed distinction between practice andscholar- would be the mutual trust of the participants andan ship. Stater ants such as "Teachersare educators, not acceptance of their legitimate interest in the entire effort educationists. Their competenciesare with children, not of preparing one to he a teacher. Teacher educationmust with theoretical designs for education" 1141 implyan he a shared responsibility. inabilityofthepractitionertomakesignificant One of the major strengths of any teacher education contributions to the conceptual framework of teacher program is the extent to which itis capable of assisting education. This kind of thinking has %suitedinthe students to achieve their potential. Ina selfactualizing assumption of research as the prerogative of the university approach to teacher education the student is encouraged and caused the public school to minimize theevaluation to seek as extensive an understanding of himself and his of its efforts. The ef'f'ect has been for the public schoolto relationship to others as is possible. From this perspective, allocate small amounts of money to researchand the changes in behavior arc seen as the result of experience university to find it difficult to apply the results ofits and interaction. experimentation to realistic situations. The separation of Regardless of the differences in educational philos- scholarship from practice has beena great dis-service to ophy, the development of the prospective teacheras teacher education-where, in fact, this distinctionneeds to a person is an essential responsibility of any teacher he minimized. education program. Vicarious experiencesare desir- The question of who is to he responsible forteacher able and even indispensable to the understanding of education may soon be academic. Given thepresent state self and others. but if insight is to be translated into of teacher militancy, and the abilityof teachers to behavior, prospective teachers must he helpedto influence legislation controlling entry into the profession,

21 it would alipear that there will soon tw viva changes in the toward ids own and the Other members' dontribit certification laws. 'to exclude teachers Conn this process lions to the preparation of teachers. simply does not make sense, 'Meer contribution should be Aitacceptance of the legitimateinterest of all a strong one based on the legitimacy of their involvement members in the preparation of teachers. and the competence they possess in developing a teacher 3. A willingness of all members to share resources and edut..at ion program. toinvestsome of them in the preparation of A similar pressure' hone exerted on teacher education teachers. isthe desire of the publicthateducators he held 4, The production of an effective program of teacher accountable for their product. Koran 141 points out: education. Indeed,if we describe the output of a teacher Failure to 'observe the first three of these conditions will education progr;on in terms of betiejk, lweemting, resultin a program which is exploitive or some of the security and awe/tit/nee, meanings and Nub/ea/Pity, members. Failure to observe the fourth will result in no we are describing socialitation rather than teacher program since students will elect to remain in a traditional education and find ourselves with no justification for sequence. creating the institution of teacher education for these The creation of a "new Partnership arrangement" purposes The ambiguity of these goals or 1151 is not sufficient to guarantee the development of an procedures has pet mitt ed a sloppiness in the teacher effective teacher education program. The willingness of education enterprise which the public cannot and the university staff to change some of its traditional roles will not tolerate. in preparing teachers and of the public schools to accept To !Oleo that education is a socialising process may he some responsibility for this activity are not sufficient to accurate but to limit its definition to such a large context produce a viable cooperative. An effective cooperative without specilyme outcomes is a 111\111*y we cannot afford. John I lel se yobservation that school is not Just learning teacher education program will exhibit the following about lifeitis lite itselfis an appropriate description of characteristics: teachereel tolls as well. however, to describe the . The program offers the student alternatives in the expectation: we ha sv for people we are recommending for activities he follows and the people with whom he inclusion in the teaching profession in nospecitle terms works. Is to do a disservice t, 'hem as well as to the public. The curriculumprovides experiences which en The emphasis on accountability that has been laid courage the discovery and development of ideas, upontheteaching profession has contributed to out' values, and qualities through personal involvement in development of cotmetency basedteacher education realsituations. Provision is made for experiences programs.Inthe arguments which have been made which encourage personal growth. regarding (.'IITEitis intesesting to note that virtually 3. The student teacher makes use of a wide variety of nobody had advocated ilia: teachers should be excluded resources including some contact with age groups he fromtheprocess of identifying acceptableteaching does not intend to teach. behaviors. The logi; of including participants in any 4. The cooperating institutions have dual staff' ;appoint description of the activities of the profession seems ment , College and public school personnel coat tibiae obvious. To exclude them from this process will not only equallytoprogramplanning andtodecisions resultinalessvaluableproduct, butalso, affecting the operation of the cooperative, perpetuate the separation of theory and practice. itwill S. Recommending a candidate for certification is done The argumentthatthepreparation of science front the cooperative rather than from either of the teachers should include early experiences with students is institutions alone. extensive and not new. This position is supported by b. Inservice and preservice training are integrated. The Koran (1473). the AAAS guidelines (1%1 and 1071). role of the university staff in inservice activities is Gallagher (1')73NSTA ( 1909) and others. The t IPSTEI' much larger than it is in the traditional program. program at the I Iniversity of Iowa 1171 is an example of 7. Methods and other professional courses are taught at an extensive effort to provide early experiences with the punlic school siteusing a programmatic, i.e., studentsforprospective science teachers. The trend experiencebased rather than didactic format, toward earlier field experiences indicate,' thatit will be R. The programissufficientlyflexibleto provide beneficial to form close associations with the schools and undefined options to the student teachers and to commumtinsatisfyingtheprofessional preparation encourage change within the cooperative. requirements of teachers. t). There is relative independence from the bureaucratic The ideas which have been advanced in the first part structures of the institutions involved. of this paper argue for a combined effort in preparing 10. There is a willingness on the part of the staff to share scienceteachers. Practicing teachers have a legitimate in contributing to the success of the student teacher. interestin who enters the profession and how theyare 11.Supervision of student teachers is largely done by prepared to make a positive contribution and to provide public school staff'. the resources which ate necessary for presenting the most 12.Support is derived from all participating institutions. realists; instruction possible to student teachers, Iloweve. 13. Grades and recommendations for student teachers the pont should he made that these contributions are not are determined by the personnel most responsiblefor hooted to practicing teachers and ate equally attributable the activity being evaluated. t,, college personnel. The distinctions between college and 14.There is sonic formal commitment of the institutions high school toddlers are mole organi/ational than they are to the cooperative center; e.g.. contract, dual staff descriptors of competence. appointments. budget allocation . etc. The primaryconditionsinforming the type of I S.The field experience will extend over a period which cooperativerangement advocated in this paper are: is longer than the time allowed for student teaching i.An attitude (otrust on the pats of each member under the traditional program. The cooperative model characterized above is nut the instructional leadership are provided primarily by public only description available. Eastman's model PI empha- school teachers serving as subject area coordinators, These siles early experiences and a prescriptive type curriculum. teachers are released from a portion of their regular The Portland, Oregon, Urban Teacher Education Project teaching day to provide this input. At present there are 11 1121 has a heavy involvement in minority group and subject coordinators. In addition, one person in each urbanteaching.Marker 1101 and Clark 131 offer buildingisgivenreleasedtimeto coordinatelocal variations in location, program, and length of time.Drozin activities. There are three public school staff members 141reviews an NSF supported inservice cooperative responsible for the general operation of the program. specifically to upgrade physicsteaching. Ideally, enough Release time for subject and building coordinators is cooperative relationships of a distinctive character would provided by interns from the universities. The university be entered into by a collegeto offer a variety of staff is in the public schoo!-ea for three days every two alternatives to the student teacher. Inc of the strengths of weeks. There are nine university persons presently in- this approach would he the opportunity to isolate a few volved in the CTEP program. variables inteacher education and to establish centers As was mentioned previously, the university staff' where these variables could he implemented and tested members work directly with the public school teachers. more discretely. One of the inservice experiences developed in this manner The benefits from shated tesponsibility of teacher was a laboratory mathematics program where teachers education can readily he predicted from the character- from all buildings were invited to develop activities and istics listed previously. Some of these would fall in the teachstudentsina demonstrationcenter.Another categoryoffulfillinglegitimateinterests,Increasing program was a series of seminars designed to help the resources,andprovidingmorerealisticexperiences. publicschoolstafftodeveloptechniquesinself However, the purposes of this paper are better servedby assessment. A similar effort used the university staff to describinga successful model of a cooperativecenter -the teach seminars in administrative techniques and problems. Cooperative Teacher Education Program (CTEP). An allied 2year program for developing administrators CTEP began in1971as an informal cooperative has also be initiated.Over 400 teachers have taken betweentheUniversity of Illinois and High School graduate coursework and received tuition waivers as a District214 (adistrict of eight high schoolsinthe result ofthe CTEP program. An interesting experiment suburban Chicago area of Arlington Heights). Initially was well received when the university staff was invited to student teachers from science, mathematics, English, and perform departmentalevaluations and toreportthe socialstudies were enrolled. Sincethattimeithas results to the departmentsfortheir analysis. expandedtoincludeNorthern University, Illinois Possibly one of the most distinctive features of the NortheasternIllinoisUniversity, and fivefeederetc- mentary school districts (25, 21, 23, 15, and 59). The CTEP program is that it encourages student teachers to program has also expanded to inclmie student teachers select their own cooperating teacher. For approximately the last eight weeks of the program, the student teacher is from most subjects commonly taught in high school. in an extended group situation with classes of high'school Sinceitsinception,over 450 student teachers have participated and have been recommended to teach in or junior high students. He is intbrmed at the beginning of CTEP that he is to establish a set of programgoals for this secondary schools. The participants spend a full semester experience and to find public school persons who are inthe program and receive credit for the professional education component oftheirpreparation willing to work with him in seeking their attainment. The including setting of these goals occurs over the initial eight weeks of subject and general methods, history and philosophy, and the program. Assistance is provided by the subject area when needed, educational psychology. Titles only serve to coordinator in helping to define the goals as well as in fillthe university requirements for graduation as one cannot distinguish program activities or participants on helping to locate resources. The evidence by Edgar [6] the basis of receiving credit in a particular course. All supports the CTEP staffs notion that this process should students live within commuting distance of the public produceagreater encouragementfor behavior and school area and are in ne schools for the full 16-week attitude changes in the student teachers. program. The conceptual basis of CTEP is a set of components The nature of the cooperative requires that each whichdescribetheteaching behavior expectedas institution commit stall to the program. The roles of outcomes of the program. These behaviors could he used supervision and instruction are primarily assumed by to develop specific competencies, but at this time there is personnel front the public schools. The university staff has some hesitancy to do so. The reluctance results from an direct involvement with the iliserviceactivities of the uncertainty as to the efficacy of CBTE in being the best district. As part of the university commitment, tuition method forencouraging personal growth. A second waiversareprovidedtothe public schoolstaff for question which is preventing motion in this direction is graduate level course work. Program planning is the shared whether the anticipated benefit of further specifying responsibility of the university, public school, and student behaviors would justify the effort used in writing them. teachers. After completion of the program, students are The following teaching behaviors have been identi- recommended to the state of Illinois for certification fiedalong withtheactivity designed toteachthat through the university where they are enrolled. The behavior. program is basically operated from subject -area groupings, 1. To developthecandidate'sawareness ofthe but interdisciplinary activities arc encouraged as students individual needs of students and their responses to selectalternatives. All participants have contacts with curriculum decisions and teaching strategies. elementary or junior high students by either observation. Associated activity: Mini-teaching. tutoring, serving as a teacher aide, mini teaching, or 2. Self Awareness choosing a portion of their regular student teaching in a. To developthecandidates'sself-perception elementary or junior high school classes. Supervision and (particularlyasitrelates to the educational

23 profession), and to develop his sensitivity to 12.Alternative Education self-concept development in others. a. To helpthecandidatedeveloptheskills b. To provide the candidate with an opportunity necessary for discovering learning experiences for communicating with his colleagues about available to students within the community. self and group identified needs. b. To develop the candidate's ability to assess the c. To provide an opportunity for reflection on appropriateness of various community experi- personal teaching experiences in relation to rule ences. expectations. c. To help the candidate develop sell:aim' criteria :Ism whited activity: !finan Relations Groups Iorstudent participationin community ex. 3. To develop the candidate's knowledge and skills in perlences. teaching his subject. Associated activity: Instructional Settings Associated activity: Subject Area Seminars In more than two years of operation, CTEP has 4. To develop the candidate's knowledge about the undergone considerable program evaluation. Perhaps one of the advantages of this type of effort is the fertile Political.legal and societal characteristics of the inst it ut ion or school. ground it offers for research. Four doctoral studies have :Ism whited activity: Institutional Study. been made and an extensive evaluation of attitude and 5, behavior change was done by the University of Illinois. Todevelopthecandidate'sinsightsintothe The evidence which has been collected supports the development of children and the progressive changes conclusions that the program is: (a) at least as effective in in their capacities to learn concepts. developing teaching skills as is the tradilional program; (h) Associated activity: Elementary Teaching the participants exhibit a positive attitude toward CTEP; 6. experiencewiththemechanism of To provide (c) CTEP has generated enthusiasm and behavior change individualized instruction and its associated benefits on the part of the involved public school personnel; (d) and problems. student teachers perceive the experience as a realistic Ass( whited activity: Individualized Instruction Unit introduction into teaching. 7. Human and Institutional Awareness a. To define thecandidate's assessment of his References valuesand strengths through theanalytical obseivation of a variety of schools, teaching 1. AmericanAssociationterthe Advancement of fieles, and grade levels. Science. Guidelines and Standards Jr iithe Mutation h. To develop an awareness of the specialized of Secondary School Teachers of Science and resources and techniques used in elementary and Mathematics. Washington, D.C. 1971. middle schools. 2. Butts, DavidP.,Editor. Designs for Progress in c. To develop an awareness of the broad individual Science Education. National Science Teachers Associ- and social influences on a student emanating ation, Washington, D.C. 1969. from the community he lives in. 3. Clark, RichardJ.and DonaldJ. Kingsbury. Associated activity: Observation of the community "Simultaneous Alternative Teacher Education Pro- and elementary. middle, and secondary schools. grams." Phi Delta Kappan 54:477.80; March 1973. 8. To develop the candidate's ability to make decisions, 4. Drozin, V.G. andLouis V. Nolroyd. "Missouri initiate programs, establish goals, select cooperative Cooperative College--School Program in Physics." colleagues. and succeed independently. The Physics Teacher 5:374.381; November 1967. Associated activity: Election of program of extended 5. Eastman, Thomas andNarrisP.Gollbcrg. "A group teaching and cooperative staff. Cooperative School and University Teacher Educa- 9. To develop the candidate's experience with normal tionPrograminScience -One Model." School classroom management over an extended period of Science and Mathematics 72(3 ): 221-7 ; March 1972. time. 6. Edgar, Donald E. "Affective Relationships in Teacher Associated activity: Extended group teaching Supervision." Journalof Teacher Education 10.Self Direction 33(2):169.71; Summer 1972. a. To provide the candidate with an opportunity 7. Gallagher, James Joseph. "Secondary Science to direct his experience in CTEP and to provide Teacher Education: Where Are We Going?" Un- leadership to the program. published paper, National Association for Research b. To increasethecandidate's abilitytoself- in Science Teaching, Detroit. 1973. determine his activities when controlled by an 8. Jackson,PhilipW. "The Conceptualizationof organized institution. Teaching." Paper given at American Psychological Associated activ;ty:Participationin the Planning Association, Philadelphia. August 1963. Committee 9. Koran, John J..Jr. "Secondary Science Teacher 11.Evaluation Education: Prospectives in Program Trends, Research a. To developthecandidate's competencein andImplications."Unpublishedpaper.National making conclusions abouthis experiencein AssociationforResearchinScienceTeaching, teaching anditspotentialfor satisfying his Detroit, 1973. career needs. 10.Marker, Gerald W. "Increasing the Options in Social h. Toassessthebehaviorsandpotentialof Studies," Phi Delta Kappan 54:480-2; March 1973. individualcandidates withreference to the 11.National Association for State Directors of Teacher teaching profession. Education and Certification. Guidelines for Prepara- c. To generate data in order to judge the efficacy tion Programs of Teachers of Secondary School of the CTEP model for teacher education. Science and Mathematics. Associated activity: Evaluation Seminars 12.Parker,JohnL.andRichardJ.Withycombe.

24 "MediationinanAlternativeTeacher Training opportunities unexpectedly occurring in the class- Program." Phi Delta Kappan 54:483.5; March 1973. room. 13. Schaff, John F. "Iniquitous Revolutions and Multiple 3. Besidespupil behavior changes, there are other Constraints in Science Teacher Education: Prospects types of educational outcomes which are important, fortheFuture."Unpublishedpaper,National such as changes in parental attitudes, the profes- AssociationforReserachinScienceTeaching, sional staff, community values, etc. Detroit, March 1973. 4. Measurability implies behavior which can be objec- 14. TroWbridge, Leslie W. "Secondary Science Teacher tively, mechanistically measured, hence there must Education: Where Are We Going?" Unpublished be something dehumanizing about the approach. paper, National Association for Research in Science 5. Itis somehow undemocratic to plan in advance Teaching, Detroit. 1973. precisely how thelearnershould behave after 15. Voelker,Alan M."A NewErain Teacher instruction. Pre parat ion."Science Education 55(2):177.81; 6. That isn't really the way teaching is; teachers rarely April-June 1971. specifytheir goals in terms of measurable learner 16. Will, Richard Y. ''The Education of the Teacher Asa behaviors;solet'ssetrealisticexpectations of Person." Mimeographed. teachers. 17. Yager,RobertE."SecondaryScienceTeacher. 7, Incertainsubjectareas,e.g.,finearts and the Education: Where Are We Going At The University humanities, itis more difficult to identify measur- of Iowa." Unpublished paper, National Association able pupil behaviors. for Research in Science Teaching, Detroit. 1973. 8.While loose general statements of objectives may appear worthwhile to an outsider, if most educa- tional goals were stated precisely, they would be SESSION P revealed as generally innocuous. 9. Measurability implies accountability; teachers might OBJECTIVES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRE- AND be judged on their ability to produce results in INSERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION learners rather than on the many bases now used as indices of cotnpetence. Betsy A. Balzano, Department of Curriculum and 10.Itisfar more difficultto generate such precise Instruction, State University of New York, Brock- objectivesthan totalkabout objectivesin our port customarily vague terms, Popham has already eloquently addressed himself to Probably most educators would agree that measure- each one of the above threatpotentials. There is no ment and evaluation are two of the important compo- need to rehash the same segments here.I do want to nents of the instructional process. There would little attend to some of the issues with which he did not deal argument over the position that educational objectives and also describe some of the ways that behavioral and learning experiences are closely related and that in objectives can be treated at the preservice and inservice practicethe objectives of both instruction and evalua- stages of teacher education. tion differ only when the purpose of evaluation becomes Unfortunately some teachers have developedin- the judgment of achievementat the termination of a tensely negative attitudes toward behavioral objectives. segmentofinstruction.However,if you takethe Many of the negative associations arise from the pressure position, as Ido, thatin order to design meaningful on teachers from agencies such as state departments of instruction and evaluation, objectives should he stated in education andschooladministrationswhichforced behavioral terms then controversy enters the scene. teachers to produce gargantuan lists of behavioral objec- Dissentcanservemany positivefunctions, and tives for their specific courses. In most cases, they were certainlythe many heated discussions concerning the given little guidance or direction and certainly no time. relative merits and value of behavioral objectives have The great lists were dutifully produced and subsequently opened more lines of communication as opposed to filed in the vast paper polluted offices of these agencies closing them.If you are actively engaged in teacher to be ignored more often than not. Since the easiest education at either the inservice or preservice levels, the student behaviors to translate into behavioral terms are behavioral objectives issue is one that you have to face. at first glance the most trivial, it is not surprising to find You may choose: that most of the behavioral objectives produced under the 1. toignore them. forpassiveresistancehas been above stressconditions tend apparently to deal with known to do violence to the existing order. minutia. One point to keep in mind when reviewing 2. tofight them and their proponents and generate suchlistsisthatspecificity andtrivialityinstating statements concerning the triviality, mechanism and behavioral objectives are not necessarily the same thing. It lackof humanismthattheuse of behavioral is quite possible that, looked at individually, a behav- objectives may promote. ioral objective may appear to be trivial, but the total 3. to examine the issue inlight of an instructional collection of behaviors may not be trivial. model. Ralph Tyler recentlystatedthatthe behavioral James Popham 121 haslisted the following ten objectives movement has bogged down131. According to reasons educators have againstthe use of behavioral Tyler, there are two possible causes for tie's bog-down. objectives. In the earlier part of the century, learning was viewed as 1. Trivial learner behaviors are the easiest to opera- the building of connections between specific stimuli and tionalize, hence the really important outcomes of specific responses. This view led to the listing of literally education will he underemphasized. thousands of objectives for a school subject. These lists Prespecificationofexplicitgoalspreventsthe were short-lived for two reasons: teachers had difficulty teacherfromtakingadvantageof instructional keeping so many objectivesin mind and studies of

25 human learning indicated that students could generalize intents, they generally fail to be useful for the following learning from concrete experiences[31, A second possi- reasons. In many cases, the objectives have not been ble causeis the confusion between "clarity of Mini- written with specific pupils in mind. They divide the bon" and "specificity." Tyler maintains that "an educa- behaviorsinto suchminutespecifictasksthatthe tional objective does not need to he specific in order to relationship between specific learning tasks and the total be clear, attainable, and capable of assessment."Pi learning experience is lost. Objectives can be formulated The notion of clarity and specificity in statements in thins of a specific subject, general student popula- of objectives is an interesting one. Let us assume that tion, and community, but specific course objectives can thecriticaltriumvirate in the instructional process is be written only by the individual who has had exper- composed of behavioral objectives, learning experiences, iencewiththeoverallgoals,individualneeds, and and measurement/evaluation activities and that behav- abilities of particular students. The teacher should not ioral objectives are the main determinant in planning the he required toutilize objectives developed by other learning experiences and evaluating them both in terms people. The objectives he/sheuses should bethose ofinstructionalsuccessandpupilevaluation. How established by the interactions of the teacher, the pupils, specific the behavioral objective needs to be is really the subject, and the school-community environment. dependent upon its purpose. For example, if the intent One method of dealing with behavioral objectives of the teacher is that students recall, identify, or define that both inservice and preservice teachers have found specifics, then the behavioral objectives of the instruc- usefulis to analyze existing instructional materials and tion should reflect this intent. However, if the intent of evaluation instruments for the objectives or the apparent instructionisthatstudents should apply principles, intentof thematerials.If there are statements of formulate hypotheses. or analyze problems. the behav- objectives that accompany the materials, then these can ioral objectives will be more than a list of specifics. be compared withthe objectives that the individual Whether or not an objective can he stated in the analyzing the materials has listed. This activity often full-blown forma la Mager is probably a matter of the helps to clarify intents of instruction and also to give nature of the objective itself. Sometimes itis difficult to direction to the kinds of activities that need to he part state precisely the conditions and the desired or accept- of the instruction it' the intents are to be realized. The able level of performance for an objective. However, it is teacheralsohastheopportunityto questionthe essential for the teacher planning instruction to consider objectives of the materials to decide whether they are thekinds of behaviors he/she expects the learner to appropriate for the students involved and whether they exhibitattheconclusion of the instruction. Stating are important. objectives in terms of behaviors helps the teacher to With practice most of the inservice and preservice design the appropriate kinds of instructional experiences. teachers with whom I have dealt become quite adept at Italso has the advantage of constantly reminding the statingobjectivesintermsof behaviors.Deciding teacher toy he critical of himself/herself by posing such whether or not all students should be required to attain questions as "where am Igoing?", "what do Ireally the same objectives is another facet of the issue. With want my students to he able to do?", and "how do I the current emphasis on individualized instruction, this know if I have succeeded?" is an important question. There are common sets of One of the complex tasks both the inservice and objectives that all students should achieve. But this does the preservice teacher are presented with is pre-stating not necessitate thatallobjectives be achieved by all the objectives for an instructional sequence with which students or that certain behavioral objectives cannot he the teacher has not had teaching experience. Assuming designed for individual students. Requiring common sets all suchataskisoverwhelming, consideringall( f the of behavioral objectives also does not mean that commitments on time thatthe teacher already has. students must follow the same sequence of instruction. Attacking the task in small steps, however, not only Alternatelearningexperiencescanbeprovidedto allows the job to get done, it also reduces much of the achieve the same learning outcomes. complexity and anxiety.Instead of demanding that a Closely related to the question of whether or not complete set of behavioral objectives he produced at the allstudents should achieve the same objectivesisat outset, itis more reasonable to first have the objectives whatlevelshould the achievement he established.If stated in general terms of the kinds of behaviors desired mastery of an objective is a prerequisite to the achieve- after instruction and the expected behaviors necessary ment of subsequent objectives which are deemed essen- priortoinstruction. More specific objectives can he tial,thenallstudents should be requiredto achieve stated as each segment of instruction occurs. As instruc- mastery. But if subsequent achievement is not so clear tion proceeds the additional objectives that are achieved cut, then varying levels of mastery are more appropriate. but were not pre-stated should he identified and added If an objective is considered to he important for all to theset. As the evaluation of learners takes place, students to attain, then the task of the teacher educator criteriaforappropriate levels of performance can he dealing with the preservice and inservice teacher is to determined. By modifying and refining objectives over provide as much opportunity as possible for using and subsequent presentations of the instructional sequence designing alternate methods of instruction. Most texts precise objectives can he produced. Doing asmall part dealing with behavioral objectives are quite usefulin of the task of developing behavioral objectives well is far instructing people how to write objectives and as guides superior to doing100 percent of the task and pro- of sources of objectives, but few, if any, deal with the ducing useless material. alternate pathways of instruction which could be used to One of the problemsI have had to deal with at achieve the same objective. boththepreserviceand inservicestageof teacher Giventhevariationsinthelearningstyles of education is the published lists of behavioral objectives individuals, if only one met!iod of instruction is used to that have been produced. Mthough many of the objec- achieve anobjective. no matter how excellentthe tives may he useful in eumining objectives and selecting instructional method and how well stated the objective may he, itis doubtful that all students will achieve an science teacher candiates and curricula needed to achieve acceptable level of performance. It behooves the teacher these goals, educatortoseriouslydealwith different modes of The composition of teacher education programs isa instruction for the same objectives so that the objectives complex and controversial mixture of ingredientsas can really provide more meaningful instruction for the illustrated by the practices of 1,200 institutions in the students. United States and100 in Canada.[9]Theoretically, these programs are based on educational needs which References in turn dictate the nature of their ingredients. In science education, the aforementioned needs would bepara- 1. Mager, Robert. Preparing Instructional Objectives. mount. One commonly held objective is that teachers San Francisco: Fearon Press. 1962. should arrange the conditions for, and produce, student Popham.James."ObjectivesandInstruction." learning. Student learning as Turner[42] describes itis AERA Monograph Series on Curriculum Evaluation what good teaching is all about: "Teachingmay occur -No. 3, Instructional Objectives (Chicago: Rand withoutlearningandlearning may occurwithout McNally and Co.) 1969. :2-52. teaching. They are not, however, valuationally indepen- Tyler. Ralph. "The Fath:r of Behavioral Objectives dent. Teaching is valued when it eventuates in learning Criticizes Them: An Interview with Ralph Tyler," and not otherwise. That is why we spend so much time Phi Delta Kappan. VolLV, No. 1 (September, worrying about teacher effectiveness." (p. 111) 1973), 55.57. McDonald[29]conceptualizes goodteachingin terms of a decision-making teacher behavior model based on Coladarci's1101 concept of the teacheras an SESSION Q effective, instructional hypothesis-maker who facilitates studentlearningbychoosingappr,,priatecurricular LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH: ESSENTIAL objectives and designing instructionaccordingly. The INGREDIENTS IN TEACHER EDUCATION PRO- resulting plan for learning representsa flexible set of GRAMS principles that determine the teacher's behavior toward predetermined goals rather than aset of mechancial John J. Koran, Jr., Chairman, Science Education ruleswhich can only leadtoineffectivenessinthe Department.InstitutefortheDevelopmentof classroom [61, 1391. The success of alternative teaching Elliman Resources, University of Florida, Gainesville strategies can only be evaluated in terms of learning and William G. Holliday, Department of Education, situations and the effects they produce. University of Education, University of Calgary, Sincethegoalof McDonald's teacher behavior Alberta, Canada model is to facilitate learning, the model suggestsan awareness of the conditions most likely to be successful. There are many ingredients which are either advis- By employing relatively reliable and valid information, able in or essential to a teacher education program in the teacher increases his probability ofsuccess in the science. A knowledge oflearningtheoryandthe classroom.Decisions based on sound theoretical and research which forms the basis for practice are two, empirical knowledge are likely to be both rational and among many others, which are a response to a number responsible. of realities. First, newly trained graduates ofour major In a later conceptualization McDonald[301 portrays institutions for teacher education arc, for the most part, teacher behavior as a complex interaction of teaching no more competent to manage modern science courses operations, organization of content, and type ofcon- than those of fifteen years ago[201. At the same time, tent.Inshort,thesuccessfulscienceteacher must we are entering a new generation of curriculum develop- understand, and appreciate, the conditions under which ment and implementation which places greater demands learning takes place with reference to specific goals. onthebeginningteacher.Thus. teachereducation Teachers shouldhefamiliarwith andableto programs of the 70's and 80's designed to teach the interprettheresults of educational studies and their science of the 60's are largely obsolete. In response to relevancy to particular learning situations. The needto these rapidly changing cultural and educational realities tie educational theory and research together has been Hurd 1201suggeststhe following major goals of a argued in detail asitrelates to science education.1191 science teacher training program: Koran,123125, Gallagher[151, Welch1431, and ) developing an understanding of the changing Shulman and Tamir,[381 have reviewed selected research character of the scientific enterprise; 2) devel- and development efforts in science education andgener- oping an understanding of the place of science ally agree thatthe present mass of work in the field in society: 3) developing an understanding of suggestsanabsenceof theory directedresearch, or the nature of knowledge in the sciences: 4) efforts to put the results to practicaluse. At the same developing an understanding of the learning of time, Gagnd 1131, Baldwin 121, Berliner and Callen 151. science-basedknowledge;5)developingan and Merrill and Boutwell 1.321 discuss learning theoryand understanding of the philosophicalbasis of research relevant to classroom practices and conclude science education and the rationale for curric- that a competent teacher must he familiar with empiri- ulum choices: and 6) developing and under- cally derived relationships between various instructional standing of the valuation of goals and similar strategies and learning. topics. Learning research and theory in science education Although these broad goals are interrelated and difficult programs are neglected because: I. science curriculum and to consider as separate entities this paper attempts to instruction materials from kindergarden to collegeare concentrate on the nature of knowledge in science, the written to best display the "structure of science" without learning of science-based knowledge, and the kinds of regard to whether this is the way science is best learned. 2.

27 understanding learning as it relates to the science class- quiry, Conclusion-oriented research examines basic room is not an easy task. As Turner [421 points out, it and applied empirical questions designed to explore takes a "very intelligent teacher" to make the decisions freely a variety of parameters and to contribute, in necessary in an interactive instructional situation.Yet this a general fashion, to understanding of educational is the major function of a teacher at any level of instruc- practice. Decision-oriented inquiry examines rele- vant questions related to educational products and % tion.It should also be a major topic in the science methods course. As Clark [81 opines: is more likely to have an Immediate effect on a Daily,teachers atevery age level present a teacher's decision. variety of concepts to from 20 to 35 children. 3. The science teacher must not only be capable of The materials and procedures used by several mastering data gathering activities, and reporting in teachers, each presenting the same concept to professional journals of thepractical findings in his own class, represent startling variation, as areas of student learning, instructionaldesign and' does the same teacher presenting two different evaluation, but must also be provided with the concepts to one class. Additionally, teachers skills to permit a critical approach to teaching and appear to have considerable difficulty muster- learningwithinand beyondtheseareas.Each ingrationaleforthematerialstheyselect prospective science teacher whose skills and interests and procedures they follow in any given con- permit hypothesis testing in each of the areas repre- cept-presenting experience. With this amount sented should be thought of as an extension of the of variation and dearth of rationale, some if' research activities of the teacher training institution. nut many of theproceduresfollowedin Concept formation Pella [351, Koran [271 is criti- classroom concept formation must be less than caltolearningin every discipline. Concept learning effective. (p. 253) requires that the learner associate words or events with Science teachers should understand the theoretical objects or characteristics and make decisions regarding rationales that interpret research findings in the same which objects or events, because of congruent character- way that scientists must understand a theory prior to istics, either belong or don't belong together. Low level interpreting empirical findings.There is little choice of concepts involve making a common response to a group reactions exceptinthe theories that lead to rational of similar stimuli. decision making. Concept formation requires observation of a wide range of characteristics, in order toselect those which Teacher Education Programs in Science appear similar or different and to attach a name tothe Any program of teacher education in science must resulting "concept" Koran [271. The processes involved takeintoaccountthe dynamic natureof society, are observing, classifying, inferring,hypothesizing, gener- educational goals. the character of learning, the curric- alizing within groups of similar objects or events, and ulum andthepupils.Collegeprofessors of science discriminating between dissimilar objects or events that educationas wellastheteachersthey work with characterize the concept orits negative examples. A require skills that permit them to change with society. concept such as system or subsystem would bedevel- opedinthe curriculum by providing many verbal association and discrimination tasks which the concept TheTeacher would depend on. An ecosystem then, would require I. Only the brightest, the most highly motivated and acquisition of lower levels of knowledge such as identifi- committed science students should be recruited as cation of the organisms in it, and biological relationships science teacher trainees. Considerable evidence sug- such as parasitism, or predation, and finally the forma- gests that highly verbal teachers are most effective tion of the concept "ecosystem." This concept is further with all students including disadvantaged and low refined through the use of appropriate non-ecosystem verbalstudents. As Jensen [211and others have discrimination examples. found, a highly reliable predictor of a wide range of Science education should help the teacher trainee performanceisverbalfluency.Efficientteacher to recognize the myriad of concepts in science their training methods frequently emphasize acquisition relationships with other disciplines, with the individual of verbal and other skills through verbal communi- andsociety -andtheirapplicationinteaching and cation, again placing confidence in learner verbal decision-making. The decisions required demand informa- fluency and a demand on it.It is not unlikely that tion fromamultidimensional learning and teaching if one starts with a highly verbal person, one is environment which theteacher must be trained to likely to optimize the probability of producing an stimulate and derive feedback from. Performing as a outstanding teacher. Motivation and commitment filter, information processor, decision maker, hypothesis are important associated factors to consider in a maker, data collector, and systems designer and rede- time of an overabundance of teachers. signer are skills which can be operationalized, taught to Science teachers should be trained as a decision- teachers, and be identified when learned. maker, a hypothesis tester, and a risk taker to con- 4.The aforementioned discussion suggests that clinical duct, or participate in quality research relevant to diagnosis is an essential feature of science teacher classroomneeds.Collegeresearchers cannot be training.Small groupinstruction andindividual expected, nor are they always qug;ified to ask the tutorialsituationsareanalogs of microteaching most productive research questions and to perform Koran [24][26]. If the teacher has experienced all of the dimensions of necessary investigations. this approach in his own teacher training program They need the help of in-school personnel. Cron- the technical knowledge of microanalysis and in- bach and Suppes [121 describe two kinds of research struction can be transferredtouse with school appropriateforclassroomteacherinvestigation: pupils. Isolating a small number of pupils with a "conclusion-oriented"and "decision-oriented"in- given set of well-defined instructional materials and

28 anticipated outcomes permits the teacher to gather "module nonsense isstill module nonsense".1221 This data and make subsequent decisions based on the rather cynical'evaluation is prompted by the reality that interface between teacher pupil, pupil a. pupil, a studentlearns about onesetof materials,ina and pupil --sm- material as observed under controlled contextuallyconfinedsituation without any of the conditions. intellectual substructure or theory and research to make the module .meaningful. Modular development is costly The Curric'ul'um in time and Money, lacks interest for both the developer Earlier it was suggested that two types of curricula and the students exposed to the module, and,most must be considered:the curriculumfor the teacher damaging, does not present material that has thegreatest trainee and the curriculum for the teacher', students. utility for a student in a usable form. 1. Science teachers should gain a technical knowledge Similarcriticisms could be made for secondary of learning theory,the conditions forlearning, teachers using secondarysciencecurricula.For one developmental psychology and knowledge of relevant thing, most secondary science teachers havea compre- research findings in these areas from science methods hensive background in the content of science and it is courses. insulting to ask them to learn what is ina high school Science teachers should be able to identify and text. For these people, learning theory and the results of demonstrate their skill in information search, selec- studies using science content and learnersare critical tion, andprocessingandhavepractice in curriculum components. decision-makingrelativeto both instruction and Inaddition, they shouldlearntheverbaland curriculum development. Science methods courses nonverbal skills necessary to use a single concept file, shouldprovidethetopics,setting, and student the probing, prompting, and cuing skills essentialfor challenges for the acquisition and performance of managingalaboratoryand doingresearch witha these skills. laboratory block topic. For both of these types of 3. Science teachers should be able to demonstratea teachers-in-training the learning laboratory is their major widerange of verbalandnonverbalbehaviors referent, not the science laboratory.In the learning (skills) relativeto teaching science, and using the laboratory, under controlled conditions and with school tools of science within science methodscourses. age students they learn how to use the equipment and Continual feedback from trained supervisors should content of the science laboratory to promote student maintain the levels of behaviors that are acquired learning of the conceptual and process components of for years after training. science. 4. Science teachers should be able to generate and test Finally, the curriculum for science teachers should hypotheses about the effects of teacher behavior, emphasizetherapidlychanging world and therole curriculum materials, and student learning through scienceplayshere.Thisprescribes certaintypes of science methods courses which encompass exper- learning that will facilitate the teacher, as learner, ina iences in instruction and guidance as conditions for changing world and permit incorporation and illumina- learning with schools and children. tion of continually changing knowledge, values, and Thecurriculumfortheeducation of science conditions in an individual and socal context. teachers should take place in a context where students are an integral part of the training procedure. Micro- School Students teaching (Koran[241, [261) provides one context for Our efforts of the late 50's and (0's in curriculum achieving many of the above objectives. Multimediaor development accomplished their apparent goal of up- audio-tutorial approaches, it' carefully designed,appear datingthecontent of school';fence materials and to have both theoretical and empirical support. making itrepresentative .4' science as the scientist sees Theinstructionofteachersofscienceshould it.However most of Liematerialsthathave been emphasize those kinds of knowledge that have maximum developed, with the exception of Project Physics, Science generalizability. For example, teachers should be familiar - A Process Approach, School Curriculum Improvement withteacherbehaviorresearchrelatedtostudent Studv and Conceptually Oriented Program in Elementary achievement (Rosenshine [361). They should be able to Science, amply demonstrate the lack of attention to identify teacher behaviors thatcorrelate highly with how pupils learn and how materials can be devised to student success and to relate those variables to appro- optimize learning. It was fashionable in the "old days" priate goals (Koran [251). Just as the early curricula in for professors of science whose productivity intheir science for students emphasized conceptual and process own fieldhad reached a plateau. to turn to science knowledge to the exclusion of extensive memorization education. These people became the leaders of the of facts.so must the curriculum for the teacher be curri:ulum revolution and teacher training programs of developed.Itis theoretically and empiricallyfolly to the 50's and 60's and in our judgment have caused teachteachers how to teach by teaching them the serious damage to instruction in science. While serious curricula their elementary students or their secondary learning research was taking place around the country students will be learning. In the former case the teachers on concept formation (Pa lla [351), advance organizers are adults and, if carefully selected, should be in the (Ausubel 11), and observational learning (Bandura131, 1.ypothetical stage of development. Consequently,many [41): those developers generally acted in a quite unscie- of the process responses of a curriculum such as Science ntific way andutilized intuition (an old educational - .4 Process Approach are in their repertoire of responses trick) rather than data to guide their efforts. Where in and need only to he identified, defined, and reinforced. the textbooks for students do we see the use of advance Modular instruction, while it does permit preservice organizers? Where can mathemagenic behaviors (Roth- teachers to progress attheir own rate. still exposes kopf[371) beobserved? How many curriculatook candidates with a variety of backgrounds to the same advantage of the elements of observational learning materials in the same ways. As Bruce Joyce pointsour (Bandura, [3J141) or the knowledge we have about

29 concept formation (Gagne, 1141, Glaser, 1161; Mechner Interaction and Learning." In P.N. Kerlinger (ed,), 131D. Precious few. Itis no surprise that today, what Review of Research in Education. Peacock Pub- used to be the most exciting course in the schools, lishers, Itasca, Illinois. 1973. science, has become dull, routine, and cookbook in 6. Briggs, Li. Handbook of Procedures for the Design nature.Textbooks andlaboratory manuals arenot of Instruction. Monograph No. 4. American Insti- designed with learning research outcomes in mind, and tute for Research, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 1970. self-paced programs become a race to see who can till 7,Cal-rah-1.H. "Basic and Applied Research in Educa- up the pages in the 1SCS workbookfastest. And sadly, tion." Harvard Educational Review 38:263.276; teachers have few if any of the skills necessary to design 1968. or manage instruction. 8. Clark, D.C. "Teaching Concepts in the Classroom: The worldisrapidlychanging (Odum,1341). A Setof Teaching PrescriptionsDerived from Science education is also in need of a revolution. The ExperimentalResearch." Journal of Educational training of its teachers must become empirically based Psychology Monographs 62:253-278; 1971. ratherthanintuitiveandincorporatecharacteristics 9. Clarke, S.C.T. "Designs for Programs of Teacher which facilitate the teachers' attempts to stay current. Education."InB.O.Smith,(ed.) Researchin Curriculum materials for both teachers and their stu- Teacher Education Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood dents should reflect the research taking place around the Cliffs, New Jersey. 1971. country (Novak 1331. Holliday 1181) and the changes in 10. Coladarci,A.P. "The Teacher asa Hypothesis- theworldwhich havescienceand/ortechnological Maker." California Journal for Instructional Im- underpinnings. And, greater attention must be focused on provement 2:3-6; 1959, the schoolstudent the ultimate consumer.Itis II. Cronbach,L.J. "The Role of the Universityin unreasonable, unethical, and deceptive to continue many ImprovingEducation."The Phi Delta Kappan of the practices of the 50's and 60's in the 70's and 80's 47:539.545: 1966. and beyond. 12. Cronbach, L.J. and P. Suppes. (eds.), Research for Cronbach's [121 discussion on the importance and Tomorrow's Schools. Collier-MacmillanLtd., Lon- urgency of doing educational research reminds usthat: don. 1969. The improvement of education rests first of all 13. Gagne, R.M. "Learning and instructional Sequence." on commitment to the belief that the life of InF.N.Kerlinger (ed.), Review of Re- every individual and every nation, and society searchinEducation PeacockPublishers,Itasca, as a whole, can he lifted to a higher planeof Illinois. 1973. significance through cultivation of the intellect. The Conditions of Learning,Holt, But improvement will be slight if educational 14. by goodheartedness Rhinehart and Winston, Inc., San Francisco, Cali- effortsareilluminated fornia. 1973. alone.Itis a cruel hoax tohail unsubstan- 15. Gallagher. J.J. "A Summary of Research in Science tiated method as a cure for an educational Education forthe Years 1968-1969: Elementary deficiency; to adoptitis only to delay the Level." Journal of Research in Science search for underlying causes and for treatments School matched to these causes ... But the intellect Teaching 9:19.46: 1972. tells us how 16. Glaser, Robert. "Concept Learning and Concept takes up its proper duty when it Teaching."InGagne, R.M. and Gephart, W.J. education and learning proceed, when ittells Learning Research and School Subjects. Peacock us why one approach works and another does not, when itidentifies the variables that we Publishers, Itasca, Illinois. 1968. must adjust to achieve a prescribed effect. 17. Hilgard,E.A."Perspectiveon theRelationship Learning theory and research must be considered essen- Between Learning Theory and Educational Prac- tial ingredients in teacher education programs it' know- tices." In E. Hilgard (ed.), Theories of Learning and Instruction. University of Chicago. 1964. ledge about how childrenlearnisto he effectively accumulated, disseminated, and appropriately utilized in 18.Holliday, William G. "Critical Analysis of Pictorial the science classroom. Once this small stepistaken, Research Related to Science Education." Science both teachers and pupils can walk into the future with Education 57:201-314; 1973. the confidence that they can cope. 19. Hurd,P.D.The1970's and thePotential of NARST.NationalAssociationforResearchin Science Teaching -President's Address. Silver Spring, References Maryland. 1971. 20. "Futuring AboutScience Teacher 1. Ausubel, D.P. "The Use of Advance Organizers in Education." Science Education 57:517-519; 1973. the Learning and Retention of Meaningful Verbal 21. Jensen, Arthur R. EducabilityandGroup Material." Journal of kthicati(mal Psychology Differences. Methueah, London. 1972. 51:267-272; 1960. 4. *a Joyce, Bruce. A Personal Communication. Confer- Baldwin. A.L. "Social Learning." In E.N. Kerlinger ence for the Validation of Teacher Behavior by (ed.) Review of Research in Education. Peacock Student Learning, State of Florida. Department of Publishers. Itasca, Illinois. 1973. Education, 1973. 23. 3. Bandura,Albert.Areho/ogia/ Modeling:Con- Koran, J Jr. What Research Has to Say to the Ihcfing Thwrics. Aldine Atherton. Chicago. 1971. Teacher Teaching High School Science.No.10. 4.Bandura. Albert and R.11. Walters. Social I.earning Association of Classroom Teachers, National Educa- and Personality Development. Holt. Rinehart and tion Association, Washington. D. C. 1970. Winston, New York. 1963. 24. ."Two Paradigms for the Training of 5. Bohner, D.C. and1..S.Callen. "Trait-treatment Science Teachers Using Videotape T.;chnology and

30 Simulated Conditions." Journal of Research in 43. Welch, W.W. "Review of Research 1968.1969in Science Teaching 6: I ;1969. Secondary Level Science." Journal of Research in 25. ReviewofResearch1968-1969 Science Teaching 9:97-122. 1972. College Level Science Instruction. A monograph preparedfor ERIC in Science. Mathematics,and Environmental Education, Columbus, Ohio. 1973. SESSION S 26. ."Supervision, An Attempt to Modify Behavior." Educational Leadership 26:5; 1969. A PHILOSOPHICAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL FOR 27. "Concepts and Concept Formation in TEACHING SCIENCE AND ITS ARTICULATION TeachingBiology."AmericanBiologyTeacher WITH CONCRETE CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 33:7;1971. 28. Koran, J.J., Jr.; Koran, M.L.; Loose, Kenneth;and Charles M. Weller, Secondary and Continuing Edu- Joseph Santiesteban. Validatinga Teacher Behavior cation, University of Illinois, Urbana by Student Learning. A Monograph, Institute for the Development of Human Resources, Sponsored "What happens in school is that children takein by the Department of Education, State of Florida, these word strings and store them, undigested, in their 1973. minds, so that they can spit them back outon demand. 29. McDonald, F.J. Educational Psychology. (2nd ed.) Butthese words donot change anything,fitwith Wadsworth, Belmont, California. 1965. anything, relate to anything. Theyare as empty of 30. "Evaluation of Teacher Behavior." In meaning as parrot-speech is to a parrot." (Holt, 1964, Houston, W.R. and Howsam, R.B. (eds.), Com- [4J) petency Based Teacher Education. Science Research The ring of truth in Holes words cannot be denied Associates, Palo Alto, California. 1972. by anyone who has been deeply involved with schoolsat 31. Mechner, Francis. "Science Education and Behav- any and all levels.Itis obvious that students do learn ioral Technology." InGlaser,Robert(ed.), abstract models and they do learn to operate logically Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning, 11 with abstract symbols. Itis also obvious that students Data and Directions.National Education Associa- perceive and learn to deal with concrete phenomena, tion, Washington, D.C. 1965. simply out of the necessity to function ina real world. 32.Merrill, M.D. and Boutwell,R.C. "Instructional They develop their own personal frames of reference by Development: Methodology and Research." In F.N. interweaving experiences unique to them with ideas Kerlinger (ed.), Review of Research in Education. acquired from others. Peacock Publishing, Itasca, Illinois. 1973. Too often, however, abstract models that students 33. Novak, JosephD., Ring. Donald G., and Timar learnin school are not working models- working Pinchas. "Interpretation of Research Findings in models usually evolve from some other set ofexper- Terms of Ausubel's Theory and Implication for iences. In science it is not unusual for students to defer Science Education." Science Education 55:483.528. articulating abstract models with concrete phenomena 1971. untiltheyhavebeguntheirdoctoralresearch.In 34. Odurn,11.T."Adapting totheEnergyCrisis." education,articulation may notoccur evenatthe PresentationtotheEnergyCrisisSymposium, graduate level. University of Horida. January 1974. Revision of the programs and conditions which 35.Pella, Milton 0. "Concept Learning in Science." have led to this apparent schism between the abstract The Science Teacher 33:31-34. 1966. knowledge and actual performance seems to be the only 36.Rosenshine,B.Teaching Behaviors and Student viablesolution. We can improve theparts of the Achievement. National Foundation for Educational educational system whichfallwithin our realm of Research in England and Wales, London. 1971. influence and which can potentially leadto improve- 37. Rothkopf. Ernst Z. "Some Theoretical and Exper- ment in other parts of the system. Teacher education imental Approaches to Problems in WrittenIn- programs fall into this category. struction." In Kromboltz, J.D. (ed.), Learning and Teachers themselves must have a pervasive under- the Educational Prwess. Rand McNally, Chicago, standing of science in addition to a facility for designing Illinois. 1965. and employing teacher strate;,ins and techniques that are 38. Shulman. L.S. and I'. Tamir. "Researchon Teaching conducive to teaching specffic types of knowledge. They theNatural Sciences." InR.M.W. Travers (ed.). must develop a comprehensive understanding about how Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Rand people acquire certain types of knowledge. McNally, Chicago. 1965. Whatisneededisawell-articulated theory of 39. Snow, R.E. "Theory Construction for Researchon science education that would provide science teachers Teaching." In R.M.W. Travers (ed.). Second Hand- withacomprehensiveandcoherent frameworkfor book of Research on Teaching.Rand McNally, interpreting what is happening in the classroom and for Chicago. 1973. making prudent decisions about what should be done 40. Stake.R.E. "The Countenance of Educational next. Such a theory is essential for the development of Evaluation." Teachers College Record. 68:523.540; coherent personal frames of reference and as a basis for 1967. meaningful communication withinthe teaching com- 41. Travers, R.M.W. Man's InfOrmation System. Chand- munity. ler. Scranton. Pennsylvania. 1970. The psycho-epistemological model described in this 42. Turner. R.L. "Conceptual Foundations of Research paper is an attempt to bridge the gap between abstract in Teacher Education." In B.O. Smith (ed.). Re- knowledge and concrete experience by integrating some searh inTeacher Education.Prentice-Hall,Inc., of the ideas presented by psychologists, scientists, and Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 1971. philosophers of scienceintoa conceptual model for

31 teacher use. The model is a genetic psycho-epistemolog- withinthe model Is syntactic, that is, it is determined ical model of knowledge that integrates the development by interrelationships among its elements. The model, of apersonal knowledge withthe development of which need not be linked with real objects or events, cultural scientific knowledge. consists of rules governing the operations performed to The ultimatesource of allscientificactivityis establish or change interrelationships among the various natural phenomena: thatis, objects and events (inter- elements of the model. actions among objects).People withlittlescientific Theories, on the other hand, are logical symbolic backgroundhaveinternalizedassumptionsthatare explanativesystems. Even though logical models are often: (a) independent from one another and applicable used to provide a logical framework for theories, and only to specific situations, or (b) unduly based upon or though theories do contain abstract elements, a theory influenced by social,religious, or cultural experience mustcontain articulating links which provide contacts acquired through communication with others rather than between various elements of the theory and experi- through direct experience. This lack of direct encounters mental evidence, empirical laws, etc. What is important withnatural phenomena often results ininconsistent is that one recognize that various elements or segments behavior which tends to be ineffective, inefficient, and of the theory must bepsychokvicallylinked to natural somewhat less than satisfying. phenomena, whereby these elements acquire semantic Scientists, ontheotherhand, assumethata meaning. systematic organization for perceiving, organizing, and The fundamental assumptions or postulates upon dealing with the structure of objects and occurrence of whichascientifictheoryisbuiltarenotsimply events directly is both feasible and desirable. Scientific abstracted from data acquired through previous exper- knowledge is the fruit of this effort. ience, as are empirical laws. Sometimes itis possible to Becausescienceisa human activity,scientific explain empirical relationships or to suggest and explain knowledge is a human creation communicated to other relationships between otherwise seemingly unrelated phe- persons or stored for future reference through symbols. nomena by postulating theoretical constructs,i.e., enti- As a language of symbols scientific knowledge becomes tiesorrelationships which havenotbeen directly a part of our cultural heritage- to be used,abused, or observed. Also, in the process of performing operations ignored. Studying this evolution is a genetic, develop- which are allowed by the logical model, certain relation- mental, or historical approach to the epistemology of ships among the various elements often occur again and science. In contrast, logical empiricism, might be likened again. Such theoretical concepts (MV and1/2 MV2, for to taking a "snapshot" of the scientific enterprise at example) are often identified by attaching a name to some moment in time and analyzing the logical interrela- them (in these cases, momentum and kinetic energy). tion of various elements. The genetic approach, best Thereis no scientific meaning for a theoretical exemplified by Kuhn (1962) [S], and Bohm (1965) construct or theoretical notion apart from the theory in [21, is a dynamic analysis of the activities of scientists which it is implicitly defined. Even though some terms, andscientificknowledgeparticularlywellsuitedto likeelectron,continue to be used when the encom- teaching science to children. passing theories are revised, the meaning of the term During early stages of development in any field of changes from theory totheory. Thisistrue simply science, categories of objects and events and classifica- because entities that are implicitly defined are changed tion systems are formulated to facilitate the search for as the assumptions and the postulates underlyingthe consistencyinthetypes of interactionsthatoccur theory are changed. among a selected set of objects under a given set of As earlier stated, some elements of a theory must conditions. Such a consistent relationship is designated be articulated with empirical evidence. However, some an empirical law. theoreticalconstructs have articulated counterparts in Though everyone engages in abstracting and gen- physical models rather than in the natural world. Yet eralizing,itonly becomes a scientific activity when a thesetheoreticalconstructs are used to perceive and decided effort is made to: interpret natural phenomena becuase they are easier to 1. explicitlystatethecharacteristicsthatare ab- visualize than a set of symbols, thus concepts may be stracted: manipulated more easily. (Weller, 1970 [81) 2. designate the conditions under which they apply: As described up tothispoint, the scheme for and conceptualizing scientific knowledge could be used with 3. continuallychecktheresultinggeneralizations equal justification for conceptualizing almost any kind against new observations. of knowledge. What distinguishes scientific knowledge A setof generalizationsformedinsuch a manner from other types of knowledge is the extent to which provides us with a basis for effectively predicting events scientists trytorelatethesetheories to actual phe- under specified conditions. nomena or to organize phenomena so that their percep- To avoid extensive memorization, a major quest of tions of these phenomena support the theory in vogue. scientistsis an abstract set of relationships (a theory) The articulation of scientific theories is accomplished by which will provide some pattern or order for empirical complex processes of puzzle-solving and experimentation. generalizations. These logically consistent abstract pat- Scientific puzzle-solving ;:an he strictly theoretical: terns of relations make it possible fog scientists to deal thatis,concernedonlywiththemanipulation of effectively with problems that arise in the natural world. abstract symbols in accordance with operations allowed provide science withitsaestheticvalue, and point by the logical model associated with the theory being toward potentially fruitful avenues of scientific investi- articulated. These logicalmanipulations may leadto gation. another form of puzzle-solving thesearchfor new Usuallya mathematical model, suchas calculus, articulatinglinks.For example, relationships may be provides a logical framework fur the assumptions and hypothesized on the basis of implications drawn from postulates upon which the theory is based. Meaning theoreticalmanipulations.Fromthesehypothesized

32 relationships, new phenomenacan be predicted under physicsisterribly confused.In any case,itistoo specified conditions. Once phenomena havebeen pre- difficultfor me, andIwishI had been a movie dicted, the scientific investigatorattempts to design an comedian or something of the sort and hadnever heard experimentthatwilldemonstrateapredictedphe- of physics." A few months later Pauli wrote: "Ileisen- nomenon under the prescribed conditions. If the results berg's type of mechanics has given me hope and joy in of the experiment are in agreement with the predictions, life. To be sure it does not supply the solution to the then the experiment servesas a confirming instance of riddle, but I believe it is possible to march foward." the hypothesized relationship and lends credenceto the This example highlights the intense involvement of theoryfrom whichthehypothesis originated. The individual scientists in a dynamic paradigm whichpro- argument devised by the investigator to link the original vides both direction for research and meaning for the theoretical notion or relationship to the phenomenologi- knowledge whichitencompasses. Without practicing cal relationship may now serveas an articulating link, scientists, each with a unique filter system provided bya provided that in this argument elements ofthe theory frame of reference that has evolved froma unique set of have been related to the concrete objects of observation experiences,scientific knowledge could not begen- and experiment. erated. Individual scientists are the originators of the Since theories in vogue at the time usually have the culturalscientificknowledgethatis embodied ina cumulativesupportof manyprestigiousscientists, subcultural matrix of the personal records of scientists, anomalous results obtained by onlyone scientist are iv,t the scientificliterature, and the minds of practicing apt to be received favorably by his peers. The tendency scientists. of the scientific community isto question the validity On the other hand, selected segments of cultural of the experiment the scientist'sargument linking his knowledge becomepart experimentto of thescientist's frame of the theory, the design of the experi- reference when he reads professional journals, books,or mental apparatus, the construction of thisapparatus, or correspondence, andlistensto professional conversa- the scientist's interpretation of the results whichcan be tions,reports,orlectures.Inthiswayideas are made totita theory by organizing the experimental communicated by means of symbols or symbolic sys- data that has been collected. tems that to some extent have common meaning for Ifthisrelativelyminor internaltinkering, which members of the group using the symbols. Therefore, the could lead to minor revisions of theoryor experimental frames of reference of individual scientists are structured design.is unable to square theory with experimental around models, theories, or conceptual schemes that results, then the results are usually set asideas irrevelant have evolvedinacultural matrix, usually over long or anomalous incidents to be tackled when the theory periods of time. has become more fullyarticulated. Inthis case the A scientist may interact with other scientists,con- scientists who are aware of the anomaly would feel they tribute to or draw upon the cultural knowledge pool,as- had encountered something thatthey had failedto similate new concepts or ideas into his existing frame of resolve, but the failure was not convincing enoughto reference and accommodate these ideas with natural _shake their faith in the paradigm. phenomena. Each is influenced directly or indirectly by It is only when a substantial number of anomalous each of the others. For example, the characteristics of results accrue to a theory,some of which raise funda- objects and events that occur as the result of human mental questions within the theory, thata few scientists activity are to a large extent determined by the thought beginto lose faithin the explanatory power of that patterns or mental structures that have evolved in other particular theory.It' a scientist with a good reputation segments. among his peers is able to formulate a new theory which To dramatize howthesevarious elements are accounts for must of the anomalies accruing to the old intimatelyrelated,supposethatascientisthas just theory, explains the important generalizations thatwere observed the results of an experiment that heor one of explained by the previous theory, and discountsanoma- hisassociateshasrecentlycompleted. The way he lies with the new theoryon the basis that they are perceives and structures the objects and events that irrelevant, then professional support fora new theory comprise the results of the experiment is influenced by becomes a possibility. In the event that enough profes- his frame of reference- -being a scientist. Sophisticated sional support can be marshalled in support ofone of structures for perceiving this information would reflect these new ideas then the foundation has been provided the theories and traditions of the scientific discipline in for what Kuhn 151 callsa scientific revolution, whereby which he has been trained. Letus further assume that thescience community rejects the old theoryasa his immediate perception of these new results doeFnot paradigm for research and adoptsa different theory in fitneatlyintothesestructures.Ifthe discrepancy itsplace. The transitionisusually neither rapid nor bothers him enough he willrecall and rethink this smooth.Itmay takeageneration before thevast particular perception and its relationship to the overall majority of the science community uses thenew theory structure. If he is unable to incorporate the particular as the accepted paradigm for research. results of that experiment into his frame of reference, The period of transition fromone paradigm to then he may have to modify his concepts and structures another is a time of instability and unrest formany of that he has used to organize and interpret phenomena in the scientists inthat field. To keep pace in the field this particular area. Since his concepts and structuresare requires a comvte mental restructuring anda substi- deeply rooted in theory, these conceptualor structural tution of new structures for old conceptual schemesto changes may mean that he has to interpret the theory which thescientists had been deeply committed for differentlyor evenrevisethetheorytobringhis many years. Kuhn (1962 151) cites the internal turmoil perception of his most recent experimental results into encountered by Wolfgang Pauli just prior to Heisenberg's concordance with theoretical considerations. paper on matrix mechanics which led to a new quantum During this revisionary stage he might talk with theory. Pauli had written to a friend, "At the moment associates who are also familiar with the theory within

33 which he has been working. After hearing their opinions natural phenomena and people form the basis for a he might slightly modify his argument and refine it until person to formulate an outlook or to organize aframe he develops itto the point where he feels it deserves of reference through which he views the world. Itis wider dissemination -.through an article in a journal, a throughcommunicationthathelearnsthecultural paper at a convention, or a local seminarpresentation to conceptual schemes which serve as a basis for perceiving graduate students and/or faculty. These papers are read natural phenomena and through direct experience that by his peers, pondered over, and usually commented helearnstotieorlinkthe schemetorelevant upon by one or more members of the reading audience. phenomena. As aresultof thisdialogue, the originator of the Continued communication and common experience modification may again change his ideas slightly. Mem- among communities of scientists is necessary not only bers of the reading audience might be convinced by the forthetraining of new scientists butforthe very argument and slightly modify their own conceptualiza- survival of cultural knowledge: otherwise there is no way tions or interpretations of the theory. But perhapsof of attaching common meaning to symbols. People who greatest importance, there has been asubstantial increase have acquired the interpretations common to the com- in the information and ideas related to thisparticular munity of scientists (or scholars) who generated this theory which have now become part of public knowl- knowledge o- are keeping it alive will understand it and edge inthe form of correspondence, articles, reports, will be able to communicate with each other those who discussions, lectures, etc. have not, will not. During this dialogue, an experimental scientist who If we expect students to be able to communicate has been reading these various comments may have some meaningfully in terms of scientific models, then they idea about how this slightly modified version of the must acquire the concepts and understand the models theory can be tested or articulated. The experimentalist used by the scientific community. The level of sophisti- undoubtedly perceives what has been written with a cationatwhichtheylearnconcepts and models, frame of reference that is in fairly close agreement with however, willvary with the student population. For the frames of reference of other scientists within that generations they have been among the premises upon particular field, but he would be expected to have some which the teaching of science has been based, It might unique interpretations. To test or articulate the theory help to clarify matters if we briefly explore some of the he must develop an argument that ties some aspect of ways that people learn concepts and models and then the theory to a specific phenomenon in the external or consider some of the ways concepts and models have natural world to demonstrate the phenomenon which been commonly presented to students in school. he has predicted. The argument that he develops must The most critical concepts in anyone's frame of employ a language and follow a logical structure that his reference are those abstracted from direct encounters peers will understand and consider valid andlegitimate. with objects and events. For example, suppose that each Also, his experimental devices and instruments must be child in a classroom is given a dry cell, a wire, and a of suchanature thathis peers consider them valid bulb and is instructed to see how many ways he can instruments for this particular demonstration. Both the arrange the three items so thatthe bulb will light. argument and the devices that are constructed,however, Experience indicates that after a short initial period of will reflect this particular scientist's individual prejudices exploration and frustration the children do discover and or preferences, which in subtle waysinfluence the way identify different arrangements in which the bulb will thatthe resultsareorganized and accumulated. His descrip- light. From these arrangements they are able to abstract argument underlying this experiment, a detailed only whatis common to each case where the bulb tion of the instruments used in the experiment, and a lights. This closed loop, commonly called a closed or report of the results obtained in the experimentall may completed circuit, is a concept that they have abstracted be organized and published. The publication will be read frontasetof experienceswithconcretephysical by his peers and hence the cycle continues. The overall phenomena. A concept that has been abstracted from effect of this type of interaction is the generation and experience with objects and events will be called an evolution of a body of cultural scientific knowledge. The individual bits of information, in the formof intuitive concept. symbolic statements,arefed into public knowledge Either before or while the children are trying to see through the frames of reference of practicing scientists how many different ways they can arrange the items so ineffect,afiltersystem.Therefore, anindividual thatthe bulb willlight, symbols such as dry cell, scientist can influence the development of a theory and battery, wire, bulb, are often introduced by the teacher many theories carry such marksof scientists' idiosyncra- or students and associated with the objectsthey arc cies. The extent to which individualityis permitted in using. When theyabstractthe concept of complete articulating any given theory is controlled in subtle ways circuit, either they invent a symbol to representthis by consensus among one's peers through selectpublica- concept or the teacher supplies them with asymbol or tion of articles and speakers at various conventions. This set of symbols. Even though itis not uncommon for control makesitastable conceptual system where childrentoinventdescriptive namesforclassesof practicing scientists within a relatively narrow field arc objects that they observe, the probability is very small usuallyableto communicate quitefreely with one that someone will invent his own symbols for concepts another. that he has abstracted and generalized. More often he Itshould also he obvious that cultural scientific associates a previously invented symbol communicated knowledge affects the growth of individual frames of to him by other peopleatthetime he makes his referenceorindividual knowledge.Scientistsreceive observations and abstracts his concepts. The symbols their professional training within a science paradigm so associated with classes of objects or the concepts that they organi/e the world they deal with in terms of this havebeenabstractedbythe group of interacting piradigin. Continual interaction with the world, both students provide a means by which the students and the

34 teacher are able to communicate with each other about argues that the child's construction of time begins with various phenomena that they encounter. a correlation of velocities. Regardless of the kind or level of abstraction, of A second assumptionisthatachild's intuitive which there are many, a concept can be semantically notions are identical with those held by the instructor. understood only by someone who has hadsome Such commonality is rarely the case. Referring to the experience with the referents from which the concept previous example, a child's early; notion of velocity is was abstracted. Concepts such as color, temperature, not a distance/tune relationship but "is bound up with shape, form, smell, taste, odor, texture, weight, etccan that of overtaking, i.e., with a purely spatial intuition be understood only when they have been abstracted involving a change in the respective positions of two from sets of concepts of a more primitive order. Color, moving bodies." (Piaget, 1969 [61) In a similar vein, for example, isa generic term for what is abstracted children can have an intuitive notion of acceleration from redness, blueness, greeness, orangeness, yellowness, before they have a formal understanding of velocity. etc. But these latter are concepts that are abstracted They can associate it with forces exertedon their bodies from instances where objects provideda source of and changes in speedometer readings whena car they stimuli giving riseto identifiable and persistent visual are riding in "speeds up" or "slows down," To suggest sensation on the part of an observer. The essence of that that their intuitive feeling for acceleration is thesame as particular and recurring sensation abstracted from several a physicist'sformal concept would be delusionary. encounters with objects which served as the source for Commonality of concepts within a community cannot that particular stimulus is the concept symbolized by be assumed as a starting point but asa goat to be the term red or blue or yellow. When someone hasa set pursued. of these concepts (though perhaps not the symbols) in A third implicit assumption is that students avly his repertoire he is then in a position to abstractout the the same rules for combining the intuitive conceptsto notion of color. Itis meaningless to try to describe the deriveformal concepts as does the instructor. Rules notion of color until one has experienced a set of the themselves, or the way words are put together to form more primitive notions that are examples of colors. rules,arelearnedimplicitly bytheiruseinother It' a person has never been able to see, what is the circumstances where the various elements that are being meaning of color to that person? Certainly he could not related and the way they are related are well understood have the same visual interpretation as does someone who by thelearner. We cannot expectall or even most can see, even though we are able to teach him that the students to have acquired a common understanding of symbols red, orange. etc., refer to a property we call specific rules or the way that certain words arc put color and thatall objects that we can see exhibit this together to form specific rules. property. Similarly, if someone were insensitive to hot Itismore oftenthe case that students apply and cold, could he perceive the meaning of temperature misunderstood rulesto combine vague or ambiguous in the same way as can a person who can actuallyfeel intuitivenotionstoarriveateven more vague and temperature changes from moment to moment or can ambiguous formalconcepts. We cannot understand for- feelthe temperature of objects that are of different mal concepts semantically until we have establisheda degrees of hotness or coldness?tiecould observe a common base of intuitive concepts although we may thermometer rising and falling and associate that rise establish verbal or symbolic connections betweensym- and fall with temperature or he could watch ice freeze bols representing higher and lower level concepts and melt and associate the freezing and melting with Itis through the manipulation of symbols repre- temperature change, but we would have to agree that sentative of perceptions, concepts, and ideas, that man these visualperceptions are quite different from the has been able to deal effectively and efficiently with his sensations of hotness or coldness that one is able to feel. problems.Itallows him to think about many things from the concrete to the most abstract. Relating these There are myriad concepts, especiallyin science, which can be described in terms of specific relationships things internally and attaching these internal conceptsor among other concepts. For example: structures to external referents that can be observed by displacementmay others provides him with a means for communicating be described as a changein distance ina givendirection: velocitymay be definedas the rate of change of withotherpeoplesothateach person maytake advantage of theotherperson's displacement with respect totime;andacceleration thinking. However, may having symbols in one's vocabulary and even being able be defined as a rate of change ofvelocitywith respect to time. A concept that is described or defined in terms to manipulate within a system of symbols does not imply that a person understands the ideas underlying the of otherconceptswillbereferredto asa formal concept. When trying to teach the above :oncepts to symbolic system or is able to use the system in solving the problems for which it was devised. students, ithas been common practice to assume that Symbols go through the same filter processas does distance, direction, and time are intuitive concepts in other input information. But, if thestudents'frames of reference and displacement. a person has had no concreteexperiencethat velocity and acceleration are acquired as formal concepts can he associated with a by learning definitions similar to those above. When substantial number of the symbols that are part of the a system he is learning. then his reference frame cannot student has learned these definitions, itisassumedthat he understands them. provide referents abstracted from actual events that he has observed. He will sometimes substitute or invent The assumption that distance, direction, and time referents through analogies front things he has observed. are acquired by students as intuitive concepts before This may provide him with totally erroneous ideas about theyacquireconcepts of displacement.velocity, or what the symbols represent. As new symbols from this acceleration is open to serious doubt. Piaget (1969) 161 symbolic systemarefedin,he canrecallprevious hasshownthatchildrenhaveintuitivenotions of symbols of the system. He can interrelate the symbols in velocit, before the, have a concept of time. In tact, he this system and eventually organize them in sucha way

35 that Ito gets a fairly accurate mental representation or developed in accordance with actual physical and the symbolic system. He can operate quite sticeessfully logicalphenomena. These themies have been developed within the system. Given a problem within the system, to interpret and deal with these phenomena. he knows what symbols he has to work with and what A system (model, scheme, etc.) that is learned in manipulations are allowed in that system. isolation front other systems symbolic or natural For example, consider the nonsense system below. may be thought of as an etteapsulated system used It would not he a difficult task tier a student to study only to make decisions when direct reference is made to the system until it had been memorized, then to answer sonic aspect or element of the system and resulting in the questions that tllow. expressions or statements in terms of symbols contained tirg-Jtisq.up System within the system. Unless some verbal or phenomenolog The elements of the system are: erg, los and jap. ical cue from outside the system of models, schemes, The relationships among the elements are: and theories, etc. can trigger one to think in terms of that Rule I!if a 7 b and be, then a 7 e; and system, then the system is encapsulated for that person. Rule 2: If a 7 b then ba, where a, b and e repre It seems thatithas been a basic assumption of sent elements or the system. educational institutions that if theories, schemes, models and so forth were taughtperse to students that the Given Relationships: students would be able to develop appropriate appli Rel. A: Kit 7 leis. and cations of these systems. Tiw thesis here is that this is Re1.11: Jos 7 pp. not the case. Yet much of a student's time in school is spent "learning" symbolic systems which for the must Questions part remain encapsulated. The teacher talks about the I. In what ways are erg and jos related'? model, the teacher has students read textbooks about 2. In what ways are jos and fall related? the model -inshort, the entire classroom activityi! 3. In what ways are urg and fap related? carried on in an abstract manner. These symbol systems are not linked with their referentsthe real objects and The answers to these three questions may be found eventsthatarenecessaryprecursorsto asemantic below. Answersla and 2a require only memorization understanding of the models. Consequently, students and recall of Rels. A and B given in the description of assimilate only the symbol systems and later are able to thesystem. More complex processes are required to apply them only in formal instructional contexts. obtain answers lb and 2b. In addition to memorization and recall of Rels. A and B. they require the application Tests are designed to determine not it' the student of Rule 2, a logical operation. The rules prescribe the canapplythesystem buttodetermineif he has logical framework for the system and all manipulations memorizedtheimportant elements and can operate in the system must be carried on within this framework. according to the rules, While no new mental processes are required to answer When astudentisconfronted with areallife question 3. the logical manipulations are more complex. situation in which a model that he has learned in this Answer 3a requires memorization and recall of Rels. A abstract manner is relevant, he does not perceive the and 13 and the application of Rule I. Answer 3b requires situation in terms of the model. Certainly in science, wherethegoalisthe developmentofmodels to the application of Rule 2 to the relationship expressed in interpret and organize natural phenomena and to explain answer 3a. generalizations about these phenomena, it makes little Answers sense for the lay person to learn the models unless he is la. tug 7 jos 2a. jos 7 fap 3a. tag 7 rap able to relate these models to actual objects and events b. jos 7 tug b. rap 7 jos b. fap 7 urg with which 1w is confronted. Certainly physics is an abstract system --the degree of abstractness determined1,rimarily by the level of Assuming that the student has answered the three sophistication of the mathematics involved. For those questions correctly, then he has learned and operated few theoretical physicists whose work consists of operat- withinalogical abstract system. But what does this ing entirely within a closed symbolic system there may system "mean" to him'? Probably not much it' anything be some justification for learning physics isolated from at all. If it does have some meaning for the student, that other aspects of the world. For someone who is not is, if he has attached some significance or interpretation going to make theoretical physics his life work, such to the elements or relationships in terms of objects or isolation becomes very difficult to defend. ideas outside the system. then itis meaning that he has How do we teach science to students so they do invented or supplied and was not suggested by the acquire working models for perceiving and dealing with system itself. The only meaning implied is a meaning natural phenomena and are able to communicate with internal to the system. Itis syntactic meaning thatit other people in terms of these models'? A brief' sketch of comes from therelationships among the elements some of the obvious points is all that can be dealt with relationshipsleftundefined outsidethe system, but here. implicitlydefined byRules I and2.Mathematical Since learning is influenced by reference frames, it systems are examples of such closedlogical abstract iscrucial that a teacher assess his students' frames of systems. referenceas quicklyaspossible,ideallythrougha Itis one thing to learn and operate within a closed student's physical interaction with some set of objects logical symbolic system and quite another to use that and his description of what he is doing while he is doing system to interpret or deal with some aspect of the it. When a teacher has formed some ideas about how his world external to the system. Especially in science. the students perceive and organize phenomena related to a theories and ideas about the natural world have been certain field of science or even phenomena in general,

36 then he can begin helping his students acquire working have to face up to the anomaly and recognize that the scientific models, direction he is taking may be unproductive. For a student to acquire a working knowledge of To encourage a student to pursue his own way of scientific models, he must he physically involved with conceptualizing certain phenomeno does not preclude the phenomena relevanttothe models, consciously encouraging himtolookatthe phenomena ina trying to perceive and organize the phenomena in terms different way. However, before a teacher can suggest an of the models, and communicating actively with other alternate way of perceiving and organizing something, he people, at least some of whom have a good working must have considerable insight into the student's frame knowledge of the models. Physical involvement with of reference. the phenomena while he is thinking in terms of the If we expect students, through honest "enquiry" to model enables a student to articulate the model with "discover"a way of lookingatthe worldthatis concrete referents. In the presence of someone who has identical or even similar to the scientists' models at a good working knowledge, the studentis able to present, then we arc not only deluding the students but determineif heisarticulatingthe knowledge in a ourselves as well. There are a number of ways that we manner similar to the way it has been articulated by can perceive, and organize what is in front of us. On the members of the scientific community. This latter step basis of isolated personal experience there is no more requires a teacher skilledin communicating with stu- justification for organizing itin one way than there is dents and knowledgeable inthe ways scientific com- for organizing it in other ways. However, scientists have munities carry on their work. The classroom must have organized certain sets of natural phenomena in particular arelativelyfree and open climate so that they can ways and they have generated theories for perceiving probe, and assimilate their observations. During these and interpreting those sets of phenomena. Sooner or exploratory stages, the students should communicate later we reach a point where we must tell students that with one another and with the teacher who, ideally, is if they want to communicate with scientists or with familiar with the scientific theories developed to deal other people about particular aspects of science then withthe phenomena underinvestigation. they will have to know something about the models When students are confronted with unfamiliar situa- scientists use. tions (assuming they do not just ignore them), their To help a student learn a scientific modelnot at a frames of reference must be accommodated so that scientist'slevel of sophistication butatleastata variousaspectsof thesituationareperceivedand descriptive levelthe teacher must be in close communi- assimilated by reorganizing only what resides already in cationwiththestudent. He must know what the their own frame of reference or by communication with student is thinking, what his symbols represent when he someone else. For the latter to occur assumes that the uses them, what his experiences have been so that he frames of reference of the communicants have enough (theteacher)cantrytodetermine what physical elements in common so that when one describes an idea referents the student has for the symbols and ideas that in his mind, the other is able to recreate that idea. But, he expresses verbally. He must play an active role in the inteacherstudentinteractions,theteacherisoften student's learning process, not as a dispenser of infor- trying to help the student acquire a working model mation but as an analyzer and assesser of what the where there is none to begin with. If the student does student knows. It is a role of determining what kind of have a working model it may be so different that there actionisappropriatetohelpthestudentacquire is no basis for communicating aboutit with mutual understanding requiring sensitivity and creativity on the understanding.A studentoftenfinds himself ina part of the teacher. He must also be flexible and willing d- mina trying to create an unfamiliar mental model to consider any new evidence which may suggest a from verbal descriptions provided by a teacher or text. modification in approach or of immediate plans. Thisindividualizationshouldnotimplythat Mental models are developed slowly, at least in nothing is ever done with the class as a whole. When a initial stages, through a fusion of concrete example with class comes together and talks about what each person is specificaspectsof themodel. When studentsare doing a common base of understanding is evolved and working with materials such as the t.aeries, bulbs and eventually the students and the teacher are able to wires and creatingvariouscircuit: :heyshould be communicate withina common theoretical structure encouraged to express their ideas about what they see with a common semantic base. On the other hand, there and what they believe is happening. If one takes time to should be time when a student can work and investigate analyze these student conceptualizations, he often finds on his own, when he can talk or work with the teacher that on the basis of the limited evidence, their con - on a one-to-one basis. or can work with other students c. ptualizations are justas legitimate and valid as are in small groups. those which theteacher hasinregard to the same Atleasttwo projects,theScience Curriculum phenomenon. Inthis way, the teacher gains valuable Improvement Study and the Elementary Science Study, insight to a student's frame of reference and has a basis werebaseduponpsychologicaland epistemological for meaningful communication with him. frameworks not unlike the one presented here. However, A student should be encouraged to develop a model the extent to which certain approaches to the teaching whih is different from the one that is a part of the of science have been developed and promoted in the paradigm in vogue so long as his interest holds and he form of curricula is of secondary concern to the way appears to gaining experience and there is no illogical these and other materials are used by teachers in their step in his argument. If a teacher feels that a certain line classrooms. of theorizing is unproductive, then the teacher should be The new curriculum materials have proven to be a abletocreate asituation wherebythestudentis valuable resource for those teachers who understand and confronted witha. anomalous phenomena. If he is are sympathetic to the psychological-philosophical basis asked to explain them in terms of his ideas, then he will underlying their development. On the other hand, if a

37 teacher does not have the proper orientation there is 4.considerable practical experience in interpreting real little hope that he will or even can use the materials in situations with students in terms of the psycho. the Way intended by the developers. The curriculum epistemological model. As students of teacher edu- developers themselves were among the first to recognize cation develop a better understanding of the role this problem. Some projects provided special courses, for which they are preparing and as they gain institutes, or workshops tohelp the "trial teachers" confidence in their ability to perform in that role, develop the"necessary" outlook.In any event, the publicizing the desired traits and providing feedback number of teachers who are able to function in an to students aboutthetraitsthey seem to be enquiry-oriented environment without some continuing projecting might help them modify their personali- inservicecourse or workshop is relatively small. This ties to some extent. However, it would probably be seems to be true for elementary as well as secondary overextendingtheroleof a teacher education school teachers and for recent graduates aswell as institution to attempt to change these personality experienced teachers. characteristics (affective feelings) in a direct way. Faced with an increasing demand for teachers who Therefore, our efforts should be directed toward arepreparedtoteachin open and enquiry-oriented building a program designed to help teachers de- school environments, we must create programs that will velop the cognitive traits. help them develop the qualities required for a successful Teacher education programs following present prac- performance in that role. There are at least two sets of ticescannotprovideprospectiveteachers withthe desirable qualities:(a)thefeelingsthat one has for experience and comprehensive understanding necessary himself, for others and for his work; and (b) the special to cope with an enquiry-oriented school environment. capabilities or competencies that one needs to cope with Today, a typical prospective teacher's fragmented and a particular school environment. compartmentalized educational experience is based on at Among the first set of qualities are: least two assumptions which serve as obstacles to the I. commitment to the open enquiry-oriented mode of integration of knowledge and experience. teaching and confidence in its long range benefits Change in verbal behavior reflected after students to students; have read or been orally supplied with some information 2. a willingness to recognize and tolerate other ways does not necessarily become part of their functional of viewing the world; frame of reference (i.e., use of this information in future 3. internal security, that is, the teacher knows who he decision-makingandinterpretativeprocesses).Yet, is,likes what he is. and is not trying to present nearly all of our educative efforts are directed toward some phony image of himself to the students; changes in verbal behavior with the implicit hope that 4. approachable to the students in the sense that they other behavior will change as well. Even though teach- feel at ease when they are talking with him; and ers,especiallycollege teachers, have extensiveinter- 5. an abundance of patience. action with students this interactionis almost exclu- Among the cognitive abilities are: sively verbaloften limited to a closed abstract system. I. a working knowledge of a psychological- Furthermore, changes in verbal behavior can be detected espistemological model for teaching science which and quantified under classroom conditionshence effec- provides meaning and organization in what other- tiveness in verbal learning can be demonstrated and wise might prove to be a hopelessly confusing and measured with relative ease. directionless set of activities and events. It allows Our teacher education programs have become en- him to place what he and his students are doing in capsulated. Unquestionably there is a dearth of feedback some overallframework and thereby into some loops from teaching performance to preparatory pro- perspective. This perspective allows him to help grams. As a consequence, success within a program often studentsplanstrategiesfor growthtoa more proves to be a poor indicator of success later in real comprehensive level of understanding. In addition teaching situations. The criteria for success have been to the natural phenomena which serve as foci for weighted too heavily on willingness and capability to student investigations, the model must account for manipulate symbols and not enough on the ability to individual students'referenceframes, theinter- use these symbols to interpret and deal with concrete action and communication among a community of aspects of the world. students engagedinscientificactivity,and the The second assumption is that each course taken by culturalscientific knowledge which bears on the a student is supposed to represent a different piece in a problem at hand. Moreover, the model must deal puzzle contributing, by the end of his college career, to withtheinterrelationships among thesevarious a comprehensive and coherent frame of reference includ- parts. ing social, political, philosophical, and professional ele- 2. sensitivity to various aspects of the student's world. ments. However, itis a rare individual who is able to On the basis of what a student says and does, the modify, transform, or rejectpieces until he has de- teachermust be ableto weave together some velopedaninternallyconsistentandfunctionalbig "picture" of the student's frame of reference with picture.Itis the tragic individual who attempts to fit some notions about the influence of motivational the pieces together just as he received them and thinks and physiological changes on a student's behavior as that he has the big picture. The usual resulta great well as the influence of the social milieu. number of students who are confused, frustrated, and 3. the ability to communicate with other teachers or even angry. educators concerned with similar problems by shar- Presenting students with a unitary point of view ing experiences, insights, and whatever resources at which would preclude any contradictions would certain- theirdisposal.Itis important that teachers feel ly he an undesirable solution to the problem. On the they areapart of a concerted effortto solve other hand, exposure toideasintheseclusion of problems with which they are confronted. classrooms, where the range of experiences provided for

38 the student is rigidly controlled and a student's behavior give us the time and flexibility needed to createan must conform to the expectations of a single instructor, integrated program of scholarly activities and concrete has the effect of glossing over any incompatibility that experiences. Spread over a two-year period, a partici- these ideas may have with other ideas. Students form pating student could concentrate about half his total the habit of finding out what each teacher wants them study time upon the integrated program. to do and attempting to do it.If they took time to All the basic ideas ,!overed in the pooled separate scrutinize whatthey were doing, and there are few courses could be coveredinthe new program by rewards to doso, they would often find thattheir integrating them into a unifying frameworkthe psycho- performance inone classisat odds with their per- epistemological model. The new program would bea formance in another. Many instructors are reluctant to dynamic activityinvolving professionals and scholar- praise students for pointing out ideas that are incom- apprentices working on common problems within a po"sle with the ones they are trying to promote. If a common theoretical framework. A continuing seminar ntrecognizes contradictions but supnresses any and concrete experiences withchildren, schools, and urge to comment on them or to alter his l-ehavior, this materials would provide a focus and a realistic base for does littlefor his self-image. Diversity should be recog- this activity. nized and students helped to deal with it. Each community would be composed of approx- A teacher education program should be organized imately twenty students plus the participating faculty around the concept of community continuing com- master teachers as exemplars of good teaching, and munication among allparticipants inthe program specialistsinpsychology, sociology, history and phi- prospective teachers, master teachers, and specialists. All losophy of education, philosophy of science, science members of the community would not be together all of education,andthevarious sciencedisciplines.The the time, nor even most of the time, but would be faculty, as a group, would be responsible for planning expected to meet on some regular basis as a group, and the requisite experiences, for setting the standards or would be engaged in similar activities when they were criteria for success within the program, for constantly not together as a group. The size of the community evaluating student performance and providing feedback should be large enough to provide a critical mass but to the students, and for assessing program effectiveness not so large as to be unwieldy. and making revisions when warranted. Included in the program should be the opportunity The seminar would meet for two to three hours at forextensive and variedexperiences withdifferent least twice a week for the duration of the program. groups of children at different age levels in a variety of Each staff member would be expected to attend at least learning environments. one generalsessioneach week. The seminar would A scholarly or reflective atmosphere should pervade provide a forum for students and staff to present and the community with students and staff engaged in some compare points of view and discuss teaching experiences ongoing research which would provide both incentive within the context of the underlying model. Each and focus for intensive involvement. specialist would interpret experiences common to the Feedback loops should be built into the program at groupusingmodelscharacteristicof hisparticular alllevels. The student-scholar should not only receive discipline or specialty. The similarities and differences feedback that has been filtered through others in the among the various interpretations and the compatibility community, but he should be learning how to improve ofa particularinterpretationwiththepsycho- his own techniques for direct feedback from his stu- epistemological model being developed would be pointed dents. Staff and students should use feedback to assess out and discussed.Even though the communityis the effectiveness of the program and to make revisions. committed to a particular model with specialists sym- Finally, provision should be made for individual pathetictothat model, we would expecttofind planning and programming within the broad guidelines considerable disagreement among these "experts" with establishedhere. A prospective teacher should be al- regard to particular interpretations or applications of the lowed to choose the type or types of teaching roles he model. These differences would be discussedinthe wants to be prepared to fulfill. Some speculation about presence of the students who are encouraged to partici- how a specificteacher education program might be pate in the discussion. Under these conditions, a student modified to incorporate the desired characterisitcs de- would have the opportunity to recognize contradicting scribed above would provide at least a basis for further viewpoints, judge the various interpretations and assim- discussion. ilatethose ideas consistent with other views that he At the University ofIllinois, an undergraduate holds, and perhaps, to recognize that some fundamental candidateforacertificatetoteachscienceatthe ideaspervade many differentfields, andthatother secondary school level is required to complete approxi- people might hold different but equally valid points of mately twenty semester hours of educationcourses. view. These courses include educational psychology, history Equally important are the experiences with school andphilosphy of education, principles of secondary children and teaching environments. A student's first education. an introductory course in science education, encounter with children should include one-to-one inter- a science teaching methods course, and student teaching. views or "tutorials" at the primary, upper-intermediate, The candidate isalso required to take approximately junior high, and senior high levels. By working with seventy hours of scienceor sciencerelated courses children over a broad age range, a prospective teacher (history or philosophy of science, mathematics, etc.), acquires experience with various stages of intellectual none of which are specifically designed for teachers. development of children and adolescents. If we modified our program at the University of The primary purpose of the one-to-one encounters Illinois by pooling all the education courses and twelve is to provide novices in the program an opportunity to hours of the scienceor sciencerelatedcourses, we analyze children's frames of reference in terms of the would obtain thirty-two semester hours which would psycho-epistemological model. Therefore, the children,

39 not the prospective teacher, should do most of the discussionwithinthe seminar or Inad-hoc groups talking andacting.Preferably, thechild should be created to pursue particularly intriguing or confusing engaged in some physical activity. By observing a child's aspects of the new model. These new ideas must be verbal and physical performance at the same time, a linkedtoconcreteobjectsandevents,preferably careful observer often acquires insightinto how the through activities common to the group. Therefore, a child's mind is organized with regard to a particular science laboratory must be accessible to the students. In object. The student then reports his observations and his this laboratory, available for the whole program, mate- interpretation of these observations in writing or orally rialsappropriate for teaching in an enquiry-oriented to one of the specialists who, in turn, expresses how he science classroom may be designed, tried, and tested. would interpretthe same situation. The reports and Thesciencesubjectspecialists would have primary related discussions provide feedback to specialists and responsibility for this aspect of the program. Another students so they can judge for themselves whether or major problem which they could work on with the not they are operating with similar frames of reference. students would be how to teach advanced concepts of The specialists must observe, either directly or by video science from an elementary viewpoint. tape recordings, enough of the.encounters with children The laboratory and resource facilities are obviously to provide a common experiential base for the discus- a crucial factor in conducting the necessary activities sions. and maintaining a sense of community. Ideally, the Whenfacultyandstudentsfeelthatthey are seminar room, the library, the laboratories, etc., would speaking the same language and have articulateditto beinone central complex, accessibleto staff and common concrete referents, then the student's F xper- students during the day and until some reasonable hour ience should be expanded to include groups of children at night, such as the Science Teacher Center at Austin and a variety of teaching environments. In addition to Peay University. Extensive curriculum materialsbooks analyzing individual frames of reference, the student and other written materials, apparatus, supplies, and should search for patterns in the ways children respond video and audio taping facilities would be available. The to environmental and social influences. Following the surrounding and atmosphere should be as pleasing and same format of observation-analysis-report-feedback, the friendly as possible to make staff and students feel student gradually expands his conceptual framework so welcome and comfortable. that he is able to interpret and respond in a consistent way to specific classroom situations. Because the com- Thedesirabilityof establishingascholarlyor munityis developing a common framework for inter- reflective atmosphere within the community was ex- preting a similarset of experiences and acquiring a pressedearlier. A coordinated program of research common language with a common semantic base, the designed to articulate the psycho-epistemological model students benefitfrom sharing verbal descriptions of which would involve both students and faculty would different individual experiences. provide such a scholarly atmosphere. When someone During the second semester of the program, stu- becomes involved in research concerned with a particular dents should have organized and articulated their ideas aspect of a theory, there is strong incentive to under- to the point where they can anticipate what is apt to stand how this aspectisrelatedto the rest of the happen in a particular classroom with specific children theory. Theresearcher must understandthe whole under certain conditions. Then students should have the framework in order to understand the part he is working opportunitytoexperimentwiththeir own teaching on. Any attempt to acquire greater understanding of strategies and styles in their own mini-classroom environ- the psycho-epistemological model will increase the num- ments of four or five children. By continuing to expand bei of student discussions carried on ourside the seminar this teaching experience under the supervision of master and the number of unassigned books and articles related teachers and other specialists students should be able to to the model that are read by the students. The mutual manage 25.30 children at one time. searching for and sharing of insights would give students If school administrators and teachers are directly not only a better working knowledge of the model, but greater insightinto the epistemological structure and involved in the planning of activities, their suggestions evaluation of models in general. Research completed by arelistenedtoand given serious consideration and the students might or might not contribute significantly weight, then facilities and children are usually available. The master teachers are an essential part of the program to knowledge outside their own community. However, for they provide the children and classroom facilities. the experience that students would acquire by conduct- Another important set of experiences deals with the ing the research would give them more insight into study of scientific knowledgethe epistemological di- science and scientific knowledge than all the books they mension of our model. We cannot expect many students could possibly read. to enter our program with a background in science Research conducted by students and faculty can appropriate for the type of science teaching they are alsoserve an important function inregardto the being prepared to do. The way they have learned science dynamic program. The faculty as well as the students has left them with the impression that science is a static would be constantly learning. On the basis of continual body of knowledge, they do not see scientific knowl- re:.ppraisal and vanous researchprojects, the program edge as being intimately tied to the minds of practicing could and would be revised if the evidence, as inter- scientists. Nor do they interpret objectivity in terms of preted by the community, supported the need for a common experience, modes of communication and faith change.If students are awarethattheirideas and in a paradigm by members of a scholarly community. researchfindingsareimportant enough toleadto The contradictions between former ways of viewing revisions in the program, interest and incentive increase scienceandviewingitinterms ofthepsycho- greatly. Studies that follow up what happens to grad- epistemologicalmodelwillsurfaceduring thefirst uates of the program would provide feedback to suggest seminar sessions. New insights can be developed by ways that the program might be improved.

