Crime and Deviance Past Paper Questions

Crime and Deviance Past Paper questions June 2015 Item A Right realists see crime as a social problem requiring practical solutions. They often have similar views on the causes of crime to those of the New Right. These views inform the policies they support. Left realists and other sociologists oppose such views and therefore support different policies, such as those that improve equality of opportunity.

Item B Official statistics appear to show differing rates of criminality for different ethnic groups. For example, white people are less likely to be convicted of crime than members of some other ethnic groups. However, some sociologists are critical of official statistics. The statistics only show those who are dealt with by the criminal justice system.

1. Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess right realist explanations of both the causes of crime and the solutions to crime. [21 marks]

2. Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations of differences in offending between ethnic groups. [21 marks]

June 2014 Item A Some commentators argue that harm to the environment is an inevitable part of late modern society. Since no laws are broken, they do not consider it to be a crime. For others, the harm we do to the environment, often in the name of progress, is not just damage but green crime. Environmental damage does not respect national borders. There are many different types of green crime, all of which are related to human activities.

Item B Crime statistics appear to show higher rates of criminality in some social classes compared with others. Sociolo- gists disagree about the reasons for these differences. For some, official crime statistics reflect the true patterns of crime and show that certain classes are more likely to commit crime than others. However, there is disagreement about the causes of these class differences in criminal activity. Other sociologists are keen to highlight the view that some statistics on crime focus on those who have been prosecuted. They argue that this shows who is more likely to get caught, rather than who commits more crime.

1. Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations for the types and patterns of green crime. [21 marks]

3. Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations of the relationship between social class and crime. [21 marks]

June 2013 Item A The news media are one of our main sources of knowledge about crime and deviance. Often the media will create a moral panic surrounding crimes and criminals or deviants. Moral panics can lead to a range of responses by the public, by agents of social control and by the criminals or deviants themselves. Over-representation of certain types of crimes may lead to heightened fear of these crimes by the public. In some cases, moral panics may also result in a change in the law.

Item B Punishment of offenders is seen by some sociologists as vital to maintaining social solidarity, by showing people the consequences of breaking the norms of society. Other sociologists see punishment as one way in which those in power are able to exert their authority. The forms of punishment will vary between different societies and may change over time. An example of a change is the move in some societies from public execution to life imprisonment for the punishment of murderers. The punishment of offenders may also vary depending on the desired outcome of the punishment. Punishments may act as a deterrent or as a form of rehabilitation. 1. Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations of the role of the mass media in creating moral panics about crime and deviance. [21 marks]

4. Using material from Item B and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations of the functions and forms of the punishment of offenders. [21 marks]

Specimen 2015 Item A Situational crime prevention strategies aim to reduce the opportunity for crime. These strategies assume that the criminal makes a rational decision to commit crime based on perceived risks and benefits. One prevention strategy is to install a burglar alarm to reduce the risk of being burgled.

Item B Some functionalist sociologists argue that crime and deviance are caused by the inability of some people to gain the rewards of society, for example because of educational underachievement. Those members of society whose opportunities are blocked cannot achieve the goals of society by socially approved means.

1. Outline two ways in which the media give a distorted view of crime. [4 marks]

5. Outline three reasons why females may be less likely than males to commit crimes. [6 marks]

6. Applying material from Item A, analyse two reasons why situational crime prevention strategies may not be effective in reducing crime. [10 marks]

7. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of functionalist approaches in understanding crime and deviance. [30 marks]

TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

FUNCTIONALIST, STRAIN AND SUBCULTURAL THEORIES

Quickcheck 1. Why does Durkheim regard crime as inevitable in all societies? 2. Identify two ways in which crime and deviance may have positive functions. 3. Explain the difference between goals and means. 4. Explain the difference between ritualism and retreats. 5. In what sense is Merton’s theory deterministic? 6. What is meant by non-utilitarian crime? 7. What is meant by ‘status-frustration’? 8. In Cloward and Ohlin’s view, why are there different types of deviant subculture? 9. Identify two features of American society that Messner and Rosenfeld claim to produce high crime rates.

