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Eindhoven University of Technology MASTER Prepaid Water in Namibia

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Eindhoven University of Technology MASTER Prepaid Water in Namibia Eindhoven University of Technology MASTER Prepaid water in Namibia understanding the ongoing transition van Herwijnen, F. Award date: 2012 Link to publication Disclaimer This document contains a student thesis (bachelor's or master's), as authored by a student at Eindhoven University of Technology. Student theses are made available in the TU/e repository upon obtaining the required degree. The grade received is not published on the document as presented in the repository. The required complexity or quality of research of student theses may vary by program, and the required minimum study period may vary in duration. General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain Master thesis by Frans van Herwijnen (0597524) February 2012 Supervisors: Dr. H.A. Romijn Dr.ir. R.P.J.M. Raven A. van Iersel, BSc. i I. Preface and acknowledgements To be included in final print version. ii II. Executive summary This research deals with water supply in Namibian and the specific innovation of prepaid water meters. It seeks to explain the socio-technical factors behind the choice for this innovation and what the actual application of prepaid water meters in a local case has meant for involved actors. Namibia is a sparsely populated, arid country in southern Africa with one of the most unequal societies in the world and more than half of the people living below the poverty line. In Otjiwarongo, a town in the center-north of Namibia, the municipality is responsible for supplying water to households and communal standpipes. In recent years, Otjiwarongo and many other Namibian towns have started installing prepaid water meters to be able to collect payments for water by having people buy water credit before they consume the water. This innovation is not always working as intended due technical difficulties, resistance from users and other reasons. From Brabant Water, a Dutch water utility that has entered a cooperation with the municipality of Otjiwarongo, the request came to further examine prepaid water meters and their impact. This research aims to unravel how the innovation of prepaid water meters gained prominence as well as how it is functioning in the social reality of Otjiwarongo. This has led to the following research question for this thesis: How are sustainability visions of involved actors regarding Namibia’s water supply transformed and concretized into local water supply innovations, and to what extent are these local water supply innovations successful? Research approach Systems such as water supply are more than just the technology and infrastructure, from an innovation sciences point of view it is useful to see them as socio-technical systems that have different dimensions (for example technology, user relations, market structures, policy and regulation, cultural meaning, etc.). Changes in one dimension affect other dimensions and trigger bigger shifts: transitions. The field of transitions studies helps understand these changes, where they come from and what their consequences are. The theoretical framework of the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) looks at interactions on different levels: landscape, regime and niche. Processes on landscape-level are broad processes that have impact on a range of fields (for example: shifts in thinking on development or water supply, natural processes like climate change or shocks like disasters or revolution). The regime level is the complex that consists of the existing rules and structures on how things are done in a certain field, water supply for example. Niches are the breeding place for innovation, where new socio-technical systems can be experimented with in protected spaces to develop them further so they eventually could take over or change the regime. Prepaid water meters are such a niche-innovation that is in development. A second framework can be used to better understand developments at niche-level: Strategic Niche Management (SNM) and evaluate local projects. SNM is focused on three internal niche-processes to evaluate the transition potential of niche-innovations. These three niche- processes are networking, expectations formation and learning. If these are aligned with each other, it enhances the chances of an innovation breaking through. In this case, there is however more need to understand what is happening within the prepaid water project in Otjiwarongo and why certain parts of the project are not proceeding as planned. A third theory, that of sociological translation iii helps understand the extent to which the municipality has been able to ‘translate’ the local situation to one where prepaid water meters are used. It also helps understand where resistance is occurring and why. It does this by classifying interactions in different ‘moments of translation’: problematization, interessement, enrolment and mobilization. Data collection The research was conducted on-site in Otjiwarongo through in-depth interviews and observations. Furthermore, several interviews with actors from Namibian government, bulk water supply, NGOs, and other towns were conducted. These interviews were informed by the theoretical concepts above, charting the niche-processes as well as following the actors. Scholarly literature on broader trends in development, water provision and Southern Africa helps in placing the findings in their context and inform the analysis of the different levels. Analysis and conclusions From the MLP analysis, it was found how several landscape pressures have shaped the evolution of the Namibian water supply regime over the past decades, shifting the notion of what is a sustainable water supply. International trends of service commercialization and decentralization have influenced national policy so that a new bulk supplier was created to supply water to municipalities and ask them the full cost-reflective tariff. At the same time, the municipalities are responsible for supplying water to their inhabitants and paying the total water bill to the bulk supplier. This makes it crucial for municipalities to have their inhabitants pay for the water they use, something which is hard especially from the poorer parts of towns. This tension has led municipalities to look for solutions and prepaid water meters have been selected as promising innovation in many cases, also in Otjiwarongo. A closer analysis of the local application of prepaid water meters through the SNM framework showed several things. The municipality of Otjiwarongo expected the innovation to work in three different applications: to collect payment from people in informal (slum) areas on standpipes, to collect payment and previous debts from poor people in regular households and to be able to offer people individual connections in informal areas. The municipality places these devices but has noticed that they do often do not work as planned: people do not understand how to use it, the meters do not work, people have smart ways of paying less than the municipality wants and the meters are sabotaged in order to get water. The municipality is learning from this and coming up with (technical) solution, but deeper learning is wanted to understand where resistance comes from and to reflect on the municipality’s assumptions on how the innovation would help towards a sustainable water supply. The final analysis of interactions in the local project shows the limitations of the municipality’s agency. Even though it can unilaterally decide to place prepaid water meters, this does not guarantee that they succeed in their goals and it requires more efforts from the municipality to successfully translate the local situation in the situation as they intend it. Although individual users have more limited agency, they still are able to resist developments in such a way that the translation becomes a very costly process for the municipality, undermining the project. iv The combination of SNM and translation has led to interesting, more general conclusions on how translation efforts can be compared with the niche-processes and how certain translation steps point to the need for different kinds of learning. Policy implications Recommendations that come out of the results of this research are aimed at the municipality of Otjiwarongo and Brabant Water. The first one is to develop a working definition of sustainability for themselves (and coordinate this with each other). This helps better understand the extent to which developments are sustainable or whether innovations work towards sustainability; it creates a useful benchmark. The second step would be to encourage and foster deep learning processes about the local prepaid water project: not only how certain operational issues can be resolved, but also to reflect on the impacts of such an innovation on the local community and the different aspects of sustainability (where social sustainability is strongly linked to the wellbeing of the community). To better channel this learning and decisions and actions in the project, a third recommendation is to analytically divide the project in sub-projects along the different purposes and target groups that the prepaid water meters are used for. This helps both actors compare and learn from the successes and failures of each sub-project. Finally, the municipality and Brabant Water could explore alternative/additional measures to replace of supplement prepaid water meters in some of its uses. Debt collection through personal communication is being experimented with, with promising results. Experience from South Africa suggests the possibility of free basic amounts of water to decrease the vulnerability of the poorest people. v III. Contents I. Preface and acknowledgements ii II. Executive summary iii III. Contents vi IV. Index of figures viii V.
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