40 Student evaluation, like program evaluation, must 4. Holt, J. How Children Fail Dell Publishing Co., bea continuous and integralpart of the program. New York, P. 104, 1964. Because of the types of activities provided and the 5. Kuhn, T. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. involvement of the faculty in all these activities, con- University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1962. stantevaluationofactualteachingperformanceis 6. Piaget, J. The Child's Conception of Time. Basic possible. This constant evaluation, which is immediately Books, New York. 1969. fed back to the student, provides him with a basis for 7. "PiagetTakesa Teacher's Look." improving his performance. In addition to staff evalua- Learning2:22.27; 1973. tion video or audio taping of interviews or teaching 8. Weller, C. "The Role of Analogy in Teaching sessions are excellent ways for a student to record what Science." Journal of Research in Science Teaching happens so he car. review and evaluate himself. Review- 7:113.119; 1970. ing the tape recordings with an experienced teacher or staff member for thefirstfew times often helps the student focus on important aspects of the session. SESSION T Evaluation of a student's performance in teaching situationsis also necessary for faculty decisions about ELEMENTS OF SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION whether or not the student has the qualities requisite for (abstract) a teacher. Students that do not exhibit the necessary qualities should be informed of the opinion of the Ronald K. Atwood, Department of Curriculum and faculty as soon as they have formed an opinion. If the Instruction, University of Kentucky, Lexington facultyfeelsthereislittle chance to develop those qualities, then the student should be encouraged to This paper attempts to systematically abstract infor- pursue some other career. In this program, the license to mation fromthefiftycontributions comprising the pursue a career in teaching would be controlled by a ERIC-AETS publication In Search of Promising Practices team of professionals who had worked closely with the in Science Teacher Education.It also includes expres- student in a variety of teaching situations. Moreover, sions of general impressions of the contributions to the they would be able to recommend with considerable report and takes a position on its merits as a source for credibility the types of teaching environments in which developing a futuristic science teacher education pro- a particular student could be expected to do his best gram. A fourteen-item check sheet was utilized by the work. author as a principal mechanism for abstracting informa- Students should have considerable autonomy in tion. Based on the results of utilizing the check sheet determining their own programs. Because this program is plusgeneralimpressions of thedocument,itwas designed to help teachers acquire certain understandings concludedthatIn Search of Promising Practices in and experiences that would prepare them fora specific Science Teacher Education is not in itself an adequate teaching role, we would assume that participants in the basis for synthesizing a science teacher education pro- program would be willing to follow the general format gram model for the future. However the document described above. Undoubtedly there are students who would be highly useful in planning a good elementary or would like to prepare for different teaching roles andwe secondary science methods course. It also reveals a great would assume that thereare other avenues open to dealabout thestate of theartinscience teacher them. For those students who have chosen the route education which could be useful in establishing priorities described, there is still opportunity for the choice of the for action by individuals, faculty teams, institutions, and types of teaching environments within which the student professional organizations. wishes to acquire experience, and the choice of research topic, within certain limitations. If a student were able topresent a convincing case that he could acquire, SESSION U through activities different from those prescribed in the program, understandings and experiences similar to those TEACHING FOR MEASURABLEOUTCOMES provided by this program, then the program should be flexibleenoughtolethim followhis own route. Louis A. Gatta, Chairman of Science and Health, Whether or not he actually accomplishes his objectives Deerfield High School, Illinois would, of course,stillbesubject tothe combined judgment of the faculty. Before a case can be made for the desirability of The hypothetical program just outlined was de- teaching for measurable outcomes instudents,.. there signed with secondary science teachers in mind, how- must be agreement upon the purpose of formal educa- ever, a similar model would be just as appropriate for tion in our society. There are numerous approaches to elementary teachers preparing to teach in open class- the analysis of the purpose of the American educational rooms, open schools, or in individualized programs. enterprise. Many dedicated and thoughtful persons have tried to formulate statements of the goals of formal References education. Individuals, some from within and some from I. Bohm,D.TheSpecialTheory of Relativity. without, the ranks of professional education have pro- Benjamin Company, Inc., New York. Appendix. posedmanydiverseandvariedstatements of the 1965. purposes of education. These statements range from 2. "Fragmentation."The Science Teach- developing moral character, attitudes, adjustments to life er38:10-15; 1971. and self-confidence, to developing a happy individual. 3. Brown, S. "Science as a Part of Culture." inWhy To support this case, the educational enterprise as TeachPhysics.MIT Press, Cambridge,Massa- itis today must be examined. What is going on in the chusetts, 1964. schools? What are the schools doing best? What are the

41 personnel in the schools trained to do? By focusing be very positive for certain situations and negative for attention on the activities and students in the schools it others. A person's self-concept seems to improve as he issoon apparentthattheactivities,content, and becomes more knowledgeable and experiences some procedures of the school are geared for the purpose of degree of success in a given area. Purkey, in his review facilitating learning and the school functions best in this of the research on self-concept, indicates that there is a capacity. It also becomes clearly evident that the schools significantrelationship between aperson's academic are not functioning well in curing the ills of society. achievement and his self-concept. A change in one seems Many uninformed people would like to delegate this to be associated with a change in the other.I41 Studies function to the schools but the schools are not equipped have shown that the students who experience success are to handle most social problems. To believe the whole more likely to develop positive sa-concepts and feelings responsibility for moral character, life adjustment, self- about their abilities and those tha: experience failure are confidence, and happiness is the responsibility of the most likely to develop negative views of themselves. schools is very naive andunintelligent.[?],[3J The best way the school can help develop a positive What type of training do the professional personnel self-concept in an individual is to help him' succeed in in schools have? Again, they are trained for the purpose the process of acquiring usable knowledge. of facilitating learning. This is what they do best and to imply that their time should be devoted to other areas is What Makes a Good School System? foolish. The question of what makes a good school system Tylerpointsoutthatthepurpose of formal has been answered in different ways. The old answer educationin the schoolisto set the stage for the was that a quality school system maintained thehighest potential change in an individual's perforinance.[5] This standards of physical plant and equipment, had a small definition should be expanded to include the observa- student-teacher ratio, had most teachers with advanced tions about the schools just discussed. The school is an graduate training, and was in-step with new curriculum institution designed to facilitate learning and promote a developments. This yardstick for measuring the quality changeinanindividual'sperformance.Unless one of a school was all right so long as those characteristics accepts this viewpoint there is little reason to engage in wereina one-to-one correspondencewithlearning. the arduous task of specifying measurable outcomes. Through years of educational research it has been found Therearestillthose who would say thatthe that this simple, direct relationship does not exist. purpose of the schoolis to develop attitudes, values, A school system can no longer be judged by the self-concept, and a happy individual. Critically consider number of things it possesses. There is a great pressure thesepossibilities.Firstof all,aperson's attitudes, on the schools to be accountable for the education of a values, self-concept, and happiness are strictly a personal child. The question of whether children are receiving a matter. They are ends in themselves and not functions. quality education will only be answered when attention Examine some of these common experiences. No is paid to the performance of students. Bloom suggests matter what itis, the better one can do something, the that the criteria for judging the quality of a school and more one knows about it, the more one enjoys it, the its educational functions would be the extent to which happier and better the attitude is towards that activity. the school achieves the objectives it has set for itself.fl I No "duffer" gets the pleasure out of' a golf game that Itis evident that the success of a school cannot be the expertdoes. No "hacker" inthe handball court measured by school characteristics or by fixed national enjoysthe game asfullyasatrainedplayer; no norms, but by the results achieved by the school on "chopstick" pianist can find equal satisfaction in a piece specific and well-defined measurable objectives setto of music to that of the virtuoso. meettheneeds of theparticular school andthe Nobody will attain the deep pleasure of proficiency particular set of students in the school. without hard work and possibly some boredom. Atti- tudes andvalues do not come easily and are not guaranteed. Why Teach for Measurable Objectives? Learning is a perpetual tension between the polar- All activities of a school system should be means to ities of work and pleasure. The more someone grapples accomplishing basicmeasurable objectives. By stating with a problem, the more enjoyable and satisfying the objectives, a school is able to systematically and intcl resolutionof the problem. The most fun and best ligently assess their educational program and the degree attitudes seem to come when a person works the hardest to whichthey areaccomplishing desired objectives. to accomplish a specific goal. The best the school can These objectives should be statements of specific and do is to facilitate the internalization of knowledge which measurable behaviors which indicate what the student will give the student the necessary tools to becoming will be able to do following instruction that he was not happy and to developing positive attitudes. ableto do beforeparticipatinginaninstructional For those who would insist that the development program. These objectives then become the criteria by of a good self-concept is one of the primary functions which materials, activities, teaching strategies--in short, oftheschoolonemustconsider how aperson's the whole instructional program--is evaluated. Objectives self-concept best be developed. which are so vague that they are impossible to measure Everyone knows the empty feeling that exists when are not likely to be of much value to the teacher orthe a completely new or foreign situation is encountered. student and are extremely difficult to defend as being One does notfeelvery confident about successfully important educational outcomes. handling the situation and the individual's self-concept is Itis also important for the teacher to understand not very positive. Self-concept in this situation becomes that one of his important roles is as evaluator of student morepositiveas theindividualincreases his under- achievement. Decisions about student achievement can standing of this foreign situation. Self-concept seems to affect a student for a long period of time; in fact, those he a many-dimensional force in one's personality. It can decisions may affect a student's entire life. Therefore it

42 is important. when making decisions about a student, References that the information on which the decision is based be supportablereliable evidence of his progress.(6J The 1. Bloom, B.S. "Quality Control in Education, Tomor- evaluation of specific measurable outcomes also enables row's Teaching." Frontiers of Science Foundation. the teacher and student to know exactly where they are Oklahoma City, 1961, quoted in Taylor,P.A.,and and where they are going. To teach without evaluating is Cowley,D.M.,Readings in Curriculum Evaluation. unthinkable. Dubuque, Iowa. 1972. A systematic approach to curriculum design is also 2. Ebel, Robert L. "What Are Schools For?" Phi made possible through the development of well-defined Delta Kappan September 1972. 3. Essentials of Educational Mea- measurableobjectives. The learning experiences devel- oped by teachers can now be geared to the accomplish- surement. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New ment of stated measurable objectives which will help the Jersey. 1972. student see more clearly where the instructional program 4. Purkey,William W. Self Concept and School Achievements. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, isgoing. Thisincreasedclarity should also increase studentachievementbecause thestudent knows in New Jersey. 1970. advance what performances are expected of him. He will 5. Tyler, Ralph W. Basic Principles of Curriculum and also be able to better relate classroom experiences to Instruction. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, thesestatedperformances. The lackof measurable Illinois. 1950. objectives oftenshiftsthe emphasis to the activities 6. Wall, J. and Summer lin, L. "Choosing the Right rather thanthe purpose for which the activities were Test." The Science Teacher November 1972. designed. Thespecificationofmeasurableobjectiveswill CESI OPENING GENERAL SESSION make it possible to evaluate the objectives of a particu- larprogram as totheircontributiontothetotal ETHICS, MORALITY, AND VALUES IN SCIENCE curriculum. One of the basic criticisms of a curriculum AND SCIENCE EDUCATION (ABSTRACT) based on measurable objectives is, that the teachers will only concentrate on the trivial outcomes and lower level HaroldG.Cassidy,Professor-at-Large,Hanover cognitive objectives and avoid the higher level objectives. College, Indiana This is an unfounded criticism because the stating of objectives makes it possible to evaluate the content of The subject is approached from a scientific point of these objectives and discard those objectives that are view. We start with the statement and definition of two trivial and meaningless. Itis also possible to analyze the boundary conditions: our awareness of self and of cognitive levels of these objectives and a more intelligent other-than-self We also know that we are not independent assessment of their appropriateness becomes possible. of our habitat, but depend upon it for life. A related pair This content analysis is not possible unless the objectives of boundary conditionsisthatthereis a personal, are specified for the educational program. subjective, private inner reality inaccessible in any direct sense to others, and the public, objective reality of science This approach to the teaching-learning process also that can be validated directly by others. The clinical and makes systematic monitoring and reporting of a stu- theoretical work of Piaget and co-workers has shown how dent's progress possible. This quality control function these two realities develop. The newborn infant does not made possible by the specification of measurable objec- distinguish itself from its habitat. As itacts, atfirst tives and the evaluation of these objectives allows the randomly, then in a more directed way, it gradually comes teachertoindicatetoparents andstudents which to realize and construct an outer reality. We may consider objectives the student has mastered and which objectives that the individual, during growth, constructs both an requireadditional prescriptive assistance. The parents inner set of frames of reference and an outer set, and and students can understand with greater clarity where endeavors to make them correspond. In this process of deficiencies occur. construction the individual discovers invariant relations between the frames. Science is most successful in this The diagnostic and prescriptive function of teaching respect. The constructs and the laws that connect them is made possible through the specification and evaluation and make up scientific theory serve well to deal with of measurable objectives.Through theuse of well- external reality. They form a pattern that carries great defined measurable objectives the teacher is able to use meaningfulness and that confers meaning and a sense of the evaluative process as a means of diagnosing deficien- cies and prescribing appropriate remedial work leading identity on scientists in teaching and research. In inner reality, also, there are invariants. These are to the eventual mastery of a set of learning objectives. absolutes that serve to bound and give meaning to the The approach toward the gathering of output data range of relative values, morality, and ethics. Like all will lead to the strengthening and support of effective absolutes they cannot be attained, yet are as definite as programs and to the elimination of weak programs. This data and a theory that allows extrapolation to the limiting can happen through the use of cost-effectiveness analysis absolute can make them. Scientific knowledge, too, is of existing programs possible through the development relative. This can be seen because scientific knowledge is and evaluation of measurable objectives. The actual cost not an end in itself. It will be used. The ends for which it to the school system can be determined for any program is used may be good or evil. This being clearly the case the by examining this cost factor in conjunction with the scientist is individually responsible for his work. degree of success of a program in meeting its desired The applications to science education are many. objectives. More meaningful and intelligent decisions can Students may properly be taught the relativity of science. be made when dealing with the appropriate data. They may be shown the bounding absolutes that give

43 meaning to and control overthisrange. Values are teachers. Fortunately, these university-level educators are properly introduced: honesty, integrity, responsibility, not very skilled in the use of the very techniques they are concern for consequences, and so on.It' these values advocating. This results in fairly few teachers becoming werealsodemonstratedbytheteacher,science effective in the use of techniques identified as positive education would have its greatest impact in helping the reinforcement, contingency reinforcement, behavior mod, scientist and layman to become a better person. Better etc. So far, the children are relatively safe. But soon the people through science education. teachersof teachersandsubsequentlytheteachers themselveswill get it worked out. This will render the children completely vulnerable. For how many teachers CESI CONCURRENT SESSIONS will resist the pleasant, gentle, and effective "laying on" of their values to the children by the oh-so-convenient and SESSION C-3 completely-acceptabletechniques the "experts" have taught them? Add to this the observation that many CHILD- STRUCTURED LEARNING IN school systems are requiring teachers to attend "behavior ELEMENTARY SCIENCE: HUMANISM VERSUS modification workshops" and then to demonstrate the BEHAVIORISM newly-learned techniques in their classrooms; you find that there is not only no escape for the children but no Charles C. Matthews, Associate Professor of Science escape for the teacher either. Education, Florida State University, Tallahassee Problem 2. Many teachers have never had oppor- tunities to analyze their own motives for working with In introducing his book, The Bidden Persuaders, children and subsequently to develop interactive processes Vance Packared wrote the following in 1957: which are consistent with these motives. Consequently Itis about the large-scale efforts being made, many teachersuseinstructional, strategies which are oftenwithimpressivesuccess,tochannel our consistent with behaviorism when they, in reality, have unthinking habits...and our thought processes by motives which are humanistic. Within this incongruent the use of insights gleaned from psychiatry and the framework, they communicate erratic and confusing social sciences. Typically these efforts take place be- messages to children and accomplish little more than the neath our level of awareness; so that the appeals alienation of themselves and their students. Teachers are which move us are often, in a sense, hidden. The exhausted at the end of the day and feel defeated in their result is that many of us are being influenced and teachingtruly feeling as if they've been trying to sink 30 manipulated far more than we realize, in the patterns inflated balloons for six hours. of our everyday lives. In attempting to communicate my ideas and feelings Of course Packard was writing about behaviorismas specificallyassociated with these two problems and itappliedto massive advertising campaigns to create generally with the conflict between behaviorism and markets for products for which there existed no consumer humanism in education, I shall present the framework demand.Thetruthofhis1957predictionsare from which my ideas and feelings evolved. The remainder frighteningly obvious as we see our 1974 environment of this paper describes 1968.74 activities of two related under serious threat of pollution and depleted resources. research and development projects which have influ- I am concerned with the increasing use of behavior encedand have been influenced by -all the teaching of management techniques for the purpose of manipulating elementary, secondary, and college students I have done children who have not yet had the opportunity of during that period. The CSLA Project (Child-Structured developing their own unique personalities, interests, and Learning in Science), which I directed from 1968.1972, needs. This paper and the associated videotapes and hasgraduallyevolvedintoProject LEO (Learning demonstrations are intended to communicate a set of Environment and Outcomes), of which Iam currently systematically developed educational alternativesalterna- co-director. The CSLS Projectdeveloped humanistic tives to behaviorism. This systematic development and strategies and materials and Project LEO has developed dissemination of these strategies seem of critical necessity quantitative definitions of these CSLS Strategieswhich if we make a reasonable assumption (or observation) that are now identified as "student-structured learning in the following 1957 statement by Packard applies in 1974 science" (SSIS). Project LEO has also identified and to our treatment of young people in schools: defined quantitatively a set of frequently used behav- Some of the manipulating being attempted is ioristic instructional strategies which are identifiedas simply amusing. Some of it is disquieting, particu- "teacher-structured learning in science" (TSLS). Project larly when viewed as a portent of what may be ahead LEO1 is now studying differences in environments and on a more intensive and effective scale for us all. outcomes associated with these forms of behavioristic and Co-operative scientists have come along providen- humanistic teaching. tially to furnish some awesome tools. In connection with these concerns, I should like to 1Project LEO investigators are Ron Good, Jim Shymansky, deal in this paper with two problems. Pat Kolebas, John Penick, Jane Leonard, Tom Allen, Dorothy Problem I.For several years, I have been hearing my Schlitt, Charles Matthews, and a number of teachers and teacher colleagues in psychology telling teachers and teacher candidates at FSU. candidates, "Show me an undesirable behavior in a child and I'll tell you how to extinguish it in two weeks." More Child-Structured Learning in Science, 1968.1972 recently. I observe my colleagues in elementary education, The CSLS Project was an effort to identify and early childhood education, and in various fields of special implement activities and materials which would facilitate education and secondary education devoting numerous maximum affective and cognitive learning in science. The courses and many hours to teaching these behavior project began in 1968 with initial funding from the managementtechniquestoinserviceandpreservice Georgia Department of Education and the National

44 Instructional Television Center, Funding was subsequently 2. Describe learning in terms of activities which make received from Florida State University and the Florida sense to them and feel comfortable with these Department of Education. Much of the effort which went descriptions. into this project, however, consisted of donations of time 3. Accepttheir own explanations for natural phe- andexpertisebypsychologists,scientists,science nomena and modify these only when they cease to educators, students, and teachers in many parts of the be compatible with their own interpretations of their United States and Canada. environments. The CSLS Project reflected the following assump- 4.Feel comfortable in stating alternative explanations tions [19] , [20] : for observed phenomena. 1. It is possible to logically derive learning conditions S. Identify and accept tentativeness as an important from goals and characteristics of learners. characteristic of knowledge. 2. Learning conditions must reflect what is not known CSLS cognitive objectives are associated with the as well as what is known about student. goal of communicating how creative and systematic 3. Teacher behavior and learning materials arethe thinkingrelatetosolvingself-perceivedproblems. dominantfactorsindetermininglearningcon- Students should be able to design activities without ditionssince these two factors communicate to the prompting and complete activities without instruction in students both conceptual and operational meanings which they: of learning. I.Manipulate objects or systems in ways which arc 4. Learning how to learn can be facilitated by school dependent upon self-perceived properties of the experiences. objects or systems. 5. Self-actualized learning is the most important goal of 2. Identify relationships among properties of objects or education. among the factors which affect the behaviors of 6. Learning conditions can be tested by studying systems. interactive processes and outcomes of educational 3. Manipulate objects and systems to test the usefulness activities. of the relationships which they have identified. The broad goals of CSLS activities are outgrowths of Although CSLS activities obviously take into account value judgments made by several hundred scientists, physical characteristics of learners, the research base for science educators,humandevelopmentspecialists, CSLS activities is associated primarily with emotional and teachers, parents, and students. These goals can be charac- cognitivecharacteristicsoflearners.The workof terized as "humanistic" in intent because they: (a) focus numerous researchers has shed considerable light on the on the development of the individual's full potential, (b) emotional characteristics which most people have in facilitate individuality in learners, and (c) are associated common. The following research based statements have with productive learning under conditions of maximum relevance to CSLS activities: freedom. 1. The human being is characterized by a tendency CSLS goals emphasize conceptual learning over skill toward learning. Unless barriers have been erected, a learning. According to CSLS, skill learning can result from person will choose to learn. [25] imitation (verbal or non-verbal) but conceptual learning 2. "Need to know" is insatiable and continually forces grows out of the cognition and affect of the student. persons to rearrange ideas into patterns which make Conceptual learning is that learning which is created or more sense to them. [9] structured within and by the student. All CSLS activities Cognitivecharacteristicsof studentsarethose have the following long term goals: characteristics associated with the thinking whichis I. To enhance systematic and creative thinking abilities availableto students. The Piagetian school, Bruner's of students in pursuit of investigations or solutions to group, and certain of the Soviet psychologists envision problems. these characteristics as representation systems available to 2. To enhance students' beliefs that they can interpret individualsfor dealing with future encounters of the and manipulate their own environmentsthat they organism with reality [24] ,[5],[29]. A brief listing of are part of their environments and dependent upon research supported statements on cognitive characteristics them. which grew out of Piaget's work is given below [24] : 3. To facilitate for students the development of positive I.The cognition of human beings progresses through self concepts with regard to independent learning and stages characterized by increasingly powerful repre- responsible manipulation of their environments. sentation systems. 4. To facilitateindividual development of interests, 2. The ordering of these stages of cognitive develop- attitudes, personalities, and creativity in order to ment is constant and has been found in all societies enhance the continued development of individuality studied. in students. 3.Chronological ages associated with stages of cognitive 5. To facilitate students' tendencies to accept other development vary from one person to another. individualsespecially those who have ideas and 4. Interpretation of theenvironment and problem values which are different from their own. solving associated with this interpretation are limited These long term conceptual goals are operationally by representation systems available to individuals. defined by more specific statements of desired affective CSLS takes into account the following well known ana cognitivelearning. CSLS affective objectives are examples of resaerchsupported statements associated associated with the development of positive self concept with facilitative classroom behavioral patterns: with regard to independent learning. Within the CSLS 1. Openness and self-directiveness characterize environ- Project, this means that students: ments which tend to facilitate goals associated with 1. Identify themselves as persons who can successfully creativity in the sciences and wisdom in those fields study their environments, and choose to use what with social concern [28]. they learn about their environments. 2. Students tend to copy the behavioralpatterns

45 exhibited by the teacher. If the teacher tries to 2. respond to what students are doing rather than giving .:; dominate students, students try to dominate each directions for students to follow. Printed materials other; if the teacher accepts students, students tend do not prescribe or give directions. to be accepting of each other [2],[3],[4]. 3. respond toindividualstudents rather than giving a 3. Directiveteachingbehaviorstendtoproduce generalized response to groups of students. disruptiveanxietiesinstudents and reduce the 4. respond by asking questions or making neutral learning of new concepts [7],[6]. (nonevaluative) comments, to which students may 4.Constraint teacher behaviors tend to produce a high respond or not as they choose. level of dependency of students on their teacher 5. avoid rewarding or evaluating students for their [12]. activities,astheseacts would communicate to 5. Directing students to engage inmanipulative or students that the teacher wants them to discover the verbal operations which they cannot engage in secret ob(jectives of the lesson. mentally tends to erect knowledge superstructures 6, acceptbutnotreinforce) both"correct" and which crumble under the slightest cognitive stress. "incorrect" statements by thestudents. To do (1] otherwise would suggestthat the teachers know 6. Long term learning seems to be characterized by what the student's perception is better than the personalinvolvement,self-initiation,a sense of student knows himself. Neither does the teacher discovery, pervasiveness, self-evaluation, and provideprintedfeedbackforthepurposeof meaningfulness. [25] establishing"correctness" of thestudent'sper- In identifying CSLS materials, the following two ceptions. research based statements were heeded. Investigations[16],[17]conducted during the 1. Knowing an object requires acting on the object 1968.69 school year compared three different science modifyingit,transforming it.Learning seems to programs for children within the age range 5% to 6% resultfrom what one doestoobjectsinthe years. Nineteen teachers and 570 students were studied environment and the doing must be both physical for the purpose of comparing: A textbook-based program, and mental. [24] Science A Process Approach Part A and CSLS Level 2. Logical thinking does not derive from verbal learning One. [19], [20] but, rather from a total coordination of actions on object. [24] Utilizing the Science Curriculum Assessment System This led CSLS to distinguish between representa- [18],teacher behaviors, student behaviors, and student tional and non-representational materials and to place cognitive developmentalcharacteristicswerestudied. almost total dependence on non-representational ma- Examination of the data from these investigations made it terialsuntil the student initiated an interest in the use of obvious that CSLS Level One involved decidedly less representational materials. Objects were used for them- teacher directiveness and decidedly more teacher inter- selves rather than as representations of other objects, action with individuals and small groups of students. The events,orideas. A blueglassmarble,as anon- study also made it clear that CSLS Level One students did representational object, is whatever the student perceives more self-initiated and self-designed activities with no it to be. It is not presented as a representation of glass increaseindisruptiveactivityoridleness.Data on objects, blue objects, spherical objects, or any other class cognitive developmental levels of students revealed no of objects. Obviously, it is not used to represent an atom, significant differences among programs and placed the a nucleus, or a molecule. Printed or pictorial materials, as majority of students at Piaget's preoperational level. representationalmaterials,give way to manipulative, non-representational materials Words are used but never Project LEO, 1971.1974 substituted for objects or events by CSLS teachers. In September 1971 a project was initiated to study A major activity of the CSLS project was the learning environments and outcomes associated with the derivation from goals and student characteristics of a set strategies developed previously in CSLS. These were to be of learning conditions. CSLS classroom conditions, which compared with a contrasting set of strategies which had grew out of the previously stated goals and research on been observed to be in widespread usage for K-12 science student characteristics are characterized by: teaching. The two sets of strategies were identified as 1. student access to a variety of materials with freedom "student-structuredlearninginscience" (SSLS) and to use or ignore them in an environment, that allows, "teacher-structured learning in science" (TSLS). Although but does not require, interaction with the teacher these strategies are defined quantitatively in terms of andjor other students: contrasting teaching behaviors, the overall framework for 2. unprescribed specifications for what students must the studyis better understood in terms of contrasts learn or how they must learn since a teacher cannot between SSLS and TSLS goals and activitiesas well as know a student's precise cognitive levels. teacher behaviors. 3. sessions with no specific beginning, middle, or end: SSLS goals are identical to those given previously as 4. student freedom to use the materials in any way "CSLS Goals." TSLS goals are derived from the practices desired so long as other students are not disturbed or of numerous K-12 science teachers and reflect what the materials damaged unnecessarily; Project LEO investigators consider important contrasts 5. student termination of the sessions determined by withSSLS goals.WhereasSSLSgoalsemphasize each individual; conceptual learning and an open (humanistic) environ- 6. student decisions about whether to work individually ment, TSLS goals emphasize skill learning and a closed or in groups with the option to change. (behavioristic) environment. When implementing TSLS The role of the teacher is to: strategies,theteacherinvestigators of Project LEO 1. makeavailablethegreatestpossiblevariety of generated behaviors from a framework in which learning materials for student use. selected skills was of major importance and training the student in these skills was a major goal. More specifically, maximizes alternatives (short of endangering the rights of TSLS long-term goals are to enhance and facilitate: other people). 1. the verbal and manipulative skills of students in the pursuit of activities compatible with the structure SSLS and TSLS Activities and processes of science and the competencies of the Instudyingtheeffectsof contrastingteacher studentas perceived by the teacher or other experts. behaviors on students, all other conditions were held students'beliefsthattheircarefulattentionto constant. This included materials and other physical directions based on the judgment of authorities will facilities.Since all materials for SSLS and TSLS are preserve their environments. identical, the differences in the activities result from the 3. the development of positive self-concepts in students differences in the teacher behaviors. with regard to following directions in the manipula- During the summer of 1971, quantitative definitions tion of their environments. of SSLS and TSLS teaching behaviors were finalized and 4.the development of interests, attitudes, and personal. the teacher learned sets of contrasting behaviors and ities which tit into the expert's perception of societal demonstrated these consistently within the ranges shown needs. in TableI.Activities were identified, materials were 5. student tendencies to seek ideas and values which can collectedandpre- andpost-testinstruments were remain unchanged throughout their lives. developed. Research assistants were trainedfor data These long-term, skill-oriented goals are operationally collection. defined by more specific statements of desired affective Beginning in September 1971, a pilot study was and cognitivelearning. TSLS affective objectives are conducted with 52 students ranging from 9% years to 101/2 associated with the development of an accurate concept years of age. Twenty-six students were randomly assigned of self with regard to skill learning. Within the TSLS to SSLS and the remaining 26 constituted the TSLS framework this means that students: group.Students were assigned with aclassranking 1. Correctly assess and accept their own science skills restriction on randomization to insure a range of students relative to those of their peers. in each section. Using the California Short-Form Test of Accept science as overt verbal and manipulative skills Mental Maturity and fourth grade achievement grades, and correct knowledge. students were privately designated as high rank, middle 3. Feel comfortable in stating what experts recognizeas rank, and low rank. During daily SSLS and TSLS sessions correct explanations for natural phenomena which students were observed individually and their behaviors they have covered in their science program. were coded on a modification of SCAS Student Behavior 4. Feel comfortable in stating the explanations (for Categories [181. Utilizing Forms A and B of the TAB observedphenomena) which have been detailed Inventory of Science Processes students were pre- and previously by the teacher or another authority, post-tested. These two studies were consistent in findings, 5. Identifyandacceptcorrectnessasthemost yielding the following conclusions 1261, 1231: important characteristics of scientific knowledge. 1. SSLS low- and middle-ranked students did as well as TSLS cognitive objectives are associated with training SSLS high-ranked students in problem-solving. students in the skills of science and how these skills are 2. TSLS high-ranked students did about the same as usedinefficientlyandcorrectlysolvingpractical SSLS high-ranked students in problem solving. problems.Students who complete the TSLS program 3.TSLS low-ranked students did not do as well as TSLS should he able to follow instructions which require that middle-rankedstudents and TSLS middle-ranked they: studentsscoredlowerthan TSLS high-ranked I. manipulate objects in ways which correctly identify students on problem solving. and measure the properties of the objects. 4.When SCAS behaviors of SSLS and TSLS students correctly identify relationships among properties of were compared to the TSLS students: objects or among thefactors which affectthe a. did more "observing the teacher". behaviors of systems. b. did more "following teacher directions". 3. useexpert sources to check the correctness of c. did less "self-designed activity". properties of objects, the relationships which they d. did more "initiating interaction with teacher", have identified, and general knowledge. and A modificationofteacherbehaviorcategories e. did about the same amount of "lesson-related developed by Matthews 1181in 1968, was utilized to behaviors" as did SSLS students. define SSLS and TSLS teacher behaviors quantitatively. 5. SCAS BEHAVIORS OF TSLS low-ranked students SSLS teacher behaviors are essentially responsive (non- were different from other TSLS students in that the directive ) and neutrally accepting (non-evaluative) toward low-ranked students: students. Both SSLS and TSLS teacher behaviors include a. exhibited less "lesson-related" behaviors, questions and observations. b."observed the teacher" more, and An important condition for SSLS and TSLS is the c. "followed teacher directions" less. number of students with which the teacher interacts at a 6. SCAS behaviorsof SSLSlow-,middle-,and given moment. Although group size for both SSLS and high-ranked students were about the same. TSLS was 25.30 students, 99 percent of teacher behaviors Based on these findings and utilizing new or modified involvedinteraction with fewer than seven students instruments, a 1972-73studywasdesignedand usually one or two. Therefore, the teacher was essentially implemented with 250 students ranging in age from 51/2 to "roving" among students. Both SSLS and TSLS are 101/2 years and with 50 high school students enrolled in "individualizedscience," TSLS being prescriptive and first-year general chemistry. During the 30-week SSLS and SSLS being non-prescriptive. TSLS teaching narrows TSLS treatment. students were studied in the following alternativesforstudents tothose which the teacher ways: identifies as most efficient for the student: SSLS teaching I. Classroom behaviors.Utilizing SCAS student he-

47 havior categories, students were observed individually educational outcomes associated with humanistic and and behaviors were coded. 1131 behavioristic environments. Problem-solving ability and confidence. Utilizing an 3. The freedom associated with humanistic learning individual interview students were pre- and post- environments does notresultinthe chaos and tested for ability and confidence in the solution to irresponsibility that many people fear. ten selected problems. 1151 4. Children develop more positive self concepts in the 3. Cognitive developmental characteristics. Utilizing an absence of overt verbal and other rewards which individual interview students were pre- and post- many behaviorists advocate as essential. tested on conservation and similar tasks. 181 5.Skill development and information acquisition do 4. Self concept with regard to science and independent take place in environments which do not require activity.Utilizing a group-administered instrument students to engage in specific skill development and (with individual assistance and monitoring), students informationoriented activity. werepre- and post-tested on theirfeelings and 6.Teacherscanestablishhumanistic environments tendencies regarding science and other independent through systematic efforts to channel their behaviors activities. 1271 intopatterns whichareconsistentwiththeir 5. Information acquired, Utilizing a set of standardized humanistic values, motives, or goals. tests students were pre- and post-tested on science Therearealternativestobehaviorisminthe information acquisition and information acquisition elementary school classroom. These alternatives, once in general. 1141 learned, can be implemented without high risk to teacher 6. Teacherimpressions.Teachersmadesubjective or student. Teachers can develop congruency between judgmentsandkeptdailylogs of what they values and instructional practices. Through systematic consideredsignificantevents.[111Participating effort and introspective analysis, teachers can communi- teachers and investigators met once each week to cate consistently and continuously to students, "I love discuss these and to plan for the next week. you; I am concerned for your welfare; and I believe in To summarize briefly the findings indicated that, your responsibility to yourself." after one school year of SSLS and TSLS conditions, SSLS students exhibited higher levels of: References I. ability to solve certain problems, 2. confidence in their ability to solve certain problems, 1. Almy, Millie. Young Children's Thinking. Teachers 3. self-initiative and self-directiveness in engaging in College Press, New York. 1966.. learning activities, and 2. Anderson, Harold H. and Helen M. Brewer. "Studies 4. verbal creativity. of Teachers' Classroom Personality: Dominative and TSLS students exhibited higher levels of: Socially Integrative BehaviorofKindergarten 1. listening to and watching the teacher, Teachers." In Applied Psychology Monograph No. 6, 2. carrying out teacher-designed activities, 1945. 3. copying other students, and 3. Anderson, Harold H. and Joseph E. Brewer. "Studies 4. initiating interaction with the teacher. of ClassroomPersonalities:Effects of Teachers' In general, it can be stated that the investigations Dominative and Integrative Contact on Children's conducted thusfarhaveconsistently indicated that Behavior." In Applied Psychology Monograph No. 8, students are more independent and fully functioning 1946. under SSLS conditions than under TSLS conditions with 4. "Studies of Teachers' Class- no increase in disruptive behaviors. room Personalities: Follow-up Studies of the Effect The 1973-74 school year is devoted to a second-year of Dominative and Integrative Contact on Children's study of 52 of the elementary school students who were Behavior." In Applied Psychology Monograph No. studied during 1972-73. These 52 students were retained 11, 1946. in their original groupings and are currently continuing 5. Bruner, JeromeS.,etal.Studiesin Cognitive under SSLS and TSLS conditions. Additionally, two new Growth: A Collaboration at the Center for Cognitive groups of high school chemistry students are being Growth. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 1966. studied-one group under SSLS and one group under 6.Cogan, N.L. "Theory and Design of a Study of TSLS conditions. Data will be analyzed in Fall 1974. Teacher Interaction." In Harvard Education Review, The1974.75schoolyearwillbe devotedto Vol. 26, No. 4, Fall 1956. comparative studies of more subtle contrasting strategies 7. Flanders, Ned A. "Personal-Social Anxieties as a within the SSLS framework. In addition to continuing the Factor in Experimental Learning Situations." In investigations of learning and outcomes, Project LEO will: Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 45, October I. provide consultation services to groups who wish to 1951. conducttheirownresearchor who wishto 8. Good, R., et al. "A One-Year Study of Comparative implement SSLS- or TSLS-related teaching strategies, Effects of SSLS and TSLS on the Student's Cognitive and Developmental Level." Presented to the 47th annual 2. publishinstruments,techniques,findings,and NARST convention, Chicago, 1974. implications of CSLS and Project LEO investigations. 9.Kagan, Jerome. Understanding Children. Harcourt, I believe the purely cognitive arguments and research Brace Jovanovich, Inc., New York. 1971. presentedinthis paper clearly support the following 10. Kolebas, P., et al. "A One-Year Preliminary Study of statements: Comparative Effects of SSLS and TSLS on the I. It is possible to differentiate quantitatively between Student's Behavior and on Affective and Cognitive humanistic environments and behavioristic environ- Learning in Secondary Chemistry." Presented to the ments. 47th annual NARST convention, Chicago, 1974. 2. It ispossibletoidentifydifferencesinthe 11. Leonard,J.,etal."Teachers'Perceptions of

48 ComparativeEffectsof SSLS and TSLS on Belied. Bureau of Publications, Teachers, College, Elementary and Secondary School Students." Pre- Columbia University, New York. 1963. sentedtothe 47th annual NARST convention, 29. Zaporozhets, A.V. "The Development of Perception Chicago, 1974. in the Pre-School Child." InEuropean Research in 12.Lewin,Kurt.Dynamic Theory of Personality. Cognitive Development,Monograph of the Society McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York. 1935. for Child Development. Edited by Paul II. Mussen, 13. Matthews,C.,etal. "A One-Year Study of University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Vol. 30, No. 2. Comparative Effects of SSLS and TSLS on the 1965. Student's Classroom Behaviors." Presented to the 47th annual NARST convention, Chicago, 1974. 14. "A One-Year Study of Comparative SESSION CC-4 Effectsof SSLS and TSLS on theStudent's Information Acquisition." Presentedto the 47th THE ROLE OF FUTURES RESEARCH IN PRE- annual NARST convention, Chicago, 1974. COLLEGE SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 15. ."A One-Year Study of Comparative Effects of .SSLS and TSLS on the Student's Problem Christopher J. Dede, School of Education, Uni- Solving Ability and Confidence." Presented to the versity of Massachusetts, Amherst 47th annual NARST convention, Chicago. 1974. 16. "CSLS: A Research and Development As science educators increasingly emphasize "sci- Project of the Department of Science Education, ence for citizens," the methodologies and the findings FSU." InMirrors Pr Behavior: An Anthology of of futures research are becoming important in science Observation Instruments.Edited by Simon and instruction. Over the last 20 years, the gradual entergen- Boyer. Research for Better Schools, Philadelphia, ce of futures research as a new field of knowledge has Vol. 15, 1970. been paralleled by an increasing concern among science 17. Matthews,CharlesC.andD.Phillips."EIE educators and students for including inthe science ElementarySchoolScienceProject,Evaluation curriculum material about the impacts of science on Report." Florida State University, Tallahassee. 1969. society. The research that I have been doing leads me to 18. Matthews,CharlesC.andDarrellG.Phillips. believe that incorporation of selected elements of the HandbookPr the Application of the Science tools,results, and structure of knowledge of futures Curriculum Assessment System.Florida State Uni- researchcould greatlyenrichscience educationfor versity, Tallahassee. 1968. science students and non-science students alike. 19. Matthews, Charles C., etal. Handbook for the CSLS Briefly,futuresresearch can make three major LevelOne Teacher.FloridaStateUniversity, contributions to science instruction. First, through learn- Tallahassee. 1969. ing the strengths and weaknesses of methodologies for 20. Handbookfor the CSLS long-range technological assessment (such as the Delphi Coordinator. Florida State University, Tallahassee. technique, the cross-impact matrix, and sophisticated 1969. trend extrapolation), students can themselves begin to 21. Student-StructuredLearning evaluate the validity of contemporary predictions about in Science: A Program for the Elementary School the population explosion, ecological catastrophes, exten- Teacher.W.C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. sivebiological manipulations, and similareffects of 1971. science and technology on society. Through this know- 22. Matthews, Charles C.,et al.Teacher's Guide for ledge, students will become better able, as citizens, to Student-Structured Learning in Science.W.C. Brown make intelligent decisions when conflicting claims arc Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. 1971. made aboutthelikelyimpacts of a technological 23. Penick,J.,etal."A Comparative Study of the discovery. Effects of Teacher Behavior on Student Behavior in Second, some of the alienation many students feel Fifth Grade Science: A Replication Study." Pre- towards required science courses may stem from feelings sentedtothe 46th annual NARST convention, of individualpowerlessnesstoaffectthefuture of Detroit. 1973. society and from a sense of having no influence on whether science and technology are used for good or for 24. Piaget,Jean."Development andLearning."In Journal of Research in Science Teaching,Vol. 2, No. ill. Through utilizing simplified versions of futures tools, 3,1964. students in science courses can evolve their own partici- 25.Rogers, Carl.Freedom toLearn. Charles E. Merrill patory forecasts of how science and technology may Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio. 1969. affectsocietyinthe next generation. Further, using normative forecasting techniques, students can choose 26. Shymansky, J. and C. Matthews. "A Comparative from among those alternative futures they personally Laboratory Study of the Effects of Two Teaching consider most desirable. By then collectively discussing Patterns on Certain Aspects of the Behavior of policies which they can use as citizens to bring science Students in Fifth Grade Science." Presented to the and technology closer to their desired futures, students 46th annual NARST convention, Detroit, 1973. can gain a sense of potential control over the impact of 27. Shymansky,J.,etal."A One-Year Study of science on their lives. Comparative Effects of SSLS and TSLS on the Third, science educators can use the findings of Student's Self-Perception with Regard to Science." futures research to fulfill their responsibility of prepar- Presented to the 47th annual NARST convention, ing students to act as responsible citizens over the next Chicago, 1974. half century. The major schools of thought in futures 28. Smith, B.O. "Toward a Theory of Teaching." In researcharea powerful resource for assessing what Theory and Research in Teaching.Edited by Arno A. science-based skills and information students are likely to

49 need to make intelligent decisions within our democracy. 5.An Ahernative Mauve jar America II,Robert To teach students about the energy crisis is a worthwhile Theobald, (Chicago: Swallow Press, 1970) focus of the science curriculum, but far more valuable 6. The Coming of lbstItteltistrial Soviets. Daniel Belli would he teaching them about the likely technological (New York: Basic Books, 1973) crises we will face in 1990, It' we had only incorporated 7, Where the Wasteland Ends, Theodore Rostaik, (New material from the 1958 federal projections on energy York: Doubleday, 1973) resources in the postSputnik science reforms, we might 8.Alternative Futures and Mutational Polity, Willis be in bet test shape today! liarmin, (Menlo Park, CA: EPRC, Stanford Research For these reasons, futures research is an Important Institute, 1970) source of information and ideas for science education. Out of these works and a large number of more Before summarizing the work which has been done thus technical publications I have prepared a three-hundred- far on utilizing futures tools in the science classroom, a page report on the implications of futures research for the brief outline of the current status of futures research as a secondary level science curriculum. Briefly, the report field of knowledge seems appropriate. argues that post-Sputnik reforms to date do not contain Early work on disciplined prediction of the future enoughmaterialon science /societyissues(such as began at Rand Corporation in 1952, a product both of the biological manipulation) which will be of importance growing field of economic forecasting and of the desire of when present students are decision-makers in the society, themilitaryfor long-rangeassessmentsoflikely Specific suggestions are made in the report about what developments in weapons technology. During the last needs to be added so thatthe appropriate skills and twenty years. futuresresearch has developed a large information are communicated. number of methodologies unique to the field and has As one step towards putting some of 'nese ideas into expanded intospecializationsin economic, political, practice, during the past year I have been working on the social, technological, industrial, and educational forecast formation of a Science Education Task Force at the ing. The goals of all these different types of forecasting Universityof Massachusetts which willintegratethe are identical: effortsof thevariousnatural sciencedivisions,the 1. the systematic determination of the major alternative professional schools, and the school of education. The futures which can emerge from our present, and first goal of this task force will be to design a model for a 2, the delineation of how our present actions can new three semester core curriculum in science, organized influence which of these alternatives will occur. around the futures conceptions I have outlined. Remarkablylittlefanfarehas accompaniedthis In addition to working on this theoretical framework growth. partially because most serious futures work takes for what cognitive skills science education should convey, place in think-tanks and goes directly to high-level federal I and the program have been experimenting with adapting decision makers without much public distribution, and futures research tools to classroom use [a good summary partially because futurists are naturally concerned about of this workiscontained in "Teaching About the the field's developing the prerequisites of a discipline Future", Instructor, Vol. 83, No, 1. (Aug/Sept. '73) pp. before it receives extensive media exposure. Of course. a 65-671, The tools which seem most productive for growing number ofso.called"futures experts"are instructional use in science arc the Delphi technique, the attempting to seize the public limelight (Alvin Toiler cross-impactmatrix,scenarioconstruction,and the being perhaps the best known), but their work bears little futures wheel. We have also invented some instructional resemblence to sophisticated ',fibres in the field. techniques (suchas the "Build Your Future Body" My own background in futures research comes from exercise) which speak directly to science/society issues. having served as Director of the Program for the Study of In-field-basedtests of these instructional strategies in the Future in Education atthe University of Massa- elementary schools, high schools, and college courses have chusetts. The program is not a futures think-tank, but been very encouraging, although of course these modified rather is one of the few groups in the country acting as a tools are most productive when used as part of an "translator" between futures researchers and the lay integrated unit on science and the future. [One such public. For the last four years, we have been selecting excellent two-week unit on environmental forecasting has from futures research those methods and results which been produced at Shawnee Mission High School, Kansas seem to have major significance fur education. We then (discussed in the December, 1973 Science Teacher] disseminate thisinformationthroughaninservice To summarize, through evolving a new framework consortium of teachers interested in "futurizing" their for the content of science education, we can incorporate curriculum, a preservice teacher training program, our skills both from the scientific disciplines and from fields own masters and doctoral degree programs, and a free of knowledge such asfutures research. Further, by newsletter. Because my own professional commitment utilizing futures methodologies in the science classroom, centers on improving science instruction, my work in the within this framework we can help students to gain a program has focused on those aspects of futures research sense of potential control over science and technology, which speak to issues of science, technology, and society. This integrated approach will enable us to better prepare The major futures publications easily accessible to scientists competent to serve society and citizens able to science educators that 1 have found most useful are: decide how science should affect their lives. 1. The Year 2000. Herman Kahn and Anthony Wiener, (Toronto: Macmillan ('o., 1967) The .Vext 100 Years. II. Brown, J. Bonner, J. Weir, NSSA CONCURRENT SESSIONS (New York: Viking Press, 1957) 3. "What We Must Do." John Platt, Science, 28, (Nov. SESSION N-4 '69 ) pp. 115-121. 4. The Limits to Growth. D. Me_ lows etal., (New INSPIRATION IS NOT ENOUGHA REPORT ON AN York: universe Books, 1972) ONTARIO MINISTRY OF EDUCATION INSERVICE

50 PROJECTIN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SCIENCE The Ontario Unit Box Project Is an unexpected TEACHER PREPARATION [An illustrated winkled spin-off of six years of experience with this approach at Jersey City State College, where the writer has had 7$4 Mitchell E. Batoff, Associate Professor of Science Unit Boxes assembled in thirty-seven classes taught over Education, Jersey City State College, Jersey City, an eleven semester period (including 51 currently in New Jersey progress during the Spring 1974 Semester). John G. Cornfield,Assistant Head of Science, Ridgemont High School, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada SESSION N-S

The centralthesis of thispresentationisthat PROCESS CONCEPTUALIZATION FOR THE SCI- inspiration and knowledge, obtainedin an Inservice ENCE COORDINATORMODELS elementaryschoolsciencecourse, are necessary but insufficient to change a teacher's style of teaching once Virginia Way, Science Coordinator, School District he or she returns to the classroom after the course. In No. SO, Westminster, Colorado addition to a desire for change a tangible ingredient is also needed. Fundamentally, the missing element is a A coordinator, new to the job. faces many prob- pump priming effort. lems. Out of a personal need tc conceptualize some Many a program funded by the National Science processesfor myself and otners,Ifoundthat by Foundation,1 as well as courses sponsored by other constructing "models," the steps in a process or task agencies, has left teachers inspired, perhaps a little more became clear to me and those with whom I work. knowledgeable, but terribly frustrated. They returned to Four of these "models" are included in my presen- their classrooms at the end of the summer no more able tation: to implement some newly acquired grandiose ideas than 1. A model for operation of selection process in- prior to the course. Their teaching style remained about volving a committee. the same as before the Inservice course. They wanted to 2. A model for program evaluation and implementa- change (which is an indispensable first step) but lacked tion. the wherewithal to implement materials-centered inqui- 3. A model for EFS, a Title II project. ry-oriented teaching which was often the focus of the 4.A model for development of local environmental summer program in which they participated. The tangi- education projects. ble ingredient of hardware was lacking. Accordingly, "wet laboratory" situations were still nonexistent. Talk and chalk still predominated. Manipulative-investigative materials are needed in any viable elementary school science program including those which utilize the natural environment. Inspiration is not enough. This is a fact of NSSA CURBSTONE CLINIC N-1 life, a bald reality. Surelythis presentation offers no panacea for a SCIENCE EDUCATION: SMORGASBORD OR BAN- complex multifaceted problem (involving hardwareand QUET STYLE? other factors as well) but does show the efforts of a novel summer program offered in 1972 and 1973 by the Gary E. Downs, State Science Consultant, Depart- Ontario Ministry of Education. The writer believes that ment of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa the participating teachers' style of teaching may have been modified,atleastalittle,as a result of an Each of six discussion leaders gives a three-minute innovative pump priming assignment built into a certifi- presentation relating how their education responsibilities cate course in elementary school science. This belief is fit the "Smorgasbord or Banquet Style." Foods, menu based on the evidence so far accumulated in a five year planning, balanced diet, basic foods, variety of foods follow-up study (in progress) of the summer program at and specific foods will be the "themes" used to tie the Owen Sound in 1972 and Ottawa in 1973. discussion together. The innovative pump priming effort was one of the For the "Smorgasbord" phase of the session the following, required of each participant as the principal participants will be divided into six equal groups. A assignment and major project for the course: discussionleaderwillinitiatediscussionrelatingto 1. A Unit Box Science Education Topics. 2. An Inquiry Centre2 The participants will be regrouped for the "Ban- 3. Some variation on #1 or #2 quet" phase of the session.Discussionleaderswill Allthree of these optionsare shown intheslide initiate and guide the small group discussions focused on presentation. The video tape vignettes give some flavor specific topics: of what theparticipatingteachers derived from this 1. Individualized Instruction assignment as well as their anticipated implementation 2. Inservice strategies back in the classroom. The slides and narrative 3.Management and Organization fully depict the Unit Box Experience. Further details on 4. Local,State, andNationalScienceProfessional this are delineated in a paper available from the author. Organizations 5. Humanization 6. Curriculum, Projects, and Programs 1Priortothe CCSS Program of NSF which sought to "All" good ideas initiated in the group discussions alleviate this shortcoming. will be compiled and mailed to each participant follow- 2Patterned after a prototype designed by Doug M. Jolley ing the Convention. of the Ministry of Education. An evaluation exercise completes the session. NSTA GENERAL SESSIONS AND BANQUET GENERAL SESSION I* about how to husband human capital education must include consideration of also a very important question. such current problems as inflation, the SCIENCE EDUCATION FOR THE We are witnessing a disjunction be-impact of the energy crisis, and the food POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY tween science and the rest of society. We crisis. (ABSTRACT) must be concerned with the relation of Better tomorrows are notmerely technology and various kinds of institu- todays with their promises removed. We DanielBell, Professor of Sociology, tional support systems. The automobile,must be prepared to be startled by Harvard University,Cambridge, for instance is a technology, how weuse changes. Massachusetts itin societyour regulation or non- Our tasks in education for tomorrow regulation of itis a support system. A include: We are now seeing the emergence of a single technology can be embedded in 1. Development of lateral thinking --we post-industrial society. The lineaments of different kinds of support systems. Ifwe need to have at least a 180 spread in this society are appearing and will work recognize that there are various kinds of our choices. themselves out in the next 30 to 40 years. support systems available, we can try to2. Development of social thinking. There are five dimensions to this society: choose among them and base our choices 3. Decisions on topics such as: What are 1. Change from a goods producing to a onalternativecostsandalternative we going to do about technology? servicesociety-65percent of the consequences. We may have various in- What are we going to do about our labor force are now engaged in services stitutional systemsutilizing the same human surpluses? of aprofessional, technical, and technology. There are no imperatives of4. Development of transnational policies. human nature. technologyonly ways that peopleor- 5. Behavioral life choices. 2. Preeminence of professional and tech- ganizeand use technology. Machines6. Restoration of credibility. nical classes in the societyskills are can'thave judgment. The distinctive We need to alter the structure and primarily educational skills. charactertistic of human beings is theircontent of education and to get rid of red 3. Centrality of theoretical knowledge as ability to generalize, to formulategroup tapeandfragmentation.Education the source of innovation and policy rules, and to innovate. We must maintain should be a seamless continuation of f ormulatir!n theoretical knowledge the ability to keep open creative imagina- experience. becum.:.1s the directive force in society. tion.Whatappliestoalleducation A compulsory age for leaving school 4. Possiblityof controllingthecon- whether you call it science or literature,should be dropped in favor of open access sequences of technology and doing whetheritisinapreindustrialorto education at any time in life. technological forecasting and assess- postindustrial societyis fundamentally We needtosubstitute contentin ment. the ability to open creative imagination. educationto introduce young children 5. Creation of a new type of intellectual Any enterprise that can keep that going is to models and computers and to ideas technology. essentiallyonewhichcontinuesthe such as music as a means of communica- In this post-industrial society we will human quest for knowledge. tion;andtoincreaseattentionto be increasingly dependent on theoretical non-verbal learnings and to body lan- knowledge and service to society. Our guage. conceptions of sciencewill beasa GENERAL SESSION II In education our responsibilities also method of conceptual innovation and include doing a better job of teaching conceptual renovation.Itis a constant EDUCATION FOR TOMORROW: OUR children of all ages what is happening in TASKS AND RESPONSIBILITIES reorderingofknowledge,ofseeing the world: knowledge in different ways. It will be (ABSTRACT) 1. Enriching our inner resources marked bythesearchfor common 2. Sensitizing children to social traps attributes of what is studied. Harold G. Shane, University Professor ofEducation, 3. Developing awareness of alternatives At present, our national science policy IndianaUniversity, Bloomington and consequences is a shambles, and we will be paying the 4. Creating tacit learning in the young price in the next 10 years or so. Futures research has been of interest 5 Rediscovering some of the old values. The crucialelementinthepost- to men for a long time: in fact Louis XIV industrialsocietyishumancapital. of France commissioned the first study of talent, brains, skills. We know how tothe future. That commission did a fine GENERAL SESSION III raise money capital, but we don't knowjob but it failed to predict the French very much about human capital, nor Revolution! EVERYPERSON'S GENESIS II: OPPORTUNITIES IN APPLIED The importantthingtorecognize FUTURISTICS *The fulltext of addresses by Daniel Bell, about the future is that there are many Harold G. Shane, Edward B. Lindaman, Leslie futures and that there are many cross- Edward B. Lindaman,President, W. Trowbridge, and Harrison H. Schmittare available on cassettes.Write to NSTA for impacts among disciplines. Whitworth College,Spokane, details. Thesignificanceof the future for Washington

55 Concernaboutthefutureisan relationships with each other. Similarly,solar system, and beyond. Pioneer 10 in obsession of the human species that rankswe can re-invent our approach to the80,000 years will approach our nearest secondonlyto obsession about the future. star. Scientists are assuming exploration present. We might begin our first chapter of of the universe in fusion-powered ramjets And that's essentially why mankind IsGenesis II by taking another look at thewhich willtravelnearthespeed of in Its present predicament. Genesis I story in the Bible. God, we are light-and this within 100 years. Earth's inhabitants have kept one eye told, admonished his first created male Future consciousness isn't really such open to the future -while both feet were and female to "Be fruitful, and multiply an alien idea. We haven't gone too far solidly cemented in the present. ...and have dominion over every living beyond reading tea leaves and gazing into At the personal level, this is typified thingthat moveth upon the earth." crystal balls, but it is fair to say that an by the fellow who "charts his future"That's how we remember it. Conven-awareness of our power to create the with a horoscope and whose long-range iently, we block out the phrase that tells future has become widespreadinthe planning is a matter of choosing between us to "Be fruitful, and multiply, and westernworld. We'reaskinga new havinga beer while watching "Widereplenish the earth. ." question in the public arena: "What kind World of Sports" on TV or mowing the Century upon century we succeeded at of world do we want?" We are past doing lawn. being fruitful and populating our world something just because we can. Now we Institutionary, symbols of our pres-without paying much attention to re- ask, "Why do it at all?" ent-tense !WA* are everywhere: pol- plenishingtheearth.But now we've This really is applicable at all levels. luted skitand streams, cost of living reachedthatpoint when worldwide Recently, in conversation with a group of which tell us what our checkbookproduction and population growth are grade school teachers, the question was already knows, automobile lots crammed conditional upon how well and how soon raised, "Can a sixth grader have a future withexcessiveinventories of luxury-we replenish .... consciousness?" loaded gas guzzlers .. For the scientist, for the educator, I proposed that one way to ensure that Onewayofconceptualizingour the task of creatively assuming the future the answer is affirmative might be to predicament has been advanced in mem- rests upon the formidable business of approach a lesson or a subject from a new orable terms by William Irwin Thompson. phasing out old images and phasing in direction. Why not, for example, while He wrote in At the Edge of History that new ones. teaching U.S. history have students take the lightning revelation of the reality of The word "science,"Isuggest,is the Lewis and Clark expedition across the our moment in cosmic time has alreadyarchaic. It should be indexed "old" ait.icontinent in 1990? This sort of angle occurred and "now we sleep in the brief"new." The old science is Newtonian: the opens the future. interval between the lightning and the universe is a big machine, it's mechanistic, To explore our own philosophy of the thunder." everything is geared together, the rules future, we should grapple with these The lightning, we might say, heralds arefixed andclear, one has only to kinds of questions: the flash of the possible. It is preparing us build -build bridges, trains, cars, snow- 1. Isthe future predictable? Honestly, for a new mentality and enables us to get mobiles,skyscrapers,shoppingcen- what is locked in about the future and in touch with a world that might be. ters.. .. what isn't locked in? What could the thunder be? Each of us Thenewscience is ahostof 2. Are there experts on the future? Who has a private, unique vision of what lies mind-boggling concepts we've just begun do you listen to; who can you believe? ahead.Perhapsitis that time when to understand: relativity,quantum 3. Is civilization as we know it coming to everyone suddenly recognizes reality for physics,highenergyphysics,depth an end? Or will the future be more of what itis, that moment when we see and psychology, pulsars, quasars, etc. It's a what we now have? do the possible. What a critical break-whole new gamethat's much more 4. Is utopianism useful? Of what value is through that would be, for itis only complex than we imagined. The content utopianism in setting images of the when we assume a future that we make it of science isn't the only change. It's clear future? at least probable. Unless, of course, that that how we know and how we live in 5. Who isbest prepared to meet the futureistheunplannedbutlogical responseto what we know are now future? How does one prepare? consequence of the present. And who post-Newtonian.We've movedfrom Generally, our views of the future fall wants that, really? mechanism to processes and synergistic into three categories. One view is to say Why not think in terms of a Second relationships. thatit will be an extrapolation of the Genesis? Why not assume the future we Mankind hasmoved beyondthe past, i.e., the future will be the future of want for our world so that we can invent macro-world of the seen. We're into the the past. We will move from an industrial that future? micro-world: shaping, cooking, blending, society to a super-industrial society. Thepsychologisttellsus we can tuning, melding, welding the realities we Another view sees mankind swept up re-invent our marriages, for example, by can't see. This is where the action is in by powerful trends already set in motion actingupon somebasicassumptions science today. And in the meta-world, the and moving helplessly into the future. aboutour partner, ourselves and ourworld "out there" we are probing our A third perspective is that the future is

56 not controlled by the past or present, but exist for guiding our investment of time, All of this happens through a process. that men and women everywhere can energy, and resources. But cutting across model approach, rather than either of the invent the future. all these models are shattering effects oftwotraditionalmodels of actingas Those philosophic positions generate a what has been termed"transnational substituteparents(prolongingadoles- variety of rationalizations and justifica-macrotechnology." Seemingly innocent cence and provoking anti-authoritarian tions. And, at the gut-level, one notes technology, mismanged for peaceful pur-behavior) or simplyas operating on- severaltypicalkindsof behaviorin poses, has the potential of doing morecampus hotels. responsetoone'srerception of the damage to the earth and its inhabitants These large and small changes of focus future. One we hearalotaboutis than large scale wars. Weather modifica-and application have moved the college summed up by those who counsel a tion is but one example. Consider some experience at Whitworth closer to what it "return to the good old days." Another is otherssatellite direct broadcast systems, must be if graduates are to be architects based on the premise that the problems thespaceshuttle, genetic stockpiling, of the future instead of its victims. would go away if only we would stop drug controlled emotions. But inventing the future cannot be the being so complex and get back to the Each of these technologies has thework of a few done only by college simple, basicti whs.Stillanother re potential of doing unimaginable harm or graduates or any other group. All of us sponseisto avoiddealing withthe incredible good. We are seeing what we must be participants in the process. We "whole mess" by losing one's self ina didn't see before. We are asking what weneed not all share the same dream, but we specialty. are doing to the earth and to each other.must share in the same hope that for all Thereisadifferent response that We have begun the excruciating process of us history has caused the future to supports the view that we can invent the ofshoulderingresponsibilityforthe take place in the present. In Kierkegaard's future. This is a willingness to exploit future. More and more of us are trying on words, "He who fights the future fights a uncertainty. It sounds contradictorybut for size the habit of thinking ahead one,dangerous enemy. The future is not. It itmeans that we are active, probing two, or more, generations. borrows its strength from the man itself surgicallyinto our doubts and fears, Of course this beginning won't im- and when it has tricked him out of this it daring the impossible. It means breaking mediately wipe away the crises of our stands beside him as the enemy he must out of molds and locked-in categories in time. The crises are real and we must deal meet." The future is within each one of order to make transdisciplinary models of with them. The pointisthat there isus; it only has to be pulled out of us in the kind of future we want. substantial evidence that hope for the some way. We have several models to consider for future is entirely appropriate for us. I'll Ina veryreal sense, attitude and this world of the future. The industrial cite just one example thatis close to outlook become activity and new reality. model is most familiar; after all, this is methe thrust at Whitworth College to Our world is ci,)wded with proof that the "where our worldis at." This model become a college for the future. frontiers of the possible aren'tdeter- presumes ever-increasing grossnational As a liberal arts college, we have made mined by the limits of the actual. All of products: tak;ng more metals and fossil a commitment to creating an environ- us can invent the future with confidence. fuels out of the ground; manufacturing, ment for human development. That is our After all, everything that is now possible distributing, and selling more prodwts; specific,campus-widegoal:tofoster was at one time impossible. and on and on. balancedgrowthintheintellectual, A second modelhasconsiderable spiritual, emotional, and physical dimen- currency;thisistheperson-oriented sions of all members of our ;ommunity. SPECIAL GENERAL SESSION model. Relationships get lots of emphasis. Further, our faculty andstaff take Material possessions are played down. We seriously their responsibilities to serve as A DECADE OF singanddan.:eandplay. We value facilitators for the attainment of basic PROMISE community. We devalue structural competencies such as learning how to authority. learn, using one's style of learning to best t..,eslie W. Trowbridge, NSTA President The knowledge model has had some advantage,screeningandsynthesizing 1973-74, Professor Science, Uni- exposure, too. We stillbuild, we still information, and making input into the versity of Northern Colorado, Greeley value relationships under this model, but system. the bask concern is learning and informa- Taking a cue from systems manage- As I have met with science teachers tionexchange. Thelearnir.g mode is ment, Whitworth has instituted a student this year, I have been happy to note a dominant. developmentprogramthatintegrates vitalityandenthusiasmforscience A fourth model is earth-centered. The in-class and out-of-Class learning modes. teaching that bodes well for the decade major emphasis is to care for the earth. The residencehalls,for example, are ahead.Thelargeattendanceatthis We build, relateto one another, and deliberately and effectively used to help Chicago convention in spite of energy and learn, but the stewardship mode is our students discover their personal values, inflation problems is evidence for this. first concern. struggle to gain autonomy, attain inter- Lasttall, we had area conventions in Of course, other generalized models personal skills, and appreciate differences. Portland, Norfolk, and Boston that were

57 well attended and of very high quality. So balance, propriety, and responsibility inrevolutions man has lived through or is far this year we have had 14 drive-in keeping the public informed. about to participate in. [11 The first of conferencesscatteredthroughoutthe How doesthisrelatetoscience these, which occurred about 35,000 years United States, with 14 still to be heldteaching? Science teachers are not di-ago, was the revolution brought about by before the end of the school year. The vorced from the world. Many of the man's transition from the primitive Stone total attendance at these conferences is pressing problems of today are scienceAge to the age of iron and bronze. This estimated at over 5,000 teachers. based or technology based. The develop-was a technological change and began to ment of a scientifically literate public,spell the difference between living in a This is indicative of a vital, growing brutal condition with ineffective hand profession. Science teachers around the attuned to the concept of interrelatedness tools and a primitive human condition country are not shirking their duties in between scientific, technological, politi- where animal power could be harnessed preparing themselves to do a better job of cal, and sociological endeavors, is to a and small permanent villages or walled teaching science than ever before. There large extent the responsibility of science is ample reason for optimism about the teachers. cities were developed. About 6,000 years ago, the second decade to come. What does it mean to be scientifically literate? The Curriculum Committee ofrevolution occurred when human slavery The program planning committee for the NSTA dealt with this in 1970 in itsbecame an institution of technological this convention in choosing the theme, publication, "School Science Education advancement.Unpleasantasitisto "1984: Minus Ten and Counting" was for the 70s."[71According to that comtemplate, the class division into free conscious of the need and the oppor- committee, the scientifically literate per-man and serf provided the time and tunity to put science teaching back in son, among other attributes, opportunities for a few individuals to focus during the next ten years. The uses science concepts, process skills,engage in pursuits above the level of toil theme underlies the urgency of this by and values in making everyday decisions for pure survival and thereby initiated the reminding us that certain forces seem to as he interacts with other peopie and with beginnings of "civilized" activities in the beatwork in theenvironment, in his environment; arts,music, philosophy, sciences, and society, in politics, and in educationthat distinguishes between scientific evi-other areas. Fortunately, as an institu- could, if left to chance or mismanage. dence and personal opinion; tionalizedform,slaveryhaslargely ment produce a world in the next decade identifies the relationship between disappeared in the world, but one might thatistooneartothatnightmare facts and theory; reflect on the residual forms of slavery projected by George Orwell in his book recognizes the limitations as well asstill. remaining in effect due to economic, 1984. [5] the usefulness of science and technology sociological, and political influences ex- Science is a large part of that world. in advancing huniam welfare; tant today. Recent months have shown us clearly the and continues to inquire and increase his Thethirdrevolution, according to burgeoning problems caused by energyscientific knowledge throughout his life. Adler,is stillwithus.Itisthe shortages, environmental concerns, and In addition, scientifically literate per-democratic-industrial revolution of rising the depression of the human spirit caused sons will use the achievements of science affluence among the world's peoples. Or by prolonged fixation on political and andtechnologyforthebenefitofperhaps more accurately it is the trending governmental malfeasance. The communi- mankind. toward a universal equality of conditions. cation arts have reached such an advanced The document emphasizes that This revolution of course has tremendous stage that we are in a state of perpetual "Science, because itis a human under- implications for energy use and distribu- bombardment by various news media. taking, cannot be value-free. Emphases on tion, and for an affluent nation like the Todaythere isaminimaltimelag values and on fir social aspects of science UnitedStatestheprospects may be between actual occurrence of an eventand technology must be integral parts of disconcerting because of thepossible andthedocumentaryoranalytical anysciencecurriculum."InFuture leveling downward. Basically this revolu- reporting ofit.Assimilation time has Shock,AlvinTofflerunderscoresthe tion would provide the good life for all, been reduced to nearly zero. No longer extreme problems of adaptation, assimila- not just a few lucky or privileged peoples. do we have the leisurefor reasoned, tion, and maintenance of one's equi- Today's problems of energy procurement calculated decision-making. Our reactions librium in a society enmeshed in rapidly and distribution are part of the birth are frequently on an emotional level- accelerating change. [9J With reference pangs of this revolution. The ultimate instead of on a rational level. As a result to our rapidlychangingsociety,the realization of its goals may be in the we see rapid swings in the scale fromcommittee admonished that, "All teach- distantfuture, but the problems of its positivetonegative or viceversain ers, and especially science teachers, are execution are with us now. popularity polls, opinion polls, polls on challenged to educate young people to Adler'sfourth revolution neednot urgentproblems,andthelike.The expect, promote, and to direct societal concern us greatly here now but indicates communications media have an unprece- change." a direction toward which man may be dented power which requires our best Mortimer Adler, in a speech entitled moving. It is a future thousands or mil- thinkingtoresolvethe problems of"The Futureo's. Man," described four lions of decades ahead of us in which man

58 finally is able to exploit the full potential referredtothis problem inarecent little chance or reason for revival." [21 of the human mind. The matters of edition of thePacific Science Education Yet Dowling reports that wealth, resources, sustenance, and work Newsletter,when he said, Science andtechnology have will be solvedtechnologically. Human Itisobvious that only asmall brought higher aspirations and the thought will reign supreme. Adler closes proportion of allcitizens will over possibility of a materially better life to his remarks by saying, "It's a future in become directly engaged in scientific the masses, but at the same time a host which men will spend all their time in anUtechnologicalpursuits.Should of domestic and international prob- teaching and learning, learning and teach- science education, then, be concerned lems have arisen highlighting urbaniza- ing one another, and this after all is the mainly with the training of profes- tion, population explosion, and en- only really distinctive mark of the human sional scientists, engineers, and tech- vironmental collapse. race." nicians, or should it be directed more PaulSaltman,vicechancellorfor But the theme of this convention is appropriately at the far larger numbersacademic affairs and professor of biology not concern for aperiod a thousand of future citizens who will live in aat the University of California, San Diego, decades in the future but for the very world molded and changed by science has commented on the "intense and next decade. We have sufficient problems and who must make political decisionspolarizing struggle for man's mind be- to occupy our time and require our best affecting every aspect of their lives?tween the forces of faith and mysticism, thinking in the immediate future. [31 and science and reason." [6) Yet, says One of these problems is the highly Glass identifies some of the short-Saltman, "this is the very moment when mobile nature of our society. Dudley comings of our recent past efforts inthe fundamental problems of man have a Kirk of the Food Research Institute put science curriculum reform by stating, baseinscienceand technology and his finger on this problem in a recent As I see it, the fault of our newcannot be solved without them." He article in theStanfordObserver. He says, science programs of education is that believes that mysticism and reason need We have become a rootless people, they have largely ignored this need tonot be polarizing forces. Saltman believes withoutthestabilityofa lasting instructall children, without excep-thatfewscientistsandtechnologists community life. More and more we are tion, in the nature of human life in arecognize and are willing to admit the becomingapeoplewithoutlong- world that is so rapidly and progres-acts of faiththatunderlie the very standing personal relationships, with- sively modified by science and tech-scientific methods that they employ. out the informal sanctions of shared nology, byman's own power toAmong these are three underlying as- values that keep us in line without the change and to destroy as well as tosumptions of faith that every scientist coercion of the law and the police create. The alternative would be aholdsthere is order in the universe, man technocratic society run tyrannicallycan understand that order, and it is good Often we nolongerliveina by an educated elite. That way liesto understand that order. The recent community of friends and relatives: we madness, war, and the end of human risinginterestinastrology, the super- live in a community of strangers... civilinition. [31 natural, and occult societies, particularly Many of our young people, especially among many young people, causes us to our most idealistic young people, are Our thinking in recent years has been reflect on the directions we in science affectedbytheimpactofserious turning to life styles in which they education must take to restore science to technological problems. Confusion attempt to recreate the more human therealmof therationalandthe abounds with respect to the differences personal commitments of thepast. forefront of reason in society. between science and technology. Many Du.), are reaching for roots and for the Inthefaceofthemultifarious people look at these two facets of our deeperlevels of human association problems and forces at work in our modern life as synonymous. The lines thatcharacterized more stable com- society, what hopeistherefor the between them have been blurred, and munities. [4J future? Are we faced with magnification sciencehas formany As science teachers, how are we coping been blamed of theproblems of environment and with this problem? Are we even aware of technological problems. The highly bene- energy, repetition of crisis after crisis in ficial ofboth it? Does it not tell us something about aspects scienceand ourdailyexistence,andcontinued technology have been overshadowed by theimportance of establishing warm, downgrading of the human condition? human relationships with students in our the specter of calamity in certain sectorsHow does science education fit into the classes? Are we not obligated to put our of our life. picture? How do science teachers and science teaching in the context of human Kenneth Dowling, specialist in science their students begin to cope with some of interrelationships instead of in terms ofeducation at the Wisconsin Department these dilemmas? mereorganizationandstructureof of Public Instruction, has expounded the There are some significant signs. subject matter? point of view that science is dead, that Dudley Kirk reports that the birth rate A related problem is that of science "the beneficient image of science created in the United States has been going down for all students not just those who aspire and accepted by the non-scientific publicsince 1957, is the lowest in our history, toscientificpursuits.BentleyGlass has been pummeled and cast out with andisstiltgoing down.Population

59 distribution, mobility, and affluence have true indicators. However, I think there is It is almost certain that we will have become much more serious problems evidence to substantiate each of them.1 smaller school enrollments. The NEA than total population and growth rates. 1. Therewillbe more concernfor reports that smaller enrollments due to The NEA reports that there were 15 per- children,theirprogressandself- declining birth rates will be experienced cent fewer children under age 5 in the concepts. Our present trend toward by some districts this fall and will become United States in 1970 than in 1960. Since humanization of teaching and learning widespread by 1976, continuing at least 1970 the birthratehas continued to is evidence for this. until the end of the decade. [81 If the plummetsosharplythatthe Census 2. We will see greater cooperation and birth rate maintains current levels, the age Bureau now reports fertility is below the recognition between disciplines. structure of the population will change replacement level. This means there are 3. Teachers will be better prepared in and the school age group from 5 to 22 fewer births than are necessary to replace content, in psychology, in methods, years will become a smaller and smaller the parents and compensate for pre- and in ability to relate to children. segment of that population. This does not mature deaths. However, the total U.S. 4. There will be more recognition of the in itself insure smaller classes, however; population will continue to grow well multiple talents of children and adults. and it is important that teachers continue into the next century. because overall 5. Schools will put more emphasis on to defend smaller class sizes in science births will still outnumber overall deaths success and less on failure. and to resist movements to economize by for the next several decades. 6. Therewillbe more emphasis on reducing the number of teachers and We see aresponsiveness to serious environmentalproblemsandtheir allowing class sizes to grow to unwieldy problems by the general populace. Wit- solution. and educationally unsound numbers. ness the cooperation in regard to speed The next decade can be very exciting. School support by the lay public will limits, car pooling, alternative forms of Decisions we make and directions we take probably improve, not only in terms of transportation, lowered thermostats, and today will set our course for tomorrow. financial suport but also in moral support the like, in our present fuel shortage. It This is not the time to throw in the towel of the educational enterprise as well. We seems we can count on people to pitch in or retreat from goals that seem remote find that more bond issues are passing and cooperate when they understand the because of the difficulty of the road. these days, indicating a reversal of the seriousness of the problem. Young people Nineteen eighty-four can be a bright date recent downward trend. Teachers salaries in our science classes have in many cases in the future. Dream for a moment with arestillimproving, although not yet led theway. Some examples are the me about what education in science could matching the annual cost of living rise, student-initiated "earth days" and "clean be like in 1984: and it appears that state legislatures are up weeks" we experience each year. Children will enter their schools with becoming less reactionary after passing Science teachers have a responsibility to anticipation. While there they will be through a period of severe cutbacks as a provide opportunities and encouragement provided with a stimulating personalized result of the student uprisings of 4 to S forstudenteffortsatcopingwith education,witha reasonable balance years ago. Some viable solutions to the problems of energy conservation and between prescription andfreedom of financial problems inherent in the use of reclamation of the environment. choice. property as the whole basis for school We see a growing awareness of the They willhave many options and support will probably be found in the need for humanistic scienceteaching. alternatives. The open school, after a next ten years. Count the sessions at this very conference shakedown period, will become a viable It is likely that the oneness of science relating to humanism. A quick glance at option amongothers. We havehad with other school disciplines will become the program yielded eight titles of major considerable research in child develop- an accepted fact by 1984. The frag- sessions involving humanistic approaches ment, maturationand growth of self- mented nature of our present curriculum to science teaching. There are probably concepts. We know the benefits of a good particularly at the secondary level will many more. The Earth Science Teacher self-concept and the productive potential begin to disappear. Teacher training for PreparationProjectwas asignificant of self-actualized persons. We understand the secondary level will begin to foster effortatbringingstudentneeds and much about the psychology of matura- interdisciplinary teaching approaches in interests into consideration and of provid- tion and growth. This knowledge will order to prepare teachers for their proper ing alternatives in their education at the help us provide education in science that role. The general education function of collegelevel. Countless other activities will nurture interest and positive attitudes thesecondaryschoolwillprobably along the line of humanizing science andcombattheantiscienceattitude prevail over the highly specialized func- teaching are evident at elementary and frequentlyencounteredamong many tion we frequently see today. Non-col- secondary levels as well. youth today. lege-preparatory students will begin to receive increased attention in accordance Now what of the future? Can we see 1These points were further developed in Dr. anydirectionsemergingforscience Trowbridge's address to the convention and in with their larger numbers in our schools education inthe next decade? Perhaps his article on "Trends and Innovations in Junior andinrecognitionof themultiple High School Science Teaching in the United some of the following projections will States," which appeared in the May 1974 issue pathways to success in life; not exclu- seem more like hopes for the future than ofThe Science Teacher. sively that of the college education route.

