By What Authority? The Bible and Civil Disobedience by Ched Myers

Civil disobedience as a other hand, cataloguing every political tactic is of relatively form of subversive political action recent genesis, but resistance to in the Bible. Rather, we are human sovereigns is as old as looking for biblical antecedents to By civilization itself. In the ancient our modern experimentation with world this resistance usually took civil disobedience. Thus, the the form of refusal to abide by the focus is resistance to the decrees of a king or a ruler’s structures of authority in a given authority. Such disobedience was biblical social formation. What a serious undertaking. There are two fundamental Although democratic dissent forms of resistance, which can be and “free speech” were not actions taken by individuals, small unknown, the normal paradigm of communities, or large, mobilized political rule was that of groups. sovereign’s absolute authority. The first we can call defensive Authority? Since the king was Divine in the disobedience: action aimed at ancient Mediterranean world, protecting persons from disobedience meant transgressing aggression or injustice by the the very order of the cosmos. The ruling structure, usually taking the radical monotheism of the Bible – form of non-cooperation with law the belief that only God was or policy. A modern example The Bible and sovereign – therefore accepts would be draft or tax resistance. acts of resistence to ruling political The second is the offensive Civil Disobedience authority as part of the salvation disobedience: action intending history of Yahweh. to, through confrontation and In surveying the biblical engagement, expose moral, legal, material for light on an essentially or political contradictions in modern way of posing the existing policy. Non-violent direct question (“civil disobedience”), we action at nuclear weapons must define what it is we are facilities would be an example of looking for. We are not, on the this. one hand, looking for a “doctrine In looking at disobedience to of the state,” though this impinges structures of authority first in the by Ched Myers on the topic; nor are we, on the Old Testament, it is important to

-1- keep in mind the essentially governmental decree occurs in Matthew recounts that the infant seems to be that Jews who find negative view of kingships that the second book of Moses... This Messiah is also threatened by themselves in positions of access formed the core of the original oldest instance of conscientious royal infanticide, is saved by the to power, like Esther, must act in desert tradition. The tower of disobedience concerns a case of civil disobedience and deception solidarity with those who take Babel story in Genesis 11 is quite genocide.” of a third party (wise men), and positions of non-cooperation on probably an ancient Hebrew The reference is to the story of goes underground to escape matters of principle, like Mordecai. polemic against the centralization the birth of Moses (Exodus 1:8- Herod. These stories reflect the The story may have been a kind of authority, technology, and 2:10). Hebrew midwives defy an bitter experience of power, pitting of handbook for the persecuted political culture in imperial urban order by Pharaoh to kill all the genocidal political realism of Jewish community in its centers, such as ancient Babylon. Hebrew males at birth and cover kings against the divine hope deliberations on concrete Turning to Israel’s self rule, 1 their tracks by lying to Pharaoh. borne by infants. strategies of resistance. Samuel 8 suggests that the The mother of Moses then takes The book of Esther has a plot This is certainly the case for founding of the monarchy was a her baby “underground” in order that similarly turn on a series of the book of Daniel which, rejection of sovereignty of God in to save his life. facts of non- cooperation to a according to Daube, “may be order to have a king “like all the This story of defensive Old pagan ruler. This “historical described as a veritable charter of other nations.” The people here Testament disobedience is novel,” like the book of Daniel, is civil disobedience by a religious forfeited the decentralized tribal- interesting for many reasons. set in a Persian court but is meant minority.” At issue are Jewish charismatic policy of the era of First, it is highly political in nature, to be instructive to the Jewish dietary laws and, more judges – a political model that is the backdrop being the community at a later date. Esther importantly, the refusal to worship still revered in the eschatological oppression of the Hebrews and contains three notable instances the oriental monarch. The writings of