(answers at http://napierpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Page-77-QCQ-Ans.pdf)

Item A Many people see deviance as being dysfunctional and negative for society because it represents the potential for social breakdown. However, some sociologists suggest that deviance might actually be functional for society and act as a warning. For example, imprisonment, fines and so on are not simply there to punish offenders; they con- vey other messages as well. Society’s values are also not fixed and new ideas sometimes emerge to challenge ex- isting values.

Item B Strain theories focus on the ways in which people may resort to crime or deviance when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means. For example, Merton argues that American culture empha- sises achieving success, but an unequal structure limits some individuals’ opportunity to do so legitimately. This may induce frustration the individuals concerned. Some strain theorists see the response to this situation as a group reaction, in which individuals create or join deviant subcultures. 1. Outline two reasons why functionalists see crime as inevitable. [4 marks]

10. Applying material from Item A, analyse two functions of deviance. [10 marks]

11. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate the contribution of strain theories to our understanding of crime and deviance. [30 marks]

INTERACTIONISM AND LABELLING THEORY

Quickcheck 1. Explain what is meant by the phrase, ‘deviance is in the eye of the beholder’. 12. True or false? Secondary deviance refers to less important acts of deviance. 13. Identify three agencies of social control. 14. What is meant by the ‘dark figure’ of crime? 15. What is meant by a ‘total institution’? 16. Lemert argues that ‘social control leads to deviance’. What does he mean? 17. What is self-fulfilling prophecy? 18. According to Marxists, what does labelling theory fail to tell us about power? 19. What is determinism? Why do critics accuse labelling theory of being deterministic?

Item A Labelling theorists argue that an act is not inherently criminal; it only becomes so when it is labelled as such. They are interested in the ways that labelling affects the actions of those with the power to label acts as criminal, such as the police and courts. Being labelled can also have important effects on individuals to whom the label is attached, and labelling a group as criminal can even lead to higher rates of crime being recorded.

Item B Rather than look for the initial causes of the deviant act, as functionalists do, labelling theorists ask how and why some groups and acts come to be labelled as criminal or deviant while others do not. Coming from an interactionist perspective, they argue that what we mean by crime or deviance is the outcome of the same processes of social interaction - between police officer and suspect, for example - as any other social behaviour. Therefore to under- stand crime and deviance, we must grasp the meanings involved in the interaction.

1. Outline two criticisms of labelling theory. [4 marks]

20. Applying material from Item A, analyse two effects of the labelling process on individuals and groups. [10 marks]

21. Applying material from Item B and your own knowledge, evaluate the contribution of labelling theory to our understanding or crime and deviance. [30 marks]

CLASS, POWER AND CRIME

Quickcheck 1. Why are functionalist, strain and subcultural theories called ‘problem-takers’? 22. Identify three ways in which capitalism can be said to be criminogenic. 23. How does the study of East Africa by Chambliss support the Marxist view of crime? 24. Identify two ways in which crime and the law perform an ideological function for capitalism. 25. Explain the difference between deterministic and voluntaristic views of behaviour. 26. Explain why critical criminology has been accused of being too idealistic to be useful in tackling crime. 27. What is meant by the ‘correctionalist bias’ in some theories of crime? 28. What is Sutherland’s definition of white collar crime? 29. Explain the difference between occupational crime and corporate crime. 30. Name three types of corporate crime. 31. Identify three reasons for the invisibility of corporate crime. (answers at http://napierpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Page-95-QCQ-Ans.pdf)

Item A Marxism sees capitalist society as divided along social class lines. The ruling class own the means of production and use their power to exploit the working class in the pursuit of profits, often resulting in workers living in poverty. This relationship then determines the shape of the superstructure - that is, all the other institutions that make up society, including the state, the law and the criminal justice system. Capitalism is also intensely competitive, with companies and individuals motivated to seek profits.