60 Teaching status will be achieved by of profession and for your dedication to always satisfy his curiosity by seeing for qualifying as a master science teacher, not its high ideals. I am proud to be one of himself. only as a chemistry, physics, or biology you. Visiting 16 foreign countries (since the teacher primarilyinterestedin subject moon) surpassedallof my previous matter. Preparation of teachers in these References education. The hopes and feelings, the specialities will continue with a broad- chance for these people to leap into the ened base of understanding and develop- 1. Adler,Mortimer."TheFutureof twentieth century impressed me. ment of ego involvement in the total Man." Speech given at Colorado State The "education crisis" though not so teaching profession. The influence of the College, Greeley, Colorado. 1968. well known as the other ones is uponus competency-based teacher-training move- 2. Dowling, Kenneth. "Science Is Dead." now. We must examine the consequence mentcurrentlyunderwaywillhave Wisconsin Journal of Public Instruc-of choices. We are slipping backward in resulted in better prepared teachers with tion.Department of Public Instruc- education --reading comprehension,his- skills in communication, classroom man- tion, Madison, Wisconsin. 1972. torical comprehension, and technological agement, and development of teacher- 3. Glass,Bentley. "ScienceEducation awareness are not entering our conscious- student rapport, as well as subject-matter Around the Pacific." Pacific Science ness. No longer will the consequences of competency.Itis likely, however, that Education Newsletter Vol. 1, No. I man's actions or inactions be postponed the highly mechanistic plans for teacher and 2. Douglas College Institute of beyond that generation. training using Skinnerian methods will be InternationalStudieS, NewWest- How will history view our explora- rejected in favor of an overall humanistic minster,British Columbia, Canada. tions. As most unusual. There has been a approach tothe complex problem of 1972. revolution of scientific thought about the teaching. 4. Kirk, Dudley. "No Population Bomb moon. Our debt to the men and women Colleges will begin to recognize their BirthRateIs Dropping." Stanford of Apollo is incalculable. Our children responsibilitiestothetotaleducation Observer, Stanford, California. June will be the beneficiaries of the discoveries process. It will become as respectable to 1973. from this exploration and others of space. teach as to do research. To accomplish 5. Orwell, George. 1984. New American Solutions to our problems will require the this, the reward system for promotion Library. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, dedication and imagination of everyone. and salary advancement at the college Inc., New York. 1949. We must protect freedom. We must levelnecessarilywillrecognize good 6. Saltman, Paul. "Knowledge, Concern carry the seeds of freedom to the solar teaching as well as other talents. The and Brotherhood." In America and the system. If we cease to be the leading multitalentapproach willpervadeall Future of Man. Washington Star-News. explorer of space the freedom, the light, educational levels in the form of differen- Washington, D.C. February 10, 1974. will be lost. There is no greater legacy to tiatedstaffing or whatever term best7. "School Science Education for the posterity than the preservation of that applies to efficient and effective use of all 70s." NationalScience Teachers freedom which is impossible without the thevariedtalentsembodiedinthe Association. Washington, D.C. :071. aid of technology. professional teacher. 8. Today.National Education Associa- Historians will write of this decadeas The foregoing remarks are not merely tion. Washington, D.C. February 27, singular in the history of the world, in the wild dreams for the future. We have the 1974. evolution of the mind. Man found that expertise with us already to accomplish9. Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. Random his reach could include the stars. That every one of tie proposed goals. Our House, New York. 1970. was no mean accomplishment. responsibility is to set our sights on these goals and direct our efforts toward their achievement. Thisis not an impossible NSTA ANNUAL BANQUET task, aticl the year 1984 could find us well advanced toward achieving most of THE EARTH AND HISTORY thesedesirableobjectivesinscience (SUMMARY) education. We are in an exciting field of endeavor. Harrison H. Schmitt, NASA Astronaut I can't imagine a more satisfying career and Pilot, Apollo 17 Lunar Module, than science teaching today, where we LyndonB. Johnson Space Center, have potential for growth, excitement, Houston, Texas recognition, and no dearth of worthwhile problems to challenge us.Itis a high From the vantage point of the moon, honortorepresentthis outstandingan astronaut can find enhanced awareness organizationasitstrivesforbetterof what was so willingly left behind on education in science for all of today'sthe earth. Astronauts can only explore. youth. I congratulate you in your choiceothers will make decisions. Man must

editd- NSTA-SUNOCO SCIENCE SEMINARS (Abstracts) WATER IN THE GEOSYSTEM: PHASE RELATION- on Nutrition and Human Needs (1969) has defined SHIPS malnutrition as "an impairment or risk of impairmentto mental and physical health resulting from the failureto Ira W. Geer, Professor, Department of Earth Sci- meet the total nutrient requirements ofan individual." ences, State University College at Brockport, State This definition is particularly significant in its recogni- University of New York tion that the brain can be impaired by malnutrition. Structural deficiencies are likely to be accompanied The temperatures and pressures at andnear the by dysfunctions involving cognitive potential. A number earth's surface are such that water, ice, and watervapor of responsible investigators in this country andelsewhere can be found anywhere around the globe. While the have reported striking correlations between chronic early major oceanic, glacial, and atmospheric "reservoirs" of malnutrition, brain damage and mild-to-severe mental water are more or less permanent in quantity, water is retardation. constantly on the move. Whileitwould be misleading to suggestthat The flow of water through the liquid, ice, and chronic early-life malnutrition is the sole environmental vapor reservoirs of the earth is often called the hydro- factor influencing later mental functions, that relation- logic cycle. This cycle can be explained by the existence ship among disadvantaged human populations has been of water in the three states of matter and the relative abundantly reported. That therearehereditarydif- ease with which water can change from one phase to ferences among human beings isan undeniable fact. another within thetemperature and pressure ranges That we areall,individually and collectively,the found in the earth environment. Evaporation, condensa- product of our genetic heritage is equally certain. Butit tion, sublimation, freezing, and meltingare processes is also well established that expression of genetic factors inherently part of the hydrologic cycle. The formation canbestronglyinfluencedby such environmental of clouds, fog, dew, and frost, the initiation of precipita- factors as chronic malnutrition and the lack ofsocial tion, and the transformation of snow to glacial iceare stimulation. Thus the existing evidence doesnot sustain only a few examples of theseprocesses in action as the argument that superior mental ability mightbe the components of the water cycle. favoredprovince of any one humangroup at the A detailed understanding of the hydrologic cycle exclusion of others. and the processes resultingin phase changes require knowledge of water phase relationships. A phase diagram RADIATION AND SOCIETY: A PROBLEM OF IN- for pure water, depicting wide ranges oftemperature FORMED CHOICE and pressure in which the various phases of watercan exist and co-exist, is helpful to gain this understanding. Edward I. Shaw, Professor and Chairman, Depart- However, being based on assumptions of pure substance ment of Radiation Biophysics, University of Kansas, and tlat interfaces between phases, the phase diagram Lawrence cannot be used to explain all the mechanisms involving phase change in the hydrologic cycle. The initial growth The development of nuclear poweras an alternative of cloud droplets and the aging of snoware examples of source of energy has generated many heated debates situations where mechanisms can be acting due to the over the questions of reactor safety, radioactive waste presence of impure water and/or non-planar interfaces disposal, land usage, possible environmental contamina- between phases. tion, and the expected consequences of exposing popula- tions to low levels of radiation. Thiscourse is concerned NUTRITION AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT withthepresentation,evaluation, anduse of the available information in the quest for the achievement Elie A. Shneour, Director of Research, Calbiochem, of a balance between conservation of naturalresources La Jolla, California (land, water, air quality) and their use in the production of energy and goods. Special emphasis is givento the The human brainis most vulnerable to chronic evaluation of hazards and risks associated with both malnutrition during the earliest period of life. Its growth nuclear power generation and medical and industrialuses during gestation is one of the earliest, most rapid and of radiation, and their biological and environmental most extensive developments of the whole organism. implications. These will be compared and/or contrasted After birth and during the first year of life the brain with the hazards and risks of alternativeprocesses. weight increases threefold, and tli,..reafter continues to Toward this end, the nature of radiation and grow at a faster rate than the rest of the body. By the radioactivity is discussed to developa basis for under- time a child is four years old his brain will have reached standing the mechanism of production of radiation 90 percent of its adult weight, while the rest of his effects in biological material. The relationship between body will have barely reached the 20percent mark. radiation dose and the frequency with which somatic During these critical periods much more than justan (leukemia and cancer) and genetic radiation effectsare increase in weight is involved. Maturation of the brain examined with the objective of determining the level of involves profound and complex changes in its anatomy, riskassociated with particular levels of radiationex- metabolism, and physiology. These processes require the posure (naturalbackground, medical,industrial, and availability of a sustained supply of a wide range of nuclear radiation sources). The solution to problems of nutrients without which the rapid development of the radiation exposure from development of radiation associ- brain may be impaired. There is a growing body of ated technologies (such as nuclear power)cannot be indirect but significant evidence which suggests that the developedinisolation from problems of population, consequences of such chronic early nutritional deficien- levels of current energy usage, the levels ofreserves of cies may be demonstrable for a long time and might fossil fuels and other scarce resources, the allocation of even be permanent. The U.S. Senate Select Committee scarce and depletable resources, environmental deteriora-

65 lion, ew. These problems are all interrelated and action for designing waste disposal systems consistent with the upon one will affect the others. What are the possible societalgoalsof pollution control, conservation of courses of action that might be taken to meet energy energy and resources, and material wealth. Theeight needs? What are the costs (or risks) involved for the strategies can be applied in varying mixes to the disposal benefitsto he derived from aparticular course of problems associated with a variety of wastes, including action? When the consequence of all possible choices are solids, liquids, gases, noise energy, and thermal energy. known, how can a decision be made which is generally A particular solid waste management problem, that considered acceptable? What is the role of value judge- of designing a system for the disposal of municipal solid ments? What is the role of a science teacher? wastes is also discussed. Technological constraints estab- lishedbythecurrentstate -of- the -artand economic THE SOIL AS AN ECOSYSTEM (ELEMENTARY) constraints are considered as part of the design process. It is observed that, although optimum designs arc fairly Albert Schatz, Professor of Curriculum Instruction, easily obtained, the designs are rarely implemented for a College of Education, Department of Elementary complex mixture of social and political reasons. The Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, Penn- implications of theseimplementation problems and sylvania, and Most Distinguished Professor, Univer- prospects for the future are discussed. sity of Chile. Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy. Santiago The soilis literally the basis of our environment, and an ecosystem which schools have not yet adequately exploited. Soil science can be profitably used in teaching biology, chemistry, geology, physics, and other subjects. Studies of the soil have a particular appeal to students who are concerned about pollution. Many of them have become interestedintheorganic movement, which beginswiththesoil,becausetheybelieveitcan contribute toward alleviating environmental problems. Some important educational objectives of the aganic movement are indicated by the philosophy expressed by J. I. Rodale: "The organic way is the golden-rule way. It means that we must be kind to the soil, toourselves, and to our fellow men." The soil-food-health chain links man and Mother Earth as two components of the ecosystem in which we live. The fertility and productivity of soils have made possible the rise and decline of civilizations, influenced the kinds of cultures which developed, and determined the survival of some animal species such as the Giant Sloth. The fertility of soils can also affect the nutri- tional quality of foods produced on those soils, and in that way can influence the health of man and animals which consume those foods. From the point of view of the classroom teacher, many soilactivities require only simple, inexpensive, familiar, and readily available materials. Children them- selves can bring in much or all of what they need to do the experiments. Also, no special preparation such as workshops, in-service programs, summer institutes, or "awareness sessions" are necessary. Teachers can read about soil activities one day and begin doing them in class the next day or so.Itis not necessary to order expensive, prepackaged, commercially-produced materials which increasing numbers of school systems can no longer afford.Soilactivities offerteachers"instant science,"which isa"Do-It-Yourself Science"that students find interesting and relevant.

POLLUTION

Thomas II.Keil,Associate Professor of Physics, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts The flow of energy. resources, and waste in modern high consumption society is discussed in a general way. The discussion centers on the eight strategies available

66 NSTA FORUMS FORUM I ledge dilute the effectiveness and importance that each POPULATION deserves. Sinceitisarelativelyeasier process to bring Thelma Wurtelbacher, School of Natural Resources, population education to the suburban child than to University of Michigan, .-111 Arbor urbanchildren who arealreadyfeelingpopulation pressures firsthand, a new approach had to be developed Minus 10 and counting. Counting what? Counting to deal with and explore the basic fears and racial 3.8 billion people in the world. Counting 210 million sensitivities of people in a realistic and humane manner. people in the United States, Counting 800 people in this We, theretbre, concluded that, until teachers intellec- room. Counting 6 people on this platform. Yes, count- tually grasped and personally understood the itnplica- ing populations, and experiencing issues related to the Wits of the population dilemma, they would be unlikely number of people, their locations, and their needs. to teach it. By United Nations declaration this is World Popula- Our pilot Urban Life-Population Education Institute tionYear. The World Population Conterence will be (ULPEI) for thirty selected Baltimore City Public School held this August in Bucharest. This will be the first teachers, K-12, was held in June, 1971. During the three worldwidegathering of delegates to speak out on days "a not only discussed the problems of the city but population concerns in the name of their government. alsodealtwiththe manyprosand cons ofthe Four symposia have been held to prepare materials for population situation, including genocide, white fears, theinternationalmeeting. The symposia dealt with and whether the United States should or should not populationandeconomicdevelopment;population, change its immigration policy. We never tried or asked resources, and environment; population and the faintly; for consensus; all discussions were open-ended, a fact population and human rights. Proceedings from these some teachers found rather unusual. four symposia will be used by participants in the World The response to this pilot ULPEI was gratifying. Conference. The participants felt that population education should The urgent task of World Population Year is to be included in the public school curriculum, K- 12. And make people in every country aware of the complexity there were resounding pleas for all variety of materials of the issue of population growth. Global population to assist them. policy is in the making. On the basis of our initial experiment, the Rock- This forum is challenged to highlight World Popula- efeller Foundation gave Planned Parenthood Association tion Year for science educators. Our goal is to encourage of Maryland a grant to continue their work with the you to deal with population education, to help you Baltimore City Public Schools. learn a few basic facts and trends, to share with you a The population education program inBaltimore working model, and to provide you with teaching started with several principles: resources and selected materials. I. All teachers in the school system should be given the opportunity to receive training in population THE BALTIMORE EXPERIENCE IN POPULATION educationregardlessof theirparticular area of EDUCATION competence. 2. Education in population' processes can and should CarolineS.Cochran,Coordinator;andLester occur at all grade levels from K through 12. McRae, Director; Urban Life Population Education 3. Population education is meant to educate, not to Institute, Baltimore, Maryland propagandize orindoctrinate. Populationisnot viewed as a problem to be solved but a phenome- The enormity of the population situation has come non to be understood. upon us so suddenly that few people have dared to face Nine Urban Life-Population Institutes (ULPEIs) for theterrifyingrealities.However, the1965 National thirtyteachers each were held during the1972-73 Academy of Sciences' report on the Growth of U.S. school year. All teachers in the system could apply for Population urged the inclusion of population studies in thethree-day session which was held during school the curriculum of secondary schools; and, since that hours. (A major portion of the grant was used to pay time, the Baltimore City Public Schools and the Planned for substitute teachers.) An evaluation team from the ParenthoodAssociationof Maryland (anaffiliate of Population Dynamics Department of the Johns Hopkins Planned Parenthood-World Population) have accepted University School of Hygiene and Public Health random- thatchallenge.Theirmostrecentefforthas been lyselected the 270 participants by computer. Those through experiments with the Urban Life-Population who did not attend served as the control group inour EducationInstitutes (ULPEIs) to find ways in which follow-up. awareness of the population situation can be brought in During the three days the problems of our city, a non-threatening way to all of the children in the city Baltimore, were dividedintofour major categories: school system, many of whom are poor and Black. Living Problems (housing, family, neighborhoods, recre- Populationeducationistheprocess by which ation, density, pollution, crime, justice); Health Prob- students investigate and explore the nature, meaning, lems (medical care and services, nutrition and hunger, and effects of population growth and its various charac- mental health, drug abuse); Public Problems (education, teristics,therebylearningthatindividualacts have employment or the lack thereof, transportation, fiscal demographic consequencesfortheirimmediate and and legislative matters); Attitudes (suburban vs. urban, future lives. Although knowledge of reproduction and white ethnic, welfare, and in the role of Black women). contraceptionarcintegralpartsof both population For each of the aforementioned areas we invited education and sex education, population educationis three local experts to hold brief panel presentations. not sex education. Our experience has convinced us that These were followed by discussions with the teachers efforts to combine these two necessary areas of know- who had been divided into groups of ten. We consider

69 :our discussion on attitudes our most important feature. theRockefeller grant and the help of Planned It had a large impact as it exposed a teacher to different Parenthood, our program could not have been strongly held attitudes and beliefs. successful. At the end of each ULPEI the participants were 5. In order for teachers to relax and actively partici- asked to make a formal and informal evaluation. The pate and vent their true feelings, an area outside of formalone was forthe Johns Hopkins University the school must beutilized.In our case, the evaluation team. The preliminary results have demon- Planned Parenthood facilities in downtown strated that there was an increase in knowledge about more were used. population and its effects as well as a constructive 6. The community must be made aware of the change in the teachers' attitudes toward population. The program. We received publicity from theSun, News informal evaluation, for the purpose of updating and Post, and Afro Americannewspapers and inquiries improving the quality of the ULPEI, showed that the fromvarious community organizations. We an- teachers felt the ULPEIs were thought-provoking, educa- swered queries successfully, thereby eliminating any tionally sound and rewarding. adverse reaction from the community. In summer 1973 nine imaginative and creative 7. In a population awareness program the issue of Baltimore City classroom teachers,all of whom had genocide and the varying attitudes of the com- attended an ULPEI, developed materials for curriculum munity must be presented. We further believe, in use in grades K-12. We have received an additional grant order to be aware of the population problem, that from the Rockefeller Foundation to continue our work teachers must be taught some basic demography. through the 1974.75 school year. 8. When planning for teachers, one must be aware of The materials developed during the summer of theabilitylevels of theteachers. Thatis, SO 1973 by the nine Baltimore City classroom teachers are percent medium, 35 percent good, and IS percent being piloted in the Baltimore City schools during the imaginative and creative teachers. Materials must be 1973.74session.Hopefully, after evaluation and re- geared for all teachers. vision, most will prove acceptable and will become an 9. We believe the teachers are the best indicators of integral part of the school curriculum. The materials on levels and grades at which population education the elementary level, while primarily designed for the should be taught. We, therefore, asked the teachers. social studies curriculum, can also be used in mathemat- They responded, "K-I2" and, believe it or not, ics, science, English, music, and poetry. The secondary "shop, music, physical education, and foreign lan- package is designed for a twelve-week unit, a minicourse, guage." We also contacted standard subject-matter or a tri-semester. It has six self-contained units entitled: heads, who offered assistance (social studies, sci- 1. Mathematical sci...dceis assintegral part of dem- ence, mathematics and English). ography. Our efforts in the Urban Life-Population Education 2. Population is a world problem. Institute have been highly illuminating andfull of 3. Population exacerbates urban problems. impact. The response of the participants sustains in us 4. Family life and composition affect the individual. the belief that we have set in motion an exciting and 5. Personal decisions and life-styles have social and meaningful curriculum effort. The knowledge and skills demographic consequences. that our participants have obtained will be of inestima- 6. The earth's natural resources are finite in relation ble value in the classroom setting. Our efforts, to be to the infinite demands of continuing population sure, have been pragmatic. expansion. It is our belief that additional resources, support, Each of these two-w ek units is complete with detailed and time will enable us to prepare teachers to form a lessonplans,bulletinboardinstructions, evaluation potent cadre to teach and buttress population education devices games, and various types of audiovisual materi- in the Baltimore City Public School system. als. In addition to these self-contained packages for the secondary level, packages on population (POPS) have been developed. These packages are designed for stu- POPULh'F!ON: FACTS AND MATERIALS FOR THE dents to use independently at Cleft own level and pace. CLASSRGOM Itissignificantto notethatthereare many principal problems and obstacles in the introduction of Carl A. Huether, Department of Biological Sciences, population education into a large urban system. University of Cincinnati, Ohio; Director, 1973.74 I.There must be a person within the sytem, who National Science Foundation Summer Population knows the system, and an interested outside person Institutes, Cincinnati, Ohio to cut the red tape. Face-to-face contacts must be made. My objectives for today are: (a) to provide some 2. Those in charge of the system must be involved in basic understanding of population dynamics with which theinitialplanning of the program and kept you may not be familiar, and (b) to maximize the informed about every step in its development. possibility that you will vigorously and enthusiastically 3. Teachers should be notified by staff publications, implement population education upon your return to word of mouth, and at departmental meetings. the classroom by discussing and presenting some excel- 4. Mostlargeurban systems have a severe shortage of lent pop. ed. materials to you. (Although a pretest was funds. Therefore, most materials that you will use given to lecture participants it is not included here due for teacher awareness must b compiled and dupli- to space limitations.) cated in-house.If teachers are to be released for One of the first items necessary in understanding training, substitutes must be paid. Thus, you can population change is to have an overview of where we've see the need for outside funding. If it were not for been, where we are now, and where we might be

70 ,heading onaworldWide basis. A fiveminute film viewed by both anthropologists and demographers as originally produced by the United States Information representing the correct scale of magnitude. Agency for showing to our Latin American neighbors The next question is obvious: why has this explo- was an attempt to encourage them to slow their own sion in population numbers occurred over the past 200 rates of population growth. This edition is the same as or so years? The answer is perhaps surprising; but is the original, except pictures of the earth have been because of rapid reductions in death rates rather than added by the new producer, Southern Illinois University. increases in the birth rates. In simplified terms, these This is a superb visual display of how our popula- deathratereductions werebrought about by the tion has increased dramatically within the recent past. development of the industrial revolution; the advances in Populationdistribution,population reductions during food production, and the advances of modern medicine various periods, are also clearly shown. It is one of the incontrolling disease. The availability of food and excellent pop. ed. materials available for use at almost medical technology to infants particularly, allowed a any grade level. The film is entitled:World Population. dramatic reduction in infant mortality rates. The coun- The film makes it very explicit that we have had, tries which broupht about and experienced the industrial and arestillhaving, apopulation explosion on a revolution are generally termed Developed Countries. A worldwide basis. Thus, without getting into semantics on slide depicts an idealized graphic representation of how the definition of a fact, I will state that the population their death rates dropped over a period of roughly explosion in the world today is a fact. However, I also 75-150 years. As industry and technology were further feel that whether there is a population crisis is opinion developed, social changes also occurred in these coun- rather than fact, an opinion which each of us must tries to cause a later reduction in birth rates. One of the decide for himself. important sociological changes involved where people The emphasis placed in the film on the finiteness of lived and worked; they moved away from the farms and the earthisa very important point. While we have into urban areas where better jobs could be found. This known this elementary fact for a long time, and were shift changed children from being an economic asset to introduced to the concept of a "Spaceship Earth" by an economic liability, and encouraged parents to have Buckminster Fuller more than two decades ago, it seems fewer children. The change from high death and birth to me we have only very recently begun to understand rates, which had been the norm for all of man's history, and accept what this means. The opportunity finally to low death and birth rates is called The Demographic given us in the late 60's to observe our own spaceship Transition.Moderntechnology wastransferableto from a smaller man-made one poignantly brought home underdeveloped countries which were not developing the the realization that our biosphere clearly has limits. The industrial revolution on their own, so during the early pictures afforded us by our astronauts, such as the one and mide:e 1900's, many UDCs were also able to realize shown in the first slide, were an important trigger of the a drop in death rates, but one much sharper than that Ecology and Earth Day movements beginning in 69 and experienced by DCs. Because the technological advances 70. were developed externally, UDCs have not experienced In terms of population size and growth, it helps us the sociological changes found in the DCs, so that their to formulate what are, and are not, the important birthrateshave remained high. They have yet to questions. No longer is the proper question: "Should we complete the demographic transition, so their yearly have a zero rate of population growth, or ZPG?" for on rates of growth are currently very high. a planet of finite size, itis obvious that nothing can As a class activity, you can generate data on your grow indefinitely. Charles Darwin was the first to give own which demonstrates firsthand for your students the this concept biological meaning through his views on significantreductionininfantmortality which has naturalselectionandsurvivalof thefittest.Itis occurred. This is accomplished by taking your students interesting to note that his thinking was significantly on a cemetery field trip. We have done this for three influenced by a contemporary named Thomas Malthus. yearswithsecondaryteachersatNational Science No population in nature continues its growth for long Foundation Institutes on Pop. Ed. at the University of periods, but rather, comes fairly quickly into either a Cincinnati.Itisa way to get the students actively stable or dynamic equilibrium with its environment. involved with data collection and analysis out of the The questions we should be askihg are: "When classroom, and atthe same time to demonstrate an should we have a zero rate of human pop'ulation growth, important demographic principle. and How? On a worldwide base, thehowis by births Our next point is to understand what effect a rapid equalling deaths, which means either birth rates must go reduction in infant mortality has on the age structure of downordeathratesup.Sincenone of uswill a population. A slide shows the age structure pyramid realistically argue the latter, the only significant question for a rapidly growing population such as India. Reduced is when. For those who believe population change to be infantmortalitymeans anexpanding base of the a crisis, their answer would be as soon a.; possible. For pyramid, which in turn means a higher percentage of the those who believepopulationnotto be aserious population will be reaching reproductive maturity them- problem, the answerisgenerally somewhere inthe selves. As the percentage of the population which is relatively distant future. At a current world population reproductively active increases, if they have the _ame size of 3.86 billions and a yearly increase of 2 percent number of children as their parents, or even significantly the projections for the year 2000 acs approximately 7 fewer,theycontributetoacontinually expanding billions. Clearly, theserates cannot persist for many population base because of their large numbers. This future generations. then produces a positive feedback cycle, and results in Two slides show estimates of population sizes and the population explosion. growthratesthroughoutman's history, and current Sofar,I havetriedto cover briefly:(a) our population figures for 1973. While these data can only demographicpast,showinglittleorno growthin be takenas approximations of thetruth, they are population size throughout essentially all of our history,

71 (b) our recent control of death, particularly in reducing percentage of fecund fottialet, if they had averaged infant mortality, has been the cause of our very recent anywhere close to the number of children their parents and rapid increases and (c) UDCs have not yet been did, we would have experienced a second baby boom. successful in reducing their birth rates to complete the But right now, they are averaging only 2.03 children per demographic transition. Here itis also true, however, family, which is actually below the replacement level of that the great majority of DCs have not as yet brought 2.1. Does this mean we are actually a nation experi- their births down exactly equal to deaths either. encing negative population growth? The answer is no, If the discussion has been clear to you so far, you because our current age structure is so very different have a general understanding of why the world has from that which would be needed to have ZPG if the experienced suchrapid population increasesinthe average number of children were 2.1. The necessary age recent past. Now to concentrate on the United States structure to allow equating 2.1 with ZPG is shown in alone. rust color. This is one of the two key reasons why we Three slides show how birth rates have dropped currentlyarestilla growing population even though almost continuously in the U.S. throughout our history; women in the reproductively active years are producing yet population has increased at a rather substantial rate. only an average of 2.03 childrenthey are simply a large This is due to an even more rapid reduction in death bulge inthe population! This is a point that far too rates, and also to a large amount of immigration. This many public media newscasters miss, which leads them emphasizes the third human activity which must be erroneously into writing we arenot now replacing measured besides births and deaths to determine the ourselves, or are therefore below ZPG, because they see growthof a country'spopulationmigrationboth the 2.03 figure. immigrationandemigration.This of course has no Slides dealing with demography show exactly how current meaning when discussing world growth rates. ZPG and growth rates are calculated, and give actual The next slide shows births and death rates per figures for 1973. This is our natural increase for the 1000 population (called "crude" birth and death rates year (1,177,000) to which 375,000 legal immigrants not because they are uncultured, but because they do must be added resulting in a 0.74 percent growth rate. not take into account the age structure of the popula- The population of the U.S. is currently 211 million, our tion). This shows our levelling off of death rate decline growth rate percentage is 0.74 per year. As of 1973, it in the past 30.40 years, and also how violently our birth would take about 93 years to double our population at rates have fluctuated during this period. This informa- this rate. The current U.S. population, since our average tion is critical to understanding the reasons for current of 2.03 children per family is below the replacement growth of the U.S. population. Throughout the decade level of 2.1, yet we stilt have a growing population, and of the30's we had a low birth rate, brought on 24 percent of our current growth is attributable to principally by economic incentives not to have children immigration. Besides our peculiar age structure, this is at that time. Rather than not having these children at theother important component contributing to our all, couples decided to delay having them. Thus, births current growth. I should stress that this is only legal began to climb again during the second world war as the immigration being included; estimates are that an addi- economy regained strength, and of course, birth rates tional several hundred thousand aliers may enter each shot up dramatically after the war, producing what we year. all know as the post war baby boom. These high rates continued from 1947 to approximately 1960, with the A final demographic slide shows the projections decade of the 60's showing once again a declining birth made recently by the Census Bureau. Since demo- rate. Perhaps the two most important reasons for this graphershave been notoriously wrong intheirpast are: (a) that the births delayed in the 30's and early projections, the Census Bureau tries to overcome this by series will 40's had all occurred by the end of the 50's, and (b) the presenting aseries of projections, a that hopefully "cover the waterfront." For reasons we will lower number of birthsinthe30's meant a low percentage of females in their prime reproductive years not go into here, their Series F (at1.8 children per of 20-30 during the 60's. This is dramatically empha- family) is closer to our current fertility rates than is sized in the slide showing the age structure pyramid of series E (2.1 children per family). However, even series the U.S. population in 1960. Certainly the introduction F projects a population size of 2S0 million in the year in the early 60's of the pill, as the most effective 2000. temporary means of fertility control, contributed as well You mightask:"isallthis demography really to the declining birth rates. necessary to teach pop. ed.," or another question may be A slide shows in detail what has happened to birth "is this all there is to population education?" In answer rates since1970. Other than a slight increase in the to the former question, Ibelieve teachers must have a curvein 69 and70,thebirthratesfortheU.S. general grasp and comprehension of the broader view of population have been falling steadily, not only in the population change before they themselves can expect to 60's, but also in the 70's to date. The drop of the past educate others. Additionally, while it is true we seem to few years has been labeled the birth dearth because the respond more to local population concerns which are birth rate was expected to rise as a result of the post closertoour own self-interest,thisself-interestis World War II baby boom children coming into their considerably affected by what happens on the national reproductive years. This is shown in the age structure and international levels. On the latter question, there is pyramid for 1970 on a slide. The black outline shows of course much more to pop. ed. I have spoken mostly the 1970 pyramid, and indicates the very large percent- to the causes of population change, and not to the age of females now in or approaching the reproductive consequences and ramifications of these changes; e.g., years of 15-45.(While we understand males are a correlating population with environmental deterioration, necessary part of producing children, females are the resource depletion, energy needs, food demands, high important demographic determiners.) Withthishigh density problems, etc. These are lifelong pursuits, but

72 we have materials and activities to be distributed which Now that my Carder is more than half over, I can Will aid you considerably in beginning. speak about some of the past excitements and aspects of You may want to look at population politics, or my own developmental pattern so that you may use perhaps encourage your social science teachers to do so. some of my own experience to serve as the basis for If you do, you will find that while President Nixonwas your questions and discussion and asa means of thefirstpresidentto deliver a message to Congress selection so that we can try to pass on only the most specifically on population, and the first to appointa supportive aspects to current and future student genera. Population Commission, he also has largely ignored the tions. Commission recommendations, except to state flatly that The sine qua non for an experimental scientist is he disagreed with two of the 69 they presented. I want curiosity. In my case, this was manifested by an early to close with a resolution of particular interest to this desire to have some one read to me and then to read to forum passed at the last meeting in July, 1973 of the myself. Many embryo scientists can be recognized by their National Education Association in Portland. collections of dead and liveplants and animals and The National Education Association recognizes that this was indeed the pattern exhibited by my 13year .old population change in our communities, our nation goddaughter who is here today to helpme field your and the world have continuous implications forour questions. My parents however were not nature enthusi- lives both professionally and personally. The pro- asts and I grew up in a city with summers by the sea cessesofpopulationchangeswhetherlocal, shore. My outdoor interests ran to all sorts ofgames and national,or globalare 'difficulttounderstand. sports with omnivorous reading sharing time with art Schools can play avitalrolein educating the and modeling as rainy day activities.I read Amelia students and general public by presenting facts and Earhart's biography and admired her. But flying always alternatives for future growth patterns; thus enab- seemed to be an avocational adventure, nota career ling both students and the general public to make choice, so that only now have I finally attempted to wise decisions concerning population growth. find time to learn to fly. At age 10 I read Microbe The Asso,..4cionshall make available data about Hunters by De Kruif and foundmy childhood hero, population cnange. The Association and its state Louis Pasteur. As the years passed,Iunconsciously and local affiliates shall encourage public schools to gravitated towards his pattern of beinga microbiologist include studies of population education intheir and also a multidisciplinary scientist. Other interests in curriculum. art, history, politics, and writing remained as potential careers for some time because these were areas in which I had some ability and were then though, to bemore FORUM II appropriate careers for a young woman. Because of the WOMEN, MINORITIES, AND mixed societal pressures, I was forced to reconfirm to CAREERS IN SCIENCE myself continuously that my desire to bea Ventist was stronger than other possible career choices. WOMEN AS SCIENTISTS To be a scientist is every bit as creativeas to be a painter or modeler. In all instances there are techniques Helene N. Guttman, Professor, Department of Bio- you must learn first for they serve as foundations for logical Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago the more imaginative work. For both the arts and Circle, and Professor, Department of Microbiology, sciences one can choose to be either a technicianor an University of Illinois Medical School, Chicago innovator for our world needs both of these types of people. Early in my career, Iwas fortunate to have been Should young women consider becoming scientists? exposed to an unusual research laboratory environment Why not? There are so many different branches of in which beginners sought their own more advanced science, each with their own requirements for type of colleagues and through such exposure and individual specific knowledge, that a wide array of interests and study, could advance at their own pace. In addition, personality types can be accomodated. working hours were flexible becauseour lab was poor The more timely question for you is why you feel and most of us held other jobs to support ourselves and that the question is a fitting one to ask about your atthe same time went to graduate school. Suchan women students and not your men students. The answer arrangement tested my desire to be a research scientist revealsallthesocietal pressures and mixed messages and taught me how to compartmentalize my lifeso that received by young women students with aptitude for the I would not have to sacrifice any ofmy avocational sciences or for any other profession in which women interests.Inretrospectitprepared me for the ever rolemodels arescarce.Thus careeradvisingis an increasing tempo of our technological society. Because important pivotal point in the development of young our poor laboratory was not air conditioned for several women scientists in that it can either reinforce negative years, two of us developed a summer work schedule societal pressures or supply the necessary encouragement which included working early in the morning, swimming and direction at a crucial time. Clearly, you are aware of all day long, and returning to work in the evening. We these problems and are here to help institute corrective ended our first summer tanned, happy and withour first measures or -- as we say these days to institute an major scientific contribution although neither ofus had affirmative action plan which will insure equal opportun- yet completed even our first graduate degree. ity for all based upon their merit. As a Woman who isa Because i was allowed to find myself scientifically scientist and an officer of the Association of Women in in a somewhat unorthodox laboratory, myown labora- Science.I am pledged to work with you to accomplish tory always has been open to young peopIL who want this. Only inthis way can we fully utilize the most to learn even if they are not technically registered for a precious natural resource of our world community, the course I am teaching. In my university career, however, I intellectual capacities of all people. have worked to restructure courses and curriculaso that

73 young students can uquire, within the normal school B.The presentation includes an appraisal of the framework, the type of foundation information, op- demand for power in the next decade, the portunity for research, and conversation with interested planned power supply to meet that demand, seniorpeoplethat I picked up largely outside the and the long-range future of power generating classical academic environment. techniques and sources. For me, continued association with universities is II.The Demand for Electric Energy: Historically, for the foundation of youth. Since my research areas are the past few decades, the demand for electricity has fast moving, I will be a student all my life and so am doubled every 10 or 11 years in the Chicago land one with the people I teach except that I am physically area.Inthenextdecade we expectthisto older. Training young people in one or more of my continue, with some possible slowing down in the areas of interest and then following their contributions decade to follow. towards making this a better world is my connection A.There are present . and foreseeable social and with posterity even more than the papers I write. economic elements that will act as deterrents to electric energy usage in the years ahead. 1. Saturation levels are being approached in FORUM III certain high-usage commercial and residen- tialloads.Thegrowthrateofair- THE ENERGY CHALLENGE-1974 conditioning, for example, for the past 20 AND THE Fc:TURE years cannot be expected to continue for the next 20. 2. There is abroad in the land a resurgence COAL-A NEW LOOK of the pioneer conservation ethic: "Waste George W. Land, Director, Market Research, Amax not, want not." This will tend to reduce Coal Company, Indianapolis, Indiana consumption, not only by householders, but by betterenergy managementin In the 1840's, fossil fuels supplied only 5 percent plants and offices, by better design of of the world's energy -men and animals 94 percent -one structures (glazing, insulation, etc.), and hundred yearslater,fossil fuels supplied 93 percent, by better utilization of equipment. men and animals 6 percent. Coal made up more than 3. Assuming some elasticity of demand, any half of the fossil fuel. But in the U.S., this was down increaseinthepricelevelof electric from 89 percent in 1900, and the decline is still going energy should have a negative effect on on. In spite of the fact that coal reserves represent 88 consumption. percent of allproven energy userve in the United B. Conversely,thereareoffsettingsocialand States, in 1972 coal supplied only 17.2 percent of the economic elements that will spur the future total energy used here. use of electric energy. TheUnitedStates now has an energy supply I. The gradualrisein population, families, problem of major magnitude.It was not unexpected, housingunits, jobs, and gross national nor did it develop overnight. It can be overcome but not productwillexert continuous upward overnight. If the United States will make a commitment pressure on the demand for electricity. to research and development, manpower, and dollars of 2. The increased attractiveness of using auto- the same order of magnitude made to the man-on-the- mation,electronics,andotherpower- moon effort, we can achieve energy independence by consuming hardware to replace and aug- the mid-eighties. One principal ingredient in this accom- ment human labor will cause industrial plishment will be coal's new look -clean energy from and commercial usage to rise. Similarly, coal through improved combustion systems-combustion the use of electric vehicles, from fork lifts gas emission controls and clean gaseous and liquid fuels to "second" automobiles, whose batteries made from coal can supply basic energy not only for are charged at night, will add useful load stationary but also mobile prime movers. Coal will have without adding to the peak load problem. 3. Recycling solid wastes, re-processing glass, a new look and once again become "king" of the fossil reclaiming paper, reusing metal, and in- fuels. creasing municipal sewage treatment all uselarge amounts of electricenergy ELECTRIC ENERGY OUTLOOK Better water waste management, increased precipitation of stack emissions, and other George A. Travers, Executive Assistant, Common- clean-up devices will add further to in wealth Edison Company, Chicago, Illinois dustrial demand in the years ahead. 4. The goal of increased and vastly improved I. Introduction: Electric energy is not a raw material, mass transit systems in large urban and but a manufactured product. Its supply is, there- suburban areas will also add asizable fore, determined by two factors the availability electricenergy loadinthefuture,re- of fuel and the capability of power generating placing petroleum consumption. equipment. C. The net effect of these many complex and, at A.The data inthis presentationislimited to present, unquantifiable vectors appears to us to Commonwealth Edison Company, serving 8 be an upward usage of power of between 7 millionpeoplein Chicago, and northernIl- percent and 8 percent annually; we expect this linois, and its interconnected companies, the to be several percentage points lower during Mid-American Interpool Network. the present Arab oil embargo.

74 The Supply of Electric Energy: Commonwealth should approximate 29,000-mw, about half of Edison now has atotal capability of producing whichwill be nuclear. During these years, approximately 16,500 megawatts of electric energy. generatingreserves (capabilityin excess of About 5,000 megawatts of this is in nuclear units; peak load) will range from about 12 percent to over 9,000-mw in conventional fossil-fired plants; a over 20 percent, based on long-range load little less than 2,000 in fossil -fired peaking plants; forecasts and anticipated start-up dates for new and500 from the pumped storagefacilityin equipment. Michigan. D.The availability of both firm and emergency A. Edison's fuel budg4-: for the current year is power from our neighboring utility companies roughly: 20 million tons of coal; about 3 providesadditionalcapacity should we be million equivalent tons of coal in the form of caughtshort by unforeseen delaysorun- oil and naturalgas; and about12 million planned equipment outages. The amount of equivalent tons of coal in the form of nuclear energy available will vary from day to day and fuel; or about 35 million equivalent tons of year to year, depending on a variety of factors, coal, in all. including weather conditions. 1. We have long-range coalcontracts for IV. Conclusion: We foresee no shortage of electric both Illinois and western coal which will energy if all our plans for new construction are be sufficient for the foreseeable future. met; delays in construction and equipment delivery, The total national coal reserves are equity over-long hearings and other procedural delays in the alenttosomethingover500years' regulatory process, and selected fuel shortages of oil supply. and natural gas could all have a bearing on Edison's 2. We will be importing low sulfur residual ability to meet the demand during a given period of fuel oil for a great many years to come. time. We remain optimistic about our ability to meet The present oil embargo will, of course, customer's demands throughout this decade. have an adverse effect on our ability to A.Many of the governmental and private projec- use foreign oil. Premium oil and natural tions of the long-range energy supply situation gas will also be used for peaking units. in this country include a great deal of conjec- Our use of these domestic fuels will be ture and dependtoa greatdegree upon subject to the limitations of our suppliers, undevelopedtechnology.Atpresent,the just as for all other users, and this may breeder nuclear reactor appears to be the most reduceour generatingcapability from promising next step in energy production with time to time. minimum impact on the environment and 3. The nuclear fuel suppliers do not foresee natural resource reserves. any serious difficulty in mining ore and B. Beyond the breeder in the nuclear area is the processing the fuel for the present genera- great promise of fusion, which is now deve- tion of reactors. The development of the loped only in theory. Escalation of the theory breeder reactor and its salutory effect on to workable bench models and prototypes to the supply of fuel holds great promise for commercially operable machines is at least 25 the future reserves of domestic uranium to 30 years away. ore. C. Natural energy sources hydro, solar, geother- B. Commonwealth Edison's planned additions of mal, winds and tides all hold some promise electric generating facilities by the end of 1982 for limited local energy supply by the end of call for some 4,300-mw of fossil-fired units, the century, but cannot be depended upon as and about 9,000-mw of nuclear capacity. meaningful supplements to man-made electric 1. An additional coal-fired unit at Powerton energy. (840-mw), near Pekin, will be installed in D.Exotic man-made generation concepts, such as 1975, and an entirely new oil-fired station magnetohydrodynamicsandelectro- will be built on the Illinois River near hydrodynamics, are also promising for limited, Morris, capable of 2,500-mw (five mw- localized usage, but do not now appear to hold units). Both will use cooling lakes. An any hopeforreplacing presentlarge-scale additional 1,000-mw will be installed at methods of generation. Will County Station, using cooling towers E.Coal gasification and desulfurization could be a in 1977-78. very significant development in years to come 2. Eightnuclear units four pressurized in optimizing the use of the great coal reserves water reactors, two boiling water reactors, of this country. Research and development is and two as yet undesignated will be already well underway in this area and a large placed in service before the end of 1980; prototype system is expected to be in opera- these include Unit 2 at Zion Station on tion by the end of this decade. Lake Michigan; LaSalle County Station 25 F. In summary, the energy "crisis"is not im- milesdowntheIllinoisRiverfrom minent, as far as Commonwealth Edison sees Dresden;ByronStation, using cooling the situation; but there are many unknowns, towers, 18 miles southwest of Rockford; many variables, and many challenges to which Braidwood, 25 miles south of Joliet on Edison's managementwillhaveto be con- abandoned strip mine property; and two stantly attentive and vigilant. near Savannah, Illinois on the Mississippi River. C. The total capability at the end of the decade

75M NSTA CONCURRENT PANELS AND SYMPOSIA SESSION A3 involved with the unique features of the second country. This is a cold fact, but that is typical of the American PERSONALIZED SCIENCE tourist. As long as we can rep/3a on the physical aspects A HUMANISTIC APPROACH of our glorious visits, thatissufficient. These trips apparently don't teach us anything about what to do in IS KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE SUFFICIENT? theclassroom. Wouldn't you thinkthattherecent report by the Civil Rights Commission on the academic Michael Gonzalez, Science Learning Specialist, Hills- status of Chicanos in American classrooms would be felt borough County Public Schools, Tampa, Florida by American educators? Is it really a sin to speak the mother tongueinanAmerican classroom? Maybe The human mind can endure many taxing stimuli in English sounds like a cleaner language than Spanish. It a hostile and toxic environment, but only through some surely does make the poor souls feel alienated. meaningful and reinforcing experiences will it be able to The only thing that seems to matter is that we are combat this milieu. Whether this situation becomes a able to see the highlights that typically happen in the tragedy or not depends on the empathetic responses that classroom. other minds have for this one struggling primate. May we The highlighting characteristics indicative of Troy allrecognizethereal human predicament of every are: individuallivingwithtoday'secologicalframe-of- 1. He does his laboratory work. reference. 2. He never answers back. The educational environment certainly is recognized 3. He always does his homework. as a more sophisticated niche than the noneducational 4. He gets "A's" on his tests. one. Ironically, we continue to proclaim that the total 5. He dresses nicely. environment in which we live should be educational, but It doesn't really concern us that he may have some being human we continue to separate the total environ- inner feelings that are trying to jump at us. That isn't ment into niches. Unfortunately, we have not allowed part of our role. Our role is to objectively report the ourselves to perceive the repercussions. status of this being in the classroom. Can we really communicate totally with an individ- I submit that itis part of our role to get involved. ualif his knowledge within the science spectrum is the It isn't enough for me to report on the physical beauty only thing that interests us? It would be totally absurd of another country, because that isn'tall that interests to think that the attitude of a student toward science me. I am interested in the human beings that make that has no effect on his accomplishments. Should we not be country what it really is. What they laugh at, what they concerned about his ittitude toward the subject matter? do throughout the day, what they think, and everything Idistinctly remember tip, science was a subject thatI thatischaracteristicof themas human beingsis strongly disliked throughout my junior high and high important to me. school years.I can also relate the reason for this most Troy isn't just someone that has received an "A" unfortunate experience. No one really cared whether I on a test. He is also someone who cries, laughs, thinks. likedscienceornotuntilIstartedtoattend the Should we be concerned about his thoughts? Would it university. Interestingly enough, my hospital job, not be feasible perhaps to become more empathetic with my academic experience at the university turned me on Troy? It may mean that we would have to spendmore to science. timerelating to him. Coulditbe possible that Troy It has been my experience that human beings are makes an "A" on his test and really dislikes science? extremely alienated from each other. One prime ex- How cana human being do wellin something he ample ofthisalienationisthe apparent separation dislikes? Our means of measuring Troy's successis between the young and the old. It seems to me that knowing how well he memorized the specific subject many of us can be held accountable for depriving matter. human beings of happiness. The young are regarded as But, have we ever wondered how he feels about the lost hippies: the old are regarded as hopeless, unhappy, subject matter? How does hefeelabout anything? depressive, forgetful people. Should that be a tabu territory? It so happens that both the young and the old are In my own experiencecertainthingsexcited filled with fwlings. They aren'tfeelings that can be teachers and professors in science courses: measured. So the resultis that a hearing loss implies 1. How well I could memorize the names of the phyla that there is also a loss of feeling for life. Why do we and their respective characteristics, continue to bchave so illogically? 2. How wellI could regurgitate the locations of the The teacher alienates himself from the student as he origins and insertions of mammalian muscles, does . )nt the rest of humanity. 3. Whether I could identify all of the given unknowns 111.-.. teacher faces in the classroom the same type of in a chemistry laboratory, tragic experience that he faces in the "outside" world. 4. Whether Icould solve a Mendelian genetics prob- As a matter of fact, considering the classroom as a lem, completely separate entity from the rest of the world is 5. Whether I could apply a mathematical formula to a even more convincing evidence of alienation.Recog- physics problem, nizing a student simply through his credentials is the 6. Whether I could draw "pretty" pictures. same as recognizing a human being solely through his Ilearned to do these things well, and the only nationality. They are both very objective characteristics reinforcementIever received was a "nice" grade on a of the same kind of being. It distinctly reminds me of test.I never was asked if I liked what I was doing. A the attitudes that one encounters on a trip to a foreign recent anecdote amused me no endsinceitrelated country. Most of the people on the trip are traveling beautifullywhat Isincerelyfeelis happening in the from one country to another country without getting classroom today. At a recent visit to my optometrist he

79 told me that a young man had posed a question to him expression and their faces epitomize the "realness" of concerning his profession. The young man said, "Doc, humanity. The uniqueness of each student never ceases do you like what you are doing?" Wouldn't it be great if toamaze me. They areindividuals with hang-ups, all students were asked that particular question? As a beauty, feelings, prejudices, logic, love, and all of the matter of fact, the doctor enjoyed this question and things we often use to describe "other" human beings. remarked that he thought about his role for the first Recently, one of my students who happens to be a time in a deep sort of way. Black prisoner, gave me a poem to read, which really Suppose a student dislikes science. That would be turned me on. Willie felt good about his poetry, ready somewhat shocking to a teacher if he became aware of to tell the whole world about it, What he desires is for the fact at the end of a science course. I'm sure Troy someone to recognize this personal ability or trait, being didn't startdisliking science at the end, but due to part of him and constituting a unique element in his psychological alienation,the teacher wasn't concerned life. Does it take much to tell this soul that you dig his enough to know this. It is important to know how Troy poetry? feels about science, since the climate within that science classroom should be a happy one and not a torturous Another prisoner was quite depressed about his one. It is our job to placate Troy in every possible way. environment, which he indicated was extremely cold, There are several factors to consider in relating to sterile, and boring. Ile said to me, "Mike, if only we Troy as a fellow human being and some of these aren't could have some contact with our visitors.It doesn't easily measured. The following are some of my beliefs: have to be sexual, but only to be able to touch someone I. The student has feelings, and these feelings un- and know that there is some concern for us as human doubtedly influence his behavior in every respect. beings." The longing for acceptance through the sense of 2. Itis our duty as educators to have respect and touch is not a new phenomenon in human history and empathy for his feelings, since he does become part yet we continue to deprive each other of this beautiful of our life, and our life should be part of his. means of communication. 3. To he able to listen patiently to the expression of These human beings are declaredlosers, having his feelings isn't enough. We must also live those become social failures, similar to the academic failures feelings. that are produced in many classrooms today. For some 4. The classroom environmentis not separate from reason, we continue to believe that academic problems any other environment, because the human being can be solved through the penal systems of grades that doesn't live in isolated places. He lives the whole havebeensobeautifullybuiltintoour academic day, and the whole day encompasses everything environment. It's ironical that we seldom talk about the that is part of hiin. students that have succeeded, but only about those who S. Itismostimportantthathis attitude about have failed. It isn't necessary to fail any student. Why learning become part of his total life and not just a can'ta student simply receive an "X" grade, if the classroom attitude. teacher feels that he hasn't absorbed enough facts? The 6. We should be concerned about his attitude, but not "X" can be changed to a passing grade when he reaches inthe sensethat we are going toforce our the proper point of success. Of course, some teachers attitudes on him. may be more interested in thinkers than in regurgitators. 7. We should all be in the business of growing and That kind of student is probably more difficult to grade thisis an artthat should never cease expressing on a standard grading scale. itself. Maybe the point of arrival is when educators realize 8. Let our dreams be forever heard, since they are that the classroom is not only a place to gather facts, partof us.Itwould beagrossinjusticeto but a place to orient one's self. One can memorize the humanity to deprive human beings of the beauty of name of every muscle and bone in the human body, dreaming. withouteverrealizingor knowing how they work 9. Let us be proud to offer ourselves to each other. together to produce movement of the body. It reminds 10.It isn't enough simply to care, we must also show me of an episode that recently occurred within an that we care. ecology class while I was in the middle of a lecture. A Maybe I'm asking that we all become Don Quixotes studentintheclass suddenly developed an epileptic in our own unique way. That includes students, too. We seizure without my immediate observation. There was a each have a dream that is beautiful. No one wants his deep silence, indicating that something had happened. dream to be destroyed. Socrates wanted to help the Finally, the students informed me that the boy was in young by getting them to think. Martin Luther King themiddleof aterribleseizure,and I panicked wanted human beings to express their love for each internally. Fortunately,I was sensible enough not to other in every possible way. show my fear and I proceeded to ask the others what Woulditbe totallyillogical to think that some usually is done for the student. I laid him down and put students may want their total environment to be like my kerchief betweenhisteeth.Ittook me a few Camelotandthatwhat happens to theminthat minutes todecide what to do. Human physiology classroom can destroy that real dream? They want to be happens to be an important area of interest for me. shown that theirlikes and dislikesarepart of the Epilepsy can be defined in a most sophisticated manner makeup of Camelot. Itis important to know how they andtheproper stepsfortaking careof aperson feel about everything since that is part of being a human developing a seizure have been appropriately memorized. being. Yet, I became very fearful, not knowing what to do and There is no end to the diverse topics that can be even lifted the student before he had finished having the covered with students. They are filled with meaningful complete seizure. Another interesting feature of this true facts, and they can express themselves in an indefinable storyisthat I didn'tevenrealizethatthere was manner. Thereisa sincere feeling behind each verbal someone having a seizure, since I was so wrapped up in

80 developing a wonderful ego trip with my fancy lecture More values are In conflict, more variables have to be on the "chemistry of life." considered, and a greater amount of informationis Isitreally that important to know a fact without needed. This is true today in the environmental and having any feeling for that tact? Maybe the role of the science areas as well as in the career areas and in many educator is developing some empathy for his environ others that junior high, middle, and high school students ment insteadof destroyingthehumanity of that face. Forced to choose without adequate information environment with the distribution of cold facts. based on objective data or personal experience, without a A student comes to our unique environment with a feeling for future consequences, without sufficient skill or sincere motivation to learn. A humanistic atmosphere practice in the process of deciding, the person may choose should be provided that will allow him or her to create unwisely. the kinds of things that can only be found within his or An important part then, of scientific literacy is a her inner self. He needs affection; love, and under- strategy to make decisions. I think all of us find ourselves standing. He should be recognized as an individual with making pervasive and important decisions in a nonsystem- feelings, atic or haphazard fashion. Generally our schools have not The academic environment cannot be separated provided the means by which people can learn a conscious from the total environment. Only through the actual process for making decisions. School counseling attempts encounter with the psychological and sociological stimuli to help students learn how to make decisions but a major existing within his real world can the student learn to portion of the time spent in counseling is developed by appreciate the educational stimuli also found in this supplying information tothestudents or obtaining world. information about courses he's taking. Here he will be able to communicate with his own I propose that a decision-making strategy be taught peer group, which undoubtedly helps him to adapt in a within the framework of science as a means to obtaining sound manner. Our primary goalis to try in every scientificliteracy. Science teachers havetraditionally possible way to create a situation where humanistic avoided values as am unscientific component of developing learning takes place and thus happiness can be found by knowledgeable citizens regarding science. How you feel each human being. about an issue (such as energy consumption) Is not I sincerely submit that we owe it to ourselves to important. One is taught to be objective, one is taught appreciate the "love" within the students in our class that a process is more important than the person doing it. andalsoshareour"love" withthem,Itisour Just as we know that the teacher variable is much more responsibilitytoestablish an empathetic relationship important than the program, I also feel that the aspect of with them, since they have added to this life of ours as how students process information relative to themselves much as every living organism. and others is as important as the concepts which are We need them as much as they need us. Let us all taught to these students in science courses. Any science meditate on this important responsibility. program of a general nature which is designed to develop scientifically literate citizens should have an aspect of SESSION A-S decision-making that allows students to practice these skills based upon the best evidence available. GENERAL SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC LITERACY Decision-making courses have become fairly common in social studies departments as senior or upper level high VALUES, INFORMATION, AND STRATEGIES TO- school courses in our local school systems, A program WARD LITERACY IN SCIENCE developed by the College Entrance Examination Board in 1972, authored by Gelatt,Varenhorst,andCarey Marvin Meissen, Environmental Education Coordi- approached this at a junior high level and hoped to use nator, Research and Development Center, Madison, decision-making concepts and skills to clarify for the Wisconsin student what is necessary to make good decisions. This type of decision-making rationale and principles should be Itis the responsibility of schools to produce an incorporated into generalscience courses, applied to intelligentcitizenry. Theabilityof ourcitizensto relevant problems for students, and be practiced as a part understandnationalandinternationalproblemsis of the curriculum to develop scientifically literate citizens. dependent inpart upon their scientific literacy. The A decision does not exist until there is more than one layman is surrounded by scientific developments and is course of action, alternative, or possibility to consider, bombarded with much scientific information. A literate When decision-making is skillfully utilized it's more likely individual must have some understanding and appreciation thattheoutcomewillbesatisfying. A skillful of science in order to make valid judgments as a citizen. It decision-maker has more personal freedom in his life is really this aspect of appreciation which I would like to because he is more likely to recognize, discover, or create address in the framework of scientific literacy. new opportunities and alternatives, Young people in the 1970's view life individually and We have asked ourcitizensto make decisions uniquely. They're developing a variety of life styles that regarding environmental, social, scientific, personal, and providealternativesfortheplanning of their lives. public concerns withoutformallyaddressingin an Especiallyinthe age group whichis taught general educational or systematic manner the way in which these science, many students want to plan for themselves and decisions are to be made. Two people may face a similar their future. Whatever the attitude of a young person his decision but each personis different and may place options have increased over former times. The greater the different values on outcomes. Itis the individual who number of opportunities the more likely a person is to makes each decision unique. Learning decision-making findpersonal satisfaction. More options, however, do skills increases the possibility that each person can achieve make the task of deciding among them more difficult. that which he values.

81 -4:

In the process of deciding, the program I previously First,students may findithard to be honest with mentioned outlines three major requirements for skillful themselves, their classmates, or the leader as they begin to decision-making. One, the examination and recognition of look at their values. Values define the uniqueness in the personal values. Two, the acquisition of knowledge and individual for each person. Fearing judgment on the part of the use of adequate, relevant information. Three, the others or on the par± the teacher may cause students to knowledge and use of an effective strategy for converting withdraw from a public revelation of their values. Second, thisinformationinto an action.Itisthesethree a teacher could indoctrinate students with his own values requirements thatIsee as part of a general science and, of course, should avoid doing so. The fear of program that would lead toward literacy In science. Hence indoctrination has often prevented any discussion of the title of this presentation, Values, Information, and values. We are as science teachers, objective; therefore the Strategies Toward Literacy in Science. valuequest' -n has been omitted from our program Values arethefoundation andtheintegrating completely. A teacherisless likely to indoctrinate framework of the complete decision-making process and students by remembering the following: There are no for this reason should be a part of every consideration in right or wrong values. Values can only be judged by the the classroom. We all realize, I think, that science teachers individual for himself and the teacher's own values may be seldom take up value laden issues in the classroom. Values respected less by some students than by others. Third, the determine what is satisfying and this helps a person to set leader is less likely to indoctrinate the students if he objectives. Values also dictate the action to be taken to remembers that values are learned and thata person who reach those objectives. Before relevant information is has only one set of values that are applied automatically applied, personal values must be examined and recognized without being examined would be functioning likea bytheindividual.Tryingtouse some systematic machine. Sucha person would not be capable of decision-making processis a value. A person facing a determining his unique life style as would be the person decision involving a conflict of values accompanied by who thought about his own values. strong emotion knows he faces an important decision, one In terms of environmental education and science requiring skill to decide satisfactorily. education there are three major causes of problems. One, A generalscience courseshouldtakestudents the external effects, the unintended, the side effects that throughaconsiderationof thesetopics.First,the cause environmental or scientific problems. Be it a new importanceofvaluesinthedecision.Beitan drug or a manufacturing enterprise. Unintended side environmental issue or a scientific controversy the part effects may be foundthatcould be desirable or played by human values has to be recognized. Second, the undesirable. Some values must be lookedat in this individualor personal nature of the values that are context. Two, another cause of problems is patterns of exhibited. That all people have values and that they differ decision-making in regard to resources. Resource owner- widely has to be acknowledged. Third, a definition of ship may be thought of in terms of private, corporate, values. A picture of how values differ from understandings public, or no ownership. Any owner brings to the control and what they are is essential. Four, recognition of these of those resources, personal values. The same is true of values in others. Five, clarification of one's own values. public and corporate decision-making processes. Values Six, identification of values of groups. Seven, converting that exist must be recognized. A third major cause of values into objectives for use in making the decision. environmental or scientific problems lies in the area of There are many different definitions of values. The value conflicts. We don't address this, however, in any definition of values that appeals to me is something a course in systematic form because it is not considered a person prizes, cherishes, esteems; something he expresses part of general science. Concerns about what are the best consistently in his behavior. Defined as such, it is broader values for individuals, what are the best values for society, than specific interest, feelings, beliefs, or attitudes. The and how conflicts are to be resolved have been avoided. reason that general science has avoided values is that it is This causes environmental problems. This causes scientific difficult for a science teacher to introduce such a personal problems. Of course everyone feels "your goals are in- subject as values without bringing to the students his own ferior, my goals are superior," without an examination of subjective ideas. Despite these complications the consider- "your goals or my goals" and their value input. In a final ation of values cannot be neglected if we want to be discussion of this idea of valuesitisimportant to honest with students and encourage them to make sound note that there are four approaches to values as identified decisions.Prizing, cherishing, and esteeming lie in the by people suchas Don Oliver, Sid Simon, and Iry affective domain. Education has traditionally concen- Morrisett. One, indoctrination -"Don't examine but you trated on the cognitive with the neglect of systematic better agree." Two, value clarification-"You have a set of consideration of affect and, therefore, values. Values are values, you get them clear in your own mind." Three, learned. They are appropriate subject matter for the value analysis-"Ilow do my values relate to one another? classroom.Studentswillbebettereducated, more Are there contradictions? Are there consistencies?" Four, competent, and more independent if they learn the source value wmmitment- "Get with something, do it,take of values, how they were acquired, values of other people, some action." It seems to me that without an examination and respect for differing values. Student values and the of values we cannot expect general science courses to studying of these values allow the student to know more address the problem of scientific literacy. We ask students about themselves, have a clearer picture of their own to apply science knowledge that we give them without values,give greater commitment to those that they exploring the context of that information. choose, experience the satisfaction of achieving what is General science also should teach students to find valued, and become more effectivedecision-makers. and evaluate information. The scientific information and This, in my estimation, would be one giant step toward the processes by which this scientific information was establishing scientific literacy. obtained have been well done in my estimation during the There are some sensitive areas in the addressing of last round of curriculum developments. Learning to find values (identified by Gelatt) that also apply to science. information about each of the alternatives to make a

82 decision; whereto go, what to ask, or what to look for strategies. The final phase of the decisionmaking roost and thenevaluating that information are skills that are thatpeoplewould use in a science context requires the essential to a decision-making process. These vital skills calculation of risks associated with each considered must be dealt with in the science courses and they fit alternative, and applying what has been learned to making most advantageously into a general science course. a decisionintegrating the previous steps of values and Information could be divided into four parts. One, information requires the use of a strategy. Estimating the possible alternative actions that could be taken regarding risk involved in each possible alternative ties together the some decision about science. Two, possible outcomes or personalvalues and the information that has been consequences of these actions. Three, probability of the gathered. Most decisions involve some risk in terms of outcomes, the relationship between the actions and possible outcomes. Knowing the personal importance of outcomes, and fair, :he desirability of the outcomes, the various outcomes determines the degree of risk a person is personal preferences. A person who has a decision to willing to take to achieve them. Few human decisions are make regarding science, the environment, or his personal made under conditions of certainty. life, may think he's deciding between the only alternatives The conditions under which all decisions are made by available. But if his alternatives could be increased in individuals can bedivided into four classifications number he would increase his freedom of choice. An certainty, risk, uncertainty,andcombination, Certainty Is individual seldom knows all the alternatives that exist nor where each choice leads to one knownoutcome. If you has the time to find or consider them all. A few years ago jump from a building you will fall.With risk each choice a middle school in my home town was built as a result of leads to several possible outcomes with known probabili- using arguments by two opposing forces both of which ties. For example, when a person decides to flip a coin to wanted other alternatives, not the middle school. A make a choice he knows he has a 50 percent chance of creative individual who saw another alternative looked at getting heads and a 50 percent chance of getting tails. the arguments for the presented alternatives (location of a Uncertainty means that each choice leads to several high school) and used these arguments to support the possible outcomes with unknown probabilities. When the building of the middle school in a particular location. An astronauts first landed on the moon there were several alternative that remains unidentified or rejected on the possible results but no one knew the exact chances for basis of insufficient evaluation might as well not exist. each outcome occurring. The combination involves both If a group of students were asked to write down risk and uncertainty. For example, when a person decides individually all the possible alternatives available to them to apply to a college he doesn't know for certain if he will upon leaving high school a large number of alternatives be admitted but he can use data to make an estimate of would probably result. By reviewing the list to discover his chances of being offered admission. thealternativesthatactuallywere notalternatives, The strategy is a plan for converting values and students would not only appreciate the importance of information into a decision. This should be addressed in having a number of alternatives in decision-making but the general science course. In this sense there is no such also the need for information about each. thing as not having a strategy. So we either try to The location of nuclear reactors, the support of systematically teach decisionmaking strategy regarding Skylab and future NASA activities, the additional support scientific and environmental issues or we take what we of scientific research, and chemical additives in our lives, get. all require information about alternatives to the decision Several commonly used strategies discussed byGelatt for the person to be literate regarding that choice. A and Varenhorst involvesuchstrategiesasthe wish scientifically literate person needs to think about the kind strategy, that is you choose what you desire the most. A of information necessary to him in order to give direction person chooses what he wishes would happen. If I vote for to this search for information. He may find he does not the nuclear reactor then my electric bill will go down. want to read all that is available. He may want to make a This is the same as choosing the long shot in a horse race. phone call. He may want to refer to an individual he It's easy to use this strategy. All you have to know is what respects. The kind of information that is sought influences you desire the most and have some information about the theevaluation of possible outcomes. The sequence outcome. You don't need to know probabilities at all. followed to get information may even determine the The safe strategy, choose the most likely to succeed. decision to be made. A boy who talked to his father about Don't build a nuclear reactor because there's a possibility whetherto go out for baseball or trackisgetting it's dangerous. In a horse race the choice would be the information. If his father advises him that he would not favorite. It's a little more difficult to use this strategy. A be able to keep his car unless he gets a job after school to decision-maker needs to know his objective and have some support the car he now faces a new decisionis he going information about possible and probable outcomes. At outfor sports oris he going to get a job. Because the same time he is required to be somewhat more specific information affects the decision, a person should consider about his objective. his sources, interpret the information, its objectivity, and A third strategy is the escape strategy -choose to its relevance. avoid the worst.Itis sometimes called the minimax Another point regarding information is that igno- strategy, because it minimizes the maximum disaster. It rance about what informationis needed to make the escapesmisfortune.Itisrelativelyeasyto usethis decision may cause the person to make the decision on strategy. A person merely needs to know a little bit of irrelevant data. It may be very impressive to know that information about outcomes and what he consideres the 80 percent of the students attending a certain university worst outcome. The nuclearreactor could have an drive Ford cars. What, however, is the significance of this accident, therefore we vote againstit because of its data to a person in making a decision between a Ford or a potential disaster. Chevrolet? A fourth strategy is the combination strategy, that is The third important part of developing literacy in choose both the most likely and the most desirable. This science through generalscienceis the application of is the combination of the wish and the sale strategies. The

83 strategy suggests that someone suggest the course of tentative, subject to change as evidence accumulates." e, action that bas both high probability and high desirability. Also, to promote scientific literacy, science curricula That is the highest expected value. This seems the most must contain among other things, "the social aspects of logical and reasonable; it is the most difficult to apply and scienceandtechnologyandvaluesderivingfrom it presents several problems in terms of making scientific science."Further,thepublicationstatesthat,"all decisions. First, it requires that the person knows, his teachers, and especially science teachers are challenged personalvalues and has some objectives. Second,it to educate young people to expect, to promote, and to requires knowing alternatives and having the ability to direct societal change." These are the areas of "Scien- predict possible results. Third, it requires the ability to tificLiteracy" to whichIwould like to direct my estimate probabilities. And fourth, it requires the ability remarks after a look at "General Science." to designate the relative value of something. General science today is not the same course most In talking with science teachers and in looking at the of us suffered through little more than a decade ago. trend of the times regarding socialscience, science, About the only thing that held the course together was environmental education, drug education, and career the cover of the book. Remember the great enthusiasm education, we have been searching for a good deal of time with which you read several pages, did several exercises for ways to getat scientific literacy. Today's era of desigmototestyour comprehension, had alittle humanistic approaches has relegated science to something discussion with a possible demonstration now and then, less than the most popular course in the curriculum. By and finally had a mastery test which did little more than presenting students with issues and problems that are confirm your reading ability?Ibelieve that "General available, that are controversial, and asking them to Science" as presently taught in the middle and junior investigate their own values, it appears that a good deal of high schools today consists of topics arranged in such a the problem towards scientific literacy can be overcome. manner that there is a spiral sequential nature to the This also assumes a more humanistic approach to curriculum along with an entirely different manner of science teaching. It is not just 800 terms to be learned, learning. Science ability is no longer 1 to 1 with reading. nor 45 experiments to be completed, nor lab books and Mostscienceclasses have hands-on experiencesfor lab reports to be written carefully, but it is addressing the young learners and many teachers use different testing human element of the enterprise of science. means than the old memory-recall method. Today's general science is more topically organized with many schools teaching units organized into life References science, earth science, and physical science. This type of arrangement allows prepared teacher-specialists to teach 1. Allen, R. F., Foti, C. P., Ulrich, D..M., and S. H. in their area of major concentration and other teachers Woolard. Deciding Now to Live on Spaceship Earth. to concentrate on one area rather than several. Winona, Minnesota: Plover Books. 1973. Lookingatintegratedscience,meaningthose 2. Gelatt,H. B.,Varenhorst,B.,andR.Carey. courses with allsciences taught as interrelated disci- Deciding: A Leaders Guide. New York: College plines, we find very few if any that are truly 'integrated' Entrance Examination Board, 1972. even though Dr. Leopold Klopfer predicted in 1966 that 3. Morrissett,1. "The Relationship of the Social Sci- "we shallsoon witness astrong movement toward ences to Environmental Education." Paper presented integrated science courses in our secondary schools." at the meeting of the American Association for the What happened to this bold prediction of 8 years Advancement of Science, San Francisco. February ago? Why is it that only one curriculum project, as yet 1974. with no materials available and only beginning to be 4. Raths, L. E., Harmin, M., and S. B. Simon. Values organized at Florida State University in Tallahassee, has and Teaching. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill attempted to enter this area, and why is it that at this Co. 1966. . time I would predict that integrated science has about a 5. Simon, S. B., Howe, L. W., and H. Kirschenbaum. 25 percent or less chance of success? Values Clarification. New York:Hart Publishing My thesis is thatit makes no difference what the Company, Inc. 1972. curriculum is, or what the goals of curriculum develop- ment are. Whether topically organized general science, or integrated (by any stretch of the word) science, with or without scientific literacy, the most important ingredient in any curriculum is the individual classroom teacher. A Edward M. Mueller, Science Consultant, Neenah coordinator I once knew said, "let me choose the staff, Public Schools, Wisconsin and the curriculum will take care of itself."I believe that statement more and more as I work with profes- The NSTA publication, "School Science Education sional staffs. for the 70's," contains the major goal, defined as "The Going back to our goal of scientific literacy, If we developmentof scientificallyliterate andpersonally wish to attain this goal for our present students at the concernedindividualswithahighcompetencefor junior high/middle school interface, the most important rational thought and action." Further, we find that person we must reach is probably not in this room. He among other things, the scientifically literate person: is the classroom teacher. "recognizes the limitations as well as the usefulness of Most science teachers, who have been in the field science and technologyin advancing human welfare; for at least a decade, take great pride in the fact that we understands the interrelationships between science, tech- put men on the moon before the Russians. Remember nology, and other facets of society, including social and thebigcurriculum upheaval after "Sputnik." Every economic development; recognizes the human origin of science teacher took a personal vow to beat the Russians science and understands thatscientific knowledgeis to the moon and we began to crank out curriculum

84 designed to meet this goal However, if we really analyze In this respect, the teacher training and certification the situation, how could a 12yearold science student of institutions are at fault In requiring a Certain minimum the late 50's do much it' anything to put man on the preparation in subject areas with a corresponding lack of moon by 19(0 when he was barely out of college? Now requirements in the humanities. I'm certainty glad to we are being called on, after the great social emphasis of report that at one institution, the University of %con- the middle to late sixties, to develop a scientifically sinGreen Bay, a course entitled "The Conscience of the literate person who will achieve the great goals listed in Scientist"isrequiredforallscience students. This the initial paragraph of this paper. however is only a small beginning in the development of How canscience,either generalorintegrated, students who will be able to teach towards the goal of develop in the general population an understanding of "Science for the 70's," Unfortunately, we still require the impact and direction of science in our society it' we thatallscienceteachers takethe samespecialized haveteachers who on the one hand say they are, courses as those students working towards becoming "aiming at inculcating the beautiful, the good and the researchers, technologists, and engineers. Couldn't we true, while their test questions inform the students that design courses which give the background information lit1. really aiming only at the memorization of a hunch needed bysecondaryteachersor morespecifically of facts and trivia." (Bendy Glass) middle and junior high schoolteachers which also Ibelieve integrated science or any other kind of included work in technology, social issues, moral values, science cut riculum which has as its goal the development ethics, history, etc? How can we expect teachers, who of scientifically literate people with heavy emphasison have had to take the same courses as future scientists humanismis doomed beforeitbegins by the back- and engineers, and who have the backgrounds found in grounds of the science teachers involved. my research, to develop in their students a feeling of social Looking at some fairly typical science training, we relevancy or appreciation for technetogy when find that moststates, administrators, teachertraining they have never been exposed to it themselves: institutions and even teachers themselves are unsure of What can we do now to move towards the goal of what constitutes adequate preparation of junior high/ scientific literacy whether we teach topically organized middle school science teachers. This, is a very neglected general science courses, integrated courses of our own area. For example, in a study I did I found that: design, or any other kind of science course? 1. ver 10 percent of a national sample of secondary Ibelieve that to achieve the goals envisioned for ti..chers reported they were teaching in a subject science education in the 70's we can no longer spend arc.i in which they did not feel qualified to teach. great amounts of time stressing knowledge for knowl- 2.Certification standards for 43 of the 50 states do edge's sake at any level of education. The explosion of not spell out requirements for junior high/middle knowledge, over300,000 words per dayinscience school teachers. alone, makes accumulating masses of knowledge impos- 3. About20 percent of Wisconsin schooldistrict sible,Themostimportanttaskwill betodirect superintendents believed that the junior high group scientific knowledge toward the improvement of the lot of scienceteachers was adequately prepared for of humanity. How can we develop a sense of apprecia- their assignments. tion of science for today's youth?Ibelieve the first 4.Graduation requirements from mostinstitutions efforts should be made in organizing ti., curriculum require proficiency in only1 or 2 usually closely- from within, crossing discipline lines not only in science relatedareasforcertification.Thisisfinefor itself butalsoinother departmentsaswell. Why specialty-area teachers but obviously poor for the shouldn't we teach social studies, English, history, math, general or integrated science teacher. and science together in the same way in which we live? 5. liven NSF institutes for the most part, failed to Itis fairly apparent that today's curriculum even at work on this vital area of the curriculum and even thejuniorhigh/middleschoollevel,cultivates two perpetuated the gap between the junior high and groups of students. C.P. Snow calls them the two high school science instructor, cultures;GeorgeO'Hearncallsthemthe"within 6. Besidesnotbeing adequatelypreparedintheir science" and the "without science" groups. One group sciencearea, (40 percent indicatedthis choice) has a strong science interest but no great knowledge of science teachers at all levels are not prepared either the humanities;the otherhasastronginterestin cognitively or effectively to implement courses that humanities but little understanding of science. I believe aresociallyrelevant,scientificallyliterate,or we should leave the specialized training of scientists and humanistic. technologists to the colleges, universities, and technical The present training of science teaching specialists schools and move towards integrating unified 'general' has produced an abundance of teachers who know a lot science into the twelve years of general education. about a very special area of science. These teachers, are Today's science teachers need to be retrained to being eniployed by school districts whose administrators, includethevitalareas ofscientificliteracy. I am in many cases, select specialists because that's what they personally acquainted with a junior high science instruc- are. This is not to say that the teachers are at fault. 'tor who is so specialriA that he really belongs ina Many have been encouraged to enter a science area by college job. Yet this same individual is supposedto make former teachers and counselors, then when confronted allareas of science interesting and relate science to with over 750 semester hours of science offered at a humanism, social values, technology, problems ofman, medium-sized University, opt for a specialization with a etc. This individualis very definitely influencing hun- related minor. If the student is going to be proficient in dreds of students, many towards antiscience attitudes his area he must of necessity neglect other subjects in because what heis teaching is not relevant to their the humanities which would give him the broad back- world. His overall goal seems to be the development of ground to teach towards scientific literacy. every single student into a miniature scientist. How he

85 was trained, I can understand. How he was certified is the trees. It is my suspicion, based on many observa- the fault of our present state certification procedures. tions, that once that teacher enters his classroom and How he was hired is the clastic story of the decision closes his door he is in his own world. And, more often being made by administrators who have no background than not the way in which he was trained is the way in in science and are impressed by. college grades out of which he teaches his course. proportion to their worth. Now, how do you improve Courses in science education must change at the hisattitude or failingthat, move him out of the collegelevelas wellif we are to change teacher classroom? He really belongs at a much higher level of attitudes. No longer can we be content to certify a four education andispresentlyafrustrated junior high year graduate in the sciences after a course or two in teacher waiting for something to open up. teaching methods. I am not suggesting watered down We must all ask ourselves what are the important college graduates for junior high science, butI am points of humanism, and social values in science? How suggesting a more realistic, more relevant curriculum for do we reach the great numbers of people in science this, the most it portant stage of childhood develop- teaching or planning to enter teaching? ment. We can no longer except a dissatisfied, frustrated, The immediate answer of how to provide meaning unqualifiedsecondary teacherin junior high/middle and humanism to dead and irrelevant science courses is school science classes. For those already in the schools, inservice training, team-teaching, and new and up-dated we mustretrain themorremovethem. For courses for teacher training programs at our colleges and those in the education pipeline or coming up we must universities.More than any other program, inservice change their preparation now. No longer can we be education, if properly planned, would reach the greatest content to certify a four year graduate in the sciences number intheleast amount of time. The inservice without a full background of humanities, and more time training program I envision would be continuous, con- in the nature, philosophy, and history of science. A ducted by a committee made up of members from the former president of NSTA said, "Another areaof varioussciencedisciplinesandother subjectareas, teacher preparation which concerns me at both the including members at ffelementary, junior high, high secondary and the elementary level is understanding of school, and college levels. This would not only allow the history and philosophy of science. Few teachers diversity, but would ensure a program that reached all entering theprofessiontodayhave any background levels.Thetraditionallectures,discussions, practice whatsoever in these most vital areas." Programs of this lessons, etc.,are needed, but more important, work type may takefive or more years compared to the experiences in industry, business, and the professions current four undergraduate years and will surely meet should also be included. How much better attuned one with resistance. Those teachers already practicing in the becomes wh'n heactually experiences the areas in field must also be continually upgraded in philosophy which the students he teaches are required to work. All and subject matter. However, courses in subject matter educators may not agree, but I believe more education fields will have to be changed if we expect experienced about people and life takes place outside the classroom teachers to take the courses,for after a few years thaninthem. Districts might needto pick up the absence from the college campus, few teachers have the expenses of these training sessions and even pay teachers desire to pursue graduate level work in a new area or to attend them. This may sound absurd, but industry the background to start at the graduate level. dies itall the time. Neither should this he a one-shot In this complex world, aspecific education may affair as is so common in education. Teachers should be provide one with the tools needed to provide for himself required to attend compulsory inservice training from and family quite adequately. But, the ethical education the day of their appointment to the day of retirement. which helps men resolve the confusion which exists as Although there appears be a rift in how social we try to find ways by which men can live together in studies and science teachers '12N each other, we must their environmentthis is the challenge which faces us encourage team teaching in tic se two areas. We must today. We, as science educators must realize that: "In also convince social problems teachers that more empha- teaching science we must not forget, that itis simulta- sisneeds to be placed on the role of science and neously social study and creative art, a history of ideas, technology with their attendant problems on the future and a supreme product of aesthetic ingenuity." of our citizens. A mere reference to the atomic bomb and the joblessness created by automation is not enough SESSION A-8 when these students will he called on in the near future to make intelligentdecisions on how far we should INDIVIDUALIZED SCIENCE LIKE IT IS proceedinspace exploration and at what pace; are nuclear power plantssafe; shall we ban the internal Stewart P. Darrow, Research Associate, Intermediate combustion engine fromthecities;can we permit Science Curriculum Study, Florida State University, pollution to continue unchecked in this or any other Tallahassee country; when should we turn off the machine which is prolonging a life and who will pay for it; and a hundred In examining the continuum between individual- other questions that are being created everyday. Team ization and independence, there seems to be a Treater ease teaching withsocialstudies would give students the ofmovement inonedirectionthantheother. opportunities to learn about cultural and social .:nplica- Observations on students seem to indicate that they can tions of the science they are learning. Some science generallyindividualize quicker and more comfortably teachers might ask why team with social science when than they can move toward independence. For example, we can teach human values, human welfare, social and in a new senior high school program, when students are economic development, etc? The truth is that teachers, offered complete freedom as to the sequence of materials, regardless of what specialty, tend to he so tied up in they all opt to follow a traditional pattern, page by page their own little world that they can't see the forest for and section by section.

86 Even when self-diagnosis mechanisms indicate that New Developments the ensuing material is known, students elect to plow I. ElementaryLearningCenter,FlexibleAll-Year through all of it anyway. At the same time, they are School. willing to work individually on choosing the units and on 2. Using science in music, art, and guidance. setting the pace at which they will travel through them. 3.Flexible Secondary science. Only in self-evaluation (and the remediation that results 4. Learning science by teaching. from it) do students seem to achieve a greater degree of 5.Who hid the science? independence. 6. SunflowersWho wants them? A possible reason for this behavior is the traditional school pattern of teacher dominance. We have espoused the philosophy of "accept the student where you find SESSION A.10 him," (individual differences) but we have insisted that only we can make the decisions as to the means of STRENGTHENING TEACHER CAPABILITIES FOR progress from there. Whether he works individually or in a EDUCATIONAL INTEGRATION group, we will prescribe the pathway. TheIndividualized Teacher Preparation program JayLemke,AssistantProfessor of Education, (ITP) is complete, with the final modules now at the Brooklyn College, City University of New York printers. Their usage in teacher-readiness programs has increased steadily. The so-called strategy modules seem to College professors scheme and dream, but it is the._ enjoy more popularity and greater use than the content teacherin the school who bears the burden of our modules. philosophizing. Educational integration, the philosophy of The Individualized Testing System (ITS)isalso a truly humane education, often means for the science complete. It furnishes a means for student evaluation in teacheranupstream swim againstthecurrentof which test items based on performance objectives can be specialization. He is encumbered by the traditional school assigned on a completely individual basis. it also provides curriculum and far better prepared by his education to for individualized remediation. stick to his own subject and leave the integrating to The modular Level Ill program has always had the someone else. If itis desirable that future generations capabilities for independence and individualization to a learn science as an integral part of man's adventure on the greater extent than that found in the Levels I and II texts. earth, then ways must be found to strengthen teacher The next logical step toward further individualization of capabilities for integration. the materials would seem to be the modularization of the Science makes its proper contribution to humane first two levels. education when we teach science inits total human Work is progressing on the interdisciplinary, modular, context:as an activity of men living in history and senior high school science program called the Individual- society, searching for meaning in life and solutions to ized Science Instructional System (ISIS). This program problems that threaten their dreams. Science is a mode of usesindividualizeddiagnostic tests and individualized human expression capable of beauty and subtlety, of project work. Choice of modules (called minicourses) is being personal while striving to be universal. As a human completely free, but once the student has selected a activity it poses moral dilemmas, has social consequences, minicourse, he or she is responsible for all of the core andisnot immune to ideology, faction, or politics. material. Excursions are graded and optional. Resource Scienceinitstotal human context has asclose a units are used in place of remedial excursions for students connectionwithmusic,art,andpoetryas with who need help on techniques or concepts thatare mathematics, technology, and engineering. It is no more common to two or more minicourses. distant from law than from medicine, and rather close at times to theology. Those who accept this vision of the role of science in INDIVIDUALIZED SCIENCELIKE IT IS man's life and thought, and who believe that itis only when science is taught at all levels in its total human JohnF. Thompson,Principal,Flexible All-Year context that students will genuinely understand it and be School, Research Learning Center, Clarion State able to judge it intelligently, should also bear responsi- College, Pennsylvania bilityfor preparing science teachers for such a task. Definite andspecificproposals are needed, now, for Issues providing teachers with the intellectual base, the teaching 1. To change science teaching, you must change the techniques, and the public and professional support they people doing it. will need for the job. In each of these three areas, the 2. To change the people doing it, they must want to philosophy of educational integration itself suggests the change. kinds of assistance the science teacher will nod. 3. For people to want to change, they must first know For most science teachers college science courses who they are and where they fit. providetheonlyintellectualbasefortheirscience 4. With this view, a person can then make some choices. teaching. Those courses did not evolve to meet the needs 5. !f a teacher has not internalized "individualization" of teachers or generalists; their internal logic, rationale, for himself, his success in "doing" itto others is and ultimate justification arc based on the needs of future doubtful at hest. sciencespecialists,Such courses emphasizeproblem 6. The techniques for individualizing are numerous and solving techniques at the expense of deeper analysis of the tested. origin, function. and limitations of general concepts. They 7. We have the seeds and the know-how to grow a anticipate the needs of students who will use parts of their sunflower. The question i. whether we want to grow contentas elements inafurther specialization, not it or not. students who seek to establish the relationship of that

87 contenttostillbroaderareas of humanlifeand our teachers, and not on science understood in isolation, understanding. Our graduates can calculate the efficiency but understood in its total human context. of heat engines, but not describe the limitations of the Science teachers must not only understand, they second law of thermodynamics; they can recite the stages must be able to communicate, to transfer understandings of mitosis, but not discuss the possible evolutionary origin and stimulate student inquiry. How can we provide them of the cell's capacity to divide. And if we should ask them with this second of our three components: the teaching how thermodynamics can help us make sense of the techniques they need? tendency of living organisms to remain stableina If there is truth in the old saw: You teach as you changing environment, or to explain the seeming paradox have been taught, then the two proposals for supplement. of increasing order in living systems against the trend to ing the teacher's own science education will already have disorder in nonliving systems, we would be lucky if they begun to provide, by example, part of the needed teaching could understand the questions! techniques.Thenatureof educationalintegration, To venture outsidethe narrowest definitions of however, suggests two further proposals, ones whose science: How well do we prepare them to teach science implementation belongs traditionally in the domain of the with regard for its social implications? What contribution schools and departments of education. Teacher training could they make to discussions of technology and the and teacher certification are presently moving toward an environment, national energy policy, or the development ideal which requires that educational theory, so long of music and the visual arts in the twentieth century? uselesstoso many classroomteachers, betaught How would theyfarein helping students arriveat predominantly inthecontextof experienceand positions on such controversies as: the neocreationist participation directly in the elementary and secondary critique of evolution, the evidence for and against ESP schools. It is in this context that these next two proposals and other aspects of parapsychology? are offered. The firstis a call for increased emphasis in the In examples such as these, the question for science preparation of science teachers, both at the preservice and education should not be: What does all this have to do inservice levels, and again this can be done in both with science? but: What does science have to say about all baccalaureate and master's degreeprograms, on the of this? How can we help provide science teachers with techniques of team teaching. The full burden of teaching the intellectual base needed to teach science in its total science, or any other subject, in its total human context is human context? Traditional specialist science teaching at too large for the single teacher. Increasingly, as trends in the college level will continue, in the immediate future at cirriculum move toward an education at all levels that is least,to dominatealllearning inscience. We must more relevant to the specific needs of our contemporary discover, then, how to build upon existing courses, how to society and its problems, the science teacher will find help the teacher transform the content to meet his own himself a member of an instructional team, bringing his needs. own background and the special insights of his discipline First, we can try to meet the need for a "critical to bear on questions that require an interdisciplinary second look" by the teacher at the science content itself. perspective. We can help the teacher learn how to We can provide retrospective seminar courses for the participate effectively in the more complex pattern of teacher which turn back to the great intellectual principles interactions that occurs when two or more teachers must of their conventional science courses, to highlight them, co-operate. We can help meet the need to learn how to to foster critical examination of their foundations and follow as well as to lead as a teacher, to pass a student's broad implications, to do what the first science courses question to a colleague or receive one referred, to open up never have the time to do and the students insufficient room for disagreement within which students can explore motivations and intellectual maturity for. The only way alternative positions on issues, and to criticize a thesis past superficiality in understanding is to set time aside for outside our area of expertise and be responsive to selective, critical, reflective discussion of basic principles. criticism in turn from those outside our own. Indeed Second,wecantrytobroadenthescience learning to teach science as part of an interdisciplinary generalist's intellectual base to include elements needed to team may become a contribution of science to the total see and articulate relationships between science and other curriculumas re-evaluated by students, parents, and disciplines. We can provide the science teacher with educators. courses that focus on widely applicable strategies for A new teacher, for example, should not carry a full integrationandsynthesis. The methods of systems teaching load in his first year, but should devote part of analysis, the techniques of structuralism and cybernetics, his efforts to mastering the curriculum and finding his and the concepts of symmetry, order, equilibrium, evolution, his subject's place in it. That first year can be the capstone stability, and the many other tools of the generalist, can of a liberal education for the teacher who learns to listen be made real and immediate for the science teacher in to his more experienced colleagues,riotjustin the genuinely interdisciplinary courses that bridge between sciences, but in the other subject areas with which science science and the problems of man in society, between is to be integrated. science and the questions of value and meaning posed in The second proposalcallsfor an emphasis on the traditional humanities. problem-oriented science teaching, not teaching problem- These courses must be required; they are part of the solving methods for idealized problem types, but teaching professional preparation of the science teacher. They can scienceinthecontextof non-idealized,real-world be developed in both n-eservice and inservice forms, in problems. Thefieldtripto park, beach, or nature both baccalaureate lndmasters degree programs, preserve; to power station, refinery, or computer center, is available to teachers as p rt of their continuing education. never an idealized exercise in one subject for the student. Their importance should be reflected in policy on teacher The conventional separation of subjects and disciplines is certification under state and local codes. We must insist, less easily maintained inthe face of what is for the not on science credits, nit on science understanding from student a unitary experience. We can help the teacher

88 make the full experience a learning experience, richer for The argument that a Ptia's training is not well the integration of disciplines by emphasizing techniques utilized in the elementary school would not be valid for for real-world teaching. The restriction of education to theDoctorofArts'trainingandabilities.The the largely artificial and frequently sterile environment of establishment of a Doctor of Arts degree would create the even thebest-equippedclassroom has ledto such academic contextforprofessional acceptance of and paradoxes as the poor quality of education at school publicsupportforeducationalintegration and the situated in the heart of urban agglomerations of learning science-generalist as teacher. The science teacher may not resources. The bus is mightier than the textbook, but less need a Doctor of Arts degree to teach science in its total emphasized as a teaching tool. Extra-mural education human context,buthe may wellneed thehelp, enforces on the aware teacher the need to integrate and encouragement, and support of colleagues who do hold helphisstudentsmultiplythe meanings of their such a degree to do it well, with conviction, and with experiences. The special teaching techniques must include public support. . in-class discussion of science's part in real-world under- standing and problem-solving. The secondproposalcallsspecificallyforthe Up to this point we have considered proposals to education profession to move in each of the states toward provide the science teacher with the intellectual base and general teacher certification. This proposal willseem with the teaching techniques needed for educational radical exactly in proportion to one's faith in the doctrine integration. The science teacher needs, no less than these, of specialization. General teacher certification calls for active public and professional support. Science teachers teachers to be certified without discrimination as to grade are men and women enmeshed in a total society and in level or subject. This policy has been a workable system in the enormous social organization we call our educational effect for several years in the province of Ontario in system. They are members of two professions: science and Canada. Such a system can encourage the public to view education, with duties and allegiances to both in varying teachers, and teachers to view themselves as concerned individual proportions. These professions define for the with students and with instruction rather than with ages public and for the teacher the prestige and status allotted or subjects. A man or woman is a teacher first, and to every activity within their scope. they are the arbiters secondarily one who knows quite a bit about science,or of legitimacy, and they are, like all social embodiments of who may be trained to work with veryyoung or with convention, archly conservative. handicapped students. This policy, insofar as it militates The science profession has sanctified specialization in against the kind of "biology teacher" who thinks that he the public mind and labeled the teacher and the generalist can be an excellent teacher knowing nothing but biology unprofessional as scientists. The education profession has or against the "elementary school teacher" who thinks he also lionized the specialist and legitimized a hierarchy of doesn't needtol understand scienceaswell as the authority that makes it encumbent upon the professor to "secondary school teacher" does, is strong professional tell the elementary school teacher what and how to teach, support for educational integration. but unthinkable thatthereverse should happen. We There in brief, are six specific proposals to help cannot expect qualified individuals to choose careers as provide the intellectual base, the teaching techniques, and science teachers at all levels and academic educations as the public and professional support needed to teach sciencegeneralists,unless the science and education science in its total human context. They are all based o professions provide the needed support. Meaningful public theassumptionthatwecanreduceobstaclesto andprofessionalsupportforeducationalintegration humanistic education by strengthening a science teacher's requiresradicalchangesin custom, convention, and capabilitiesforintegration.Thereisaverygood attitude. laboratory for testing that assumption and it is as close as First, there is need for academic recognition of the ourselves. legitimate value of advanced generalist education. The glory of specialization in the public mind is inextricably linked with the prestige of the PhD. This certification of SESSION A-I 2 the specialist confers an authority out of all proportion to the effort required. We have made no provision, however, INNOVATIONS IN COLLEGE BIOLOGY for a corresponding degree for the generalist, of equal prestigeand,inevitably,inflatedauthority,asa DOUBLETHINK IN BIOLOGICAL EDUCATION counterweight to the voice of the specialist in our society. In recent years, as the failure of the specialists and of Donald D.Cox,ProfessorofBiology,State specialist training in areas that belong properly to the University College of New York, Oswego generalist, notably in teaching and in advisement on public policy, has become more apparent, the proposal In George Orwell's world of big brother the concept has been advanced in various quarters for what will of "doublethink" referred to the ability to hold two probably be known as the Doctor of Arts degree. Its contradictory beliefs in one's mind simultaneously, and Doctors will be trained in research, authors of scholarly accept both of them. [61 The party member in this publications, broadly learned with in-depth knowledge of scenario was exposed, from early childhood, to mental several specific areas, but prepared to serve society and training based on this concept, so that by the time he the profession as the specialist is not: by synthesizing and assumed his role in the party, he, understandably, was integrating, by planning and designing on a scale that unable and unwilling to think too deeply on any subject requires an overview of many specialties. They will be our whatever. To make this system work, the slogan of the teachers and critics, watchers for the increasingly frequent day was uniformity; uniformity in dress, speech, and most danger signs that appear in a complex society where important, uniformity of thought. The most serious crime specialists produce effects whose consequences rapidly against the state was thoughtcrime. The crime of not spread outside their areas of expertise. thinking along the lines approved by the state.

