AEMI JOURNAL • VOLUME

AEMIJOURNAL Volume 1/1 • 2016 14/15 • 2016

www.aemi.eu Association of European Migration Institutions AEMI JOURNAL

Volume 13 • 2015

Special Issue on

‘Migrants and Refugees − Ten and Now’

Editor Hans Storhaug

Association of European Migration Institutions www.aemi.eu Cover picture: The Freedom Monument (Latvian: Brīvības piemineklis) is a memorial located in Riga, Latvia, honouring soldiers killed during the Latvian War of Independence (1918–1920). It is considered an important sym- bol of the freedom, independence, and sovereignty of Latvia. Unveiled in 1935, the 42-metre (138 ft) high monument of granite, travertine, and copper often serves as the focal point of public gatherings and offcial ceremonies in Riga. Source: Wikipedia. AEMI Journal Editor: Hans Storhaug

Editorial board: Brian Lambkin, Mellon Centre for Migration Studies at Ulster- American Folk Park, Omagh, Northern Ireland Maddalena Tirabassi, Centro Altreitalie, Turin, Italy Hans Storhaug, Norwegian Emigration Center, Stavanger, Norway

Te Association of European Migration Institutions - AEMI, founded in 1991, is a network of organisations in Europe concerned with the documentation, research and presentation of European migration.

AEMI board 2014 - 2016: Hans Storhaug, Chairman Maddelena Tirabassi, Vice-chair Sarah Clement, Secretary Eva Meyer, Treasurer Marianna Auliciema (2014-15) Emilia García López (2015-16)

Manuscripts and editorial correspondence regarding AEMI Journal should be sent by e-mail to [email protected]. Statements of facts or opinion in AEMI Journal are solely those of the authors and do not imply endorsement by the editors or publisher.

Published in September 2016 © AEMI ISSN 1729-3561 AEMI Secretariat, Génériques, 34 rue de Cîteaux, 75012 Paris, France

www.aemi.eu

Printed in Norway by Omega Trykk, Stavanger Contents

6 From the Editor 10 Protocol of the AEMI 2014 meeting in Riga, Latvia 17 Chairman´s Report 2013 - 2014

20 Janja Žitnik Serafin: Some Terminological Dilemmas in Migration Studies

30 Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade: Portugal - Refuge and Refugees: Movements and Personalities

47 Susana Sabin Fernandez: Forbidden Haven to Little Basque Refugees

70 Maria Jarlsdotter Enckell: In Search of Teir Invisibles: the Personal and Household Servants

97 Paul-Heinz Pauseback: Dreams, Returning Emigrants and Millions of Dollar - What we get back from Overseas

112 Nonja Peters: Migration and the Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) since 1450: the Impact of In-migration in Sustaining the European Economy and Generating Cultural Heritage in Both Regions

133 Sarah Marijnen and Jeroen Doomernik: Baby Migration 153 Protocol of the AEMI 2015 meeting in Turin, Italy 159 Chairman´s Report 2014 - 2015

161 Solange Maslowski: Expulsion of Economically Inactive European Union Citizens

174 Daniele Valisena: From Migrations to New Mobilities in the European Union: Italians in Berlin Between Anomie and Multi-situated Identity

182 Federica Moretti: Broken Dreams of a Dream Country:Italy Between Wishes and Disenchantment

193 Susana Cascao: Portuguese Language Media in Luxembourg: Te Newspaper Contacto, a Step towards Integration

200 Elisa Gosso: Crossing Boundaries: Negotiating Transnational Heritage and Belonging in the German Waldensian Diaspora From the Editor

I am pleased to finally present to you this double issue of the AEMI Journal, based on a selection of papers presented at the Annual AEMI Meeting and International Conference in Riga in 2014 and Turin in 2015. Te Riga conference was dedicated to the theme of Migration and Refugees – Ten and Now, while the theme of the Turin conference focused on Migrations in Europe in the Tird Millenium.

In the opening article Some Terminological Dilemmas in Migration Studies Janja Zitnik Serafin discusses the problematic use of the terms ‘autochthonous’, ‘host society/host country’, and ‘tolerance’ and argues that is necessary to constantly revise the terminology used in migration studies. Te purpose of her article is to show how words create perception, and how our understanding of certain estab- lished terms can depend on our personal experience, local circumstances and cul- tural background. We should therefore develop a high level of sensitivity to the different meanings of a particular term and also develop our intercultural awareness to get a deeper understanding of our own culture and a greater openness to the pro- duction of foreign cultures.

Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade´s article Portugal - Refuge and Refugees: Movements and Personalities reveals the mobility of the Portuguese people from the early 1800s till the present, and how Portugal has served as a space of shelter and a bridge of pas- sage for thousands of people from all walks of life and various nationalities: nobility, famous writers, intellectuals as well as people fleeing war.

In Forbidden Heaven to Basque Refugee Children, Susana Sabín-Fernández paints a grim picture of the Spanish Civil War and the dramatic evacuation of 32,000 children after the bombing of the Basque towns of Durango and Guernica. She thoroughly examines the key persons involved in the evacuation, and explains why many countries hosted the Basque children, while the USA decided not to do so.

Maria Jarlsdotter Enckell has taken on the huge task trying to indentify each one of the entire non-Russian north European labour-force, recruited from 1798 to 1867 to fill the Russian American Company’s needs at Novo Archangelsk/ Sitka, on Bar- anof Island, and around the North Pacific Rim: e.g. governors, naval officers, office employees, and sea captains with their ship crews down to cabin boys. In her article 1798-1867: Russian America and its Latvians. In Search of Teir Invisibles: the Per- sonal and Household Servants she particularly focuses on the personal and household servants, also referred to as the invisibles. 7 Paul-Heinz Pauseback´s article Dreams, Returning Emigrants and Millions of Dollars – What We Get Back from Oversea focus on the consequences of return migration and the stream of material and immaterial goods that was brought back from for- eign countries – mainly the US - to his North Frisia and Husum where almost every native family were affected: personal wealth, investments, innovations but above all: the idea of personal freedom – and the absence of autocratic authorities and oppressing bureaucracy.

In ‘Migration and the Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) since 1450: the Impact of In-migration in Sustaining the European Economy and Generating Cultural Heritage in Both Regions’, Nonja Peters demonstrates the role European expansion during the age of discovery played in interconnecting the Earth´ s peoples, cultures, economies and polities, how the world become ‘global’ and the vital role states and nations from Antiquity, the Ottoman Empire, the Middle East and Indian Ocean Rim and Americas played in this history. She also makes a point of the fact that the Council of Europe has recognised cultural heritage - tangible, intangible or digital - as a unique and non-renewable resource and a major asset for Europe and for the entire European project. She therefore stresses the fact that most of this cultural heritage – at least the artifacts displayed in the British Museum in London and the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam - are not from Europe, but were ‘acquired’ by maritime explorers during the ‘Age of Exploration’ from nations and states the British and Dutch had conquered, and that they in fact commemorate colonialism and imperialism.

In the article Baby Migration, Sarah Marijnen and Jeroen Doomernik introduces the reader to what they describe as a ‘peculiar and often unnoted form of international migration’, starting immediately after the Second World War when orphans from war-torn European countries were adopted by American families. Tis Intercountry Adoption (ICA) has since the mid-1970s until the present been shaped by an in- creasing gap between rich and poor countries, and created an growing demand for children in developed countries. Tis has resulted in a billion-dollar unregulated in- dustry, raising the questions on the role of the adoption organisations and agencies, and ultimately paved way to international normative frameworks e.g.: the United Nations Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to the Protection and Welfare of Children (1986), and the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (2000).

In Expulsion of Economically Inactive European Union Citizens, Solange Maslowski argues that a growing number of inactive Union citizens, e.g. persons who are self-sufficient and in possession of sickness insurance coverage, pensioners, first- time job seekers and job-seekers who no longer retain the status of workers, have been expelled from their host Member state and that this phenomenon seems to continue. She describes the process of expulsion of economically inactive Union cit- izens by quoting the main legal grounds for expulsion such as threat to public policy, public security and public health, abuse of rights or fraud and unreasonable burden on the social assistance system of the host Member States. Morawski argues that economically inactive Union citizens are not protected enough against expulsion, despite the existing safeguards. Since no conviction is required, the mere suspicion of a breach of the order is sufficient to constitute a threat to public policy. Te recent refugee crisis and some events surrounding the Brexit, such as the requirements of the United Kingdom to condition the freedom of movement of mobile workers, is however, much more worrisome, according to Marowski. Such a step would destroy the fundamental right of freedom of movement of Union citizens that has existed since the foundation of the EEC for mobile workers.

In her article From Migrations to New Mobilities in the European Union: Italians in Berlin Between Anomie and Multi-situated Identity, Daniele Valisena argues that Italian newcomers in Berlin are representatives of a new phenomenon called new mobility originating from the 2008 economic crisis. Te crisis revealed not only the economic contradictions and disparities between North and South Europe, but also cut the bond that tied a generation of young, highly skilled workers and globalized multicultural people, to their countries, giving them the opportunity to leave and to enter in a brand new pattern of life that, for its specificities can not be identified as a traditional migration flow. Valisena claims that in regards to migration history, neither push and pull, nor po- litical and economic paradigms can explain this new migration wave. In the same way, chain migration, melting pot or diasporic models, as well as ethnic analysis do not seem to be able to totally comprehend this new phenomenon.

Broken Dreams of a Dream Country:Italy Between Wishes and Disenchantment Te Italian community in the Belgian territory, count 157,400 (2013) people of a total Belgian population of 11. 2million. In her article, Federica Moretti first describes the experiences of Italian graduate students currently pursuing Master or PhD programmes at the University of Leuven, Belgium and those of the second/ third generation students enrolled at the University of Leuven. Te research un- folds and compares the two groups’ conceptions of Italy, especially focusing on two issues: how is Italy ‘imagined’ and how do these imaginaries open up to various courses of action.

Susana Cascao´s article Portuguese Language Media in Luxembourg: Te Newspaper Contacto, a Step towards Integration is based on her Master´s thesis studying the Por- tuguese language newspaper Contacto, a weekly periodical founded during the first and biggest wave of Portuguese migration to Luxembourg in the 1970’s,. Contacto has been serving the community in a facilitating role that Susana argues represents a step towards a desired integration through the interaction with local organisations and through open support for more political involvement of the Por- tuguese community, e.g. the call for dual nationality, the insistence on the need for participation in both municipal and general elections, and the raising of awareness on the rights of workers.

From Elisa Gosso´s article Crossing Boundaries: Negotiating Transnational Heritage and Belonging in the German Waldensian Diaspora, we learn that the term Walden- sian defines an Italian religious Protestant group that originated in Lyon, France, as an heretical movement in the early Middle Ages. In 1532 their members decided to adhere to the Protestant Reformation and, consequently, to organize themselves as a Church. Because of persecutions from both the political power and the Catholic Church they were soon banished from Lyon and scattered across other regions, par- ticularly in the Waldesian Valley in Western Piedmont, close to Turin. From here they moved to Germany, and established the Waldensergemeinde in Hessen south of Frankfurt. Te peculiarity of this group is that in 1974 it established a twinning agreement with the native land of their Waldensian ancestors, Pragelato, in the high Chisone Valley, and in 2014 the two groups celebrated the 40th anniversary of the twinning, focusing on social and cultural beliefs rooted in a common heritage.