Item B Some sociologists focus on the ‘crimes of the powerful’. Crimes committed in the interests of businesses and other large institutions can be far more harmful and costly than the street crimes that we tend to think of as ‘real crime’. Corporate crime can involve breaking criminal laws but may also include breaking other kinds of law. Some sociologists argue that corporate crime results from pressures to succeed, leading to employees pursuing business aims by illegitimate means. However, others claim that it is the product of capitalism.

1. Outline three reasons why white collar and corporate crime may have low rates of prosecution. [6 marks]

32. Applying material from Item A, analyse two ways in which Marxists see class and crime as related. [10 marks]

33. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of corporate crime. [30 marks]

REALIST THEORIES OF CRIME

Quickcheck 1. What is the main focus of right realism in crime prevention? 34. Explain what is meant by ‘zero-tolerance policing’. 35. Identify two biological factors that right realists see as important in causing criminal behaviour. 36. Why might a prosperous society be more likely to have high crime rates? 37. Explain what is meant by ‘marginalisation’. 38. Explain what is meant by ‘relative deprivation’. 39. Identify three policy changes suggested by left realists to reduce crime. 40. Identify two similarities between left and right realism.

(answers at http://napierpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Page-103-QCQ-Ans-1.pdf)

Item A Right realist theories have had a significant influence on government policies, especially because they appear to offer practical answers to the problem of crime. Like many sociologists, they see childhood experiences as very important in determining behaviour in later life. They focus on the idea that some people are naturally more aggres- sive or less intelligent than others, and they stress the need to ensure that crime does not go unpunished.

Item B Left realists see crime as a real problem, especially for the disadvantaged groups who are its victims. They see the causes of crime as located in the structure of late modern society, with its high levels of exclusion and insecurity. Their views on how to tackle the problem of crime have had some influence on official policy, particularly under New Labour governments. However, the critics claim that left realists focus too narrowly on inner-city crime and ignore the crimes of the powerful.

1. Outline two realist solutions to the problem of crime. [4 marks]

41. Applying material from Item A, analyse two explanations of the causes of crime put forward by right realists. [10 marks] 42. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate the contribution of left realism to our understanding of crime and deviance. [30 marks]

GENDER, CRIME AND JUSTICE

Quickcheck 1. What proportion of convicted offenders are male? 43. Suggest two ways in which ‘chivalry’ might operate in the treatment of females by the law. 44. Suggest two ways in which females may be treated more harshly than males by the criminal justice system. 45. How does sex role theory account for gender differences in offending? 46. According to Heidensohn, in what three areas are women controlled? 47. According to Carlen, in what ways may lower-class women miss out on both gender and class deals? 48. Suggest two criticisms of the liberation thesis? 49. Explain what is meant by ‘net widening’ in relation to female offending. 50. According to Messerschmidt, what type of masculinity do white middle-class youths typically adopt? 51. Messerschmidt is said to ‘overwork the concept of masculinity’. Explain what this means.

Item A Most criminals are men. The most consistent finding of research into crime in different societies and over many decades is that there is a clear link between crime and masculinity. However, the kind of crimes committed varies between different groups of men. So too does what counts as being a ‘real man’ and the resources to achieve it. Changes over time in the economy and the employment structure - such as de-industrialisation, for example - may also affect men’s opportunities to express their masculinity.

Item B Official crime statistics indicate that there are significant gender differences in the commission of crime. Only about 20% of convicted offenders are female, and they are far less likely to commit homicide, carry out violent crime or be repeat offenders. However, some sociologists believe that these statistics underestimate the true extent and seriousness of female crime. They argue that the leniency of the criminal justice system may result in fewer girls and women ending up in the crime statistics than men.