89 When I received an invitation to participate in this The mainfunctionof thelectureistotransmit conference with the theme "1984.10 and counting" I did information and that of the laboratory to illustrate the some thinking and came to the conclusion that perhaps subject matter presented in the lecture. The laboratory we are closer to 1984 than we would like to admit. To experiences usually consist of prefabricated exercises with preface my remarksI would like to point out that standardized procedures and predetermined outcomes. problems in biological education mnot be considered in Lecturing as a means of transmitting information a vacuum, but rather must be placed in context with the became obsolete with the invention of the printing press whole educational endeavor and with the larger society in the fifteenth century. In comparison with the books, that supports it. However, this in no way reduces the journals,films,computers,andteachingmachines responsibility of biological educators to seek solutions to available today itis a very inefficient way to transmit these problems. information. In addition, a major side effect to lecturing is To get back to the concept of doublethink, let us that it deprives the student of virtually all responsibility first examine some of the fond hopes we like to express for using his own mentality to weigh, compare, and decide for the behavior of our students, and then compare them what is important for him to learn. Therefore, if one of with the methods we are using to evoke these behaviors. the aims of biological education is to develop intellectual High on the list of expectations is the hope that we will autonomy, then students must be given an opportunity to develop in them the ability to think independently exercise intellectual autonomy. intellectual autonomy. This goal has been stated in various It may be that you, as I, have experienced difficulty ways:for example, to develop theabilityto think intryingtogetstudentstoexerciseintellectual critically, to develop intellectual honesty, to develop an autonomy. I teach a course in general ecology for biology inquiringmind, orto developtheabilityforself majors that is presented as a series of self instructional education. modules. Each module has clearly stated instructional Let us look, now, at the methods we use to develop objectives.Earlyinthe presentsemester a student intellectual autonomy in students, and let us begin with complained to me that she did not know what was the curriculum. There is a phenomenon in biological expected of her in the course. After explaining to her that education known as the core curriculum. This usually I had stated as explicitly as I could, and in writing, what takes the form of a collection of courses which are was expected of her,sheadmittedthatshe was required of all biology majors. The core curriculum was accustomed to having the teacher tell her the important defined in CUEBS Publication No. 18 (1967) as "... that things to learn. She dropped the course. body of knowledge essential for all students of Biology." This is what I referred to earlier when I stated that This statement is so omnipotent that one hesitates to mess many of the problems of biological education must be around with it, but let's do it anyway. shared with the whole educational establishment. Do you It is not unusual to find biology programs in which know that there are public schools that administer drugs students can exercise freedom of choice in only one or to "hyperactive" children, to calm them down so that, twocourses,andinsomeinstancesthewhole among other things, they will listen to the teacher? undergraduate program is prescribed and required. The Stephen Chorover El,who is professor of psychology usual rationale is that students are incapable of planning aad brain science at MIT states "I doubt that anyone programs that will best fit their needs. (Actually, most really knows how many American children are being core curricula are designed to prepare the student for treated with daily doses of stimulants. One practitioner graduate school). In the absence of competent counseling who uses them estimatesthatthe number exceeds this may, in fact, be the case, but this whole issue raises a 250,000 nationwide." Chorover further states that, "We very basic question: "What is school for?" The prime arelayingthegroundworkinchildhoodforthe function of school is to prepare students for the future. If psychotechnological control of adults... As the tools it does not, one must question the whole idea of school. A grow more powerful, the prospects are vanishing for required curriculum thus suggests that the faculty can saving our children and for saving ourselves from this foretell the future better than the student. A census of the dehumanizing chemical and biological welfare." number of PhD's pumping gas, (or trying to find some gas I'm quite sure the young lady I referred to earlier was to pump) suggests that our batting average at foretelling not a victim of drug abuse in the public schools. She has the future is not all that could be desired. become addicted to the teacher through normal classroom What are the consequences of abolishing the core practices.Idon't even like to think about a college curriculum'? At worst. the student may make mistakes in population that has been preconditioned to intellectual judgement which he will have to learn to live with. passivity by drugs. It has been my personal experience However, this is an improvement on having to learn to live that a great many, perhaps most, college students are with someone else's (the faculty's) mistakes. Besides, my already ;'addictedto, and are over-dependent on the personal experiences indicate that learning to live with teacher. Compare this situation to our goal of developing one's mistakes is highly edtt.ational. On the other side of intellectual autonomy. It seems to me a clear cut case of the question, however, and most importantly. a rigid doublethink. required curricular structure stifles intellectual autonomy Now, let's look at traditional laboratory instruction. by submerging the individual, forcing all students into a The fact that in many biology courses the lecture and the common mold and introducing an assembly lineeffect to laboratory are scheduled as separate entities suggests that biological education. It appears. then, that our practice of there are aspects of biology that cannot be pursued in the requiring a curriculum is incompatible with our goal of lecture. Chief among these are the processes by which developing intellectual autonomy. biological information is generated. Prefabricated labora- Next. let us examine the teaching methodology that tory exercises in which the student follows a set of we are using to develop intellectual autonomy instudents. detailed directions to arrive at the "right" answer do little The almost universal method of presenting undergraduate to enhance his understanding of these processes. Striving biology in this country is in the lecture-laboratory format. forpredetermined"right"answersbrainwashesthe

90 studentintoafalse concept of the way biological because "When no meaning is conveyed variation in information is derived, because we all know thereare no meaning cannot be observed." [101 "right" answers, but only varying degrees of probability. When instructors are required to turn in grades Furthermore, this technique has the effect of standard- ranking the relative accomplishments of students within izing and depersonalizing the laboratory experienceso thetime limits of a college term, they commonly, that all students are performing uniform tasks in thesame arbitrarily, choose a body of information that they think ways and at the same rates. will fit the time period. The information and learning Unfortunately,itseems that few. biologists have activitiesarethen organized so that grades can be addressed themselves to such basic questions as "what determined in the simplest way. In order to geta better constitutes a valid laboratory experience?" and "what is comparative measure this often means that all students do the optimal laboratory experience for a given course?" In the same things in the same ways and at thesame times. practice there seems to be a form of "Parkinson's Law" Thus, individual interests of students and individual rates operating to the effect that the number of laboratory of learning become secondary to the bureaucracy of exercisesperformed by students increasesindirect grading. The resultis that getting grades rather than proportion to the number of laboratory periods available. learning becomes the reason for taking courses. The prevailing assumption seems to be thata prescribed Ironically, there is evidence that giving grades hasa number of hours in the laboratory results inan equal negative influence on the learning process. Psychologist learning experience for all students. In reality,an intensive Edward Desi [31 reported on experiments which showed two- or three-week period of investigation a better that when students were either rewarded (as withan "A") learning experience for some students thana full semester or punished (as with a "D" or "E") in a learning situation, of "official answer" exercises. The point is that learningis they showed less interest in the learning task after itwas an individual process and cannot be treated with assembly completed than did students who performed the task for line, mass production techniques. When it isso treated the their own satisfaction, when no reward or punishmentwas student's individuality is submerged and he is reducedto involved. jumping through academic hoops. Gradeshavebecome sofirmlyestablishedin Conventionally taught biology coursesare typically American education during the past fifty years that both instructor-centered in the sense that they provide the students and teachers have developed a great dependency studentwithlittleopportunity forself-initiated and on them. We persist in identifying our best with "As" and self-directedstudy. McKeachie [5]has cited research "Bs" on the assumption that they will become the leaders reports which indicate that learning is strongly influenced of our society. Unfortunately, this doesnot appear to be by teaching methodology. These reports show that forthe the case. The Newman Report (1971) indicates thata achievement of more complex educationaloutcomes such number of studies covering students trained in business, aslong term retention, criticalthinking, changes in school teaching, engineering,medicine andscientific attitudeandmotivation,allof which researchhavefound almostnocorrelation between arepartof course grades intellectual autonomy, student-centered teachingmethod- of studentsinthese nods and their ologies are superior to instructor-centeredones. Thus the on-the-job performance. lecture-laboratory format as traditionally used is antithet- I would like to emphasize the distinction between ical to the goal of developing intellectual autonomy. grading and evaluation. One of the essential functions of school, as an institution, is evaluation. [8) In the absence Another practice which biological education shares of evaluation, by definition, you do not havea school. In with the whole educational establishment, and which I much the same way, without guards, by definition,you think is contradictory to the development of intellectual do not have a prison as an institution. Faculty evaluation autonomy, is the practice of giving letter grades. I have of student performance, however,can 1-e accomplished heard grades defended on the basis that they giveus a without recourse to any system of gradi.ig. In fact,as we measure of academic achievement. But this is circular adopt more open curricula in which the emphasisis on reasoning because academic achievement has no independ- self-initiated learning, evaluations of Learning situations ent meaning: it is defined in terms of grade point averages. arelikelyto include summary ststetnents about the In practice each instructor has his own interpretation of student's progress and performance along with samples of academic achievement for each course he teaches. In the his work. This is, by no means,a new and revolutionary grading process he may evaluate student performance on a idea. Unless the school has modif.ed its philosophyin the variety of activities. e.g., oral and written expression, past two years, the transcript of r tudents graduating from laboratoryperformance,classattendanceandother EvergreenState College in 013 mpia, Washington, will activitiesheconsidersrelevant.These are thenall consist of a 32-page booklet: a much summarized on a single scale and issued asa letter grade, more meaningful The grisde, however, gives no information about the record than a symbolic one consisting of letter grades. evaluati )11 Some instructors may givebssiefanduninformative that lead to it, and the information it does evaluations, butit transmi. is difficult or impossible to interpret. is hard to imagine an evaluation summary more brief and uninforn at ive thanan "A". "B". Grade point averages have been used for such varied or "C". The practice, then, of gi sing letter grades, while purposesas admissiontograduateandprofessional holding ontothegoaloft'evelopingintellectual schools, scholarship awards, determination of draft status, autonomyinstudents,is another classic example of eligibility for veterans' benefits, eligibility .or extracurric- doublethink in biological education. ular activities and as qualifications for employment. It Curricular structure, traditional use of th lecture- seems absurd to me to even suggest that each of these -laboratory format, and grading,are nothing more than purposes requires the same kind of information. That they conventions used by biology departments and schoolsto aresoused suggests that grades mean everything to achieve their goals. Conventions can he changed without everyone. Oneistempted, therefore, toacceptthe destroying the basic functions of these entities. I'mnot corollary to this, i.e.. that they therefore mean nothing, willing to go as far as Ivan Mich 141 who proposed the

91 elimination of schools infavor of informal learning Administrative Assistant, a faculty science committee, or centers,because I thinkthisisunrealistic.That byselectedfaculty.These tasks can be very time- conventions can change is illustrated by Evergreen State consuming and tedious if the system of organization and College, Governors State University, Hampshire College, distribution of the material is ineffective and confusing. and State University of New York at Purchase. Whether or Just recentlyI met with science representatives from not the existing establishment can change its conventions neighboring elementary schools to assist them in orga- is a moot question. It will not be easy. However, one sure nizing their science material as efficiently as possible. We way to avoid the world of "big brother" is through a establisheda system of equipment exchangebetween citizenry of autonomous thinkers. If biology departments schools so that no school has to drop a unit or an and schools have the slightest commitment to the future, I activity because of lack of equipment. think itis imperative that they change some of their Themanipulationof sciencematerialisreally conventions and avoid the anomaly of doublethink. secondary to the actual teaching and learning of science. During the first week of School each year, I meet with the classroom teachers from each grade level to do References several things. First, to establish a science schedule; to determine when and what units will be taught during 1, Chorover, Stephen L. "Big Brother and Psycho- the school year, so as to eliminate the simultaneous use technology."Psychology TodayOctober 1973. of limited science supplies and to co-ordinate the science 2. Cox, Donald D. and L. V. Davis.The Context of program withthesociallivingprogram. Second, it Biological Education: The Case for Change.Publica- gives me a chance to familiarize new teachers with the tion No. 34, CUEBS, Washington, D.C. 1972. organization and. distribution system of science material 3. Desi, Edward L. "WorkWho Does Not Like It and and reacquaint returning teachers with this procedure. Why."Psychology TodayAugust 1972. Third, I can introduce and familiarize teachers with any 4. Mich, Ivan.Deschooling Society.Harper and Row new units or materials which have beenreceived at their Publishers, New York. 1970. grade lvel. 5. McKeachie, WilbertJ. Research on College Teaching: When we establish a science schedule, we determine A Review.Eric Clearinghouse on Higher Education, what my teaching responsibilitieswillbe during the Washington, D.C. 1970. school year. Of the five or six science units written for 6, Orwell, George.Nineteen Eighty-Four.Harcourt, each grade level, I will teach two to each classroom. The Brace and Company, New York. 1949. choice of the units I teach is at the discretion of the 7. Panel on undergraduate major curricula,Content of classroom teacher, withtheunderstandingthatthe Core Curriculain Biology.Publication No. 18, teacher will teach two to four of the remaining units CUEBS, Washington, D.C. 1967. herself. Usually the classroom teacher will ask me to 8, Postman, Neil and Charles Weingartner.The School teach new units, with which she is unfamiliar, or units Book,Delecorte Press, New York. 1973. that she, for various reasons, feels uncomfortable with. 9. Task force of the Department of Health, Education When I teachlessons from thescienceunits,the and Welfare, Frank Newman, Chairman,Report on classroom teacher remains in the room and observes, Higher Education.Washington, D.C. 1971. assists, and generally acquaints herself with the pro- 10. Warren, Jonathan, R.College Grading Practices: An cedures, concepts, and materials of the science activities. Overview.Eric Clearinghouse on Higher Education, During and following the activities, we discuss the Washington. D.C. 1971. methods and materials being used, and if she or I aren't satisfied with the procedures or the results, I offer ways to modify theactivity andsuggestextensions and alternatives from other programs, including AAAS, ESS, SCOPE, etc., or from any other source at my disposal, SESSION A-14 provided that the modification or alternative meets the needs of the teacher and the children. By teaching two THE ROLE OF THE SPECIAL SCIENCE TEACHER IN units in the classroom, my primary responsibility is to IMPLEMENTING THE NEW BALTIMORE COUNTY demonstrate to the teachers, some of whom may he SCIENCE PROGRAM unsure of themselves because of scanty science back- grounds, or because of the diversity and quantity of KennethR.Lawton,Jr.,K-6SpecialScience science material, that the science program in Baltimore Teuher, Battle Grove Elementary School,Balti- County is not difficult to teach: that it can he enjoyable more County Schools, Maryland and rewarding for children and teacher. From time to time, a teacher may desire a special As a special science teacherI help implement the demonstration lesson to kick-off or culminate a unit, or new science program in myschool, and more recently, on a subject which is not necessarily partof the formal assistneighboringschools withtheir programs. My science curriculum.Itry to make myself' available to responsibilities encompass the actual teaching of science assist, gather materials, or actually teach the lesson. and the preparation of materials for myself and other When I'm not teaching or helping teachers with teachers. science problems, I spend a good deal of time preparing The new science program has brought with it an science materials for the other teachers who normally avalanche of science material which has to be ordered, lack time to prepare for themselves. A crew of student received, stored. and organized, distributed when the science aids helps me prepare and distribute the science classroom teacher needs it, and finally inventoried at the material. end of the school year.In schools without a special Since field trips often serve as valuable supplements science teacher, these jobs are usually handled by the to the formal science program, Ialso offer suggestions

92 and help in their planning, and if my schedule permits, I SESSION 11-1 enjoy going onthem.Our county also has established a program of intervisitations between our secondary and THE SECONDARY SCHOOL-COLLEGE INTERFACE elementary sch )ols.If an activity from the elementary curriculum rei tes to st mottling similar being doneor SCIENCE AND FUTURE SHOCK capable of Dying done m a secondary science lab, the elementary teacher can plan to take her class to that Robert E. Cook, Associate Professor of Biology and school, usually in the same vicinity, to observeor work Education, Southeast Missouri State University, Cape with the secondary teachers and students. Secondary Girardeau teachersandstudents arealsoinvitedtovisitthe elementary schools to assist or just become familiar with Back in the summer of 1973 when I was first invited what's happening in elementary science. It isone of my to addressthisgroup onthetopic of secondary responsibilities to co- ordinate these intervisitations and school-college science interface,I would have said in keep an ear to the ground on what's happening in the answer to the main question... "Yes, many; in fact, too secondary schools. many college freshmen courses are a repeat of what the student has had in high school." Furthermore,Iwould Some of my other responsibilities include ordering have, with all the arrogance I could muster, decried this andpicking-upanylivespecimens needed bythe repetition as a sinful waste of precious educational time. teachers from the resource centers in the high schools. I Now before I go on, it is necessary to explain the also try to keep the classroom teachers informed ofany setting for the formulation of such a statement. For the inservice or regular college science courses whichmay past seven years I have been in Southeast Missouri trying, interest them or help them in their present teaching with very little success, to move a few teachers away from situations. One of my current projectsistryingto rote memorization toward a higherplaneof teaching. The establishspecialinterest groups, such as a Rocketry stock answer from our majority of the teachers is of . Club, Geology Club, etc. for children witha curiosity or course, "We're doing allright; "X" number of our interest in these areas. students went to college and got high marks in biology, chemistry, or physics," or "John went to engineering Notallspecialscienceteachersin our county school and didallright, so why change?" Another follow the same procedures and patterns. Theyfunction, common answer is, "We're pleased with our system, most asIdo, according to the needs andwants, as they of our teachers are graduates of this school and after four perceive them, of their teachers and children. years away still want to return to the good life." It would not make any difference to these teachers An example of the variations in teaching patterns what was taught at the college, they v.ould spend the class among special science teachersistherather unique time allotted, priming their students with facts so that the "Explorer" program of Gil Smith, special science teacher student will be able to take freshman chemistry or biology at Villa Cresta Elementary School. Gil devotes his entire and obtain his or her"A" for the course. afternoon to investigation sessions with individuals and small groups of students, in contrast to the familiar With this in mind, onshould look at the classes procedure of teaching entire classrooms. He breaks his being taught at college, aside from the traditional. I'm afternoons down into15.20-minute time blocks. Be. sure you can cite college biology classes that are not blood tween one to six children may sign up for a time block, and guts type courses. We have one where I am employed or several time blocks needed, through their home- which we callLifeScience.Itistaught by several room teachers. When these children meet with Gil in his individuals whose main concern is social and political science room, which is well-supplied with equipment and change or upheaval. I'm sure we can find high school a mini-science library, they can "explore." with Gil's classes geared along these same lines. I seriously question assistance, any science problem or topic that they wish. whether we should call these classes biology. Students Thesciencetopicshisstudentsusuallychooseto (nonmajors)moving from such a class into physiology can investigate arc closely related to the curricular science express their feelings about abortion, premarital sex, the program, but mayalsoincludetopics of scientific occurrence of VD among teenagers, etc., but know interest outside of the program. Besides assisting teach- nothing about cell anatomy or physiology. I'm notsure ersandrunninghis"Explorer" program, Gilalso they even understand ecology, pollution, or waste. They maintains a live - specimens center which supplies county go out collecting glass bottles from roadside parks or schools withmealworins. Bessie-Beetles, and daphnia. rightaways and then waste gallons of hot water cleaning them for the recycling centers. There are also minicourses, Twoofthe other special science teachers in our A-T courses, open classrooms, field classes, etc., all of county. Doris Ensminger and Amy Behan. are involved which have counterparts at the high school level. Most of in rewriting and adapting activities from selected science which start with the cell and go to organisms or start with units Sc) that these activities can be done by individual the organism and go to the cell. students at their own rate of speed, according to their The bulk of the introductory college classes have still own capabilities. not changed their basic teaching techniques of lecture, memorize, and regurgitate. Laboratories function in two think itis safe to say that while the interpreta- capacities; (a) to verify principles presented in lecture and tions of needs and methods of teaching may varyamong (b) to add additional material which because of time specialscienceteachers, we allagree that our main cannot be presented in lectures. functionisto promote the teaching and learning of Now there are some of y(» who are thinking "What sciencein any way possible in our schools and commu- aboutallthoseinquiry courses that have been devel nities. oped since 1957? Aren't these different from tl: college

93 Clan just described?" Well, PSSC is, for all practical start college and drop out. These people will need science purposes,a bad"foul"letterword, and Harvard courses that will support the paraprofessions oftheir Project Physics is only whispered about outside of college choice. methods classes. As for BSCS, its Green Version is taught How are these changes going to come about? What is as one might expect to see any 1950 blood and guts it going to take to get the secondary teachers to meet the biology taught. I'm talking about the majority of teachers, needs of the students? Not so long ago I attended a not the minority. However, for all the merits of the BSCS seminar on the preparation of teachers. When the and CHEMS materials, students don't want to think if fourteencarat scientist from the panel finished with his they have to explain their ideas based on concrete blurb, the session was opened for comments from the evidence. The answer to such questions as "Why did you floor. Almost to a person the science teachers wanted the use this?" or "Why did you do that?" is "Because the colleges to offer more courses in the science disciplines book said I should." It is not uncommon for students to but did not want to take any courses in the academic field comment "Why don't you tell me, you know the answer." of education. Yet they had the gall to say they wanted to These types of responses infuriate me. In other classes take science courses that would show them how to meet students are taught that creativity and emotions are one the diverse needs of their students. Maybe you have had a and the same. They are encouraged to express themselves science course which taught you how to look after the regardless of how weak their arguments are. diverse needs of students. I spent fourteen years getting Recently I was again jolted back into reality on the my doctorate and have taught in colleges for twelve years. topic of "Scientism." For those of you unfamiliar with the I have attended colleges in the midwest and west coast word, it was used by Eastman to describe the mistaken and have talked to others about this problem. They agree idea that science can solve all the problems of society. Can that such courses are not in their experience. What these you imagine, fifteen years after the birth of BSCS and people need to do is stop teaching science and start PSSC and we still have students with this idea? This was a teaching individual students. I know this sounds like a straight "A" high school student, but these ideas are still cliche but just stop and think how often you say "I teach prevalent, unintentionally of course, in our college classes. biology, or physics," and think in terms of subject matter. We present such diverse problems as digestion and enzyme Teachers will insist that their course is on "top of it" activity or transport of materials in plants and then because they gave written behavioral objectives in all three immediately tell the student what to do to get his answer. domains.I'll give odds these objectives are written in Furthermore, at both levels we have students cut up dead terms of the teacher's concept of what he could do and frogs, crayfish, or cats so that they will have a greater not what the student will need when he or she gets out in appreciation of livingthings.About the onlyreal the real world. appreciation they have is for the pungent smell of the preservative. Students still walk out of our classes thinking How many of you have actually tried to find out of biology in terms of dissection and vocabulary lists. what you students knew before they got to your class. In answer to the first question presented to this Have you ever looked at a course for elementary and panel, "Yes, under many disguises, high school and middle school science. How many of you have tried to get college classes are repetitious and I still feel it is a waste of materials your student can understand? I hope more of you at the secondary level can answer that you do than education time." Now to examine the second problem posed. What are can answer affirmatively at the college level. the major barriers to changing this situation, if indeed I am constantly on the undesirablelistof my change is necessary, and I believe it is necessary. The first colleagues in elementary science when Itell them they to come to mind is the failure of college professors to should spend their time with the three R's so that children admit to themselves that high school teachers can and do canread and writeintelligently when they enter practice some good teaching. I'm aware of the CLEP's test secondary school. If they can do this, the secondary and Advanced Placement test which can be used by teacher can teach them all the science they will need. In colleges. I'm also aware of professors that would place the likefashion, don't be concerned about preparing the standards so high that only the very gifted could pass. I'm student with specific factual information that will be also aware of the argument put forth to the effect repeated during the first year in college. Be concerned repetition is the basis for learning. But I'm really not all about getting the student involved with materials which that concerned with the college classes: these kids come to will enable him to use his science in his immediate life. col:ege with the idea in their minds to learn only enough The studentisnot concernedif he doesn'tsee an to pass the course tests and then move on tothe next immediate need for knowledge. The student wants to have class, especially if the class they are taking is a required something concrete that he can associate with. A student service course. wants to feel that the inti>rmation is directed specifically I'm also not all that concerned about the classes for to him rather than to the class. I wish I could tell you we majors. These students will also do what is required of have such a program for you, but you will have to develop them in order to obtain the desired grade. They know the program for yourself. You're not going to get it done they must play the professor's game and as long as the in one day, or even in one year. Your first attempts will rules arelaid down and adhered to the students will probably be disastrous, but don't quit. You'll probably accept them. Obviously, I really don't expect the format want to climb the walls because of the amountof time of college classes to change. and brain power required. I know the easy way out, the The change, I would hope, would come from the way fit: eight-tofmir teacher operates, butthis is not secondary schools. We now have a situation where a good teaching. We are attempting such a program at our liberal arts degree is not to he prized by everyone. More lab school this year in biology. Seldom does a week go by htUdentS are going on to technical schools. In addition to thatI don't want to throw in the towel, but we'll keep the students that choose not to go on to college, there is a revising and improvising until we work out our particular percentage, much to the dismay of college presidents, that problems.

94 SESSION B-2 4. Preparing scienceprojectsfor school and com- munity exhibits, SWINGING SOULFUL SCIENCE 5. Writing to different agencies for Information, 6. Encouraging older students to work with younger MattieS.Jefferson,ScienceResource Teacher, students. Public Schools, Washington, D.C. Many people erroneously believe that inner city students cannot or are not interested in learning. They Of the language skills, theone that receives the may not learn in the way we want them to learn, but most attention in inner city 1,:hools is reading. Teaching they can learn if they are taught by methods that are students to read is one of the major goals ofmany inner consistent with their expectations. It is very Important city schools. Teachers and administrators of inner 3ity thatinner city students are provided with concrete schoolsystems constantlysearchforprograms and experiences that will lead them to the development of methods that will motivate their students to read. Often effective language skills. the reading program that is to be taught from thecourse of study or textbook is not interestingto the students References at all. At the same time, so much emphasis is placedon reading per se, that other language skills, such as writing, 1. Arnez, NancyL.Partners in Urban Education, speaking, and listening get little attention. These skills TeachingtheInner CityChild.SilverBurdett are often overlooked as a means of motivating students Company, Morristown, New Jersey. 1973. to read materials -written by others. 2. Cushenberry, Donald C. Reading Improvement In Science activities have often been suggested to inner The Elementary School. Parker Publishing Com- city educators as a means of getting studentsto read. pany, West Nyack, New Jersey. 1969. However, elementary teachers argue that there isvery 3. Malkin, Samuel. "The Culturally Deprived Child little time to deal with science activities in thatso much time must be devoted to the teaching of reading and and Science." Science and Children April, 1964. mathematics. Secondary teachers argue that theycannot teach science effectively because the students cannot SESSION B-3 read. If elementary teachers wouldassume some of the responsibilityfor teaching reading and other language SCIENCE IN SPECIAL EDUCATION skills then both sets of teachers would be contributing to the accomplishment of one of the major goals of the DEVELOPING SCIENCE CONCEPTS WITH SLOW overall curriculum. LEARNING CHILDREN THROUGH ACTIVE GAMES If science activities are to be used to develop the language skills of inner city students, the students must James H. Humphrey, Professor of Physical Educa- first be turned on to the science program. Toomany tion and Health, University of Maryland, College teachersteaching ininnercityschools use lectures, Park seatwork, silent reading, and answering questions from the hook as their basic science activities. The science Many of us in physical education can relate to the program for these students must extend beyond these importance of science as far as our particular subject activities.It should be one whichisbased on the fieldisconcerned. We areengagedinthe human students' environment, and allows ample opportunities movement area of education and recognize that it would for students to investigate and discover using equipment be difficultto visualize a physical education activity and materials.Programs such as SCIS, S-APA, ESS, which is not concerned with science in some way. This ISCS, and IPS can be used successfully inmany inner is particularly true of physical science principles, since city schools. practically all voluntary body movements are based in In order to develop language skills through science some way upon one or more principles of physical activities, emphasis should be placed on utilizing the science. languageskills that the students are capable of using. Some 2,300 years ago Plato expounded that "in Most inner city students ye capable in the area of oral teaching children, train them by a kind of game, and communication. They are able lo communicate in what you will be able to see more clearly the natural bent of is called their primary language. This languagemay he each." If one were given to rationalization it could he different from what is accepted as standard, but itcan speculated that the content of my topic for this session he understood with some effort on the part of the might be what he hadatleast perhaps remotely in teacher.Effective science activities suchasthose in mind. SCIS, S-APA, ESS, ISCS, and IPS can promote theuse Iliketo describe active games as "active inter- of this oral language in order to motivate studentsto actions of children in competitive and/or cooperative write their own observations and reports based on their situations." Note that I am concerned with active rather findings. Furthermore, success with these activities will than passive interaction. Thus. my particular philosophy encourage them to read science materials that arc written centers around the idea that "when children learn they by others in order to find additional information about learn all over." a given activity. Without getting into an in-depth discussion of the Thefollowingisalistof some activitiesthat various inherent facilitative factors compatible with child promote language usage of inner city students: learning in the active game approach, I should mention 1. Publishing a science newsletter, that this medium of learning is hacked up by objective 2. Writing thank you letters to resource persons. research. While this research might well he considered 3. Planning and carrying out science assemblypro- much more exploratorythandefinitive,allof our grams. studies in this area show that most children can develop

95 academic skills and concepts very well through this Case 3: medium. One of our findings is that this approach, while Concept: Things which are balanced have equal favorable for all children, appears to be more favorable weights on either side of their central point. for slow learning children. The obvious reason being that Activity:Rush andTug.Thisisa combative slower learning children will perhaps have more success activity in which the class is divided into two groups with concrete kinds of learning experiences than those with each group standing behind one of two parallel which are abstract. In other words, in the development lines which are about 40 feet apart. In the middle of of science concepts through the active game approach, these two parallel lines a rope is laid perpendicular to the learning experience becomes a part of the child's them. A clothis tied to the middle of the rope to physical reality. designate both halves of the rope. On a signal, members Le me present four representative examples of how of both groups rush to their half of the rope, pick it up certain science learnings can be integrated with active and tug toward the group's end line. The group pulling games. Some fifty of these kinds of motor learning the mid-point of the rope past its own end line in a activities appear in the source: specified amount of time is declared the winner. If at Humphrey, James H.. and Sullivan, Dorothy D. the end of the designated time the mid-point of the Teaching Slow Learners Through Active Games, rope has not been pulled beyond one group'send line Charles C Thomas, Publisher, Springfield, Illinois, the group with the mid-point of the rope nearer to its 1970, pp. 145-182. end line is declared the winner. A book orientedspecificallytothis approach, Application: in performing this combative activity entitled Teaching Elementary School Science Through it was decided to have the group experiment with all Motor Learning,iscurrentlyinpreparation and will kinds of combinations of teams such as boys versus soon go to press with the same publisher. boys, girls versus girls, boys versus girls, big ones against Each of the following examples contains a state- littleones, and mixed sizes and weights against the ment of the science concept, a description of the game. same. an application of the game for the particular purpose. Evaluation: This was a very stimulating experience andanevaluationofitseffectivenessina given forthe group sinceitpresented to them a genuine situation. problem-solvingsituationintrying to getthe exact combination of children for an equal balance of the two teams. When therewas enough experimenting, two Case I teams of equal proportions were assembled and it was Concept: Shadows are formed by the sun shining found that it was most difficult for either to make any on various objects. headway. They also discovered that an equal balance Activity: Shadow Tag. Players are dispersed over depended not only on the weight of their classmates but the playing area, with one person designated as "It." If" to a great extent upon their strength. "It" can step on or get into the shadow of another player, that player becomes "It." A player can keep from being tagged by getting intothe shade or by Case 4: moving in such a way that "It" finds it difficult to step Concept: Electricitytravels along a pathway and on his shadow. needs a cmnplete circuit over which to travel. Application: During the social studies period the Activity: Straddle Ball Roll. The children stand one definition of a shadow was given. A discussion led the behind the other inrelayfiles with from 6 to 10 class to see how shadows are made as well as why they children in each file. All are in a stride position with move. The class then went outside the room to the feetfar enough apart so thataballcan be rolled hardtopareawhere manykinds of shadows were between the legs of the players. The first person in each observed. Since each child had a shadow it was decided fileholds a rubber playground ball. At a signal the to put them to use in playing the game. person at the front of each file starts the activity by Evaluation: The children saw how the sun causes attempting to roll the ball between the legs of all the shadows. By playing the game at different times during players on his team. The team which gets the ball to the the day they also observedthatthe length of the last member of itsfilefirstin the manner prescribed shadow varied with the time of day. The activity proved scores a point. The last player goes to the head of his very good for illustrating shadows. file and this procedure is continued with a point scored each time for the team that gets the ball back to the last player first. After every player has had an opportu- Case 2: nity to roll the ball back the team which has scored the Concept: Moving things slow down before they most points is declared the winner. stop. Application: The first player at the head of each Activity: Stop on a Dime. A perpendicular line is tile became the electric switch which opened and shut drawn 50 feet from the starting line, with graduations or the circuit. The ball was the electric current. As the ball measurements drawn at one-foot intervals for ten feet rolled between the children's legs it moved right through beyond the line. Each child begins running when the if all the legs were properly lined-up. When a leg was signal "Go" is given. When he reaches the fifty -foot line, notinthe properstride, the path of the ball was the signal "Stop" is given. The intervals past this line impeded and the ball rolled out. The game had to be show how many feet it took him to stop after he heard stopped until the ball was recovered and the correction the signal. made in the position of the leg. The circuit had to be Evaluation: Each child was able to see that it takes repaired (the child's leg) before the flow of electricity time to stop. All realized that moving objects first slow (the roll of the ball) could be resumed. A scorer kept down and then stop. track of the number of broken circuits each team had.

96 The team with the least number of broken circuits was 18. Some things do not let electricity pass. the winner. 19.Metals let electricity pass. Evaluation: The children were quick to see and 20.Electricity can make heat. make the analogythemselvesafterseeing how the 21.Electricity can make things move (electromagnet interference in the path of the ball sent it out of bounds and motor). and stopped the game. In similar fashion any blockage 22.Electricity can be dangerous. of an .electric circuit would break the current and stop The children were visited each week by the author the flow of electricity. They gave this variation of the on Monday and Wednesday for one half hour. The game a new name, "Keep the Circuit Closed." science lesson was preceded by play time and followed An experiment with wired batteries and a bell was by alibraryvisit.During the lessons, one or two also used in connection with the development of this concepts were introduced. Seldom was information given concept. Some children reported that they understood to children verbally ( electricity comes out of a battery). this bettor afterthey had played Straddle BallRoll Almost all concepts were demonstrated (see what hap- because they could actually "see" the electric current pens when I put this end of the wire here and the other which in this case was. the ball. end here), developed by questioning (what will happen Although itis difficult to predict what the future if we turn the magnet hanging on the string? Will it holds fortheactive game learning medium. Ifeel always point toward ilrry's desk? See if' you find out assured that more serious attention is currently being beforeI come on Wednesday). or developed by exper- paid toit. Discussions with leading neurophysiologists, imentation on the child's part (Here is a battery, bulb, learningtheorists.child developmentspecialists, and and wire. See if you and your paltrier can make the teachers. reveal a positive feeling toward the active game bulb light). The children worked alone or in pairs---quite learning medium. And there is general agreement that often they would crowd aroiand an excitedperson who the premise is sound from philosophical, physiological, drew their attention. One or two students who could do and psychological standpoints. a task were often asked to demonstrate for the class or help individuals. Benjamin Thompson. Assistant Professor of Elemen- The author had assistance from a student teacher tary Education, University of Wisconsin. Eau Claire with one child who, in the opinion of her teacher,was more trainable than educable. Traditionallycurriculafor EMH childrenhas Each child was provided with his own large plastic stressed "PersistentLife Problems" and this is almost bucket in which all science materials were kept. The universallyconstruedto mean, inscience,practical children were able to experiment with these materials applications without background experience. The object during their free time when they could also play house, of this initial activity was to instruct a class of Educable buildwithblocks,anddoseatwork. The room Mentally Handicapped (EMH) children in science empha- resembled a kindergarten classroom with tables, toys,a sizing basic concepts. The topics, magnets and electric. play kitchen, and movable chairs. ity, were selected because they are rich with opportuni- On occasion the teacher reinforced an idea, the ty for discovery of concepts. Experience with electricity directions --north, south, east, west; utilized an idea for and magnets can also be used to reach basic goals in writing skill.,; and had the children carry throughon a teaching the EMH language arts lesson associated with magnets. Beyond The purposes of this study were: this the science lesson ended when the author departed. 1. fo identify the ability of EMR children, ages 8-12, Inall, 18 visits had been made when this report todemonstrateandstateknowledgeof basic was written. The previous year the author worked with concepts of magnetism and electricity, and the same children in the same manner on other topics. _To identify where the study of magnetism and At the conclusion of the portion on magnetism, four electricitycan be usedto providespecial basic childrenrepresenting,intheteacher's judgment, the training required for EMR children. slowest, average (2 were chosen), and most advanced, Concepts emphasized include: were interviewed to record the extent of knowledge and 1. Magnets attract metals. skills acquired. The conclusions given were basedon 2. Magnets do not attract all metals. classroom observation and these interviews. 3. Magnets do not attract non-metals. There areIIchildren in the class, 6 girls and 5 4. Different magnets have different strength. boys. They range in age from 7-7 to 10.2 with themean 5. Different parts of a magnet have different strength. age being I. Testing is not all current but IQ scores 6. Magnets can attract at a distance. are as follows: 7. Magnets can attract other magnets. 8. Magnets can repel other magnets. C.A. I.Q. 9. Each pole of a magnet is alike in sonic. ways (look 9-7 Wechsler Primary Scale alike, attract metal). I.Q. 64 0.Each pole of a magnet is different in one way. 8-0 S.B. 71 1.Magnets can he used to tell directions. 8-5 S.B. 54 2. We can make magnets with electricity. 9.4 WISC 68 3.Electricity can light a bulb. 8.7 S.B. 73 4.Electricity comes from a battery. 7.7 WISC 65 5.Battery electricity is safe. 8-7 S.B. 61 6.Electricity must have a path out of and into a 10-0 WISC 72 battery. 9 -() WISC 88 7.Electricity conies out this end t) of a battery. 8-5 S.13. 61 goes through a wire, and conies in this end ( +). 9-11 W1SC 68

97 In general, all but one child (EMR-trainable border- together, ran and looked through windows as the line) could state the concept worked with, in response to author read the sentences slowly. Example of a a question (What do magnets do? "They stick to iron." or story: "They sticktoanail. "), and/or they could KEVIN: A MAN AND A BOY AND A HOUSE demonstrate the concept (How can we find out if a The boy and the man go into the house and eat. magnet will work through glass? -- the child might hold And they wash dishes until they are done. Then a magnet inside of a jar and try to stick a paper clip on they go outside and play. They go inside again and the outside.) go to bed. They get up and they eat. Then they Observation showed that children could often dem- wash dishes. They go outside again. Then they go onstrate concepts if they could not verbalize. Because inside for a glass of water. They go outside again there was little verbalization of concepts by the author and they play. They go inside again. The end. except in summary, this result was not unexpected. This unit led to a concept of direction rooted in a The two concepts with which children had prob. concrete experience.All but one child could use a lems and an example of those problems:* compass to find directions and relate the words north, 1. Magnets do not attract all metals. The children south, east, and west to an observable phenomena. The could pick out metal objects a magnet would or idea of direction, with additional reinforcement, will wouldn't stickto, but only half responded cor- become much more than something the children are told rectly when asked "Will magnets stick to all metals?" and required to remember without extension to the some had trouble generalizing. environment. Magnetismis no longer approached as magic but as a natural property of some materials. *Concepts beyond R had not been dealt with at the time In addition, the new topic, electricity, will lead to of this writing. Some had trouble generalizing. an understanding of what electricity can do and why it must be respected, 2. Each pole of a magnet is different. The children The thesis of this author is that concrete experience coulddemonstraterepulsion and attraction by in basic phenomena shouldresultinmore durable experimentation when asked to show how many practical applications, more quickly grasped. In addition, ways two magnets could work together but the this concrete experience should better equip the EMH labels, N and S pole, and stating the classic law of person to cope with unanticipated life problems. The repulsion and attraction were not meaningful. Since "Persistent Life Problems" approach as generally inter- both poles were equally good for picking up nails, preted assumes EMH children differ from others in kind, the difference was too complex to assimilate. not degree. No evidence of this was seen. Two examples where 'science activities were used to The exploratory activity outlined here leads the provide basic training: author to believe that practical applications should be 1. At one point the children were asked to see how based on concrete experiences with natural pelmomena. many paper clips their magnets could hold. They The children taking part in this activity did understand had several magnets intheir bucket. One child and apply the knowledge gained in this way. What they couldlinkpaper clips together and he demon- do with such knowledge in the future can not be stated, strated the technique. First each child was given butit' they do not have this knowledge, itis certain ten clips to work with. Both magnets could hold they cannot use it. the clips up. Then they were given all they could The main criticism "Persistent Life Problems" advo- use. Practice in fine motor and hand-eye coordinat- cates have of this approach is that the time should be ion was provided. All were asked to count the ten spent on practical' aspects. The author feels there has clipsintheir first chain-then they added more been inadequate investigation to support this point of until some had over thirty (The weaker magnet view. could not support more than 20 clips, the strong could). The use of number charts and board work correlated with and was reinforced by this activity. SESSION B-7 Counting a series of objects was more difficult in this case than just counting objects. Fingers had to SCIENCE AND HEART DISEASE he used to move the chain and mark the already counted clip as the child moved along. Virginia Newman, Teacher, Lines School, Barring- 2. Oncethechildrenknewthatmagnets attract ton. Illinois through materials, they were shown how a paper clip could be attached to the bottom of a stand-up I don'tthinkthatthepublicevenbegins to cut-out figure and the figure moved with a magnet. appreciate the magnitude of the heart disease problem. Their teacher instructed each child to make up Itis,withouta doubt,at"epidemic" proportions. story and she typed it for them. Then paper figures "Epidemic" isaGreek wordinorigin:itmeans and structures were constructed to represent indi- "something that has befallen the people." In a way, this vidualsandplacesinthestory. The children is somewhat inaccurate. "Befallen the people" connotes practiced their story by placing the objects on top a natural catastrophe, something unavoidable, an act of of a cardboard box set on its side. Its opening was God, so to speak. But God really didn't get us in this toward a child who reached inside, and moved the jam. We did it ourselves. magnetunderneathto make hisfiguresmove. Itis a curious thing thatit has taken us so long to Considerable coordination between hand and eye begin to face this epidemic as we faced others in our was required. Only one student needed to look history. This One is disproportionately severe. Sometimes under the box after three practice sessions. The statistics aren't too meaningful, butanybodycan under- characters wentinand out of houses, walked stand "over half.- And over half of the deaths of this

98 nation are due to this one family of diseases. Wouldn't of materials. Much of the material is obtainable through it be acutely meaningful to you to consider thatover The Heart Association. With new ideas in this realm half the people in this room will die of this disease? appearing so constantly, the teacher often learns along Dr. Edward Wi !Rads, of California, said: "There is with the students, a matter that misleads a lot of people. Since many The unit is only initially content-oriented, in order infectious diseases have fallen, thereare those who. take togivethe students necessary basic understandings. refuge in the statement: 'We're all living longernow Then they pursue, in varying depths and ways, different anyway'. But we're notallliving longer. The life aspects... according to ability and interest. Sometimes expectancy of a baby has indeed been extended; but the students work in groups; sometimes individually. life expectancy of forty-year-olds has not paralleled that The method avoids any moral judgments, any gain." In other words, the continuing rise of degenera- "thou shalt not." Finger-wagging, as we know, is a most tive diseasesis busy wiping outthe gains made by ineffective teaching technique. Any resulting decisions conquering infectious ones. must be made by the students themselves. Itis our It's not "death" we're fighting; certainly that would obligation to help young people learn about this matter. he alosing battle.Itis premature death thatis so Then they make up their minds how they're going to disturbing to us. It truly grieves me to contemplate the use this knowledge, and take the options. great ideas, the talents of which premature death has Many of us who have had the exciting experience robbed us. of working with theunit have seen thatitevokes The world of medicine has long been worried about growth of perceptions and changes at the behavioral the extent of the heart disease situation. Thengovern- levels... not only for students, but also for teachers and ment became concerned and began to give money for parents as well. Never have I seen parents follow a unit research and study grants to determine what might be of with more interest. Administrators gleefully tell us that help. Finally educators have been prodded intorecog- it is "one of the best P.R. tools ever." nizing the gravity of the situation, and, quite logically, it In the guidelines we have given to teachers in the is there.... in the world of education.... that the best Pity or sixty area schools that have incorporated the remedy lies at this time. unit, we stress that five general phases he followed in We'dliketotellyouabout one way we're this sequence: attempting to face this formidable challenge,a project 1. Awareness .(of the heart and circulatory system as which started small, about eight years agoon the west related to the entire body; and the extent of the coast, under the direction of the national clearing house heart disease problem) for smoking and health. Now, thousands of students 2. Appreciation of the blood (studying its components have been through the program. But there's infinitely and jobs) more to do. 3. Structure and function of the heart and circulatory We are now implementing virtually thesame in- system depthheart and circulatory system studyunitin a 4. Diseasesinvolved(atherosclerosis,hypertension, number of schools in this area. It is based in the science smoking-related ones, obesity., strokes, etc.) curriculum.Thesixth gradelevel was thoughtfully S. Prevention chosen for the unit: althoughI have seen it adapted, Though the study is based in the science curricu- with success, to other grade levels. It is best to give itat lum, itis essentially interdisciplinary. There are corre- a time when the s,!idents are old enough to comprehend lated activities in social studies, math, language arts, etc. the study and young enough not to have too deeply Can you imagine a cinquain written about the sinoatrial engrained detrimental lif,:-style habits. node ("Pacemaker")? I've seen a great one! To keep the I treasurealetter I oncereceivedfromthe study from being too physiology-orientedor anatomy- renownedDr.PaulDudley White. He emphatically bent, it's important to bring in other related aspect of maintained, "Children of this age arc really muchmore interest. able to advance in such deep study pursuits than the Help students learn about the colorful superstitions public gives them credit for." He definitely felt that the that primitive men attached to blood and its uses. For greatest gains in this battle were to be made by helping example, using blood for fertilizing crops and drinking the young before it's too late. the blood of the animal whose chatnteristicsone The primary goal of the unitis:"To help the wished to a: quire. "Bloody" superstitions have even student gain a deep understanding of and an appreciation persisted to relatively recent times. One instance was the for the heart and circulatory system." curious custom of using the "sympathetic cgg," where I defy anyone to give close attention and study to at egg was drained of its contents and filled with the that marvelous organ, the heart, and to avoid developing blood of a healthy animal. The egg was than placed on a tremendous respect for it. When you truly understand the affected part of an ailing person ton the abdomen it' and respect something, you're not so likely to abuse it. he had a stomach ache, etc.). Supposedly, the "demons" We've all known "ear buffs" who lovingly tend their causingdiscomfort would preferthehealthyblood automobiles, carefully tuning the motor and polishing within the egg and flee the patient. Another taleis the exterior. These individuals know what abuse will do about the origin of the barber pole. Are yo ifamiliar to their prizes. so take pains to avoid it. This can surely with that one? There are many. be related to learning about yourself. what makes you Give some attention to the pioneers in the study of tick. One of the reasons this unitis approached with blood, heart research, and surgery. Help those who are such enthusiasm, by teachers and students alike, is that interestedt learn about (;;;:en, Malpighi. and Harvey. learning about yourself is exciting. Did you know that the author of one of the earliest Theunit embraces the conceptualapproach.It theories about the cif culation of blood, Servetus. was involvesa detailed study of a whole idea (concept). executed for stating his belies'' It was consideted heresy. using multi-facets, varied techniques. and an abundance Yet, he was subsequently proved to be collect. 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I )O t,I1t% ftvttttt4t:tt,$ ruii L%ntitivC tptnitiu I.tttle dtscs'rlhIe sItflcicstc flutItt ittttL%*H t'tnftj%Ii'tutI1tts tnih' 1fttIfl%tItitfl: ieshltIiIse ititIernwas tinted. U.% 1. .iit. itI.d 1'aI'()iIttt1,% It shitsuld be tinted unit a citatti lack ni elatatttts' tt'nttnikwd I $ fit rt$t Ptiitvd II) ttR have been titttisttwJ In the couiipailib tietween thte tsi ,Ittttdfl It4t%tttd Sttti(tttt%uhtSiih ttntiuttuut Iih LftthLt tt It'tilftJt 40 LJttt.TtULIU. $:ti(Jung1 $Q) stttdh,s f' thedhtIlgIItgof Jeseulpiors used Iii thttsit 4? tifln' 4ti, qttetittnttiiaires.liteehuuiie ss'uis matte tnnntititstaitsiuiig I)utII(itn1'it t tud .tt 1't)a't ()phtIn,ttt .ttntd4'ati.ptttsi't'Itt"vety tt'ct ivC4t'kCti5'C.stiitteWIiaI h'n t' t'ituit (t'qlttn -tt,II $'tIt1'tt%Ilurlah et'teettvennvalitcutotitakethedescriptorsIltisre t tli'%nwttiu IrttnJ StI tntUut'In di;fliiItIvt,atid In IltilIshlIhits liii ugttuin Ia'tnfldtte" Ieu'tid, t heitee tunic ntettitIigt'ttI thestitsis' titis' shdutttntI'lt.ii 1974 tg1gasg) sleutitsigsvtthi IiiltImnatetials thetereeIit1st' leacheis indicating titat Ihi inateriils sscre "sutiiess'hat eh'letive'is higherhum tittiseteacheis whitindleatetitittitthe i:tn hutit st udk's IUt) tltwsltitli'sWi'' m;IlkLito flhtnslitps weret'talr,t'it i IhWtsptittun of' the teseasciwis ratihtinI s1td son ttin inatihig lists ptovktd h) ttttitthe diaitgeIndescriptors svas rsu,tsthk kit' 11w tIny \nwi ian ii on and Sw'I Instil utt'. sittiltat pi*nt In respoitse pattetul titstt1. It 1aIn thtdr tipiniun otI%ttst's .iohi4iwdin'adtsiuds (I:$Itnstitps 70 that the descriptors used In the second study dealimig with

I eIit IIIiI Pr ml edMat et laish$pet eelI) Iii Ilie printed inateihds were inot e definitive, es'emi though this tgII1%iIsiuiiies, an adtittnet'i titi tiuddive iNc ifiteries diutige evoked a somnewitat Iowei relative ititittg,

ItttLk. %Vttli this atituslinent the pei'eeiI nt tesposises Oneof'theiltost t'meihuent Is' vnit'eulconceins wasEtlinsi ups pereeti tand PrintedMaterials7 regarding lice utiti iiieeiisise inateritlls Is the fact that 11eintCttttlete details ate en, tamed in the sitidies their sponsoisitlp instv hiave an effect upon thcii use In the eitetiittstew nti he idat ivelhigh tate nt resses litsi t'uet tonal iingia in, Aunt her in I'eremwe si HUt't tines made geiteratatinits wei' tItawfl to the pt'piitat inns sampled, Isthat sponsuisitip has aitegat lye cotitititatiunrarely indeed, itis believed that the Am'riean lion and Steel lositivt'. In ordem to ascertaIn time teaehrs' judgments of' lflst It tile tilatet uk ate IeSeIItaUVLI etiotigit of' fice.IfltI this asslimpt tisii t lie sticst inn was nts'cd. Inc \1ensIse mat erials as a whole that wittative generalia. Whemi the swemali lespomise pat tent was t'nmisitktcd tinits ma he drawit to siinilai inate"ials. appioxitnately two.ihm lids oh' the iespt imidetit s indicated

I .nninat ion ni Ihe tia ta led to the eoiidusiim ti'at that the fact thtattime nnmteiials were hid usti'y spoimsored the respt mdeiit s In tiw twitsitidies ate sititilat in hat tue. hi was either "tinohti'usive" ni had "no effect." Only ine In iii'easeLi1 the ;'teeitl ut iesp use within anschool O of the respoiiilents indicated that iiidtisti'y sponsorship districte1tteguiyIi ut al, suburban. village,toss it,eit of these pnittted tn:itenhats affected thicim usei'ulness, In 11w undesigitat'iI I v1iriiiiiri.than It) pereelit and inflvtYof' case oh' the t'Ilmnst ups uttly one percent01die sample SLXeatori's the dilleretwe5%islive pereetit or less, Indicated imurusloim, Tltt' dataeating ssith level ni training, as Intl icated Of' prime concern tothepruittit'ei's utlice and h11w etl steal It mal hiekgi intuit ittI1w ivspoitdent s, showed inexpensive materials is tite use made and the evaluation

',t ml tar pat Wins heIween the two samples. Whilet he of' these matemials by the useis. llecau.se of 11w dihleicuecs ed neat lonal haekgri nintisof'time t'espnndenIsappeated to between fllmnst mips. anti printed mat erlals, t lie instruments heStmntIar,thegi cawsi d ivgenees between the two used In obtaining the basic tl'tsifsm' hits'studLs were

sunpk'c ssere at the levels slesignated "I3aehelnrs degtee1' inodited and adapted to eh1cet tiisstil'feients. and ''Mastem s degree pItis,in no ease tilt1 tite dit'treiwes 'I'eae$teis svho use fret' fllmst ilps, iii the opinion of' heiwcemm groups within hit' saniple exceed ten perctmt the ieseai'chrs,'omnpai't' the tree mnatem'isils to eomnmei tht'ietote. the sa mpk's were considered itt be similar, daily troduecd filmst tips and decideIii use Ilie best of When tImem esponses wt'te a;'tiIted according to ape theavailable instinct li mull'estnmtcs'sintheirteachimig. iammsws it%is tituflit that almost two of' evemv three persons Respondents were asked to itisi ical e assessnient iii' the flee in h it It si tidies WCrs' 40 rais of apt' or younger. I lowevet, illinst rips pitividedby heAtns' micanI runantiSt es'l itm itthedat arevealedt hatthere was a lust It ate as compamed to eontmeis'iuliy piod need niaterials si tint whatiargt'mii Itteicuce in the ieeenI oh response dealing with simUar I opks. Appttxintats'ly 51) ps'rectit of' between ape ranges.particularlywithrespect to the them indicated thatthe lice tilmstrlps provided were osingeramoups designated21 2S and 2t.30, On the clthet ''supei ion to most" or "t,et let than niost'' oh time whit ik'.the sinipk respond limpii''prititt'dnuit emials'' eututnerdallv prod steedusia tt'rials wit ii wit icittims'y were wmmdeti hit beappreciablyyoungemthanthns who titinilluir. Aunt lu'iine.tuurt Ii of time respondents indk'ited respondedInthe Inst rumnent issessing the flinmi rips. thatthesemnnterials were as "good its most" of(itt' The following data art'piest'ntecin an t'tThrtto ma trials wi Iii which they were aeshunin ted. I's'rhips the ana1vc tiw ettectiveness of the materials. These materials tno' encouraging aspect of' the results ut this quest ion ate c aiitm tmd frinflsevem at di hewn t perspeel ives. was that omily stile percent of thw respondents indicated of' When thetl sw1it ii nial k'vel she iespnmtdt'nt s was that the f'iluns:I ps wets' in need t if imnprovs'uns'ttt. These used as tiw variable in the analysts, little dii ferenet, was data wets' analy ted by hi t itthe i'd ucat ional level o tthis' in it t'd in the ascsstmme lit ot Ihe twitIVpt's iii inawitals. The respouidents aitsi the site of thechtioh district in which twemall tespitmisesIowaid the mnatt'rials tendedInbe highly the miits'riais were tiss'd pttsml lye and suppitri ive iiitIw t'fftnistif the prod ucers, In this'st udvdealingwit iipm med materials au 1't'hts wit iitessm baitahadwlt irs degree temmikd lii at tent pt was math' to dewi mit inc tlit' ueasouis t 'a'iiers laid lfltit'positiveintheassessntt'iit ii? the worth of the l'iir mequect I'''t.mts'iiahs as well as tin' way in svimk'h they illinsi ripstitanthepi ittiedinatet tals.Oitly alniut tine s'mnploved materials titer mecs'iptI tom tlw spousni lug pt' ri:i'n ti itt het t'cItcistetuded to mate Ihiese materials as agency.Antiths'uumtiqucfs'atutent inint'divats'u lals, iii"ltis'mmig miii value,'' whens'tmt tastedwit Ii Ill must mips,is 1 hut t hey are is,ttiiii,ttitiii ift in' saute that a. amiaIyed by what lye couisuinabhs', whiett'asliii' filmstrips are iiitt'nded to hi' si/C ii the schiiil slkt rit.sintwt'd a rather cOnsistent t etauts'd aimd tensedl'Ii isIcli eq Ull CS 11w i tiducrLit

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,i iitifl % t1h t )th'ritinswhkh thIu.'%u.' iiitcriaisth,cr isa hmisici u.'piusIbithL, sttiIrtd 1Uit1tt with st%flWt nunv siktng ttlkisnati' cqtiailv liv ttst% auth prtutluccr%, iii ituitrc thuutt'ri ,md IlhJtI its," itid "in1itt iilsluhii%ukl h usedvtth thi hic.wnsivciit',itciiaisait'titihiicdin an 1uu%trilchiuinahi% iiti.' di'is,' 1ippru'prl1itcInaniwl, A hightLu.'rcc ui rcsptitusihtiit Is tIl ihii inI (ttIkIl l4 :11 hi,h thht"ihiIIthiial tiacu.'dupuluthucpri'u.iuct'tsIt' pruwudc tittist'ivalu.'riais I,t'iihIi1dt t iii'i nt tt IiIkti liIututII%tl th which lutistuicari nwet hit'itust iiict Ititualiiu.'t'u.t iiithu.' ttii I tcul uiit il1tnut'tlii thitlI'ti'tt hit' inatiiaIs ti'tiit'tI schtuuls, Tcachu.'is hiavc the tcspu.uiisihuiily lii iuuake Pr11e1 h1 iht'thtrttth1It iiisuit)Stt'eI It tittnidtht'ti liSt' oh' hest' tita K'rhuls, thtit9It ust'trt'pIij sit is piisslhk tt I'rtithucci siiit'ru.' and illu.'hut'lisi%'e iui1utciiahs shuuuiul intkc nip1tiIsIlIis.lduatits Priilt1ss St'ivitit IIS)I III cuiuut ifltiu.'Iiifliuru.' ncailv tki'inc ''c urrkuh nut cuutitu.'nt it i%tt'i cItIc ',tIIK cut it L'd !h.th'PS t,UtJt (ii thatI su.ksign thu.' i h itnit itt' sped 1k inst rue thu in,iiiisu.'. ieieni,thittr(a!s, 14th ,1H,zItal !!it1 ?1, /V '., iits iitc 'Ilils tucusing ut' euintcnt utay rcst riu.'tthu.' audiciiu.'t' hut it 'pc itt suggcsik i1sti lilt' icatlict Iitappi Uptii Ic iecistil di titulgiw't he inaicriats a hi igh ici vat tict it cii neat iu i iat tiM.'. puipuiscs. Fh' 1:1'S (uttfrict inuucntts that "hit' OiiL.i.ii Suggest huins .siniitai Iii thuuisc pluuvkkd huy thu.' l3ik Sitrtt buvit'ntncnt 1ttidhitdusli'' ht' uscd 1sj pruiu.iucu.'rsoh'tiiuinaterhils si udiu.'ttshiuiuhd he iiietutkd 1itid up'' and iii .11 tw tt'achcisgiiktcsarc wi iiia itfret' mutud hut' x pu.'i i sivu.'mat t'riat.At ti ionghuI hu.'

'tic t itt lit' sctcnt' tt''h'i 1j ifl iit't Ii iitiic tiistt'iiu.i iuiivai guuudcs anti catmiiutg dcserupt ions dlii nut result

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% itu It'ucst ciititt'huuiKici usctliibciuivthu.'kvu.'is iic Iisu.'ls. 'Ibu.'retui c*pruduecis are cmieu'uir1iged Iiiniivkiu.'* uiitu.'iiuiu'd t)thc tud in su'mnu.' east's tnuiuu.' etu.'aiI' det'iitctItu.'u.' suUieu.'s iii aid thu.' iutnphiIu.'t n u.Jiti in( ciuuu. ) hi ii ikiu.'t''Mark Iii instruct ii inal ptanmiiiig, Indet'd , iiod iieu.'rs nuay wish Iii " Sicci lights i'u'hiwiuifl uicsu.i ipi hut in thc giutlu.' lcd thu. siiggu.'stiiu.'w ;ttud innuwat 1w' uises tir thu.'i,tnatt'iiats, bun i cscu 1hcls t'u iii tcihk$1 cictucti taikvcl tisagc is in tcndcd* Lucy .shuititd pitivudu.' at iu.'ast ml tuimnuin plans iii guudchint's. hi uvcctlit'spct'itkgradu.' k'wl icuutu.'ndat jun is h'uu.'u.' mutid hiu.'xpu.'nivu.' iniiteihuis mulu.' higiihy 1ueeu.'ptahhc ) Ilkudc. 'thu.' rcstihiutt hicsi ud inditaict hut ''wi (ii tu.'uchiu.'is thmuiughiuuut thiceuiunt u) 'thei'itt uecr's

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hcu iititIu.'tu.'d Iu% guudu'ituttiinu.'nd.ttiuiU. thu.' tii'u.'dsiii(hit'shiu iuits,'Iuudav* Itu.'emnatcii;ulsam c icss jiiii1uiiIut''Stcu.'l Siciic :111th Our Su'tju.'t'' shu'uudtic ''uuivt'itising tiiaiu.'riais'' auth ttiliiuit't' iit'tri, ''UiStliidtiuiti1ih

IIIgi .udcs .\ipi uu\i:i1ttu.'Iy u'uc.h;ult iiit tic tespuinuictit s aids,'' Prod uiu.'u. .m hiavu.' hiu.'u ippuirt unity and it'spuunsihuitity itudi.itcdthattlicv wiu.'usingIhicmitrhuls athit' to make' thiu.'su.' lii;itt'iIlIS iii%Li tiu.'tiuiuiiihl%' iu.'Iu.'vauit suggu.'st cii grudc icwts. Itu iwcwi, iwiI 0 pci cciii Ft lit' 'Ic:uu.'lit'tssutitittIlit' st'huu.t IVu.' iii I hit' dhiu'Iu.'t'iii R'spuinlcnisindi;itcd priinat tisu.' and an atuduiiuiii:ii I 3 uiiateriiIs thicy use. '11w st'Icu.ttuimi hiruieu.'s5 shiuititul itieiiiu.tt' a pciu.cnt indi.itcd using it att itt' sculuut high schiuuuii Iu.'vci. u.'ttu.'ttitI't'iUututtiit'%'alIuitissuiuii'deS utinturiii1ut iuili 'iiu'ihci intt'rcs$iuig tituduig which t'nit'tgt'd trunu this ictitiiigiiithicu'iituiilitvuittit'u.'iihitu.'rI:ths,Lsechiu.'tit iu tiutar tact'I th' studyt as thu.' u.'xiiu.'nicly high uscut t'\stiuih.lt'%utPtt'htiititittY su.'uct'tiumig dt'vju.'u.'s aletue

hit'111ttt'iijis uiF'1u11 Rct'IPI .01,1% %i.' pu.'itciut iii tilt' h.tlticutu its Pruigrcss St'i vice tu.'iie.s cut' cutahuigs amid the miiany icspuinuknts itiuhicalcd that tiicv did nut tisu.'tilt' uiiatu.'ii1iis ru.'lu.'iciiecs iii u.'tiiiciit peiiuiu.tic:ul Iitu.'tat tile. 1'ciielieis shiuitihui it t ci thichad ht'en ru.'ccivcut su'uet'ui uli:itu.'t iulstipunimt'ccipt :iiutlmake adu.'eisIuin E.inuin,itiuiiiitilt'tt,it a shuiws t hat tiiciu.'u.iplt'nts u.'uitiu.'t'lliili'.tist' Ui tlit'jtpti''.illii.Hit' tact that iii1itu.'iiats tiWultilt'priiitt'd lihitcikitsUI ;i V:uiictV(itways. Must ait' tlt't' uhucs ti, i(tflt':lmi thicv iiitist hu.' tiscut. ttCuIuu'ilt t int'ntii'ncd tlst's tciu' as stippl''tiit'iitar itis suiggu.'stctl that cut hu.'i piu'utuects t'\aniillu.' ways in iniiu.'iiis. pupil uudtcatiicri cicru.'nu.cs,ailulas hutict iii whiiiiIu.':it'hit'is tititIt'tlit'ii' tikit'uiils, As :udthitiuiii:tt tiati iii 'ituh ma icrujis. lut'u'tiiu.':It:iiIilhittu.'uuutitu:urisuutis ttiav hu.'tii1iut u.' anti ItImIhit'i

Ilic Iiii.d,u;t.ii, Ilhudcu.u111.cIius Ihit'rcspuiiuticiits' gciit'i:utitatiuutisutratti.this t'tIu'itwit! cu'titrihtitt'tui iilttitilull ill I u'iise liii' li1;itt'i i:i, ii,tv,iil.iiiIt'.hiicst'dat.i. ltuithiu.'ttutiu.ht'rst.utitiitmg cutthu.' ust'I antI pu'sshhic unisusu. ) iii tic't'.itl tuI.tm iiIihuuirtaIItcIii tilt' iiIuiuttitu'Isiii 11ccaiud ttu.'e:iliuhutit'spu.'iisivu.'lu.'uriiiiigiihitu'tkutsiiit'tissFuiuiuiis iI1u'\hiciisic lii.itctiiis.ictist' ilitcis a u.lcc.rct ii! s.itistactuiil thituiuigliuiuit thu.' uhitu iii u. ithi ihicpiu'diii Inthus stud.(it)pci cciiiuttiic Ft iii I.iit'tl I IIu.% VtutIttiIctisu.'tilt'ii111Phitt't Iii''%t t'.Ilitthit' '.tt'it';tv.tit.ihit'.II.S'tututivt'!'hit'uh1 Rct'ei'eneu.'s uiiti5.itd tii.itihit'' uuuhu.iuuuittt'uhtiu.'stthlcsu' lil.ltu.'i kitsliii R 't1. \\ti tel It.. /liiu uIlii '??il/ /u'i tu aPi Ii,In In,," 'din

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?csI'Ilsc}uuttt'Iiu,ishicinchiiuhii suppulu Iivc iiitue tn'u . Iii cuegu.', i'cuiut'i I ('., diii! \thit't I ( ( 'tiiiiiit'ut iiiii 1k iiti.it.Ittsiiuuittcuths thu.'.iiit'iiu..uuiIruun.,uud ''I uiituit.iIj) 1 u.'u.iuliuquiu.'s iii a I amgu.'.Su.:iit' 1 t'si 'utt'u.i Iuistii mitt'. \'i!itt.it 1(111 Sm uiu.t ,''It uii'iuiIi','.I/'/'lic'ul I'uilu 'I 'Cl

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Survey Method," lit3te71rits and 71,chniques c)f industrial contributiotts to make ctirricultitit and class ItiluratiOttal Sedreh, editod by Ralph II,Jtriu room learning experiences meaningful, relevant, and Danville,Illinois. TheInterstatePrintersand interesting to the learner, It was interesting to note that Publishers, in 1073. ON of the speakers at this conference last year stated "A Comparative Studs. of School Board Politiesand that the task for business in the decade ahead is to Administrative Procedures for 1965 and 1970 for explain thefree enterprise system to the American Dealing with Supplementary Free Materialsin School public lest the American electorate dismantle the free Districts hi Cities with Populations Over 100,000hi enterprise system, One of the challenges to education in the United States," Rewards in hilneatiim 7:23, this decadeisto111111111i/g education, to help each March, 1'172 (ERIC Document No. ED WO 381). person develop a positive attitude about himself, to help "A Studs of Teacher Opinions Concerning Selected hint to develop an understanding and appreciation for Five Filmstrips Provided it y the AmerleanIron and his fellow man and his fellow man's culturein other Steel Institute to SArols Throughout the United words, help each child to become an individual capable States," Reward! ftEdtteaticm S:97, June, 1973 of living ina pluralistic society.I have just returned WIC(' Document No, ED 072 992), from the twentyininth attittn4 eonferenee for the Associ "A Study of Teacher Opinions and Fvaluations ation for Supervision and Curriculum Development and Concerning Selected Free Printed Materials Provided the entire etIllferellee was devoted to Creating Curricula bytheAmericanIronandSteelInstituteto for Human Futures, The World Out Children May Individuals 'throughout the United States," Research Inherit, Education for Survival: Our Task, Educator's Educati4n (in pressscheduled for February, 1974 Survival Kit: Career Education and the Curriculum, release). These are but a few of the topics which spell future 4,Good, yawl nictiary Eihwaion, second educational shock to us complacent, midwestern school edition, New NOrk: M4.1;raw1111 Book Company, people whose past experience and living somewhat cloud Inc., 1959. the bifocals which look to the future, But look we must and Douglas F. Scates..1Mhoits Re.vearch, New lotwe arepresently dealing with the Amite in our York: AppletowCentui y.Crolts, Inc., 1054, schools, S. Kephart, W. M. and Marvin Bressler, "Increasingthe Fur many years industry has produced material and Responseto a MailQuestionnaire: A Research made itavaillble with little or no cost fur educational Study." Public Opinion Qarterle 22: I 23.32, 14158, o. purposes, This has, for the most part, been done as a (;repel, Wayne J., "The APA Approach," in Methods method 'ti' advertising on the part of industry, however, and hehniques of Educational Research, edited by Ralph Ii. it has proven to he a rich source of valuable curriculum Jones, Danville,Illinois: The Interstate material. One would find itdifficult or impossible to Printers and Publishers. Inc., 1973, 7. name a discipline of iirtruetion inthe elementary or Oppenhiem, A. N., Questionnaire nolo and Atti- secondary school which could not be enhanced through tudeI f, Measurement, New Ytak: Basic Books, ltw., the use of industrysponsored or free material, Some s, Satersnom, Mary N., minicourses can be built completely from available tree Editor, hhteatrs Guide to materials. Erce Science Materials,14th edition, Randolph. Wisconsin: Educators Progress Service, Inc., 1973. The free materials ate available but how does the Sinclair, Thomas11.,elReport About average classroom teacher knot- what they ate, where Sponsored Teaching Aids, Published doctoral diswr tlpyale, and how toobtainthem'' To help the Nitwit presented to Northwestern University. classroom teacher withthistask, Educators Progress ( vanston, Illinois. Dansville, New York: F.A. Owen Servicein Randolph. Wisconsin, has since lo3o made Publishing Company. 195'). available eight different guides: It).Snelling, %V. Redman, "Impact of Personalised Mail Questionnaire." Journai of Educational Research I. Guide to Free Mini% 63:120.29, November, 19w. Guide to Free Filmstrips

I 1. Van Dalen, Debold B.. Understanding Educational , Grade to tree Tapes, Scripts, and iranscriptbs Research, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 4, ElementaryTeachers Guide to Me Curricuhon itc: (Plaits; 12. Young, Pauline V., Scientific Social Surreys and il(failFree ,Science Materials Research. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey: Prentice. 6. Guide to Free Social Studies Materials I fall.Inc.. 196o. 7, Guide to Free tiuidance Materials Guide r Fryellea/th,Phsiea/ducaticm and Recranicm ihnerials Set of Cards, Educators Index of Free Materials FINDING AND SELECTING FREE EDUCATIONAL All of the guides are revised annually. This means MA rum us thattitles of material which producers have withdrawn are deleted in the revised guide and new titles are added Dolts Phipps, Curriculum Consultant. ('ooperative and so identified.In the Elementaty Teachers Guide fducanon Service Agency W. Plymouth. Wisconsin: alone there are 1,705 items listed. Sian- klucators Progress Service, Randolph. As a further convenience to the busy teachei. the Wisconsin guides atetitle, subiec;, and source indexed. In other words, If oneisfamiliar with some industry. he can Theic has been no unic in our history when there [caddy note whether or not their material is listed, or,if 1.1s i10.1101 need for industry to play ;1 constructive role tuneis planning a unitoftopic, the subject indexlists intheprocessill education anti lor education to use everything available.

103 Theroteeled Matetials, and 11111110'44011s both in school and out of school, and finally in job eottie free, lintalter Use the mairit of them need to placement. he tetuoted for fintItet eirculatton. l'hepriiiteri material Thisisan exciting dimension of school today. olice leceived becomes .1.te piopetty of the teacher or Where could Mk find better resource material than flotti school, Usual')theteat:hetis ptivileged to keep such the industries. who are titanutheituers themselves. mat Itwould appear that this facet of education will tvety leacihit needs !lime Ilk or stotage space, rot yield some teeiprocation from education to indostry, thematerialIi'accuintilates. ()nee the storage space think for a king time we, in education. have ordered and Itevontes mailableitIN WellIII at method of used materials but seldom itever furnished any appro lame material. Personally IMete' the tabbed manila elation or recognition. Maybe education has not commis folder widi gut attached i:ard hearing a Niel description nicaoid very well to any segment of society. of the folder's contents, In the humaniting process of edueation, it becomes The matetialitour guides has been evaluated for necessary to help learners develop a loalty to their listing, but each uses of material needs to evaluate in fellow men. Loyalty implies a faith in People, faith in a (elms of salidit, and intended use. Those are community of peopit,and faith in onecountry. Faith questions the elassroont tea eliei could ask himself: isoften viewed as something imaginary, butitmust depend upon both the teal and the imaginary. Faith is a 1. 11'11at1%ilsII le NISI*: the producer? ('an behavior made possible when one can use his intapta tIts determine who the author was? lion combined with the learning~ and vieate owit Y. 1)oesthematerial felled some qualitN? toesit identify speeitic soeial, political, or economic view behavior. At this point the learner becomes the ittast,o. point s'' ofhisbehavior,'kiskindof holtavior could have whew would the material hest accommodate ones negative factors,II' a person becomes seIt.satisned and 3. develops his own little world which he tends to protect classwork9 Is the material visual or factual? What is the grade levelat which itis best eomptehended? and perpetuate, he loseqsight of the world, The excitement learning must he developed so that people Fdticmion ismoving fromtheteachingearning thouv where the teacher was the "giverol.knowledge" can have the motivation to adapt their own little worlds and the leamer the passivereeeiver to the processoriented to the larger world aad find satisfaction with their own behaviors in the larger pluralistic society. theoitotheteacher as facilitator of learning. The Certainlythefreematerialsavailablecanhelp teacher sets the stage, plans stateres and alternatives, and provides evaluativecriteriawhilethe learner uses his develop this faith in people and faith in one's country, curios0 to explore, his imagination to fuse his findings, the people who make the country. and his ideas and his co:amity to construct ideas for him. Inthecourseofprojectingtheuses of free materials,I self or construct concrete evidence to share. have neglected to indicate that there are sources for exhibits, ideas for bulletin board displays, One can readily understand thatinthis kind of ideas to challenge the capable, and material for the slow teildung,1e'",11ingsituatit'nthe idea or a textbook or learner, even multipletexts can't exist. There must be a limitless amount of material from which choices may be made and pupils must patliCipate ill the selection of learning SESSION CI materials. A unique contribution of the resource guide is SCIENCE FOR A NEW ELITE thatitalltms the student to shop for material, either independently, or with the help of the teacher. hi these days of scam budgets, fre materials are a welcome asset CHEMTEC: A DECADE OF' EXPERIENCE IN THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY lo lutliteef le\and mall supplies. Theprocess.orientedindividualisedlearning pro Kenneth Chapman,Assistant Head forSpcical gram does not take place in a vacuum. Certainly the Projects, Education Department, American Chemical learner cannot help but gather factual knowledge as he Society, Washington, D.C. interacts with others ano withmaterials; however, itis tohe hopedthathe learns the necessaryskills and The phrase "New Elite" used in the title of this develops a conceptual understanding of the content session calls for some reflections on pecking orders, job fields suchasscience orsocial studies. The use of availability,salaries,advancementopportunities, and industrysponsored materials can play an important part individual goals. in concept development. For example, in health one can Does it not seem strange for us to talk about a "New timidmatertal to help little children learn simple health Elite" in a democracy where all persons are considered habits as well as material which helps one understand his equal and where the potential of 14 or16 years of bothfun...nonsinadultlit'. This sets an example of education is theoretically available to all? In an age of spirallearning. thestrengthening and broadening of equality that is enforced by law as well as moral suasion, concepts. are we justified in raising a banner that says, "Join us and Ladle! I alludedtothe Educator's SurvivalKit: bebetterthanthenextperson?"Followingettis (',leer 001elopir:nt and the (.1111litiltiln. philosophicaltrainof thought may beintellectually Holetot),s.,can begininearly stimulating and personally Comforting, butitfailsto develop some simple concepts about wteK. Most kinder. provide for practical needs of today's society and many of gat ten Juldren know the school mano.tanee person to the people who live in it. Pori"ns ventwell We expand the -.ink idea to recog. To those who have worked with technical education in/Ing different kinds of work, to ',flowing how differ within the framework of the American Chemical Society en! kinds 01 woin are done. the traterial used in work. for the past ten years, the foregoing questions are far from and ultinttel t'w learner havidg work experiences. academic. They are practical questions that have been

104 debated iu ACS CoMmitteik and even tut the Mot of ACS order of business Wax todefineandspecify the (*tinnedmeetingswhet emajorpolicyehavesare qualifications and responsibilities t.la ellentleal techni- k:onsidered,It questions ate impliat to educitonal cian. Now, four years later, the deli :ition ties within the policies within out discipline awas as well as her out tri.ly of texts of the ChenfleCk 4111011M when' the society as a whole. kirrwledge andskill: expected of t!.fliniciati are Please heat with me tot a few moments whileI eteeftilly stated. Itis to be hoped that %,,mijoyers outline some of the minor discussion points of M'S feminine the capabilities of a Ninthl technician and consids.rattims relative to teelmician education and the Milne these capabilities to full advantage. The supet'visui role oftechnicians!nthe scientifi and educational who recognnes no distiction between the work of 11w oigattitation the call the American Chemical Society, teOutieian and the professional chemist is likely to find A dec.ide ago, an ACS committee went on record built disgruntled. Each must he challenged according to with the statement that chemistry portions of technician ability, interests, and preparation. cuniettlashouldhefullytransferabletoehem istry. Among the specific objectives set by the Chenfta poigrams designedto produce chemists and chemical e.rithig team were: engineers. The underlying concern was that students training students ht the use of common laboratory sludintt itt chemical technology programs should not be techniques, lindewd itt any way from continuing study to become acquainting students with the language 41f chemistry, professionals. a,, teaching the basic chemical principles, and Tilley rears later, a Second committee declared th.n 4. teaching some descriptite chemistry as it is cm row:, the eimis of technician ed itciion and the goals of the first used. twoyeals of a plotessumars plogram were sifflicielliiv Guidelines V/ 1.1C developed fin. achieving these objectives. tfitfetentthat a two-year piogram could not prduce Borrowing directly trout Dr. Robert L. Nook, Project well prepared chemical technician while meeting all the Director: I needs of a student wanting to embark upon the third year I. Keep the language simple and conversc.tional. of study in a program designed fora chemist. Instead. it 2. Do not use so many words that what should be easy declined that a distinct role e\isted in modern chemistry becomes difficult. for tedmicians and that many individuals would he much 3, Adopt a phenomenological approach. Do, observe. better served by a curriculum specifically designed to interpret, and then explain the concepts, rather than build upon the conditions which led these individuals to do experiments to illustrate abstiact ideas. considertechniciancareersinthefirstplace.The 4. Clive reasons behind the facts where appropriate. committee stated that those wan,ing to continue to study Justify why a topic is important to the student. to beet chemists would be best served by courses that 6. Use experiments relatedto common experience would serve as a bridge from technician to professional whore possible. programs. 7. Keel,thequithematiestoelementaryalgenra, While one committee was tackling the educational logarithms, and graphs. problems of technicians, another ACS committee was S. Repeatconcepts witha gradualincreasing of struggling with the role of technicians in the Society, sophistication and a broadening of significance. Membership requirements madeitverydifficultfor 9. Think in terms of questions the student should be technicians to obtain ACS membership; yet a significant able to answer. number of technicians desh.ed sonic services provided by Students using the CheinTeC approach bypass the ACS, particularly those that were educationally oriented. usual introductions of classifying and lescribing kinds of In eight years of work, this eommittee has not obtained energy, matter, etc. On thefirstArty. the CheinTeC input sufficientto show clearly whether ACSshould studentis doing somethii.;t very basic paper chromate' redesign its membership requirements to admit technician graphy. A few in ths later lie broadens his first day's or ald technicians in the formation of a sister society. work by using paver chromatography for separating ink Arsumoits for both courses of action come from both the components. Ile then extracts the separated substances, professional and technik .an communities. measures the absorption spectra, and learns the practical What has been dearly demonstrated is that chemical aspects of spectrophotometry, properties of' light, and technicians are making major contributions to chemistry. Beer's Law. This is tie' typical approach used throughout thatthk..yhave leadership and organizational expertise, the ChemTeC program. :old that they ale much too important to the chemistry Mathematics in CheinTeC is oriented to use. Data is community to be shunted aside and ignored as in previous generated and to become meaningful, the student must years. Without going into details, itis sufficient to say organize it and do some mathematical manipulations. that chemical technicians are not only contributing to Today the CheinTeC materials are available asa chemistry by doingthebench workinchemical classroom tested and revised series of eight volumes plus a labatorws. 'out they are conti ibuting to the decisions guidebook and teacher's manual. l'or traditional pro- whicha.tectallthose working withinthefieldof grams. thesetextsreplace general chemistrorganic chemistry. on local. regional, and national levels. chemistry. analytical chemistry, physical the. mistry, and The Chenucal Technician Curriculum Project was laboratory texts. The lecture and laboratory is completely developed toincrease nt professional participation of integrated.There isnoartificialseparation of the technician. in chemistry and to meet their educational subdiscipline areas of chemistry. It must he einphasi/ed needs, For On, reason. the ChemTeC Project began its that this is a laboratory oriented prow am and the student work w ith a cuineulum concept in mind. with the design must d chemistry. he cannot simply Ma chemistry. and pioiuction ofinstructional materials of secondary consideration. It) I. 1 I reCStiti. t 11111)VallVe Apittodull It) 'Ouch gioundwork had been laid when the ChemTeC Chemist ty." .tin 4), (11rmical )..414(111ton Si) ; P.51.1)ect miler writing team first met in April 1970. However, the first 1973.