the New Testament their threat to the social stability of of non-cooperation. account involves Daniel’s solitary (Matthew 19:28; Luke 22:29-30). Pharaoh’s Egypt . The story, The narrative begins with the witness in chapter 6, as well as French theologian Jacques then, inaugurates the Exodus queen of Ahasuerus, Vashti, the group resistance of Shadrach, Ellul sums up the political analysis narrative. refusing to be put on show for the Meshach, and Abednego in of 1 Samuel 8: “political authority Second, quite apart from the kings guests. This defiance, chapter 3. These exemplary rests on defiance; it is a rejection shock that many Bible readers in remarkable for the setting of an stories of faith in the first half of of God: it can only be dictatorial, the United States may receive Oriental court, opens the way for Daniel set the stage for the thinly abusive, and unjust.” This from discovering such bald-faced the Jewess Esther to assume the veiled political criticism of attitude, at the core of the oldest defiance of, and lying to, role of queen and sets the stage Antiochus IV Epiphanies in traditions, is crucial in established authority, the for the Jewish leader Mordecai to chapter 7 to 12. understanding the uniquely disobedient act provokes greater refuse to pay homage to one of The apocalyptic imagery in important role given to repression on the part of the the kings governors, Haman. In Daniel, according to Daniel disobedience in the recitation of authorities. This response is very order to save Mordecai and the scholar J. Collins, “may be salvation history in the Hebrew familiar in modern practice of civil entire Jewish community from understood as a political Bible. disobedience. retaliation for this non- manifesto.... The mythical Classicist and rabbinic scholar Third, and most important to cooperation, Esther breaks the symbolism of the vision of Daniel David Daube writes in Civil Christian readers, the story is kings rules of visitation and is designed to inspire active but Disobedience in Antiquity: “The closely paralleled in Matthew’s manages to persuade him to non-violent resistance.... The oldest record in the world birth narrative of the new Moses: overturn the edict for a pogrom. wise man need not fight, but can literature of the spurning of the Jesus. The second chapter of The message of the story express his resistance to the

-2- -3- power of the king by non- never be gladly received by the vocation “to pluck up and break discussions went on in the early compliance with his orders, and authorities. This is perhaps down” kingdoms (1:10). Christian communities. endurance of whatever suffering expressed most clearly in Ezekiel As suggested in the story of There were incidents of mass results.” 33. Moses’ birth, what is remarkable political civil disobedience in both This tradition of defensive civil The notion of the prophet as about “civil disobedience” in the Rome and Palestine under the disobedience for a persecuted “watchman” is not unlike the Old Testament is how Israel Romans. Given the essentially community is later appropriated in modern democratic idea that a perceived its salvation story as so defensive political posture of the New Testament by Mark’s “loyal opposition” must resist often contingent upon acts of non- religious minorities in the Roman apocalypse (Mark 13) and the unjust laws and policies for the cooperation with authority. Rahab empire, it is all the more book of Revelation. sake of the survival or integrity of the harlot is given a firm place in impressive that the weight of New There is an offensive the body politic. Thus, Martin biblical history by her politically Testament evidence strongly disobedience tradition as well in Luther King. Jr. broke segregation partisan resistance (Joshua 2, indicates an offensive posture the Hebrew Bible. The most laws to demonstrate the absolute Hebrews 11:31. James 2:25). toward authorities. The massive action in defiance of a incompatibility of apartheid with David himself survives his contest singular model for civil king of course is the Exodus the U.S. Constitution. with Saul the king only because disobedience for the Christian event, which we can almost Jeremiah is perhaps the Saul’s son, Jonathan, and is of course the ministry of characterize as a “national greatest practitioner of this daughter, Michal (David’s wife), Jesus, much of which can be cessation.” But there is a strong vocation in the Old Testament. give their loyalty to David in understood as calculated tradition of dissent even within the His language is symbolic action, defiance of their father confrontation with the Israelite theocratic/monarchial such as the purchase of the linen (1 Samuel 