Hans Storhaug, Editor Te Association of European Migration Institutions Protocol of the Annual Meeting

24 - 27 September 2014 Riga, Latvia

Members of the Association of European Migration Institutions (AEMI) and other experts on migration issues met for a three day conference in Riga and Cesis, Latvia. The conference was hosted by Latvians Abroad, Museum and Research Centre and the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Latvia and took place at the university´s Mazā Aula. This group picture was taken by the waiter at the Royal Europe Restau- rant marking the end of yet another successful AEMI conference. AEMI ANNUAL MEETING 2014, RIGA, LATVIA 11 Tursday, 25 September 2014 History of Poles in Germany, Bochum, After an informal gathering at the Uni- Germany: Remembrance Places on Polish versity of Latvia Wednesday evening, Slave Laborer, Displaced Persons and the conference members met Tursday Polish Enclave on the New Internet Site morning in the Mazā Aula at the uni- Porta Polonica versity. Welcome speeches by Maija Maria Beatriz Rocha -Trindade, Uni- Hinkle, chairperson of the board of the versidade Aberta, Portugal: Portugal: Latvians Abroad Museum and Research Foreseeing the Refuge: Movements and Centre, the primary host organization, Personalities or Refugee/s? Inta Brikše, University of Latvia, Dean of Faculty of Social Sciences, and AEMI • Session 2 Refugees 2 was chaired by chairman Hans Storhaug, marked the Baiba Bela, University of Latvia. official opening of the annual confer- Speakers: ence. Susana Sabin Fernandez, Univer- In his keynote speech Pēteris Kār- sity of Southampton, UK: UK and US lis Elferts, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Haven to Little Basque Refugees Ambassador-at-Large for the Diaspora Drago Župarić-Iljić, Simona Kuti, addressed the complexity of Latvian Snježana Gregurović, Margareta Gre- diaspora, representing both a problem gurović, Dubravka Mlinarić, Mario for the economy as the country is losing Bara, Institute for Migration and Ethnic people and taxpayers, but also a huge Studies, Zagreb: Old Wounds, New Dis- resource and great potential, since Lat- placements? Te Last 25 Years of Forced vians abroad gained valuable education Migrations in Croatia and work experience that the country Ieva Garda-Rozenberga, Institute of will benefit from in the future. Philosophy and Sociology, University of Te rest of the day was devoted to pa- Latvia: Latvians in Sweden: crossing the pers and discussions related to the theme real, imagined and storied borders Migration and Refugees - Now and Ten.’ • Session 3 Scandinavian Migration was • Session 1 Refugees 1 was chaired by chaired by Mathias Nilsson, Te Swed- Maija Hinkle, Latvians Abroad – Mu- ish Migration Center. Speakers: seum and Research Centre. Speakers: Knut Djupedal, Museum of Migra- Dietmar Osses, Director of the LWL tion, Norway: Some Toughts on Norwe- Industrial Museum Hannover Col- gian Emigration for Religious Reasons in liery in Bochum, Germany: Longing for the 16th Century Home: Polish Displaced Persons in Ger- Maria Jarlsdotter Enckell, Åland many Islands Emigrant Institute, Finland: Maija Krūmiņa, Institute of Philoso- 1798-1867: Russian America and Its Lat- phy and Sociology, University of Latvia, vians Latvia: Te New ‘Home’: Latvian Refu- Ann-Kristin Högman, Department gee’s First Steps in Teir Host Countries of Political, Historical, Religious and Jacek Barski, Porta Polonica - Docu- Cultural Studies, Karlstad University: mentation Centre for the Culture and Old and Alone? Te Impact of the Great 12 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Emigration on Social Networks of the El- •Session 6 Archives and Museums was derly chaired by Knut Djupedal, Museum of Migration, Norway. Speakers: • Session 4 Child and Return Migrations Maira Bundža, Western Michigan - Rewards and Challenges was chaired by University, USA: Preservation of Baltic Maddalena Tirabassi, Altreitalie Center Migrant Culture in Libraries and Archives on Italian Migration. Speakers: Emilia García López, Council for Paul Pauseback, Noordfriisk In- Galician Culture, Spain: Letters Galician stituut: Germany: Dreams, Ex-emigrants Exile on the Web: Epistles Project and Millions of Dollars – What We Get Marie-Charlotte Le Bailly and Nadia Back from Overseas Babazia, Red Star Line Museum, Bel- Nonja Peters, Curtin University, Aus- gium: Te Valorisation of Migration Sto- tralia: Migrants, Refugees and a Sustain- ries as European Biographical Heritage & able Europe – Ten and Now Teir Use as a Museum Tool to Connect Jeroen Doomernik, Amsterdam In- Past and Present – Te Case of the Red stitute for Social Science Research, Star Line Museum University of Amsterdam, Netherlands: Maija Hinkle, Latvians Abroad - Mu- Migration for Adoption: A Specific Kind seum and Research Centre, USA: Latvi- of Trafficking? ans Abroad - an Interim Assessment

Friday, 26 September 2014 After lunch the organisers and the staff at Te morning session started with a key- the Occupation Museum had arranged note speech by Prof. Dr. Vita Zelče, for a visit and guided tour at Stūra māja ASPRI and Faculty of Social Sciences, (former KGB building). Dinner was University of Latvia, who spoke about enjoyed at Rozengrals, Riga’s only au- Major Flows of Migration Early 19th thentic medieval restaurant.(Located Century to 1991: Latvian Case. on the narrowest street of Old Riga, it is a modern incarnation of what was • Session 5 Media and Migration was once Vinarium Civitatis Rigensis – the chaired by Hans Storhaug, the Norwe- wine-cellar and festival hall of Riga city gian Migration Center. Speakers: council, mentioned in scripts as early as Patrick Fitzgerald, Mellon Centre of in 1293. Source: http://www.virtuallat- Migration Studies, N. Ireland, Refugees via.lv/medieval-restaurant-rozengrals/.) in Irish Migration History Mārtiņš Kaprāns & Inta Mieriņa, Saturday, 27 October 2014 Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, Saturday morning conference mem- University of Latvia, Latvia: Latvian bers were taken on a bus tour through a Emigrant Communities: Media, Identity beautiful landscape of birch forest to the and Belonging medieval city of Cēsis. Mr. Jānis Ro- Andris Straumanis, University of zenbergs, Chairman of Cēsis Regional Wisconsin - River Falls, USA: Te View Council, spoke about the problems the from Hell: Latvian Press Reports of Emi- city is facing due to diaspora. Unable to gration to Brazil, 1890-1915 AEMI ANNUAL MEETING 2014, RIGA, LATVIA 13 find relevant jobs, many young Latvi- Te Åland Islands Emigrant Institute, ans had left the city in recent years. To Mariehamn, Åland, represented by Ms. reverse this negative trend the regional Eva Meyer council were about to implement a city Te Norwegian Emigration Center, development program to bring the mi- Stavanger, Norway represented by Mr. grants back home. Hans Storhaug Immediately after the meeting with Te Swedish Migration Center, Karl- Mr. Rosenberg, AEMI members got or- stad, Sweden, represented by Mr. Mathias ganised for the General Assembly meet- Nilsson and Mr. Erik Gustavson ing. Te Center of Migration Studies and Intercultural Relations, Universidade Te General Assembly of the Aberta, Portugal, represented by Prof. Association of European Migration Maria Beatriz Rocha -Trindade Institutions (AEMI) Altreitalie - Center on Italian Migra- tions, Turin, Italy represented by Prof. Minutes of Meeting Maddalena Tirabassi Te General Assembly of the Association Te Institute of Diaspora and Eth- of European Migration institutions was nic Studies, Jagiellonian University, called to order Saturday 27 September Krakow, Poland, represented by Prof. 2014, 12.00 a. m. at the castle of Cēsis, Adam Walaszek Latvia by Chairman Hans Storhaug. Te Danish Emigration Archives, Aalborg, Denmark, represented by Mr. 1 Attendance Register and Apologies Jens Topholm Hans Storhaug conveyed apologies from Te Danish Immigration Museum, La Cité de la Mer, France, the National Denmark, represented by Ms. Cathrine Library of Norway, University of Mainz, Kyö Hermanssen Germany and the Center of Humans Te Centre for Migration Stud- Migrations in Dudelange, Luxembourg. ies at Te Ulster-American Folk Park, It was noted that the following rep- Omagh, Northern Ireland, represented resentatives of 23 member institutions by Dr. Paddy Fitzpatrick were present: Te Migration, Ethnicity, Refugees Génériques,Paris, France, represented and Citizenship Research Unit, Curtin by Ms. Sarah Clément University, Perth, Australia, represented LWL Industrial Museum Hannover by Dr. Nonja Peters Colliery – Westphalian State Museum North Frisian Institue, Bredstedt, of Industrial Heritage and Culture, North Frisia, represented by Mr. Paul- Bochum, Germany, represented by Dr. Heinz Pauseback Dietmar Osses Consello da Cultura Galega, Santiago Te Directorate for Relations with de Compastella, Spain, represented by Basque Communities Abroad, Basque Emilia Garcia Lopez Country, represented by Mr. Asier Te Red Star Line Museum, repre- Vallejo and Mr. Benan Oregi sented by Marie-Charlotte Le Bailly and Nadia Babazia 14 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Latvians Abroad Museum and Re¬- Te Paris meeting coincided with the search Centre, Riga, Latvia, represented General Assembly meeting of Generi- by Maja Hinkle. que, and the Board joined them at the Te Chairman then moved that Pro- dinner buffet closing their meeting. fessor Adam Walaszek be elected Presid- Te Board also discussed how to make ing Officer of the General Assembly for the new website more user friendly and the presentation of reports by members what it will take to bring the bookpro- of the Board. Te motion was agreed ject Making Europe Bottom Up: Euro- and Professor Walaszek took the chair. pean Migratory History to fruition. Te chairman also thanked Mathias 2. Minutes of the General Assembly of Nilsson and his colleagues for making AEMI Saturday 29 September 2012 at their preparations to host us in Karlstad. the Institute of Diaspora and Ethnic Stud- Finally, Hans Storhaug reminded the ies, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Po- assembly that the Board is now entering land the final year of its tree-year term, so po- Te Minutes of the General Assem- tential new board members should con- bly of AEMI Saturday 29 September sider running for the election next year. 2012 at Te Institute of Diaspora and Te Presiding Officer thanked the Ethnic Studies, Jagiellonian University, Chairman for his presentation and Krakow, Poland were approved as accu- moved the adoption of the report. Te rate records. assembly adopted the motion.

3. Chairman’s Report, 2012-2013 4. Secretary´s Report, 2012-2013 Te chairman gave his report summa- AEMI´s Secretary Sarah Clement noted rizing key points and referring to the that she had communicated messages to full text at the AEMI website. Hans and from AEMI members, particularly Storhaug thanked Adam Walaszek, Ag- on the development of the AEMI web- nieszka Stasiewicz and Jan Lencznarow- site. Te new website offers functions icz for a great meeting in Krakow. like Facebook and Twitter, but they are In addition to frequent internet com- not frequently used. In order to make munication, the board held one face-to the website more informative for both face meeting in Paris, France 18 - 20 June members and potential visitors, Secre- 2013. Unfortunately, Adam Walaszek tary Clemtent requested more detailed and Eva Meyer were prevented from com- information about each member insti- ing. Te board discussed the framework tution. Te Secretary also noted that of the upcoming Annual Conference and she had actively tried to recruit new who to invite as keynote speaker. In that members, and had invited Paul Lappa- respect, the board agreed to make a re- lainen, senior advisor with the Swedish quest to the Global Forum of Migration Equality Ombudsman and member of and Development, the European Fund the advisory board of the Open Society for Integration, the High Commissioner Foundations to the Karlstad conference. of National Minorities, and the Open Society Foundation. AEMI ANNUAL MEETING 2014, RIGA, LATVIA 15 5. Treasurer´s Report 2012-2013 Identity - European Internal Migration. Treasurer Eva Meyer presented the fi- Te Journal counted nine articles based nancial report 2012, and addressed the on papers delivered at the Institute of question of removing members that Diaspora and Ethnic Studies, Jagiello- had not paid their subscrition for many nian University, Krakow, Poland. Te years from the member list. Te Board Presiding Officer thanked the Editor for will work out a solution, and contact his presentation and moved the adop- the institutions involved. Te Presiding tion of the Editor´s report. Te meeting Officer thanked the Treasurer for her adopted the motion. presentation and moved the adoption of the Treasurer´s Report. Te meeting 10. Admission of New Members adopted the motion. Nina M. Ray, Professor of Business and Marketing at the Boise State Uni- 6. Auditor´s Report 2012-2013 versity, Idaho, has frequently attended Te Auditor of AEMI, Mr. Erik Gus- the AEMI conferences and submitted tavsson, presented AEMI´s financial re- articles for publication in the AEMI port. Te Presiding Officer thanked Mr. Journal. Ms. Ray has applied for mem- Gustavsson and moved the adoption bership and was accepted as an associ- of his report. Te meeting adopted the ated member. motion. Te Emigration Museum in Gdynia, Poland, represented by Dr. Marcin Sze- 7. Appointment of Auditor for 2013-2014 rle was also accepted as member. Te Chairman thanked Mr. Gustavs- son for serving as auditor in the past 11. Member´s Projects years, and kindly asked him to stay on Mathias Nilsson informed the Assembly as Auditor for 2013-2014. Te Presid- that the application for EU funding of ing Officer moved that Mr. Gustavsson his project Migraport had not been ac- continued as Auditor, and the meeting cepted. Some of the AEMI members al- adopted his motion. ready involved in the project would still be interested to collaborate with him on 8. Treasurer´s Proposed Budget 2014 this project. Mathias Nilsson will also Treasurer Eva Meyer proposed a budget consider a new application for the ICT for 2014, that was unanimoously sup- Policy Support Programme (ICP-PSP) ported by the Assembly. Te Presid- which aims at stimulating innovation ing Officer moved the adoption of the and competitiveness through the wider Treasurer´s Proposed Budget 2014. Te uptake and best use of ICT by citizens, meeting adopted the motion. governments and businesses. Maddalena Tirabassi encouraged the 9. Journal Editor´s Report 2012-2013 Assembly to contribute to the projec- Hans Storhaug, Editor of the AEMI Making Europe Bottom Up: European Journal, presented volume 11 of the Migration History by sending her statis- Journal based on the theme of the tics, photos and articles on migration Krakow conference Shaping Europe´s from their own countries. Maddalena 16 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Tirabassi also urged the Assembly to make a public announcement support- ing the victims of the Lampedusa ca- tastrophe. Sarah Clement wanted members to contribute to the Places of Memory and History concept by sending her informa- tion and pictures of three places con- nected to migration in their country.