105 PHYSICS OP TECHNOLOGY MODULESTHE PRO. tion, some field testing &Wirth** frnm the -Protect DUCT OF THE TECH PHYSICS PROJECT Coordinator'sofficehas beencarried on atother colleges, and feedback front these contributes to revision Philip Di Lavoie, Nod Coordinator, Tea physics, of the materials, Indiana State Univeisity, Terre Haute Presently the Project has under consideration by the National Science Foundation a proposal for More The aim of the Tech Physics Project is to produev extended and coordinated BM testing of the materials instructional materials for the teaching of introductory in a number of colleges.Itis hoped thatitwill he collegephysicsin a "modular" front and wilda possible to try out titIllear courses based completely on laboratory-oriented approach. Foch nodule compriws a thePhysics of Technology modtdesataboutten relatively independent unit of instritction, and each is colleges. based upon a technological device or s stem. alms they A list of Physics of Technology modules which are are called the "Physics of Technology" modules.) The now availableforpreliminary classroomtrials may students' investigations are centered about the system he requested Born the Production Centers listed above, andin each modulo, only those physics topics which ThePhysicsof Technology modules will be published in flownaturallyfiointhestudyofthedeviceare final form in January ll)76, by the McGraw-11M Book discussed. Ten to twelve modules will limn a tote -year Company. The accompanying apparatus is to he maim- course, but about twenty-five are being produced. so tactured by Thornton Associates; some of which is now that the individual teachers can assemble sets of modules available. which are most appropriate for their students. Insofar as SESSION C-3 Possible. the Project encourages individualised study. The Physics of Technology modules are directed to SCIENCE IS IN THERE; CAN YOU FIND IT'? IN those students who are in technician training or tech WASHINGTON D.C.? nologyprograms and who aretaking a "technical ph sits" course. Thus fitr, the modules have been used Mary B. Ilarbeek, Assiatant Director, Department of Science, Public Schools, Washington, D.(', idelbysuch students, buttheyhavealso had considerable use in other kinds of courses; e.g., those for Although scienceisa noun in the title of our liberal arts. prerofessional and even high school stu- presentation today we try to keepita verb inthe dents. Fven thoughthe modules are based on tech- classrooms of t' e District of Columbia. nologicaldevices, the aimisto teachbasic physics Let me set the stage for you. Twenty-five hundred concepts; the technology involved is used as a classroom teachers, in one hundred and forty buildings mot Iva t ing device. are helping 77,000 children learn science. The largest Unusualaspectsof thePhysicsof Technology building has about 1,500 students (K-6) and the smallest modules include the following: has an enrollment of 139, We have a corps of 75 science 1. Physics is taught b means of "real-world" devices. resource teachers to help in the task, Some of them are Theinstructionalunits are three-week modules, residents in a laye building: about a third of them have which may he assembled from a much larger set two or more buildings assigned to them, and there are than could be used in a whole year; the intention is about twenty small buildings whose budgets will not that the teacher then can use those modules which stretch to cover special subject resource teachers. are most appropriate for his students, Thisis,theoretically, a beautifulset-up, Asis 3. "Coverage'' of topics in a traditional sense is not usuallythecase, the theory loses somethinginthe aimed for. Rather, itis intended that the students translation into acti il practice. We expected that class- should explore the topics they do cover in more room teachers would teach science as an integral part of depth and give them a feel for the methods and the school day, with help from the science resource topics of physics. !however, most of the traditional teacher. After the teacher's union obtained a require- topics are covered in some modules, and teachers ment that classroom teachers have three planning peri- may choose which topics they wish to include. ods per week principals found it hard to provide the 4. Generalizations into broad, physical principles fol- planning periodsinany way except to have science low from specific obseivations by the student of resource teachers teach children without the presence of the particular principle in action in the device being the classroom teacher. The school-by-school budgeting studied. systemwhich we usemakesitnecessarythat we This Project is funded through five separate grants negotiatewithindividualprincipals to include some fromtheNationalScienceFoundation, one to the expenditures for science equipment in the budget each Project Cooldinator and the other four to the Produc- year.Thesciencedepartment hasno budget. The tion('enters.TheProjectDirectorsateach of the pressure from the central administration is on math and Produc,ion ('enters are: LK. Akers and John F. Yegge reading. Not all principals and teachers see the potential at Oak Ridge Associated Universities, John McWane at in inquiry-based science for developing and strengthening Tot inneal Education Research Centers, Bill 6. Aldridge mathandreadingskills.Opportunitiesformassive at FlorissantValleyCommunity College, and('.R. inservice education for classroom teachers are hard to Stannard and Bruce Marsh at The State University of conic by. Now York at ton. We have developed minimum performance objec- 1._ach of the four centers which are producing the tivesingrades1(4) and areinthe second you of Physics of Technology modules have been carrying on validation. Our philosophy emphasises that the science fieldtests. From the time the first shaftis written, a program is to he both process and content oriented with module is tested in as many schools and with as many the emphasis on process. Itis based on the idea that all classes .is possible. the results of these tests then provide children should he successful in inquiring into natural mioonation for the revision ofthe materials. hr addi. phenomena in tree and "acceptingatmosphere. We

100 Ate trying to get elementary inundatedti r till children who have Itopersonal possessions at home children; probablythisisreally a bid fOr attracting covet our magnets, magnifying. lenses, and other small increased attention to our program, objects intensely, wishI could get a carload to give The minimum performance standards which we away, have setarchitthly compatible with liSS, SCIS. and lniturcity children bounce and giggle in their seats, AAAS, About 33 buildings ineludine, two open space they have to learn to share, they often present sweeping buildings are using SCIS in the early grades, There are hypotheses with little evidence to support them, they 20 buildings using the AAAS program, here and there compete with each other, they beg for affection and one finds an ESS unit or two in use. We have three acceptance from teachers, and they want to succeed. buildings piloting the USMUS, developed in Newtown, They deserveabetterchance tolearnthanthey Massachusetts and one building using The Individual lied sometimes get. Science program developed by the MIS lab in Phila. Our problemsliewith the bureaucracy and delphia.Thefinancingof theseprograms and the !lancing problems present in large city systems, not with logisticsof equipment distributionhavenever been the children.Theirculturaldiversities make helping adequate, Many of our buildings are using programs them to learn aricher experience for teachers, Tlw thought up and scrounged In by the science teacher learning of science processes and concepts is an avenue who is there. which can he used to improve communication skills and This, then, is a thumbnail sketch of the situation as mutual underst and ing among all students as they invests- itis. The resourcefulness and dedication of the science gate the environment which they all have in common. resource teacher 1,{sps the program going, often sur. prisingly well. Ilow do inner-city children manage to "do" science SESSION C4 instead of reading about it and talls'ng about it? In just the same ways that suburban and rural children do. SCIENCE TEACHING IN AN OPEN-SPACE HIGH Inner -city children are at once Just as alike and Just as SCHOOL different front each other as groups of children in other locales. Maria Penny, Science Department Chairman, Wilde :n the schools where more traditional programs still Lake High School, Columbia, Maryland prevail. children are memorizing the proper responses and feeding them back to the teacher in the expected Wilde Lake Iligh School is an open-space, individu- fashion. Happily, in many schools we see that teachers alized-progresshighschool belonging tothe Trump who don't have SCIS and AAAS materials often have Model School Program, The school philosophyisto the philosophy of these programs. Children are observing provide a personalized, selfpaced curriculum where each ice and water in a' lam instead of a beaker, sorting and studentis actively involved in setting goals and evalu class0 ing buttons brought from home, doing popula- ating progress. tion counts in a gallon jar aquarium, building their own All scienceistaught in one large classroom with circuitboards(sometimeswithtelephone company modern facilities. The staff also has access to audito- wire ), and computing the mechanical advantage of their riums attO conference rooms. own bicycles. They are maintaining mealworm colonies The program provides for four levels of abstraction and studying animal behavior. The good readers do in most of the sciences; offerings range front molecular written and oral reports. The non-readers draw pictures biology and astronomy through biological and physical and"sluw and tell.'' Some of them learn to spell ellipse sciences for low-achievers. and rectangle but get mixed up when reading was and The techniques used to individualize the different saw. courses vary depending on the type of learner and the Science has become a practical necessity for many resources. Extensive useis made of UNIPACS, learning of our schools with the advent of ecology and beautifi- stations, flow charts. games. workbooks and small group cation projects. Children are learning to measure and discussions. Evaluation is both oral and written. Effort is map school sites. They are propagating geraniums to made to hold informal, oral evaluation frequently to plantin window boxesthisspring. They areusing keep in close touch with student progress. vaseline on cards to collect solid pollutants from the air. Inthe two and a half years of the program, the They are measuring the amount of trash Produced in the staff has begun to accumulate a variety of resources. classroom. Sixth grade students visita National Park However, much moreeffortisneededtodevelop i:rvice lightship on the Potomac and collect and test materials on non-traditionaltopics andto meet the estersamplesforsediment andacidity. Many sixth needs of exceptional students on either end of the trade students studyawoodland andfieldhabitat ability spectrum. duringaweek of mountin camp life.They draw rnteret'ces twin the datati.eycollect on four nature Iht.sy compare and contrast the camp environment SESSION C-5 with then- home environment. The students in our bilingual schools sometimes get MINERALS, ENERGY, AND THE ENVIRONMENT some e \poi iences taughtinSpanish.Ihave seen an armless childsort buttons ina SCIS lesson with her THE NATURAL RESOURCE PROBLEM, A BLACK toes She had white socks on. BOX TYPE OF APPROACH Our ewe! ience wito the newel alphab:st programs contoons toWalhessei'sevaluation of AAAS the John C. Griffiths. Prokssor, Department of C,co- disadvantagedchildren do asw,..11 asthose who are sciences, Pennsylvania State University. University. advantagede,:oncinicallyandsocially. We findthat Park

107 The mineral inditniries is a sithsystent 14 the hitja The resources of United States tire vtist4 s% stem coinprising the life of Immo sapiens on earth, Its butto be usefulto man natural resources must he structure is tevtewed tinough illusttative examples. found. developed, and plocessed, The natural resource, The exploitation of mineral resources as part of this of any nation ate related to its si/e, its geology, and its system is noted through time in terms of its ehanging location oil the earth. Only one nation the Union of dollar value. This ina be looked upon as the output of Soviet SocialistRepublics substantially exceeds the a black box. The behavior of the black box may he United States in land area, and only four other nations modeled and, using the criteria of economic option/a the People's Republic of China, Canada, and lion. the outcome is, at best. suboptimol. Australia have land areas about the size of the hilted Implications of this behavioral pattern for future States. In addition to its land area the United States has management and control of natural resources are ex. extensive continental shelves and direct access to the ;mimed. seas and the seabeds of the world, the United States has almostevety type ofgeologic formation withinits MINERAL POSITION OF THE UNITED STATES--- borders.Theclimate of the largest part of the United 1974 States is temperate, and the United States also has areas with tropical and arctic climates. John D.Morgan. Jr..AssistantDirector, Mineral Posuon Anal% sis, bureau of Mines, Department of As at consequence of its site. geology, and geo- the Interior, Washington. D,C, graphythe United States has vast resources of': rocks and minerals, soils, subsurface fluids (including oil and The tinned States isthe world's most productive gashwaters,andaft.Ourforebearsbelievedthat nation and its citizens enjoy One or the highest material resourcedevelopmentcouldbestbeaccomplished standards of living of any people in the world. Materials throughprivateinitiative, and they framed the early andenergyarethelifebloodof anyindustrialized hotnstend and mining laws accordingly. The good farm- economy. Annually the United States uses over 4 billion lands and timberlands and the high-grade !intiml de- tons of mineral materials alit fuels, or 40,000 pounds posits that outcropped on the surface naturally were the perperson. Domestic processedivaterials'if mineral first to he acquired by private owners and developed. As origin and energy are valued at more than S 175 billion time passed. future land and mineral development of annually. and they are derived largely from domestic necessity was Wired to operate on over poorer lands sources, supplemented by imports, andeverleanermineral deposits.Fortunately, our Inrecentyears thesuperior prouuoi /iv of the national ingenuity, borrowing strongly from science and UnitedStateshasalso en.:bleditto giv: food and technology developed earlier abroad, and stimulated by manufacturedarticlestomany otherlessfortunate laws which provided incentives recognizing the impor- nations and peoples of the earth. What thenis our tance of the extractive industries, has enabled the nation concern withmaterials atthis time? Seeing the bur to keep on developing natural resources, some of which geoning increases in our mineral demand: from 2 billion are of declining quality. tonsin1450, toover 4 billiontons today, and a To convert natural resources into useful materials projected 11billion tons by the year 2000 we are technology must he continuously improved; the tech- getting questions conCerning our ability to continue to nology must be workableatreasonable prices;the incr ase production sufficientlyfor the future. Seeing processes must be compatible with environmental regula- the increasing deficits ill our mineral balance of trade tions and industrial health and safety standards; and the $8 billions inI473 we are getting questions con businessmustyOldprofitscomparable withother corning our abilityto pay for rising mineral imports. economic activities. Mineral deposits generally are harder Seeing the manner in which mineral deposits developed to find and assess than forests and other agricultural abroad are being expropriated, nationalized, and other resources, because most mineral deposits are located out wise preempted, we are getting questions concerning the of sight below the earth's surface. The world's deepest 'egree to which our economy can rely upon foreign mines have penetrated only to about two miles in a few materials ill the future. places; its deepest wells only to about six miles in a few The United States has but 6 percent of the world's places; andcurrentdredgesoperateinonlyaFew population and 6 percent of the world's land area the hundred feet of water; yetitis nearly four thousand other 94 percent of the people on the other '14 percent miles to the center of the earth. of the land also want higher material standards of living, Through the study of geological maps and the and they want to acquire rapidly inure of the value making of complex geophysical and geochemical mea- added by manufacturing raw materials. While our econo- surements skilledgeologists call,in some areas, infer my has grown over the years. that of the world has wh:'tlies below the surface. Obviously, in areas where increased even more, so that today we are finding ever the rock strata are relatively uniform and cover many increasingcompetition whenitcomes toacquiring square miles, inferences as to what may be found below needed raw materials, while atthe same time we are are better than in areas of very complex geology where finding strenuous competitioninselling many manu heat, pressare, and earth movements have greatly de- tactured articles in world markets. Two decades ago the formedtherocks.Mineraldepositsthathave been United States prod,iced about one-half of the world's found, adequately drilled to determine their content of steel,refinedpetroleum. and aluminum metal,but valuable minerals, and that can he mined, processed, and today, despite significantly increased domestic produc- converted into useful materials with known technology tion, we produce only about one-fifth of the world's at reasonable prices are called "ores," and the quantita- steel, onefurth of the world's refined petroleum, and tive content of the valuable minerals therein are called one-third of the world's aluminum metal. What is to be "reserves." (Example:the rocks of the earth's crust done to ensure mineral supplies for our eeonotny into average 5 petcetitiron:theUnited States has vast the future? restores of rocks containing more than 5 percent trim:

108 thetrimtire(ComesYes ofthe(tuttedStatesare academia must be brought to bear on current major 10,000.000,000 tons, which in turn contain problems. including: 2,11110.000.000 tons of recoverable iron metal, comPared I, Discovery and assessment of resources presently to U.S. steel production of 133.000,0011 tons In 1972). untouched by our-deepest mines and wells. Agricultural materials are generally renewable in Development of safeandefficientcoal mining relativelyihorttinte snarls. in that some crops canhe systems to significantly increase underground ex raisedfoulorlivetimes ayear, annual cycles are tractionratios from the presentlevelof about common. and softwood trees can he raised on fifteen to twenty Neat cycles. Mineral kleposits, however, normally 3. Developmentofimprovedpetroleumrecovery are formed onl over much longer periods of time methods to significantly increase extraction ratios usually tens of million:: or hundreds of millions of years. above the present level of about onethird. Consequently, the total supply of all minerals accessible 4. Development of underground and surface mining to man in the eartb's crust is, to all practical purposes, methodstominimize degradation of theland relativel!.fixed. and 'mice mineral materials are getter. surface,subsidence, and harmtosurfaceand ally of greater concern to nations with heavy industry. subsurface waters, 5. solid, The naturallyoccurring elements are foundin Development of clean liquid, and gaseous fuelsfromcoal, natural materials some in animal materials, somein petroleum, and other energy vegetable materials, and sonic in minerals. (Example: the materials. element carbon is in the flesh and bones of men and b, linprovtiment of combustion processes to increase beasts,in the cellulose, starch, sugars, etc., of plants, efficiency and to reduce emissions of fumes and and in limestone, and other rocks, in coal and petroleum particulates, 7, .mpI and naturalgas).Consequently, lig many elements, roveme nt of electricity generation, transmission, there are a wide variety of possible sources, but the and conversion methods. 8. technologyt'orextracting the element from different Development of new energy sources including geo sources varies greatly. On the contrary. for many other thermal and solar. elementsthereareonlyavery Development of stronger, lighter, corrosion resistant limited number of and temperatureresistant materials. sources, andthisisparticularly true of metals and mineralspossessinguniquepropertiesof specialized 10.Improvement of recycling techniques to conserve application in modern technology, (Example: most high naturalmaterialsandenergy, andtopromote temperature metals). Other than in nuclear processes, environmental enhancement. elements areneither cleatednor destroyed 11.Stimulation of measures to conserve energy and man's materials in actual or potential short supply. processingmerelycombinesthen(incertainways, recombines them, or reduces combinations into elemen Oversixtyyears ago agreatmining engineer. tal form. Thus, the materials industries are engaged in Herbert Hoover, concluded his "Principles of Mining" as extracting elements from natural materials, and/or emu Follows: "To the engineer falls the work of creating from the dry bones of scientific fact the living body of bitting or recombining them into forms more useful to industry, Itis he whose intellect and direction bring to man. the world the comforts and necessities of daily need.... Nature itself is constantly engaged in vast proces- Engineering is the profession of creation and of con- sing activities, in which the "carbon-oxygen" and "nitro. struction, of stimulation of human effort and accost gen" and "hydrologic" cycles are major examples. For plishment." The needs of the present and the future mostpurposes there are greatinterchangeabilitiesin make his words evon more appropriate today, materials. (For example:rubber can he made from: naturallatex from rubber trees: carbon and hydrogen Reference frontalcohol, from grain, or from other agricultural materials; carbon and hydrogen from hydrocarbons from 1. "Mining and Minerals Policy 197.3. The Second petroleum, natural gas. coal, etc.: and buildings can he Annual Report of the Secretary of the interior constructed from: steel, aluminum, copper, glass. stone. UndertheMining and Minerals Policy Act of slate, concrete. tile, wood, plastics, plywood, and many, 1970." many other materials.) However, inspecialized tech- nological applications in which a multiplicity of prop- ertiesarerequired. (for example, a combination of strength, electrical conductivity, temperature resistance, SESSION C-6 corrosion resistance, and creep resistance) the available matermls are much more limited. THE THREAT TO SCIENCE TEACHING Today, improvement of domestic productivity in the mming, minerals, metal, mineral reclamation, and C. Nooniin Walker, Academic Vice-President and energyindustriesrequires accelerated development of Associate Professor of Chemistry. Pensacola Junior new and improved technology and rapid introduction College, Florida thereof intoallstages including: exploration; mining, and petroleum and natural gas production; processing: For ahalt' dozen yearsIwas a member of the use; and recovery and recycling. Inall of the above, science faculty at a junior college, before that, a high appropriate provision insut be made for the health and school science teacher.I read science journals, attended safely of workers and for environmental enhancement seience meetings, and talked with science teachers. I had through: minimizing air, water, and land pollution; land a very good feeling about the future of science teaching. restoration; and esthetic improvement. Then my job changed. I read about science but it The fullresources of industry, government, and was not written by science teachers. I attended meetings

109 t about science- bat they were not conducted by science years, A savings of 10 to IS percent in general expenses teachers. I talked about science teaching but not with and a 30 percent decrease in capital °Inlay could he science teachers. Now, 1 do not have such good feeling tealieed VI So enthusiastically has this been receivedthat about science teaching. sonic legislatures have come within a breath or leg's Isee symptoms of science teaching being on the hating the curriculum change. The Committee for Cemni. edge of a serious sickness. By sickness 1 do notmean to milDevelopment has recommended to the Congress that imply that science teaching is bad, or to he condemned. college tuition he increased until time student is paying or that if should he "junked." I mean itis just as if 1 had SO percent of the instructional costs to he accom- saidithaspneumonia. Thereisa germ, and our plished withinfiveyears. This willrepresenta 583 resistance is low. The germ has always been present but percentincreaseinuniversitytuition; a 4t)4 percent this particular strain is especially virulent and prevalent. increaseinthe four-year collegetuition and a 416 Although science teaching got a special vaccination in percent increase in junior college tuition.(0 1457 that carried it healthily throughout the decade of Another proposal goes one step Wier. Undera the ntrs, now, itis worn out. Our resistance is lowered. plaitcalled,"fullcostpricing,"15fstudents will he We have probably gone too far for a simple booster to chargedtuitioninproportiontothecostof the work: what we need to do is rmaccinate. discipline based on the argument that "a studentin I secthree symptoms and 1 want to share my humanities subsidises the studentinphysics. Thisis observations, my diagnosis. and my prescription. These inefficient and inequitable." A model developed on data symptoms describeathreat athreattoscience at the University of Minnesota shows the costs of the teaching. a threat to laboratory instruction, and a threat Liberal Arts Program to be tilit00 per year; education, to general education. The germ causing the problem is S.1800; and hiological science, $3300. The statewide cost "money, or the kick of it. analysis of junior college instruction in Florida shows that Science instruction is expensive because of the need the biological sciences are IS percentmore expensive than for materials and space, the low student teacher ratio, and the social sciences and that physical science is percent the long instructional hours. And. if science teaching in more expensive. general is expensive then the science laboratory instruc- What will be the effect on student enrollment if tion is one of the primary reasons. Yet, we insist on the full-costpricing goes into effect?If studenttuition continuation of the science laboratory experience be- reaches the projected SO percent? Combine these factors causeitisessential. butto whom? And, for what with a "zero growth" population, andwe have a definite purpose'? leveling of enrollment with a commensurate leveling of Itwe ask ourselves tolistthe objectives of the operational funds. Let us examine briefly the impacton Laboratory experience, what would we develop? Many a science department with level enrollment and leveled are purely content objectives which can he accomplished funding. moteconomically in the classroom or by demonstra- Operational funds normally fall within two catego tion. The documentation of this accomplishment is quite ries; salaries and supplies. If the total amount of money abundant.13,11Inaddition to the content objectives, remains constant then these are the only two variables. however, there are the "process objectives" or "methods ifeither variable changes the other mustreact. To of science objectives" which can havea high degree of increase salaries the money from supplies must decrease. validity. Yet we are hard pressed to show where the Hut. we know that supplies continue to becomeinure instructionrelatedtothese objectivesisinthe costly and hence less money will be available for salary. laboratory experience. Again, research shows thatal- To continue operating with less money for salaries the though these "method`- type's" of objectives are often number of faculty can remain constant and theaverage articulatedinthesyllabus. seldom arethey overtly salary decrease or the salary can remain anti the number taught and even less frequentlyis the accomplishment of faculty decrease. Neither is a palatable proposal. One measined.irilYet, when articulated, taught, andmea- other alternative is available and that is to decrease the sured, the accomplishment can be documented. Where is supply money by redefining laboratory instructionas an our science lab manual which lists the objectives to be experience for the nonscience major only. Is this what accomplished for each experiment along with the mea- we want? Not really. but our allegiance must he to the sures so thatboth the wacher and the student know science major and. of course. our colleagues. We will definitely what we are attempting to accomplish? Thus, say, with great regret, that science laboratory instruction our firstline of resistance.. clearly detlned, measurable, is reserved for science majors. Is this the first washout in noncontent objectives. is lacking. an erosion we later will not he able to check? The publicislooking for ways to decrease the Aside from the tuition changes. a great deal of expenditures for higher education. During the decade of attention has been directed toward the "credentialing of the Ni's, expenditures leer higher education increased previous knowledge" which is itist a fancyway or saying iron' S3.7 billion per year to SItc3 billion while the -credit by exam." We know of the Advanced Placement enrollment increased from 2.3 million to 5.7 million.(?( Program, College Boards, and the College Level Fxami- Inthisten-year period we see enrollmentin nation Program (C1.11)1 These progvains, especially the education increasing by147 percent but the expendi- latter. :lave succeeded in redefining general education. tures for higher education increasing by 340 percent. Formeily. we referredtogeneral education as those Obviousl. one cannot expect the relationship to con- experiences (usually courses) which produced the well ue. rounded.criticallythinking, enlightenedciti/en, who Blue ribbon committees have been established to becauseofhisbreadthor knowledge couldbetter make recommend.oions regarding the Fiume of higher understand his role in life and who consequently could cducanon. Regrettabl. they propose atnalingly similar peitotin in a more productive manner for hinisolt and solutions. The Carnegie Commission recommended that society. CLIP. lot example. proposes thatbecaltsc the loin . earbaccalaureate degree he reduced to dice person has performedin society and has acquired a

110 ilau allksunt iti !Jt lihit h iltatflLet mtatwnJtL theytndJ lead in a h1tt' Ihts ttiwt;d du.ttl: L tIt bLiit skneE stte whfch nuld tcstt m the tteinhe lit' eullege stttg hii,iinstriWLitIlt as we kitow It today a Jetnise ot' (1tP tlttlnn!4 I%' tiltWil1t tlt%Otht a kind and degwe. My tnCst-itflIntt tthnpk to *press II tibiut .anitth,tttt%uh s tu,1 tstr.,uhia i Ies Mrnpie to tw'tnphsli. hrst we ifiusi duilni the ttttk1Ht h1%t%l ti-'InttanIijk%II t,i'.Iktstlwi Is Hn unique tibjsIsinstE our SI'LeIW nsIniethift w Utuct ntat I l%in4sttnH wittdi tItstthtflt 4Ifl UU t icacit io 5he ohjeu''s a4tt. we niust dneunient %ttut wdn in nh iii I'ittttsit,nt ais ufl nt IsItWasUtChttt'httIlte HiUtu)li.futttt. L,trd Kelvttt ex ii itiisn1it It4it (%I)I'nt Ittht natwal ri*'ssudhits jesetiptioti ap;sqiaie wlwn he I ttht $%iiCt1flt ('ItttL students taking tIti (iIP aiti. SjtttIr,"Witeit Stiltsill IIW,ISUIC whtit you are speaking in1tthtn Ltk ike' (in tI+ Ai tln mtsittttat? ahititit. aIit'%sss It in nutnhens, you know something ittdtwtnt '1nr%dt,InI')'U. riltflhItdv Oflt) aboutit,tintwitenyoucaittitittuetistlieftyour atkltts knk th(LIP atntit thin,In 'I7 $ kit wIeiI1'tis nt Ineililer and usisatislaciory kind." And II intis,d 21 .0111) and inI ')72 hi alinnst 2.01)0141 54t)fl5t, Ws'tItlistkut'p in nitsal the tieiuttty nt $iR) And withwgtitd in nn tIt \tttiittaIktn Intt%Ini i ,55R II1USIlWtuJ5C our ItIi.WsIy 10 Ost)fl%fllti' th tldiht nt tIh h'gislaiUn'and 1tn Ia.pa higiil'Ik. sIUstin' iweds ut snoEC students yet stay within the Si \I I % i Ih u .ind tt\aintnaIli'n tnu$d p1nduc a pa,1sitIets'tsof tiseatI1lflhIiLtofl, We attintitvidUahi tnliltttn IIl4t'i htitut1(IitVnit nttiv halt iii tlw itsst iltt:utln . We CJU shtttttl,ilt' ohie.htl.otie t uteIee'. sve can p'l l$Ik .155 thi'in.Itiisl.itt' tIiitullinin hiiurs tn ditilats ci e tentcantiigtuutLab raturyepeiieuicesliii wuleI'%ul s,t%j and sI'U si;i$'I lit ha%' a huttik oF iinv. lkn itli education students tltit rttIIy turn themurn and we cati iii I all I')72, 1 .1)1)1)hi 'lii's ItII5IIItUIIiighsItiii1i' stupletiwut ss'It.pat'euI, niedhutt'd science courses for the 111,1%I.'t\It% 5 ti1ll iIt' i.'ai ntdthi..iught(tLIiP 1tiit' science outsit thaI will give Ititti learning opportunities ilitiusititl It 'insisa hit ut n'udn't s, tat beyoitd t hose sit the last decade, l)it i%tI tittsIu.'t si auid, Iam tioti ti kwtng th fliethreat In sk'iiee eduicatitin istealbutt with 'atninat It'll pi ogt ains, suidi as (1.1:1).iIt Ituitifi I ptrstiit. this re'vacdnation. itstesistaitt'e can he reectahhtslwd.

iii U I .ill.Ilti Itiitkthat tiitI' twIual inhn fl1t km shiitild And. titt'vigor atisivitality w.' have giowit aecustoineti I'u.i.'ss.ti Uv h'thu'soft' 11515 kitaw1iidIni ntral to t.peeI will be insisted. (Iiuiat n nti it litit (%u ittListh' Iiinst, I Iiu, at s t'I'%it iit ui. attat iwo tow W in s Iiavt' Iwti References is.itIiI%) ri.'l itl.ist'd liii uigtIiv.'zain a

ttt%(VItt? itt lflu.i. tt' i%,' ignurtd th' uiIiI'ttiv'that I, Lh1isted, IU'i'i qit!fenwrii'es whi Si.ppkini'iits 1lt 11101 i.' dittiiUII Ii,)(id.riIs Ii ktflW.aitd tI' mt'astiii. it)(lit' in/Pt hllft'Pt'Pu' l.a/n wattt. Advisory ('ounchl Vt'itavu u.'Iiintna It'dsuiiiuxlab t' piit'iitstot Ilit' on ('tulL'gt' ('htemist ,y. Wushtingt..m. $).( ',I %(s, Itiii%st'I'it't.'HhIhItl).i%isi.'it J5 ISIt'IIt' (II I ItattIi.tit .2. ('atnegie ('nininission onhIIght'ththisat inn, Ls'xs I;' Ilgutti.'OUtWJs oF tni'aing ft ndu( In. lIi. UVI'tt 'flIflC'.il11P(' Options. Mc(taw 11111, htic., New 'uik. thouth .1 11111(1.1alt IIIaIhilis di 1.' IitlIiiiitiittth I lit' P' 4S. l')72. titIt'iitttd isipItiit lii tiatu' Ihs h idi Ut ii I,'t.,pit 3. (agt'.NJ...edhisit.llansllutoAoJReseai'eli on gt.iiititi'd 111511(itItlltiiittittt1i.itihlt' 5¼ItIt$iti,t't',,stl1)jt'u. ietielnii. Raiid McNally ('ii,, Chicago, illinois. pp. I ISt.'5. 1044.1051. h%3. SSI.' It.iS t.'tdnit tu,tlt i,ati lit' Iabtttattiit \pi I. 4, ts'mit it 'HJ h, u,('1 1 P. .2liii Sti.Ldsscat tonal ('tltt'S II I.' lit)Iuititit'tti('t,t'5S.lI'Ii tiliii.'Itt)lt5CIt't1tf.' iUIu1t Testing St"u 5ht't'. Princeton, New .ktsey1')74 sItat stIll h' t itth;tststot sa lug that th' It't't a, puut hut S. Ross. M%,lm II.''let's liisl the lret' Lunch and 1:1111 ski111111Itfl.I!tt ttssat v ?JOthisi a tit ''th'W %ti&it it111.1. Shaih ('ostl'tk'htig.'' C'Iltu,'c' and tJnit'e',situ'

.111(1 I lit' ttt It't:lts tun piat itahit V dii V' hta su.h liiisins'ss 54:30.33, .IuttuatvI U74 a S ,tgtit' ittt1 ili.It'tIit.'d'istititit hutotttt's:h'tn't' ii. Shiass',i;tnwsI'.''National Pulley and tiw Great '\fi't I('11¼t' tii.tt ss i,.'ssiIl ht' unablt' to tk'tt'ud it .igahiist au 1)eh,ite.'' C 'o!lt,'t' and Ciiu'ei'citv !iusin'ss Si: 2S.2). tilt 5% I11I t IIt'I Ii.. %¼'it'ttl ititahi, dishtttt'ii.'sitd at t au.kt.'i t,tiiu1tt l")74. Is'IIIkt,iist' I itt' tww st utkut asks t h' 7. Xiaii.siitaI.Ihsfrat'l if the (!pgjfi/Stau's' /17/, titht i('.$iiit'tilt'1ltittstIi.'ttt'' '''htdi 1itt't'd U 2titls'd liii in.(IS. t)uiea U oh ('ensus, Washtuigton. I).0 pp. 102. 11)3. 11)7 $ thi'.tul t" $ 4itii$dskitsitafldI uiiiIJfit'itlitt'ilIlittl iu hisitit'.,ititl aittihtitj,i)'III5l)t'It't%IlitiLksu)i'ut'I $. Walker.I '.N.''l'roi atnmus'd('hts'nthstt Lahotatury tIlt' adults ht't iittt'i pR'td this t s shitiph j't't'hitit'it ts:i%e i'iunphtsht lu! 1't huds object jties.'' tli.it''I''lit'55 islittit'lit.ivtiitlhtaid ssoik hut iodalit' .Stlt'IlttltliItatii)fl 5(i 1h3. $'71. itk littis hi'tI es that ho' studeul iil,iV he i thiIi he etii i!et 'utittchiot'l soifllt't, iiehl'iss t' all bet iet iii I"\titI nosy SESSION ('.7 theputh'li jititiiiihit'tLieslii'I)IIIP. "liatis the hiu deilii'c u'uee'1 her hare been 51tittin itsmee thi PUYShCI. ENVIRONMENI ,%NL) IIIE NATURAl.. thud!t:ule''ihus.iuiitu. putssiltl%titi'hwuiiUls's ait SCIENCE.S hi iii uietiti ho ssti,it has been .tii;iuhittttii a hi adhtitat lii., ku' 'ssIt'det'.tittlinuintlet shaIldIit)i 4)? sieuee .115 E,tssietice 1 St i'htt'Us. Assi'tamit I'itttt'ssor ut I 'hem. eeittiiIii'thit' ,iuiltiii;ihiu'ti ittmiii\tttl, this shi,tti,'e 1st 1%, I.$itihi .1 (ulhegc. I' knit .1. Nesr \u ak tilltlehttiiteltlt,ijiiteniit'auieis iii'S$isdks hIt hit' hietttists1't';iks litthit' shieuiti I initlarI ohle't'fitsuit'wlujtesl atetiuireilscietict' Ilsiiip'u .ittl the Iii't,,;'tsttt'tthis}'It'I''i' 111.111)1 Ituut ,_tIttFst.' hOI llu)htll1IhI)tsWhtilt' this' cuLtist1 W;ts tlt'vt'kupt'd to is Iii'sr".' kIi hut'lit iIi',t.it'u)it'IliIJul? ? \vhi 5$'t'.I ks liii IIII its'iit'euls anduihisI taints ah a pat hlsuhr cidk'gt.', an ii eu uiIt ii 'ii s',j'lltIi,iiIi'lliii(tilte\lfl'I It'hltt'SIl),IVllVt' usettilIti ( iieiii ltI'itit)tiilito sihiptotti hit' Pit!lIut\i\ Is itt htt'Is .11 tt'ill p1 tifl'. to dest'hu'p siiiiilui c ttse A better understanding of the role this course must Photography. The topics rlthe large groups were play is probably furthered by first looking at the setting water pollution, air pollution, population, photography, forthecourse.FindlayCollegeisasmall(900), and environment and the oilindustry. Students were chtuchrelated liberal arts college in northwestern Ohio. permitted topick one small group on a first-conte, 'A rathersmall number of students come from the firstserve basis. Thus a student would 1w in the large sponsoring denomination, Admission requirements are group for eight weeks and the small group fiw 2 weeks, low. unless he decided to stay in the large group for the In low the College adopted a new calendar and a entire term. new academic program. The new calendar is the 3.3 plan The segment on computers was taught by the in which a student takes three courses during each of director of the college computer center. Executives front three terms. For graduation a student must pass 35 out Marathon Oil Company, which has its headquarters in of .4 courses attempted. There are no credit hours and Findlay, taught the segment on the oil industry. This all comes count equally toward the 3b. A student may module covered the oilindustry from exploration to exercise a credit/no credit grading option in up to six marketing withanemphasisonthe environmental coursesoutsideof hismajor. The 36 coursesare *peas of the various areas of operation. theoretically to he divided into 1/3 for the major, 1/3 During the spring of 1972, an evaluation of the for electives, and 1/3 for the Liberal Studies Program. liberal studies (LS) program was carried out by a faculty The liberalstudies program was alsoinitiatedin committee. The committee attempted to determine the 1%9 and was "designed to be responsive to the needs extent to which the goals of the program were being of students in a rapidly changing society and to new met and to ascertain student, faculty, and administration developments inthe understanding of learning." The attitudes toward the program. program consists of two parts. Six of the twelve courses Student perception of having achieved the "aware- which the student takes in the program are chosen from 'less" goals of LS 5 were greater than in the other LS a hank ofelectives.Coursesinthe bank include courses. Student responses indicatedthatthe classes traditionalcourses likegeneral chemistryas wellas were well planned and that the outside readings were coursesdevelopedspecificallyfornonmajors.The valuable.Whilethere was some indicationthatthe natural science division has developed current topics course was too difficult, students felt that they cold courses for nonmajors in chemistry, physics, and math- getall the personal help they needed. There was some ematics. There is a distribution requirement, as a result indication thatthe classes were seen as being rather of which nonscience majors must takeatleast two impersonal and that memorization was stressed. science electives. Changes for the 1972.73 school year were aimed at The otherpartof theliberalstudies program consisted of six required courses, These courses covered: increasing student involvement by trying to look at physical education, awareness and expression, humanities sciencein terms of theindividual, Thus we wanted and tine arts, social science, physical environment, and a students to look at science on a more personal level. critical analysis of values. The lecture portion of the Exclusive use of large lecture sessions did not scent physical education course was dropped due to student conducivetothisindividualizationof thematerial. and faculty dissatisfaction and the course now consists Discussion sessions seemed to be a better format to of three terms of physical activities. achieve the goals of the course, Homemakers from the The science course should be taken in the junior commun.,ty who had science degrees were invited to he year. although many students take the course as seniors. discussion leaders. In addition three students enrolled in The college science background of most nonmajors in a seminar in Lot le:ee were also discussion leaders. This per- the course is two courses or less and many students will mitted us to IL-oak the class down into groups of twenty have had no college-level science or math background. without additional faculty load. The student/faculty ratio is about 85 to I. The two-week !Midcourse format was continued Course objectives are similar to those usually given with some changes in the topics. The ivinicourses were: forcourses of thistype. Thatis,thereisa greater 1. Philosophy of Science. The approach was two emphasis on the methods of science and the role of pronged. A member of the English staff' discussed science in society than on technical knowledge. science fiction and its relationship to science. The For the first two years the course was taught, the methods and role of science were also examined. topic chosen to use as a vehicle in meeting the course 2. Photography. This segment was designed to help objectives was oceanography. The class was taught by r the student see photography (a) as a means of 2-man team from biology and physics primarily using expressing himself, (b) as a means of viewing the the lecture method. Audiovisuals were used extensively. environment, and (c) as both an art and a science. Thirteen questions were distributed on the first day of 3. Environment and the Oil Industry. The manager of class and it was announced that five of these would be the Environmental Control Division at Marathon on the final. A term paper on some topic related io Oil Company agreed to take charge of this segment. oceanography was also required of each student. Experts discussed the environmental problems of In an attempt to increase student involvement, as theoilandtransportationindustries.Students well as to increase student faculty contact, a new format discussed their role in the environmental problems was used fin the course during the 1971-72 school year. associated with energy consumption. The course was divided intofive two-week segments. 4. Air Pollution. The causes and effects of major air During each segment one faculty member was in charge pollutants were discussed both in general terms and of a small group of approximately thirty students while as they related to the individuals in the class. the other faculty member taught the rest of the class. 5. Science and the Quality of Life. This segment was The topics for the small groups were: what is science?, an attempt to encourage students to look toward computers. two segments on pollutionanalysis, and the future, what is meant by "quality of life'?"

112 What effect will increased use of materials, energy, semester, eightsentester-hout course title second semes- and technology have on Intuit! life'? terWas taughtviathetraditionallecture - laboratory Some ofIlseadvantages we hae seenillusing the method). Monsineniviii isobviously needed 10 detect discussion tiliniat include: incteased student imolvement motion and the conservation principles normally 'moire in the course. increased student ;Maleness Of theft lte itniving oblects. S'ietteei elated 1110114:MS, %let leased feelingthat Now let me describe briefly the organitation of the science is a culler: km Of tarts, and increaser,1 twn-gown 1008 class. In the audiotutorial instructional mode of :oopet anon. Instruction thew ate normal)na fornud lecture periods as such. We met the students as a group at the beginning SESSION C8 of the week rut' an orientation session. Workbooks, lab books. andothermaterials neededfOrthe coming COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCtION week's work were usually distributedatthis Monday meeting. Alter this orientation session the studentswere Bruce Attie Sherwoioid Assist antProfessor of ontheir own turn!thelatterpartof the week Physics and Computer-Based klucation, Wednesday or Thursday. usually. The studentswere Of Illinois at tIrbana made entirely responsible fr scheduling their own dine in theaudio-tutorialmulti-medialaboratoryrooms Mere al eCollegeSt:lent:0Coln se'illchenustr, during the course of the week where the real learning phsh. :, computer science, and medicine which include was to take place. an haul or two pet week of computerbased education The audioutorial multi-media lab was openat iovided the PLATO 1\' system. Pl..ATO is used to certainspecifiedhours during the week, usuallythe tun)tslitdenIs,tosulltdateeoillpieX 1111011011101a, to morning, hours 8 throughI 2. We expected each student practice laboratory work, to It.itp with lengthy calcula to spend six to ten hours per week in the laboratory. tutus, etc. lAtensive use is made of interactive graphics. When the student came into the lab hesat down at a The PLAM IV systemis based atth,. University of study carrelor a laboratory table where he found a Illinois. Urbana. Colleges and universities presently on self-contained tape recorder or a remote control unit the PLATO networkinclude:Universi:yofIllinois, connectedtoa central bank of tape recorders, The Chicago Circle; kennetiN -King and Wright City Colleges, Chicago; Palkland Community College (Champaign, Ill.); formed the heart of the unit under study. It containeda koollege of Dupage Purdue khdversity, West set of instructions that guided him through the work of Lafayette and Fort Wayne: Indiana liniversity; Illinois the week. Via the tape he was told to study certain State University; Northwestern LIniversity; University of sections of his text or some other printed materials, to Iowa; bit a Stale University: Massachusetts Instil Me of do certain exercises and to answer certain questions in Tealltdg) and Stanford University. his lab manual, to view certainfilmstrips or single- concept films, to perform certain experiments using the various pieces of apparat Us that were found in theroom, SESSION C-9 and so) forth. The tapedprogramunit was highly structured tr some units while relatively open-ended for DEVELOPMENT OF A NON-AUDIO AUDIO- other units. FUTORIAL APPROACH TO THE TEACHING AND Experience with this instructional method at Mera- LEARNING OF ELEMENTARY COLLEGE PHYSICS mee Community College in both biology and chemistry led us to believe thatit was mandatory to divide the Bernard F.Schrautemeier,Professorof Physics, tapedmaterialinto small segments, each usuallyless Meramec Community College, St. Louis, Missouri than 4 minutes in length. At the end of each of these segments the student was instructed to perform some During the summer of lotiS two members of the given activity. Above ;oil, the taped units did notappear physics department of Meramec Community College in to be recorded lectures. St. 1.0ins working full time for six weeks each began to Toward the end of the week, as mentioned above, designa multi-media approach to replacethe lecture the students met with the professor in smallgroups of method. kVe decided to rewrite the entire course and to ten or less. These sessions lasted from 30 minutes to an use the audio-tutorial mode of instruction. which has hour and student attendance was semi-obligatory. These been used successfully in various biology and chemistry. sessionsaddressedthemselvestotheproblemsi,nd courses at Meramec. The use of this method, of course, difficulties thatthe students may have had in 'I:0 course almost guaranteedthe complete integration of lecture of the week. Students were asked to expl tin various and laboratory ret rospect .Ibelieve we were quite thingsthatthey had domeinthelab andinsonic optuntstc and perhaps quite foolishin believing that instances assigned work was collected and discussed in with Iii dye Man weeks on time We could even begin to these meetings. Many times these sessions turned into accomphsh what tie had set out to do. seminartypemeetingsand enabled students tosee In any case. In the tall of It)tis we began to offer relationships which were not at all clear to them while out multi-media coutse to a group of about thirty-five they were going throughthe tapedmaterials. These students. Since we believed that all of physics in some sessions, of course, could have degenerated into minia- way or tither involves the study of motion and of all of turelectures where the professor expounded atthe the factors influencing motion. and. since we believed that podium for most of the 30.45 minutes. Needless tosay, the students should be exposed as soon ;is possible to this was avoided. These sessions also servedas a vital thegeneralprinciplesunderlyingallofphysics we feedback mechanism and often provided clues which focused out attention on Meastirenient and the conser- enabled the instructorsto) clarify the materials of the vationlawsduringthelustsemesterofourtwo- unit under discussion. A test on the week's workwas

Iii held on Friday, This tot was nonepeatable because of he otherwise would only see from a distance, Many the pressures of time. or the common demonstration experiments which At the end of this first trial semeste it was round are usually done by the professor in from of a large that there was eonsiderahle unhappiness on the part of group of students are set up in the lab and are the students, The instructors ascribed this to the crudity actually done by individual students, This seems to of the materials and the newness of the experimental provide a better feel for the subject. technique. During the summer of IWO the materials 6, Such a technique as this can easily be modified to a were extensively revised, Another trial was made during complete Kellertype instructional plan for essen- thefallof MO with a group of approximately 40 tially any grade level, Pre-entry tests, pre-tests and students.Thegeneralresponse was somewhat more post-tests ton as individualised a basis 33 is desired) favorable but the students were stillratherdisplease..1 can easily he incorporated into the system. In fact, with the taped version of the course. The instructors inasense,this course actually uses a modified again ascribed this to the crudity of the materials and systems approach. thought that through another revision and an expansion 7. This approach requires less laboratory equipment of the materials to include an extensive list of behavioral than the traditional approach. One set of apparatus objectives the course could he significantly improved. of good quality can in theory he made to serve a Thebehavioralobjectives were added andthe hundredstudents.Itis no longer necessaryto course was againtried in the fall of 1970. The general purchase lab equipment in multiples of 0, 9, 12, student response at the end of this trial was somewhat I g, 24 or more. more favorable than inthe preceding two trials. The It's only fair to list the disadvantages of such an biggest objection centered around the taped materials. approach: In the fall of 197I the course was offered for the I The preparation of the materials is a horrendously fourth time using a different set of tape recorders than complicated job. Two to four weeks of work is had been used in the previous three trials. Problems with needed to prepare a oneweek unit of instruction these recordersthe portable variety were so great that this includes the initial preparation and one, two, theinstructorswereforcedto abandonthetared and perhaps three revisions of the original materials. materials and to merely give the students a copy of the Since time means money this preparation is quite script from which the tapes were recorded. The students expensive. Also, thisisnot a job for those with seemed to he much happier with this and performance relatively poor backgrounds in physics. inthe course improved somewhat. Thus, the course If this approach is to be used to its fullest extent it began to use a "tion-Audio AudioTutorial" format. requires the employment of a lab assistant who will In thefall of 11)72 the course was again offered, be on ditty during allthe times that the labis thistimeto.1 group of about 40 students. No taped open.Ideally,thelabassistantshouldhave a materials were used whatsoever and each week. the Bachelors &gm: with at least a minor in physics. students were givena workbook, ascript, alistof The lab assist.j'it must also relate well to students. behavioral objectives and various data sheets on which For small cm illmentsthis expenseisprobably sonic of the experimental work was to be recorded. The prohibitive. Ilmlever, if a physics-physical science instructor.. continued to meet with the students for oral departmentcan arrangetoteachseveralofits seminars but the number of students in each seminar courses alongth'..e.lines, thenthiscostfactor was expanded to approximately twenty-five because of becomes less significoit. the pressure of time. 3. The audio-tutorial milti-media system is rather an Fssentially the same procedures were followed in exhausting experience for the instructors. the tall of 1973 with a group of 60 students. Isthis mode of instruction better than the tradi- Some of the lessons we have learned through the tional modes of instruction? Based on our experience offering of this course are: with several groups of students we seem to think so. 1. Students enjoy the flexibility offered by the course. However, we must admit that for the relatively small Theyliketo come intothelabattheir own numbers of students that are enrolled in such courses in convenience and stay as long as they wish. community colleges such an approach probably makes Students seem to enjoy the more integrated picture the technique prohibitively expensive. The grades that thattheyget through the approach that we are the students achieve seem to indicate thatthey are using. The students seem to benefit from the ability doing better under the new system than under the old to do the lab exercises when they fitin with the system although exact comparisons are difficult. materialrather than when theytitin thetradi- tionally structured laboratory schedule. 3. Perhaps somewhat surprisingly, the students seem SESSION C-11 to have a real dislike for taped materials in such a course as this. They overwhelmingly prefer printed CONTRACT LEARNING FOR CREATIVITY? materials. 4. The preparation and supervision of such a course Elizabeth II,Simmons, Science Coordinator, Leine forcestheinstructorstosit down and carefully County School District, Greenwood, Mississippi formulate a setof objectivesfortheircourses. From this listing of detailed course objectives we Science programs have changed considerably over feelthatmany benefits and improvementsare the past one hundred years. We take many channels to found to come about in the instruction offered to attempt to attain our goal, to educate children, but the the students. basic objective is still to develop the child's awareness of 5. The studentis generally introduced ina hands -on his world and to develop his ability to communicate wa to a wide variety ot instructional materials that that awareness. Language is the basic vehicle with which

114 a student assimilates science intimation, expresses his Students who were of low social economic levels own generali/ations, hypotheses, and abilities. Languatte performed tita slow pace, and some were not able to is one of mankind's most poweiful and useful tools; perform atall, causing a greater burden on teaching theletote,allteachers,especially.elementary, should performance and responsibility. We feelthat this tow become MoteeoileelltedwiththedeVelopillelitnt achievement wastitleto stlidellte poorsocial back. skills, ground, Thoy were not aware of what a task means Science students need to leant to read science, to because of the lack of parental orientation at home, wow about science, and to speak about science, For the Undernourishmentandunidentified medical disorders young student, leading in science may be quite difl',ent also hindered students' progress, Flom reading literat me. In some science texts the facts In attempting to adjust to these problems, teachers, are dense. and students must he trained to find main coordinators, and consultants attemptedto draw up ideas and grasp details. A student needs to be taught activities on the student's functioning level regardless of reading piocedines which will help him identify and his achievement level. Other activities were planned to solve science concepts: he needs to be able to follow a accompany contracts, such as making projects, tdoing set of dnections to be able to carry out various science various things with the hands) various tours applicable activities. with this awareness in Nadler, and students to the activity being emphasized, collections and dis personah/ed instruction will he more effective, plays, These work very well withthe children who Omtiacts are pist what the word implies: cannot perform as readily as other students, However, there are many extra activities, other than the contract tiir the average performing student. From further teach Hie!,II:present a bargain and commitment between Iwo sources of input; the teacher and the learner. er observations, it was concluded that: I. The students who were successful in achieving were They provide forflexibilityin content based on about 30 percent of the students in the Lenore inputs fromtheteacherinregardtoteaching strategies, skill development, and guidance, County Schools, 3. They provide for flexibilityin content, based on It has been observed that contract learning can he interest and aspiration relative to goal setting. successful and motivative with ;mull) students and 4, They provide flexibility variances in rates of learn. unsuccessful with others. 3. ing. Learning contracts ot'te'r an opportunity to individ 5. Contracts are avenues forincreasing students' re- ualIze without purchasing additional equipment or changing class schedules, sponsibility and provide experiencesinplanning and establishing behavioral patterns. 4. )..earningcontracts can he designedtosuitthe the thrust of contracts is two fold progression in student's interest, needs, abilities, and goals, acurricularfieldandprogressioninassumingthe Teaching by means of contractlearning can be characteristicsof amature.responsibleperson. The successful and produce creativityifitis implemented teacher gains a closer view of the child, and the child with teachers who time willing to pursue actiVitie!: heVolld gains a better view of himself' and his capabilities in flotilla'class activitk.s, work closely with students who working with contracts. need assistance, and plan daily and carefully for each This approach has been employed in reading, math, student contract according to his progress and ability, science. English, and social studies, in grades 4-8 in the Leflore County School System, Personal observation and conferenceswith teachers SESSION D3 ale as follows! I. Some students worked withcontracts well and TEACHING COLLEGE CHEMISTRY found a grea elopportunity to pursue individual interestandscientificskills,aswellasto help THE GENERAL CHEMISTRY EXAMINATION PRO- strengthen their weaknesses. GRAM OF THE DIVISION OF CHEMICAL EDUCA- Students who went forward with contract activities TION, AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY were always the students with average and ahtwe learningability and usuallyinthe middle social Robert C. Brasted, Professor of Chentistly. thiiver economic standing. Itis felt that these students had city of Nlittnesota, Nfinneapolis more educational background in their earlier child- Iluod development and were taskoriented. The format and plan tOi preparation of the General Itis believed that when students have been geared ChemistryFAaminationisreviewedinsomedetail. totaskperformances they peiThrin better when Among the changes contemplated were: working with such activities as personalised activity I. A modest change in format in which theme would coot rats. be a grouping of question, according to majoi areas . Itwas observedthatthe students enjoy assisting studied. These areas (approximately nine) would other students who need help as long as it does not correspond to general groupings of chapters found dela progress with then contract responsthilties. inthe most commonly used texthooks. Thus, the 5. Studentsperformoila competitivebasis,at teacher would have a better feeling Ate! evaluating tempting to complete tineactivitNhe tested on ;diexamination as to the progress matte Hi given achievetrent and on to the next contract. areas of chemistry. A teacher could use the exam this tpe 01activitcan become holing to the for an individual term. specifying that only cellain student who has 1/40111pletedhp, task and is oven items would he partofthe examination or the hus work to hold him until the rest of the class entire examination could he administeredat 11.1, completed them. time with ineas of questioning hieing considered as

II 5 pretesting rather titan posttesting, ht the same vein, byappliedscienceandtechnologyinvolvemany the examination could be used with greater confi disciplinc., We must become multidisciplinary in our delta as an advanced standing examination, Many outlook and pay considerable attentionto what we institutions administer the examination to form a chemistry teachers can do to prepare students for careers basis for a decision as to whether a student should in other sciences, The modern biologist must be well continueontoac oursebey4mdthegenet at prepared in organic and biochemistry and he familiar with chemistryarea,Ateacher might then establish many conceptsinphysicalchemistry, The modern Cc !laincriteria for qualifications as to whether a geologist must he equally well prepared in analytical and student should go hack and review or satisfy his inorgauicchemistry andseveralaspects of physical proficiency in certain areas. In order to arrive at chemistry. The engineer concerned with materials science reasonablecategotiesaswellas questionsthat must be familiar with many tacets of organic, inorganic, would test these auras some ten or twelve years of and physical chemistry. The environmental scientist and examinations were evaluated.Allquestions ina the ecologist must he firmly grounded in many or the given year were identified according to one of tb,,, principles of our science.liven a physicist can learn nine auras established. The fraction of the total something of value from chi mistry! number of questions was then established according But even if we do '-e right thing by these students totheseareasandthepercentofthe1975 who are embryonic scientists in disciplines other than examination identified, For example. the number chemistry we have astill inure difficult obligation to of questions relatedto periodicity, geometry of promote scientific literacy among our students in the molecules as well as atomic architecture, appeared humanities and socialsciences. They are ignorant of to he in the order of IS percent. This percentage science, hostile to it, and suspicious of our efforts to thus establishedthe approximately14 questions enlighten them. Itwill take blood, sweat, and tears to that appeal in thelii75 examination on structure make these students realize that science and technology and geometry, are inescapable activitiesin our culture. We must be Another rather substantial change or addition to successfulinthistaskif'scienceistt.flourish. The the1'175examinationisthe incorporation of a increasing complexities of scientific proble ns will demand laboratory input. The chairman of the examination ever more financial support for research iwe are to solvt. for1975teltstronglythat some inputona them, The majority of our citizens are hot scientists, We student's knowledge of the laboratory was possible must convince them that generous governmental financing to obtain even though technique itself could not be of scientific research is absolutely essential to the welfare easily identified or evaluated by a paper and pencil of the body politic. examination. Professional help was sought for some Well, how are we doing? In my opinion we have been questions and for another part of this area a unique doing a good job of preparing our students for careers as "smorgasbord" or "bingo" type question was de- chemists buthave made onlymiddlingprogressin veloped. Most educators in the chemical field will presenting chemistry as a vital part of preparation for agreethatastudentbeingpassed on byan practitioners in other sciences. We have taken the easy advancedstandingexaminationwithoutsome way out by assuming that what's good for the chemistry knowledge of his abilities in the laboratory could majorsisgood for other sciencemajors, too. As a be thought of as marginal to poor pedagogy. consequence, enrollments of students majoring in other Some timeisdevoted tothediscussion of the sciences in our courses for chemistry majors have been Intermit lima!Congress on improvement of Education minimal. Biologists, geologists, engineers, environmental sponsored by WPM' and UNESCO in Wroclaw, Poland, scientists, ecologists, and physicists are taking only those in September. 1973. The chairman of the Examination chemistry courses which are required for their degrees, We Committee, Ted Ashford, as well as the speaker were ought to do better than that. We should be able to make privileged to attend this Congress and participate in a chemistry interesting to them, Can't we get a few of them panel devoted tothe examination processes used by (especially the better students!) to take some chemistry various countries represented at the Congress. that isn't required? I think we need to of'f'er more diverse instruction in analytical, organic, inorganic, and physical chemistry if we MINUS TEN AND COUNTING IN COLLEGE are to fulfill our obligations to scientists in other fields. CHEMISTRY Then we will have their support and understanding as we tackle problems with multidisciplinary facets. Chemistry Edward C. Fullei, Professor of Chemistry, Beloit will then become a more vital part of many scientific College. Beloit, Wisconsin investigations. I believe that more effort spent on teaching scientistsotherthanchemistsisbothenlightened Inthese days of smoggy air and smelly water. of sk ft-interest and an investn:,mt in a good future for science chilly homes and frantic pursuit of thatlast gallon of as a whole. gasoline,itis clear that the social problems which are And what about inir efforts on behalf of students growing out of applied chemistry and chemical tech- witha primary interestin the humanities and social noli)* will he ameliiirated only by the development of sciences'? Though we may have made fair progress in more applications and new technologies. If one accepts teaching chemistry to scientists who are not chemists, we this point of view.then we have an important job to do in have only scratched the surface in cultivating chemistry preparing our chemistry maims to play an adventurous for nonscientists. We need lots of additional ploughing part in tomorrow's science and technology. and harrowing if we are to grow a crop of citizens who Hutthisisnot enough. The energy crunch and respect, even if they do not fully understand, chemistry. environmental pollution have driven home to us the We ought to be teaching two or three times as many realization that the most serious social problems generated nonscience students as we are today. Within the last ten

lib yews we have nude teal progress in introducing humanists chemistry which have the greatest impact upon the lives and social scientists to sonic Iledrocil chemistry but is of chinos.After general background material was that enough?Ithink not. We must show our students how developed ht One or file aleaS, specific topics or interest chemist is-is applied fOr human benefit and how chemical couldhe discussedbeforemoving to another area. technology can be developed to maximize these benefits Suggestions for these topics were solicited From students and minimize undesirable sideeffeets. We need more atthe beginning of and throughout the course. The courses fornonscience students in applied chemistry' schedule was flexible enough so that topics of interest courses which deal inure than superficially with human that aroseduring the semester could beincluded. nutrition, chemistry and the fossil fuel crunch, chemical Attending to subjects inherently interesting to students aspects of nuclear energy production. industrial uses of helped to motivate learning. organic andinorganic chemistry, chemistry and food We attempted to relieve the insecurity and resultant production, chemistry and medicine, chemistry and the concentration by students about evaluation procedures economy , chemistry and cleaning up our environment, by establishing a contract grading system, Students were It's easyto talk about what we ought to do, It's required to complete 7 of 8 problem sets and reports on harder tt do it! 6 laboratory experiments for a grade of "Ch ;mother half gradecould be earned by completing the 8th N ON R E VOLUTION ARY CHEMISTRY: REVOLU- problem set. Tlw problem sets and lab reports could be TIONARY COURSES resubmitted until they were satisfactory. A term paper of the student's choice could earn an additional half or Elizabeth S. Kean, Research and Teaching Assistant, whole grade. A multiple choice final exam could also he Depaitment of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin. elected: satisfactory performance earned a half or whole Madison letter grade. This procedure permitted students to decide fur themselves what their level of involvement would be, Most of the students at the college level conic out and with the cooperation of the staff, work toward their of an educational systeminwhich "the grade'' has goals, assumed an extraordinary importance.I would like to However, even more important than what we did describe here sonic efforts which have been made in evaluate and grade was what we did not attempt to Chemistry 107 at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, evaluate. Learning was taking place in this course on to encourage students to learn for their own purposes two levels, factual, dealing with measureable scientific and to remove some of the more pernicious aspects of skills, and attitudes and appreciations, which related the "the grade" upon their learning. students to their environments. While we had some idea Chemistry 107 is theoutgrowthof a highly of how to evaluate scientific achievement, we had no successful honors course which had been offered at idea how to measure, let alone make value judgments Ntadison for the past five years. Chemistry 107, like its about, giowth in attitudes and percepiions. Therefore, predecessor, is intended to he taken by nunscience and we did nut attempt to do so. The students knew that nonengineering majors.Itisa one semester, terminal much or what they did in the course was nongradable. course:however, arrangementshavebeen made for Yet the majority of students did attend classes, did students to enter the second semester of the traditional participate in class discussions, and involved themselves year-long freshman level course after completing Chem- in the learning opportunities. Since external rewards and istry107. This past semester a number of our students punishments, i.e., the grade, was removed as motivation came from programs inliberalarts, but a significant for these activities, we believe that mu h of such action portion came from business, pre-law, civil engineering, andthe!cantingassociatedwithitwereself-or and agriculture. Most of these studentsenrolledin a group-mot ivat ed. Chentltit Cy course because thee were required to com- At the end of the semester we requestedthat plete a specific number of credits in natural science. studentsfilloutanextensive evaluationforthcon- Such students offer both challenges and rewards. sidering the course goals, format, and accomplishments. Because Chemistry 107 was not intended to serve as a The response in all areas was favorable. foundation course for other work in science, we did nut need to cover a syllabus which prepared students for advanced work. On the other hand, our students did not SESSION D-5 have the vocational motivationthatoften stimulates learning in the major area of stedy. Also, many of them PLANNING AND MANAGING A MINICOURSE cane into the course with deficient math and science backgrounds. HOW TO PLAN AND MANAGE MINICOURSES The main goal of our course then was not voca- tional, but rathereducational in the broadest sense. We JosephR. Barrow, Science Department Chairman, hoped to help our students clanpreltend and interact in NordoniaHillsJuniorHighSchool,Northfield, a mote constructive way with the teconological society Ohio in which they live. Such go;i1 required that students bek:onte actively involved in their education, and learn Ina world when every moment brings new tech. fur their own purposes. and not merely for an academic nological discoveries our secondary science curriculums grade. We arrangedtwo aspects of thecourseto are filled to bursting. A school year remains the same facilitatesuch learning. subject matter. and evaluation length.Yet,thereisthepersistentpressureto add procedures. additional material and topics totheexisting,over- Thesubject matterinthe course was centered crowded curriculum.If one yields tothispressure, aroundthreeareasonlyorganic chemistry, bioche- should the teacher's judgment replace all other methods mistry,andnuclearchemistry thethreeareas of in deciding on what should or should nut he taught?

117 What criteria should be usedto decide what topics genetics, types of energy, etc.). On the other hand, some should he replaced by more pertinent issues? Itis our topics could he too large to fit into the length of tune experience that the mink:muse concept offers it logical decided upon and might have to he divided zoology alternative to these dilemmas. n invertebrates and vertebrates), Keep in n fiat there A minicourse program topically presents items or is no such thing as having too many cows greater arras of study in package form. These programs can the number otminicourses the easierit be to eithet involve the total freedom of allowing all students administer. to choose limn the full variety of subject offerings or The writing or outlining of each mink:out-se is next. linosthen choice by creating sequences and/or prerequi A good source of materialisthe science department sites. staff' itself.Brainstorming sessions can he held and/or itis our hope here to pre'se'nt an itemited process each teacher can contribute writton materialtinthe Hr cleating your own numcourse program. To this writerts) of the new curriculums. Personal materials such ;imposetshall presentthe mechanics of establishing aspamphlets, bulletinhoardpictures.etc.,canbe such a plogiam and my fellow speaker. Mr. Lakes, will centralized and categorised by thetitles of each new pie sent the philosophies and logic behind its construc minicourse. These "Cale Packages" can then be used by tion. the teacher. but can also he minted by the writer of the When considering the minic(mrse concept. the' first curriculumsand referredtointhefinal curriculum area of concern is the evaluation of existing curriculums. guide. Where are the curriculum's present strengths and weak- Also. don't forget to write for free and inexpensive nesses'? Sensitive. flexible teachers are best qualified to curriculummaterial.The NSTA provides alistof make analyses. However. the perspective of the admin. cm ;it:iliummaterials and the addresses of the school 1st rationandcurriculumperson(%)arevaluable and systems offering them. Many of these guides list teach- helpful. Once organized this group might wish to create ing ideas (gimmicks) and learning activities, both formal an itemizedlist.Thislistcould have two orthree and informal, for the students. Special subject organiza- ,..olumns and be used to examine the subtopics within tions such as the SPCA, The American Cancer Associa the existing curriculum and separate them into subjects tion, and The Sierra Club ( to name a few) often eagerly that should be dropped. kept, ot be considered further. supply free teaching materials. The best part about those Itis a shame that this process is not practiced yearly by sourcesisthat their material is current; when written ever secondary, science department. into the curriculum of the school it makes the program The student's viewpoint should be considered. One more meaningful and pertinent. The multitudinous bu- method rot statistically considering a large cross-section reaus and departments of the U.S. federal government ofstudentopinionsisthequestionnaire. Such an should he contacted. One last area or help could come instrument must allow Mr deletions, additions, and an from the various professional organizations in which the -unrestrained- response.All educators are aware that department's staff holds membership. suchresultsmusthepareddowntogetatthe The last point of concern of the curriculum writing meaningful core. is the style of the curriculum guide. It should rellecf the Parents can also get involved: this is desirable both desires of the staff. A good guide allows for voluminous togaininformationandfuturesupport.Ilowever, teacher notation. Any lesson plan should he a combina- seeking it also iequires the responsibility of feeding back tion of the teacher's personal thoughts and methods progress reports. etc. to the public, thk is good -P.R.- with the content set forth in the curriculum guide. What and wise psychology.Itisunderstandable that some better waytoencouragethisthan by allowing or educators avoid such meetings because they do not see designing foritto take place in the curriculum guide themashelpfulorconstructive.However. through itself? specificplanningadecisionmakingmeeting canbe One greathurdle that must be overcome isthe organyed.Publicsupportandinvolvementarethe designing of the department's master schedule or the logicaloutcome of sucha meeting of taxpayer and minicourses. This schedule shows what minicourses are educator minds. being offered and in what sequence, it may or may not the !list mator decision to be made concerns the show which teachers are teaching each topic. Teacher ;iniountof timeto he allocated tothe minicourses. choice and training should be considered. One method Should the nunicourses be six or nine weeks in length'? of achieving this last point is that of circulating a list of Are there other possibletunelengths'? The shortest courses to be offered next year among the staff. They possibilityis probably the six-week !Mink:muse; it offers can then sign-up for their preference by some method the element of change six times each school yea'. The that is agreed upon. Another method makes use of each six-week unit also makes possible the greatest frequency teacher submitting alist of preferred courses and the or Val Wt1ottopics a student can take. The sixweek designer can "wheel and deal." After the teachers make unit's disadvantage is the increased paper work required then- choices the sequence of the minicourses must be otthe stan. This disadvantage is minuni/ed when the determined. A .hock list of items that must he taken length 01 aunt' 1s incteased to nine 01 twelve weeks. but into account should be constantly kept in mind. Hist. atCie same Ins it'the interesting. dv namic quality of seasonal subjects such as botany. weather. invertebiates. changeoverisdecreasing.lirelengthoftime settled etc.shouldhe scheduledtotake advantage of the upon might he decided by some completely innocuous weathei. Second. when twit of more nunicomses are ladoi like the sdiottl's master schedule. designedto occurin sequence (e.g.. invertebiates and Once thelengthofnme has been selected the vettehrates)thescheduleshould give them ',Horny. topks to he taught must be -shaped- into this common Thud. 'touchy- topics like sex education or the theor denomm.0,u. mav he necessaly to ''mnamrv"topics of evolution that might require parental consent should that .11eIth)shortto beaseparate nunionnse b notbe scheduled moil' than011C0 duringagrading themsekes (e.g.sJtologv and dings. evolution and period. Fonoli, depainnental textbooks and equipment

I IS must be taken Into account. Courses that would demand made for each course. In addition, tiles can be tnade the simultaneous usage of a limited amount of equip- containing transparencies, ditto masters, originals, etc. mitt and texts must be avoidedLastly, team teaching (one for each of the topics). It' desired by the staff', a ought he desired or required. In any event, the team file can be created on each of the students; they would approach creates unique problems that vary with its contain anything from report cards to returned consent specific nature. forms. Keep in mind that both seventh and eighth grade Transferring from one class to another is not too students could be mixed in the same class; this is usually complicated. It could be done in the following manner: not desirable though because of the inter. tptions (e.g., the week before the changeover all classes sign up for a guidance) during the year. Also, each fea.:her has only new course, but remain in the old one for the rest of one preparation per day the sate. plan is used to that same week. On Monday of the new session the teach seventh through ninth (the rationale behind this students would still report back to their "old" class and will he presented by Mr. Lakus). Ideally, the department get a: schedule would have theplanning period and lunch I. Report card (for their parents) schedule together to augment communication, but this is 2. Grade record sheet (for the new teacher) usually impossible. This grade record sheet would contain a list of all the Itis amazing how readily students adapt to this courses the students took up to that time, it would type of program. They love the change and excitement show the sequence which they were taken in, and also itpresents.Itis recommended thatthefirst day of show the grade he achieved. Additional information can schoolinthefallhe devotedtoa combined, mass also be placed on this grade record sheet. The student meeting of all classes. At this meeting the mechanics of reports to his new teacher and hands him this sheet (or the self-selection method can he explained; copies of the he doesn't get in). This whole changeover process can department's schedule of minicourses for that year can take place in three minutes time, he distributed. A letter explaining the program can he sentviastudents to the parents urging them to get involved. MINICOURSES: THE PROS AND CONS The second day of school brings the first sign-up. The time for the actual signing is short. As students sign John W. Lakus, Science Teacher, Nordonia Hills up they can go directly to that class, and the regular Junior High School, Northfield, Ohio process begins. All of the remaining sign-ups for the rest of the year can take place in each individual teacher's PROS class. Since the office has "block assigned" X number of Minicourses are short, six- to nine-week topics that students, the class site can he balanced ahead of time by combine to form a total science curriculum, The use of dividing the number of teachers available into X. thesecoursescan be accepted gradually, as supple- It should he apparent now that the first students to mentary or enrichment material, or as a completely new sign up will have full choice and the last ones will be program. However, changes in education do not come limited. This can he compensated for by: (a) instituting abouteasily, norarethey always justified. Crucial the "Primary Rule: No class may he repeated unless no factors in deciding whether or not to adopta minicourse other possibility exists." (h) Rotate the sign-up sequence program are: Will the change benefit the students and so that the last classes to fill up last time will be first does it meet the goals of the educational system? thenexttimeinotherwords, rotatethesign-up In a world where technology diminishes the human- sequence. To do this, careful track will have to he kept ity of each human itis a welcome change when a person each time of the completion order for each class. (c) is treated as an individual. The benefit is compounded Enlarge the class size sothat the greatest number of when everyone involved is treated as someone special. students can take a popular course. This isn't always Student-selected minicourses encourage individualization desirable or possible. butit works every nicely when by allowing each student, perhaps under parental guid- small classes exist. ance, to mold himself based on his own potentials and Itwas mentioned before that the office "block objectives. Minicourses extend the freedom of choice in assigns" the students into science. This statement would academie subject areas often allowed by high schools also indicate that the office would not have any record and colleges. They also add to what a creative instructor as to where a spe !irk studentis assigned in science. can do in individualization by using multiple techniques. Therefore, it is wise to send a copy of the sign-up list to Flexibilityisinherentinminicourses.Students the administration or guidance oftice with another copy selectordeleteareasfromaparticular curriculum designated for the teacher. depending on background or interest. The instructorcan Another good rule to institute is that of signing up meet the students on their own interest or ability level. absent students the day they return (it' they missed the Also, outdatedmaterialscanhe dropped and new, sign-up). One person should be in charge of the sign-up pertinentitemsadded. No longerisadepartment procedure and he should he sought out by the returning religiouslyti..dtoatextbookthatdietates Abject student. Itgoes withoutsaying thatthisprocedure materials. Fewer students will complain, "Why do I have should never he broken to allow a student to sign up to learn that, Ell never use it." before he leaves (e.g. family vacation, operations, ete.). Built into the student's choice of a minicourse is a Since a sign-up sequence is importantit would not be strong mot/mum/a/ factor con ibuting to his achieve- fair to the other students to let anyone "skip ahead." ment.'choice of subjects not only gains the students Interesting points of organization within the science interestut perhaps his enthusiasm as well. Very often a department can now he designed around the minicourse problem studentis one that does not like being told topics.Itwas mentionedearlierinreference to the what to do. A degree of academic freedom may reorient writing of the curticulums that "Care Packages" can be disinterested students. Furthermore. if a child's parents

I I9 areinformed oftheKota MU,theirinfluence may junior high with sp4cial circumstances. The authors of reinforce the student at home. this program realize that some schools have either the Not onlyare student'motivated by minicourses, philosophy or facilities that could not lend itself to the but teachers are. mmated as well. Ina school with undertaking of a minicourse curriculum. Nor are the several science faculty members. a 'Midcourse Koplin authors unable to see the weaknesses of the program. can grantthe teachers apreference of topics. Most Probably, the most glaring fault of the program is teachers representa wide spectrum of interests and theloss of time involvedintheinitiation and the training a factor that can he used to advantage when process of its continuance. First of all there is explaining the teacher can select from a menu of subtopics. the sign-up procedure and the courses offered as well as Impreire'd use (1 the school's facilities is a financial the issuing and collecting of books and materials every implicationoftheminicourseprogram.Through six weeks. One person needs to he employed as a thoughtful planning ofthe master schedule, the mini. coordinator to be in charge of scheduling, communica- courses canhe assigned0 rooms that hestsuitthe tions, tracking students, room assignments, and perhaps needs.For example, a ,:hoot with limitedfacilities curriculum responsibility. could schedule chemistry in a room with sinks, while a Student selection of courses is an ideal that has courselikesex education could he heldina more been totally achieved in few, if any, educational institu- conventional classroom. Botany should be given .a room tions. Students may be forced to repeat a course that is withasouthern exposure and weather study could offered more than once but by rotating sign-up utilize easy access to the outdoors. procedure this fault can be lessened. 11ficient use of materials and supplies is another Class periods must begin and end at the same time financial factor to be considered. No longer do all rooms if a studentisto have afull choice of allcourses need to be identical with identical textbooks. Subjects offered. Sometimes this is impossible due to the sched- requiringthe same equipment may be scheduledin uling of other subject areas and astudent may be sequence rather than simultaneously. Competition for limited in his choice of topics by his class schedule. This materials can be greatly reduced since all teachers will would also mean that an entire department would have not he doing the same unit at the same time as with identical schedules that could make extra curricular duty traditional curricula. assignments difficult. Centralization of extemporaneous and supplemen- Human relationships can be hindered. or even be tary materials facilitates their use by all involved. Since detrimental to the program. For example, long-term the instructors will generally he using different materials, student-teacher relationships are difficult to establish it' a miscellaneous teaching aids can be pooled. Supplies such student wants to follow a particular sequence of courses. as books, pamphlets, overhead transparencies, magazines, Conversely, student to student relationships may become and various lab and teaching aids are shared. No longer cliques that sign up for a particular course just to be do teachershoardpersonalteaching collections but together.Or students may sign up foraparticular willingly lend them to other instructors since there is no teacher who is weak in class control in order to have simultaneousneous need. classroom freedom. The balancing of class sizes can he achieved within Overspecialization may occur at oo young an age. the minicourse program. The department schedules the A student may take only those subjects in a particular students as a group and balances the class sizes to the branch of science and neglect getting a well-rounded bestadvantage. Teacher loads can he equalized, and science education. It is possible for students to avoid the groups may be large or small as best fits the program. "hard" courses and receive only a part of the science Therefore, grouping is heterogeneous. background he would need for further study or to meet The minicourses ale constant reminders of short the requirements in high school or college. Care must be -range goals. Science in the junior high is non sequential taken in designing minicourses to include certain basic and the same course can be taught at various levels concepts that are needed in all fields of science. without affecting achievement. That is, success or failure Sonic students are not capable of selecting courses in one topic does not forecast a similar res1,1t in the that are pertinent to their goals inlife. Youth often next. The studentstarts each new minicourse with a makes judgments that are emotional rather than rational. cleanslate. He has a new topic and, perhaps a new Care must be taken to counsel and direct students into teacher, and does not have to be the poorest student in courses that meet their needs even if these needs are not the class all year. yet realized. Minicourses can be a prize that is too soon Also, because of the topical nature of minicourses, won. grade failures need not be repeaters in the same course. New students, likewise, can avoid taking previously learned materials. SESSION D-6 Teachers have only one preparation per day and can devote their full attention to doing that well. Since PRESERVICE TRAINING FOR COLLEGE SCIENCE the teacher is likely to be instructing a class in a topic TEACHERS in which he has a personal interest, he will likely do a better job. It is too idealistic to believe that teachers are Mildred W. Graham, Assistant Professor of Science not bored by some subjects as are some students. Education, Georgia State University, Atlanta

CONS There are intuitively good college science professors, Like any other innovation the minicourse program born teachers. For most people, however, the transmittal does not solve all problems for all students. One must of knowledgeisnotanaturaltalent.To improve keepin mind that the minicourse program discussed instructional skills of the college science professor. these here was designed to meet the needs of a particular skills must be identified and taught. When, on the path to

120 a doctorate in a specific science, can a candidate improve Many science centers and museums are chartered to these skills' "improvethe public understanding and awareness of For most graduate science students, there is onlyone science." This is a broad mandate open to interpretation phase of his graduate career where lie can attainsome in a variety of ways. As a result, a myriad ofprograms teachingskillthatis,asateachingassistant in are available within the same institution. At the Pacific undergraduate courses and labs. Does he pickup his skill Science Center we operate a laboratory-classroompro- byobserving hispeers or seniorfaculty? Thisisa gram, perform live demonstrations, conduct classes for possibilityhut, atbest,ishappenstance. A planned the general public on weekends, use puppet shows to program forthe improvement of instruction must he entertain while illustrating science concepts, and perform implemented. This has been discovered by all the sciences auditorium programs from time to time. To improve M individual colleges and universities. these activities, science centers throughout the nation Each science department which tries to improve have formed the Association of Science and Technology undergraduate instruction by improving teaching assistant Centers, an organization permitting museums with simi- competency has "reinvented the wheel." This panel has lar educational goals to compareprograms, ideas, and been charged to outline seminars and courses designed to experiences. Workshops for museum staff membersare improve skills such as questioning, evaluatift, student- held periodically to discuss and observemany programs t eacher interaction, etc. Questions discussed include: Who in operation at the member institutions. assumes the responsibility for such programs, science A typicalschoolprograminPhysicalScience educators or science departments? When in the academic serving as an example of resources available to teachers year shouldsuchcourses he offered? Where are the atscience museums is materials to he used in these programs? described. A class visiting the Pacific Science Center may have chosen to takepart in a The realization must come to the science depart- lesson introducing the concepts of observation, compar- ments that training of teaching assistants is a viable means ison, and identification, while learning the use ofa to improve undergraduate science courses and to help scientifictool. The program they participate in begins many graduate students attain goals of becoming "good" with a cartoon story. college science professors. Materials for the lesson on Chromatographyare easily reproduced, and directions for making themare SESSION D-8 includedinatake-home pack giventothe teacher following the lab experience. (Copies of the packwere SCIENCE TEACHING ON "THE ROOF OF THE available at the session.) We encourage teachers touse this WORLD" AND "THE SPACESHIP EARTH" pack and the suggestions included for expanding the lab experience once they return to their own classrooms. This USE OF THE SCIENCE MUSEUM AS A TEACHING type of program can be done at the science museum, or in RESOURCE the school classroom by museum staff. Therecent gaso- line problem has prompted many sciencemuseums to Harlan lkin. Physical Science Supervisor, Pacific bring their programs out to the schools since bus fuel isat Science Center. Seattle, Washington a premium in many school districts. Another activityavailabletoteachersiswork- The popularity of Science Centers and Museums is shops. The Pacific Science Center offers:three-credit mowing throughout the country with attendance on the workshops in science and math activities for the elemen- rise, and greater use of public and school programs tary classroom. The courses include 30 hours instruction availableatthese institutions. Many science museums on presenting and preparing materials for 15 different have teacher-oriented programs that are designed to aid units whichare designed to motivate and captivate the teaching of science in the classroom. elementary classes. On completing the workshops, the Must science museums devote a major portion of teacher has kits for each of the activities readyto use time and money to the school and teacher programs. To with her or his class. accomplish the educational goals, a staff of professional An additional program in teacher training isour certifiededucators develop, produce, and perform var- Associate Teacher program. Teachers on leave from their ious activities as part of their jobs at the museum. These districts spend one year at the Center developing and activitiesareusuallythe hands-on involvement type, presenting lessons to a variety of classes, gaining the permitting classes to actively participate by observing, experiencenecessaryto continue the programs when hypothesizing, and testing their own ideas using equip- theyreturntotheir district. They go back to their ment easily reproduced by the classroom teacher. school as a master teacher in science education readyto The services of a science center, or museum, help aid and improve the science instructionat the elemen- the teacher by complementing the regular school curric- tary level. Our Associate Teachers can earn their Masters ulum. Museum staff do lessons designed to introduce a degree while working at the Science ('enter. concept the teacher will he expanding in the classroom. Science museums serve one more function in the Lessons are designed to generate interest, not to do the educationcommunity theyprovideexperiences and reachingutthesubjectfortheclassroomteacher. equipment not available in schools. Advanced students Si-'117e center stall provide follow-up ideas and mate- mightrequire theuse of equipment which schools rials r muffing theclass teacher to mesh the interest cannot afford such as electron microscopes and spectr- generatedatthe museum with the classroom science ophotometers.Specialdisplaysareavailableinthe program. Su ft' members are available to teachers for musenunssuchasU.S.Atomic Energy Commission consultationre;ardingmaterials tointroducescience travelling exhibits which are made available to school sill-leo, and sugge..ions for further classroom activities groupsbythehostinstitution.Museums serveas once astudyof scienceis underway. community- meeting places for visits by astronauts and

121 active scientists. Here your students can talk with the appropriate environmental management. Development of people involved in science and exploration. publicenvironmental awareness may dependlargely Thereisa lot going on at Science Center: and upon new, more extensive,anddifferent, kinds of Science Museums that can be helpful to teachers. I urge proi..rams in environmental education. Programs designed you to visit your museums, speak with the education as a s3nplement to standard school science curricula, staff, and make use of the available teaching resources. though onportant and helpful, do not seem capable of meeting.hechallenge effectively enough or quickly SESSION D-10 enough. Public attitudes which allowed the development of our present difficulties provide strong evidence that TEACHERS POINT OF VIEWEDUCATIONAL USE past educational programs have met with little success in OF ZOOS changing popular environmental beliefs and values. Most people have founditconvenient to overlook changes Antoinette Seidelmann, Teacher. ChicagoPublic like the following occurring since 1946: Schools, Chicago, Illinois 1. A government-sponsored study found that "For the United States as a whole... the total nitrogen and My in this presentation is to give a teacher's phosphate discharged into surface waters by munic- point otof view concerning the educational use of zoos. ipal sewage increased 260 percent and 500 percent The following will he included in the discussion: respectively."1191 1. various classroom objectives, 2. Airborne lead has increased by about 500 per- 2. making the zoo visit meaningful. cent.[171 3. in-school activities involving zoo participation, 3. The bacterial count in New York Harbor has in- 4. workshops for teachers at the too. creased by as much as 890 percent.1111 4.The increase in population of the United States has SESSION D-12 been more than 43 percent.141 Attitudes permitting man to select proper environ- OUTDOOR BIOLOGY INSTRUCTIONAL STRATE- mental alternatives will develop as a result a deep GIES(OBIS):AN APPROACH TO COMMUNITY understanding of ecological relationships. Like all living EDUCATION things on this planet, humans are part of an ecosystem a series of intermeshed, cyclical events linking the life AlanJ.McCormack.ResearchEducator/OBIS processes of any single organism to the life processes of Project Coordinator (on leave from University of many others.Ecocystems candeteriorate,or even BritishColumbia):andHerbertD.Thier, Co- completely break down, when too heavily stressed by an Director of OBIS. Lawrence Hall of Science. Uni- overpopulation, of one kind of organism, depleted of versity of California. Berkeley essential materials, or deprived of a minimal level of first-order food producers. Few poeple are unaware that a crisis exists between To help develop largescale and immediate ap- man and his environment. Clean water, fertile soil. and proaches to dissemination of ecological ideas, the Out- nourishing food no longer existinunlimited supply. door Biology Instructional Strategies (OBIS) projectis Man has carelessly clashed with the delicate balances and undergoing intensive development at the Lawrence Hall living networks of the ecosystem and provoked world- of Science, Berkeley, California. wide environmental maladies. Man can look only to himself to provide remedie -s. Overview of the OBIS Project The collision course between man and biological. OBISisaNational Science Foundation funded physical realities has been repeatedly documented and is project concerned with promoting the understanding of the subject of daily concern in the mass ecological relationships by youngsters aged ten to fif- inedia.151.161.191.1151Yet, humans cling tenaciously teen. The main goal of OBIS is to design instructional to their "rights" to reproduce as they please. exploit the strategiesfor learning experiences in outdoor biology environment,andencourageuncontrolledeconomic thatcanbe appliedindiverse environments. OBIS growth. activities focus on the environments where children are, Although environmental deterioration involves using lawns, urban ponds and streams, and vacant lots as changes in natural, rather than man-made realms, itis study areas. clearthat many environmental changes are caused by Activities produced by OBIS introduce basic con- human action. And, it appears we live increasingly in a cepts of ecology in ways that are palatable and exciting man-altered and man-managed environment. even now, for youngsters. Underlyingall013IS materialsisthe the most ubiquitous biotic communities are man-pro- assumption that a basic understanding of ecosystems. duced or man-influenced by planting. cutting, damming. populations. communities. food chains. and interactions building. and dumping. of organisms with the environment is essential in making Until iecently. most of the environmental move- intelligent decisions about the environment. Techniques ment has been concerned with alerting the public that usefulforthestudy of ecosystems areuniversally there is an environmental crisis. Now that the problem is applicable wherever there is life. and are not limited to widely recoginied, it becomes increasingly important to anyspecificenvironment orlocalized environmental ask- Ilow can environmental problems he solved? problems. Thus, OBIS is based on a broader viewpoint So 1tithins will not come quickly because we do not than that of environmental groups which focus only on know enough about the fine structure of the environ- specific instances of pollution control or recy cling. menttotranslate ourconcern intoeffectivepublic OBIS activities are oriented toward community - policy. ken when some answers are known, it will take sponsored youth organizations such as scouts, recreation tuneto developthe public consciousness to support center clubs. summer camps. and nature center groups,

122 The project is not primarily a school science curriculum, community and watch itthrough the seasons. OBIS although many of the materials may he suited for use can't tell you what changes will occur, but OBIS can tell by schoolgroups. School ecologyclubs, "Saturday you changes will occur. science" groups, school camps and other extracurricular Perhaps you would rather try to solve the "Mystery school groups will also find OBIS materials useful. of Weedinak," another of The Lawn Unit's intriguing OBISdepartsfromthecommon curriculum- activities. Or, try your talent at estimating the popula- development procedure of determining a single sequence tionsizeof "bean bugs" on your own lawn.In of learning activities leading to specific concepts. In- completing eitheractivity, you arelikelytolearn stead, the OBIS staff isidentifying and trying out a something about populations, distribution, and sampling varietyofalternativestrategiesand techniquesfor techniques. You may even enjoy yourself'! environmental study. Assuming that no single learning pathway can be either interesting or applicable to all The Pond Unit youngstersinalllocales, OBIS plansflexible units Who ever said ponds have to be big to be good? involving multiple entrance and exitpoints. Physical OBIS Pond Unit participants construct their own "mini- sciences, social sciences, art, recreation, and psychology ponds" and observe the drama of biological succession arebeingtappedaspotentialsourcesforinterest- and change as the aquatic environment matures. Vari- seducing "entrance activities"leadingto the under- ables such as organic and/or inorganic fertilizers, light, standing of ecological problems. and community composition can be altered or con- A number of OBIS activities will be suitable for trolled to provide clear examples of the interdependent both large and small groups of young people, and many nature of ecological factors. projects will be adaptable to completely individualized Larger pond sites (natural or man-made) are focal use. Printed materials being developed are intended for points for other activities. A variety of inexpensive and community-group leaders who may have little or no easily-constructed pieces of equipment have been de- training in biology. signed to assist in the investigation of pond life. Pond Examination of major funded educational improve- bottom samplers, weed grapplers, plankton nets, and ment programs for the ten to fifteen year age group has organism-observation containers are just a few of the revealed several other programs. Prominent among these observation aids that facilitate pond exploration, Also,a are the National Environmental Education Development trialversion of the OBIS Pond Guide has been de- (NEED)112I program of the National Parks Service, veloped to assist in easy general identification of aquatic Environmental Units (EU)[l4J of the National Wildlife organisms. Foundation, and Environmental Studies (ES)[I [ of the All Pond Unit activities encourage development of American Geological Institute. Unlike OBIS, materials personalizedindividualprojects by participants.Sug- developed by these projects are designed primarily as gested "starter" activities may be done separately or ina school curricula. NEED is described as a "curriculum variety of sequential patterns, integrating process" by its developers.[131 EU materials provide a wide variety of interesting, independent units, Field Trials but appear to lack a consistent framework of ecological Trial-testing of The Lawn and The Pond involved ideas.ES aimsprimarilyto promote studentself- 1500 youngsters ranging from nine to fourteen years of awareness.[11 OBIS represents an innovative departure age.Groups includedscienceclasses, weekend com- fromtheseprojectsinitscommunity-grouptarget munity organization classes, summer day camp groups, population. basic concern with pervasive biological prin- and science clubs. Several procedures were employed in ciples.stress on development of a variety of learning evaluating the trials, including: strategies. and emphasis on individualized instruction. Observations. The staff spent many hours in the field observing the OBIS units as taught by teachers and First Year of the OBIS Project leaders. Observer reports, focusing on the participants' During the first project year (1972.731, two units activity and understanding, were written and distributed focusing on specific environments, The Lawn and The to the staff for review. Pond, have been under intensive development. These Leader Feedback.Leaders and teachers received units have progressed to the stage of "trial" editions and feedback forms to fill out and return to the OBIS office are receiving extensive use by a variety of leaders in the as each activity was completed. The teacher or leader San Francisco Bay Area. could comment immediately asto youngsters' perfor- mance and interest in the activity. Personal meetings and The Lawn Unit telephone conversations with the leaders also provided What isthe dominant organism in the lawn com- feedback. Suggestions from leaders as to their personal munity? What happens to the lawn community when adaptations of activities and additions to the basic unit the dominant organism's influence is removed? structure proved especially valuable. To answer these and many other questions, OBIS Student Feedback. Feedback forms were also given goes "out-of-control." Try itWhen you go home, get a to participants so that they could express their feelings couple of sticks and some string and fence off a few about a particular activity. Youngsters seemed to express square feet of your lawn and let it go wild. No watering. theirfeelings best while involved ina particular ex- no mowing, no fertiliser, no management. In the OBIS perience. One OBIS staff member captured these feelings Lawn Unit this is dubbed the "out -of- control" area, and by systematically photographing thestudents partici- the kids usethis area to monitor changes in the lawn pating in various activities. community when man relinquishes his control. This is Pretest-PosttestComparisons.()BIStrialgroups an important concept for young people to grasp: man's were given ecology concept pretests prior to involvement tremendous ability to influence and change the structure in OBIS activities. These data will he compared with the ofcommunities.Liberateasectionof your lawn results of an equivalent form of thetest given after

123 completion of the activiti...s. To provide an additional sequences particularly appropriate to their unique opera- baseline for evalteafim! achievement, control groups have tional situations. been given the same tests, without the benefit of the "Rumt.ug Water" isanotherinterest-areabeing OBIS activities. The OBIS staff is currently analyzing investigated by an 01115 development team. Plans pre- the compiled data. When the results are complete, the sentlycallfor production of activitiesinapattern activities will be revised to better meet the needs of the similar to the Lam, and Pond units. in this family of user group. units research techniques of practicing ecologists are modifiedforusewithyoungsters. These arethen Activities Currently Under Development blended with supporting learning activities intended to Imagine this: Using paint and palette, you engage help kids understand the populations, habitats, food in a pleasurable outdoor activity that appears to be an chains, and community structures present within specific artlesson.Twenty minuteslateryou findyourself discovering ideas about animal adaptations. Or, imagine ecological sites. Early work with "Running Water" has resultedin a collection of proposed activities ranging participating in a group that is making photographs with from physicalstudies of water movement and man's simplematerials.Soon youfindyourself using the technique you have learned in piecing together the t:nks influence on its flow, to biological studies of life tones of a food chain in a nearby vacant lot. Think of it common to streams. ecology and art ecology and photography ecology What would happentosquare meterplots of and fun! Learning combined with pleasure just has to be grassland exposed to varieties of drastic environmental popular with kids everywhere. pressures? To find out, one OBIS group is beating one OBIS aims to please... and teach kids intellec- plot with a board, while applying vinegar, baking soda, tually-solid ecological principles. Thus, OBIS staff mem- salt, insecticide, herbicide, and other materials to dif- bers are presently, involved in identifying all conceivable ferentplots. One plotis deprived of sunlight, while approaches and inventing new and unusual strategies. another has been converted to a "mini-swamp." This Present exploratory work includes sampling activities projectis one of several being tested by seventh- and easilyrecognizableasecology,physicalscienceap- eighth-grade youngsters as part of "Physical Variables proaches. art-integratedprojects, social studies orienta- and Outdoor Biology," another of the newer themes for tions, scientific testing of superstitions about biological OBIS development. The "Physical Variables" teamis phenomena, andtheinvention of simple biohistory also developing aseries of inexpensive measuring in- study techniques. struments, includinglightmeters, wind-speed meters, All OBIS materialsarecurrently being designed and temperature recorders. accordingtoahighlyflexible format. Future OBIS Many school districts provide one-week camp exper- "units" will be givenfinal design "on-site" by group iences as an enrichment to fifth-, sixth-, or seventh-grade leaders andparticipantsselecting from avariety of school programs. Also, thousands of children arein- alternatives. Exemplary of the flexible quality of the volved each summer inday or residential camps at proposed new approaches are the OBIS Ifeo-Challenge hundreds of camp sites throughoutthe nation. These Cards.Theseprovokeyoungster'sinterestwithan programs have the potential to provide children with intriguing challenge or problem that can be solved in the some awareness and appreciation of important ecological outdoor environmentusing high-interest manipulative aspectsof the out-of-doors. Toassistschool camp materials. Representative Eco-Challenges are "Invent-an- leaders who may havelittleknowledge of outdoor Animal." "Ili -Lo Hunt," and "Photogram Ecology." For biology, OBIS is developing a series of materials de- each of these activities, participants can work individu- signed for the camp milieu. ally or in groups, with or without an adult leader. Kids arefirst confronted with an engaging challenge, either These materials are intended to provide as little or via a printed card or cassette recording. For example: as much of an experiencein outdoor biology asis Challenge: Given a potato that has been painted desired by program leaders in particular camps. Individ- white, make a model of an imaginary animal that is ual activities can he selectedfor inclusion in existing adapted to a particular habitat. camp nature programs, or groups of OBIS activities can Challenge: In a chosen study site, find the spots be adapted to provide a major coordinated outdoor that are warmest and coldest, brightest and darkest, biology experience. and wettest and driest. Challenge: Make a photogram showing at least three Future Plans organisms that live in a specific habitat. Change is the essence of nature. Man's hope for the Information is then provided concerning needed materi- futureliesintheregulationof theenvironmental als and "The Action." "The Action" is a brief "how-to- changesheinduces.lieisapartnerwithnatural do-it"descriptionofa methodforsolvingagiven processes in the management of resources and biological challenge. After attempting a solution of the challenge and cultural wastes. The future depends on man's ability and considering some questions pointing up the relation- to develop an understanding of these processes and the ship of the activity to ecological principles. the partici- wisdom to apply thatunderstanding. OBIS plans to pant may choose one or more "Action Cards." Each of continuedevelopmentofpracticalactivitiesleading thesepresents arelated, but differentchallenge, and young people to these vital concepts. New staff is being leads to more activity. recruited, and new directionsarecontinuallybeing The I:co-Challenge Cards can be used independently sought. Hopefully, a significant number of OBIS activi- of each other. or in a variety of sequences to form ties will he available to the public in inid-11/74, with cohesive learningunits.These activities should hea many to follow over the next two-three years. The job valuable resource from which nature centers, camps. or islarge. and time seems always frustratingly limited. other community groups can draw ideas and construct We'll do the best we can.