19-20). structures of socio-political period, which we know as girdle in chapter 13 and the It is worth noting how often power of his day. classical prophecy. earthenware jar in chapter 19, that women figure in roles of We can briefly survey its two The court prophet Micaiah dramatizes the religious and disobedience to achieve their phases: his ministry in Galilee and under Ahab defied the imperial social apostasy of the people. His aims. Daube notes that “a woman his final days in Jerusalem. expectation for favorable actions more often than not land is the main figure also in the Mark’s narrative of Jesus’ first predictions on the eve of a military him in jail (chapters 20 and 32). Greek prototype of civil mission around the region of adventure(1 Kings 22) and was Jeremiah’s offensive obedience”: Sophocles’ Antigone. Capernaum (Mark 2:13-3:6) thrown in jail, after first mocking engagements with the ruling caste From the early narratives on, presents us with a Jesus who government-controlled forecasters of his time are highly political, there is a sense that the politics of systematically assaults the social and then discrediting the king’s such as his symbolic action of non-cooperation are the special order of first-century Jewish legitimacy in a parable. Like wise, wearing a yoke to protest military weapon of oppressed sectors. Palestine. Jesus takes on the Elijah refuses to tell a king what alliances for purposes of national We have evidence from rigid social caste system of clean he wants to hear (2 Kings 1), security (chapter 27), or his rabbinic writings that strategies and unclean by calling a tax despite attempts of military purchase of land on the eve of the and the political and moral ethics collector into his discipleship intimidation. Babylonian siege of Jerusalem to of resistance and non-cooperation community and underscores the At the center of the tradition of signal that hope lay not in futile were the subject of serious point by sharing table-fellowship Hebrew prophecy is the conviction resistance but in God’s power to deliberation within the persecuted with a variety of outcasts. By that the word of God must be preserve the people through exile Jewish community through the touching a leper, recorded in the spoken, especially when it (chapter 32). Thus did the great time of the emperor Hadrian. We first chapter of Mark, Jesus was portends bad tidings that will prophet Jeremiah fulfill his can assume that the same already considered impure; by

-4- -5- eating with “sinners,” Jesus defies sequence is characteristic of the arrest, to Jesus’ authority to act in order to underscore the new the Pharisaical codes of ritual whole of Jesus’ ministry. He such a way (19:47-20:8). Civil authority of the kingdom of God. purity. Jesus’ next act is to challenged the authority of kinship disobedience is always most It is inevitable that he would meet publically decline to participate in regulations (Luke 2:41-52; Mark potent when it provokes a crisis of the cross, a form of capital a recognized fast day, an attack 3:31-35), the dietary customs that authority. As in many cases taken punishment reserved by the on the relationship between gave Jews much of their social to court today by nonviolent Romans for political dissidents, religious piety and the legitimation identity (Mark 7:1-5, 14-30), and resisters, Jesus responds to the and that the Jewish authorities of leadership in Jewish society. the claim of the wealthy and the challenge with a counter- would work in close collaboration Finally, Jesus assaults the educated to their social and challenge aimed at undermining with Rome to secure his symbolic center of synagogue religious status (Mark 10: 17-23; the legitimacy of those who are in condemnation. Judaism, the Sabbath, by 12: 28-34). Most importantly, power. His counter-challenge is Jesus expects his followers transgressing Sabbath laws and Jesus’ confrontation had a directly the parable of the vineyard (20:9- also to embrace this cross (Mark boldly asserting, “The Sabbath political thrust: his campaign was 20). 