12. Future venues Representatives from several member institutions have expressed their wish to host the AEMI conference in the years to come. Te 2014 Annual AEMI meeting will take place in Riga, Latvia which that year has the status as Eu- ropean Capital of Culture. Ms. Mari- anna Auliciema, representing Latvians Abroad Museum and Research Centre, announced that the theme for next year will have a special focus on refugees. Te venue for 2015 is still to be de- cided. Te actual alternatives are Alt- reitalie, Center on Italian Migrations, Turin, Italy or Te Red Star Line in Antwerp, Belgium. In connection with the 400th anni- versary of the first European recorded landfall in Western Australia in 2016, Ms. Nonja Peters has proposed Perth, Australia as the venue for the Annual AEMI conference that year. Another al- ternative might be Santiago de Compas- tella in Spain. Te Association of European Migration Institutions Chairman´s Report 2013 - 2014

Ladies and Gentlemen: How time flies. I can hardly believe only with the historic nineeteenth- and another year has passed since we met twentieth century emigration history, in Karlstad, the Sun city of Sweden. I but also reflecting on afterwar immigra- will use this opportunity to, once again, tion and present day integration pro- thank Mr. Mathias Nilsson and his pre- cesses. With an increasing immigrant decessor Mr. Erik Gustavsson and the population and a growing support for rest of the staff at the Swedish Migration the nationalistic Swedish Democrats Center, for their warm welcome and ex- (SD), gaining 13.7 per cent of the votes traordinary hospitality, and an exciting in the recent election (2014), making it and educational conference and meet- the sixth-largest party in the Parliament ing. Located in the beautiful Karlstad - Riksdagen - indicates how important courthouse building, right in the heart this shift is. of the city, the Migration Center offers As usual, there has been frequent a well of sources and opportunities for communication between members of genealogists and historians as well as for the Board, mainly by email, in prepa- the city´s immigrant population. Te ration for the Annual Meeting in Riga, conference took place at the Karlstad Latvia. Your Board, for the last year of Congress Culture Center, one of the this current three-year cycle, has been largest and modern congress buildings Maddalena Tirabassi (Italy) as Vice- in the Nordic countries offering state- Chair, Sarah Clement (France) as Sec- of-the-art conference facilities. retary, Eva Meyer (Åland/ Finland) as Te Swedish Migration Center was es- Treasurer, Hans Storhaug (Norway) tablished in 1960 as Emigrantregisteret/ as editor of the Association´s Journal, the Kinship Center and changed its Mathias Nilsson (Sweden) as represent- name to the Swedish American Center ative of last year´s host institution, and as part of its 50th Anniversary in 2010. Marianna Auliciema (Latvia) represent- Te recent shift to Swedish Migration ing the host institution of 2014, and Center more than anything reflects the myself as chairman. fact that the Center is taking its posi- Te Board held three face-to-face tion as the leading migration research meetings during this period, one in center in Sweden seriously, dealing not Paris in November last year, and two in 18 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 the city of Riga this year. Te meeting mitte in Riga, represented by Latvians with the French Ministry of European Abroad and the University of Riga: Affairs took place in Paris on 1 Novem- Marianna Auliciema, Baiba Bela, Liga ber 2013. It was organised by Virginie Belicka, Ilze Garoza, Liga Hartpenga, Brenot-Beaufrere, Head of Cultural Juris Zalans, Maija Hinkle and Ints Dz- Department at La Cite de la Mer, Cher- elzgalvis. Te organizing committe was bourg, France, and was a materialization well prepared, presenting the board al- of a meeting that was expected to take ternative themes, schedule and venues place in the beginning of the year. Nath- for the upcoming conference. Te main alie Lhayani at the French Ministry of focus will be on refugees and migrants – European Affairs, welcomed the Board now and then. During the meeting Ilze (represented by Maddalena, Sarah and Garzola made an interview with vice Hans) providing us the opportunity to chair Maddalena Tirabassi and chair- present AEMI and its network and to man Hans Storhaug that was published discuss the possibility for funding of on the Latvian Online news portal. Te one or more of the projects described in interview titled Not Everybody Leaves for the report of last year (mainly the book Money, can be downloaded at http:// project Making Europe Bottom Up: Eu- latviansonline.com/emigration-every- ropean Migratory History (1800 – 2010). body-leaves-money/ However, the French Ministry made After a farewell dinner, Ints Dzelzgal- it clear that it could only support pro- vis guided us through the historical part jects concerning France, e.g integration of Riga, while presenting us a short ver- of non-citizen immigrants in France. sion of the city´s history; Riga was a Te application also had to be in French. major centre of the Hanseatic League, Consequently, Sarah and Generique was deriving its prosperity in the 13th–15th given the responsibility to have an appli- centuries from the trade with central cation ready by March 2014, focusing and eastern Europe. Te urban fabric on 1) the construction of EU citizenship of its medieval centre reflects this pros- related to past and present migrations in perity, though most of the earliest build- France, comparing Ius soli and ius san- ings were destroyed by fire or war. Riga guinis, discrimination and policies of became an important economic centre inclusion and 2) places of memories and in the 19th century, when the suburbs history of migrations in Europe (three surrounding the medieval town were places in each European country to be laid out, first with imposing wooden put on a map on the AEMI website. Just buildings in neoclassical style and then recently, the project was granted 5000 in Jugendstil. It is generally recognized euros which will be spent on making a that Riga has the finest collection of art leaflet presenting a synthesis of research nouveau buildings in Europe. on French migration - in both the As recruiting new members in order French and English language. to enlarge the network and to strengthen On 2 – 4 April 2014, the Board (rep- our economy has been, and still is, one resented by Maddalena, Sarah, Eva and of the main objectives of your Board, I Hans) met with the organizing com- am very happy to report that we have CHAIRMAN´S REPORT 2014 19 received applications for membership about who to elect next that have the from the following three institutions: talent and energy to take the organ- CGM - Center of History of Mi- isation a step forward. I would like to grants, Leiden University, the Neth- thank again Mathias Nilsson and his erlands, University of Osnabruck, colleagues at the Swedish Migration Germany and House of Emigrants, Center for hosting the Annual Meeting Gothenburg, Sweden. Jacek Barski, rep- in Sweden in 2013. And we also thank resenting Porta Polonica – Documenta- Marianna Aulieciema and her colleagues tion Centre for the Culture and History at Latvians Abroad, Riga, Latvia, for of Poles in Germany, Bucum, Germany welcoming us to Riga. and Inese Auzina-Smita, representing Latvian Documentation Centre in the UK, have also addressed their interest to join the Association. In closing, I would like to draw your attention to another matter that needs discussing. Your Board is now entering the final year of its tree-year term so elections are due to be held this year. Tat means that you need to think

Hans Storhaug, Chairman, AEMI

September 2014 Some Terminological Dilemmas in Migration Studies

Janja Žitnik Serafin

Abstract Te author presents her arguments on must develop a high level of sensitivity the problematic use of the terms ‘au- to the different meanings of a particular tochthonous’, ‘host society/host coun- term depending on one’s cultural back- try’, and ‘tolerance’. She explains the ground, even though that term has been meaning of the term ‘integration’ (cul- generally accepted by the leading schol- tural and linguistic), as it is defined in ars in the respective research field. Or, in certain European documents, and points other words, the more we develop our out some misinterpretations of this term intercultural awareness, the more disput- found in recent academic literature. In able the generally accepted terminology her conclusion she argues that intercul- becomes, regardless of the fact that it is tural awareness is crucial in terms of our indispensable for any kind of scholarly perception of internationally established communication. Terefore terminology terminology. In order to be able to un- must be constantly revised, not only for derstand the terminological dilemmas of the purpose of its necessary updating but our own as well as those of others, we also for its due relativization.