1 24 References Tiw introduction of a new and oftenvery different I American Coo logical histitute. Ftiviromnenia) sciencecurriculum toan elementary, secondary, or Studies.1..S1 and ES ILEnvironmental Studies, college classroom can he comparedto a newly forming 1970. social system, It' teachers of sucha program are "aware" Buller.David. Pond (;ithi,LawrenceHall .o* Or a particular set of socialscience concepts, they may Science, Beikeley. California, 1973. he able to facilitate the learning which should takeplace 3, Druid, Chester Pond: in a modern science class. Ignorance of theseconcepts LiltdeP'S WHOA Lawrence 11;111of Science, Bet. may actually result in teacher behavior which is counter keley, California. 19'71, productive to achieving the science curriculum goals, 4. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of tlw Five social science concepts are most importantto UnitedSteles.11.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice, consider when introducing "anew science curriculum." Washington, D.C. 1970 Perhaps the best was to understand the implicationsof 5, Commoner, Barry. "Nature Unbalanced: Howfirian these social 86:110 concepts isto define them and Interteies with the Nitrogen Cycle' Environment compare whatthey would bein"traditional" and 10.12: 1908. "modern" science classrooms, PaulR., Elnlich, ,AnneII., and John P. 1, Goals The proposed objectives of the science tiothol. Human Frotogy.w. Freeman and curriculum, stated when possible in terms of what Company, San Francisco, California, 1973, the successful learner should he ableto do by the 7. Falk. John, Lawn Guide, Lawrence Ilan ofScience, end of the instructional program. Berkeley, California. 1973. Norms A set of accepted and expected social s. Falk, John, Lawson. Chester, and LarryMalone, behaviors common to a group whose members have 11wLawn:Leader's Manual. Lawrence Hall of social interaction together, The classroom climate, Science, Berkeley, California. 1973. 3. Roles t). The relationships between the members ofa lioldren, J., and P. Herrera. /.2itogi..Sierra Club social group which make clear the partor character Books, New York, New York. 1971. which each person assumes he;:is to play in that 10. McCormack, Alan J, OBIS &odium. Lawrence 11;111 social system. of Science, Berkeley. California. 1973, 4, Physical Arrangements The placement or posi 11. %10101., A.II.,Wallin&U.R.,andM.Lang. tinning of the human ant' materialresources used Phhvedings of a National ,Vymposiumon Estuarine in the learning situation, 1Whitifm.StanfordUniversity Press,Stanford, 5. ealback MonitorlinPeriodic collection of int'or Calit'tirnia. 1957, illation from tit. learners used to make inferences 12.NationalEnvironmentalEducationDevelopment, about the state of the social system andto modify Adventure. in Environment.SilverBurdett Com the instructional program, pans. Morristown, New Jersey. 1971. For example, thegoalsusuallyassociated with 13. NationalEnvironmental Education Development. traditional science require that the student learna set of 11w Environmental Strands.U.S. Department of science content facts and demonstrate this learningby the Interior, Washington, D.C. 1972, achieving a passing grade ona written test. On the other 14.NationalWildlifeFederation and the Minnesota hand, "modern" science as typified by thediscovery or Environmental Sciences Foundation, Enrironnienta/ inquiry alphabet programs (SCIS,SAPA,ESS, COPES, Units,NationalWildlife Foundation, Washington, IPS, ISCS, BSCS, CHEM STUDY, CBA, LIPP, F.SCP, D.C. 1971. etc.) emphasizes student learning ofsome basic science IS..1.cw Fork Times. February 19, 1971. process (problem solving) skills and science concepts,as lb.OutdoorBiologyInstructionalStrategies.0/1/S well as some science content facts, This learningis to he .Vewsierter zt./. Lawrence Hall of Science,Berkeley, demonstrated by performance in carryingout science California. January 1974, experimentation, as well as on written examinations. 17.Patterson, ('lair G. and Joseph D. Salvia."Lead in The difference in the stated goals of "traditional" the Modern Environment," 1:nvironment10:72; and "modern" science programs would makeone expect 1 968 that different norms, roles, physicalarrangements, and 18.Mier, HerbertD.and Alan J. McCormack. "Outs feedback monitoring methods should resultin these two door Biology Instructional Strategies:An Aiproach kinds of classrooms. toCommunity Education." Proceedings of the For example, sonicof thenorms expectedin Aatural Science fbr Youth Foundation.Natural traditional science classrooms are: quiet, students speak Science for Youth Foundation, Connecticut. 1973, only when called upon by the teacher: studentsmove 14.Weinberger, L. W. "Solving Our WaterProblems: aboutthe mom only upon direction of the teacher: Water Renovation and Reuse." The Adequacyof interactions in general (questions, discussion, etc.)are rechnob fi Atli( m Abatement (Volume II). normally between student andteacher, and seldom U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1).C. between student and student, Ina "modern" science 1906. classroom the expected norms are:a moderate amount of noise, students speak to each other and havefreedom SESSION E of movement; and thereare frequent interactions with IMPROVING SCIENCE TEACHING THROUGH other students as wellas with the teacher. AWARENESS TECHNIQUES In a "traditional" classroom the teacher's roleis AWARENESS TRAINING dispenser of knowledge, lecturer, and reward giver. The teacher talks and the students listen. The students'roles RobertA.13ernotf.Associate Professor. Ogonti are those of passive learners gaining information from Campus, The Pennsylvania StatetIniversity, theteacher. andthetextbook without Abington too much thinking or questioning about what is beinglearned.

125 In the "modern" classroom the students role is to etc, Classroom interaction is all these and more,Class- he an active investigator and learner; to gain Information room interaction determines theclassroom gestalt which by experimentation and inquriy, as well as by reading; is inurethan the sum of its individual entities. to constantly think and ask questions; tofrequently Social and educational psychologists and educators interact with other students and the science materials. constantly emphasizethe importance and effects of Theteacher'sroleinthe modern classroomisto interaction in educational settings: facilitate inquiry, to ask questions which will promote Sherif' has noted that "To an important extent, the thought. The rewards in "modern" science classrooms locusof change" the fableddesired end of education aresupposed to come fromsatisfactioninsolving "lies in the interactions of people with people, "[34J problems as well as from the teacher. Guba and Getzels have pointed out, "Whatever the Modernscienceprogramsaresupposedtobe teacher may teach, itis obvious that the teaching is studentcenteredandlaboratory-centered,Traditional carried on in the context of an interpersonal setting. It programsareusuallyteacher-centered. These would is the factor which, more than any other, accounts for obviouslycallfor differentphysical arrangements of the critical importance of teacher personality in medi- students, teacher, and laboratory materials. ating the teachinglearning process."[I91 In order to assess how the students perceive the Gammage underlines the point, "The interaction of goals, norms, roles, and physical arrangements in any theteacher and thechildrenis one of themost classroom the teacher needs some feedback monitoring important aspects of the educative process andpossibly system of collecting information from students. one of the more neglected... the typeand quality of When students are accustomed to traditional in- the interaction will determine not only the effectiveness struction in most subject areas, and when their previous of the learning situation but the attitudes, interests and science instruction has been in a traditional program, the in part even the personality of the pupils."116i introduction of one of the modern science programs is Reno emphasizesthat"Thesedailyencounters similar to what Miles2 calls a Temporary System. between student and teacher are impacts" which "occur Anyone entering a temporary system needs answers at high speeds, . .The collisions take place too rapidly to certain questions bet'ore productive work begins. The forany computer toregister, andtheforcethey learner needs to know: "Why am Ihere?" "What is generateisalways enormous.... and they become expected of me here?" "What is acceptable behavior discernible when they accumulate."[321 here?" We can recognize these questions as asking about Despitethe weight of evidence, classroom inter- the goals, roles, and norms. Teachers must be clear on action dynamics are often not apparent to teachers, or goals, roles, and norms and must consider how these will they are misunderstood, garbled: misread or worst of be affected by the physical arrangements in the class- all ignored. Why? First,thereisoften lack of room. Teachers need some method of collecting feed- awareness by the teachers of the impact andeffects of back data about their classrooms so that they can make classroom interactions. Even after awareness, there are instructional decisions. other serious obstacles to be overcome. Interactions are there, but how are their patterns, subtleties, and nuances IThis paper is based upon a monograph "The Application of picked up? This can be as difficult and as frustrating as Temporary Systems Concepts to Effective Planning and Manage- trying to discover the details of how one looks without ment or National Science Foundation Supported Educational Pro- a mirror or judging,truly and accurately, the qualities, grams" being prepared under (;rant (11W -4508 made by the Na- timbre, and inflections of one's voice without utilizing tional Science Foundation to The Pennsylvania State University, tape recorder and audio tape. Ogontz Campus, Abington, Pa. 19001. With knowledge, awareness, effort, and observa- "Mks M., "On Temporary Systems" inInnovation in tional practice the teacher may become a fair judge of Edneatinn. M.Miles editor, Teachers College Press, Columbia University, New York (1964). interactions between and among students, their patterns, meanings obvious and hidden and affect. However, even with the best will and effort in theworld, the inter- USING CLASSROOMINTERACTION ANALYSIS teacher may stillberelatively unaware of his SYSTEMS TO INCREASE INSTRUCTOR AWARENESS actional affect both direct and indirect. A human is far too subjective an animal to be expected to make Joan H. Zurhellen, Assistant Professor and Project accurate and precise judgments regarding his orher Director, The University of Tennessee, College of effect on others. At best, the tactful human learns to Nursing. Memphis contra;hisverbalimpact. Heisstill often totally oblivious to the nonverbal signals he may be radiating in Classroominteractionisomnipresent and multi- all directions, faceted. Many facets of interaction are present at any To assess our own interaction effects, we must one instant of time. The major fociof classrooms tend either see ourselves as others do, or we must call on a to he teaching. instructional and learning processes,and thirdpartytoview andassessus.Even then, an activities. Teaching and learning are essentially interac- objective assessment is difficult because of our own, or tion events, and learning is the result of interaction. The the other viewer's mental set. The situation can he types and levels of interaction that take place inthe greatly improved if thereis not only a viewer who is classroom are as many and as varied as the differing strivingforobjectivity, but alsoatoolof proven personalities, socio-emotional climates, and overall eco- objectivity and reliabilityfor him to use. Systematic systems of these same classrooms. Interactionin the observation instruments can provide the latter. classroom may he one-to-one. group-to-group, one-to- Without the tool, the demands on the viewer and group, group -to -one. etc. It may he verbal ornonverbal, the relationship between the viewer and the viewed are planned or spontaneous, structured or haphazard, formal colossal. Many of us have resented what purported to be fairly orinformal.person-to person,environment-to-person, anobjective summary of our behaviors by a

Ito sympathetic and personable surArvisor. The thought of teaching-learning-instructional gestalt, It is impossible to the resentment that might be engendered by a mere considerallthesevariablesina singleobservation peer's observations, if they were anything but flattering, instrument. staggers the mind. Ned Flanders, himself', has noted that Some interaction variables of particular interestare: without a systematic observation scheme the "success" verbal, non-verbal, cognitive,affective,role structure, of having another observe our performance "may de- and shift, etc. Most systematic observation schemes now pend on how well he (the observer) can blend integrity widely-employed concentrate on only one of the above and objectivity with compassion and empathy."181 areas. A few combine two areas at a time. However, the Systematic observation schemes are tools. Theyare more variables considered at one time, the more com- techniques which objectify evaluation of self by self'or plex the system becomes, and the greater is the effort others. They are means to ensure that evaluation data requiredtocommit groundrulesto memory and are accurate and that they provide the type of feedback accurately transcribe observations. It is often better and on which teaching and instructional judgments can be easier to use several simple systematic observation forms sensibly based. than to try to use one very complicated one. Not only Ober has describedsystematic observation as a aretechniques simpler, buttheteachercanbetter "method of strategybuilding and instructional improve- concentrate on one aspect as needed instead of trying to ment,"[.161 a method of "organizing observed teaching "change the whole world in a day," or being overcome acts in a manner which allows any trained person who by the vast number of needed improvements. followsstatedprocedurestoobserve,record,and Sometimes thereis bemoaning of the somewhat analyzeinteractions withthe assurancethatothers imprecise nature of systematic observation schemes, This viewingthe same situation would agree, toagreat isto be expected in a culture conditioned to "hard" extent,with hisrecordedsequence ofbehav- scientific data. However, when the relative youth of iors....1271 such systems is considered, the "state of the art" has Systematicobservationprovidescommunicable really come a long way in a relatively short period of criteria for reliably observing and recording what tran- time. spires in a classroom. Systematic observation does not, Mention of objective observation and the need for nor doesitpurportto, place avalue judgment of it has occasionally appeared in the education literature "right," "wrong," "good," "bad," etc. on what takes from the turn of the century onward. However,sys- place. The assumption is that the teacher, knowing his tematic observation first appeared in the literature about intent and accurately apprised of the actual happenings 1935 with Wrightstone's study of selected New York that occurredinthe classroom, can supply his own schools using "Newer Practices. "[28J Its application and judgments and make decisions accordingly. development was slow until the late 40's when several In order to qualify as useful, a systematic observa- pioneering observational systems many aimed more at tion scheme should be: (a) descriptive; (b) objective; (c) socio-emotional climate than any other aspect ap- easily mastered; (d) manageable by the classroom teach- peared, These included work by Bales,[3J Medley and er, and applicable to the classroom for the desired end; Mitze1,1211and Whithal1.1371These systems stirred and (e) capable of providing immediate feedback. much interest and were quickly followed in the next Itmust be descriptive because thatisits whole two decades with development of different systems and reason for being to describe certain aspects o!' what is their application in research and teacher education by takingplaceinthe classroom. Itmust be objective; Flanders,[10] Amidon,[1] Houg,h,[2] Ober, 29] which means thatits terms, definitions, erheria, check Bellack,[5]Ryans,[331Gallagherand Aschner,[14] scales. etc. must he clear, precise and unambiguous, so Combs,[7J GallowayandFrench,[121Goodand thatthe same perceptionsetsarc communicated by Brophy,[171 and Smith and Meux,[351 to namea few. them to all observers. The classroom teacher who is to There are two basic kinds of systematic observa- use the scheme must be able to learn the definitions, tions:signorcategory,Signsystems tendto be symbols for recording, and techniques for interpretation checklist-likeinnature. They consist of lists of be- quickly and easily in a matter of a few hours. If not, he haviors, and during a given period of time the observer will never become proficient and won't use the system. checks the behaviors that occur. Each occurring behavior Though outside observers can and will sometimes be ischecked only once. no matter how frequentlyit used by a teacher, if performance evaluation is to be recurs. The OSCAR system. perfected by Medley and fairlyconstant, the teacher will he doing much self- Mitzel,[22Jis a fairly well known example of a sign evaluation front audio or video tapes. Also, a particular system. system won't be used ifitdoesn't apply to classroom A category system provides specific classifications situations. or if it doesn't assess the particular classroom whoseoperationaldefinitions,characteristics,and facets of interest to the teacher at a particular time. If symbols must be learned by the observer. At regular the data provided by systematic observation are to be intervals during the observation period, the observer effectively utilized, they must he available immediately determines the behavior category being exhibited and to the teacher, and their mode of interpretation must be records the symbol forthatcategory. The same or simple and straightforward enough so that little time is different symbols are recorded during each time-period involved in their translation to an intelligible format. depending on the behavior being exhibited. A category In order to meet conditions c, d, and, to a certain system gives a running account of behaviors and their extent, e, above, a systematic observation scheme must, changes and responses whereas the sign systems give asFlandershassaid,devoteitselfto"paucity of information about whether specific behaviors didor did detail."[qj Inotherwords, anysingleobservation not o,:eur. The Flanders system is a category system. system can and should focus only on a narrow band of Generally, category systems are preferable when the total classroom spectrum. There are many variables one aspect of behavioris being studied. They give a within the classroom of interest and importance to the detailed, in-depth account of the occurrence of cont-

127 ponents of that aspect. Sign systems are preferable when on a cake. Ittells very little about the taste, composi- severalaspects arebeing studied,asforinitialor tion,quality,etc.ofthe cake Itself. Thatis only periodic surveys or to check on teaching or instructional obtained by sticking in a finger, fork, or other utensil repertoires. and bringing a sample to the mouth. In the same way, Classtoom observation systems can be categorized interaction observation systems take on meaning only further as: cognitive, affective, multi-aspect or multidi- when practiced, applied, and utilized for teacher deci- mensional. Meux[241 classifies systems into one of these sion-making. When so used, they prove to he valuable three categoriesused on the system's components tools for extending teacher awareness in a most critical the aspect(s) selected as the unit of analysis; attributes arena. the characteristics, features, properties or qualities of the components: modes of conceptualization the ways References of describing the attributes: and the kinds of relations the types of rules or laws uniting the system into a 1. Amidon, El., and J.B. !lough, Interaction Ana- cohesive whole. lysis: Theory, Research and Application. (Reading, Cognitive systems are concerned with the type of Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1967). intellectual activity occurring in the classroom, with the Ihid. waysinwhichcontentisbeingpresentedand/or 3. Bales,k.F.Interaction Process Analysis (Cam- mastered.Systemsdevelopedby Smithetal.,[361 bridge, Massachusetts: Addisonesley, 1951). Bellack et al.461Gallagher and Asehner,[151Mork's 4. Bales, Op. cit. VRBL System[251 and Ober's ETC system are cognitive Bellack, A.A. and J.R. Daritz. The Language of the in nature.[301 Classroom: Meanings Communicated in nigh School Affective systems focus on the social and/or emo- Teaching. (New York:Institute of Psychological tionalclimateof theclassroomsand the behaviors Research, Teachers College, Columbia University, constitutingthatclimate.Flanders' system[111and 1963). those developed by Hughes,[201 Whithal1,1381 Galloway 6. Bel lack et al., op. cit. and French,1131 and Ober's RCS system1311 are affec- 7. Combs, A. "Seeing is Behaving." Educational Lead- tive in nature. ership. 16:21-26, 1958. Multi-aspectsystems focus on several classroom 8. Flanders, N.A. Analyzing Teacher Behavior, (Read- aspects emotional, sociometric, cognitive, etc. at ing, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1970), p. 25. the same time Bales' system[4] and that of Medley and 9. Flanders, op. cit,, p. 241. Mitzel[231 are multi-aspect in nature. 10.Flanders, op. cit. The Flanders system has become by far the most 11.Flanders, op. cit. familiar,widely-used, and copiedof the systematic 12.French, R.L., and C.M. Galloway. "A Description observation schedules used in American education today. of Teacher Behavior: Verbal and Nonverbal.' Un- First developed by Flanders andperfected andre- published paper. The Ohio State University, Colum- searched byFlanders, Amidon, and Hough,itisa bus, 1968. system that is easy to learn, simple to record, and quick 13,French and Galloway, op, cit, to analyze an altogether good method of "getting 14.Gallagher, J.J., and M.J. Aschner. "A Preliminary your feet wet" in interaction analysis. However, it is not Report: Analysis of Classroom Interaction," Merrill- the be-all and end-all as itis sometimes represented. It Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development. has shortcomings. Mainly, it focuses on a very narrow 9:183.94, 1963. range of classroom behaviors, treats the class as a whole, 15.Gallagher and Aschner, op. cit. and over-emphasizes the teacher. Itis, with all that, an 16. Gammage, P. Teacher and Pupil: Some Sociopw- excellent beginning. It should not he, as it too often is: chological Aspects.(London: Rout ledge and K. beginning, end, and all the in-between. Revisions by Paul, 1971), p. 32. Flanders, Amidon, Galloway and French, Ober, and 17.Good, T.L., and J.E. Brophy. "Analyzing Class- others have made better instruments that check a wider room Interaction: A More Powerful Alternative." variety of behaviors, and they are easy to use if one is Educational Technology. 11:3640, 1971. already familiar with the original Flanders scales. 18. Good,T.L.andJ.E.Brophy."Teacher-Child Almostallof the systematic observationscales Dyadic Interactions: A New Method of Classroom developed inthe 40's, 50's, and 60's share one over- Observation."Journalof SchoolPsychology. riding shortcoming. They categorize student behaviors as 8:131.38, 1970. though the whole class behaved, reacted, etc. in unison. 19.Cuba, E.G. and J.W. Getzels."Personality and Only very recently have Good and BrophyJ181 and Teacher Effectiveness: A Problem in Theoretical some others begun to look at interaction scales that Research."Journal of Educational Psychology. observedyadinteractionbetweentheteacher and 46:355.68, 1965, p. 355. individualpupils. Thisisa good stridein the right 20.Hughes, M. The Assessment of the Quality of direction becauseitshould be apparentthatina Teaching: A Research Report.(SaltLake City, thirty-pupil classroom, whenever the teacher interacts Utah: The University of Utah Press, 1959.) with the total classroom, there are really at least thirty 21.Medley, D.M., and fi.E. Mittel. "A Technique for separate interactions. Especially today, when so much Measuring Classroom Behavior." Journal of Educa- emphasis is being placed on individualized approaches to tional Psychology. 49:86-92, 1958. learning, classroom interaction systems must attend to 22.Medley, D.M., and ILE. Mittel. "Measuring Class- individual effects of and responses to group and mass room Behavior by Systematic Observation."In N.L. communication. Gage. HandbookofResearchon Teaching. This brief and parsimonious summary of systematic (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963.) interaction observation scales is rather like viewing icing 23.Medley and Mittel, op. cit.

128 24. Men, M.O. "Studies of Learninginthe School real.problem.based approach to education thal that which Sc t ling." Review ITEducationalResmrch. is allowed by traditional curt icular topics or by the variety 37:539.62, 1907. of curriculum reforms that overwhelmed us in the 0's, 25.Mock, G.M.A. "Using the Verbal Reaction Behavior From a conference held in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Log (VR111.1 As a Basis For Evaluating Student in 1967 came the statement that the objectives of science Teachers" and "The Verbal Reaction Behavior Log and mathematics education as a whole must be to increase Descriptive Explanation." Mimeographed Papers, the ability of individuals to make decisions, decisions .26.Ober, R.I.. E.L. Bentley, and E. Miller. Systematic which will affect their own lives in society. Decisions at Ohsrrtrttn m ofn'delting:Interactionel ildipis the personal level, at the level of trade and politics, and at strut h ma siva tegy pm kw h. ( Enw Lx' Cliffs, thelevelof scienceand technology. This objective New Jerse :Prentice-l(all, 1971) p. 13. demands that students learn the process of modeling a 27.Ibid., p. 17. problem.Itrequires that they search out facts and 28. Ober et al, op. cit., p. 17. concepts that may be adaptable to a given situation, It 29. Ober et al., op. cit. further requires that the student develop confidence in his 30. Ober et al., op. cit. method of facing real life situations, 31. Ober et al.. op. cit. To accomplish that objective, students would be 32.Reno,R.H.The hnactTeacher,(St.Paul. givenrecognizable,real, andpracticalproblems. The Minnesota: 3 M Education Press, 1967), pp. 36.37, practicality of the "real world" problems would not only 33.Ryans. D.(;. "Assessment of Teacher Behavior and motivate the student, but also provide a criterion for Instruction."Review of Educational Research. judging the correctness of hypotheses and conclusions. 33:415.41, 1963. Try it and see if it works. Furthermore, it was felt the 34.Sherif, M. "On the Relevance of Social Psychol- solution to must real world problems would necessitate an ogy." American Psychologist. 25:144.56, 1970, p. interdisciplinary approach when their various aspects were 147. examined. 35. Smith, 13.0.. and N.O. Meux..4 Study of the Logic Theconferenceagreedthattherewouldbe of Teaching, (Urbana, Illinois:Bureau of Educa- difficulties. First, a better understanding of the problem tional Research, University of Illinois, 1962). solving process would be necessary. but the student's 36. Smith et al., op. cit. appreciation of this process would then motivate learning. 37. Whithall, EC, "The Development of a Technique To accomplish this we would have to break down the for the Measurement of Socio.Emotional Climate in organizational obstacles that militate against introducing Classrooms," Amnia' )t 1..1yerimental Education, such an approach. It would he concerned not only with 17:347.61, 1949. science but also with mathematics and the social sciences. 38:Whithall, op. cit. Itwould be problem oriented, rather than discipline- oriented.It would not be the Unified Science of Ohio SESSION E-S State but an interdisciplinary high school curriculum. It would not be a supplementto courses, but the core THE HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE PROGRAM: material of a course from which will come socially NEW DIRECTIONS FOR THE FUTURE responsible and competent adults. Thefirststeps for the accomplishment of this NOW AND THE FUTURE objective have beentaken.In1973 atEstes Park. Colorado, a two week conference was held on "The Role Francis X. Finigan. Director of Science, Winchester in the High School of Interdisciplinary Learning Through Public Schools, Winchester, Massachusetts Investigation and Action on Real Problems." The report from that conference suggested that while attempting to Those of us who are involved in instructional change cope with the "knowledge explosion" of recent decades are well aware that the present literature is tilled with there have beenatleasttwo unfortunate and un- reform proposals. Many experts are calling for alternatives anticipated effects.First, the learning-by-doing process to structured learning. that characterized the adolescent years of earlier times has In his new hook Learning Jr Tomorrow, The Role been virtually eliminated from education. We now learn of the Future' in Education. Alvin Turner of Future Shock by observing (reading, watching, listening). The second famepleadsforeducatorsto develop an image of effectisashift from education as a preparation for tomorrow'ssociety.lieemphasizestheneedfor dealing withproblemspresented bythe cultureto immediate change. education as a process of acquiring a prescribed body of Today. in that vein, 1 would like to present to you knowledge. two alternatives to institutionalized learning. Alternatives The educational system has expanded quantitatively in winch I have been involved. One presents a total change to provide the extra years of education required fur this in the educational package dealing with the future. The process. But in turn there has been a loss of appreciation other. in the immediate present, deals with a change in by students of the value and power of learning causing the method of presentation of science material. intensedisaffection among large numbers of today's Firstlet me describe for you a movement thatis students. presently emerging at the secondary level and might well flow then do we remedy this situation? How do we he the wave of the future. It is based upon the acceptance provide a curriculum that reestablishes the connection by adults of the remarkable ability of children to learn between school and society. between student concerns andusematerialsfar beyond our expectations and and the curriculum? Ilow do we reintroduce learning by experience. The ultimate intent being that children will he doing? I low can we make our schools accept the fact that better prepared for an effetive role in an increasingly adolescents are remarkably competent people. but that complex society litthey area exposed to a more direct. they need the opportunity to assume active social roles'?

129 now can we cause them to analyse and to take action on in this course. The student might find his potential for realpioblems, and to be held accountable for those acceptingresponsibility.Ilewilldiscoverleadership actions' potential. Intetudent competition lessens, Pacing is the These types of considerations suggest a problem- responsibility of the student. solving approach as a curricular vehicle for the integration This program was not intended to make any changes of disciplines, school, society, and the lives of students. in content from a traditionally taught course butto These problems must he real to students and relevant to change the method or presentation, We feel that making them as individuals and as members of their society. the atmosphere less rigid and more enjoyable would entice To argue that learning through problem-solving is students to more willingly accept the responsibility for educationally appropriate for adolescents in no way their education. precludes or minimins the importance of learning by Ourhighschoolisone of severalschoolsin other techniques. There are many kinds of learning that Massachusettsthat hasadopted an Open Campus cannot be understood very well without someknowledge procedurein which studentsinfreetimearenot of the concepts and rationale of related parts of a scheduled. The students are blocked into chemistry for For many students the most effective way to ten, 40-minute periods a week. They ate, however, only learn such concepts may be the relatively traditional one required to anend any six of those ten periods, but with of exploring the discipline in a logically ordered sequence. open campus they may spend more than ten periods in I'm sure we all recognise that this problem-solving chemistry. The chemistry laboratory is open to students approach can not he superimposed on presently existing in the program from eight o'clock to three o'clock every systems that might he steeped in tradition, but rather, day with a teacher or a paraprofessional always available, would call for a restructuring of our schools, and just as Adjoining the laboratory are two classrooms, one for important, new programs for the pieservice and inservice testing and one for studying, At any given time several education of teachers. activities, ranging from testing and laboratory experiments The obstacles facing the introduction of this type of to small group discussions are usually going on. program in the present day coinprehensive highschool are Immediatelyafterthestudentsignsin,heis formidable. State and college requirements, the tendency responsible for checking the bulletin board for any notices to look upon teachers as subject matter specialistsratiter dealing with the course. The course outline is on a large than generalists, and the sheer sue of must American high chart on the wall and indicates the basic program order. schools are formidable foes. On the blackboard is a further breakdown into the three The introduction of this type of education will he an levels of instruction we have established for the course: heroic feat it' it is accomplished. I do feel, however, that it diploma credit, college credit, honors work. Also listed is the direction that science education might well take and are any of the additional learning aids which havebeen that we should be aware of that possibility. prepared to supplement or replace the basic program Iwould liketo focus specifically on the present material. There is a calendar with important dates and the rather than looking, as I have for the past few minutes. to weekly position of "Joe Average," the place where most apossible planfor the future.Let me describe an students should he, instructional style that might provide for you, as it has for The course is lab-oriented and each student in the us. an alternative learning experience toconventional college preparatr,y program does a minimum of fifty school programs. hands-on labs during the year with materials placed in tote Westrongly feel that a student'seducational trays. Only one trayis necessary for each experiment experience can he brightened by a curriculum that stresses since the stAents are all at various places in the course. flexibility and freedom, but also demands of the student There are many labs going on atthe same time with the personal responsibility to make the most of this students working as individuals or in small groups. The freedom. answers to all practice problems and labs are available to We have designed an independent study, selfpaced, students sothattheycan determinetheirlevelof multi-level course in chemistry that offers students an comprehension. alternative approach to education. One that we hope will TV lectures by one of the instructors are used to have a positive psychological effect on student attitude supplement the reading to aid those students who have both toward learning in general and science in particular. difficulty reading. Demonstrations are also done on tape. The classes are heterogeneously grouped. We wanted The student signs a request sheet for the particular lecture to eliminate the "smart" and "dumb" labels thatoften he would like and the time he desires to see it. accompany grouping. Moreoever, we feelthat students At one end of the laboratory is an octagonal carousel who are continually told that they are not capable often wheredemonstrationsdealingwithsuchtopics as accept this appellation and will nut try.It was further bonding, solubility., and electro-chemistry may he seen. hoped that by being placed withinure able students These study areas may also he used to view stint loops or outside of a structured classroom situation these students filmstrips, overlays or other learning aids. !night be encouraged by the more able students. There are There are many options available to students who many other educational advantages for studentsin the may desire to study alone or work in small groups. Not program.I or01,1111111C. ;Istudent, after an extended only has small group interaction been very significant but illness, maypick up where his work was interrupted. often a good student helps a slower student. We have Students do not waste classtime by coming to class retained the interest of students who formerly would drop unprepared. Moreover,laboratory workisnever per. tun. In turn, a more able student can move ahead without lormedee uh, ,mit the studentbeing prepared. We also being held hack by a less able learner. encourage students to talk together during classbecause Since the teacher is no longer lecturing lieis now AXfeelthat much learning occurs when students can available to work individually with students, We have all trod% discuss mutuall.oncerns.There are also non. been in the position intime classroom where a student acaderuk !unction. %vititim might result from participation might have a question on a concept. If he is unable to

130 have it answered immediately, he might then be lost for Achievement Tests were given to all students who took the remainder of the lesson. The opportunity is here to chemistry under this approach and under the standard teach a student when he wants to learn. If a group hasa approach. No significant difference was found in the problem a teacher can joininthe discussion when results. The results on the college board achievement test members of the group want to learn. A teachermay also were not significantly different. demonstrate various Lab methods and techniques when the An attitudinalsurvey was conducted and most students are interested. We also have been fortunate in students indicated they were happy with the approach of having a well qualified paraprofessional who can not only this course. prepare solutions but many times is able to help a student. Lest I mislead you in stating the level of attainment Our testing programcomposed of two parts, the of our goals let me remind you as W. James Popham did in self-tests and check-point testsispart of our school an article in kihtcallonal Technology of July 1973, "there philosophy of freedom and responsibility. Self-tests are are always developers who will attempt to accomplish graded by the students themselves. They are distributed goals which, at this point fall beyond the capabilities of by Dr. Doolittle, a box on the counter. The student takes current development expertise." a test, grades it himself, and records the grade in a grade Take the case, for example, of an eastern regional hook. It' he is not satisfied with his performance on the laboratory staff member who during the bulk of his !ife test, he can take another comparable test and we will had viewed with chagrin manifestations of antisemitism. accept the better of the two grades. The student then files !laying served an apprenticeship period of two years in the the test in the "orange thing" as a permanent record. The product development activities at the lab, this developer cheek-point tests are given at the end of units of work. set out to deal with the problem of antisemitism in an These are administered by the paraprofessional at the ingeniously straightforward fashion. He would simply request of a student. In order to receive credit for the make everyon-:Jewish! The developer clearlyover- unit's work, the student must score within ten points of estimatedthepotency of our current development the average he received in his self-graded tests. lie may technology." take the unit test four times (we have four forms of the Obviously I make no claims that we are that far along same test), We then take the average of the highest two, in our development. I do feel, however, that students not Inst Int evaluation of the self-tests affords the student a only have a good understanding of science and chemistry, psychologically optimum opportunity to learnfrom butalsoin many casesabetter understanding of mistakes. ',hemselves and what is meant by responsibility. How, finally, do our students receive grades. The The system is designed to effectively handle smallor grading method fr made known to all students. The grade large enrollments while retaining the humanistic qualities is totally cumulative. A student, therefore, is never behind of a one-to-one student-teacher relationship. the class, lie is competing with himself. To calculate the This program has forced us to take a new andmore grade we use a quality and quantity factor of 50 percent. intense scrutiny at the results of education. Our future lies The quality is determined by valuing the self-tests and with diagnosing learning problems, developing curricula, check-pointtests at 50 percent each. This average is and creating and selecting media to assistus inthe multiplied by the quantity factor which is determined by solution. the ratio of the number of programs completed by the What then do we feel we have? student to a predetermined number of programs set by A place where the teacher is a director of learning! A the level of achievement for which a student opts. This place where students are encouraged to experiment and to would he 40 programs for diploma dredit, 57 programs record their experience in a meaningful way! A place for college-prep credit and all programs (about 70) plus where no two students might be on thesame subject at six extra labs for honors credit. Upon successful comple- the same time! A place where students and teachersare tion of a unit a student's average is calculated using a people! A place where people are listening to people! A fractional part of the above requirements and a letter of school! performance is sent to the parents. Beyond the basic programs we make available to all students small basic understanding programs dealing with NEWTRITION NOWA NEW SCIENCE PROGRAM IN such topics as mass spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, THE CONTEXT OF AN URBAN COMMUNITY andx-raycrystallography.Theystudyspectra and calculate various energy levels and must answer questions Mary Hughes, Director, Newtrition Now Program, such as "What do the bright lines tell us about the theory and Lecturer, School of Education. University of of elect roll energies?" Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Leo E. Klopfer, Pro- They calculate the distance between carbon atoms in fessor of Education, University of Pittsburgh, Penn- oleic acid now knowing the molecule is not a straight sylvania chain. They use pi! meters. Many of the labs are taken from college texts. We are able to use the best labs from Testimonials abound abouttheshortcomings of all available sources. high school science programs in meeting the needs of Another alternative feature of this program allows a general education for today's youth, especially in urban student who does not complete the course in one year to areas.And scienceteachers areworried. The worry return the following year and receive full credit. We also stems from the realitation that the criticisms are all too have students starting the course in their free time now true, that most of the content of high school science for next year. courses has littlerelevance to real contemporary prob- A further responsibility accepted by the students is lems, and thatall too many students fail to see much their part in cleaning up the lab. Each student is assigned value in learning science. The worry is aggravated by the clean-up duty about three times a year. fact thatitis far easier to recogni?e what is wrong than Find II!, thestandarized ACS-NSTAChemistry to devise practicable alternatives that are better.

131 We've known lot a long time that science programs The personalizedinstructionin NewtritfiNow designedforgeneral educationshouldappropriately begins withthe collecting of data on each student. focusoil:,.iencecontentthatis relevantto today's Students are given four tests: Diet and Weight Assess. socialproblems and issues. We also know thatmost ment, Physical Fitness Test, Mouth Test with Dental students will find the learning of science valuable only Hygiene Rating, and Mood Test for Iron Content. These to the extentthat what theylearnis meaningful to tests are administered by health professionals from the themselves personally When it comes to science teaching community, Illurbanareas, we aretoldthatthe content and Now the student has a personal evaluation of his or strategies of instruction ought to be matched to the her test results. This-evaluation introduces the student particular needs. wants. and expectations of the students to the content of the curriculum of Newtrition Now. in the community. And we are advised thatitis a good The relationships between the tests and the content are idea to involve the community in some way in school outlined below, programs. These good ideas and others are available to the educator who wishes to devise an alternative science Test Diet Interpretation with Weight and Might program.Thedifficultpartisputting the elements Ratings together Ile :in operational way. The student examines his own data and recognizes their .Vewtruion .\ 0 IIrepresents one attempt to apply relattonship to the following n!rihm content: adequate w hat we know about science instructionfor general diets,dietarystandards.nutritionalstatus,kinds of educatum to the operation of a science program in an nutrients, digestive system. urban community context.the program embodies a unique approach to lit scienceinstruct kithflu. middle and!ughschoolstudents,forparents, and for the Test 1 Physical Fitness Test elderlyin urban neighborhoods of Pittsburgh.Itputs The student calculates his score on the Harvard Step health, education. and consumer professionals in direct Test, which is an index of circulatory-respiratory capac- contact with students, and prepares those students to ity.This introduces the following biological content: assist parents and the elderly in nutrition education. The heart and exercise, circulation and respiration. program increases students' awareness of nutrition as a personal health and consumer concern by administering Test 3. Mouth Test and Dental Hygiene Rating individualdental. physicalfitness, diet, and nutrition The student's rating on the dental hygiene assessment tests, and through interactions with professionals from introduces him or her to the unit's section on Health community- health and consumer agencies. Concerns. The health wricern specifically' related to this Thedistinctive...haracteristics of the.Vewtritiun test is the teenager's dental pp.thlems. .Vow program may he summarized as: (a) relevant and personalizedsciencecontent, and(b)community Test 4. Blood Test ,tier Iron Content involvement for science teachers and students. The student's iron content is measured by visiting nurses and compared to normal levels. This test introduces two Content of the Program serious nutritional problems that are discussed in the unit: Nutritioniscurrentlya much publicizedhealth obesity, adolescent pregnancy. concern. Americans have become more nutrition con- From the evaluation of the several test results, the scious" in recent years and are likely to associate good student -canassesshis or her need for improving or nutrition with good health. However, this exposure to maintaining present nutritional and health status, Hence, general information about the importance of nutrition the student realizes that the content studied in the unit does notautomatically make 1,relevantto the high can he put to immediate personal use. In addition, the school science student. use of some of the unit's content is in itself reinforcing. Effectiveinstructionis more than telling or lec- If a person maintains a :,..dance between calorie intake turing. demonstrating, assigning, and grading recitations, and calorie output, he or she practices good nutrition laboratoryinvestigations,tests and papers on current anditseffects can bereadilyrecognizedinweight nutritioninfitrination.If we wantthestudentsto control and physicalfitness.This personal payoff is acquire specific nutrition content, they must he able to important.Tacklingtheairpollutionproblem, by perceivethatthis contentis directlyrelated to their contrast, may have little personal payoff and requires personal growth and development. The instruction must collectiveeffortsfor improvement.If aperson stops hepersonalized.Personalization is achievedinthe backyard buntings, there is not the same dramatic effect .Vcwtruton .Vow program by including a sequence of onairpollutionasthereisfrom practicing good concrete experiencesthatgive each student measure- nutrition. ments 01 ins or her present nutrition and health status. As part of the .Veletrithm Now program, students These measurements become the basis of the instruction. visittheir local supermarket, where food store represen- Personalized instruction isin accord with Iwo assump- tatives, nutritionists. and consumer protection represen- tions about learning stated by Postman and Weingartner: tativesexplain their concerns for wise and nutrition- 1. Learning takes pliice best, not when itis conceived conscious marketing. These sessions are taped. Students as a pieparation for life. but when it occurs in the cntet of real review these tapes in school and. during the final week dally life. oftheprogram,discusssuchissuesasnutritional Ihie hest time to learn anything is when whatever is labeling. recommended daily allowancesof nutrients, to he learned is indnediately useful.' code-dating, and unit-pricing. Instruction inthe nutrition program differs from that found in most secondary science classrooms. Val I' (urks Weinartner. The Soft keroin. 1011s learning strategies. grouping of students. external n,iti 11111,1111114: tiv%k York, 'r7pp. 9111. resources, and an individualised matiageMent system are

132 all part of the process of personalizing instruction. The The schools of the health professions recognize educa- various learning strategies employed are: I. Individual tion as preventive medicine. This places the responsi- Lessons Students work independently bility on the high school teacher to provide feedbackto on nutrition lessons. The pattern for these lessons is the health professionals concerning the classroom theVoitUnit, Individualized Science Program.2 reac- tiontotheirmessage.Thissymbioticrelationship Studentsfinish these lessonsattheir own rate, betweenhighschoolandhealthprofessionschool correct them, and arrange for remedial instruction strengthens the mechanism for continued involvement. if necessary. The community agencies contributing services, facil- 4. Laboratory Work Exercises testing for the various ities,and/or personnelto Newtrition Nov include: nutrients in foods are performed. Students choose University of Pittsburgh, Graduate School of Public from several alternative investigations the number Health, School of Dental Medicine, School of Education; and kinds of chemical tests needed to consistently Pittsburgh Board of Public Education; Diocesan School identify specific nutrients. Board of Pittsburgh; Allegheny County Health Depart- 3. Interpretation of Personal DataIn seminars, health ment; PittsburghDietetic Association, Advisory Com- professionals fromthe community interpretthe mittee; ShadysideHospital,Dietetic Intern Program; results of the dental, diet,physicalfitness and Magee Women's Hospital; Children's Hospital; Neighbor- blood tests. In these small group sessions students hoodHealthCenters;Pittsburgh Food Chains, H. J. are able to ask questions about health concerns that Heinz, Co., and Giant Eagle Markets. they might be afraid to ask in a large classroom. The Newtrition Now programis attempting to 4.Current nutrition films are used to introduce the bridge the gap between community and classroom, first four health tests and the related content. by bringing professionals in nutrition, health, andcon- To manage the program's various activities, New- sumerism into the schoolroom, and then by taking the trition Now utilizesflexiblegroupingsof students. student-graduates back into the community to assist in Classes are initially divided into threegroups: A, B, and the nutritional education of the elderly. Realcommu- C. A weekly Planning Sheet designates thesequence of nity-school involvement necessitates this two-way traffic movement to the various activities for each group, e.g., flow. Volunteer student graduates of theprogram take individual lessons, laboratory work, health test, film,or part in seminars to prepare for work instructing parents seminar. The Planning Sheet is also used by the student and the elderly. These seminars are conducted in senior and teacher to chart individual progress through the citizen's lounges and cover topics such as meeting elderly nutrition program. Students who wish to repeat certain people for the first time, explaining theprogram to activities may exercise that option. Some studentsmay them, exploring ways of being helpful to them,exam- initiate new activities. Through the use of grouping and ining the physical facilities for program implementation, the Planning Sheet, Newtrition Now classrooms display and dividing the work ;Lad. The program director and characteristics of individualized instruction. staff conduct these stivient sessions. Upon completion of this training, Newtrition Now Community Resources and Involvement staff and their student helpers conduct the nutrition The second distinctive characteristic of theprogram education program for adult and senior citizengroups. is the use of community resources to enhance science The components of the community programare essen- instruction. Nutrition is not only an individual problem, tially the same as the school program--dental health, itis a community concern. Because this is true, and physicalfitness, diet and weight control, and food- because most community agencies have a commitment buying. The instruction is geared to the healthconcerns to community education, educational forces other than of each group but the basic information remains the the school can be expected to help in an instructional same. It is important that student volunteers are familiar program on nutrition. The health and consumer agencies with the basic content of the communityprograms. in urban neighborhoods provide expertise that is invalu- Students help as tutors, transportation aides, food aides, able tolife - science instruction. The urban community socialserviceaides, and shoppers. The element of with its neighborhood health center, community services community service in Newtrition Now has been mutu- center, and centralized shopping area provides many ally acceptable to adolescents and senior citizens. resourcesthatcan be coordinated. Newtrition Now, recognized as a supportive serviceto the school and History and Prospects of the Program community, providesthe mechanism for health and Newtrition Now operates by invitation only, but consumer professionalsto share their expertise with any school or neighborhood recognizing a need for science teachers in a nutrition education program. nutrition education is eligible. The pilot study began in An important consideration for teachers in working the fall of 1972 at an urban high school in Pittsburgh. with community professionalsisthe preparation of The study was done by the H. J. Heinz Company in students for the participation of the "outsiders." Some conjunction with regional medical programs and the assurance must also he given to these professionals that Diocese of Pittsburgh. With the demonstratedsuccess of their contribution will have classroom follow-up. Itis the high school program, Newtrition Now movedto the not an easy task to keep health and consumer profes- neighborhood parochial school. Senior Citizen's Lounge, sionals involved in programs with high school students. and the YWCA and YMCA Outreach Programs. During The mechanism that Newtrition Now initiatedis that thefirstyear of operation 200 inner-cityresidents thehighschoolprovidesaclinicalsettingfor the received the nutrition program. With the endorsement of training of health professionals in preventive medicine. thepublicandparochialschools the program has expanded to the north side of the city of Pittsburgh. 2Thisprogram was developed at the Learning Research and This year the program has servicedover 300 students, Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, and is published 150 senior citizens and KO by Imperial International Learning, Kankakee. Illinois. The professional involvenicnt from the University

133 of Pittsburgh, city hospitals and County Health Depart- Evaluation Procedures ment continues. It is proposed that Newtrition Now will Objective I will be evaluated by administering a become a clinical experience with accreditation for the questionnaire to samples of students in grades 7, 8, and 9 training of health professionals from these contributing ineachprojectschool.Thequestionnaire,tobe agencies. administered in February 1975, will be constructed by the Newtrition Now continues to expand asit con- Department of Instructional Research. tinues to meet its stated objectives:first, to increase Objective 2 will be evaluated by on-site visits by Polk nutrition and consumer knowledge; second, to provide a and Roller to all project schools. A written observation program that makes health and consumer education report will be submitted by March 1, 1975. interesting and pertinent to participants. Objective3willbe evaluated with acriterion- referenced instrument. This instrument, developed by a teamof TulsaPublicSchoolpersonnel,willbe administered to samples of students in grades 7, 8, and 9 SESSION E-9 in each project school by April 1, 1975. AN EVALUATION DESIGN OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE PROGRAM SESSION Fa John E. Roller, Associate Science Supervisor, Tulsa PROLONGED SIMULATION ENVIRONMENTS Public Schools, Tulsa, Oklahoma INTHE CLASSROOM' The program is designed as a self-paced, laboratory Michael Babcock, Teaching Assistant, State Univer- approach to science. The materials are organized in three sity College of New York, Plattsburgh: and Sandra levels which represent first, second, and third year science Latourelle, Teacher, Ausable Valley Central School, programs. LevelI content covers concepts selected from Clintonville, New York all three of the major disciplines of sciencelife, earth, and physical. The laboratory emphasis is on energy. Level We have known for many years that child-centered II content also covers concepts selected from all three activities can be used to reinforce old skills and place major disciplines of science. The laboratory emphasis is on new ones atthechild's command. Ithas also been matter. Level Ill is much less structured than the first two shown that single concept units can be taught with these levels.Itaffords students the opportunityto select types of activities. This paper describes a study in which minicourses or modules from the disciplines of life and we attempted to exploit such activities and concepts earth science. using long-term activities built around a limited amount The programisnot centeredaroundany one of subject matter. instructionalstrategy, suchasatextbook-lecture ap- We termedthis long-term activity "a simulated proach, but utilizes the media best suited for the student environment." (We chosethis name because of the inagivensituation.The laboratorymaterialisa structuring of the activity.) Basically, the environment commercial program developed at Florida State Univer- was designedas an information processing situation. sity. This Intermediate Science Curriculum Study (ISCS) Childreninthe seventh grade were presented with materialemphasizestheprocessesofscience.The problems to solve, each problem being desigi :ed so as to enrichmentcomponentdevelopedbytheScience encourage the learning of new skills and to reinforce Department of the Tulsa Public Schools, at each level previously learned skills.It was hoped that with these emphasitvhe concepts of science. skills the children could then solve their assigned problems The Level I and II materials have been used for three by processing the information that they had found. years and some of the eight modules at Level III are in use We began our study in September 1972 at Ausable at Wilson. Valley Central Middle-High School (Clintonville, New Clevtlz..nd, Clinton, Foster, Lewis and Clark, and York) with a seventh grade Life Science class. The class Skelly have been in the program for two years. Anderson. consisted of 28 students grouped ina heterogeneous Bell. Gilcrease, Monroe, Nimitz, and Roosevelt have been manner. The class containedindividuals from widely in the program for one year. Carver, Hamilton, Madison, varied socioeconomic backgrounds. Thoreau. Whitney. and Wright are in the program for the We chose this class because of the students' lack of first time this year. All protect schools are now volun- basic academic skills. Many read one to two levels below tarily committed to the ju.iior high science program. gradelevel.Mosthadnevertaken notes, used the Project schools have or will drop biology and have or library, or had to organize a plan of action. Because of will have some seventh grade students in the science theirlimitedvocabulary,theycouldnotreadily program next year. communicate their ideas. Many of the children could not work in groups without loud verbal exchanges. We Project Objectives were hopeful thatthe learning environment we were I. To promote among studentsapositiveattitude settingup wouldalleviatethesesoi:ial andlearning toward science, problems. To develop some of the science process skills such as: The planning of activities involved consideration of observing, measuring. classifying, predicting, infer- learning and behavioral problems. We felt that we could ring. formulating hypotheses, controlling variables, attack both types of problems by including both social interpreting data. defining operationally. and academic activities. To develop an understanding of some concepts With what we hoped to accomplish, our objectives selectedfrom all threemajordisciplinesof had to he different from those designed for an average sciencelife. earth, and physical. class.Eachobjectivenot only hadtohelp presen

134 material but also had to help that person overcome his Spelling and vocabulary were treated in the same or her special problem. There were eight objectives set manner. The new words were then made a part of for the program. the classroom vocabulary through selected activities. 1. Thematerialorinformation hadto beeasily 7. The classroom environment had to foster library retained. skills and good note-taking. The learningof concepts has always been In an effort to accelerate the eventual use of better when connected with a concrete action. To the library, we brought no reference material into accomplish this, we designed most of our informa- the room. All background research was done in the tion processing and transferring steps as physical library. actions. Much information came from actual experi- When a child went to the library, he or she ments carried out by the children. These experi- was shown by the librarian how to use the card ments were designed, constructed, carried out, and catalog, the Readers Guide and other indices. After evaluated by the students themselves. To transfer this introduction, he or she was expected to find this information to others, they built models, drew his or her own material. For children who had maps, and performedillustrated experiments for difficulty, the process was repeated as many times their classmates. as necessary. Under no circumstances did we or the The classroom environment had to help them see librarianobtainany books ormaterialsfora their own environment from an ecological point of student. view. To encouragetheskillof note-taking, we This phase was accomplished through the tests allowed a certain amount of frustration to build in and experiments that the students performed. When thestudents astheytriedto work with large air or water was to be tested, each child would amounts of uncondensed material. Eventually each bring a sample to test. Under certain circumstances, would find that it was a necessity to take notes on the tests were done at home and the data reported. what he read. By making their homes, neighborhoods, and schools 8. The classroom environment had to promote social- part of their environment, the children began to see ization. that they were not isolated from the rest of the As stated before, most of the students found it natural environment. difficult to work in small groups. To help them 3. The classroom environment had to assist them in overcome this disability, we instituted a program of seeing what .:nvironmentally unsound practices can socialization. Small groups with common goals were do to the environment. allowed to form (i.e. environmental law, environ- To illustratethe effects of environmentally mental chemistry, concerned citizens, etc.). For any unsound practices, groups of students set up ter- of thesegroupstosucceedator accomplish raria aquaria. Mien the ecosystems had stabi- anything, eachpersonhadto"pullhis own lized, the students would then introduce set quan- weight." These goal-directed groups increased or tities of toxins to observe the effects on the plant decreased in size as interest waned and new goals andanimallife.Thestudents wereaskedto were found. consider how this poisoning could take place in All materials, equipment, and back-up setups that their home town. were used in this study can normally he found in any 4.The classroom environment had to show them junior high or senior high school science classroom. wherethe law could be usedinthefightfor This study was carried out over a four to five week ecological improvement. period. We felt that this amount of time would allow For this phase, a court system was initiated. each student (progressing at his own rate) ample time to Here, mock trials were staged with the students complete the available activities. Our grading system was playing the parts of judge, jury, attorneys, ecolo- based on various criteria: gists. and corporations. 1. The amount of information retained by the stu- 5. The classrot in environment had to help them to dents. discuss legislation concerning the environment intel- 2. The amount of work accomplished. ligently. 3. Growth in the social and personal domains. Through the simulation, we hoped to encour- 4.Growth in creative thinking capacities, that is, given age the students to try to understand what the laws a problem to solve could they form aplan of meant.To fosterthisunderstandingthecourt action. system (from objective :r4) was used extensively. It On the day the "game" began, the students were wasthoughtthatthelevelof understanding asked to assume roles. The groups became industralists, achieved by the students would largely he due to ecologists,professionals. and ordinarycitizens. Tape- theirdesiretoparticipateintheactivities. To recorded instructions were given to each group to help participate. they had to understand what was going set the mood. on. After the introductions, the students were allowed h. The classroom environment had to help improve to research their respective roles. They examined policies reading. spelling. and vocabulary. and philosophies of industries and municipalities. Each Working from 'he assumptionthatthe low group wasresponsiblefordrawing andlabelingits levels of reading, spelling, and vocabulary could be factory. utility, or park on a master town map. Once attributed to the existence of a conceptualization the map was completed (now it served as a game hoard ). problem. we added a large number of high interest it was studied carefully by all groups so as to ascertain low readinglevelhookstoourlibrary.These whether or not a particular factory or mill contributed materials proved to he an assetfor the students to pollution in the village. If the ecologists felt a certain when they tackled more advanced reading material. group wascausingapollutionproblem.they were

135 required to go through proper court procedure to obtain at the devil (pollution). Suddenly terms like writ, rediess: injunction, subpoena. briefs, and "objection sus- 1. Obtain a court order from the judge. tained" were "household" words. Even the most 2. Serve a subpoena on the offending group. shy and retiring student became involved inthe 3. Secure time on the court calendar. drama that unfolded before us. Hearsay, common 4.Partidpate in the court action. knowledge, and circumstantial evidence meant noth- The jury was picked from citizens groups and the ing. Every argument needed to be backed by fact. prosecution and the defense chose their legal represen- 6. Theclassroom environmentmusthelp improve tatives. The judge had been previously appointed by the reading, spelling, and vocabulary. class. Large numbers of entirely new words began to It was of interest that the first trial almost did not creepintothechildren'svocabulary.Astime occur because of the lack of aBible. Two of the progressed, more and more attention was paid to "citizens" donated a handmade gavel. ("It adds class," spelling through such avenues as letters tolocal they said.) businesses, court briefs, and court subpoenae. The ensuingtrials were rather interesting. Some They began to take prideintheirliterary were lost due to lack of evidence (poor research). Some accomplishments.Questionslike "How do you were won through hard fights and heated debate. write a business letter?" were asked of their English The outcomes of thisprojectwere many and teachers.Otherteachers, alsoquestioned, began varied. Some objectives were achieved while others were asking the students just what was going on in their not orw:,re onlypartiallyachieved.Inrelationto science class. These teachers were rather surprised objectives posed, the results were as follows: at the lengths to which the students went in their I. Thematerialorinformation hadtobeeasily explanations. retained. 7. The classroom environment had to foster library There was a decided increase in awareness of skills and good note-taking. what was happening inthe real world. Students Here we found that students had not pro- brought in newspaper clippings, verbal contributions gressedasfaras we had hoped. Although not taken from television newscasts and personal exper- developed to theirfullest potential, libraryskills iences. and notetaking improved markedly if improvement An interesting outgrowth of the activities was is judged by the accumulation of materials by the the students' disregard of manufacturers' slogans students. and jingles and their subsequent demand for cold 8. The classroom environment had to promote social- hard facts about a particular product or process. ization. Early in the project, students would tend to During the first couple of weeks in school, solve pollution problems by demanding that an petty bickering made instruction difficult. With the offending factory or facility be shut down. Soon institution of the simulated environment, the stu- faced with economic ruin, the students were forced dents now found that the bickering hurt only them. to compromise and face what can best be termed The accomplishment of tasks forced group coopera- economic reality. (You do not solve one problem tion and gradually this group interaction became a by creating another.) way of approaching most problems. Oaf The classroom environment had to help them see We have concluded from our study that a child- their own environment from an ecological point of based, child-initiated learning situation guided by the view. teacher can produce results that outstrip a traditional Students. asthe term progressed. began to classroom approach. We base this judgement on the fact show more and more awareness of unsafe practices thattraditional(lecture) classrooms provide growth in their community. for example, commercial efflu- mainly in the academic domain. The simulated environ- ent treatment, indiscriminate landfill, and the need ment helps to develop a more well-rounded person by for environmental planning. The children used local providing development not only in the academic domain television broadcasts and newspapers extensively in but also in the personal and social domains. keeping track of development in their community. We have conducted a similar study with a class of 3. The classroom environment had to assist them in tenthgradestudents.Theresultssuggestthatthe seeingwhatenvironmentallyunsoundpractices approach we have described will work well with any age could do to the environment. group, economic bracket, orIQ. That the simulated The general classroom took on a new appear- environment approach to learning allows the child to ance. Pictures. news clippings, and magazine articles progress at his or her own rate, undoubtedly contributes suddenly papered the cabinetry. All dealt with the heavilytoits apparentsuccess. The studentisalso results of ecologically unsound practices. At the allowed to provide his or her own personal meaning for beginning of each class session, many hands would what he learns. go up to tell us about a situation recently discov- We believe thatthesimulatedenvironment ered. approach allows considerably better learning totake 4.The classroom environment hadto show them place in the classroom than does process instruction. where the law could be usedinthetightfor Unlike process instruction or BSCS which provides the ecological improvement. studentwith only one way ofsolvinga problem, 5. The classroom environment had to help them to simulated environments, operating on the premise that discuss legislation concerning the environment intel- we each see things diff:_trently, lays open all avenues for ligently. problem solving. Even we were astonished at the development We believe that the most important part of the of 30 budding Daniel Websters vying for a chance simulated environment approach isits ability to teach

136 the student how to teach himself. We believe that the Dependence." FinalReport, ConnecticutUniver- ability of a person to teach himself new concepts and to sity: June 1967. understand ideas previously foreign to him are essential 21. PreparingInstructionalObjectives.FearsonPub- to the development and maintenance of an educated lisher, Palo Alto, California (1968). citizenry. The simulated environment approach provides an effective way of achieving these goals. tThis work was supported inpart by a grant to Dr. Harold J. Perkins of State University of New York, Plattsburgh, New York, References by the National Science Foundation Undergraduate Preservice Teacher Education Program (Grant No. 029-85A). We would like to thank Dr. Harold J. Perkins for his 1. Abelson, Philip H. "Group Activity and Creativity generous funding of the study, Dr. Robert R. Miller for his valu- in Science," Daedalus: 94,603 (1965). able advice, Mr. Robert Grower for shaking up our world and 2. Cratty,BryantJ.andSisterSic/.epanik. "The causing this study, Ausable Valley Central School for use of its classroom space, and Dr. Ralph M. Clark who helped in moreways Effects of a 'Program of Learning Games Upon than he thought. Selected AcademicAbilitiesin Childrenwith LearningDifficulties."California University. Los Angeles: September 1971. 3. Chisman, Dennis G. "Teaching Integrated Science." SESSION F-4 The Science Teacher: 40, 20 (1973). 4. Darrow,HelenFishe;.andVirgil M. Howes. HUMANISM, CREATIVE THINKING, AND SUBJECT Approaches to Individualized Reading. Appleton- FUSION: BASES FOR SCIENCE ACTIVITIES K-12 Century-Crofts. Inc.. New York (1960). 5. Fox, Karen F. A. and Steven M. Jung. "A Pilot Arthur Carin, Associate Dean, Queens College, City Study of the Use of Incentives to Enhance School University of New York, Flushing Learning." American Institutes for Research in the BehavioralSciences. Palo Alto, California:April We are at the end of a curriculum era in science 1972. teaching, the next period is already emerging with 6.Garner. Gero lama. "Modifying Pupil Self-concept differentgoals,subjectmatter and instructional and Behavior." Today's Education: 63, 26 (1974). characteristics.... A majority of teacher education 7. Gerhard. Muriel. Effective Teaching Strategies with programs of the 1970's are largely obsolete because the Behavioral Outcmne Approach. Parker Publish- they are designed to teach the science of the 1960's ing Co., Inc., %Vest Nyack, New York (1971). and thereislittle attentionto on-going cultural 8. Harris, Albert J. "A Third Progress Report of the changes and emerging science curricula. [51 Craft Project: Teaching Reading to Disadvantaged Itis evident from Paul DeHart Hurd's statement Primary Grade Urban Negro Children." City Univer- above, that "we are at the end of a curriculum era in sity of New York, Division of Teacher Education science teaching." At the same time the elements of the ( 1968). new science programs are finding their way into the public 9. Hendrickson. Homer. "Spelling: A Visual Skill. A schools, the inevitable swing of the educational pendulum Discussion of Visual Imagery and the Manipulation has already started its counter swing as Professor Hurd of Visual Symbols as Basic to Spelling." Depart- said further, "... the next period is already emerging with ment of Health, Education. and Welfare (1967). different goals, subject matter and instructional character- 10.Hutchinson. W. L. "Creative and Productive Think- istics." What trends are appearing in these three aspects of ing inthe Classroom." (unpublished PhD thesis), the next period? University of Utah, Salt Lake City (1963). 11.Irwin, Martha and Wilma Russell. The Comnzunity Process + Content + ? = 70's Science Education inthe Classroom,PendellPublishing Company, The 60's introduced programs emphasizing process Midland, Michigan (1971). and concepts. The 70's have introduced some additional 12.Liffey, James L. "Reading in the Content Areas." elements. Some science educators observed that often the InternationalReading Association, Newark. Dela- new science projects avoid direct relationships between ware (1972). man's life and conditions and the processes and concepts 13.Leonard. George B. Education and Ecstasy.Dell of scientific investigations. The influential and prestigious Publishing Co., New York (1968). National Science Teachers Association also recognized this 14.Mariani. J."Problem-Centered Teaching." Educa- lack and revised its first position statement on curriculum tion: R4. 231 (1963). developmentinscience(1962),becauseastheir 15.Merry, Raymond W. "Science and Society." The introduction says: Science Teacher: 40, 47, (1973). In view of the many changes that have occurred in 16.Purnerantz. P. "Relevance of Change: Imperatives in the past decade and in recognition of the belief' that theJuniorHigh and Middle School Dialogue." curriculum development should be a continuing Clearing House: 43. 209 (1969). process,theNSTA CommitteeonCurriculum 17.Robinson. Lucretia G. "Turning the Prism." The Studies, K-12 has reexamined the 1962 views on the Science Teacher: 40. 48 (1973). science curriculum and produced the revised position 18. White. M. A., "Speculation on the Child's World of comprising this document. [81 Learning." :VEA Journal: 55, 20 (1966). Among the additional goals of science education as 19. Wiesner. Jerome B. "Education for Creativity in the seen by the NSTA are: Sciences." Daedalus: 94,527 (1965). "The scientifically literate person 20. Witryol. Sam L. "Discrimination Learning. Problem uses science concepts, proces., skills. and values Solving, and Choi:e Patterning by Children asa in making everyday decisions as he interacts FunctionofIncentiveValue,Motivationand with other people and his environment

137 3, Listing, recurring relevance, recognizesthelimitationsaswellas tiw 4. Pertinence to several disciplines. usefidness science and of tmhnologrin 5. Potential for direct student experience. I advancing human welfare Community media (especially IV) expose children to understandstheinterrelationshipsbetween issues, problems and insights we used to think were too science technology, and other facets of society, advanced for them to understand. Children's exposure to inchuling social and economic development thefollowing events and issues stir excitement, fear, recognizes the human origin of science... bafflement, and anger around which the society-oriented science program might be built: adequate testing of the has adopted values similar to those that underlie "Pill." cyclamates, etc.;racial conflicts; environmental science...." N waste, pollution, energy crises, etc.; overpopulation; drug, The MIA continues that "science, because it is a alcohol, tobacco and chemical control of man's mind; use human undertaking, cannot he' value-free. Emphases on of insecticides; space missions; heart transplants; poverty; values and on the social aspects of science and technology war; disease; starvation. must be integral parts of any darriculum." They see the Activities and projects can make science education major educational challenge of the next decade as a relevant to human concerns and needs. It may take the development of learning environments that prepare people simple form of caring for a classroom pet or aquarium, to cope with arapidly changing society. To do this, observing and comparing similarities in their environment, students will need to be alerted to these social aspects of in water pollution and health, in food and growth, in science. overcrowding,life,and death. "Such activities create "perception of the cultural conditions within which group pride and an appreciation of the relationship of life science thrives and growth to individual and group responsibility." 1131 recognitionof theneedtoviewthescientific With your guidance, your children can he helpedto enterprisewithin broadperspectives ofculture, broaden into their communities and its environmental and society, and history social problems. expectation that social and economic innovations One unique way children can be exposed to realistic may be necessary to improve man's condition views of their own communities and its social problems, is appreciation of the universality of scientific endeav- outlined in a new unit, "Kids, Cameras and Commu- ors." [61 nities," 121 being developed by Educational Development The trends for Science Education for the 70's that can be Center(theESS group)inNewton, Massachusetts. gleaned from the above statements are: Childrenlearntoinsertfilm and take pictures with I. Different Goals: greater emphasis upon science as inexpensive "lnstamatic-type" cameras. The unit contains human endeavor, society-oriented with value clarifi- speciallydesigned dark bags which serve as portable cation skills. darkrooms. Using these bags, children learn to prepare Subject Matter: more relevance to children's lives and developing and printing solutions for developing film and society's problems and broader integration of science making prints. The pictures received tell much about the with other curricular areas. community: garbage overflowing uncovered cans, 3. InstructionalModes: wider use of more flexible "junkies"pushing dope onstreetcorners,derelicts teaching techniques and individualization of instruc- tion. sleeping in doorways, rats scurrying across backyards, kids playing ball in the traffic congested streets. What are the implications of these trends for you as an A New York City program, "City Design and Urban elementary school teacher of science? Change,"[31shows also what can be done (even in inner-cityareas) totietogetherscience and society A More Humanistic Society-Oriented Approach to Teach- throughthestudyofpollutit 1.This program was ing designedto awaken childrentotheimportance of Science education should capitalize upon societal ecological problems in city planning. Pollution problems issues and problems as the focus for its processes and highlighted the interrelationships between man and his content. The child can he helped to see that current environment, which has special significance in studying controversies are interesting. relevant, and openended. urban ecology. Children were exposed to such ecological Issues and problems by their very nature are unresolved. concepts as grouping systems, populations, food chains, These unresolved issues may provide the relevance which and food webs, communities and ec Isysterns, interaction invites real learner involvement; this is especially true for and interdependence. These concepts were relatedto mans of our "brighter" students or those we label needs children observed in housing, recreation, transpor- "culturally deprived." tation. and other services needed for satisfactory living in You will find the selection of issues relevant and their urban environment. controversial to the student is not difficult. Any alert, A fourth grade class doing a similar study identified fivtoting elementaryteacher "tuned m" to the child's these health problems in their community: littered streets. community; can readilylist many issues that have real garbagecollection,airpollutionfromincinerators. meaning to her class. Search through .,uch issues for broad number of people who had not been vaccinated. The appeal and importance to determine those with current children (with the teacher's help) arrived at the conclusion social concern. !kindling controversial topics is difficult. that theseconditionscould be improved,ifthe but we teachers must deal with them if we are to help community was alerted to the problems. Suggestions were develop "scientificallyliterate Citi/CTIS." Consider these made by children for circulating a petition to form a criteria when selecting issues for your science program: community counciltoseethe governor.Allof the 1. Social ielevance and controversial overtones. discussion leadto a study of appropriate agencies and ' Relevance to the student of the designated level or units of government necessaryfor converting science potential for such relevance. undertakings into constructive social action.

138 Belle Share tkin of Brooklyn College eresents this controversialissuesinscience without indoctrinating example to illustrate that the demand for puhtiati literacy studentswitheitherourown valuesorequally in addition to scientific literacy In a technological soelety had unquestioningally inculcating society's values. One calls for a new alliance between science and social science: excellent way has been advocated by Louis Raths, Merrill "One student teacher in a socalled slow fifth Harmin, and Sidney R. Simon in their book, Values and grade class in a ghetto area asked children to listen to TeachingI I I JThey suggestthat any science subject a phonograph record dealing with crowding in the mattercanbe examined on threelevels:factual, No. Visiting this class, 1 observed that the rhythm conceptual, and valuational, caught the initial interest of the children who then began to listen and comment. The children were Fact Level surprisinglyinsightful and verbalinrelatingthe 1. What is the eurth's diameter? problems stemming from overcrowding in the zoo to At what temperature on u Fahrenheit scale will water those of population density in their own neighbor. hood. They suggested that increase of crime, lack of 3. Namei the stages of development of the butterfly sanitation,inadequatehousing. and poor health larva. services might he the end results of high population The above are examples of questions composed of density, and then listed ways to investigate how facts and specifics, Most of their answers are difficult to community action might alleviate some of these remember, are rarely interesting to students, and are of problems." 1141 little use in attempting to enlighten the students. Their Although there are many things that teachers can do encyclopedic nature renders them practically useless in in this area, it is unlikely that all science teachers possess transferring to other areas of learning. all the competencies necessary to deal adequately with all thesesocialissuesorwithothersdealingwith Concept or Generalization Level interrelationships of science, technology, and mankind. 1, What causes the movements of air currents? Much help from administrators, college and community Applythe principle of Newton's action-reaction personnel, and professional organizations will have to be theory to a swimmer diving into a pool. supplied. Perhaps new issuesoriented science programs or 3, How areigneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic modification of existing ones will be written by the rocks formed? team-writingapproachusedincreatingthecurrent Concept or generalization questions are considered to programs. "Any curriculum that would assistyoung he strong and indicative of good teaching. They serve as a people in an examination of their basic assumptions about means of coalescing facts and specifics into a unified society and its improvement must deal with values and whole. Most teaching is constructed around a set of the social policies. Yet attention to values and social policies most significant concepts relatedto the topic under is now almost totally foreign to public schools." [71 consideration. An inherent weakness of concept type questions occurs when one assumes verbalization implies Science Education and Value Clarification understanding. The strengths of concept or generalization Public schools generally have avoided inclusion of questions far outweigh any weaknesses, but in this writer's value clarificationskill development intheir curricula, view they are still limited, especiallyinscienceeducation. Onereasonisthat Americans pride themselves on being individualistic and Values Level coming to One's own conclusions. (Provided of course the I will not attempt to entirely dismiss teaching at the conclusions are fairly conventional). Perhaps there is fear factand conceptlevel. Whatisneededisa newer we will teach specific values. Put another way, there may perspective on both. Regardless of how skillful teaching is he concern that teachers will indoctrinate children with conductedatthefactandconceptlevel,science their own values. instruction will usually he limited to mere information Whatever the arguments, values issues must he part of giving. Science educators need to penetrate into the third the teaching of Science. It has not been done and it is no level, that of teaching for value clarification. For example, surprise that young people (in college, high school, and you could ask: evenjuniorhighschool) areparticularlycriticalof 1. What kind of person do you suppose would make a established educational practice. A common charge is that good scientist? education lacks relevance and does not address itself to Have you ever wanted to invent something that real basic societal issues and controversies. Youth are not would benefit mankind in some way? the only ones asking for the inclusion of issues and values The values level attempts to lead the student to a in our schools. A Joint Commission of the Association of greater awareness of applying his knowledge to his own Classroom Teachers of the National Education Associa- thoughtsandfeelings.Causalrelationshipssuggest tion and the American Association for School Adminis- why centered questions. Valueclarifying questions are of tratorsrecommendedthateducationbreak outthe the you centered type! They help the student to see how classroomwallsand"projectstudentsintodirect his life is related to the subject mutter being studied. 1151 involvement in community activities." The Commission Have you ever wanted to try an experiment but furtherurgesthatschoolscanprovide"definite decided nut to because you thought it might make you educational experiences which teach young people to look silly? Can you think of any inventors who people develop viable value systems and standards for personal thought had strange, unworkable ideas, at least at first? behavior." 191Robert J.Ilavighurst, a member of the 1. If you were in complete charge of how our atomic University. of Chicago education staff since 1941, put it resources were used, how would you use them? this way"The two basic processes of education are 2. What are some of the things we need to assume for knowing and ratuing." your experiment to work out that way? Thew are many ways of dealing with values and 3. What are some of the good things that resulted from

139 the development of...(add almost any invention or 4. The teacher must have values of her own and state discovery )? them -but with quiet dignity. 4, What are some of the alternate ways you can choose An outgrowth of a values issues approach to science to gather data? Which of these do you use? usually is an action project, Look back over Levels I, a. When do you think a person can predict the results and speculate upon the action projects that would cap of an experiment with reasonable accuracy? off the respective studies, Acting responsibly upon one's Can you think of any way a person might be able to values is one of the highest forms of citizenship, Archibald tell the difference between scientific evidence and McLeish put it this way: "The man who knows with his mere hearsay or guesswork? mind only, who will not commit himself' beyond his wits, Can you give me some examples of scientific beliefs who will not feel the thing he thinksthat man has no that people are in disagreement over today? freedom anywhere." 8. Trytothink of any animals that havecertain territories that they closely guard. Do you have any Integrating Science with Other Areas such territories? It' science is to be taught with a more humanistic, Do you think enough emphasis is being placed upon society-oriented, values clarifying approach, it will have to the prevention of air pollution? Have you ever done be integrated more with other areas of the elementary anything about it? school curriculum, This is difficult because we teachers 10. How do you feel about using laboratory animals in bring these "hang-ups" to the topic: such a way that might be unnecessarily cruel and 1. Subjects are what teachers know how to teach. injurious to them? Is this a personal preference or do 2. Teachers tend to teach as they were taught, When you think that most people should feel the same today's teachers were school children, it was usually way? obvious to them that courses in various subjects were 11. Have you ever done anything in your science classes intended, above all, to teach those subjects, that made you feel particularly satisfied or pleased? 3. Today also, teachers and pupils both know that they 12.If you could choose what to study in your science will in practice be judged largely on the bases of classes, what would be your first three choices? subject-matter accomplishments. Pupils and classes 13. How do you feel when the weatherman forecasts a are rated not by their ability to think or create, but sunny day anditrains? How do you think the by their accumulation of knowledge. [121 weatherman feels? Flow then can the separate subject approach be 14. Can you think of anything in history that people altered in elementary school science? One goodway is to once believed in but have changed their minds about? focus on the asking of questions which leads to the Often the teacher's dialogue with students consists of probing of relationships between "subjects," which in inculcating, indoctrinating, or moralizing. Utilization of turn, "permits the development of asynoptic and value clarifying questions helps the student rely upon his frequently original view of knowledge instead of the own abilities to consider questions. traditional segmented view," [101Teachersandstudents ask questions of interest tothem. Letchildren start with Try ItYou'll Like It! questions in biology, such as "What conditions are needed There isn't any magic formula for mnviiig children's for maintaining life in plants?" Before long, they will start thinking from Levels I and 11 to Level III. The values level asking questions inphysics, chemistry, anthropology. requires the facts and concepts levels, but also demands Students will spend a great deal of time finding answers in more information, insights, guided TV watching, magazine many "subjects" for their questions, especially if not reading, personal experiences, art, literature, observation prodded to get back onthesubject. Informationis of human behavior, fieldtrips. Try to structure your gathered from books, newspapers, people, the streets and questions for Level III on a you format that involves the neighborhood, TV, labs. A key element in preventing the child where he lives. These questions aim at the student's question-asking, answer-finding, multi-subject approach values and life. They ask him to take a stand and often to from becoming a sterile and ritualizing activity, is to deal dosomething.Thisisrealrelevance and notjust with issues and problems perceived by thelearneras intellectual gymnastics. realistic and useful. Remember: A teacher may start a values level study Marjorie Gardner[4]seesthesetrends inthe with any science topic. SI lay begin with content and interdisciplinary approaches to science teaching: build toward values issues, or motivate subject matter 1. From discipline-basedsciencetointerdisciplinary study by opening with a value-oriented investigation. science to fully integrated science. Different teachers are excited by different issues. Feel free 2. From structured courses organized in scope and to raise your own issues but note the suggestions and sequence fashion to interchangeable modules with cautions: multiple options and high degrees of flexibility and 1. Never insist upon one "right" answer for the issues adaptivity to local, regional, or national situations. level. This would defeat the purposes of encouraging 3. From teacher preparation in specific disciplines to students to search for their own values. broadening teacher perspectives and teaching compe- ". After students become familiar and comfortable tencies through interdisciplinary science. dealing with you questions in confronting values issues, encourage them to startraising their own Need for More Flexible Teaching values issues. Teachers will find their creativity and resourcefulness 3. The teacher should always declare where she stands pushed to their limits to provide more flexibility in their on most values issues. Caution: try to do it in a quiet, science programs. More emphasis will obviously be placed dignified way, which does not require that students on the individualization of instruction. Several of the adopt your beliefs, Postpone telling the class until funded science projects, especially ESS and SCIS, give students have a chance to investigate on their own. muchattentiontomaterialsandteaching learning

140 strategies that stress self-pacing and multi-level activities. Alan J. McCormack, Associate Research Educator, Other new funded projects have been started to work on LawrenceHall of Science,Berkeley,California: individualizing science education. Herbert Thier, Assistant Currently on leave from the University of British Director of SC1S has two such programs. One is called, Columbia. Adapting Science Materials for the Blind (ASMB) and the other is Individualizing Instruction, which is one of six Necessity may be the mother of invention, but interrelated research and development projects of the creativity is the father. Without both, there will be no Advancement of Education in Science--Centered Pro- offspring. grams (AESOP). What uses can you think of for a bar magnet? "Pick There is an increasing storehouse of material being up iron filings or paper clips or use it to build an electric produced for individualizing science instruction for all motor." Anything else? "Else? That's what a magnet is students,especiallythe"gifted"and"culturally used for." Sorry, friend, you display all the symptoms of deprived." Additional concern for individualizing instruc- acommon ailment:rigid,overlyconstrained,and tioncan be seeninthe growing interestin "open convergent thinking. A psychologist might conclude you education" here and abroad. Even the design of school suffer from functional fixation. buildings reflects a movement to greater flexibility in our "From what?" Look at it this way: if you weren't ways of structuring learning environments for children. bound by your fixation, you would realize that a magnet Schools with moveable walls and large areas which hold could be used as a tack hammer, paperweight, ice crusher, groups of 100.200 children are becoming more common. or as a fastener to keep your shirt on. Or, try embedding Also the multi-media approach used in science education them in gums to keep false teeth in place, making a reflects the concern with expanding learning opportunities magnetic-repulsion shock-preventing automobile bumper, for all children. Team teaching recognizes the unique magnetic shoes to climb steel buildings, or to help keep a contribution of the teacher and is finding its way into railroad train properly on its tracks. Small magnets might more elementary schools. be used as cuff links, and a multiitude of tinier ones would make ideal stay-in-place sand for a kindergarten's References "magnetic sandbox." The magnetic sand would also be terrific for highway sanding operations during slippery 1. Andrew, Michael D. "Issue-Centered Science." The weather. At the other extreme, a really huge magnet Science Teacher February 1970. P.30. might be used as a dandy, no-fall ski slope. Educational Development Center, Pilot Communities In elementary science, creative thinking requires Program. "Kids, Cameras, Communities." Newton, divergence in thinking. The thinker needs to imagine Massachusetts. unique ways of looking at common objects, of developing 3. Elementary School Science Association. "City Design uncommonusesforthem,andofchangingor andUrbanChanges."Fall1968. RobertRice transforming those objects in new ways. Objects, and (ScienceCoordinator) andEdwinSvrigais(Art ideas about objects, are synthesized in original ways. Supervisor). Flexibility and originality in idea production are the 4. Gardner, Marjorie. "Symposium: Techniques that essence of creative thought. WorkinIntegratedScienceModules andMini Children are superbly qualified to generate ideas (the Courses for Integrated Science." Vol. 40, No. 2, magnet uses described above were suggested by sixth February 1973. P.32. graders). Unhampered by the adult's mental fixations and 5. Hurd,PaulDeHart."Futu:ingAboutScience constraints imposed by longer experience, young thinkers Education." Science Education Vol. 57, No. 4, aren'tconcerned about finding immediate "best" or October-December 1973. P.517. "most logical" solutions to a problem. They like solutions 6. "Scientific Englightenment for an Age that appeal to their sense of esthetics or humor, or maybe of Science." The Science Teacher, Vol. 37, No. 1, just a solution that's "groovy." Children haven't had time January 1970. P.14. to be brainwashed by the usual pat ways-things-should 7. Metcalf,LawrenceE.andMauriceP.Hunt. -be-done, nor are they concerned with the businessman's "Relevance and the Curriculum." Phi Delta Kappan continuing battle with cost, time, and materials. And, March 1970. P.360. because they have unspoiled and flexible minds still 8. NSTAPositionStatement on School Science fascinated with the wonders of simple things, they can be Education for the 70's. Reprinted from The Science consummate creative inventors. Teacher. Vol. 38, No. 8, November 1971. Alreadyimpressedwiththehighlyimaginative 9.Phi Delta Kappan. March 1970, P.389. devices and schemes invented by children in incidental 10. Postman, Neil, and Charles Weingartner. Teaching as classroom instances,Idecided to develop a specific a Subversive Activity. Delacorte Press, New York. teaching procedure aimed at stimulating intermediate level 1969. P.389. children to devise and build inventions as part of their 11.Raths, Louis E.; Harmin, Merrill; and Sidney B. science program. We called it an "Invitation to Creative Simon.Values and Teaching.CharlesE.Merrill Thinking" and modeled it after a similarly named method Books, Columbus, Olio. 1966. which had been found usefulin promoting creative 12.Renfield, Richard. If Teachers Were Free. Acropolis (divergent productive) thinking by college students.' Books. Washington, D.C. 1969. P.152. "Invitations to Creative Thinking" are ordinarily 13.Sharefkin, Belle D. "Science and Social Values." The developedintwo stages. Thefirststageutilizesa Urban Review. October 1969. P.29. 14. Op. Cit., P.30. McCormack, Alan J. "The Effects of Selected Teaching 15.Shattcck, J. Bruce. "Value Clarification from Science Methods on Creative Thinking, Self-Evaluation, and Achievement Teaching." Science and Children. Vol. 8, No. 7, April of Students Enrolled in an Elementary Science Education Methods 1971. p ). 17.18. Course." EdD Thesis. University of Northern Colorado.