8:34). They are to carry on his was made for man, not man for finally directed at the center of The Jewish leaders, if not ministry of confrontation through the Sabbath” (2:27). power, Jerusalem (Luke 9:51-56). many modern interpreters, the proclamation of the new order. In each case, the act is public Luke’s account of the understand exactly the political They can expect that they too will and carefully planned to address Jerusalem section of Jesus’ point of the parable and proceed be delivered up to councils, the various aspects of the social ministry is another sequence of to press Jesus further. If he does beaten in synagogues, and forced world of his time. Moreover, highly symbolic and politically not recognize their jurisdiction, will to stand before governors and Jesus not only breaks regulations crafted actions. It begins with a he acknowledge the authority of kings (Mark 13:9)–a catalogue of which were law in his day, but he messianic entry into the city, and the colonial power, Rome? They the four levels of local and central asserts his perfect right to do so in a lament over Jerusalem’s thus throw back to him the Jewish and Roman authority in every case (2:10, 17, 19, 28). The imminent demise (Luke 19:28-44). infamous tribute question (20:21- Palestine. sequence, not surprisingly, Then comes perhaps the most 26). In response, Jesus tells In the narratives of the early culminates in one more public dramatic and provocative of another parable, posing apostolic church, this continuation confrontation in a synagogue, Jesus’ actions, the “cleansing” of rhetorically the question as to the is precisely what we find. The where Jesus again breads the the temple (19:45-48). relative jurisdiction of Caesar in post-Easter community takes up Sabbath law by healing a man’s The temple was both the light of the rule of God. His where Jesus left off: in the temple, hand (3:1-6). The response to political and economic heart of the opponents are stunned and publicly challenging the order of these acts by the local Galilean Jewish social formation and the perceive his answer as another sin and death, and being dragged authorities is a commitment to do center of the symbolic order of instance of blatant defiance of the before the authorities (Acts 3:1- away with Jesus. Israel. To take action to shut rule of law, which they level at him 4:18). This sequence is a dramatic down its commerce completely later in his trial (23:2). It is in the apostolic testimony and protracted “civil disobedience and denigrate its operation was a It is sufficiently clear from that we have the clearest campaign” because the law was bold interpretation of the prophetic these two narrative sequences formulation, twice for emphasis, of the foundation of Jewish social tradition of civil disobedience. that Jesus is portrayed as the conflict. For preaching about order. There was no “secular It is no wonder that the next deliberately choosing a prophetic Jesus, Peter and John are realm,” only a foreign colonizer, episode in Luke’s narrative is a style of confrontation with arrested and must answer to the Rome, whose laws and religion direct challenge by the authorities, authority, at virtually every level of high priest. “Whether it is right in were also inseparable. The who are already plotting his law and custom in society, in the sight of God to listen to you

-6- -7- rather than to God, “ they tell him, policies (6:2-4, 15; 16:13-21; 20:7- a firm stance against the the old and the new order for the “you must judge” (4:19). In a 15). John insists that Christians excesses of offensive obedience of the believer. similar situation recorded a must not only refuse to cooperate disobedience and pastorally The stance of the early church, chapter later, Peter answers, “We but also take steps to disassociate encourage defined and controlled with its recognition that conflict must obey God rather than men themselves from the imperial defensive actions. No one who with the state was inevitable, (5:29). menace (18:4-5). seriously proposes civil made it imperative for a Acts portrays the ministry of The well-known and much- disobedience in our modern complementary set of teachings to Paul as involving no less abused teaching of Paul in setting will deny that such political be developed concerning systematic conflict with the Romans 13 must also be and pastoral guidelines are subordination, in order that the authorities (16:16-24; 19:23-41; considered here. Numerous necessary to maintain public and freedom of the gospel not become 21:6-14), a fact confirmed by commentators have established personal integrity. an occasion for gratuitous or Paul’s own letters, many of which that Paul is not advocating By the time of the writing of 1 exploitative conduct (Romans 6:1, are penned from jail. Paul’s absolute and uncritical Timothy, the “good fight of faith” is Galations 5:13). It is unfortunate epistle to the Ephesians speaks of subordination to every authority, still conceived in terms of making that the latter set of teachings, a mandate wherein believers are but rather exhorting conditional a good defense before originally conceived as a to “ take no part in the unfruitful cooperation with the state that is magistrates after the example of counterpoint, has become so works of darkness, but rather “not a terror to good conduct” Jesus (1 Timothy 6:11-16). The often the one-dimensional ethic unmask them” (Ephesians 5:11). (Romans 13:3). What is usually writings of the time are full of for a church no longer in collision, The more defensive posture of overlooked is that this teaching concern about conduct in an era but rather in collusion, with the disobedience to authorities is a was needed at all; the implication of persecution. This is not state. very strong strand in much of the is that the normal Christian surprising, since as D. Stevick Much can be gleaned for our later New Testament literature. practice was non-cooperation. points out in his book Civil modern practice of civil Similar to Daniel, the book of Ellul comments, “Paul’s verses Disobedience and the Christian, disobedience from this overview Revelation is a resistance seem to me a reaction against the “Such pleas reflect a time when, of biblical antecedents. First, we document, probably reflecting extremist of the anti-political in the eyes and by the laws of the must be careful not to draw too persecutions under the emperor position.” empire, to be a Christian at all many direct parallels. While we Domitian in the last decade of the Peter wishes to ensure that was to be in a state of civil may find ourselves resisting for first century. Chapter 13 is Christians are being put in prison disobedience.” the same reasons as our biblical particularly recognizable as a call for the right reasons: “Let none of The early church struggled to cousins, our socio-political setting to non-cooperation with Roman you suffer as a murderer, or a form an ethic of obedience and is quite different, especially due to authority and an exhortation to thief, or a wrongdoer, or a disobedience because the nature the influence of democratic Christians to accept the mischief-maker: but if you suffer of the kingdom seemed to ideology (if not reality). We consequences of their resistance. as a Christian, let you not be radically contradict the should no more argue a John writing as a political ashamed” (4:15-16). These atmosphere of imperial control in reductionist position–no prisoner in exile, objects to Rome words reflect genuine pastoral which the early Christians moved disobedience unless the Bible not only because of its concern for the ambiguous public and lived. The Pauline gospel of specifically stipulates it on a given persecution of Christians, but also face, and often mixed personal freedom from the law was issue–than we should a literalist because of its slave trade and motives, that are inherent in the especially potent politically. For one–every issue important to the oppressive economic structures practice of civil disobedience. Paul, the central metaphor for biblical witnesses should be of (6:6; 18:3,(-20) and military Both Romans and 1 Peter take faith was the contention between equal importance to us. (We

-8- -9- might, for example, have a hard given to the contemporary time getting as excited about meaning of “freedom from the dietary fidelity as Daniel did.) law.” Second, we must affirm the The U.S. church has historical pluralism of the Bible in matters of as well as biblical roots to draw civil disobedience style. The upon, given the rich precedents of Scriptures are full of both nonviolent direct action and non- offensive and defensive modes of cooperation. Only by more confrontation. seriously developing a politics of Third, the biblical pluralism non-cooperation and nonviolent regarding attitudes toward the engagement with authority will the legal system holds a lesson for church begin to embody a truly us. On the one hand, there is a hopeful alternative to the spiral of strong strand of repudiation of the violence and repression in our courts as a vehicle for gaining a time. Then “through the church hearing for truth: Jesus remains the manifold wisdom of God might silent before Pilate, and Paul be made known to the doubts the justice to be gained in principalities and powers” Roman courts (1Corinthians 6:1). (Ephesians 3:10). On the other hand, Paul took advantage of many opportunities to testify before the rulers of his day (Acts 23-26), even to the point of insisting upon the rights of “due process” (Acts 16:37-39, 22:25-29, 25:11). Prophetic silence and prophetic speech before the law both have biblical precedent. It is clear enough that civil disobedience in many forms is biblically justified and at times even imperative. The failure of most Christians to acknowledge that is a hermeneutic problem, not an exegetical one. For too long, Christian teaching has been entrenched on the side of “law and order”; perhaps there needs to be more theological attention

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