Introduction Te most frequent opportunity that Te purpose of this article is to show opens various terminological questions how words create perception, and how is the process of the translation of schol- our understanding of certain established arly texts from one language to another. terms can depend on our personal expe- One of the most prominent English rience, local circumstances and cultural translators in Slovenia, Erica Johnson background. I will base my discussion Debeljak reflected upon terminological on the theory of subjective perception issues in ethnic and migration studies as vs. intercultural awareness (Grosman she translated one of the books in this 2004), and use the Slovenian case to il- field. Te book itself, she says, reveals lustrate the relativity pertaining to some many differences between the American crucial terms in ethnic and migration and European perceptions of certain studies. terms: the word emigrant, for example, JANJA ŽITNIK SERAFIN 21 is for obvious reasons almost exotic in of Slovenia who, in terms of ethnicity, the United States, in contrast to the belong to one of the former republics word immigrant, which is used much of Yugoslavia. /.../ If they came to Slo- more frequently there ‘because America venia before 1991 (most of them came is a land to which people have histori- in the 1970s), they were not treated as cally come, not from which people have immigrants until the disintegration of left’ (Johnson Debeljak 2012: 15-16). Yugoslavia and the emergence of new She also writes: successor states. Naturally, the Slovenian language has One of the fascinating aspects developed a vocabulary to describe these of translation is the realization of various communities, a vocabulary that how specific vocabularies develop cannot be easily replicated in another in individual languages to match language with very different notions of geographical, historical, and cul- ‘foreign’ and ‘home.’ (Ibid.) tural reality. I have discovered, in Bearing this in mind, I will try to ex- the translation of this book, that plain in this article some of my dilem- this aspect is never more acute mas concerning the use of the terms than with notions of ‘foreign’ and ‘autochthonous’, ‘integration’ (cultural ‘home.’ Take America, for example. and linguistic), ‘host society / host We say ‘overseas’ to mean ‘foreign country’, and ‘tolerance’. lands’ because for Americans most foreign lands are quite literally over one sea or another. Te same term Autochthonous would hardly be suitable to land- Te fact is that no definition of the term locked Hungary or indeed to most ‘autochthonous’ has yet achieved an in- European countries. /.../ ternational consensus, highlights one of the most abused areas in the field of minority politics at least in European What is most specific about Slovenia countries. Te excuse that the term as a nation is its history of shifting bor- ‘autochthonous’ still does not have an ders and national affiliation. Tese shifts accepted international legal definition have mostly taken place during the last is always at hand when it comes to a century, which was also the period when debate about the condition of certain a good deal of emigration out of Slove- immigrants in European countries who nia took place driven by both economic do not enjoy the protection afforded to and political forces. But, in fact, many constitutionally recognized minorities. of the ethnic communities discussed Te first European Commissioner for in this book did not result from actual Human Rights, Alvaro Gil-Robles de- human movement (migration) but, livered a warning about this issue in the rather, are the result of the movement report of his visit to Slovenia (Council of borders and the changing configu- of Europe, Office of the Commissioner ration of states. /.../ And finally there for Human Rights 2003: 4-5, 7-11) and are minority communities living inside 22 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 in his second report (Council of Europe, generations or more’ (emphasis added). Office of the Commissioner for Human Similarly, the Minority Rights Group Rights 2006: 4-5 point 1: Protection of stated in World Directory of Minorities Minorities). In the latter, the commis- (1990, xiv) that ethnic minorities be- sioner also reported that the measures come autochthonous after two genera- of the government for minority protec- tions (or in 40–50 years). tion required additional investigation Tis is the same interpretation im- into the concept of ‘autochthonous’ plicitly recommended by the European (primary) minorities and non-autoch- Commissioner of Human Rights (Of- thonous (‘new’) minorities, and that fice of the Commissioner for Human the Framework Convention for the Rights 2006: 3, comment f-5). But the Protection of National Minorities also use of the term in the Slovenian govern- applies to groups of people who come ment documents is inconsistent to say from the other republics of the former the least, and at times even hypocritical. Yugoslavia. Te commissioner felt it was In international communication the extremely important that the Slovenian Slovenian government uses the inter- government take measures to reduce the pretation of the term as quoted above. different levels of protection for Roma But this definition of autochthonous communities that emerge from the defi- minorities is not yet established in Slo- nition of these groups as either autoch- venian internal documents. Most peo- thonous or non-autochthonous, as the ple who immigrated to Slovenia from definition is still legally ambiguous. He other republics of the former Yugoslavia was concerned that the use of these con- came during the 1970s and have ded- cepts caused legal and practical uncer- icated the entirety of their active lives tainty and created the risk of arbitrary to the Slovenian economy and society. exclusion. As far as people from the re- Moreover, the number of their second publics of the former Yugoslavia were and third generation born in Slovenia concerned, the commissioner expressed now exceeds the number of first gen- concern that they were not recognized eration immigrants. Nevertheless, the as a minority in Slovenia, which caused Slovenian government in its internal great difficulty in terms of the preser- documents continues to qualify this vation of language, faith, culture, and minority with the label ‘non-autochtho- identity. nous, new ethnic communities’ or ‘new Te Slovenian government or, more minority ethnic communities’ (Čurin precisely, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Radovič 2002: 232). We find similar defines its understanding of the concept syntagms in other expert literature, for of autochthonous minorities as follows example ‘new ethnic/national commu- (Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of For- nities’(Komac 2003) and ‘new national eign Affairs 2006: 2): ‘By and large, we minorities’(Medvešek and Vrečer 2005). speak of autochthonous or historical set- By placing the label ‘new’ in quotation tlements of certain communities in cases marks, some authors implicitly question where such communities have been the suggested non-autochthonous status present in a certain area for at least two of these communities. Te danger exists JANJA ŽITNIK SERAFIN 23 that the apparent ‘short-term’ presence religious, and linguistic integration – it of these minority groups in the percep- has come to mean the opposite. Inte- tion of the general public will continue gration is now generally understood to justify their marginal treatment. De- as a two-way or multilateral process in spite positive advances in the legisla- which different parts are joined together tion pertaining to culture (e.g. ZUJIK on equal basis. Receiving countries ac- 2002), the structural reality of Slovenian cept immigrants mostly because certain society is that those ethnic minorities economic sectors in these countries that are generally considered as non-au- need them. Terefore, adaptation is tochthonous – although they have been also understood as a two-way process in present in Slovenia for more than two which the national majority and the im- generations – have an inferior position migrants play equal roles. from a number of standpoints. Te rea- As Phillips (2009) points out, ‘the son why I avoid making any distinctions European Commission, in defining the on the basis of the vague concepts of au- ‘Common Basic Principles’ enshrined tochthonous and non-autochthonous is in A Common Agenda for Integration, that from the viewpoint of human rights conceptualises integration as a two-way there is actually no difference between process, whereby minority groups and these two poorly defined categories. the majority population participate in the process of change on an equal foot- Integration (inguistic and cultural) ing.’On the other hand, Phillips admits Te term integration has a number of that ‘although the desirability of inte- contradictory definitions in various ac- gration as a two-way process may be ademic fields. Even authors from the publicly acknowledged, the expectation fields of ethnic and migration studies, in is that most of the adaptation will be which the term should mean (successful undertaken by the minority ethnic pop- and equal) inclusion of immigrants into ulation.’ the receiving society, use the term to ex- Integration as a two-way process is press different things. Certain academ- also expressed in the terminology of a ics in the field of migration studies use number of Slovenian State documents the term integration more or less synon- that deal with immigrant issues, for ymously with the term assimilation (for example the Resolucija o imigracijski example, Graf 2004; Wörsdörfer 2004; politiki Republike Slovenije [Resolu- Yükleyen and Yurdakul 2011), that is tion about Immigration Policies in the the inclusion of immigrants after they Republic of Slovenia], passed by the have acquired the majority language and National Assembly on May 14, 1999, adapted themselves to existing social and the Resolucija o migracijski politiki norms of the receiving country, ‘mem- Republike Slovenije [Resolution about bers become blended almost seamlessly, Migration Policies of the Republic of leaving behind their cultural differences’ Slovenia], passed by the National As- (Yükleyen and Yurdakul 2011). In the sembly on November 28, 2002. On the last few decades – especially in connec- LIAM (Linguistic Integration of Adult tion with economic, political, cultural, Migrants) website of the Council of Eu- 24 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 rope (2012), the following position on extent on the degree of acceptance linguistic integration is expressed: of inherited diversity. Tese positive Te very idea of linguistic integration attitudes should be encouraged by all may actually only be one of what the forms of intercultural education. established population deem to be Te position of the Council of Europe is the duties of newcomers and it is not that the external definition of linguistic necessarily the main aim of the new- integration mentioned above is NOT comer. ‘Integration’ is actually often consistent with either the real needs of taken to mean that migrants do not the host society or the expectations of stand out from other speakers or do so migrants themselves and the rights they only minimally (through a slight ac- should be granted. From an internal cent, for instance) or even that they do perspective, integration should not be not use their other languages in public defined solely in relation to acquisition and forget them. In this view of inte- of the majority/dominant language, gration, migrants should go unnoticed but in relation to each individual’s lan- linguistically and use the ‘normal’ lan- guage repertoire (my emphasis). guage of the native population. Tis is an external interpretation of inte- gration, which relates to the wishes Just as the authors of these docu- of certain native speakers, namely ments do, I also understand the concept the gradual elimination of differences of cultural and linguistic integration in combined with linguistic standardisa- the sense of active and above all equal tion. Tis interpretation also requires inclusion of minority (immigrant) lan- adult migrants to show a high level guages and cultures into the general of proficiency in the dominant/offi- cultural awareness of the population of cial language, which is perceived as multiethnic countries, which of course a demonstration of their loyalty and does not mean the eventual ‘disappear- allegiance to the host country. In the ance’ of migrant cultures and languages final analysis, proficiency in language into the majority culture and language, is equated with citizenship: “someone as Yükleyen and Yurdakul (2011) misin- who speaks French (well) is French”. terpreted the term. Te inclusion of an Tese ‘assimilationist’ expectations immigrant culture on an equal basis is may be offset by a curiosity for un- often a necessary condition to the long- known languages, a desire to learn term preservation of its authentic ele- them, goodwill regarding mistakes ments and the continuation of its vital that are made or difficulties migrants development. Integration thus means have in expressing themselves and ac- active rather than passive acceptance of ceptance of the use of other languages diversity. Tragic results of inter-ethnic in public or in the media. Tese more tensions in certain countries a few years positive attitudes may depend on the ago have taught us that the national or degree of legitimacy attached to the citizenship identity should be based on languages (migrants’ languages versus the general acceptance and complete foreigners’ languages) and to a large absorption of the concept of cultural JANJA ŽITNIK SERAFIN 25 pluralism and ethnic, religious, and lin- pendence. Tey, along with the other guistic equality. Intercultural awareness residents of Slovenia, established the and multicultural national identity are sovereign Slovenian nation. And yet prerequisite for the internal stability and when independent Slovenia began to security of any country. function as a state, it required of them Tis is why authors in the field of eth- a different process for the acquisition of nic and migration studies are expected citizenship than their ‘hosts.’ More than to use the term integration in accord- 15 percent of ‘immigrants’ from the re- ance with the understanding explained publics of the former Yugoslavia – and in the above mentioned (and other) EU even some of their descendants born documents. in Slovenia – were erased from the ‘ac- tive’ register of residents in the admin- Host Society/Country istration offices that provide residents I feel that I must at this point discuss with personal documents (and became the problematic use of the term ‘host known in the international media as society’ in connection with Slovenian ‘the erased’). Many of them lost their society and its relationship to immi- homes, jobs, social networks, and the grants or ‘new’ minorities. Te term was only homeland they had. borrowed from international academic Te patronizing notion that Slovenia circles,1 and was first used in Slovenia by is the host country and immigrants are certain research circles,2 and then by the guests, additionally distorts the attitude wider Slovenian public. of the state and the wider public to the Most people from other parts of Yu- rights and position of immigrants, at goslavia came to Slovenia before 1980. the same time distorting the self-im- At that time Slovenia needed a work age of the immigrants themselves and force, and there were sufficient jobs for their own awareness about their rights what we now call ‘immigrant vocations.’ and position. Tese immigrants are not Te housing policy at the time – unlike guests in Slovenia. Slovenia may have that of today – also made it possible to hosted refugees, foreign consultants, po- solve housing problems for immigrants. litical and other delegations, but it can Until the end of the 1970s, a large num- hardly be said to host the workers that ber of young people3 came to Slovenia. pay taxes and other contributions into Tey completed the first (and in the state coffers and upon whom the Slo- economic sense) passive period of their venian economy directly relies.4 Rather lives in the Yugoslav republics of their than the inappropriate and misleading birth where they were educated. Ten term of host society/country, I use the they brought their knowledge, skills, terms receiving society/country, major- and capabilities and invested them in ity society, etc. the Slovenian economy and society. Te investment of their labour power (after Tolerance or Respect? schooling in their home republics) con- Otherness provokes feelings of doubt, tributed to the economic development caution and reserve but also, often of Slovenia and eased its way to inde- enough, resistance and aggression that 26 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 can be translated into hate speech and tolerance begin to feel ‘vaguely defen- discriminatory actions. All of these dif- sive’. Consequently tolerance leads to ferent forms of xenophobia are expected ‘negative stands and attitudes which to be prevented by tolerance. In 1996, preclude vital communication with oth- the General Assembly of the United ers … and there they are, there we all Nations named November 16 as the are, separated from each other by invis- international day of tolerance. In Slove- ible chasms.’ nian schools, students are taught to be A number of other social critics have tolerant of others (see e.g. Šlibar 2006; thought much the same thing. Graf Sardoč 2009). But pupils who are not (2004: 16) wrote that: “No longer does ethnic Slovenians do not want to be it suffice to assume an attitude of tol- tolerated by their teachers and school- erance that decides from a national su- mates for their supposed differences; perior point of view how much of the they want to be respected and liked (cf. foreign may be accepted.” To tolerate is Žitnik 2005a). In this sense, the mean- to take the authority to decide whether ing of tolerance in connection with the legitimate rights of others may be re- immigrants and minorities becomes spected or not. As if it were only because controversial. One must ask what in we allow others the colour of their skin, fact tolerance is and whether a tolerant their language, their faith, habits and attitude to the other really contributes values, their way of life, that they can to equality, productive coexistence, and keep them. Tey can still feel a bit guilty intercultural awareness. about it, but we are generous enough to In addition to the many Slovenian allow it. Or in Goethe’s words (Goethe writers who have written about ethnic, 1897: 221): “Dulden heißt beleidigen.” – cultural, and religious tolerance (among “To tolerate is to insult.” Tis is why I others Kuzmanič 1994; 2004; Kovačič prefer to use the word respect instead of 2005; Širec 1997; Leskošek, 2005; the noun tolerance or the verb tolerate. Klepec 2007), many foreign authors, among them Voltaire (1988), have Conclusion written on this subject. Te most suc- Our perception of certain English terms cessful Slovenian emigrant writer and very often depends on the specific cul- social critic, Louis Adamic, one of the tural background and local circum- founding fathers of American multicul- stances that are vividly reflected in the turalism, wrote on many occasions that vocabulary of our mother tongue. On the tolerance of the national majority to the other hand, it also depends on the immigrants is really only hidden con- level of our intercultural awareness. As tempt, a subtler form of intolerance that Meta Grosman (2004:25) puts it, implies the superiority of the national majority. Tolerance is ‘a veneer for in- … all encounters wIth other/foreign tolerance, which cracks easily’ (Adamic cultures, whether or not we encoun- 1940: 297). On other occasions (for ex- ter them in translation, which is to ample Adamic 1946: 7), he wrote that say partially adapted to our own/ those who are on the receiving end of domestic culture, or in the original, JANJA ŽITNIK SERAFIN 27 whether these encounters are with distinguishes, for example, only those films, cartoons, and other television colours for which his language provides programming, provides an intercul- an established name. Terefore speakers tural connection. /.../ For example, if of different language communities and we watch Hamlet in London, regard- cultures will ‘see’ the different individual less of the fact that we are physically colours that they can describe in words; located in the foreign culture, we can- in this way, words create perception. not (and often we do not want to) In the reflection and discussion about remove ourselves from our own par- subjective conceptions, we are limited ticular culturally conditioned position to our maternal or our first language, as reader/viewer. Nor can we erase the which is also the language of our pri- intertextual experiences derived from mary relationship to the world and our our mother tongue, which inform all emotions (Grosman 2004: 26). our subsequent reading and often con- In this sense intercultural awareness is dition our understanding of literature also crucial in terms of our perception and our relationship to it. Te effects of internationally established terminol- of primary literary socialization as we ogy. In order to be able to understand experience it in lessons of our mother the terminological dilemmas of our own tongue also has an important influ- as well as those of others – either in the ence on all our subsequent encounters context of ethnic and migration studies with literary texts in other languages or in any other discipline or field of re- and from other cultures. Whether search, we should develop a high level these effects in certain individuals be- of sensitivity to the different meanings come cultural limitations or whether or different shades of meanings of a par- they encourage wider and more var- ticular term depending on one’s cultural ied possibilities of experiencing texts background even though that term has from foreign literary systems is de- been generally accepted by the leading pendent on the development of the scholars in the respective research field. necessary intercultural awareness that Or, in other words, the more we develop both requires and allows a deeper un- our intercultural awareness, the more derstanding of one’s own culture and a questionable the generally accepted ter- greater openness to the production of minology becomes regardless of the fact foreign cultures. Te development of that it is indispensable for any kind of intercultural awareness and expanded scholarly communication. Terefore experiential possibilities brings the terminology is and must be constantly diversification and enrichment of un- revised, not only for the purpose of its derstanding without the danger of hy- necessary updating but also for its due bridization or other threats to primary relativization. language identity.