1. Outline two differences between the recorded patterns of male and female offending. [4 marks]

52. Applying material from Item A, analyse two reasons why men commit crime. [10 marks]

53. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of female crime. [30 marks]

ETHNICITY, CRIME AND JUSTICE

Quickcheck 1. How much more likely are black people to be stopped and searched than whites? 54. Identify two problems in using self-report studies to study ethnic differences in offending. 55. How do Lea and Young account for utilitarian and non-utilitarian crime among blacks? 56. In what way does Gilroy see ethnic minority crime as political? 57. Suggest two criticisms of Gilroy’s views. 58. According to Hall et al, how did the moral panic over mugging help capitalism? 59. What is meant by the term ‘institutional racism’? 60. Identify two social characteristics of ethnic minority groups that make them more likely to be victims.

Item A The risk of being a victim of crime appears to vary by ethnic group, both in terms of ‘ordinary’ crimes and racially motivated crimes. This is shown in victim surveys. Surveys are based on the assumption that people are aware of what is happening to them. All suspected crimes have to go through a process of being reported and investigated before they are officially categorised as a crime.

Item B Official statistics suggest that there is a clear relationship between ethnicity and offending.These show black people and to a lesser extent Asians as being over-represented in the criminal justice system. In the view of some sociologists, this is because at each stage in the system, from policing through to sentencing, institutional racism dis- torts the picture of ethnic patterns of offending. However, left realists argue that there are real differences in offending rates and that these differences can be ex- plained in terms of factors such as relative deprivation and marginalisation.

1. Outline two reasons why members of some ethnic groups are more likely than others to receive custodial sentences. [4 marks]

61. Applying material from Item A, analyse two explanations of the apparent differences in the rates of victimi- sation of ethnic groups.

62. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of the relationship between ethnicity and offending.

CRIME AND THE MEDIA

Quickcheck 1. Identify three news values that the media use to select crime stories. 63. Identify three ways in which the media’s fictional portrayal of crime and policing differs from that of the official statistics. 64. In what way may the media and fear of crime be linked? 65. Suggest three ways in which the media may encourage or cause crime and deviance. 66. How do left realists explain the role of the media in causing crime? 67. Explain what is meant by ‘the commodification of crime’. 68. Explain what is meant by the term ‘deviance amplification’. 69. Identify three ways in which the media amplified the deviance of the mods and rockers. 70. Identify two criticisms of the concept of moral panic. 71. Suggest three examples of cyber-crimes.

Item A Some sociologists claim that the media do not just report criminal and deviant behaviour, but may actually be a cause of crime and deviance. Some media portrayals of crime may appear to be very realistic. The media also present a number of different lifestyles in a wide range of types of programmes, such as ‘reality’ TV, advertising, documentary and fiction, which some audiences may see as attractive. The same of similar crime storylines and images may be constantly repeated.

Item B A media-generated moral panic occurs when the media present and exaggerated over-reaction to an issue which as a result makes the issue seem a much greater problem than it actually is. Usually, a group is represented as a ‘folk-devil’ - a great threat to society. This media amplification initiates a spiral of distortion, stereotypical representation and condemnation by powerful groups in society. However, this approach has been criticised for failing to explain why particular moral panics develop in the first place.

1. Outline three media news values. [6 marks]

72. Applying material from Item A, analyse two ways in which the media may cause crime. [10 marks] 73. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of media-generated moral panics. [30 marks]

GLOBALISATION, GREEN CRIME, HUMAN RIGHTS & STATE CRIME

Quickcheck 1. Name four types of globalised crime 74. What is meant by ‘global risk society’? 75. Explain what is meant by ‘glocal’ criminal organisation. 76. What advantage is there in defining green crime as breaking of the criminal law? 77. What disadvantage is there in defining green crime simply as breaking of the criminal law? 78. Suggest two examples of transgressive criminology. 79. Explain the difference between an anthropocentric and an ecocentric view of environmental harm. 80. Explain the difference between primary and secondary green crimes. 81. Explain the meaning of the term ‘state-corporate crime’. 82. Explain one argument for a ‘social harms’ definition of state crime. 83. Explain one argument for a ‘human rights’ definition of state crime. 84. Name two features of modernity that Bauman sees as making the Holocaust possible. 85. Explain what is meant by ‘neutralisation techniques’ and give one example.