141 teacher-designed sequence to focus attention and interest had been put together earlier by the teacher, simply by on an open-ended problem susceptibletounlimited stuffing cardboard, rubber bands, string, wood, paper creative solutions. The materials or experiences involved clips, and other odds and ends into large manila envelopes. might include pictures, slides, films, humorous stories, or The childrenfeltthat these materials were good as a dramatic demonstrations. These are carefully selected to starting point, but didn't want to be limited only to the pique interest, remove threat, andmost of allstimulate contents of the kits. All agreed anything could be added divergent, creative thought. The second stage requiresa as long as it was legitimate junk which could be scrounged responsive and supportive environment blending three from somewhere without spending money for it. essentials:opportunity, materials, and encouragement. The great innovators went to work. For two weeks, After stage one centers on a problem and inspires the all science class time (and a lot of time outside school children to draw upon inherent creative abilities, stage hours) was spent in the frustrating but intriguing process two must allow plenty of time for incubation of ideas and of blending ideas with materials in search of the great ample materials (lots of junk) for channeling thoughts invention. into tangible products. It's a good idea to remove as many Admittedly, creativity cannot be taught, but children constraints (unnecessary classroom rules) as possible, and can learntofreethemselves from mental blocks or givelotsof praise("Gee,Albert, your Automatic constraints limiting the range of solutions to any problem. Teacher-Aggravating Machine is great!") In conducting a creativity-inducing science activity, the teacher must make definite efforts to overcome these Stage One: Focus and Stimulation obstaclesin hisownthinking.Encouragement of RubeGoldbergisrememberedbytheolder divergence in the planning stages of a child's invention generation for his cartoons of bizarre "inventions" which would be followed by stimulation and praise of oddball poke fun at the expanding technology of the twentieth efforts in the invention's construction. (Keep in mind that century machine age. Goldberg's satires and ludicrous the electric light bulb, "wireless," and flying machines situations earned him vast popularity from 1916 to 1938 were at first considered absurd and oddball.) Climbing in the comic strips "Boob McNutt," "La la Palooza," and over these mental blocks with children, and moving aside "Foolish Questions." His most famous character was the usual anti-creative constraints ("It will never work; it's ProfessorLucifer Gorgonzola Butts, the genius who justnotpractical")canresultinsomeamazing demonstratedtheinventions which eventually made contraptions. "Rube Goldberg" a dictionary definition. Inventions like the "Self-Emptying Ash Tray of the Future" (love birds Fun and Games or Genuine Science? on a pivoting perch cause water from a sprinkling can to The elementary science curriculum purist may feel shrink a shirt which opens a drape unveiling a picture of a the urge to raise certain questions regarding our Invention dog's master, encouraging the dog to wag his tail in an ash Workshops. What are the children learning? What specific tray, flicking ashes and butts into an asbestos bag attached concepts andskillsare developed? Our answer: we toaskyrocket whichblasts off into space),the maintain that children learn as much as they might from a "Anti-FloorWalkingParaphernalia,"anda"Simple more orthodox science activity and then some. Children Orange Squeezing Machine" were devices employing a still develop many of the same ideas about pulleys, gears, wacky series of common, everyday items to demonstrate levers, etc., ordinarily includedin a unit on "Simple convincinglythatthesimplesttask was impossibly Machines." But the ordinarily dull information concerning difficult. Each of the contraptions used many mechanical elementary mechanisms takes on full meaning when steps, replacing the laws of physics with flights of fancy you're "figuring out" how to build an invention you are whenevernecessary.Mostoftheinventions were really excited about. And, if you are concerned about horrendously ingenious, and all guaranteed the comic-strip engaging children in the methods of science -the skills of reader a good laugh. observing,hypothesizing,measuring,predicting,and A collection of Goldberg cartoons is more than inferringthere's no need for worry. All of these are adequate as a motivating medium stimulating children to combined, and with this important "plus"children are think aboutdesigninginventions. A series of slides intimately involved as creative thinkers. depicting Rube Goldberg devices and a film showing a Granted, creativity as such cannot be taught; the working model of a Goldberg-like contraption formed the matter is far too elusive and uniquely individual for that. first stage of an "Invitation to Creative Thinking" for However, itcan be fun "thinking up" lots of ideas, childrenof gradesfiveandsixatthe North Star playing withthe oddball notion, and working hard Elementary School. North Vancouver, British Columbia. grasping for a novel intuitive flash. The main goal, we feel, The Goldberg humor held great appeal for the children is that both teachers and pupils become sensitized to the whose minds seemed almost to visibly incubate inventions existence, value, and sheer thrill of creative thought. Isn't of their own before the introductory lesson was halfway that truly the essence of Science? through. Goldberg's brand of fancifulthinking and inventing was exclaimed as "really neat" and "just what References we always wanted to do!" Focus and stimulation? No problem. Let Rube Goldberg do it for you. 1. Boorstin. Daniel J., Golovin, Anne C.. and Goldberg, Rube. Do It tlw Hard Way: Rube Goklberg and Stage Two: Opportunity, Materials and Encouragement Modern Times.SmithsonianInstitutionNational Any child who wished to design and build his own Museum of History and Technology. Washington. invention was invited to take a creativity kit and try it D.C. 1970. (remember thisis an invitation to be creative, not a 1. Craven. Thomas. Cartoon Cavalcade.Simon and command ). The creativity kits (packages of junk) quickly Schuster Publishers. New York. 1943. were commandeered. and the contents spread out at 3. Fabun. Don. You and Creativity. Glencoe Press. convenient spots on the classroom floor. A supply of kits Beverly hills. California. 1968.

142 4.Torrance, E. Paul, and R.E. Myers. Creative Learning isan environmentin which thebest of scientific and Teaching. Dodd, Mead and Company, New York. experimentation can go on, a setting that is conducive 1971. to the inquiryprocess. We might describeitas an environmentinwhich the values of science or the affective behaviors of science predominate. When this SESSION F-S environment and these values are present society can respect scientists and the new information they produce. SCIENCE IS NOT CONTENT! Basic to this setting for science are such ancient IF NOT, WHAT IS IT? valuesas honesty and openness. The importance of sharingideas andinformation must remaincentral THE SCIENTIFIC PROCESSCONTENT, INQUIRY themes of science. Trusting your colleagues and openly PROCESS, AND VALUES dissenting must continueto betreasuredvalues of science.Respecting thefreedomto searchfor new JackL.Carter,Professor of Biology, Colorado knowledge and to ask meaningful questions about any College, Colorado Springs subject must be understoodas basic obligations of sciencetosociety. The searchfor new knowledge I hope we are not beating a dead horse by the very demands that the atmosphere be one in which risk- nature of this session. When one says "Science Is Not taking and cooperation are encouraged. If these are the Content! If Not, WhatIsIt?"Iget the old familiar values or affective behaviors conducive to science, it is feeling we should all give three cheers for inquiry and now possible to identify those values that are antiscien- dismiss ourselves to the closest bar, well aware of the tific, or those values that keep science from achieving its fact that all elementary, secondary, and college teachers greatest potential? teach science through the inquiry process. Scientificexperimentationcannotoperatewell This of course is not the truth. Those of us who through closure, in an environment of secrecy. With- spend considerable time in classrooms from kindergarten holding data and telling half-truths limits the value of through college level see some teachers who understand science to society. Competition in science may lead to the role of inquiry in science teaching and apply it in short-term personal or financial gains, but in the long their teaching: but at the same time we observe many runallofsocietyloses.Ownershipof ideasand teachers who are devoting their entire science period to information invariably leads to dishonesty and loss of teaching theresults or end products of the inquiry objectivity. The development and use of insecticides and process. This is what I am assuming we are defining in herbicidesfor personal and corporate gains provides this meeting ascontent. The corollary to this latter examples of where bad behaviors by scientists can lead a situation would mean students are leaving these content- nation, The secrecy and closure within the oil refining centered classrooms with little or no appreciation of the and the automobile industries are two more recent most important process ever designed and utilized by examples of antiscientific technology at its very worst. the human mind. Teachers who do not involve their In describing whatIconsider to be antiscientific students inthe inquiry process are robbing their stu- behaviors I am not saying that the history of science is dents of the one activity that holds the greatest single free of those individuals who shrouded their work in hope for the future of this troubled planet. secrecy and used dishonest tactics in order to be elected At this point, and before I go one step further, let to the Royal Academy or receive the Nobel Prize. One it be known to all within the sound of my voice that I only needs to read Robert K. Merton's convincing paper stronglysupportthetransmission of knowledge or entitled "Behavior Patterns of Scientists" published in content. The accumulation of new knowledge is what the American Scientist in 1969 or James Watson's The the inquiry process is all about. It would be even more Double Helix to see the depths to which men of science hazardousifschoolsweretodevote12yearsto will sink to achieve priority over others. ButI would elementary and secondary science education and the suggest that the dishonest, "Win at any cost," competi- training of young minds and the students were to leave tive science which characterized the attitude of James theseschools withtheimpressionthatthe inquiry Watson or that prevail in many science departments of process was nothing more than the way we have fun in major universities that tell young professors to "publish scienceclassrooms and laboratories. The relationship or perish" and describetheinterestof industryin between the inquiry process and content must become a scientific research are not representative of the scientific reality for every person. communityI can or will supportin my teaching of The results of this inquiry process, callit know- science. If there is one important lesson our trips into ledge or content, are having a tremendous impact on the space and the energy shortages have brought to the matter and energy of this planet and now our know- attention of large segments of the world's population it ledge is reaching far into space. The geometric increase isthe concept of limits, limited resources and limited in our knowledge bank is touching every piece of living energy. We are being forced to cooperate rather than protoplasm each day that it continues to live. Increased compete andI contend these two terms have opposite knowledge reaches into our sperm and egg cells before meanings, in spite of the way Isee them misused by the fetus is even formed. This same new knowledge, politicians, industrialists and, educators. resulting from the process called inquiry, touches every Ias a teacher of science and teacher of teachers moment of our lives. The content of science is with us have a paradigm or model which I will call the scientific unto death.Itis today ieterrnining how, when, where, process. This process is composed of three parts, the and in the foreseeable future if, we will die. content or knowledge of science, inquiry process or But thereisstillanother aspect of the scientific skills and cognitive behaviors of science, and finally but processthatgoes beyond content and the problem of vital importance the values or affective behaviors of solving skills necessary to conduct investigations. There science.Itis my responsibility to convey this scientific

143 process through what I teach and the methods I use to Behavior A compared with the number of items checked teach, under Behavior B. Respect for knowledge must be emphasited in my This instrument is used in teacher education to help classes, World population, hunger, and nutritionalpro- prospective teachers look at different kinds of teacher blems must hedealtwithinlight of our present behavior.Inlookingatdifferentkinds of teacher knowledge and the need for new information. Environ- behavior, the future teacher may begin to identify with mentalissues, human sexuality, and drugs must be acertainkind. He may find the kind of person he discussed in light of what is presently known and not would liketo be. At this stage, he can see in one known. column the things he would do much of the time and in Involvingstudentsintheinquiryprocesscan the other column the things he would do much less strengthen theirtrustinthe content and knowledge frequently. found intheir textbooks. As students participate in designing investigations, measuring, gathering data, inter- Room Observation preting data, and drawing conclusions from their ex- The room observation is made when the room is periences they can draw strength for their own lives. first entered. Some of the items are starred. A starred There is no greater lesson to be learned by students of item is one that must he marked and it must be marked any age than that they do have some control over their in only one column. For example, item Number 1, own destiny,it' they will but learn to solve problems Behavior A, says "the room has a science corner or and make use of the information which is available to table," Under Behavior B itsays "the room has no them. science corner or table." One or the other has to be And finallyI must conduct my classroom in such a true. Put a check in the total column in either Behavior way that the values of sc'ence or affective behaviors of A or Behavior B. One column must be marked but not science I hope to exempli'Y are rewarded, and antiscien- both. tific behaviors are purfshed. ;haring ideas and informa- tion with your neighbor must improve your grade and BEHAVIOR A BEHAVIOR B secrecy or withholding information must lower your Item 1 grade. Honest and open questioning and dissenting must * I. Room has a science *1. Room has no science be encouraged while closure is discouraged. The class- corner or table. corner or table. room and laboratory activities should be designed so that cooperation is identified withsuccess, and competi- What is being asked is whether there is a place in the tion results in failure.I do believe I have been able to room where science things and materials are kept; and do this in my teaching. where children can work on science. It might be a corner In a short period of time I have tried to describe or table; or it might be a shelf, counter, or other location. the scientific process as I interpret it for my students Item 2 and future teachers. If my paradigm or model is of value *2. Student-made or *2. There islittle or no to me in teaching science methods courses, introductory brought-in material is student-made or botany courses, and advanced courses in botany it must in evidence. brought -in material. also be useful to me outside the halls of ivy and in society at large. I have found this model useful not only This item refers to all kinds of materials. They do not in teaching but in dealing with my family andsome have to be related to science. These materials must be parts of the community in which I live. As you might evident from just looking around the room. It' 0, 1, or 2 expectIhave found the military community, some items are seers, it is interpreted as "little or no material" portions of the business world, and competitive athletics and recorded as Behavior B. if 3 or more items are seen it at odds with my views. But since I am only one teacher is recorded as Behavior A. in a small liberalarts collegeIoffer little threat to Item 3 these entrepreneurs of another set of behaviors and 3. Original art work of pu- lifestyle. 3. "Pattern" art work in pils displayed. evidence. The third item is not starred. It may be ehecked in SESSION F-6 either column, both columns, or not checked atall. Original art work means things that children have drawn DIRECTIONS FOR SCIENCE TEACHER or created themselves. Pattern art work includes traced OBSERVATION RATING FORM (STORF) material, cut out patterns, and pictures already drawn which students color. Art work does not have to be LynnOberlin.AssociateProfessorofScience related to science. Education, University of Florida, Gainesville The entire Room Observation section is omitted when the teacher being observed is in someone else's room This form was developed as an instrument to help over which she has no control. observe teachers working with children in the area of science. Value judgements are not made as to good and Teacher-Student Observation badpracticesbutpracticesarelookedatas being Items 4 through21are timed. After the room different. On theleft hand side of the instrument is observation is completed, observe what happens in the Behavior A and on the right hand side is Behavior B. room for five minutes At the end of five minutes stop Behavior A is experimental and Behavior B is traditional. observing and spend two minutes recording what has been No teacher fits entirely within Behavior A or entirely seen in column I, items 4 through 21. Observe for another withinBehaviorB. The general behavior patternis five minutes. After which, stop observing for two minutes determined by the number of items checked under and record the observations in column 2. Observe for

144 another five minutes and then record these observations in Item 10 column 3. 10. Teacher hasindivid- 10. Teacher has allstu- The starred items on Teacher-Student Obstuvation ualsdoingdifferent dents doing same as. are numbered 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. Each of those items must work. signment. be checked for each observation in either Behavior A or Behavior B., one or the other but not both. Items which It' the teacher has several individuals doing different are not starred may he checked in chiler column, both work, Behavior A is checked. When most students are columns, or not checked at all. working on the same assignment Behavior B is checked. Bothbehaviorsmay becheckedduringthe same Item 4 five-minute period. *4. Teacherbrings other *4. Teacher does not bring subject mat terinto other subject matter Item 11 lesson ( ma themat ic s areas into lesson. 11. Teacher asks open 11. Teacherasksclosed socialstudies,lan- questions, questions. guage arts. etc.) Open questions refer to questions which do not have Behavior A must be demonstrated by content matter just one correct answer. These are also called divergent from some area such as mathematics, social science, or type questions. Closed questions are questions which have language arts being included as a part of the lesson. It just one correct answer. These are also called convergent must he there for instructional purposes and not just used type questions. for punishment or class control. Behavior B is an absence Item 12 of Behavior A. 12. Teacher asksques- 12. Teacher asks ques- Item 5 tions notdirectly an- tions which canbe *5. Students can work at *5. All students proceed swerablefromtext- easily answered if stu- their own pace. at same rate. book. dent has studied the lesson. It' the majority of students can work at their own pace it is Behavior A, if not, it is Behavior B. This item has to be answered from evidence which is seen during the five-minute observation period. the Item 6 teacher asks a question and the student reads a statement *6. Students sharetheir *6. No sharing of exper- directly from the textbook in answer to that question, experiences. iences evident. obviously this is Behavior B. Behavior B also includes questions answered by facts which appear to have been BehaviorA meansthatstudentsare sharing learned by textbook reading. If the type of question the experiences with each other and not justanswering teacher initiated questions. The opportunity must exist teacher asks cannot be answered with just textbook knowledge, it is Behavior for a majority of the class to participate, although it is not A. necessary for them to do so during the observation period. Item 13 Anything less than what is mentioned above is considered 13. Teacher questions 13. Teacher permits for- Behavior B. misconceptions. mation of misconcep- tions. Item 7 *7. Students This cannot be observed unless some misconception are active *7. Students listen only. comes about and is identified by the observer. Then, if the participants. teacher questions the misconception in any way this is This item refers to the majority of the class. Behavior A. When the teacher permits the misconception to stand and lets the youngsters believe the information to Item 8 be true, this is Behavior B. *8. Students have a *8. Students have no chance to follow their chance to follow their Item 14 own interests, own interests. 1 4. Teacher encourages 14. Teacher expects stu- guessing or hypothe- dents to know andnot Score this item as to whether the majority of the sizing. guess. class has a chance to follow their own interests. When the teacher encourages the student to try to Items9-2/ answer a question by guessing or by trying to figure out These items arenotstarred. For each observation the answer, this is Behavior A. Behavior B is exhibited period, both Behavior A and Behavior B may he checked, when the teacher expects only the rightanswer to the either may be checked, or neither may be checked. If any question to be given and expects the studentnot togive evidence of a described behavior is observed, it should he an answer unless he is sure that it is correct. checked. Item9 Item/5 9. Teacher engages in stu- 9. Teacher refrains from 15. Teacher refrains from 15. Teacherpasses judg- dent activities. involvement in student judging student's be- ment on student's be- activities. havior or work. havior or work. If the teacher engages in a student activity, Behavior Judging a student's behavior or work refers to a A is checked. Behavior B is checked when there is a teacher telling a student that his work is good, poor, he is student activity in which the teacher does not become a very good student, he is misbehaving, or has been very involved. bad that day. A statement similar to these is evidence that

145 a teacheris passing judgment on a student's work or observed in the three observations are totaled in the right behavior. hand column for Behavior A and in the left hand column kern /6 for Behavior B. As "Room Observation" takes place only once, each check scores as one. All 21 items are totaled 16. Students read material 16. Students are assigned and the amount recorded in the appropriate place at the fromdifferent toreadfrom same sources. book. bottom of the page. The score is obtained by adding 100 to the BehaviorAcolumn and then subtracting the If students are seen to be reading from different BehaviorBcolumn from it. Score = 100 + A B. Scores sources during the five-minute observation time, this is above 100 tend to indicate experimental behavior (A) and Behavior A. If any time during the five- minute time scores below 100 tend to indicate traditional behavior (B). students are assigned to read the same materials this is Behavior B. For Behavior B it is not necessary for the SESSION G-2 entire class to be assigned to read the same material but only for a majority of the students to be assigned the AN INTEGRATED APPROACH: THE YOUTH CON- same material. SERVATION CORPS Item 17 Howard Jennings,Director, Youth Conservation 17. Students' questions 17. Students' questions Corps Camp, Delaware Water Gap National Recrea- answered byother answered by teacher. tionArea, Keystone Junior College, La Plume, students. Pennsylvania This is a matter of looking at each question asked, by The Youth Conservation Corps is a program de- a student, to see who is answering it. Both Behavior A and signed to fill four vital needs: (a) conservation work that Behavior B are often exhibited within the same five- isvitally needed to improve the quality of our public minute period. lands and waters; (b) gainful summer employment for the nation's youth; (c) the opportunity to interact with Item /8 a social economic mix; and (d) the buildup of a reserve 18. Students conduct ex- 18. Teacherorstudent of environmentally aware young citizens, knowledgeable periment s individually demonstrations for en- of their country's irreplaceable heritage of natural and or in groups. tire class to watch. historic resources, and their place in the ecological cycle. When students take an active part in an experiment, The nature of the YCC Camp is such that the enrollees can sensethe either individually or as a part of a group, it is Behavior A. excitement of the Nation's newestNationalRecreationArea developing The If students are watching a teacher or another student do a Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. demonstration, it is Behavior B. The YCC experiences at PEEC in 1973 centered Item /9 around work projects, environmental education, and 19. Students design their 19. Students perform text- simply living together. A light show developed by the own experiments. book experiments. enrollees best illustrates the YCC'ers experiences during summer 73. BehaviorAis evidenced by the students designing As Secretary of the Interior, Rogers Morton said in their own experiments. Behavior B means that students referencetothe YCC program"It was a time of perform experiments furnished to them in a textbookor self-realizationastheyaccepted responsiblerolesin some other source. shaping the environmental destiny of this great nation, Item 20 and we are proud of this accomplishment." 20. Students' questions 20. Teacher determines shape the direction direction of lesson. SESSION G-3 the lesson takes. BILINGUAL SCIENCE EDUCATION What seems to determine the direction in which the PROJECT BEST lesson proceeds?IfBehavior A isevident, students' questions have some effect on the direction that the SCIENCE ASSESSMENT IN SPANISH lesson takes. As Behavior B is evident, student questions have no effect on the direction that the lesson takes and it MaryGraeber,VisitingProfessorof Education, continues onward in a predetermined direction. Both Hunter College, City University of New York, New Behavior A and Behavior B may be evidenced within the York City and Liza Martinez de Gomez, Bilingual same Live- minute period. Researcher, Bilingual Education Applied Research Unit, Brooklyn, New York City Item 21 21. Teacher's nonverbal 21. Teacher's nonverbal During the 1972-73 session, the New York State cues provide positive cues provide negative Legislature authorized funds for the development of reinforcement for stu- reinforcement for stu- components of a statewide system of program evaluation. dents. dents. One of the most critical priorities was in the area of the measurement of the results of bilingual programs, where a Nonverbal cues include everything except the spoken broad choice of tests and measurementsisnot yet word. A smile. a pat on the back, a pleasing gesture, a available. In addition to other bilingual projects measuring frown, or a clenched fist are examples of nonverbal cues. pupil acquisition of linguistic skills, the State Education Department has arranged with the Bilingual Education Scoring theSTORF Applied Research Unit of Hunter College, New York City, TheScienceTeacher ObservationRating Form to develop science test questions and answers for grades (STORE) isscoredinthe following way. Behaviors 1-3 in Spanish. These test items will he cross-referenced

146 to related units in the New York State and City courses of clearly writtenand appropriate for children of their grade study in early elementary science. level. The Science Assessment in Spanish project involvesa Theobjectivesarenow beingtranslatedinto survey of teacher-made tests and the writing of new test Spanish by George Obliged() and Carlos Rivera since the items at different difficulty levels, as well as trial testing feedback from the first mailing indicated that teachers and review. To date the Bilingual Education Applied requested objectives as well as test items. Most of the Research Unit has done the following: bilingual programs did not have science instructional Eighteenbilingualprojectsidentified as having objectives in English or Spanish, as the review of the components of science instruction in Spanish have been proposals had also indicated. Project Directors had also contacted, informed of the project and their cooperation suggested that more teachers would be teaching science has been requested. in Spanish if they had such guidelines. A needs assessment questionnaire was developed and Testitemstosupplementthose developed by sent to 150 teachers in the eighteen bilingual programs. teachers will be written in Spanish or translated from Teachers were requested to forward any science test items appropriate items already in the public domain (such as which they had developed to this project. those of theCOPESprogram developed with U.S.O.E. The scienceconsultants who have andwillbe funding) by Liza Martinez de G6mez and Carlos Rivera working with the project are, Mary Graeber and Carmen of the Bilingual Education Applied Research Unit staff. Sanguinetti, Head, Curriculum Unit, Bilingual Office, The itemswillbe reviewed by Dr. Sanguinettifor Board of Education, N.Y.C. scientific accuracy and by the Teacher Review Panel for Procedure appropriateness to their students. In order to ensure that the assessment instruments to These test items, organized into mini test booklets be developed in Spanish were related to the curriculum by grade and unit, should be available by the end of being taught, the New York State and New York City March 1974. Teachers who are cooperating with the Curriculum Guides were read and their "basic under- project can then select the mini test booklets for the standings" and curriculum objectives were abstracted and units they have taught and pilot test the items in April. listed. as were those of: The Bilingual Education Applied Research Unit's 1. the Cognitively Oriented Program in Elementary approach to evaluation is to match assessment with the Science (COPES) developed by New York University. curriculum which has actually been taught, rather than 2. the American Association for the Advancement of to use standardized achievement tests which may cover Science (AAAS), material which has not been covered in the classroom. 3. Project ECOS developed by Northern Westchester Content and skills which have been taught are and Putnam County BOCES # 1, assessed through the use of instructional objectives. 4. ScienceCurriculumImprovementStudy(SCIS) Instructional objectives have several advantages. In funded by the National Science Foundation, addition to being fair because they match the curric- 5. two commercial science kit and text series. ulum,theycan alsobe usedprescriptively.If an These basic concepts and science skills were cate- assessment is made at the beginning of the year, teachers gorized by grade and further divided into units accord- then have a better idea of which skills wid content their ing to the category system appended. students have already learned, which skills need review, Sometimes an objective was listed in more than one and which still have to be leaned. unitfor example. when a skill (Measurement) as well as At the end of the year, another assessment is made content(Properties of Matter) were involved. These by the teacher, and the students' growth can be seen. overlapping objectives are indicated by an asterisk and The next year's teacher will also have a better idea of will be cross referenced, so that if a teacher is teaching what thestudents havealreadylearnedand which both units he will be alerted to the overlap. students are ready to move ahead and which need more After this process of synthesizing basic concepts, review. skills, and objectives from the programs cited above, the Guidelines for the individualization of the curric- objectives were organized within each unit, and many ulum, which most teachers agree is the best system for were rewritten with these objectives in mind: students, are then available. to list them in a logical sequence within the unit. The evaluationisplanned so thatitwill be as to write them in behavioral and experiential terms. useful to the teachers and students as possible. The method of learning a skill was assumed to be The Science Assessment in Spanish Project. directed as important as the knowledge gained. Therefore. by Marietta Saravia Shore, will then return the complete the approach was that of students learning through pool of test items to teachers for their use. Teachers will theirown observation,guidedexperimentation, then be able toindividually selecttest items which discovery and generalization match the material in the science units they have taught 3. to write the objectives clearly, concisely. accurately to their students. but avoid being unnecessarily technical. They are Teachers can also use the Unit test items at the written fur an elementary school teacher who is a beginning of the year, when they do not know the generalist, not a science specialist. extent of their students' previous knowledge of science. PM/C(1nm% In this way they can assess which areas students already Follow-up letters. including samples of the Science know and which are still to be learned before developing Learning Objectives, two units written in English and two their science curriculum. units written in Spanish. will be sent to the Bilingual Tice format of the test will include picture solutions Project Directors and to the teachers. Teachers will again sothat young children who may notread. but who be requested for test items and asked if they would care understandthescienceconcepts, can havethetest to serve on the Teacher Review Panel. This panel of questions read to them and then indicate the picture teachers will screen the test items to ensure that they are which is the correct solution to the problem.

147//48 ABSTRACTS OF CONTRIBUTED PAPERS GROUP A dissemination are discussed. Specific examples and details of each step are given. COMPUTER-BASED EDUCATION A-4 THE USE OF COMPUTER-BASED METHODS FOR TEACHING CHEMISTRY A-I PROJECT C-BE (COMPUTER-BASED EDUCATION): ITS GOALS, SCOPE, AND FACILITIES Joseph J.Lagowski, Professor of Chemistry and Co-PrincipalInvestigator;SamJ.Castleberry, John J. Allan, Ill, Associate Professor of Mechanical Curriculum Coordinator; Project C-BE, and George Engineering and Co-principal Investigator; Joseph J. H. Culp, Curriculum Coordinator, Project CONDUIT, Lagowski, Co-principalInvestigator; and Mark T. University of Texas, Austin Muller, Project Coordinator; Project C-BE, University of Texas, Austin A conventional general chemistry course which has been supplemented with computer programs effective ly This paper provides background on Project C-BE and expands the capability of the instructor. Such programs how it is funded. The four goals of the Project common can be classified broadly as tutorial/drill; examination; concepts. evaluation, transferability, and implementation experimentsimulation;andpre-skills. A detailed are presented and defined explicitly. In adeition, the description of the course includes: the strategy for using scope of the Project with respect to academic areas and the programs; results with respect to student achievement; modes of computer application is discussed in detail. The costs; and benefits of the method, academicareasrangefromengineering,chemistry, physics. and math to psychology and linguistics. The modes of applicationinclude interactive graphics in GROUP B design, tutorial, drill, simulation, and computer-generated, scoredrepeatableexaminations.Slidesfeaturingthe TEACHER EDUCATION (ELEMENTARY) existing facilities and their use accompany thepaper. B-1 AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO THE A-2 PROJECT C-BE APPROACHES TO EVALUATION PRESERVICE EDUCATION OF EARLY AND SOME PRELIMINARY FINDINGS CHILDHOOD EDUCATION MAJORS Sam J. Castleberry, Curriculum Coordinator, Project LeonL. Ukens,ScienceEducationGroup C-BE; H. Paul Kelley, Director, Measurement and Coo rdinator,TowsonStateCollege,Towson, Maryland EvaluationCenter;PaulG.Liberty,Associate Director, Measurement and Evaluation Center; and As early childhood teachers are faced with numerous Agnes Edwards, Associate Curriculum Coordinator, opportunities, either by plan or by accident, to relate Project C-BE; University of Texas, Austin various disciplines, an interdisciplinary approach to the preservice education of early childhood education majors Techniques used by all of the Project C-BE associate has been developedatTowson StateCollege. This investigatorsto evaluatetheir individual projects and approach utilizes a team of college faculty representing computer instructional modules are summarized. The the areas of art, music, physical education, and science presentation includes the methods used to validate the withspecialistsfromtheearly childhood education instructionalmodules.determinecostsandcost department. The prevailing philosophyisto actively effectiveness, and evaluate the overall effectiveness and involve these preservice teachers in activities, projects, impact of the course. problems, etc., which simulate and challenge them on an The overall evaluation of all the individual projects adult level; as well as to help them keep in mind how withinProjectC-BEisdiscussed withrespectto these experiences could be utilized with young children. noncognitive learner variables studied, common concepts During scheduled weekly planning sessions the faculty and effects across projects, cost effectiveness, and the team plans various multisensory learning experiences and building of an implementation model. A briefsummary concomitant approaches to be utilized with the college and preliminary analysis of data collected conclude the students. These experiences may involve meeting with the paper. areaspecialists,workingwithchildren,working individually, or working in small groups. The experiences are coordinated in theme or approach. A-3 CURRICULUM DESIGN FOR COMPUTER-BASED Another block of time is then used by the early EDUCATION childhood education specialists to coordinate and evaluate these ongoing experiences with the collegestudents. George H. Culp, Curriculum Coordinator, Project Suggestedactivities may then be "tried out" by the CONDUIT; Sam J. Castleberry and Agnes Edwards, collegestudentsduringtheirscheduledelementary Project Coordinators, Project C-BE; University of classroom observation and participation time. Texas. Austin B-2 MODIFICATION OF CONCEPTS AND General procedures for designing computer-based ATTITUDES HELD BY ELEMENTARY SCIENCE educationalcurriculummaterialsincludingcourse METHODS STUDENTS TOWARD SCIENCE AND analysis; medialmode of presentationanalysis;task THE SCIENTISTS analysis; behavioral objectives (cognitive and affective); modularization; synthesis; pilot testing. revision; course HenryG.Walding,Instructor,andHaroldR. use evaluation;revision;anddocumentationand Hungerford, Associate Professor, Science Education,

151 Department of FlementaryEducation, Southern into criterion-referencedobjectives,Theskillsare Illinois University, Carbondale developed using a multi-media approach. The student may achieve the various unit objectives Interest in concepts of and attitudes toward science by recycling until he reaches a prescribed criterion. It is and the scientist is currently widespread. Notable research assumed from other researchers that students placed in a into facets of this topic has been completed by Beards lee formally styled and structured setting such as this module and O'Dowd, Mead and Metraux, Jungwirth and others. utilizes, may obtain these skills in less time than and in at Research findings, to date, indicate that both general least equal proficiency as others in less structured settings. populations and student populations 'told concepts and attitudes which are largely inconsistent with the pedagogy B-4 ASSESSING ATTITUDES AS AN ENTERING of science itself. BEHAVIOR OF PRESERVICE ELEMENTARY Few studies have dealt with the modification of TEACHERS IN SCIENCE conceptsandattitudesconcerningscience and the scientist. This study specifically deals with whether or not George P. Toth,Instructor,Curriculumand currently held misconceptions and erroneously derived Instruction,ThePennsylvaniaStateUniversity, attitudes can be modified (or changed) ina manner University Park deemed appropriate by the investigator(s). It presents an empirical analysis of the modification of concepts and Problem attitudes held by elementary science methods students at Studies on the effects of teacher attitudes toward Southern Illinois University (N.120) during the 1972-73 science have revealed that a negative or neutral attitude school year. Data were gathered using an instrument toward science can influence the attitudes of children designed by the junior author, which is structured to toward science and act as a detriment to effective science assess concepts and attitudesina phenomenological teaching [1j,[41. Although some work has been done to mode. correlate the teacher's affective domain of learning with Findingsemphaticallyindicatethat acarefully science knowledge,[31, [51little has been done to designed methods course for elementary school teachers identify the characteristics of the preservice elementary cansignificantlyalterthe concepts and attitudes of teacher's attitude toward science. This study was designed preservice teachers in a direction deemed appropriate by to find out how preservice elementary teachers value theevaluators.Strategiesinvolvedincludereadings, science as a school subject. discussion,andinvestigationsintothephilosophical foundations of science and science education. Method This research appears to be of extreme importance as Over a two-year period, two open-ended questions it indicates that the concepts and attitudes held toward were given to 162 third-year education majors who had science by teachers of science impinge directly on the completed at least four undergraduate science courses and conceptual and affective development of children. Given were enrolled in an elementary science methods course. that teachers perceive science from a pedagogically sound Following a procedure used by Perrodin [21, responses perspective, concepts and attitudes developed by students foreach question wereinterpretedasbeing "very under their direction shduld similarly be analogous to this positive," "positive,""neutral," "negative," or "very same perspective. Herein lies a sound rationale for further negative." Responses were also tabulated and categorized research. to identify the ten most frequently mentioned favorable and unfavorable comments. 11-3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE TO ASSIST PRESERVICE SCIENCE Findings TEACHERS INACQUIRING QUESTIONING More than 500 summarized responses showed that SKILLS AT VARIOUS COGNITIVE LEVELS more than 60 percent of the student responses were in the "neutral" or "negative" attitude categories. Identification Theodore M. Johnson, Director of the Curriculum of the most frequently mentioned comments ranged from Materials Center, The Pennsylvania State University, "I lack confidence to teach science," and "I have trouble University Park understanding science," to "Biology has been my best science course," and "Science helps me understand my Problem environment." The purpose of this study was to investigate the resultsofquestioning-inquiringskillsdeveloped by Discussion preserviceelementarysciencestudentsutilizingan If science methods course instructorsaccept individualizedquestioningmodule.Thequestioning Stollberg's[41 preceptthat"theteacher must be module was one of a series of modules under development attractedtoscience"thenitbecomes obvious that which were designed to illustrate the need for and the methods must be employed to help develop the affective techniques of questioning at various cognitive levels. needs as well as the content, skills, and methodology of preservice teachers in our elementary science methods The Module classes. A systematic individualized questioning module was designed w provide the student with the opportunity to References developandrefine questioningskillsas partof his I. Blackwood, P. E."ScienceintheElementary instructional behavior. Ultimately the module will enable School." Seim/ Life 47:13 -15; November. 1%4. students to organize their own programs of study. The Perrodin,Alex."Children'sAttitudesTowards skills of identification and classification, writing with Elementary School Science." Reprinted by D. L. proper phrasing, and proper use of questioning are built Williams and W. L. Herman, Jr. in Current Research

152 inelementary School Science.The Macmillan GROUP C . Company, New York. 1971. 3. Shrigley, Robert L. "The Correlation of Science Attitudesand Science Knowledge of Preservice ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Elementary Teachers." Paper presented at the 21st Annual Convention of the National Science Teachers THE DEVELOPMENT AND FIELD TESTING OF AssociationheldinDetroit,Michigan,March AN ACTION-ORIENTED, PROBLEM-FOCUSED 30-April 3, 1973. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION UNIT 4. Stollberg, Robert. "The Task Before Us 1962. The EducationofElementarySchoolTeachersin Pat riciaM.Sparks,AssistantProfessorof Science." Reprinted by L. 1. Kuslan and A. H. Stone Environmental Sciences, Glassboro State College, inR cad lugsonTeachingChildrenScience. Glassboro, New Jersey WadsworthPublishing Company,Belmont, California. 1969. A majority of the environmental education programs 5. Washton, Nathan S. "Improving Elementary Teacher developed in the past few years have been aimed at Education in Science." Reprinted by D, L, Williams developing in students an awareness of environmental and W. L. Herman, Jr.in Current Research in problems. Environmental quality will be achieved only Elemen t a rySchoolScience.TheMacmillan when the young people in our school are actively involved Company, New York. 1971. indealingwithenvironmentalproblemsintheir community. As a step toward environmental quality this writer developedandfieldtested an action-oriented guidebook for teachers. B-S COMPETENCY BASED PROGRAM FOR The guidebook contains thirty-six activities and four ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS "designs for action" on solid waste, at three levels of sophistication:awareness, transitional, and operational RonaldW.Cleminson,AssociateProfessorof problem-solving. The activities are based on a model Education, Memphis StateUniversity, Memphis, whichemphasizesopen-endedquestionsthatare Tennessee stiuctured to develop process skills. As the basis for an 8.12 week unit dealing with solid Oursecondyearof competency-basedscience waste the guidebook was field tested in two junior high teaching has brought an increased interest and several schools, one urban and one rural. After teaching the unit, changestoour program. The competencies remain all five teachers involved in the study continued to deal grouped into three sections for organization purposes, with environmental concernsforthe remaining five however, we have made many changes withinthis months of the school year. Teachers who tended to be framework. The first section, Inquiry-Process Skills (A), traditional and content-oriented became less autocratic has demonstrated that it provides an excellent background and more process-oriented as the unit progressed. This for inquiry teaching. We have integrated many of the changeinteacher bahavior paralleled anincreasein processes, especially those that deal with formulating student-initiated environmental problem studies. hypotheses. Also, we have made the competencies in this Opinionaires givento theteachers and students section more applicable for classroom use. involved in the study showed a high level of interest on Section(B),InstructionalSkills,was originally the part of both. The student opinionaire reflected a designed to provide prospective teachers with experiences desire for self-paced learning plans in which the student necessaryfordevelopingteachingandclassroom set his own criteria for success. Three of the five teachers management skills. We foundaneedformore in the study developed some form of independent learning individualization than we had anticipated. Students and program with their students after completing the solid instructors were better able to identify specific needs and wasteunit. Currently, four of thefiveteachers are problems in small group and oneto-one settings. It was teaching environmental units which they designed on the necessary to move away from the traditional one hour basis of the solid waste model unit. class period to blocks of time where students can work directlywith instructors to solve specific instructional C-2 A BACKPACKING AND CAMPING PROGRAM problems which they have confronted in their teaching. FOR SECONDARY STUDENTS Thethirdsectionofcompetencies,Research- Lee R. Ihlenfeldt, Physical Science-Physics Teacher, Curriculum K nowledge (C1, requires students to read Memorial High School, Madison, Wisconsin currentarticles and hooks for small group interaction andtodevelopagreater understanding of activity- For thepastfour years, Memorial High School, centered curricula. Students and instructors preferred to MadisonPublicSchoolSystem,hassponsored a have scheduled informalsessions where they had an Wilderness Studies Program in which students, teachers. opportunity to question what they had read and react and some parents took extended backpacking trips to to statements made by members of the discussion group. Porcupine Mountain State Park in Upper Michigan and Inaddition, most students support continued use of canoe trips on the Wisconsin and Flambeau rivers. The Piagetiantasksinthemodule. Bothstudents and program began as weekend outings to supplement family instructors felt that the tasks provided students with an camping. Classroom instruction gaged to include the opportunity to interact with children on a one-to-one novice camper, which is held after regular school hours, is basis and, at the same time, provided an opportunity for open to students in allgrades. Trips are planned by students to observe the various stages of reasoning in students: and highly qualified, experienced instructors children. check all details before joining the students on the trip.

153 Objectives of the program include: C.4 CREATING QUALITY FIELD TRIPS FOR URBAN 1. Developing skills and attitudes which enable students SCHOOL DISTRICTS to livecomfortablyandconfidently inthe out-of-doors without abusing the environment, Robert E. King, Secondary Environmental Program Specialist, Public Schools, Topeka, Kansas IMO Providing students with an in-depth familiarity with thegeological history and ecology of the only Pre-Cambrian volcano in the Midwest. Eightmodules,eachproviding 10hoursof 3. Introducing students to the lava flows and mountain instruction and a three-hour field trip, were developed for formations of the Keweenawan Period. secondarystudents.Extensivecognitive and attitude 4. Providing the experience of living and working in testing was used in developing and revising each module. close cooperation with many individuals toward a Teacher and pupil acceptance of the =tem and format is common goal. veryhigh.Eachmodulecontainsstudentpapers, Classroom and field instruction encompasses map reading; experiments,films, and extensive teacher suggestions. compass orientation; menu planning; basic geological, More than 1,000 students have evaluated most modules. rock, and mineral identification; astronomy; plant and Outline summaries of the module and trip content, animal identification; tool handling; camperaft; packing; test results, and suggestions for developing similar material outdoor cooking; firstaid; water analysis; and fishing for other school districts are presented. Complete modules techniques. are displayed, and can be obtained free upon request. Formal evaluation of the program has not been The modules are: 1. Forests and Man woodland habitats, their roles in made, however, numerous andrepeated requests of nature, and man's effects on forest communities; "When can we go again?" from anxious students indicate 2. Geology and Our Environment rocks and fossils of that the program is a success. the Pennsylvanian Period, the forces that created them, and the role geology plays in determining the growth of cities: C-3 MIDDLE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTAL 3. Life Past, Present, and Future the study of EDUCATION A MODEL FOR PRODUCING AN paleontology, evolution, biomes, and food webs, on AUTONOMOUS LEARNER man his past and his future; 4. Nutrition and the Growing Population nutritional Harold R. Hungerford, Science Education, Depart- research,foodprocessing andtheselectionof ment of Elementary Education, Southern Illinois nutritional diets as a background for discussing the University, Carbondale, and Ralph A. Litherland, growing nutritional stress on the expanding human Science Supervisor, Carbondale Elementary District population. 95, Carbondale, Illinois 5. Electrical Production and Pollution Control -- the production process for electricity, its environmental An effort in 1970 to create a learning environment at problems, and the growing energy crisis in the United the middle school level that would result in autonomous States. learning experiences in environmental science met with a 6. Ecology-GeologyFieldStudy athree-week great deal of frustration, Large numbers of students at the summer school course in the geology and ecology of middle school level could not "discover how to discover" Kansas and the Rocky Mountains. processes that could effectively be used in investigating 7. Tire Production and Pollution Control physical environmentally related topics. science properties utilized in producing tires and the An analysis of strategies available for investigating environmental consequences of the product and the environmental problems plus an analysis of the character production process. ofenvironmentallyrelatedissuesresultedinthe 8. Cellophane Production and Pollution Control the development of a training hierarchy designed to assist chemical processes utilized in producing cellophane. studentsinfunctioningeffectivelyasautonomous and controlling the attendant air and water pollution learners. This hierarchy is presently being implemented via problems. a modular instructional model. Each module is designed tofacilitatetheacquisitionofskillsinherentina C-5 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND THE DEL prescribed portion of the training hierarchy. Objectives MOD SYSTEM IN THE ALEXIS I.DUPONT foreachmodulearebehaviorallystatedandskill SCHOOL DISTRICT acquisition will be evaluated on the basis of students' performance as related to those objectives. Subsequent to Thomas S.Hounsell.DelModFieldAgent, thesuccessfulcompletionofthemodularstrategy, Department of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware students will be placed in a bona fide individualized learningenvironmentas autonomouslearnersin The formal program in environmental education for environmental education. A strategy for value clarification the teachers of the Alexis I. duPont School District began isbuiltintothestudent'sautonomouslearning three years ago in a developmental summer workshop. At experience. The success of the training modules will this time, they developed an activity card system for ultimately be evaluatedinterms of theresults of environmental education as related to math, science, and independent investigation as well as the measurement of social studies. Since that time we have continued the shifts in students' values. developmentandimplementationof a K-12 This modular strategy was tested during the 1972-73 multidisciplinary program in population environmental school year in Carbondale, Illinois. During the 1973-74 education. The last year of our work was supported by school year. a revised edition is being tested in a number the U. S. Office of Environmental Education. We have of classrooms in New Jersey and Illinois. incorporated several extended multidisciplinary camping

154 experiences in our program in grades 3 thru h. in addition Afterresource;: unitswereprinted,theywere wearepresentlyadaptingtheScienceCurriculum disseminated to the teachers during inservice time. The ImprovementStudy mate' ialtoourprogramof program included participation and explanation of the environmental education K.4. format. This program resultedin the involvement of 34 percent of the district teachers constructively working GROUP D together to upgrade their science curriculum. Their actual harvests were the creation of distrieide environmental SPECIAL AREAS FOR CONSIDERATION education resource units for five of six grades. Various audiovisual instruments demonstrate incorporated lessons.

D.I EDUCATIONAL OMBUDSMAN SCIENCE AREA D.3 THE ROLE OF THE SCIENCE CONSULTANT IN THE DEL MOD SYSTEM James Cussett, Del Mod Field Agent, Department of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware Audrey Conaway, Del Mod Consultant, Department of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware A science field agentis directly analogous to an ombudsman. An ombudsman is,according to various As project assistant to the research director I helped dictionaries,encyclopedias,etc.,"anofficialwho locate and identify the high school science teachers in investigates the complaints of citizens relating to decisions each district. On the elementary level I conducted a or action by governmental officials or agencies. The survey of science programs, science equipment, and any ombudsman cannot control other officials." a dditionalscienceintimationbycontactingthe Altering the definition to be more compatible with elementary principals and visiting with them. education results in "a concerned educator who offers an As a field agent my activities were centered in the outsider's viewpoint in regard to the concerns of teachers, classroom working with the teacher on a one-to-one basis. relating to decisions oraction by state employees or Thechildrenwereinvolvedthroughdemonstration administration." teaching of SAPA and some environmental science units. I The Del Mod Science Agent is not an omnipotent also assistedprincipalsin choosing science programs, person who solves everything with a magic wand. Field orderinganddistributingequipmentandtaking agents do not ride white horses (sanitation problems in inventories of SAPA materials. hallways you know) or wear white hats. The field agent is not a cure-all. The science education ombudsman's efforts D4 THE ENVIRONMENTAL SEMESTER: AN to assist are always done in the form of a suggestion with ALTERNATIVE FOR TEACHER EDUCATION the understanding that the idea generated will become what the students interpret from the teacher. CharlesW. Mitchell,AssociateProfessorof Education, State University College of Arts and D.2 THE FIELD AGENT AS A CHANGE AGENT Science, Plattsburgh, New York Dennis Reilly, Del Mod Field Agent. Department of The Institute for Man and His Environment at the Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware State University College, Plattsburgh, New York, offers a uniqueliving/learningopportunitytostudythe A field agent describes the process which was used in man-environment ecosystem. causing changes inthe elementary science curriculum This program is one of several under the direction of (K-6)inadistrictofeightelementaryschools. A the Institute and is entitled "Man and Environment." It coordinator supervises the district's total science program consistsof aresidential semester devoted wholly to (K.12) which has a fairly well-defined science curriculum; environmental analysis and research for 40-45 students. using SAPA (Science A Process Approach), K-3, and The site is the Miner Center Campus, a satellite campus district written units, 4.6 grades. With the concern about located fifteen miles north of the main campus. environmental (ecological) problems came the realization Man and Environment has developed as a cooperative thatthe outdoors, as a learning laboratory, was being venture between SUNY Plattsburgh and the William H. sadlyneglected.Hence,theobjective of a one-year MinerInstitute.Thelatter,an agency of aprivate part-timefieldagentwastomodifytheexisting philanthropic foundation, owns and operates the Miner elementary curriculum in order to utilize the students' Center Campus and provides substantial grant funding to outdoor environment. the program. Man and Environment is divided into two As a first step, existing school sites were surveyed to curricular blocks, Introduction to Environmental Analysis determine facilities available to each school. Committees, (9 credits-8 weeks); and Environmental Research Project consisting of teachers at each grade level, representing (6 credits-7 weeks), each school were formed. Two to four half-day work During the research block, education majors are sessions were set up on released time for each grade level. guided in the design and methodology of programs to A presurveyindicatedthatteachers' competency in translateenvironmentalinformationintoclassroom outdoor education was minimal; therefore, the sessions experiences. They do this by working in the classrooms of were divided into two parts. a nearby school district under the supervision of the I. The teachers participated in various activities which classroom teacher and their education professor who is a introduced them to the utility of outdoor facilities. member of the Man and Environment staff. 2. The teachers wrote resource units incorporating these Man and Environment offers a variety of activities activities into the curriculum, indicating level and and opportunities in addition to the regular curriculum. lesson, as well as scope at.1 sequence. Periodicallyenvironmentalspecialistsparticipatein

155 seminars and symposia at Miner Center, often with guests objectives during the first half of each lesson. Each period from the college and community. of instruction was approximately forty minutes every day Extracurricularpossibilitiesinclude hiking, back- for six weeks. The reinforcement or second half of each packing and camping trips, downhill and cross country presentation was different for the two groups. skiing, and horseback riding. Field trips include visits to Group A used reinforcement through a teacher-made urban Montreal, Canada, and various sites illustrating workbook approach, Group B used reinforcement through environmental concepts. experiments and audiovisual aids. Group C (1/3 of the children) received no instruction in ecology but was used as a control group in other phases of the study. GROUP E A post-test of ecological terms was administered. Concepts and the two approaches were measured. Other tests used for comparison purposes in the study included EVALUATIVE STUDIES the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) and the Metropolitan Readiness Tests (MRT), Form B. E-1 EVALUATION TECHNIQUES OF AN ON-SITE Correlations were examined between the post-test ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SCIENCE PROGRAM scores on the ecology instrument and the test scores on the PPVT and the MRT. Comparisons of test scores on the H. Gene Christman, Assistant Professor of Education, ecology instrument between boys and girls were also The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio examined. Personsworkingwithfive-year-oldsneedto The purpose of this study was to determine whether understand some of the ecological concepts that can be elementaryeducationmajors who weretakinga developed in the classroom. There is also a need for more professional course in the teaching of science differ from informationconcerningappropriatematerialsand elementaryeducationmajorstakingan"on-site" methods in presenting ecology to the young child. professional course in the teaching of science in, (a) the science content related to the elementary curriculum, and (b) their attitudes toward science. E-3 CHILDREN'S ATTITUDES TOWARD SCIENCE The investigator selected students to serve as the experimental and control subjects. He then administered Jerry B. Ayers, Associate Professor, and Cynthia 0. the pre- and post-tests to both groups with two testing Price, Graduate Assistant, Tennessee Technological instruments. University, Cookeville The experimental group consisted of 23 elementary education majors at The University of Akron who were The attitudes that children have toward a subject can experiencing an "on-site" elementaryschool science be a primary factor in designing a new curriculum and in program. The science preparation for this junior group preparing for positive changes in any school or school was ti," same as for the control group. system. The major purpose of this study was to determine The control group consistedof 36 elementary the attitudes of children toward science in grades four education majors at The University of Akron who were through eight (middle school grades) in an extremely experiencing the regular science methods course. The culturally and economically deprived Appalachian school science preparation for this junior group was the same as system. for the experimental group. All children in grades four through eight (N=544) in Sixhypotheseswereevaluatedduringthis arural deprived Appalachian school system in north investigation covering two controversial areas as reported cent ralTennesseewereadministered a 21 -item in scienceeducationresearchliterature.Thesix questionnaire designed to assess their attitudes toward hypotheses concentrated on elementary science concepts science and science instruction. The questionnaire was normallytaughtin elementary school, and attitudes constructedbytheinvestigators based on previous toward science. research on the measurement of attitudes toward science. Nine questions were of a projective nature, and 12 used a E-2 STUDY OF ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS OF FIVE- Likert-type attitude scale. YEAR-OLD PUPILS Results of the study indicated that there were few differences in the attitudes of males and females. An Mary N. Ayers, Associate Professor, Early Childhood examination of the responses to individual questions by Education,TennesseeTechnologicalUniversity. males and females indicated a similar response pattern. As Cookeville with the results of previous studies, subjects in the lower grades appeared to have a more favorable attitude toward The purposes of this study were (a) to develop and science than subjects in the upper grades. Moving through evaluate materials in the content area of ecology for the grades older subjects had a more negative attitude and five-year-olds and (b) to compare two approaches to the were more critical than younger subjects of such factors as presentation of ecological concepts to five-year-olds. textbooks, experiments in science, field trips, and the The subjects in the study were 26 males and 16 attitude of the teacher. In conclusion, the results of this femalesselected from three kindergarten classes. The study indicated that older subjects, just prior to entering subjects were then divided into three groups. Each child high school, had a negative attitude toward science. For was administered a pretest of 30 ecological terms. the subjects to become scientifically literate individuals, After selected ecological concepts were measured in they must develop a more favorable attitude toward the pretest, ecology units designed by the investigators science.Results of this study have implications for were presented to two groups of the children. Both groups curriculum development and teacher training inrural received the same basic information utilizing the same school systems.

156 GROUP F Within the Del Mod System, among its employees, the communication lines must also be kept open. The DEL MOD: THE SYSTEMS APPROACH field agents, component coordinators, library technicians, TO SCIENCE EDUCATION and even secretaries are the arm of the dissemination specialist. Without assistance from these people Del Mod dissemination would be almost useless. F-1 DEL MOD MEASURING SUCCESSES The communication and dissemina: m problem isa difficult one, but through diligent needs assessments and Charlotte Purnell, State Director, Del Mod System, planning, this problem can be met and overcome. Department of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware F-3 DEL MOD INVITATION TO ACTION The Del Mod System has completed its secondyear a year of expansion and innovation. Many of the innovationshavebeensuccessful,others somewhat Catharine Y. Bonney, Supervisor of Science, Newark doubtful, and still others will not be attempted again. School District, Department of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware Del Mod is a school-based system. It operatesat the grassroots, or consumer level.Del Mod goes to the teachers and works with them as individualson the As an aftermath of an inservice workshopon the problems they encounter in preparation and use of auto-tutorialprograms in science their own classroom or education, a group of Newark teachers expressed problems defined by their school groups. Measuresor a desire degrees of success may best be determined by assessing to produce some A-T packages of theirown. Equally subjective judgments of the individuals conducting the impressed with the potential of the A-T system foruse in projects, comments made by thefield observers, or, Delawareschools was Charlotte Purnell, thenstate perhaps most important, what the individuals think have supervisor of science, who later became director of the happened to them. Often, success is enabling the teacher Del Mod Program. The invitation to actioncame in the or school faculty to identify problems and to seek form of Del Mod monies, supplemented byfunds from treatment to overcome them. Other times, success is the district's instructional budget, with the understanding judged by the person conducting the program whose that /VT packages produced would be duplicatedand criteriaforhisconclusionsaretheproduction of placed in the Del Mod Resource Centers throughoutthe something specific, or in terms of teacher behavior in the state. present program as opposed to previously conducted To date, approximately forty packages havebeen programs. developed. The basic ingredients ofan A-T system are: the Measures of success are also voluntary letters, phone cassettetape needed tointerpretthe topic, student calls,or conversations withprincipals,chief school activitysheets,instructionstotheteacher,and an officers, or supervisors. For someone who has been in the evaluation instrument. The teacher's guide specifies the busiut!ss of acting as am implementor of programsor as a laboratory material and equipment needed to performthe change-agent, these are perhaps the most impressive. prescribed activities. Topics covered in the prepared A-T's Unsolicited communications just do not happen unless fit into the areas of physics, chemistry, biology, earth there has been an observable behavioral change in teachers science, mathematics, life science, health,or the physical which is visible to an administrator. sciences. These packages have been classified accordingto Perhaps the most important indicator that something the library's Dewey Decimal System. positive has happened, is that science enrollments in high Another important facet of Newark's participationin the Del Mod Program was the attainment ofservices of a school science classes are not dropping. It is also known part-time field that youngsters are expressing to their parentscomments agent. This phase of the program was on what instrumental in opening lines of communicationbetween is happening: these comments in turn reach science teachers throughout the district. Del Mod school board members and frequently Del Mod fundsare money matched, materials purchased, and teachers encouragedto was used to pay substitutes needed to free teachers for try programs - even in times of tight money. meetings during which classroom ideaswere shared and common problems aired. Finally, Del Mod's invitation to actionmade it F-2 DEL MOD DISSEMINATION: SPREAD THE possible for the district's supervisor of scienceto meet WORD TO ALL withotherscienceleaders withinthestateduring share-and-tellsessions opento project directors. This Thomas M.Baker,DelMod /DPI Specialist. contact with other science educators was expandedto Department of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware worldwidedimensionswhen the Newark supervisor represented Del Mod at the meeting of the International Any projectthat involves a number of people is Confederation of Scientific Unions heldat the University usuallylackingoneimportantentity,good of Maryland in the Spring of 1973 andpresented a paper communication. The role of the Del Mod dissemination entitled Del Mod: A Parallel to Science TeachingCenters. specialististo develop good communication lines and keep them open on a two, three, four, or moreway basis. F-4 GROUP PRESENTATION OF DEL MOD SYSTEM In order to do this, several instruments have been and are being developed. The science teacher in Delaware is Richard Cowan, Del Mod Field Agent, Department important, and these instruments are designed to meet his of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware needs through inservice programs, newsletters, classroom visitations, development of objectives and guidelines, and Twoitemsarecrucialtogoodinstruction: news releases. competence a thorough understanding of the subject, and

157 confidence the ability to feel at ease with the material GROUP G one is presenting. Teachers who desire to become more effective persons in the classroom will usually seek help ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SCIENCE with one item or the other. The Del Mod field agent program provides the opportunity for an expert in his field to go into the G-1 IMPLEMENTATION FOLLOWS NONRATIONAL classroom --in a totally nonthreatening manner and RULES. help the teachers on their own turf. This is a feat most inservice programs cannot duplicate. It is the field agents' Michael R. Cohen, Associate Professor of Education, andPurdueUniversity, primary aimtohelp the teachers improve classroom IndianaUniversity performance. Indianapolis Many people will agree that competence generates A NationalScienceFoundation Cooperative confidence.Hence,theemphasisforimproving College School Science program to assist Indianapolis in mathematicsinstructionhas been on improving the implementing its new elementary science program was teachers' competence. However, what happens if the conducted one year after the curriculum was adopted, efforts aimed at increasing the teachers' knowledge do not The program was based on the available implementation yield results, as so often is the case? The effort not only researchatthattime, (The work at ERIE and the fails to increase the individuals' competence but in failing implementation work of Mary Budd Rowe). While the to learn the mathematics which was indicated as being research was helpful in approximating difficulties, the necessary for improved instruction, the individuals lose speed of implementation within the Indianapolis system confidence in themselves and as a result their classroom raisedmanynonrationalproblemsnotconsidered performance suffers, previously. Del Mod field agents are concerned with increased Knowledge of implementation procedures was not competence of the teachers with whom they are working. sufficient. When under stressitwas easyto ignore However, they feel that once the teachers gain confidence guidelines. The level of conceptualization of ESS by the in what they are teaching, the teachers will be more universitypersonnel,theschool administration,the receptivetoprogramswhichwillimprovetheir publishingcompany, andtheteachersraised many knowledge. communicationproblemsforimplementation.The changing of teacher attitudes with regard to how children EdithBiggs,inher book "Freedom toLearn" learn, messing about in science, and the importance of describes a good classroom as one in which there is an process education had a limited effect on their behavior. "atmospherewhichencouragesresourcefulness, The complexity of implementation results from a self-confidence, independence, patience and competence." combination of rational and nonrational problems and It may be significant that competence is listed last. Del considerations. Future implementation programs need an Mod field agents attempt to provide exactly the same expansion of the conceptualizations and activities, such as atmosphere for the teachers with whom they are working. human potential and value clarification, to insure their chances for success. G-2 OVERNIGHT CHANGE: EXPERIENCES IN THE F-5 INSERVICE EDUCATION AND THE DEL MOD FIELD AGENT SCHOOLS

Barbara Logan, Del Mod Field Agent, Department of Gary E. Huffman, Science Supervisor, Indianapolis Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware Public Schools, Indianapolis, Indiana

The call for radical educational reforms coming from The decision to adopt the Elementary Science Study all sectors of society points up the need for changes in program (ESS) in place of a science textbook for the inservice education. If teachers are to grow professionally, Indianapolis Public Schools was made in the spring of they need the time and the external resources that will 1971. The implementation that September was the largest enable them to clarify their perceptions, diagnose their singleadoption of such a programinthe country, own strengths and weaknesses, and assess their needs. affecting 1,500 teachers and 48,000 children in grades 1-6, In the person of the field agent, Del Mod offers an The experiences of the schools in implementing this external facilitator aiding teachers to master the skills program during the next three years were based on identified by the teachers themselves, as important and continuous decision-making with incomplete data. The needed. Through its release time inservice seminars, Del problems facedincluded:supplying morethan100 Mod strives to create the time needed for teachers to form elemen.ary schools with materials in a system geared to new points of view, reach new understandings regarding textbook distribution; evaluating for report cards without the process of education, and acquire new skills. questions at the end of the chapter; providing time to With the psychological "boost" that comes from "mess around" in science while pushing a "right to read" participation on a release time basis, the camaraderie that program;developingstructuresforanopen-ended growsasteachers work togethertosolve common program; working with teachers who were not familiar problems, and the continued support of the field agent, with ESS activities or process education; overcoming the teacher gains a confidence which reduces the anxiety feelings for low chances of success, of change. He begins to capitalize on his particular The solutions to overcoming or coping with these strengths, to develop a variety of teaching strategies and problems revolve around an understanding of, and an to adjust to the nuances of the learning situation. appreciation for: who makes curricular decisions; who

158 carried out the decisions; and who is faced with the Asurveyofavailablecatalogsandresource problems caused by the decisions. publications yielded an initial list of science discipline, topic, media, grade level, and user population descriptors. G -3 RESPONSE WITH RELATION TO SMALLER The resulting computerized file contains information on SCHOOL DISTRICTS materials and services listed by 75 topics, 30 media, and 10 general discipline descriptors. In addition, based upon H.PrenticeBaptiste.AssociateProfessorof identified project needs, information useful in science Curriculum and Instruction, University of Houston, education curriculum decision-making was obtained and Houston, Texas entered in the file. One unique feature of the pilot project is theuse of The value of the experiences at Indianapolis depends inserviceOklahomateachersasteachingresource upon their relationship with implementation projects in evaluators. A rating system based upon the in-classroom other school districts. The kinds of problems encountered usefulness of the media is utilized to assess the value ofa in the implementation of ESS appear not to be relatedto particular entry. This results in only highly interesting and the size of a school district. Only the magnitude of the useable resources being retained in the bank. problemisclearlyrelatedtothedistrict'ssize. The resource bank philosophy is independent of the Implementation problems with teacher training, cost,an hardware available or subject matter involved. Several emerging philosophy of science education, reorganization, communities in Oklahoma have developed instructional and evaluation will be faced by all school districts. This resource banks without utilizing sophisticated computer response which compares the similarities and differences equipment. Information on the Ripley Elementary School betweenthePenn-Harris-Madisonschools(asmall learning center support system and the Mustang Middle rural-suburbanschooldistrict)andtheIndianapolis School instructional materials center illustrate specific School district (a large urban school district) supports the local utilizations of the philosophy. above statements. H-2 THE TYPEWRITER AS LABORATORY G-4 RESPONSE WITH RELATION TO STATEWIDE INSTRUMENT: WHY NOT USE SCIENCE IMPLEMENTATION WRITING IN SCIENCE TEACHING? HarryM.Schwalb,Editor,"TurtoxNews," Leonard Marks. Professor of Education, University of Macmillan Science Co., Inc., Chicago, Illinois North Dakota, Grand Forks All scientists are writersof a sort. No experiment is For the past five years the University of North complete without a written description of how it was Dakota and numerous rural school districts have been conducted. Never before have so many professional papers engaged in a systematic effort to upgrade the overall been given or published; hence there has never been qualityofscienceeducationaspartofalarger greater need for science writers to interpret them for implementation effort of open-classroom teaching and today's reajers. The biology class in senior high school learning practices. This response compares the similarities and college is a logical place to introduce the writing of and differences between the Indianapolis implementation the science article. There would be several benefits: program and that of a number of small rural school 1. It would teach science students the value and districts. pleasure in interpreting their science activities in personal, informal, concrete, contemporary words. 2. It would simultaneously reinforce the value and GROUP H necessity of the traditional impersonal scientific report. INTERESTING APPROACHES 3. Itwouldintroducetalentedstudentstothe professionalpossibilitiesinscience writing (now taught in a number of universities and schools of H-1 RESOURCE BANKING FOR THE IMPROVEMENT journalism). OF SCIENCE EDUCATION 4. It would demonstrate the remarkable precision of words as "tools" approaching the parts-per-billion RobertM.Jones.ResearchAssociateforthe sensitivity of optical-electronic instrumentation. Oklahoma Earth Sciences Educational Improvement 5. It would aid in the teaching of English, even though SystemProject,TheUniversityof Oklahoma, conducted in a non-grammar/syntax-oriented format. Norman The recent Anglo-American Seminar on the Teaching of English found that nothing in English is less effectively During the design phase of the Oklahoma Earth taught than writing. A major problem: the widespread SciencesEducationalimprovementSystemProject assignment of irrelevant, fanciful, abstract, or over-literary (OESEISP). data were collected to aid in the development subjects. The use of biology the science of lifewould of instruments and techniques for assessing the needs of provide an endless range of relevant subjects (example: local school earth sciences instructional programs. An what goes on inside the student when he dissects his first analysis of these data revealed that many of the expressed frog...or when he sees his firstscanning electron program and facility needs of local schools could be met micrograph of radiolaria). Teachers would not grade these with existing resources. This finding led to the pilot "papers" as English themes, and ,:ertainly not in the developmentofaclassroomteacher-orientedearth traditional isolation from students; they would mutually sciences resource bank utilizing the General Information discussthepapersingroups. lookingforscientific Processing System (GIPSY) at the University of Oklahoma accuracy, freshness of language, and personal insights, Merrick Computing Center. incidentally enriching and stimulating the biology class.

159 H -3 USE OF SLIDES IN A HIGH SCHOOL PHYSI- Environmental Factors 0 LOGY CLASS HAVING MODULAR-TYPE ABC DE SCHEDULING AND AN OPEN LABORATORY 1-D Donald E. Mason, Teacher, Anatomy and Physiology, General William Mitchell High School, Colorado Springs, Colorado

It isimportant,inmodular-type scheduling,to With 4 (down) x 5 (across) or 20 combinations, we provide as much communication with the students as have 20 investigations to consider. Combination, for pon.ble. Over a period of four years I have developed a example, 1-13 would lead to the question: How is the rate series of 35mm slides that I use for prelab instructions, of gill movement related to the amount of surface area postlab review, testing, lecture presentations, etc. The available to air? presentation emphasizes the use of these 35mm slides in The methods of matrix construction are described theeducationalprocessandsummarizesdilierent with numerous examples of matrix use. The participants activitiesthattakeplaceinMitchell High School's will acquire n't only a large number of investigations that anatomy and physiology class. can be performed with available material but also a method of contriving more. H4 MATRIX MADNESS: A METHOD OF CONTRIVING ALTERNATIVE SCIENCE H-S TOWARD SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING IN INVESTIGATIONS FOR EVERYDAY THINGS SCIENCE LarryE. Schafer, Assistant Professor of Science Jack Hassard, Associate Professor, Georgia State Teaching, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York University, Atlanta Scene: A fourth grade classroom. Mr. Flibble, science supervisor or professor, and Mrs. Robb, classroom This paper outlines an approach to self-directed teacher, are standing before the class aquarium. learning, to support the approach from a psychological Mr.Flibble:"My,Mrs.Robb, whatabeautifully and learning theory rationale, and to identify examples in immaculate aquarium you have. You must get a lot which the approach is being utilized. of science lessons out of that." (smiling, radiant) Self-directed learning is a goal of education and to Mrs. Robb: "Well, Mr. Flibble, we try. The children learn many educators may be the most important one. Because responsibility by taking turns feeding the fish and it is a goal and because teachers and learners vary in their changing the filter. In addition, we talk about gills, style of learning, there are numerous variations in any how fish breathe underwater, and the function of approach to self-directed learning. Implied, however, in a aquatic plants. (Expressions of disappointment and self-directedlearningmodelforeducationarethe concern begin to appear.) Frankly, Mr. Flibble, I am following assumptions about learning and teaching: ata loss for new ideas. For the most part. our 1. Every human has a natural potential for learning. aquariumsitsthereandbubbles.Whatnew 2. Learning can occur without the teacher being the investigations could we perform?" dominant figure. Mr. Flibble: "Well, Mrs. Fobb, there is always the...No, 3. Learning thatis important takes place when the that's too advanced. Then you could No, you subject matter is received by the learner as having would need two tanks. I've got it! Gosh, I'm sorry relevance for his own purposes. that wouldn't work either. Oops! Mrs. Fobb, either 4. Independence,creativity,andself-relianceare your clock is 20 minutes fast orI am late for a facilitated when evaluation is intrinsic, rather than meeting. Got to rush. See you next month. ( Exit Mr. extrinsic. Flibble.) 5. Learnings which involve feelings as wellas the intellect (affective and cognitive) are the most lasting Seemingly.a met hodofcontrivingscier -e investigationsforaquaria, lumps of clay, Halloween and pervasive. pumpkins, or any available material would be welcomed 6. The teacher helps to elicit and clarify the purposes of by the Mrs. Fobbs and Mr. Flibbles in our schools and the individuals in the class and to help implement universities. those purposes as a motivational force to learning. Enter: The Matrix 7. The teacher is responsible for providing a learning Matrices (or grids) can he used to quickly identify environment full of the widest range of resources for the possible combinations for given sets of elements. Why learninf to help enhance the fulfilment of student not use. as the elements, variables associated with the goals. investigation of available materials. Take, for example, the 8. The teacher accepts the intellectual content and classroom aquarium. Environmental factors could be emotional attitudes of his student... listed along one side of the matrix (see legend and the 9. The teacher takes the initiative in sharing himself matrix) and fish behaviors along the other side. with his class within the context as representing a personal sharing with his students. Environmental Factors Fish Behaviors Theassumptionslistedaboveguidedthe A. Temperature of the water Rate of gill movement development of a special workshop with 29 teachers at B. Amount of space/fish 2.Depth of fish in tank Georgia State University during the summer of 1972. The C. Amount of light reaching 3.l.requeney of direction philosophical and psychological foundation implicit in fish eha nge these assumptions created an atmosphere in the workshop D. Surface area available to air 4.Frequency of aggressive L. Loudness of noise made movements toward other thatself-directed learning was a viable alternative for near the tank fish science teaching and could be put into practice. Examples

160 of self-directed learning operating in an elementary class,a presented. Data are based on three highly successful years high school science class, and a college classroom are foran environmental educationprojectin Topeka, presented using a media presentation. Kansas,publicschools.Materials developed,teacher training techniques, fieldtrip leadership problems and H-6 AN INTERESTING APPROACH solutions,approachesforencouragingindustry participation, and data indicating student and teacher DavidCohen,VisitingProfessorinScience response to the various trips are provided. Over 200 Education, University of Maryland, College Park, and teachers, 25,000 students, industries, parks, zoos, and Professor,SchoolofEducation,Macquairie museums have been involved in the project. University, New South Wales, Australia No abstract submitted. 1-3 A COMMUNITY ACTION MODEL TO REDUCE AQUATIC POLLUTION GROUP I Donald E. Maxwell, Project Director, KI2 Science Supervisor, and Bill Yost, Supervisor of Instructional Materials Center, Waterford School District, Pontiac, ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Michigan I-IENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONIN THE This is a three-screen multi-media presentation of one ELEMENTARY SCHOOL community's efforts to solve an important immediate environmental problem while providing a basis for better GlennClarkson,ElementaryEnvironmental informed citizenry for the future. The model exemplifies EducationProgramSpecialist,Environmental an action approachto environmental education. The Education Project, Public Schools, Topeka, Kansas program was made possible through an ESEA Title III grant. Its uniqueness lies in its three-pronged attack upon: This presentation describes the curriculum units (a) The immediate environmental problem, that of aquatic developed by the Topeka EnvironmentalEducation pollution; (b) the formation of a basic environmental Project for intermediate grades. Each unit consists of educationprogram; and(c)involvement of various instructional activities for use prior to and following an community organizations. appropriate field trip. The following units are discussed: I.Knowing and Using Your Environment contains topics on geology, plants and animals, rivers and 14 INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDY AT JEFFERSON reservoirs, nondestructive recreation. COUNTY'S OUTDOOR EDUCATION 2. EnvironmentalFundamentalsprovidethebasic LABORATORY SCHOOL, EVERGREEN, knowledge and skills necessary in order to make COLORADO knowledgeable decisions regarding man's use of his environment including topics of Basic Needs of Life, Gordon L. Thies, Doctoral Intern, Department of Food Webs, Observational Skills, and Environmental Science Education, University of Northern Colorado, Changes. Greeley 3. Animals supplements the animal unit included in the fifthgrade science text and utilizes the local zoo. JeffersonCountyOutdoorLaboratorySchool Major emphasis is on animal adaptations, similarities, provides an innovative interdisciplinary curriculum at its variations, man's influence on animal habitats, and Evergreen,Colorado,ranch. Currentinterdisciplinary animal distribution over the world. aspectsatthe outdoor school include: meteorology, 4. Plants supplements the plant unit included in the ecology, geology, pottery, dramatics, forestry, da: fifthgradesciencetextandutilizesthelocal drawing,survival,outdoorcooking,camping, group conservatory. Major emphasis is on plant adaptation, dynamics, aquatic studies, music, backpacking, wildlife, similarities, variations, man's utilization of plants, astronomy, math, social studies, physical fitness, photo- and plant distribution over the world. graphy, mountaineering, crafts, writing, orientational-- 5. Water emphasizes (a) the importance of water, (b) mapping and social skills. man's uses of water, and (c) how man aids natural Sixthgradersattendingroups of up to200, purification through water and sewage treatment. A accompanied for the week by their teachers, high school field trip through the waste water treatment plant helpers, and curriculum specialists. The year-round staff and water treatment plant pmvideF reinforcement. consists of director, nurse-secretary, teacher-inresidence, 6. Energy and the Environment illustrates how man's maintenance staff, and cooks. The 550-acre site at 8,200 influence on the environment has been related to the ft. on Mt. Evan's slopes has many facilities augmenting the amount of power a person can control. A field trip to interdisciplinarycurriculumincludingfiveheated the State Historical Society Museum is included. dormitories, a recreation-dining hall, an art-drama barn, an observatory, a main lodge with offices, a lounge and 1-2 CREATING QUALITY FIELD TRIPS FOR URBAN classrooms, tenting stations, marked trails, a museum-zoo, SCHOOL DISTRICTS and the use of nearby U.S. Forest lands. The YMCA of the Rockies is used as an overflow camp. John Hirsch, Junior High School Science Teacher. Three weeks prior to arrival the outdoor education Public Schools, Topeka, Kansas coordinator meets with school personnel and helps them plantopicstostudy,resourcestouse,and group Techniques for creating and implementing quality scheduling. Modes of approach vary, but the assistance of field trips on a large scale for urban school systems are a visiting geologist and forester as well as some fine arts

161 teachers insures that every student explores integrating Inspiration and knowledge obtained in an inservice areas of outdoor learning in the cognitive, affective, and elementaryschoolsciencecoursearenecessary but psychomotor domains. The teacher-in-residence and the insufficient to modify a teacher's style of teaching once director, with the help of interns, assist teachers in he/she returns to the classroom after the course. In fact, designingappropriatelessonstotitthenatural many acoursefundedbytheNationalScience environment,usingteachingaidsand multiple-talent Foundation (NSF) and other agencies has left teachers approach.Highschoolhelpers contributeskillsfor inspired and perhaps more knowledgeable but terribly, teaching unique cross-discipline subjects to small groups terribly frustrated. They often return to their classrooms and individuals. Classes are integrated with ongoing school at the end of the summer no more able to implement the activities through pre-camp fundamentals and post-camp grandiose ideas presented to them than before the course. follow-up studies. The outdoor program teaches that best Their teaching style remains about the same as before the which can best be taught in outdoor Coloradoa love of course. Science is still taught predominantly as talk and nature. chalk with little or no meaningful involvement on the part of the pupils; with little or no first-hand manipulative- 1.5 PHOTOGRAPHY AS A TEACHING TOOL FOR investigative experiences for their pupils; with little or no ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE "wet laboratory" situations. This presentation offers no panacea but does show Donald C. Paiker,DoctoralStudent,Science Education, Syracuse University. Syracuse. New York the efforts and results of a novel summer course offered in 1972 and 1973 by the Ontario Ministry of Education. A simple method of increasing student interest and The authors believe that the participants' teaching activity in environmental science is through the use of style was modified, atleasta little, as a result of the photography. Photography allows the student to actively course, and particularly as a result of an element present investigatehisimmediateenvironmentandrecord (in this course) that is truly innovative and usually absent observations for classroom discussions. from similar inservice courses. Environmental science has gained much attention in curriculum development over the past few years. Many J-2 DESIGNING A MODEL FOR DEVELOPING new texts, learning activities, and lab packages have been LEARNING MATERIALS THAT PROVIDE prepared to introduce students to the study of ecology. ELEMENTARY TEACHERS WITH CONTENT However, much of thismaterialdeals with general BACKGROUND IN SCIENCE IN AN INSERVICE concepts which the teacher must adapt. to the specific WORKSHOP FOI ..T schoollocality.Depending on theteacher'ssubject background,availabilityofmaterialsandresource WinstonE.Cleland, DuPont Fellow,Del Mod, personnel,this adjustment oftenresultsinless than Department of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware successful transfer of intended objectives. In such cases, certainteachingtools are most usefulinfacilitating One often hears teachers complain about irrelevant achievement of course concepts. or inferior inservice programs which they are forced to The use of photography requires a minimal amount attend each year. This paper discusses a model for of equipment, and operation is both easy and inexpensive designing inservice workshop materials that are relevant ( film and processing cost for 20 color slides$3.50). for teachers who are attempting to institute one of the Photography has been used in my classroom, and new inquiry based elementary science programs (SAPA, materials produced by students and me are used to SCIS, ESS,etc.)intheirclassrooms. The modelis illustrate the following ways of using photography with designed to provide the teachers with content background the study of ecology: in an area of physical science while teaching them the 1. recordingtheimmediateenvironment for process skills needed to successfully utilize new curricular investigationofecologyconcepts(succession, materials with their children. symbiosis, etc.): The model sets up four stages for development of a recordingdifferentenviron Bentsforecological learning package suitable for inservice programs. comparisons; The new curricular materials that are being adopted 3.pre- and post-field trip discussions; by the teachers in the prospective workshop are 4. recording field trip observations; reviewed. 5. pollution inventory of the community: 2. Relevant content areas are delineated and a small 6.recording ecologicalchanges with time (dueto coherentsetofscience conceptsischosen for construction, seasons, etc.): inclusion in the workshop learning package. 7.operation of the copy stand for producing slides 3. The set of science concepts arc behaviorized and from commercial materials. broken into a manageable set of behavioral objectives thatshouldserveasthevehicleforchoosing appropriate workshop activities. GROUP) 4.Workshop activities are chosen that relate to the set of contentobjectives andincorporatematerials TEACHER EDUCATION (INSERVICE) equipment, and if possible, thatrelate to actual 3-1INSPIRATION IS NOT ENOUGH FOR INSERVICE exercises from the curriculum to be adopted. The workshop exercises should be activity-centered TEACHER PREPARATION: WORDS AND with as little lecture as possible. PICTURES This paper describes how this model is used to Mitchell E. Batoff, Associate Professor of Science develop a learning package in Newtonian Mechanics. The Education, Jersey City State College, Jersey City, NewtonianMechanicsModuleisbehaviorized. The New Jersey activities are laboratory-centered with the teachers using

162 equipment and, in some cases, exercises, from the SAPA and sixth-grade students taught by 'teachers who did not materials. Pre-tests and post-tests can be used to evaluate participate in these inservice education programs. the participants or the module, or to diagnose learning Comparisons between the experimental and control -difficulties. Field tests of the module and its evaluation groups were made in three areas: arc discussed. 1. Knowledge of scientific processes based on Riley's Developing new approaches to the inservice training A Test of Science Inquiry Skills, of science teachers is one part of a comprehensive plan to 2. Knowledge of scientific content based on the science improvescienceinstructioninthe Delaware Public sectionofthe Sequential Test of Educational Schools being implemented by the Del Mod System. Progress,Series II, Form 4A, and 3.Attitude toward science based on the Metz Science J-3 WHY CAN'T TEACHERS UNDERSTAND SCIENCE and Scientists Attitude Inventory. PROCESSES? The analysis of data indicated that the experimental group scored significantly higher (at the .05 level) than Darrel W. Fyffe, Assistant Professor, Bowling Green thecontrolgroup onallthree of theevaluation State University, Bowling Green, Ohio instruments. Based upon the analysis of the data it was concluded that the OSACS Science Center's inservice The notion of teaching the scienceprocesses and education programs in ESS and Process Science had a skills has been under discussion for a number ofyears. positiveeffect upon thestudents of teachers who The Science -A Process Approachmaterials developed participated in these programs. for elementary school use implement many of the best ideasin aprocess-oriented program. However, many teachers, even with time spent studying and using this GROUP K approach stillthink of science teaching in terms of concepts. SPECIAL AREAS FOR CONSIDERATION The teacher's prior experience as a student and/or teacher has always taught that science dealt with concepts and ideas concerning the nature of our environment. K-I CAREER EXPLORATIONS IN SCIENCE AND Somehow we haven't communicated the notion of science ENGINEERING THROUGH A SUMMER YOUTH as a method of inquiry. Some means must be developed to PROGRAM better accomplish this goal. Another problem is that few, if any, other areas of MichaelL. Agin, Assistant Professor of Science study deal with the processes of that area of study. The Education,MichiganTechnologicalUniversity, content of each discipline is presented as the proper Houghton subject matter of study. Lastly,few supplementary materials are available This paper reports the development, implementation, which use the language and goals of process development. and evaluation of a career exploration program. Slides We must devise or write more materials of this natureto illustrate some of the important aspects of this innovative reinforce the efforts of the teacher. program. Some concrete examples of ways to solve the During the summer of 1973 the teacher education dilemma drawn from workshops and clinics conducted by departmentofMichiganTechnologicalUniversity the author are presented. Teachers must begin to better conducted an experimental career education program for comprehend the processes of science before we can expect secondary school students grades 7-12. The basic them to teach the processes. objective of the program was to provide youth the opportunity to gain firsthand experience with careers in science and engineering. The students participated in one J-4 THE EFFECTS OF AN INSERVICE EDUCATION or two of 23 one- and two-week explorations of the PROGRAM IN SCIENCE ON THE STUDENTS OF Summer Youth Program (SYP), which included forestry, PARTICIPATING TEACHERS limnology, ecology, geology-mineralogy, field archeology, computerscience,andseveralengineering-related Joseph E. Pinkall. Science Education Specialist, ESU explorations civil,electrical,mechanical,and 111-0SACS Science Center, Gretna, Nebraska metallurgical. Each student was given an excellent opportunity to The purpose of this study was to determine the study a career field of interest by participating in the effects of the Omaha Suburban Area Council of Schools activities pertinent to that field. The students in field (OSACS) Science Center's inservice education programs in archeology, for example, participated in the excavation of Elementary Science Study (ESS) and Process Science on an abandoned copper mine site. These students were the studentsoffifth- and sixth-gradeteachers who transported to the mine site each day, to work with participated in these programs. university students and faculty at designated locations and The study was conducted during the 1972-73 school plots. In addition to field work, the students did literary yearusingaPost-test-OnlyControl Group Design. research to help identify the artifacts uncovered during (Campbell and Stanley, 1969) Randomization was used to their excavations. insure the lack of initial bias between the experimental Theresponsetotheprogram was extremely and control groups. encouraging. Over500students(forabout650 An experimental group of 150 fifth- and sixth-grade student-weeks) participated in the program- the initial students taught by teachers who completed an OSACS projection was 250 students and 400 student-weeks. In Science Center inservice program in ESS or Process additiontotheunexpectedly highenrollment,the Science were compared with a control group of 150 fifth- studentsexhibitedgreatenthusiasmforthe career