Because individual languages segment reality and name it in different ways, the speaker of a specific language sees and 28 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

bljana: Institute for Slovenian Emigration Studies at ZRC SAZU, 23-30. References Graf, Peter. 2004. “Migration as a change of cultural Adamic, Louis. 1940. From Many Lands. New York relations by a new language map”. Dve domovini / and London: Harper. Two Homelands 19:9-23. Adamic, Louis. 1946. “Transcript of a lecture from Grosman, Meta. 2004. Književnost v medkulturnem 1946”. National and University Library, Lju- položaju. Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske bljana, Manuscript Dept., Louis Adamic Collec- fakultete. tion. Johnson Debeljak, Erica. 2012. “Translator’s Note”. Cancedda, Alessandra. 2005. Skilled Migrants Integra- In: J. Žitnik Serafin, Bridges and Walls: Slovenian tion Assessment Model – SMIAM: Guidelines. Lab- Multiethnic Literature and Culture. Frankfurt am oratorio di Scienze della Cittadinanza, European Main, etc.: Peter Lang, 15-16. Commission, Directorate-General for Justice, Se- Klepec, Katja. 2007. Socialni kapital in (ne)strpnost curity and Freedom, http://www.smiam.org/doc- med slovensko mladino: diplomsko delo. Ljubljana: uments/SMIAMLGENGL (12 December 2012). FDV. Council of Europe, LIAM. 2012. “Linguistic inte- Komac, Miran. 2003. “Varstvo ‘novih’ narodnih skup- gration of adult migrants” (LIAM), http://www. nosti v Sloveniji”. Razprave in gradivo 43:6-33. coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/liam/Integration/Integra- Kovačič, Gorazd. 2005. “Nezadostnost strpnosti”. In tion_EN.asp (4 November 2013). Poročilo Skupine za spremljanje nestrpnosti 04. Lju- Council of Europe, Office of the Commissioner for bljana: Mirovni inštitut:168-185. Human Rights. 2003. “Poročilo g. Alvara Gil-Ro- Kuzmanič, Tonči. 1994. “Postsocializem in toleranca bles-a, komisarja za človekove pravice, o njegovem ali Toleranca je toleranca tistih, ki tolerirajo – ali pa obisku v Sloveniji, 11.–14. maj 2003”. (Com- ne!”. Časopis za kritiko znanosti 164/165:165-183. mDh(2003)11), http://www.varuh-rs.si/filead- Kuzmanič, Tonči. 2004. “Kaj (ne)strpnost je in kako min/user_upload/pdf/mednarodna_porocila/ jo lahko kot koncept uporabljamo / zlorabljamo?”. Porocilo_SE_Robles_2003_SLO.pdf (28 October In Poročilo Skupine za spremljanje nestrpnosti 03. 2013). Ljubljana: Mirovni inštitut:150-174. Council of Europe, Office of the Commissioner for Leskošek, Vesna, ed. 2005. Mi in oni: Nestrpnost na Human Rights. 2006. “Poročilo o spremljanju na- slovenskem. Ljubljana: Mirovni inštitut. predka Slovenije (2003–2005): Ocena napredka Medvešek, Mojca, and Natalija Vrečer. 2005. “Perce- v izvajanju priporočil komisarja Sveta Evrope za pcije sociokulturne integracije in nestrpnosti: nove človekove pravice”. (CommDH(2006)8), http:// manjšine v Sloveniji”. In Percepcije slovenske inte- www.mzz.gov.si/fileadmin/pageuploads/Zunanja_ gracijske politike. M. Komac and M. Medvešek, politika/Porocilo_Gil_Roblesa.pdf (28 October eds. Ljubljana: Inštitut za narodnostna vprašanja, 2013). 271-377. Čurin Radovič, Suzana. 2002. “Analiza stanja na po- Phillips, Deborah. 2009. “Minority eth- dročju kulturnih dejavnosti narodnih skupnosti, nic segregation, integration and citizen- romske skupnosti, drugih manjšinskih skupnosti ship: A European perspective”. Journal of in priseljencev”. In Analiza stanja na področjih Ethnic and Migration Studies 16/2:209-225. kulture in predlog prednostnih ciljev. U. Grilc, ed. DOI: 10.1080/13691830903387337. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za kulturo. Razpotnik, Špela. 2004. Preseki odvečnosti: Nevidne Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. 1897. “Maximen und identitete mladih priseljenk v družbi tranzicijskih Reflexionen über Literatur und Ethik”. In Goethes vic. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta. Werke, vol. 42. Weimar: Böhlau. Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Gombač, Jure. 2007. “Migration policy in a new Eu- 2006. Mnenje na poročilo komisarja za človekove rope from the point of view of Slovenia”. AWR pravice Sveta Evrope o napredku Slovenije pri izv- Bulletin 45(54)/4:274-280. ajanju njegovih priporočil (2003–2005), http:// Gombač, Jure. 2009. “Priseljenska zakonodaja in www.mzz.gov.si/fileadmin/pageuploads/Zunanja_ politika v Sloveniji”. In Demografska, etnična in politika/gil_robles_-_Internet_link.pdf (28 Octo- migracijska dinamika v Sloveniji in njen vpliv na ber 2013). Slovensko vojsko. J. Žitnik Serafin, ed. Ljubljana: Sanders, Jimy M. 2002. “Ethnic boundaries and Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 49-57. identity in plural societies”. Annual Review of Soci- Gosar, Anton. 2005. “Selected demographic impacts ology 28:327-357. of migrations: Te case of Slovenia”. In Migrants Sardoč, Mitja. 2009. “Strpnost, multikulturnost in and Education: Challenge for European Schools medkulturni dialog: enakost, različnost in dru- Today. D. D. Daatland and J. Mlekuž, eds. Lju- JANJA ŽITNIK SERAFIN 29

gačnost v vzgoji in izobraževanju”. In Zbornik predavanj in dokumentov Mednarodne konference Izobraževanje za medkulturni dialog. L. Kalčina, Notes ed. Ljubljana: Zveza prijateljev mladine Slovenije, 1 For example in Sanders (2002), and Cancedda 60-64. (2005). In her 123 page Skilled Migrants Integra- Slovenian Census 2002, http://www.stat.si/ tion Assessment Model, Cancedda uses the term popis2002/si/default.htm (28 October 2013). host(ing) country/society sixty-nine times. Upon Širec, Alojz, ed. 1997. Zbornik referatov mednarod- recommendations for the final formulation of this nega znanstvenega simpozija Strpnost do manjšin. European Commission document (Žitnik 2005b: Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta; Inter-kulturo. 3-4), the phrase host/hosting society/country was Šlibar, Neva, ed. 2006. Barve strpnosti, besede dru- mostly replaced with the phrase receiving society/ gačnosti, podobe tujosti: vzgoja za strpnost in spre- country. jemanje drugačnosti preko mladinske književnosti. 2 For example in Razpotnik (2004: 37 and subse- Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, Center za peda- quent pages), and in Gosar (2005: 29). goško izobraževanje. 3 In the last Slovenian census, only 6.38% of im- Voltaire. 1988. Toleranca (translated by J. Pavlič). migrants with Serbian ethnicity living in Slovenia Nova revija 77: 1398-1399. were older than 65, while 16% of the general Slo- World Directory of Minorities (1990). Ed. Minority venian population were older than 65. Statistics Rights Group. UK: Longman. for members of other former Yugoslav nations in Wörsdörfer, Rolf. 2004. “Zgodovina migracij kot kul- Slovenia are similar to those for Serbians. turna zgodovina”. Lecture in the framewoork of 4 In the middle of the past decade, the need for im- Historical Seminar of the ZRC SAZU, Ljubljana, migrant workers in Slovenia suddenly grew. Te 25 November. Slovenian economy simply could not function Yükleyen, Ahmet, and Gökçe Yurdakul. 2011. without them. As a result of Slovenia’s weak plan- “Islamic activism and immigrant integra- ning mechanisms and its disability to cover labour tion: Turkish organizations in Germany”. Im- deficits in certain categories, Slovenia was unable migrants and Minorities 29/1: 64-85. DOI: to fill the gap internally. As a result, Slovenia is- 10.1080/02619288.2011.553134. sued some 17,000 working visas for citizens of Zakon o uresničevanju javnega interesa za kulturo third countries in 2004. In 2008, the Republic of – ZUJIK. 2002. Uradni list Republike Slovenije Slovenia passed a law limiting the number of work 96/2002. permits for foreign citizens to 24,600, which did Žitnik, Janja. 2005a. “How does it feel to be a child not even come close to covering the needs of the of a second-rate citizen?”. In Migrants and educa- Slovenian economy during 2008. For this reason, tion: Challenge for European schools today. D. D. the government again raised the quota the same Daatland and J. Mlekuž, eds. Ljubljana: Institute year. (For more on this issue see Gombač 2007; for Slovenian Emigration Studies at ZRC SAZU, 2009.) 31-38. Žitnik, Janja. 2005b. “Suggestions concerning the provisional version of SMIAM, Ljubljana, 26 April”. Te Archives of the Slovenian Migration Institute at ZRC SAZU, Projects, SMIAM. Žitnik Serafin, Janja. 2012. Bridges and Walls: Slove- nian Multiethnic Literature and Culture. Frankfurt am Main, etc.: Peter Lang. Portugal - Refuge and Refugees: Movements and Personalities

Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade

for analysis taking into account the permanent movement of people, and concluding with facts and figures that characterize the relevant periods. Te departure of the Portuguese Royal Court to Brazil (1807) – a colony located in the south of the American continent - because of French invasion, led to a situation of exile which lasted for 13 years. Te 25th of April, a mile- stone that separates a long dictatorship of almost fifty years (1926-1974) from the time democracy was installed, limits the analysis in time. Te former is our starting point and the latter our end point. Te political settings will outline the historical figures who triggered change in particular situations, acting as an en- gine capable of motivating action which overcame the difficulties encountered. Te social reasons that promoted the search for refuge and that kept in exile those forced to move from their country were interwoven with an international Fig 1 The Exiled and Legend structure where the circumstances that led to those situations were located. Te A brief introduction will review the var memory of what occurred and the ways ious senses of social and geographical to preserve the memory of controversial mobility, seeking to list the diversity personalities translates the individual of concepts that can be framed within or collective representation of achieve- this very broad category. Portugal will ments that at a certain point deserved then be taken as an example of the space criticism and, at another, pride. MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHATRINDADE 31 Te Polysemy of Two Multi-sided space; the search for an environment Concepts conducive to the acquisition of a qual- Portugal’s history reveals the mobility ification or a degree outside the country of its people who consistently left the of origin; or the establishment of resi- country either voluntarily or compelled dence abroad by retirees, due to a milder by various reasons. It is estimated that a climate, better quality of life or greater number equivalent to half of those re- security. siding in Portugal are residing abroad All these aspects are now included in (Rocha-Trindade, 2000:22-9; 2014:72). the very broad and inclusive concept of Te migratory movements led to many migration. It should be noted, however, and diverse locations in flows of variable that there is no coincidence between volume, smaller groups or even isolated this expansion, which touches a mul- individuals who, for one reason or an- tiplicity of sociological meanings, and other, had to make such a choice. Al- the context of their legal or regulatory though they have gained more interest contents. In fact, there is a certain time and therefore required greater attention, lag between the evolution of its mean- movements of an economic nature are ing, in the strictly scientific plan and its the primary subject of research projects translation in legal terms, which is due developed and their consequent pub- to the significant inertness of both the lications. It is therefore important to national and international legislative ap- try to position the departures from the paratuses. country and the motivations caused by As a trivial example, quite a few dip- other circumstances. lomats, who are in every aspect a spe- Te consensus is that the migration cial case of temporary migrants, would concept covers both the point of view certainly be vigorously opposed to being of the country of origin of the migrants, included in the migrant category, for so- in a conceptual situation of emigration, cial prestige reasons. If a legal inclusion and the receiving country, diverging to in that social category was attempted, it an immigration perspective, as two sides would assume some parity with the pro- of the same coin. files assigned to other forms of mobility, Regarding issues such as the root namely the labour motivated ones. causes of departure that lead to expatri- Unlike the previous case, in which ation, there has been a certain concep- migrations tend to be taken in a broader tual enlargement. A few decades ago, sense, having precise meanings both in the idea of international migration was social and legal terms, the notion of mainly associated with economic rea- exile has a much more restricted mean- sons, while today we have to include ing, currently almost stripped of legal other distinct cases. It could be risking content and even sometimes, instead, the establishment of a business; in loco related with feelings and emotions of monitoring of investments; having na- individual character. tional or multinational interests (of dip- In its wide-ranging context, the con- lomatic, industrial or service providing dition of exile is virtually coincident kind) represented in an international with the condition of the expatriate, i.e. 32 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 someone who willingly or unwillingly nowned American writers and intel- was led to reside away from his home- lectuals who chose Paris for residence, land. It also applies, in a more restricted between the 1920s and 19440s: Ernest sense, to people of a very high social pro- Hemingway, Samuel Beckett, John file that at some point had to reside in a dos Passos, Lawrence Durrell, F. Scott country other than their own, as hap- Fitzgerald, James Joyce, Henry Miller, pened with previous rulers or members among many others. of Royal families, as well as prominent Portugal served not only as a space politicians, generally by government en- of shelter, it was, in the best of senses, a forcement. bridge of passage for thousands of people As a relevant example, the Exiles of various nationalities that were perse- Memory-Space (Espaço Memória dos cuted by German Nazis and later man- Exílios)1, a museological oriented space aged to reach the American continent. located in Estoril (Portugal), docu- In the year of the invasion of France ments the presence in Portugal of a large by Germany (1940) during World War number of crowned heads of European II, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, Consul ex-monarchies. Tere is Spain (Don of Portugal in Bordeaux, defied direct Juan de Borbón y Battenberg, the son of orders of dictator António de Oliveira King Don Alfonso XIII of Spain and his Salazar, who acted as Minister of For- wife Queen Victoria Eugenie, Counts eign Affairs. For five days thousands of of Barcelona), France (Counts of Paris), entry visas for Portugal were granted to England (Duke of Windsor Edward Al- fleeing persons (including an estimate of bert and Wallis Simpson), Italy (King ten thousand Jews). Umberto II and Queen Marie Joseph In a very different perspective from of Italy), Luxembourg (Grand Duch- the previous one, any resident outside ess Charlotte of Luxembourg), Austria its area of origin, in his own country (Otto and Joseph of Habsburg), Ro- or abroad can then feel «exiled». Te mania (Carol, son of Ferdinand, King literary productions that refer to the of Romania), Bulgaria (Queen Gio- nostalgic feelings of those who compare vanna, accompanied by her two sons, the memories of a land they consider King Simenon II and Princess Marie their own with the reality of where they Louise), Serbia (Princess Helena Kara- went on to live are widely known2. Let georgevitch) and Hungary (Archduke us recall the «Song from Exile (Canção Josef Árpád von Habsburg Lothringen). do Exílio)» by the Brazilian author All linked by ties of kinship, shared the Gonçalves Dias3 written in Coimbra in same space that served as a refuge from 1843, taking this idea as a leitmotif: the war that had broken out in Europe and reached the countries from which God forbid I die, they originated. Without me getting back there; Another example refers to the famous Without enjoying the perfections group of expatriates, who, willingly and I can’t find here; as the result of their free choice, moved Without seeing the palm trees, from one continent to another: the re- Where the Sabia bird sings. MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHATRINDADE 33 Não permita Deus que eu morra, of sentences, cited in national jurispru- Sem que eu volte para lá; dence, in which the condemned were Sem que desfrute os primores merely ‘cast out’ to a different munici- Que não encontro por cá; pality in their own country. Sem qu’ inda aviste as palmeiras, Given, however, that the notions of Onde canta o Sabiá. exile, deportation and banishment are limited to a criminal law framework More recently, the great Portuguese poet that currently lacks relevant legal con- Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, tent, we will be left dealing with other writes in Te Sixth Book (Livro Sexto) related concepts, ‘asylum’ and ‘refuge’. (1962): Exile as separation and form of com- pulsive travel implies a forced departure When we don’t have the homeland we from the place of provenance translating have into a particular form of mobility. Lost by silence and renunciation Te exposition that follows focuses on Even the voice of the sea becomes exile two of the major causes that lead to it: And the light that surrounds us is like one resulting from factors of a political bars nature, and the other caused by major natural disasters. Quando a pátria que temos não a temos Te present analysis begins with the Perdida por silêncio e por renúncia exile of the Portuguese court in Brazil Até a voz do mar se torna exílio because of the French invasions (1807- E a luz que nos rodeia é como grades 1814), the strategy behind this decision and the way it was implemented, see We can also mention some concepts Table 1, next page. Te transfer of the related to the exile, such as deportation Royal family and their entourage, esti- and banishment. Tese are figures with mated at around fifteen thousand peo- a precise legal content, consisting of the ple (nobles, officials and other servants), expulsion of an individual from their involved careful planning and was cer- land of habitual residence, as a sentence tainly very difficult to implement.4 imposed by the courts due to the com- Te stay outside of the country from mission of serious crimes. 1808 to 1821 came to an end with the Moreover, the word exile presupposes Liberal Revolution that occurred in that the location where the banishment Oporto on August 24th, which, in a leads to is located outside the mainland, way, forced the King D. João VI to re- meaning some situations of exile took turn to the country on July 4th, 1821. place, in the Portuguese case, in its colo- Subsequently, the Regent Prince D. nies; in the case of France, in the French Pedro, who had been installed to en- Guiana; in England, in Australia. sure the power of the Portuguese Crown Te notion of banishment is substan- in Brazil, proclaimed its independence tially older and does not require the on September 7th, 1822 - an unprece- target location to be located outside the dented act within the South American national territory: there are documents independence framework, projecting a 34 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Table 1

Political Situation and Ideological Contradictions - Te Monarchy - 19th Century A Retrospective Look Portugal • Fleeing the French Invasions (1807-1814) Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil (the Royal family, nobles, servants, domestics-controversial number - about fifteen thousand people) Boarding - November 27, 1807 Brazil 13 years Permanence (from 1808 to 1821) Portugal • Liberal Revolution of Porto – August 24, 1820 Return of the monarch and his entourage - July 4, 1821 unique position into the history of the and the April Turmoil («Abrilada», two countries. Te conflict between the 30/04/1824) took place in Lisbon, see existing ideologies of those who identi- Table 2, below. fied with the traditional absolutist ori- entation and those who joined the new Te progressive deterioration of the liberal conceptions, ended up in several Portuguese political system, in power armed clashes. Tese included the clash since the Regeneration, in part due to at Vila Franca de Xira – the Vila Franca the erosion caused by the alternation Turmoil (‘Vila Francada’, 27/05/1823) of power between the Progressive Party

Table 2

Clash of Ideologies Political Changes Activate International Mobility From Absolutism to Liberalism (Independence from Brazil-Ipiranga, September 7, 1822) Normative • Constitution Lisbon, September 23, 1822 • Constitutional Law Lisbon, April 29, 1826 Riots • “Vila Franca Turmoil” Vila Franca, May 27, 1823 • “April Turmoil” Lisbon, April 30, 1824 MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHATRINDADE 35 and the Regenerator Party (and other constituted the Governments that fol- parties which emerged later from those), lowed, joined supporters to the estab- worsened in the early years of the 20th lishment of the Republic, which took century. place on October 5th, 1910, see Table 3. Te disenchantment caused by the Te persecution of the losers, which al- monarchic regime, in which inequali- ways occurs in similar situations, encour- ties accentuated the visible differences in ages escape, and thus the abandonment everyday life, began dividing the land- of the country and the search for refuge. owners from those who did not have Te crossing of the bridge between access to rights which were considered the monarchy and the two republics that basic, causing a succession of clashes. followed was characterized by a govern- Te tragic assassination of the King D. mental instability. Te turbulent times Carlos I and the young heir Prince D. experienced during the period of estab- Luís Filipe on February the 1st, 1908, lishment of a Republican government was followed by the deposition of the run by 13 Presidents during the period last Portuguese monarch, D. Manuel from 1910 until 1974 integrated several II, who, accompanied by his mother D. regimes. Its synthesis is presented in the Amelia of Orleans and Bragança, was following tables, allowing a quick appre- forced to leave the country and go to the hension of the events, see Table 4. United Kingdom in 1910, immediately Te Censorship established during the after establishment of the Republic that New State (Estado Novo) and the con- happened later in that same year.5 trol exercised by the International State’s Te alternation of the new rulers, and Defense Police (known by its acronym the constant change of the elements that PIDE) effectively imposed major limita-

Table 3

Te Chronology of the Exiles Portuguese Political Framework from the 19th to the 21st Centuries REGIMES Traditional Monarchy Constitutional Monarchy Absolutism and Liberalism • From the Monarchy to the Republic (1910) 1st Republic • Republican Regime (1910-1926) 2nd Republic • Military Dictatorship (1926-1928) • National Dictatorship (1928-1933) • Installation of the Estado Novo (1933-1974) Colonial War (1961-1974) 3rd Republic • Democracy (1974-…) 36 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Table 4

Te Republican Regime Conditions 1st Republic Instability (1910-1926) 8 Presidents of the Republic, 39 Governments, 40 Heads of Government, 7 Parliaments 2nd Republic Artificial Stability – Control and Oppression (1926-1974) Dictatorship Estado Novo – Te New State-Salazar 5 Presidents 3rd Republic Representative Democracy (1974-…) 6 Presidents tions on the circulation of information. cialists many publications have come It was, thus, mainly through personal out (books resulting not only from re- channels that many of the situations in search projects but also from many which the refugees were found abroad opinion articles) focusing on the strug- were known, albeit with some impreci- gles against the regime carried out from sion. In this context where certain mem- abroad. Documentary research on funds bers of the opposition were and some of currently deposited at the National Ar- the initiatives they took would be pub- chives of Torre do Tombo, among many lic, although most times without the de- others, and oral information directly sired precision. collected from the people who survived In 1961, during the dictatorship, two torture and exile, enable the reconstitu- operations assumed particular promi- tion of some of the steps of one of the nence: the political takeover of the trans- most difficult times the country went atlantic Santa Maria that sailed towards through and that span over a period of Brazil (January 22nd) led by Captain forty eight years. Henrique Galvão, and the hijack of a Troughout this period, among the passenger plane flying from Casablanca most popular destinations searched by to Lisbon Airport, held in mid-air by those who were forced into exile, Brazil Palma Inácio, (operation Vagô – No- stands out within the American conti- vember 10th). Both events were unex- nent and, in Europe, France and Swit- pected and caused great surprise in an zerland were the countries of choice. It apparent socially stable country. Te became fairly easy to trace those who press largely reported the occurrences by integrated the Brazil Group, the France issuing censorious and severe criticism.6 Group and the Geneva Group. Algeria Of all the research carried out in re- deserves special attention for receiving cent years by historians and politics spe- relevant figures of the opposition. MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHATRINDADE 37

Table 5

Te Brazil Group Circulation in a Political and Intercontinental Space Motivations Stay Return Political emigrant / exiled individual possesses culture and professional training that sets him apart from the rest of the colony Internal conflicts and differentiated political training Republican ideal Socialism Anarchy Journalism - Idea diffusing instrument

Table 6 Te France Group Originating from Various Political Persuasions Motivations Stay Return Goals Militancy, Release of Political Prisoners, Abolition of Censorship, Extinction of the Secret Political Police PIDE, Return of Exiled Stay Full-time job Internal struggles Political action Organization of Revolutionary Brigades ARA, LUAR Return Apotheosis