Item A In common with other ‘crimes of the powerful’, state crime is not easy to define and sociologists have looked be- yond conventional definitions of crime. Some sociologists have defined state crime in an international rather than national context, while others have seen it in relation to a higher moral context. Other sociologists have gone be- yond the usual definition of crime as law-breaking by seeing state crime in terms of the damage states can cause.

Item B The process of globalisation has made the world more interconnected and increased the scope for crime. Some forms of globalised crime are based on trafficking one commodity or another, while others involve green crimes against the environment. Green crime has been given a lot of attention because of the extent of damage to the environment caused, often by large transnational corporations. Some sociologists have analysed the relationship between globalisation and crime using traditional criminological approaches. However, others see the relationship as being the inevitable product of capitalism.

1. Outline two types of green crime. [4 marks]

86. Applying material from Item A, analyse two ways in which state crime can be defined. [10 marks]

87. Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of the relationship between globalisation and crime. [30 marks]

CONTROL, PUNISHMENT, VICTIMS

Quickcheck 1. Explain the difference between target hardening and displacement. 88. Suggest two criticisms of situational crime prevention strategies apart from displacement. 89. What is meant by ‘zero tolerance policing’? 90. Give one example of synoptic surveillance. 91. Explain what is meant by ‘surveillant assemblages’. 92. Explain what is meant by ‘actuarial justice’. 93. Explain the difference between retributive and restitutive justice. 94. According to Marxists, why has imprisonment become the dominant form of punishment? 95. Explain what Foucault means by ‘disciplinary power’. 96. What is meant by ‘transcarceration’. 97. Suggest two criticisms of positivist victimology.

Item A All societies have systems of punishment for dealing with deviance, and sociologists have explain their role in a va- riety of different ways. Some sociologists emphasise the importance of society having shared values. Others argue that punishment may take the form that it does because it reflects the nature of an unequal society. Some writers have pointed to the way in which punishment varies according to the type of society in which it is found.

Item B There are several strategies for preventing or reducing crime and these reflect different views of the nature and causes of crimes. Crime depends on there being the opportunity to commit it. Some crimes may result form the de- generation of a particular locality, which suggests that crime is tolerated there by the community or the police. Of course, it may be that poor living conditions are themselves the cause of crime.

1. Outline two features of critical victimology. [4 marks]

98. Applying material from Item A, analyse two functions of punishment. [10 marks]

99. Applying material from Item B, analyse the effectiveness of two crime prevention strategies. [10 marks]

MOCK EXAM

Item A According to official crime statistics, there is a clear relationship between ethnicity and offending. Some sociologists argue that these statistical patterns broadly reflect the reality of offending, but others reject this. It may be that the patterns are due to demographic factors, or to the way in which some groups respond to discrimination. Alter- natively, it may be that processes involving the criminal justice system are responsible for ethnic differences in recorded rates of offending.

Item B Functionalists see society as based on value consensus. Crime and deviance are a threat to this consensus and yet at the same time, they can be functional for society under some circumstances. Functionalists also see the value consensus itself as a cause of crime and deviance, for example when some individuals try to achieve approved goals by illegal means. However, some functionalists see deviance as a collective rather than purely individual phenomenon.

1. Outline two neutralisation techniques that offenders may use. [4 marks]

100. Outline three reasons why Marxists see capitalism as criminogenic. [6 marks]

101. Applying material from Item A, analyse two reasons why some ethnic groups have higher recorded rates of offending than others. [10 marks]

102. Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of functionalist contributions to our understanding of crime and deviance. [30 marks]