163 explorations by active participation and complimentary six-week periods in the second semester. Success of the evaluations. A great majority of the students indicated a program was indicated by verbal and written evaluation willingness to recommend next year's program to friends and more dramatically by a 60 percent increase in (about 92%). enrollment. The successful completion of SYP during the summer With the opening of the 1973.74 school year, JMM of 1973 has encouraged MTU to increase both the number initiated a minicourse program involving approximately and depth of the career explorations. Students will have six hundred Biology I and Biology II students as well as an opportunity to study more fields of science and interdisciplinary minicourses in earth science, physics, engineering, in more detail. chemistry, math, and art. When minicourses were offered one major new K-2 DO YOU HAVE AN OPEN CLASSROOM? A WAY problem JMM faced was assuring that all biology students OF FINDING OUT would have some common background upon graduation. This was solved by the formation of a 12week core JohnBarryBath, GraduateAssistant,Syracuse programthatconsists of those behavioral objectives University, Syracuse, New York, and Robert Vargo, identified by the staff as being important to all high Junior High School Teacher and Doctoral Candidate, school graduates. All students enrolled in biology must Liverpool High School, Liverpool, New York completethiscoreprogrambeforeadvancing into minicourses. This also provides students with a base The Classroom Openness Scale (COS) has been teacher who functions as their advisor throughout the devised to determine where a classroom is functioning as yearandreducestheproblemofteacherstudent measured along a formal-informal continuum. Pertinent identification. observations are made on pupil activities over a specific Scheduling and record keeping, always a 1:roblem, time period. In contrast to other instruments in the area were alleviated by the development of easily administered of open-education, the COS is very objective with high and scored surveys, and a key-sort retrieval card system intro- observer correlations. (.92-.98) The observational for all students. data can be analyzed by computer or more simply by Evaluationisan ongoing process with students classroom activity profiles. providingfeedbackattheendof eachsixweek The COS isuseful for researchers, for teachers minicourse. End-of-year evaluations provide information, striving for openness, and for administrators who think keyed to year in school and approximate grade point that they have open classrooms within their school. The average,aboutcourse management, course structure, COS only classifies the classroom. It cannot evaluate. No interestgeneratedbythecourse,andoverall value judgments are made as to teacher quality. student-teacher interaction. Data show some of the uses of the COS. Attempts are made to show the differences between the profiles of K-4 MAD-MITCH MANIA formal versus informal classrooms. Profiles of typical elementary classrooms are compared to secondary school Donald E. Mason, Physiology Instructor, and John and college classroom profiles. Comparisons are also made M.Akey,ScienceChairmanandPlanetarium between and among subject areas. Director, Mitchell High School, Colorado Springs, Colorado MINICOURSE DEVELOPMENT AT JAMES MADI- SON MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL 1968-74 With the present trend of students questioning the lnd relevance of science, the science department of LeRoy Lee, Science Department Chairman, James Mitchell High School in Colorado Springs, Colorado, has Madison Memorial High School, Madison, Wisconsin developed a slide-tape presentation explaining our science curriculum. The presentation was primarily developed for James Madison Memorial High School initiated a the ninth-grade students of the junior high schools feeding program of short courses for students in 1968. These four- students into Mitchell. It can also be used with counselors to nineweek courses, later to be called minicourses, were of these junior highs and Mitchell to assist them in placing offered to supplement existing science courses and were students into the science curriculum or used with adult taken by students during their unscheduled time. groups including parents, PTA's, etc. The formative years of the short course program This presentation is a dichotomous saga of the Mad presentedthestaffwiththeproblemsmost such Scientist versus Mitch Scientist. The Mad Scientist depicts minicoursesface,i.e.,lackofteacher-student theperson whofeelsscienceisatrial-and-error, identification, difficulty in providing courses to meet the do-yourown-thing approach to solving man's problel,is. needs of a variety of students, scheduling, community Mitch Scientisttakes a more systematic approach to involvement, and evaluation. Since the program was science by examining all the possibilities available to him supplemental rather than the sole science program, many through the science program at Mitchell. of the problems were easily resolved and the experimental The purpose of this presentation is to explain how period provided time to develop and to evaluate the onesciencedepartmenthasattemptedto improve program carefully. communication with students and adults. Based on a three-year study time a limited number of minicourses were introduced within the existing Biology K-5 INCREASING THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN 11 course. Students could select one of three choices for IN SCIENCE CAREERS the last nine weeks, each of which were considered to carryBiologyIIcredit.The1972.73school year Walter Scott Smith, Associate Dean of Women and expanded the program to provide the Biology II students Lecturer in Science Education, University of Kansas, withatleastfour minicourse selections during three Lawrence

164 Women representlessthan10 percent of all tic attitude concerning the limitations and the "scientific engineers,doctors,chemists,geologists,andother fix." The course is concerned with the often inadequate science-relatedprofessionals.Despitethepublicity and insufficient communication between the technologists focused on the women's movement, women are not and humanists and also with the too common deprecia- increasinglyenteringscienceprofessions.This tion by each of the other's thinking. The "One World of disproportionatelylowrepresentationof women in Knowledge" is concerned with the nature, seriousness, scientific careers constitutes an underutilization of talents and urgency of the complex environmental and social to which education, and particularly the science teaching problems challenging man today. It involves an apprecia- profession, should address itself. tion of both costs and benefits of alternative solutions to Women arenotentering sciencecareerspartly the problems. It is related to their feasibility, the moral because of discrimination, but more so because they have philosophy regarding their impact, and with human be- not attempted to obtain the training necessary for entry havior which determines whether they will be imple- into professional careers. In order to increase the number mented or repressed. Most important, it is aimed at foster- of women seeking professional training, science teachers ing positive, humane attitudes toward the end that the in all grades should take affirmative action directed at earth may support a civilization in a rich ecosystem for a changing the aspirations of women. geologically long period of time. Because of a lack of role models, women view science careers as "not me." Young women are not encouraged toward science careers and often do not study subjects L-2 HUMANE EDUCATION: AN OLD CONCEPT WITH prerequisite to collegiate science majors. Thus, although A NEW NATIONAL EMPHASIS women may become aware of their opportunities, they feel they do not possess sufficient knowledge to pursue Stuart R. Westerlund, Professor of Education, The their options. Finally, young women are presented with University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma the problem, real or imagined, of the incompatability of marriage, family, and science careers. From the days of the so-called "three R's" our As weinstitute "hands on" elementary science educational system has become a dynamic process, geared curricula, women should be encouraged to manipulate, toward producing better citizens as well as providing an tinker, and do all the mechanical operations which are adequate education in the many academic areas. Itis often reserved for males. Women students, particularly in recognized that young minds of elementary and high the middlegrades, should be saturated through all school students provide rich fertile soil where ideas and instructional modes with role models of women scientists. attitudes good or bad take quick root and grow to More secondary school women should be encouraged into enrichorimpoverishthetotaladultpersonality. math and science courses. In preparing young women (and Influences and factors that will contribute to character men) to face the career/marriage/family dilemma, they development and to a balanced and mature personality are should be apprised of their life style alternatives which now recognized as fundamental in the education of include remaining single, delaying marriage and/or family children. until after the completion of career preparation and entry, A significantareaof educational programming, or pursuing a career through job sharing or part-time powerfulinitspotentialeffects upon the ultimate character ofthechild, has been largely ignored or employment. neglected. With few exceptions, very little is being done in American classrooms insofaras humane education is concerned, due in part to the lack of appropriate humane GROUP L education instructional materials. Convincedoftheneedtointegratehumane SCIENCE AND HUMANISM education into school curricula, The Humane Society of the United States in 1964commissioned The George Washington University to conduct a study to determine 1,1 INTERFACING SCIENTISTS AND HUMANISTS IN theimportanceandfeasibilityof consideringthe AN INTERCOLLEGE COURSE development and implementation of such a program. The study left little doubt about the need for, and feasibility Katherine M. Jones, Associate Professor of Physical of,developing and implementing humane education Science. University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma programs in the nation's schools. The Humane Society of the United States and the "Toward One World" might be the theme of the University of Tulsa recently entered into a cooperative course Science, Technology, and Society at the University effort aimed at implementing the recommendations made of Tulsa. inThe George WashingtonUniversityStudy.This One World of People and One World of Knowledge. undertakingisknownasThe HumaneEducation The "One World of People" is composed of the scientists Development and Evaluation Project (HEDEP). HEDEP engineers whose orientation is toward quantitative and representsthebeginningofaconcertedeffortto specialized aspects of the world, and their nonscience introduce the fundamental concept of humaneness into oriented corrollaries. to humanists, whose aptitudes and already existing school curricula. training lead to different interests and activities. The course aims to broadenthe view of thescience/ engineering students and to develop in them an awareness L-3 EVOLUTION OF A HUMANE EARTH SCIENCE of the far-reaching effects of their work and of society's COURSE capability to compel or constrain its implementation. For the humanists. the aim is for a greater awareness of the Florence M. Boring, Earth Science Teacher. Millard undeveloped capabilities of technology and a more realis- Lefler Junior High School, Lincoln, Nebraska

165 With the realization that students learn best when be used by science teachers to facilitate the understanding they discover things for themselves rather than by being of such concepts. told or by reading from a textbook, teachers became Findings of this exploratory study are relevant to aware that they had permission for change. With the educational planning, structuring and sequencing subject emergence of today's typical nonconforming and often matter in the curriculum, and assessing learning outcomes nonperforming student, teachers are realizing that they and procedures used in science instruction. have a mandate for change. They and their classrooms It is hoped that this inquiry and its findings and must change in order to survive. exploration of many of the variables thatinfluence A teacher's typical lesson plans have progressed at meaningful learning in science will generate significant least from the textbook-oriented (so many pages per day) questions for further research. to the conceptoriented (so many behavioral objectives per week). Many teachers, discontented with the lack of relevance and the resulting lack of response, have reached M-2 CONCEPTUAL COGNITIVE SCIENCE the point of developing materials which students can use EDUCATION THROUGH READINESS at their own rate of speed. This has solved some problems EXPERIENCE FOCUSED ELEMENTARY and created others. It has worked well with students who PROGRAMS already have some ability toward self-direction coupled with theimaginationto see some relevance inthe DorothyAlike,AssociateProfessorof Science materials they are using, or at least with a willingness to Education,ThePennsylvaniaStateUniversity, conform to expectations. This certainly does not include University Park all students. Fortunately there is no one way to learn, and even The writer believes that a most critical aspect of within the same science class there are no specific learning conceptuallearninginscience,termed by the old- experiences that all studentsmusthave. Some very fine fashionedrubricasreadiness experiences,isgrossly programs have been developed for earth science which neglected. Although the idea of readiness is incorporated allow a student to progress at his own rate. Some make into the national elementary science programs, users of the additional provision of permitting students to decide the programs do not seem to be aware of its importance. for themselves at least a part of what they will learn and Elementary school years, particularly primary, are a what methods they will employ. In my earth science class timeforrich,exploratory,childlikeinvestigation. I am using materials, methods, and experiments from a Learning outcomes of such investigations should be number of these programs to organize a curriculum where determinedbywhatchildrencanobserveand students progress at their own rate, choose from an communicate in their own way. A constructive spirit of the increasing number of options, andfulfilla science tentativenessof interpretations and explanations requirement by makingtheir ownselectionsfrom should pervade, with the use of planned experiences nine-week minicourses. which lead children to re-examine ideas as they encounter new evidence. Children should not be forced to make big leaps from one or two narrow experiences to broad sophisticated generalizations. Rather, elementary science should provide some of the bits and pieces which will GROUP M equip them with a meaningful experiential background for junior and senior high school where learning can become LEARNING AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT integrated into sound broad concepts. Examples of the readiness idea are abundant. A primary child readily learns to respond, "on cue," with M-I AN INQUIRY INTO THE PHENOMENON OF the phrase "air pressure." But place most students, even UNDERSTANDING ABSTRACT CONCEPTS WITH juniors in a teacher education curriculum, in a situation APPLICATION TO CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION involvinginterpretationorapplication of conceptual understanding of air pressure and the weakness of the Nasrine Adibe. Associate Professor, Graduate School foundation is discouragingly apparent. A rich background of Education, Long Island University, Greenvale, of meaningful experiences related to air pushing, balanced New York and unbalanced air mass forces, and, in fact, related to the reality of air itself, is essential to dealing with the complex Since Reisman first described the learning problems idea of air pressure. The elementary program can and of the disadvantaged child as an inability to deal with should provide such experiences (probably without the abstract concepts, the terms "abstraction" and "abstract imposition of the term itself before fifth grade). concepts" have come into prominence in educational Readiness experience focused elementary science is circles. Yet a satisfactory definition of the terms and in harmony with the work of such men as Piaget, Bruner, research findings on the topic, and guidelines to facilitate and Bloom. the tacit understanding of such concepts are not available to teachers. This paper reports on a study that has explored the M-3 PIAGETIAN CONSERVATIONACTIVITIES: phenomenon of understanding abstract concepts, and has SOME QUESTIONS attempted to formulate a workable definition of abstract concepts: to delineate the mental processes involved in CeciliaE. Grob, Third Grade Teacher, Airport abstraction:todevelopcriteriaforassessingthe Elementary School, Berkeley, Missouri congruency of abstract concepts with learning cognitive level: to create instruments to evaluate understanding by This paper describes an investigation concerned with learners: to identify. select, and develop strategies that can children's acquisition of Piaget's conservation concepts,

166 also presenting several questions related to conservation N2 TEACHING SCIENCE FROM A PHILOSOPHICAL activities in the elementary classroom. BASIS The investigation was implemented to determine the effects of conservation activities on children's acquisition Leo Schubert, Chairman of Chemistry Department, ofPiaget'sconservationconcepts.Onehundred The American University, Washington, D.C. 'twenty eight seven- to nine-year-old children in four classrooms were givenapre-evaluation measure of Courses in science, and surely chemistry, tend to be conservation ability. The experimental group of children oriented to scientific concepts and facts. We generally then completed a set of 42 self-directed conservation ignore a consistent educational approach in teaching the activities over a five-month period during the 1972.1973 material. What is perhaps a more subtle problem is that we school year. All the children in the study were given a are unaware of the philosophical basis upon which science post-evaluationmeasureof conservationability. No is constructed. The teaching of scienceis part of the significant differences in mean conservation scores were educational spectrum and these considerations must not found between the experimental and control groups. be ignored. Specific examples such as existentialism, and Several variables were tested for interaction effects on the the major educational theories are discussed. children's conser' ation ability. Age was found to interact withgroupstatustoaffectconservationscores. N3 RELEVANCY AND THE NON.SCIENCE MAJOR Achievement scores and 1.Q. scores were found to be significantly related to the children's conservation scores Mary E. Lynch, Assistant Professor of Biology, onthepost-evaluationmeasure.Sex,race,and Manhattan College, Bronx, New York socioeconomic status were not found to be significant factors relating to conservation scores. Further research Biology the science of life as applied to the was recommended in order to study theeffects of living world and mankind is of value to the nonmajor. It is conservation activities on children's conservation ability theinterdisciplinary nature of biology thatis to be and on other education-related variables. stressed if biology is to have relevancy. Several questions were raised from analysis of the Depending on subject area requirements within the investigation results. The questions were related to: the school, a biology course can be adapted to a variety of effectiveness of conservation activities included in an student needs and interests. The course must have a solid elementaryclassroom;thetimingofconservation foundation in the fundamentals of biology cell theory, experiences..theeffectivenessof :iemeasureof systems, cell chemistry, interactions within the biosphere, conservation ability developed for the investigation; the the role of man in nature. Relevancy must have a firm role of several education-related variables in conservation basis in the principles of biology. acquisition; and, the relevance of the total classroom There are many ways to achieve relevancy. Active situationtochildren's conservationacquisition. The participation by the student is the key. Seminar sessions purpose of this presentation isto generate additional dealing with topics of present and future interest for questions related to needed research on application of mankind are a means of achieving relevancy. Technology Piaget's theory to the elementary classroom. assessment can be introduced as a process, as a technique for studying societal needs, and as a means for evaluating M-4 THE ROLE OF PIAGET'S EQUILIBRIUM MODEL alternatives to present and future problems. Students can IN SCIENCE EDUCATION be given the opportunity of relating biology to real-world situations. EdwardLab inow ich,AssistantProfessorof Education, California State University at Northridge In addition, field trips are of value if they are not stereotyped and repetitious. Media usage by students adds Recentwritingsineducationhaveresultedin interests,provokesstudentimagination, andallows increasingreferencetoPiaget'stheory of cognitive individual expression through media other than print. development as a basis for discovery learning and as a Film, slides, tapes, video, free-hand art all can be used cognitive justification for an open classroom environment. on fieldtrips. Students can explore animal behavior, Although considerable evidence has been gathered to animal coloration, or any biological theme. Urban ecology confirm the existence of sequential stages of children's problems canbe expressedthrough communications thinking, there is a general absence of evidence for his media. Students are encouraged to become involved in equilibration(assimilation-accommodation)model for biology. They must see, do, and think. They must be learning. This paper clarifies Piaget's equilibration model encouraged to express themselves in a variety of ways. throughrelatingtheworks of Berlyne,Festinger, In short, relevancy is achieved by relating biology to Charleston, and others to Piaget's model. life and to the future of mankind. M-5 PIAGETIAN TASK ANALYSIS A PRACTICAL GROUP N MEANS OF ASSESSING INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE BIOLOGY COURSES? COLLEGE SCIENCE TEACHING Floyd H. Nordland, Assistant Professor, Biological N-1 ROLE OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN SCIENCE Sciences, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana COURSES Sheldon J. Kopper!, Coordinator, History of Science Piaget'stheoryofintellectualdevelopmenthas Program, College Landing, Allendale, Michigan received considerable attention and has been recently used as a basis for the development of elementary science No abstract submitted. materials such as the Science Curriculum Improvement

167 Study. It is generally assumed that once a student has science, schedules permitting, ranging from 30 percent in advanced beyond 14.15 years of age that he has arrived at biology to 13 percent in physics. the stage of formal operations. Therefore, most high Themost frequently suggested improvements schoolsciencecurricula and alluniversitycurricular included live lecture with smaller sections, lab programs materials are developed on the assumption thatthe and/or fieldtrips,small discussion groups and more students beingtaughtarefullycapable of thought demonstrations.Thepresentationof a unified, processes characterized by the stage of formal operations. threequarter science course should be explored as an Recently the work of Renner, Karplus, and others alternative program in view of the 31percent "yes" has questionedthis assumption. Renner, etal.have response and the 28 percent "uncertain" response on this administered five Piagetian tasks designed to determine suggestion. A multiplicity of options to complete the thestageof intellectualdevelopment of a student undergraduatesciencerequirementshould be population. By assigning numbers to these tasks it has incorporated to meet the varying preferences as indicated been possible to characterize what proportion of a class is by the 34 percent response to televised natural science, fullyformal,transitional,orconcrete, Once thisis the 41 percent response to courses in the science depart. established it has been possible to compare mean scores as ment, and the 25 percent response combination of both, a way of assessing the increase in intellectual development if students could reschedule the science requirements. associated with inquiry teaching as compared to more conventional instruction. Another formof analysisistoassess course NS ENVIRONMENTAL MAZE: A MODEL FOR assignments in terms of appropriateness as related to ACADEMIC CHANGE Piagetiantaskanalysis.If 50 percentof a group is designated as being formal, then an assignment requiring William B. Mellwaine, Professor, Millersville State formalthought processesshould be completed College, Millersville, Pennsylvania satisfactorily by 50 percent of the group. This paper reports on a battery of tasks appropriate Educational literature contains scores of statements for high school and college students; results of Piagetian reflecting dissatisfaction and disenchantment with higher task analysis of selected populations representing middle education. College programs withtheir self-contained school, high school, and college students; and an analysis inertia resist fundamental changes, longstanding programs of course assignments in relation to Piagetian testing. are rarely eliminated, the student as an individual learner is ignored, and educational goals are rarely questioned. As a result, many students find their introduction to N-4 STRATEGIES FOR SCIENTIFIC LITERACY IN college a frustrating experience. They come with dimly UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION perceived goals. They searchin vain for meaningful personal associations with instructors, who represent the Joy S. Lindbeck, Associate Professor, College of "rich and rewarding" intellectual promise of college life. Education, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio They settle quickly into a routine of unrelated courses, often repetitive of content and no more vigorous and Most college and university undergraduate programs innovative than in recently departed high school. Soon require a core of science courses as a basis for scientific theirgloom deepens and theysearchoutsidethe literacy for nonscience and nonengineering majors. The classroom for a meaningful college experience; meanwhile undergraduate science requirement at a Midwesterti urban the faculty charge them with "copping out," university is frequently met by scheduling three of the Disturbedbythisaura, a pilotprogram was followingtelevised naturalsciencecourses:biology, developed which can serve as a model for academic geology,physics,and chemistry. To determine the change. effectiveness of the program and to explore reactions to alternative prog:ams, the senior seminar students in the We offered a thematic program for freshmen based spring quarter and in both summer sessions of 1972 were on the relevant theme ofthe environment,and comprised surveyed byquestionnaire.Of 312questionnaires ofespeciallydevelopedintegrated,andinterrelated returned, 201 (the total sample) indicated that one or courses which provided experiential learning. The program more natural science courses had been taken. was all encompassing interms of achieving goals of The most frequently scheduled natural science course affectiveand cognitive development.It was atotal was biology, followed by geology, physics, and chemistry. semester's academic experience molded quite differently Except for biology, the frequency pattern for natural from the standard freshman program. Scheduling was a science course selection was in contrast to that of high function of program design and development, not the school. college-wide master plan in the traditional pattern. The studentlevelof understanding of scientific Results exceeded allexpectations. Businesses and developments reported via newspapers, TV, and magazines government agencies providedcompetent resource in the field of the natural science course completed was personnel. Varieties of field experiences stimulated the rated.Fortypercentoftherespondentsindicated freshmen to dialogue and action not evoked from their improved understanding intheir respective fields after predecessors. Faculty participated in each other's classes, completing biology and geology, and 20 percent indicated and debated issues freely with colleagues and students. improved understanding in physics and chemistry. Interest Problem-orientedassignmentsallowedtheindividual developed by natural science courses encouraged from 6 student to exhibit his level of competency for evaluation. percent of the biology students to choose a second Student reaction was overwhelmingly favorable, deter- biology course to 2 percent of the chemistry students to mined by evaluative interviews and instruments developed choose a second chemistry course. A higher percentage of and administered by a non-participating colleague (Direc- respondents indicated that they would have taken another tor of Educational Research).

168 GROUP 0 thetotalcurriculum, then we must be aware and considerate of all other curriculum areas. SCIENCE FOR THE UNINVOLVED We can begin b'fertilizing the seeds of discontent, These seeds are not difficult to find. Teachers will discuss openly their problems with the "dumbbunnies" in their 0.1 SCIENCE F^R THE UNINVOLVED: A classes, Sympathize, offer help, discuss with these people SE LFPACED, INDIVIDUALIZED, INSERVICE possible alternatives to what they are now doing in the TRAINING PACKAGE FOR IIS TEACHERS classroom and then determine together the kinds of materials that would add zest to the program, La Moine L, Motz, Director of Science Education, identify those teachers who have responded positively and Oakland Schools, Pontiac, Michigan provide them with the needed materials. These teachers sell the program to their peers. Enthusiasm is contagious. It the same steps outlined above are followed In working Withtheimplementation of any new, activity- with principals, implementation of the program can be centered program in science, a certain amount of inservice assured. time is needed for the teacher to become aware of the A model for implementation has been developed in philosophy of the program, the materials, and the instrue Payette County Public Schools, Lexington, Kentucky. It timid strategies and techniques necessary for an effective is working, Teacher attitudes are changing and students and enjoyable experience in teaching the program. are being "turned on" by their activity.oriented science The question is often asked, "Does a teacher need classes, specialtrainingtoteach HS?" This question can be answered by posing two simple questions: (a) Would you drive a ear without first learning about the new controls? 0.3 WINNERSAND LOSERS (b) Would you involve students in a project without first giving them the necessary orientation? Gerald Skoog. Associate Professor of Curriculum and A selfpaced, individualized, teacher implementation Instruction, Texas Tech University, Lubbock inservice package for HIS teachers has been designed. Most science teachers have a general background for teaching American schools traditionally have served as tools of the traditional eollegeoriented courses, but few, ifany, selection to separate the "winners" from the "losers." A have had any instruction in how to teach the uninvolved hidden curriculum based on WASP values plus endless students. Although the unique teacher can always teach achievement tests and teachermade examinations have the IIS program from instruction in the Teacher's Manual, been the chief mechanisms of selection and elimination, Itis highly recommended that the teachers usingor Thosewiththedesiredcompetencies becamethe planning to use the IIS program participate in some kind "winners" while those lacking in the competencies were of an inservice development program. The purposes of this labeled the "losers," training program are to assist teachers in acquiring: Today, this model of education is outmoded and 1. an understanding of the rationale and philosophy of must be replaced, In a society that demands universal HS; education, a system geared to eliminate many is obsolete. 2, an understanding of and experience in the teaching Traditionally, academic achievement has been linked style and strategy of HS; with economicoutput, Economic outputhas been 3, an understanding of how IISis to be used in the correlated with success, However, Jencks in Inequality classroom to motivate the educationally uninvolved concludes that cognitive skill and educational attainment student, and in developing empathy for the needs of explain very little of the variation in men's income. He the student: speculates that"luck has atleast as much effect as 4. a better orientation to the content, process, social competency on income," and competency in most cases relevance, and personal relevance of US. seems "to depend more on personality than on technical skills," While the validity of Jencks' argument is being 0-2 INVOLVING THE UNINVOLVED debated, youth continue to reject academic achievement and materialistic gains as indicators of success in school Anna A. Neal. Coordinator of Science, Fayette and life. Many youth in our society today agree with County Public Schools, Department of Instructional James and Jongeward in Born to Win who differentiate Services, Lexington. Kentucky between"winners"and"losers" onthebasisof authenticity rather than achievement. To them a winner is Administrators who prefer to spend most of their not "one who beats the other guy by winning over him time in the office playing up to their bosses, perusing andmakinghim lose"butone"who responds research, and sending out volumes of reading material to authentically by being credible, trustworthy, responsive, teachers and principals can expect little or no change in and genuine." Thus the shift is to accepting a person on teacherattitudes toward studentinvolvementinthe thebasisofhis"interiority"ratherthanasa learning process.It' we expect teachers to be concerned, representative of some category of completer of some understanding. enthusiastic, and loving in the classroom, task. then we must exhibit these same characteristics with Theclassificationmodel of education must be teachers. We must get to know them as individuals and let replacedbyanaffirmativemodelwherepersonal themknowus.It'weexpectprincipalstobe development isstressedandauthenticitynurtured. understanding and to reinforce teachers, then we must use Despitemuchoppositionbytheomnipotentand thesequalities with them.If we expectthose who omnivorousprogrammers,touchresearchand establish budget priorities to uphold the role of science in philosophical support exist to validate such a model.

169 0.4 ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES FOR IIS 4.Monitoring opportunity for instructor to serve as observer and facilitator; Lynda Ann Smith, Science Teacher; and General 5.Peer instruction students learn from each other Science Instructors, Thornwood High School, South through the content and process of the game; and Holland, Illinois 6. Remediation games are replayed, reinforcement is continuous. A 15-minute slide/tape narration shows enrichment activitiesforIISatThornwood HighSchool.The presentation includes descriptions of: P-2 GUIDELINES FOR THE CREATIO1 OF HOME 1. The use of bulletin boards as an addition to the AND SCHOOL GAMES FOR SCIENCE learning experience; LesterC. 2. The decoration of the learning environment as a Mills,Professorof Education, Ohio booster to student self concepts and as a means of University, Athens emphasizing good working habits; The inventor of games and toys for use in schools 3. A supplemental text of activities for IIS, compiled by may easily lose sight of the user's point of view. The schoolstaff, and designedto provide additional educational goals and objectives which are of deep materialsforover-achievers andadditionaldrill materials for the entire class; concern to the developer may obscure the game and play 4.Guidelines aspects of the activity. Several such criteria are presented for making use of "student-aids" in for those interested in developing educational games and laboratoryset-upsandstock-room coordination including qualifications, duties, and responsibilities. toys in science. P-3 MANUFACTURING, MARKETING AND PROMOTING EDUCATIONAL GAMES GROUP P Robert E.Cooley,President,UnionPrinting SIMULATION GAMES IN SCIENCE Company, Athens, Ohio EDUCATION (K-12) No abstract submitted. P-1 SIMULATION GAMES AS A LEARNING A LTERNATIVE: TOWARD AN ACTIVE P-4 REVIEW OF CURRENT SCIENCE SIMULATION LEARNING ENVIRONMENT GAMES

John A. Masla, Associate Dean, College of Education, JerryD. Wilson, Departmentof Physics, Ohio Ohio University, Athens University, Athens

Traditionally,studentsattheelementaryand A large group of game buffs has developed in our secondary levels have for the most part beeii engaged in society. As a mini-national pastime, games are played by passive learning environments one in which the learner people of all ages. Educators and teachers, particularly assimilatesknowledgeasaresultof beinggiven those of science who are always alert for new teaching information verbally or through the reading process. In methods have begun tocapitalize on this means of science education, we have attempted to become more communication in an effort to make learning a more "action-oriented"throughthe laboratoryor demon- pleasant experience, even fun. Although the effectiveness stration approach, through inquiry, and through problem- may be debated, educational games do introduce and solving. make familiar, topics which might otherwise be avoided Simulation games represent a technique for learning completely. which offers the student total and active involvement. Within the last few years several scientific simulation Involvement takes place with a variety of realia, stimulus, games have been marketed and several others described in and motivational competition. Learning takes place as a licerature. Some of these are described and their teaching result of the process of gaming rather than as a result of a:cctiveness examined. listening, preparing for a test, memorizing, and other forms of passivity. Simulation games take advantage of having fun while learning, a concept which has been GROUP Q noticeably absent from the traditional classroom. There is no real doubt as to the relevance of simulation games to today's classrooms. Simulation games COLLEGE SCIENCE TEACHING provide a multivaried conceptual approach to learning, utilizing several learning principles such as reinforcement, Q-1 IMPROVING PROCESS SKILL COMPETENCY feedback,exposition,andpracticalapplication. AMONG COLLEGE NONSCIENCE MAJORS BY Simulation games, provide the student with: USING SCIENCE A PROCESS APPROACH 1. Practice by performing "on the job" tasks during MATERIALS the simulation game.. 2. Self pacing time limitations are varied with the Mary M. Pohlmann, Graduate Fellow, Department of interests of the learner; Secondary Education, and A. J. Pappelis, Professor. 3. Assessment buil, in as part of the game, provides Department of Botany, Southern Illinois University, student with self-evaluation; Carbondale

170 "Interdisciplinary Science A Process Approach" is disadvantaged and unmotivated students to succeed an I I-week, 4-quarter-hour course developed at Southern at learning; IllinoisUniversity,Carbondale,intendedfor 2. Development of a technologically literate public, undergraduate nonscience majors. The purpose of this membersofwhichunderstandthenature, course is to develop the basic and integrative science characteristics, and limitations as well as capabilities process skills required for scientific inquiry common to all of modern technology and how this rapidly changing areas of human endeavor as well as within the realm of the technology impacts on their lives. scientific disciplines. This course is based on the AAAS With the previously stated priorities in mind, this (American Association for the Advancement of Science) activities approach to The Man-Made World has been K-6 science curriculum, Science-A Process Approach. One organized as a series of minicourses for secondary schools. section of this course has been offered for each of the past These minicourses can be taught independently of each three quarters with a total of 60 students having now other, or organized into a complete course. completed the course. At the outset of the course, the The following sequence is recommended when the students were pretested to determine their entry level minicourses are organized into a complete course. competency inscienceprocessskills.A 96-item instrument, The Test of Science Processes, developed by. Introductory Activities Robert S. Tannenbaum at Teachers College, Columbia I. Technology **People University, was used for this pretest. The test is composed 2. Human User **Technology Job of eight subtests designed to measure eight different 3.Technology **Society science process skills: observing, comparing, classifying, 4.Technology **Environment quantifying,measuring,experimenting,inferring,and 5. Quality of Life predicting. This same test was administered as a post-test 6.Man as a Consumer upon completion of the course. A groups-by-trials analysis 7.Communication Man 4, Man 4, Machine 4, Machine of variance was used to determine whether there were 8.Thinking? Machines significant gains between pre-test and post-test. Significant gains were indicated in total test score forall three quarters in which the course was offered (F = 20.65. d.f. Q -3 HUMAN GENETICS AND SOCIETAL PROBLEMS 1,57, p < 0.001). Specifically, increases were greatest on the subtests of measuring (F = 15.86, d.f. 1,57, p < Pauline Gratz, Professor of Human Ecology, Duke 0.001), classifying (F = 5.56, d.f.1,57, p < 0.01), University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina inferring(F =4.74,d.f.1,57,p < 0.05),and experimenting (F = 3.84, d.f. 1,57, p <0.05). Recent achievements in modern genetics threaten or promise to give man the ability to modify or control his own genetic future according to his own design. Such Q.2 TECHNOLOGY PEOPLE ENVIRONMENT: AN forecasts as the preselection of a child's sex, sperm banks, A CT I VI T Y. C ENTERED INTERDISCIPLINARY harboring the spermof prominentpersons, cloning PROGRAM FOR THE ACADEMICALLY (replication of individuals), and transduction (incorpora- UNSUCCESSFUL tion of foreign DNA into the host chromosome) raise pro- found ethical questions. Thomas T. Liao, Associate Director, Engineering Through attendanceata AAAS-NSF Chattaqua Concepts Curriculum Project, College of Engineering, course in 1972.73 under the direction of Peter Volpe of State University of New York, Stony Brook Tulane, a questionnaire was drafted to ascertain the attitudes of students enrolled in a human ecology course "The Man-Made World" (TMMW) course, developed offeredintheschool of nursing. The questionnaire by the Engineering Concepts Curriculum Project (ECCP), attempted to determine attitudes pertaining to the social is intended for average college bound high school students and ethical dilemmas created by genetic advances. The who are not choosing careers in science or engineering. questionnaire was drafted during the November session in Unfortunately, many high school students have not had 1972 and tested for validity and reliability in February the academic success of the above-mentioned students, 1973.During the second meeting with Volpe the who in general are good at learning via written materials. questionnaire was revised. Non-academic students typically are students who are The revised questionnaire will serve as a focal point poor readers with little mathematical ability. for a second study under a Duke Regular Grant which will Many teachers of TMMW feel that all high school explore changes in attitudes before and after a thorough students should be given the opportunity of learning exploration of the theoretical and practical possibilities of about thecharacteristics, capabilities, limitations, and genetic engineering. impact of modern technology. The fact that students have A course in human genetics and societal problems poor reading and mathematical skills does not necessarily will be offered this fall. Appreciable attention will be prevent them from developing technological literacy. The given in the course to the current state of research on basic philosophy of the activities approach to TMMW is birthdefects,biochemicaldisorders,thehuman that academically unsuccessful students can develop an chromosome complement, and malformatio Is resulting understandingofthemany dimensions of modern from mishaps in the chromosomes. Topics such as the technology., provided that they are involved in activities detection of heterozygous carriers of genetic disorders, which are fun and do not depend heavily on the written genetic counseling, prenatal diagnosis of genetic defects word and abstract mathematics. by amniocentesis, and therapeutic abortion will claim high Two of the more important educational priorities in priority. this age of rapid social and technological change arc: Studentswill berequestedtorespondtothe 1. Development of strategies for making it possible for questionnairepriortolearningthecontentand

171 immediately after the content has been learned. Itis Twelve lessons were'developed from the manual. The hoped that the study will provide data to indicate that material was organized to be taught either as a two-week students have recognized that the problems of life and unit or as distinct lessons presented in conjunction with livingrequireanintegrationof knowledge before the regular earth science curriculum. Lessons emphasize "decision making" can be achieved. student involvement in an investigative approach. Uponcompletionoftheteachers'manual,a Q-4 THE ROLE OF FUTURES RESEARCHIN twenty-hour, ten-week course was developed. The first PRECOLLEGE SCIENCE EDUCATION hour of each class was devoted to background material concerning the subject area. The second hour the teachers Christopher J. Dede, Assistant Professor, School of participatedin the various activities designed for the Education, University of Massachusetts, Amherst students. Graduate students of the University of Delaware were selected to present the background material to the As science educators increasingly emphasize "science teachers. Each graduate person presented material in their for citizens," the methodologies and findings of futures own field of research. The presentations were taped. research will become important in precollege science Self-tutorial lessons were developed from the tapes instruction. In learning the strengths and weaknesses of and audiovisual materials used during the presentations. technology-projectingtoolssuchas the cross-impact The tutorial lessons are available in the Del-Mod Resource matrix, the Delphi, and FAR, students can better evaluate Centerstoteachers preparingtousethematerials the validity of current warnings on the drug crisis, the developed for the project. population explosion, ecological catastrophes, andso on. Moreover, much of the individual powerlessness within R-2 PROTOCOL FOR A SCIENCE INSTRUMENTA- our society students feel can be alleviated by involving TION RESOURCE CENTER them in making their own forecasts of how science will evolve in the next 30 years, and how these evolutionscan LediLantis,Del Mod Component Coordinator, be shaped by citizens. Finally, by examining the major Department of Public Instruction, Dover, Delaware schools of thought in futures research, science educators can assess the scope and sequence of science/society For years science teachers and chief school officers in materials that will need to be included in pre-college Delawareexpressed concernthatscienceclassroom curricula in the next several decades. equipment was gathering dust for lack of repair. As such This presentation focuses on the major alternative repairs tend to be costly, time consuming, or both, it has forecasts which have been made for the United States in often been simpler to reorder equipment than to repair it. theyear2000,withparticularemphasisonthe Because such resources have been standing in darkor interactionsamong science,technology, and society hidden places laboratory oriented programs have been contained in these forecasts. Using these projections as crippled or have been continued at a greater cost than background : necessary. 1. Classroom process techniques which can be used to Respondingto statewideconcern, Charlotte H. involvestudentsinthefuture of scienceare Purnell, Director of the Del Mod System, instituteda elucidated, survey to determine the extent of the problem. It was so 2. Teaching strategies which help students understand great that she was able to convince the State's council of how technology projections are made are discussed, college presidents of the need for action. A private and Delaware foundation agreed to fund a science instrument 3. Current trends towards a science/society focus in repaircenteratthe Stanton Campus of Delaware pre-packaged science curricula are evaluated. Technical and Community College. The paper covers ways and means which the center is able to provide ioublic and private schools with service for only the cost of the parts. GROUP R It outlines the special occupations program under whicha small number of students intern to provide needed repairs AREAS FOR SPECIAL CONSIDERATION while learning instrumentation and the repair of AV hardware. While it is too early to assess the full impact of the R-1 AN ADAPTATION OF A SCIENTIFIC WORK FOR program, planners do anticipate that the taxpayer will be CLASSROOM USE saved money through elimination of duplicate purchases or costlyrepairs; pupils will benefit from laboratory Robert E. Lewis, Science Teacher, Springer Junior oriented classe, which will function because required High School, Dover, Delaware equipment is available.

The object of this project was to adapt for use in the R-3 SCIENCE /MATH RESOURCE CENTER: WHAT junior high school earth science classes in the State of MAKES IT GO? Delaware. thetechnicalmanual, "The Geologyof Delaware's Coastal Environments," by John C. Kraft, EllieSloan,Technician,Science/MathResource Chairman,DepartmentofGeology,Universityof Center, Dover, Delaware Delaware. After a survey of the needs of earth science teachers Because the baseline data from which the Del Mod in Delaware, Ruth Cornell stated that Delaware teachers System evolved indicated that teachers, especially in the needed lessons that could be presented to students dealing middle schools, needed help with resources and teaching with Delaware geology. Kraft's manual was chosen as a ideas, resource centers in each of the three countieswere means to provide this material. set up to meet these needs. The paper outlines the services

172 of the Del Tech location which differs somewhat from the II.Successes of Science Education Technician others. A.Acceptance Among its features are a one-page newsletter, idea 1. SchoolAdministrationAcceptanceof tiles, community resource lists, and its functioning as a erns focal point for the field agent and science education 2. eacher Acceptance of this New Assistance technician programs. 3.Advantages to Schools and Students This paper also gives examples of the impact of the B. Teacher Attitudinal Changes resourcecenter on the science and math education C.New Career Model for Delaware Students community through examples of teacher enthusiasm and D.Student Attitudinal Changes increasedeffectivenessin the classroomfrom E. Economics Wrought byScienceEducation science/math, resource center exposure. Technician 1. Savings R-4 THE FUNCTION OF THE DUPONT FELLOW 2.Costs 3. Return on Science Education Investment Peter M. Shannon, Del Mod Field Agent, Dover, III.Problems of Science Education Technician Delaware Based on the success of the field agent program, the GROUP S DuPontFellowhasbeenestablishedtoreleasea mathematics and a science teacher for one year from their SPECIAL AREAS FOR CONSIDERATION district to act as field agents. They are assigned to specific (K-12) districts and perform on-the-job training with aid for classroomteachers.Thisprogram givesthe released teacher an opportunity to develop leadership, become 5.1 FACTS OR FANCY: WE TEACH WHAT WE HAVE more aware of programs in other districts, and try out LEARNED some new ideas. The Del Mod System is able to provide a resource person to the schools who can have rapport with Mario Iona, Professor of Physics, Department of the teachers and serve as a field agent. The districts would Physics and Astronomy,Universityof Denver, benefit from the input of the DuPont Fellow, and when Denver, Colorado the Fellow returns to his regular assignment at the end of his field agent year. the district gains a person cognizant From the frequent occurrence of the same erroneous of many mathematics programs and ideas and is capable concepts in elementary science textbooks it appears that of carrying out inservice programs in the homO district. there is a well-established body of erroneous information This program provides the leadership to improve the being propagated from generation to generation. This mathematics competenciesof Delaware mathematics illustrates (a) the limited understanding many science teachers andtooffer inservicetraining on evolving book writers have, (b) the uncritica' way in which the mathematics programs, materials, and techniques. materialis treated, and (c) the possibility that people learn from the material from which they study. Wouldn't teaching efforts be more successful if meaningful material R-S SCIENCE EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY: A FACET were presented? The fact that many traditional errors can OF THE DEL MOD SYSTEM be found in instructional material does not preclude the possibility for imaginative writers to introduce new errors. Mary Stein. Director. Science Education Technician It is unbelievable how successful they are. Examples of a Program, Department of Public Instruction, Dover, variety of traditional and novel errors are discussed and Delaware audience response is sampled. Some science teachers in Delaware are feeling the S-2 SCIENCE AND THE ARTS MYTH AND exhilaration of implementing a hands-on science program IMAGINATION IN THE SCIENCE CLASS with the assistance of a trained technician handling the non-teaching tasks. Technicians were trained in rationale, Joseph C. Ciparick,Science Teacher, Manhasset philosophy,design,andimplementationinapilot Junior High School, Manhasset, New York programoriginatingatDelawareTechnicaland Community College. Much attention is directed to the There is a greater need today to show the importance advantages of the pilot program for teachers and students. of insight and creative imagination in science, especially teacher-pupil attitudinal changes, and acceptance of the when relatingtrue sciencetoreligion and the arts. technicians in the school system, as well as the problems Creative imagination is used in these fields to explain the stillfacingthis program. An outline of the actual mystery of reality. When the imagined myth or art form presentation follows. becomes real and an end in itself, dogma takes over. Science Education Technology: A Facet of the Del Mod Instead of science, art, and religion. sharing their creative System insights, they are often set against each other. I. What is a Science Education Technician? Studentsshouldbeencouragedtousetheir A. Rationale imaginationsmoreinscienceandtodevelopa 1. Community College Philosophy sympathetic appreciation of the various interpretations of 2. Hands-on Internship reality offered by different cultures at different times. B. Design They should also see the pitfalls dogmatism, and 1. Advisory Committee preserve a healthy scepticismtoward hypotheses and 2. Curriculum Commit tee theories.

173 S-3 SCIENCE AND SOCIETY: A SUMMARY OF In addition, a two-headed serpent and the silhouette ofan EFFECTIVE TEACHING METHODS FOR THE inverted animal infer biohazards. SECONDARY TEACHER It is hoped that after further refinements the above proposed symbols and warning shapes could be tested in David J. Kuhn, Science Coordinator, K-12, Public massintheclassroominanefforttoincrease Schools of the Tarrytowns, North Tarrytown, New communication and reduce injuries, York S-S AN OPEN SYSTEM FOR PREPARING ISCS This report deals with a survey of effective, practical TEACHERS (WHAT HAPPENS IF YOU TRUST teaching methods for secondary teachers interested in TEACHERS'?) introducingcoursesorunitsconcernedwiththe relationship of science and society. The theoretic basics Ted Mills, Professor. Oklahoma State University, andthepracticalapplicationof severalpedagogical Stillwater approaches are introduced. The methods discussed and illustrated include: value clarification exercises, simulation This presentationis an instructional design which activities; the use of fantasy trips and debate; laboratory encourages individualized, self-paced activities from which exercises and demonstrations; attitudinalsurveys, and participants are free to choose. How teachers react, what techniques for the critical review and analysis of articles can be accomplished, andtheinstructionaldesign's and advertising in the public press and other media. potential to effect change in the public school classroom A major trend in science teaching for the 70's isan are discussed. increased emphasis on the social implications of science. A pursuit of relevance is evident in all ofus. The media are filledwithpopularconcernsaboutpollution. GROUP T overpopulation, drugs. mental health, the neurobiology of the learning process. genetic engineering, and the like. It INTERESTING APPROACHES can be argued that social problems rest, in part, on basic scientificconcepts: one cannot understand pollution without a knowledge of fundamental concepts in ecology; T-1 ASTRONOMY AND A LUNAR SKYLAB overpopulationwithoutaknowledgeof population dynamics; or drug action withoutsome background in Kenneth C. Wardwell, Science Technician, Research human physiology. Clearly. we must bridge thegap Professors Institute, Cohoes, New York between societal issues and science concepts. A lunar skylab could.,bp..a desirable follow-up to the Teachers cannot be realistically expected to meet this Earth Orbiting Skylab. As details of design and launch challenge unless they are equipped witha variety of would be similar to the EOS, a lunar skylab could provide appropriate pedagogical tools. The techniques suggested a source for astronomical observations of the moon rather may be a partial "answer" to this difficulty. than the earth. Studying astronomy from the moon's surface would not be necessary. S-4 POTENTIAL SAFETY SYMBOLS APPLICABLE TO During the months the lunar skylab would be aloft, THE SCIENCE CLASSROOM AND LABORATORY as a satellite of the moon, it could serve as living quarters for astronauts, astronomers, and geologists studying our Gerald C. Llewellyn. Assistant Professor of Biology galaxy. Besides mapping the moon's surface, the team of SecondaryEducation,VirginiaCommonwealth astronomerscouldobservetheplanetsandtheir University, Richmond retrograde motion to a background of distant stars and constellations. The sun's size could be verified when the In an effortto emphasize safety inthe science moon was new and, also, full. The inferior planets could classroom, a series of symbols have been developed, and be plotted at eastern and western quadrature to the preliminary tests for their effectiveness are currently being (moon's) skylab position at first and third quarter phases. made.Itisour opinion that symbols depicting the The data relayedtoearth could be computed, and concept better portray the idea than written warnings observationsresolvedand compared to the data of alone, or non-conceptually related symbols. superior planets and their retrograde motion. By observing Some of the basic shapes found on highway signs and sunspots and the sun's corona to the sun's polar axis of some of the proposals for symbols on Canadian products rotation, the lunar skylab astronomers could determine appear to be a familiar starting point. For example, the the sun's orbital motion within the earth's orbit around severity of the danger in our symbols can be related to the the sun. Observation each month for meteor showers geometric shape surrounding the central drawing. A red could determine the radiant point from which each trianglerepresents"caution:"adiamondindicates shower originates (some lasting for several days). "wgrning;" an octagon indicates "danger ;" a circle witha Future observers aboard the lunar skylab could also 45slash represents "Do Not:" a slash alone represents observe Mercury transits, Halley's comet, and the Venus "No;" and a square represents "Required Use" ofa transits of the next century (2004 and 2012). Each year particular safety device such as glasses or gloves. These there are three eclipses or more and the lunar skylab could shapes can enclose a skull and crossbones, indicating a gatherimportantdataatlunarandsolareclipses. poison, or a flame, indicating combustion. A bony hand in Photographing the corona of the sun from skylab during a beaker represents a corrosive material; a blue light bulb each eclipse could be compared to earth photographs indicates UV (ultraviolet) ) light. The series also includes an done at the same instant of time to compare the effects of exploding flask and a flask with escaping vapors. To earth'srefracting atmosphere. Discovery of the sun's encourage the use of safety glasses and gloves these orbital diameter could be a prime factor in elevating objects are shown in sketches surrounded by a red square. astronomy to its rightful place as a "pure science."

174 T-2 A SYSTEM APPROACH TO SCIENCE designed to help individualize instruction and free the EDUCATION IMPROVEMENT IN OKLAHOMA teacher for more contact time with the students. The effectof thesematerials on the student's cognitive EdwardStoeverandRobertJones,Professors, progress and his outlook toward physics was studied by University of Oklahoma, Norman means of various testing devices. All students in the 1972.1973 physics class took part No abstract submitted. in the work. The effect on their cognitive progress was studied by comparing test scores for this year against last year (1971-1972). Both tests and testing conditions were T-3 MOTIVATIOAAL SCIENCE QUIZZES as nearly identical as possible. A pre- and post-attitudinal test was administered to check the effect of the program Gordon J. Senoff, Assistant Professor of Education, in the affective domain. Brandon University, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada It was found that the overall feeling generated by the program was positive, probably due in large part, to Quizzes can function to stimulate interest in outdoor increased freedom of the teacher for more individual education, creativity, critical thinking, concept teaching, studentcontact. There also seemed to be a vastly theprocessapproach,andinaninterdisciplinary improved ability to retain and, more importantly, transfer emphasis. Typical outdoor quizzes are: Nature Did It First; concepts to other areas and levels. What Am 1; Do You Have a Bird Brain; A Can Full of Worms; and Nature, Fact or Fiction. Some illustrative T-S A CONTRACT UNIT ON PLANTS items are: Only male mosquitoes bite. (T,F) [1] ; A blueberry is red when it is green.-(T,F) [2] .; A porcupine Frances Weiss, Life Science_Teacher, Warren Junior is born with quills. (T,F) [3]. High School, Newton, Massachusetts ThestandardizedRemoteAssociatesTeston creativity can be used as a model for writing a Science This contract unit was developed in order to provide Associates Exercise. In this exercise you are presented forindividualneedsin heterogeneouslygrouped with three words and asked to find a fourth word which is eighth-grade classes. Due to the broad range of abilities in related to all three. For example, nine, night, nap, such classes, it is difficult to use the more conventional [41. In a poetic Who Am I quiz the pupil may be asked to "lockstep" approach. write his own stanza describing an animal or plant. The contract consists of required assignments and a Critical thinking can be encouraged with the use of varietyof optionalinvestigations.Activitiesinthe Planetary Baseball, Contradictions, and analogies such as: contract include: reading, using question sheets, planning andcarrying outacontrolledexperiment, using a DOE:VIXEN. SOW. (drake, buck, mare, capon). taxonomic key, dealing with plant structure through six [5] Concept teaching can be enhanced by Pictorial or more laboratory activities, working with a microscope, Science Misnomers, All in the Family, Family Tree, and growing bacterial cultures, and viewing filmstrips. The Order in Class. An exercise on misnomers could be variety of activities allows nonverbal students to select an presented in multiple-choice form, for instance, Which of almost totally experimental and audiovisual contract. At the same time, students who like reading and writing more the following is a GRASS? (pepper grass, couch grass). than experimentation can choose the major portion of [6] Misnomers could also be engaged in teaching the their contract work from those categories. process of classifying. The process of observing may be Students enjoy selecting their own assignments and promoted by the use of Bird Silhouettes, Who Goes working at their own rate. The motivational value of the There?(animaltracks),Opticalillusions,andthe contract is clearly illustrated by the fact that the vast Photographic Mind. majority of students elect to work for an "A" or "B" The interdisciplinary area may be represented by the contract and nearly all of them complete the requirements following examples: for the mark selected. Home EconomicsCorned Beef is beef and [7] Mathematics A bakers' dozen consists of (12, 13) items. [8] GROUP U English Pluralize: goose, mongoose. [9] GeographyThe (Atlantic, Pacific) end of the Panama Canal is the farthest east. [10] CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (7-12) Answers:1. F;2. T;3. T;4. cat;5. mare;6. 6; 7. brine; 8. 13; 9. geese, mongoose; 10. Pacific. U-1 A DESIGN FOR CURRICULUM INNOVATION (7-12) T-4 DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A COMPUTER SUPPLEMENTED SECONDARY T. Ray Jackson, Secondary Curriculum t uordwator, SCIENCE CURRICULUM North Olmsted Senior High School, North Olmsted, Ohio Daniel A. Myers,PhysicsTeacher,Computer Education Specialist, Wasson High S,.hool, Colorado This presentation deals with the development of the Springs, Colorado needs assessment phase and the techniques used in the establishment of the problem areas to be tackled within 1 attempted to develop and test materials for use in a the science department of the North Olmsted City computer-oriented physics course. The materials were Schools. It was found that staff involvement throughout

175 the project is essential if the result is to develop into a thetest was administered in spring1973 toall fourth and viable curriculum program. This involvement can result in eighth graders. The preliminary results show good scores the development of a team approach to the teaching of instudentachievementfornaturalscience.The science. contention of this writer is that due to the nature ofthe testconstructed we are measuring science content based U-2 A DESIGN FOR CURRICULUM INNOVATION on the student's ability to read. If an instrument could be (7.12) designed to measure the same basic objectives, but to focus on thestudent's audio and visual senses the Irene Szaniszlo, Chemistry Teacher, North Olmsted student's achievement measure would be a more reliable Senior High School, North Olmsted, Ohio assesan entof hisknowledge of the natural science proceqes. The wideselectionof coursesthathave been Objectives are: developed within thesciencedepartment of the North 1. *. odevelop an audiovisual test of the natural science Olmsted City Schools on a nine-week, semester, or yearly processes for students completing the eighth grade in basis, depending upon circumstance, is briefly discussed. Delaware's junior high and/or middle schools by These offerings provide a sequence of learning more usingthe statewide objective for natural science, appropriate to student needs and interests than previous 2.To implement the use of this test instrument in a offerings. Courses utilize a variety of modes of learning. randomly selected junior high and/or middle school Problems relating to choices of learning alternatives, from across the state in five to seven schools,and alternativegradingprocedures, and the selection of 3.To evaluate the results of the new test instrument as materials are examined. compared to the present instrument being used for eighth graders in the state. U-3 A DESIGN FOR CURRICULUM INNOVATION (7.12) V-2 TRANSFER AND RETENTION OF THE SCIENCE PROCESSES OF OBSERVATION AND Ken Frazier, Physics Teacher, North Olmsted Senior COMPARISON INJUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL High School, North Olmsted, Ohio STUDENTS An overview of the teaching staff, the scheduling of Audrey N. Tomera, Assistant Professor, Science classes, and the teaching load as it pertained to curriculum Education, Department of Elementary Education, innovations within the science department of the North Southern Illinois University, Carbondale Olmsted City Schools is presented. Scientific processes have value as components of critical thinking. The question of the length of retention of two basic science processes and the ability of students GROUP V to transfer said skills are addressed inthis presentation. Aspecial methodology for teaching the skills of observation and comparison was used with a sample of EVALUATIVE STUDIES 172 participating seventh and eighth graders. Students were instructed using three-dimensional science objects, V-1 ASSESSMENT OF THE SCIENCE PROCESSES eitherdeciduous wintertwigsormicroscopic algae. FOR STUDENTS AT THE END OF MIDDLE Samples were randomly assigned to two- or four-week AND/OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL training groups, review or no review-treatments, and the instructional vehicles. John F. Reiher, State Supervisor of Science and Instrumentation for measuring achievement were the Environmental Education and Del Mod/DPI Scientific Observation and Comparison Skill Test-Twig or Component Coordinator,Departmentof Public Algae Forms.These tests have been validated as well as Instruction, Dover, Delaware positively researched for test-retest reliability; interscorer reliability, and alternateform reliability. AprogramentitledDelawareEducational Students were administered a pre- and post-test to AccountabilitySystem, developed bytheDelaware measuretransferability.Delayedpost-tests (on the Department of Public Instruction, went into operation in training vehicle) were given at three-month, five-month, January 1971. A set of goals for education in Delaware's andone-year intervals to ascertain the degree of retention schools with input from the general public, students, of observation and comparison. teachers, and administrators were evolved and finally Transferdata were analyzed using the multilinear adopted by the State Board of Education. Then, a series regression approach. Retentiondataweretreated of objectives for the areas of natural science, mathematics, descriptively using the mean percent of retention from reading, and language arts were constructed with a team post- todelayed post-testing. of teachers representing each of the content areas. Upon Resultsof the study indicated thatobservationand completion of general objectives for each content area, comparisonskills are phenomenally retained over all three and with cooperation from the Educational Testing time periods. There was no significant difference obtained Service, a series of tests were developed. The test series between samples receiving and not receiving the review represented a step closer to the goal of developing a treatment. No significant difference was obtained between statewide testing program, at the end of the first, fourth, samples receiving two and four weeks of instruction. and eighth grades. Significant transfer of observation occurred in both As the test items were consistent with the statewide two and four week training groups, regardless of which natural science objectives for the fourth and eighth grades, vehicle was used for training or for measurement of

176 transfer. Significant transfer of comparison occurred in I.National tests and norms for students, the two-week training groups. 2. Appraisal from fellow te..uhers and/or administrators, In summary, the results indicate that junior high 3.Small group conferences with students, school students can be taught the skills of observation and 4.A questionnaire to be answered anonymously by all comparison in a relatively short period of time. The students, methodologyusedtoachievethiscaninsure 5. A TV tape of lectures for self-evaluation. phenomenally high degrees of retention over three-month, Item I was based on physics tests written by the five-month, and one-year delay periods, as well as securing textbookauthors,designedtocomparestudent positive lateral transfer. achievement with a national test sampling. Some analysis of the type of student in each course as to ability and V3 THE MEASUREMENT OF THE ACQUISITION interest was necessitated. Due to lack of time this was AND TRANSFER ABILITIES OF JUNIOR HIGH done only for Project Physics tests and should have SCHOOL STUDENTS IN PERFORMING THE included more students. SCIENTIFIC PROCESS OF CLASSIFICATION For Item 2, evaluation from fellow teachers involved in the physics department on a team teaching approach, Henry G. Welding, Instructor, Science Education, was not done on a class "visitation" approach, but with an Department of Elementary Education, Southern evaluation instrument agreed upon by teachers involved. Illinois University, Carbondale It was necessary to design the instrument for evaluation. Item 3 involved conferences with small groups of Numerous researchers (Gagnd, Livermore, Schwab, students (5.10 per group) covering anyone interested. and others) have espoused the need for training in the Planning as to the type of questions appropriate for processes of science rather than science content per se. student response and cooperation of our teaching teams Similarly, many of these individuals have stipulated that tofree students for such conferences was required. these processes of science do have transferability to other Discussions were carried out by the teacher himself or by areas of the curriculum and everyday life. Certainly this his colleague to determine student opinion when the assumption is in agreement with one of the broad goals of teacher being evaluated was not present. students fill a general education:thatwhatislearned must have Item 4 allowed to out form applicability beyond the context in which it is learned. anonymously. A form was designed in cooperation with This assumption also appears to be of extreme importance the other teachers so that personal biases would be to the discipline of science; both in terms of developing a somewhat minimized. scientifically literate society and in training individuals in For Item 5 video tape was used during class sessions skills which 'vill transfer from one science content to involving teacher lecture and demonstration. Videotaping another. was done for personal improvement and was a somewhat There have peen a sparse number of research studies unnatural situation as there was a temptation to prepare which have dealt with measurin the acquisition and especiallyfor the lecture being taped.It was useful, transferability of the processes of science. Junior high however. Another problem in our approach to teaching school students (N=170) were selected for the research was that lecturing does not play a major role, however, it population. This study presents an empirical analysis isstillpresent and should be evaluated by all of the dealing primarily with two basic questions: methods discussed. A form was providedfortape 1. Can junior high school students significantly improve evaluation. theirscientificclassificationabilitiesasa consequence of instruction? 2.Canthesesamestudentssubsequentlyclassify unfamiliar scientific objects to a significant degree GROUP W when compared to a control group who have had no scientific classification training? APPROACHES TO INDIVIDUALIZATION Although teaching for transfer of learning may well be a viablepedagogical and research practice, teaching ;or transfer was not a part of the strategy used in this W-1 REACHING THE SLOW LEARNER WITH research. CAREFULLY STRUCTURED AUDIO-TUTORIAL Results of this research do present an extreme..y LEARNING EXPERIENCES strong case that students can indeed learn how to classi.y scientific objects and subsequently transfer what they Dennis M. Afton, Science Teacher, Oil City Junior have learned to another set of unfamiliar scientific objects High School, Oil City, Pennsylvania, and Michael from a different context without having specific training Szabo, Associate Professor of Science Education, The for transfer. Pennsylvania State University, University Park This study describes a self-paced audio-tutorial (A-T) V-4 TEACHER SELF-EVALUATION IN PHYSICS AND science program for slow learners. How would low-ability CHEMISTRY students react to a science program which is self-paced, provides increased contact with manipulative materials, MahlonWissink,Science Department Chairman, circumvents reading problems, and delegates responsibility Mayo High School, Rochester, Minnesota for self direction?The literature was reviewed to validate the author's observations of slow learners and to identify The original organization plan that was undertaken in instructional techniques useful with them. the physics courses at Mayo High School involved five A series of self-paced science modules to cover six areas of evaluation. weeks of instruction was developed. A multi-media, A-T

177 approach which features instructional objectives, frequent The individualization of high school biology has diagnostic feedback, and manipulative laboratories was taken many different forms, the A-T approach being one selected. Twelve eighth-graders, low on IQ and reading ofthemorepopular.Theaudio-tutorialbiology scores,completedtheunitswithminimalteacher laboratoryatMadison Memorial High Schoolwas instruction. Thirty-eight students were exposed to the designed, implemented, and operated by this author. same subjectinatraditional(i.e., group-paced with Tapes (cassette), 35mm slides, and program materials have lectureanddemonstrationasthe dominant mode) been developed by the author, and a large library of learning environment. filmloops and printed reference materials contribute to Quizzes,exams,grades,andcourseattitude the overall program opportunities for students to learn on questionnaires provided the data. The A-T group felt they an individualized basis. The utilization of instructional learned more and that more courses should be offered in objectives and objective-based examinations are reinforced this format. Grades confirmed feelings; the A-T group throughretestopportunitiesforeachstudent. The earned higher grades than the 'traditional group. Their philosophyof thelaboratory emphasizes continuing grades dropped, however, to the level of the traditional student-teacherinteraction,doingawaywiththe group when they reverted back to traditional instruction. "mechanical" trap that some A-T programs have fallen Students wrote that they enjoyed the freedom and into. the trust placed in them. The comment that the materials The most recent development of the Al' program at were suitable and did not rely on reading was also Madison Memorial High School has been in connection mentionedfrequently.Althoughsomemissedthe withtheminicoursephilosophy undertaken by the classroom interaction, they would choose AT again as the biology teachers at Memorial. Prior to this development, preferred mode. the author taught approximately 150 students per year There was less absenteeism in the AT group although exclusively through the AT Program. The minicourse the A-T approach reduced problems of administering opportunityisallowingstudentstoselectvarious make-up work. Some students subsequently developed minicoursesinbiologyafterthecompletion of a their own high quality A-T learning packets which were twelve-weekcoreprograminsomeofthebasic added to the course. fundamentals of biology. Many of the minicourses are With proper planning and execution, individualized being offered through the A-T Laboratory thus more instructional materials can be developed to educate the studentswillhave an opportunity to learn biology slow learner; hopefully each student can be educated to through the use of an audio-tutorial program that has his or her maximum capacity. proven itself to be quite successful. W-2 INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION IN BIOLOGY W-4 A FANTASTIC WAY TO INDIVIDUALIZE AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JosephA. Chambers, Biology Teacheratthe Secondary Level, Affton Senior High School, St. JohnD.Hunt,AssistantProfessorof Science Louis, Missouri Education, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley In an effort to update our biology program, meet the Individualized instruction is not a new concept; it has needs of our students, and to utilize best the time and been practiced for years, usually involving discussions, talents of our teachers, we instigated an individualized student-centered activities, and teacher demonstrations. program at Affton Senior High in October 1972. Our Dwight Allen advocates that individualized instruction method of individualizing is through the use of learning shouldencompasslargegroup,smallgroup,and packets to teach the various areas in biology. The packets independent study. This type of instruction was used in include a brief introduction of the subject to be learned; an undergraduate elementary science teaching course at the objectives to be reached; and the activities, both Baylor University and is being used at the University of required and optional, necessary to reach the objectives. Northern Colorado. Since all test questions are based on the knowledge The course was structured according to Robert and behavioral objectives, the student can take the tests Glazer's teaching model of four components. The first with confidence providing he understands the objectives. component, instructional objectives, was stated for each The individualstudentworksathis own ratein activityina behavioral mode. Second, the students performing each required activity which includes readings, entering behavior was determined by means of a pre-test dissections, experiments, visual aids, and audio cassettes. at the beginning of the course. The third component, Whileeachstudentcompletestheactivitiesinhis concerning instructional procedures, was process and particular packet, the teacher is available to help the content-oriented and semi-structured in an inquiry mode. student with individual problems. Small group discussions with the instructor present were Our observationsindicatethatitis somewhat used as a culminating activity. The last component of difficultto make thetransitionfromatraditional Glazer'smodelinvolvedassessingthestudents' approach in other classes to individualization in biology. performance which was achieved by administering a However, once the :,tudents accept the responsibility, they post-test of the paper-pencil type, to each student. Both appreciate the opportunity to learn at their own pace. the pre-test and post-test were identical. The student who met the criteria of 75 percent at the end of the course W-3 AUDIO-TUTORIAL BIOLOGY AN received an "A" for the course. INDIVIDUALIZED APPROACH AT JAMES To lead to the expected criteria, titc instructor spent MADISON MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL, his energy building up the self-image of all students by MADISON, WISCONSIN reinforcing every activity with praise. No deadlines were JamesHein,BiologyTeacher,James Madison imposed. Memorial High School, Madison, Wisconsin An important phase of this modular-centered course

178 was the development by the undergraduate student of a GROUP X multi-media auto-tutorial system with reinforcement and feedback.Researchconductedbytheinstructor substantiates cognitively that behavior can be modified at ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION the 0.01 level of significance for the student with a low IQ as well as one with a high IQ. X-I THE POLITICS OF ENVIRONMENTAL Several positive student responses to this course are: EDUCATION: SOME INSIGHTS FROM VERMONT increased student interaction with instructor; increased student responsibility for his own learning; the objectives Russell M. Agne, Associate Professor of Education, for each activity were stated; the end of the course was University of Vermont, Burlington seen; and if questions, for certain sections, were answered correctly the student was exempt from activities in class Vermont is one of the leading states in the United in which 75 percent competency was shown. States intakinglegislativeaction on environmental concerns. Questions might be raised however concerning its environmental education effort. This paper chronicles W-S INDIVIDUALIZATION OF PHYSICS FOR thehistory of environmental education planning in INCREASED ENROLLMENT THROUGH Vermontduringthelastseveralyears, and offers MODERN INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES suggestions for those considering statewide environmental education planning. Leslie A. King. Physics Teacher, Boyerton Area High A conference held in May 1973 brought together School, Boyerton, Pennsylvania, and Michael Szabo, representatives of the public schools, government -(state AssociateProfessorofScienceEducation, The and federal) agencies, colleges and universities, and a Pennsylvania State University, University Park variety of private er vironmental groups. A great deal of useful information 'bout the politics of environmental Physics curricula designed to accommodate different educationwasderivedfromthisworkingsession. studentinterestsor modes of learning never touch Judgments were made which formed thebasisfor students who opt notto studyphysics. This paper directing future efforts such as a Governor's Conference describes a project developed to increase exposure to high on Environmental Education held in October 1973. school physics. Local problems attacked by this project were: lack of X-2 BACKPACKING IN THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM student interest in physics, inadequate serving of needs or interests of the majority of physics students, and physics Stanley 0. Martin, Secondary Science Supervisor, teaching with no provisions for accountability of student Topeka Public Schools, Topeka, Kansas learning. The solutioninvolved a carefully balanced integration of modern curriculum materials and several of For thepastthree summers, the Topeka Public the best known teaching strategies known today. A Schoolshasoffereditshighschoolstudentsan curriculum which lends itself to individual differences was opportunity to study ecology and geology in a field-study selected; Project Physics. Behaviorally stated instructional setting. The purpose of this field-study course is to objectives (io) were developed to communicate course providestudentsanopportunitytoacquirean expectations and to stimulate self-directed learning. understandingandappreciationoftheirnatural All students undertake a basic core of ios to assure environment through outdoor experiences with ecology, adequate learning of basic concepts of physics. Beyond geology, and camping. The major features of this course these core objectives, each student selects optional ios and areseveral weekend outings which serve astraining appropriate learning activities to correspond with his or sessions, and a 16-day field trip through Kansas, Colorado, her interests and goals. Specific interests, abilities, and Wyoming, and NebraskainlateJuly.Pre-field-trip goals of each student are assessed through a series of tests activities emphasize basic ecological and geological field at the beginning of the year. study techniques as well as the learning of camping skills. A mastery learning model is used with the core and Hiking and backpacking play an important role in bringing optional objectives because it is deemed more important the student into a close relationship with his natural to help students arrive at demonstrable levels of physics environment. understanding than to find out who scores higher on a A slide presentation shows the importance of this physics examination. Frequent performance level testing typeofsciencecourseofferingintoday's science isusedsinceprogressisregulated by mastery of curriculum. Detailed planning and curricular materials prerequisite concepts. used in this course are available. Seniors who had completed physics are utilized to help manage the project as student aides. They serve as lab X-3 AN INNOVATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE assistants and instructors, clerical recorders, and remedial EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR SECONDARY instructors. SCHOOL SCIENCE TEACHERS Questionnaireevaluationindicatesthatstudent confidence and satisfaction with the course are high. Harold J. McKenna, Assistant Professor, The City Physics enrollment increased 14 percent after the first College of New York, New York year and another 15 percent after the second year of the program. Average scores on standardized physics tests are An innovative master's degree program which was equivalent to national norms. problem focused (each course in the program develops This project represents a realistic step that may be contentaroundspecificenvironmentalproblems); taken toward providing more effective physics programs interdisciplinary (concepts from both the natural and at the high school level. socialsciencesareintegratedintoeachcourse);

179 intradisciplinary (content, teaching methods, and action the preparation and presentation of an oral and a written involvementareincorporatedinto each course).All report, delivered to the cldss with the confidence of an courses in the program have the title ESE (Environmental expert. Each student prepares a variety of visual aids Science Education) and are offered on a sliding credit which include maps, graphs, charts, drawings, models, and scale, whereby students select the number of credits they pictures. Many students find a certain feature of the park wish (one to three). very interesting and do further research on this topic. Using a course in human ecology as a working model Students enjoy studying our national parks, and of the program, instruments were developed to determine learning how to use their leisure time and to appreciate the extent of: our country's untamed wilderness areas. 1. Student involvement in various activities (such as committee participation, club formation, journal X-S MARINE SCIENCE: FIELD TRIPS FROM reading) could be determined as a result of having NEBRASKA TO THE GULF OF MEXICO taken the course; 2. Student use of seven identified teaching methods Gary Brown and Jack Head, Science Education (suchasdiscussion,oralreport,parable,and Specialists, ESU 3 -OSACS Science Center, Gretna, problem-solving) could be observed; Nebraska 3. Acquisitionof basicconceptsinenvironmental science education could be determined. Twice each year, 16 Nebraska high school students The results of the evaluation are as follows: travel with the ESU 3.0SACS Science Center staff to the 1. Nine activities were identified as having a marked Gulf of Mexico, where they visit the University of Texas increase as a result of students having taken the Marine Science Institute at Port Aransas. The group camps course in human ecology. Of the nine activities, four enroute and then resides at the dorm facilities while attending meetings in environmental education on visiting the Marine Institute. Included in the week's aregularbasis,readingenvironmentalscience activities on the Gulf Coast are: the study of plant and journals and books, taking personal action on the animal life, collection methods, tides, currents, navigation, community level, and developing new courses, clubs, food webs, and research in marine science. Many of these and curricula at the secondary school level showed activitiesare conducted aboard the Marine Institute's the greatest increase of involvement by students. research vessels. 2. Fiveoftheteachingmethods discussion, As many as two hundred and fifty living marine problem-solving,casestudy,oralreport,and specimens have been returned to Nebraska during a single audiovisual were used by 45 percent or more of Gulf Coast trip. The school of each participating student the nine teachers observed. is then provided with a saltwater aquarium and several 3.Twenty-five of the 42 basic environmental science specimens. The remaining specimens are kept on display concepts developed in the course were used by 33 in the live room at the Science Center. percent or more of the nine teachers observed. In summary, this study demonstrates that teachers of science at the secondary level can: use major concepts fromanenvironmentalscienceeducationcourse, GROUP Y incorporate methodology developed in the course into their own teaching at the secondary level, and become actively involved in community activities as a result of CHEMISTRY (SECONDARY) special training. Y -1 THE IMPACT OF AMERICAN CHEMISTRY PROGRAMS ON SCIENCE CURRICULUM WORK X-4 OUR NATIONAL PARKS AN INTERESTING IN NIGERIA STUDY Sam `TundeBajah,Lecturer,Departmentof RobertM.Schumacher,TeacherandScience Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Chairman, Yorkville Community Unit No.115, Circle Center School, Yorkville, Illinois Science education in Nigeria has had phenomenal growth during the last five years. The Science Teachers This presentation describes an eighthgrade earth AssociationofNigeria(STAN), aided. by. funding science unit which demonstrates how the geology, the organi7.ationssuchasthe Ford Foundation through geography, and the meteorology of our national parks CESAC (Comparative Education Study and Adaptation combine to make an environment for a unique set of Centre). the British Council, West African Examinations living things the plants and animals in the parks. The Council (WAEC), the State and Federal Ministries of study of our national parks is a means of integrating all of Education, developed within this period (1968-1972) a the sciences the earth sciences, the life sciences, and the number of curricular materials in biology, chemistry and physical sciencesand seeing how they complement each physics. The primary focus seems to be in the production other. Students are challenged to use all of their language of science books. There is no doubt that the impetus for artsskillsastheyare exposed to the ecology and this innovative work in science education in Nigeria has conservation of our natural resources in real situations. been catalysed by trends in other parts of the world The unit is appropriate as a minicourse, an individual America, Scotland, and the United Kingdom. This paper assignment, or a group study. Students or committees focuses on the influence of the American programs on participate in a research project after obtaining sufficient curriculum in Nigeria. guidance to ferret out information from library, park Curriculum planning in Nigeria, as in many other service, and other sources. Research projects culminate in advanced countries involves atleast two very different

180 kinds of processes. First, there are political and legal Y-3 CHEMISTRY PERFORMANCE EVALUATION: A considerations. Controlling agencies such as the Ministries NEW TECHNIQUE of Education and the West African Examinations Council setforthguidelineswhich sometimes take on the William M. Frase, Chemistry Teacher, Fairview High character of law. Second, curriculum planningis a School, Fairview Park, Ohio substantive enterprise in that it has certain perennial foci ofintellectualattention,commonlyidentifiedas The chemistry curriculum, like that of the other considerations of ends and means. Whileit may be sciences,haschangedfroman emphasis onrote unrealistic to expect packaged programs whichcan simply memorization and text orientation tothe "discovery be adopted as complete units in a developing country, it is approach" which has a greater emphasis on laboratory clearthatwell-developedprogramscanoftenbe experiences. implemented by a teacher or school system with relatively There has been little, if any, change in evaluation slightmodificationtofitthe . particularlocal techniques to meet the needs of this new curriculum. circumstances. Time honored pencil-paper types of evaluation, which in most cases have no relevance to what the student learns in the laboratory, are still being used. For several years, I Y-2 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS A HIGH SCHOOL have used a method of evaluation called a laboratory MINICOURSE practical which meets the needs of the new curriculum and carries a high validity in the measurement of student JonR. Thompson, Chemistry Teacher, General comprehension and student application of learning skills. William Mitchell High School, Colorado Springs, Practicals are not new tothe biological sciences; Colorado where they have come to mean tests in which students move from station to station at specific time intervals, To increase relevancy in science courses and expose identifyingpreservedspecimensorobjectsunder previous chemistry students to specialized topics our microscopes. However, the ramifications of this method chemistrycourseatMitchellHigh School includes for chemistry as well as other laboratory sciences are minicourses. As chemical analysis is a very large and many.Insteadofusingmereidentifications,the important portion of the chemical industry which is often imaginative instructor can measure laboratory skills and only touched upon in most high school chemistrycourses, evaluate learning at different levels of comprehension. one specialized minicourse is devoted to exploring types As an example, stations might include such basic of analysis. skills as weighing, measuring, running chemical tests on The eight-week minicourse schedules students to the comprehension and application levels, deciding the meet in a structured class once or twice each week. During proper apparatus to synthesize an organic compound, or these meetings they are taught the basic theories behind interpreting an infrared spectrophotometer reading on the certain methods of analysis. Articles and reprints of such analysis or synthesis levels. journals as Scientific American and Chemistry are utilized Presented are: procedures of implementation; the to explain topics related to analysis. pros and cons of this technique; a statistical analysis and Students are required to do six experiments on the validity data pertaining to this method's viability as an following topics: ion exchange, column chromatography, evaluative tool not only to chemistry but to all the visible spectrophotometry, nephelometry, infraredspec- laboratory sciences. trophotometry, ultraviolet spectrophotometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, gravimetricanalysis,volumetric Y-4 MODULAR APPROACH TO NINTH GRADE analysis (titration). Another two experiments are chosen CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS from several available and performed during student un- structured time (open laboratory: Mitchell is on modular Gary E. Dunkleberger and Ruth W. Smith, Science scheduling). Teachers, AlexisI.duPont High School, Dover, All students: Delaware 1. Do an unknown on the IR Spectrophotometer as part of a field trip to the University of Colorado Ir an attempt to promote a greater retention of Organic Laboratory. concepts in the area of introductory chemistry and 2. Build their own simple gas chromatograph and do an physics, Alexis I. duPont High School has implementeda unknown with it. modular approach to laboratory activities. Modularization 3. Complete an analysis using ion exchange prior to a has occurred by structuring the lab phase of the freshman field trip to Holly Sugar Research Laboratory where chemistry-physics course into small self-contained units ion exchange technique is used. relatingtoseminardiscussions.Studentsutilizea 4. Completeananalysisusingthevisible computer-assistedtesting formatto self-pace through spectrophotometer prior to visiting a local science laboratory activities with an option to return to difficult facility (Kaman Sciences Corporation) that has an segments. Evaluation of student progress is made by atomic absorption spectrometer, randomlygeneratedcriterion-referencedtestitems Other correlatedfieldtrips and experiments are also associated with specific objectives for that particular included. laboratory module. At the conclusion of each quiz, Students learn the basics in the laboratory and see or individual students receive a series of computer-generated study itfirsthand justa few days later in the real remedial commands foreachconceptfound to be industrial laboratory. Course participants indicate that deficient.Aftercompletingtheremedialactivities, they have seen chemistry in action for the first time and students have the option to receive a requiz on the same realize more fully the need to study certain laws and concepts, theories. ThisprojectwasfundedbyDel Mod inits

181 developmental stages. Itis an example of the projects opportunity to investigate this problem. When existing possiblewithjointefforts betweenlocaldistricts, teaching techniques arenotsuccessful,teachers arc organizations such as Del Mod, and the Delaware State expected to try out new ones, and "subjects" for these Department of Public Instruction. trials are readily available. Suggestions that classroom teachers themselves might Y-S AN EXPERIMENT IN SOLID STATE CHEMISTRY: use to help their students understand proportionality and THE CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC MICROSTRUCTURE work with related chemical concepts are given. These OF ZINC suggestionsinclude aseriesofactivitiesinvolving measurement and the mole concept drawn, in part, from John Bycoskie, Department Chairman and Chemistry the author's experience in teaching to chemistry classes in Teacher, Downingtown Area Schools, Downingtown, Washington, D.C. She noted substantial improvement in Pennsylvania herstudents'abilityto handle chemistry problems involving proportionality by the end of the year in which Solids differ from fluids or gases in that the atoms or she used these activities. molecules of which solids are composed are in a lower energy state than they are when in the liquid or gas form. The randomness of location and the motion and energy of the components within a solid are of low degree. The GROUP Z components tend to be arranged in a structure which shows long range regularity, and their motions and energy consist primarily of vibrations about fixed points in this MEASUREMENT AND THE regular structure. METRIC SYSTEM An orderly arrangement of particles as described which extends far enough in three dimensions through the PRINCIPLES OF PRECISION materialis considered a crystal or grain. An array of crystals of various orientationsistypical of a solid Mary Ellen Quinn, Chairman of the Division of Natu material such as zinc. Within any particular crystal of zinc . ral Science and Mathematics, Immaculata College of all of the atoms of zinc are arranged with one particular Washington, Washington, D.C. orientation and pattern. Adjoining crystal sides in three dimensions constitute The demand, "Be more precise!" is one frequently a crystal or grain boundary which may be revealed by heard in science classrooms. Although students seldom ask proper physical and chemical means. Ordinarily a material the meaning of such a request, they will most often (inthiscasezinc)issmoothly polished and then respond with a simple repetition of an observation or of a chemically attached or etched for a relatively short period complete experiment. Other students may make more of time with an appropriate etchant. The atoms of zinc in careful measurements, reporting experimental results with the vicinity of the crystal boundaries will dissolve more an accuracy of three decimal places instead of the original rapidly than other atoms within the crystal because of two. A philosophical analysis of the term "precise" as it is higher energy considerations and will leave a line (or usedinthe natural sciences provided the basis for crystal boundary) which can be seen with a microscope or constructing a set of principles of precision set forth in even with the naked eye. Zinc is unique in the laboratory this paper. for two reasons: unusual equipment or materials are not This report relates the development of a set of required, and the hexagonal close-packed structure can principles of precision to be used in measuring the quality easily be seen. of hypotheses elicited during an experiment in teaching hypothesis formation to sixth-grade children. However, Y-6 HOW SCIENCE TEACHERS CAN HELP THEIR not only can the principles be used to ascertain the STUDENTS BETTER UNDERSTAND THE precision of hypotheses: they also permit a determination MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION OF CHEMICAL of the precision of other inquiry skills, such as, observing, CONCEPTS classifying, inferring, and predicting. Since the principles of precision apply also to various inquiry skills, they are Susan Abramowitz, Doctoral Candidate, School of applicabletothe different areas of science including Education, Stanford University, Stanford, California biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science. Chemistry teachers often complain of the difficulty Z-2 GOING METRIC IN THE ELEMENTARY their students have in handling scientific concepts that are SCHOOL: SOME HAPPY IMPLICATIONS expressed mathematically. Some of the methods that teachers use to help their students understand problems LindaJones,AssistantProfessor of Education, involving stoichiometric and gas law relations are the Department of Elementary Education, California "factor-label" method of dimensional analysis, reasoning State University, Northridge from knowledge of the physical relations involved, and rote learning of formulae. The underlying assumption in The most formidable obstacle to going metric in this paper is that these problems are difficult because they elementary schoolsisthe apprehension it arouses in demand an understanding of proportionality. teachers. It is only natural to fear the unknown, but once Knowledgeabouthowchildrenacquirean teachers recognize the simplicity and usefulness of the understanding of proportionalityhas been generated metric system through pleasant firsthand experiences the primarily by developmental psychologists, such as Piaget unknown will recede and they will be ready to tackle the and Robert Karplus. Teachers, however, have ample more realistic problems of implementation.

182 The advantages of going metric are greater than the in number I and number 2 and also the following obvious one of simplifying computation. Among the shifts may be taught: (a) ability tomeasure length, liquid and changes will be more and better instruction in volume, and weight using decimals; and (b) ability to measurement and place value and less emphasis on perform conversions between metricunits using common fractions. The value of firsthand experiences decimals. with real objects in measurement will be recognized and, 4. At grade six, the phases of the metric system given in itis hoped, applied in other areas of the curriculum as number 1, number 2, and number 3 may be taught. well, Science activities offer the most practical context for learning to "think metric." As the state departments of education turn attention to the implementation of metric instruction,many opportunitiestoimprove science instruction should result. The aboveconsiderationswill come intoview gradually and may not be apparent during the first yea' or two of metric instruction. What is bound to be u problem at first is the acquisition of suitable, inexpensive materials. Although commercial suppliers are beginning to offer some metric materials now, there will probably be a lug between supply and demand during the early phases of changeover. Teacher- and pupionstructed materials will be very important. The learning potential in the process of such construction should become apparent during the lag period and, it is hoped, will be included as a regular part of the curriculum even when commercial supply becomes adequate. Several construction ideas and techniquesare discussed.

Z3 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL GRADE LEVELS APPROPRIATE FOR TEACHING THE METRIC SYSTEM Theodore John Bargmann, Science Coordinator, Lincolnwood Schools, Lincolnwood, Illinois Whereas gradual changeover to the metric system in this country now seems almost certain, there is a need to investigate how and when metric measurement should be taught in school programs. The study reported here is concerned with identification of elementary school grade levelsappropriateforteachingcertainskillsand understandings of the metric system. The study also revealedsomedifficultierwhich elementaryschool teachers may encounter in teaching the metric system. A teaching unit emphasizing student discovery was developed am then taught by the research to a sample of 201 children in grades three through six. Using analysis of covariance, pupil achievement in learning the metric system was compared for the four grade levels on fourteen criteria. In consideration of the results of this analysis and of achievement levels on various tests used, the following guidelines were formulated to indicate those grade levels at which different aspects of the metric system may be taught : 1. At grade three, or possibly even before, the following may be taught: (a) understanding the meaning and approximate sizes of various metric units of length, liquid volume, and weight; (b) ability to measure length,liquidvolume, and weight using whole numbers; (c) understanding the organization of the metric system by multiples of tens; and (d) ability to perform simple conversions between metric units using whole numbers. At grade four, the phases of the metric system given in number 1 and also the determination of area and cubic volume may be taught, 3. At grade five, the phases of the metric system given

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