Te following tables search for the dis- because of their lack of concrete actions tinct traits featured by each of the first against the regime. Tey were criticized three mentioned groups and the denom- for their inaction, which consequently inations by which they can be identified, denigrated their image as ‘professionals of see Table 5 - 7. the revolution’. Intellectuals of very high Recognized intellectuals and profes- value, whose name is still remembered sional journalists were able to unite and – Casais Monteiro, Jaime Cortesão, Fi- overcome the existing political differ- delino Figueiredo and Alberto Moura ences, sheltering themselves in a category Pinto, among many others - shared the identified as Opposition. Among them Republican ideal, and had some strong was a group, called the Buddhas (Budas), identification with socialism. 38 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Opponents residing in French terri- gio Godinho should not be forgotten. tory were designated Te France Group As musicians and in order to reach larger and tried different ways to politically audiences, they combined popular mel- persuade the society they were a part of. odies with revolutionary messages and Within them, there were various move- political commitment. Poetry and the- ments worth mentioning, as the Armed atre were also means to reach the Portu- Revolutionary Action (ARA/ Acção Rev- guese workers in France, as a means of olucionária Armada) and the Moonlight politicization. Brigade/ Unity and Revolutionary Action Te Portuguese exiled in Switzerland League (Brigada LUAR/ Liga de Unidade found in Geneva a set of conditions fa- e Acção Revolucionária). vorable to their settlement. Te political Te majority of Portuguese intellec- asylum given to them, the scholarships tuals exiled in France fought against the granted, the temporary jobs that al- regime in various ways. In addition to lowed, not only to pay expenses essential the contacts established and the meet- to survival but also to study and fol- ings organized locally, they published low academic and professionals careers texts in Portuguese, works and articles would give them unique opportunities referring to that specific context. Te for solidarity to emerge and to provide militancy assumed through the interna- an organized struggle. António Barreto, tional media was seeking not only to re- Medeiros Ferreira, Eurico Figueiredo, port what was happening in the country Carlos Castro e Almeida, Maria Emília but also to sensitize residents and Gov- Brederode Santos, Ana Benavente are ernments of the country they were in. some of the names who continued to be Many of the messages were translated prominent in the post April 25th era. into cultural actions and the songs of Tey maintained their political inter- Zeca Afonso7, José Mário Branco or Sér- vention in a country that as they recog-

Table 7

Te Geneva Group An Adventure Experienced Together “In Portugal, we were smothered“, António Barreto Motivations Stay Return Goals Democratisation, Decolonisation, Development Framewok Acquisition of academic education and politics Reflection and group discussions (Cafe Landolt and Cafe Commerce) Mutual aid (legalization, political asylum, scholarships) “Utopic Homeland” – Built and revisited MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHATRINDADE 39 nized was different than the one they be mentioned; those who are and will had imagined but that had nonetheless always be remembered for the role they evolved. Te Utopic Homeland (Pátria played. Te history will highlight their Utópica) work documents facts and names and forever associate them with feelings: ‘we weren’t in Portugal in terms the major modifications that they were of territory, but our heads were full of able to introduce. Portugal’ (Medeiros Ferreira); ‘Here, I Under the Dictatorship, General retrieved my citizenship; there, I was al- Humberto Delgado (1906-1965), pub- ways a foreigner’ (António Barreto). licly and very actively fought against the Many other opponents of the regime Regime. He was murdered near the Por- exiled abroad circulated between several tuguese-Spanish border (approximately countries where they were organized dif- 30 km of Villanueva del Fresno, where ferently depending on the contexts in his and his secretary’s body were found) which they were inserted. victim of entrapment – and operation Even though the members of the three codenamed Fall Operation (Operação Ou- groups mentioned pursued the same tono) - mounted by the PIDE. Today he ideal, their characteristics and methods is recognized as a hero and he is still fre- were different. quently remembered and paid tribute to. Te Army Captain Henrique Gal- Personalities vão (1895-1970) and the ex-Air Force In the context of mandatory emigration military Palma Inácio (1922-2009) caused by reasons of a political nature, both distinguished themselves by their a long list of emblematic figures visi- bold actions: the former by the takeo- bly and very actively intervened in the ver of a luxury liner, the Santa Maria, struggle for a change in the regime, both on January 22nd 1961 and the latter, as leaders and as followers supporting by high-jacking an international TAP and defending them. flight going from Casablanca to Lisbon, Te countries they headed to, vary on November 10th 1967. Both actions according to the timeframe when the aimed to draw attention more widely to choices were made. However, some of the situation in Portugal. them remained as the most popular Among the illustrious opponents of choices: Brazil, on the other side of the the regime, Mário Soares stands out as Atlantic; France, Spain, Switzerland and the figure of a great man of the opposi- Sweden in Europe and Algeria, in North tion that will remain in history as one of Africa. Tey welcomed many of those the most prominent actors in the strug- who were forced to leave the country gle for the installation of a democracy. intentionally, whether it was to avoid As a result of his political activity against arrest or as a result of a planned escape the dictatorship, he was arrested by the that required collaboration in their own PIDE twelve times (serving a total of al- country. most three years in jail), was deported Te list of those who are part of this without trial to the island of S. Tomé group is so long that not everyone can (Africa) in 1968, and in 1970, forced be included in this text. Only a few will into exile in France. 40 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 His election as President of the Re- History of the liberation of the country public (a position he held for two terms from its dictatorship. from 1986 to 1996) allowed him exten- Many occupied places of great respon- sive international action. Te first pro- sibility in the following governmental posal for Portugal’s entrance into the structures assuming guardianship of cru- European Economic Community, led by cial ministries such as Foreign Affairs and Medeiros Ferreira, Minister of Foreign Agriculture. Te confidence inspired by Affairs, is owed to his engagement. Te their long struggle for freedom opened foreign policy that considered the Medi- doors for the very high responsibility terranean as one of its main goals lost its positions that they were being entrusted importance, being replaced by the fresh to governmentally and academically. perspective of a triangular relationship to be established between the country, Natural Disasters Europe, Africa and the Atlantic. Natural disasters are catastrophes caused Manuel Alegre (1936-) recognized by natural phenomena and imbalances poet, was the leader of the Patriotic that cause human, material and environ- Front for National Liberation in Algiers mental damage and, consequently, eco- during the ten years he spent there. His nomic and social losses. protest, broadcast by the radio station Tese phenomena cover a wide diver- Te Voice of Freedom (A Voz da Liber- sity of events. Among them, the ones that dade), turned his voice into a symbol led to compulsory exile: flood, landslide, of resistance and freedom. Te first two volcanic eruption, erosion, tropical cy- books he wrote, Song Square (Praça da clone (hurricane, typhoon), forest fire, Canção) (1965) and the Te Song and the flood, tornado, earthquake, tsunami. Arms (O Canto e as Armas) (1967) were Although somewhat unpredictable, seized by the Censorship. Clandestine the biggest tragedies have been major copies, typed or handwritten circulated promoters of movement for the people from hand to hand. affected by them. In 2012 the Norwegian Te 25th of April enabled the return Refugee Council (NRC) estimates that of many of those who had been exiled approximately 32.4 million were forced outside the country, including Álvaro to change their place of residence due to Cunhal, leader of the Portuguese Com- natural disasters. In Portugal, a country munist Party, had escaped the Peniche located on several tectonic faults, the Fort and spent twelve years abroad. He various earthquakes that have occurred returned to Portugal, like Mário Soares, are still in everyone’s memory, especially founder of the Socialist Party, after four the terrible earthquake of 1755, which years of forced residence in Paris. Te deserves a special mention for its magni- convictions that both had and the bat- tude. It resulted in the almost complete tles they fought in ideological spaces destruction of the city of Lisbon, espe- they could never connect had, nonethe- cially the downtown area, having even less, the same purpose. Tey marked the reached part of Setúbal and the coast of Portuguese political life in such a way Algarve. Te earthquake was followed by that their names are mandatory in the a tidal wave (which is believed to have MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHATRINDADE 41 reached 20 meters in height), multiple from the 18th century on. Te already fires, and, most certainly, more than ten established groups were thus thickened thousand casualties. Te exodus that and new ones were created on the East followed is understandable and referred Coast and throughout California. to by many authors. In the Azores archi- Although emigration in the Madeira pelago, where the seismicity is combined Archipelago always existed, extreme with volcanic activity, several major dis- phenomena that occur regularly may not turbances arose, with significant conse- be directly responsible for it as the mud- quences. slides example – intense and prolonged Te last catastrophic earthquake that rains followed by floods and landslides - occurred in the region on 1 January, shows. Te lack of a proper urban plan- 1980 is still remembered and the Cape- ning has been responsible for numerous linhos volcano is considered a milestone property destroying avalanches. in global volcanology (1957-1958). Te seismic crisis associated with the vol- Political and Institutional Frame- canic eruption and ash and materials fall work originated the widespread destruction of In accordance with the principles of the housing, agricultural fields and pastures Geneva Convention of July 1st, 1951, in the parishes of Capelo and Praia do the right for asylum is a legal decision Norte (island of Faial). Fortunately there which can be assigned individually, by was no loss of life. a third country, to the people who were Benefiting from the solidarity demon- victims, in their country of origin, of strated by the United States, the victims discrimination on grounds of national- (thousands of Faial island residents and ity, ethnicity, religion or political choice, many other Azoreans) took advantage among others, in such a way their safety of the special emigration quota then and perhaps, their own life becomes en- granted. In a first phase (September 2nd, dangered. Te processes leading to the 1958) the Azorean Refugee Act8 was ap- recognition of this right are generally proved and 1,500 were granted visas for very complex and long until they reach the family providers of the Faial Island their conclusion, since it is necessary to so they could emigrate to the E.U.A. produce proof that the risks invoked are until June 30, 1960. An amendment actually real and focus directly on the later extended the number of visas to petitioners. 2,100, which enabled about 2,500 fam- It is estimated that 45 million people ilies to emigrate - a total of about twelve are currently displaced around the world thousand people. In the following dec- due to various conflicts (the highest ades due to the mechanism of family number since the beginning of the Mil- reunification, more than 175 thousand lennium). More than half is established Azoreans moved to that country.9 in urban areas and not in camps; four- Seizing the opportunity presented to fifths remain in developing countries them, many of them sought to remake with financial difficulties to help and their lives in the U.S.A., following the maintain them. Te situations of po- paths of by many other countrymen litical upheaval and generalized armed 42 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 conflict generate the largest number of and the problem of forced displacement asylum applications. However, know- has become increasingly complex.10 ing the risks enumerated above, which On September 20th 1991, the Por- can be joined by many others, such as tuguese Council for Refugees (CPR) is hunger, disease or even the threat of gen- constituted; then, in 1992, the institu- ocide, they can collectively target large tion adheres to ECRE-European Coun- groups of people, forcing them to travel cil on Refugees Exiles, a pan-European to get away from risk zones. network consisting of 69 non-govern- Tis gives rise to refugee populations, mental organizations, having been as- of which the worst examples are located signed the role of ‘operational partner’ in sub-Saharan Africa due to civil wars for Portugal. and tribal conflicts of extreme violence. In 1993, a Legal Office came into op- Without much concern for an extensive eration within this institution – a small- enumeration, some examples, such as scale structure, with just a lawyer who the cases of ethnic and religious conflict started working to direct assist asylum that occurred in Darfur (Sudan), as well seekers as well as refugees. Te situation as the situations of genocide, focusing in Portugal is not very expressive and the alternately on the Hutu and Tutsi eth- number of requests carried out has been nic groups, which recently occurred in relatively low. the Democratic Republic of Congo, Founded in 1980 and assuming a Rwanda and Burundi. Data from 2012 large space of global implantation (it is indicate the five countries with the present in about 50 countries) the pri- largest number of internally displaced vate institution named Jesuit Refugees are Syria (660,000), the Democratic Services (Serviço Jesuíta aos Refugiados) Republic of Congo (456,000), Burma has been present in Portugal since 1992. (407,000), Colombia (390,000) and Te motto ‘to accompany, to serve and Sudan (370,000). to defend’ translates the action devel- Te action of international organiza- oped and the thousands of recorded tions tends to encourage these groups calls acknowledge their importance and to concentrate themselves in refugee dimension. camps, in order to facilitate the arrival of In the second half of the last century, humanitarian aid. the April Revolution (1974) that in- Te United Nations High Commis- troduced democracy in Portugal and is sioner for Refugees – UNHCR - was associated with the process of decoloni- very opportunely created by the UN zation gave way to a specific phenome- General Assembly resolution on Decem- non in terms of demographics (already ber 14th, 1950 and began its activity in taking into account the existence of tra- January 1951. It aims to centralize and ditional migratory movements dating manage the forms of international assis- from long ago). tance to populations in danger. For more Although this displacement from for- than fifty years, the number of people mer colonies to the metropolis was a re- who have been the subject of concern markable event for the country, it was to the UNHCR increased considerably not a novelty for previous colonial em- MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHATRINDADE 43 pires, because quite a few repatriation mobility and that, although they could movements had already taken place in be conceptually integrated in general Europe during the 20th century – the migration problems, they are differen- British coming from India (1947) and tiated from them by the imminent risk East Africa (1967); the Dutch who re- they are exposed to which requires the turned from Indonesia (1949); Belgians adoption of specific solutions aimed ex- repatriated from former Belgian Congo clusively at these populations. (1960), the now Republic of Congo; Frenchmen repatriated from Algeria Foreseeing the Future from the (1962), from Tunisia (1956), West Af- Current Situation rica (1960) and Indochina (1949). Te year of 2008 delineated and con- Te sudden arrival of a voluminous firmed a financial crisis environment flow of ‘returnees’ to Portugal 11 (an throughout the world, translated in- expression which referred to them in a itially by the bankruptcy of housing negative way) expressed by various esti- loans enterprises, the bankruptcy of fi- mates, considered numbers that reached nancial organizations dedicated to spec- between 500,000 and a million people. ulative practices, possibly of a criminal Te surprise of a so significant and sud- nature, followed by an economic crisis den influx of people and the position due to devaluations in the stock market, that they assumed in society provoked the bankruptcy of industrial and service reactions, not always in favor of their companies and the increase of explosive acceptance, creating in many of the res- lay-offs and the resulting unemploy- idents a sense of visible concern, which ment rates. often assumed a clear attitude of rejec- Tis crisis has not yet manifested a tion. visible stabilization, containment or Te diversity of opinions generated reduction, despite the very strong in- apprehension and unfair criticism, but terventions and considerable financial also major initiatives of solidarity. Te amounts advanced by developed coun- comprehensive designation Returnees tries’ Governments, perhaps due to the (Regressados) that was then assigned to political stagnation of the world’s larg- them developed a negative connotation, est economy, which lasted until the which remained for a long time. Gen- re-election of the current President of eralizations were made and the people the United States of America. Barack ended up being placed in a category that Obama’s last State of the Union speech did not enable a distinction between (in January, 2015) recently presented to its elements and, in a way, extrapolated the wide audience of Republicans and personal characteristics, which conse- Democrats who heard him in Wash- quently led to a marginalization. For ington reveals the great modification many, this return forced felt like an exile. that has been operating in the country Summarizing previous observations, throughout his six years in Office. Te it can be said that both the petitioners same did not happen in Europe, where of the right to asylum and the refugees there is a visible inequality between the constitute unique situations of human Northern and Southern countries. Stag- 44 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 nation, deflation, high unemployment, are also populist parties, which indicate ineffective efforts by the European Cen- the citizens’ discontent with the policies tral Bank (ECB) and very high levels of followed. corruption constitute the current crisis situation. Te Euro Zone continues to Summary face enormous challenges with its eco- Te geography of exile reveals the ex- nomic policies, with debt levels still pansion of political and social ideas, quite high and worrisome demographic since the real diffusers of ideologies were perspectives. those forced to leave their countries. Most analysts consider that it is un- Teir roles were highlighted through- wise to make any predictions (either out the text. Te natural disasters that optimistic or pessimistic) on the finan- sporadically occur, usually unexpectedly, cial, economic and social situation, until are different situations that deserve to be possible tendencies of evolution can be considered individually. evaluated. Te present situation makes Migrants have always transferred their it difficult to make reliable predictions ideals onto their itineraries ending up about the possible duration of the world changing ways of governing, the recog- crisis and its possible extension (or con- nition and allocation of social rights. traction) in a short or medium term. During the 19th century the actions of It is essentially an unfavorable so- European Socialists and anarchists in cio-economic environment for the en- the American continent were visible. It trance of new immigration flows and would be very interesting to analyze the perhaps, for the very stability of com- transfer produced by Portuguese exiles munities of foreign residents (including along the routes they travelled through- those working in temporary immigra- out the ages. Tis analysis glances into tion schemes) in receiving countries. the continuities and discontinuities of a On the other hand the output flows political sequence, following a method- have continued to gradually increase ology that combines history with soci- and the selected destinations have been ology. intentionally chosen according to the Tis approach only mentions the es- possibilities of insertion revealed by the sential, leaving the secondary aside. Te economic state that characterizes each distinct times considered, marked by one of them. the dates that individualize them and Te emerging movements created in the specific integrating behavior logic, recent times reveal the emergence of new include not only some prominent per- political ideologies, in which electoral sonalities, who were real engines for participation has decreased. Some of the development of the initiatives men- them represent a new European left, fo- tioned, but also framing institutions cused on the devastation caused by eco- that possess an inner intelligence which nomic austerity measures imposed. On justify the actions pursued. the other hand, a growing extreme right Militancy was presented as a way has been surfacing in countries such as of life - day after day, being exiled re- France, Austria and Greece, where there inforced the Portuguese opposition MARIA BEATRIZ ROCHATRINDADE 45 to the regime. Te great leaders of the Pimentel, Irene Flunser, Espiões em Portugal Du- opposition movements, whose names rante a II Guerra Mundial: Como o Nosso País se Tornou Local de Passagem de Agentes Ingleses e became part of their own history, con- Alemães, Lisboa, Esfera dos Livros, 2013. stitute a road to understand the strug- Pires, R. Pena, et. al., Os Retornados: Um Estudo gles in which they were involved. Te Sociográfico, Lisboa, Instituto de Estudos para o consequences of mistakes made and the Desenvolvimento, 1987. ways found for organized counteraction Ribeiro, Aquilino, Páginas do Exílio: 1908 – 1914. mirror the reactions taken by nationals Cartas e crónicas de Paris (recolha de textos e or- ganização de Jorge Reis), Lisboa, Vega, 1988. within and outside the country. Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz: Te Repatriation of Portuguese from Africa, in Robin Cohen (ed.)., References Te Cambridge Survey of World Migration, Cam- ACNUR, A Situação dos Refugiados no Mundo. Um bridge University Press, 1995: 337-341. Programa Humanitário. Lisboa, ACNUR, 1998. Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz, Te Portuguese Di- Anacleto-Matias, Maria Helena, Os Azorean Refugee aspora, in Carlos Teixeira, ed.; Victor M. P. Rosa, Acts de 1958 e 1960, Porto, Instituto Politécnico ed., Te Portuguese in Canada, Toronto, University do Porto, Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e of Toronto, 2000: 15-33. Administração do Porto, 2002. Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz: Le Conselho das Co- Barreto, António, et al., Pátria Utópica. O Grupo de munidades Comme Pièce Centrale de la Politique Genebra Revisitado, Lisboa, Bizâncio, 2011. Migratoire de Rapprochement dans l’Après-25 Bruno, Sampaio, Notas do Exílio, 1891-1893, [s.l.], Avril», in Migrance, 2014, n.º 43: 71-82. Livraria Internacional de Ernesto Chardron, 1893. Rosas, Fernando: Portugal entre a Paz e a Guerra: Es- Costa, José Martins Barra da, Exílio e Asilo: a Questão tudo do Impacte da II Guerra Mundial na Economia Portuguesa: 1974-1996, Lisboa, Universidade Ab- e na Sociedade Portuguesa 1939-1945, Lisboa, Es- erta, CEMRI, 1996 (Estudos Pós-Graduados; 1). tampa, 1995. Cruz, Manuel Braga da, O Partido e o Estado no Sala- Wenden, Catherine Wihtol de, Atlas des Migrations zarismo, Lisboa, Editorial Presença, 1988. dans le Monde. Réfugiés ou Migrants Volontaires, Dias, Gonçalves, Primeiros Cantos: Poesias, Rio de Paris, Éditions Autrement, 2005. Janeiro, Eduardo e Henrique Laemmert, 1846, 1ª Vaz, Manuel Dias, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, Héros ed. «Rebelle», Juin 1940; Souvenir Et Témoignages, Galvão, Henrique, Santa Maria. My Crusade for Por- [s.l.], Confluences, 2010. tugal, London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1961. Martinez, U. et al, Migraciones & Exilios, Madrid, Notes AEMIC, 2000. 1 Te Memory Space of the Exiles (Espaço Memória Monteiro, Paulo Filipe, Emigração. O Eterno Mito dos Exílios), opened in 1999, recreates the social do Retorno, Oeiras, Celta, 1994. environment then lived, through a core perma- Ocde, Les Travailleurs Émigrés Retournant dans leurs nent exhibition, consisting of archival documents, Pays. Rapport Final. Séminaire Patronal Inter- images and objects considered reference material. national, Athènes, 18-21 Octobre, 1966, Paris, Te way chosen to exhibit this material is not OCDE, 1966. state of the art, but specific information related to Paulo, Heloísa, Aqui Também é Portugal: a Colónia the experience in the Estoril coastline during the period of World War II can nonetheless be gath- Portuguesa do Brasil e o Salazarismo, Coimbra, ered. Quarteto, 2000. 2 Many authors became noteworthy because of how Paulo, Heloísa, «O Exílio Português no Brasil: Os they treated the theme of exile. Without a com- “Budas” e a Oposição Antisalazarista», in Portu- prehensive concern, some examples are given in guese Migrations in Comparison: Historical Pat- chronological order: Notes From Exile («Notas terns and Transnational Communities. Portuguese do Exílio»), 1893; Pages from Exile («Páginas do Studies Review. Peterborough, Ontario, Trent Exílio»), 1988; Writings of Exile («Escritos do University, Vol. 14, Nº. 2, Junho 2009. Exílio»), 1975; Utopian Homeland: the Geneva Group Revisited («Pátria Utópica: o Grupo de 46 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Genebra Revisitado»), 2011; Te Exile of the Last the starting signal for the military uprising in April Liberal («O Exílio do Último Liberal»), 2012; Te 25, 1974, via the emissions made by Rádio Renas- Returnees Have Changed Portugal («Os Retorna- cença (program Limite). dos Mudaram Portugal»), 2013. 8 Te persistent diligence of State Congressman Jo- 3 António Gonçalves Dias (1823-1864) was born seph Perry Jr. and federal senators John O. Pastore in Caxias, Maranhão/Brazil, having studied law (Rhode Island) and John F. Kennedy (Massachu- at the University of Coimbra. He so profoundly setts, which shortly after was elected President of understood the Portuguese language that he pro- the United States) contributed to such a decision digiously translated his feeling of being away from had been taken. the country in the poem that immortalized him: 9 Te demographic breakdown, in the order of Song of Exile (Canção do Exílio). 50%, contributed to the improvement of the life 4 Te Prince Regent Dom João of Braganza (future conditions of the resident population, since job King Dom João VI), received the news of the opportunities increased and wages improved. penetration of French troops in Portuguese terri- 10 António Guterres (1949-) former Prime Minister tory (23 November) and immediately summoned of Portugal (1995 a 2002), was elected in 2005 the Council of State, having determined that the by the United Nations General Assembly for a entire royal family and the Government were to five-year term as High Commissioner. In his in- embark to Brazil (27 November). Te Portuguese auguration speech that he did for conviction and Squad, which included 83 ships, 3 frigates, brigs because he believes truly in this institution values, and two schooners supported by four ships of the values that you want to make prevail throughout Royal Navy, left the port of Lisbon in November the world. 29, 1807, carrying about fifteen thousand people. 11 Te return to the country, designated by two con- General Junot entered Lisbon on the morning of cepts – «Regresso» and «Retorno» - that circulated 30, leading an army of about 26,000 men which in Portugal in the second half of the Decade of 70 was preceded by a detachment of the Portuguese and in the first half of the 80, distinguishes the Cavalry, who surrendered and accepted to serve application of each of them. Although both desig- the French. Tis previously scheduled action nations expressed mobility, the former designated avoided the defeat of the Portuguese monarchist simply the return and the latter was used referring Government. to a specific group forced to abandon the colonies. 5 On October 4th, 1910, a revolution took place Te recommendations of Point 1, concerning the and the next day (October 5th) the proclamation concepts of Return issued by the first Portuguese of the Republic took place in Lisbon. Te Neces- Communities Council which took place at the sidades Palace, the King’s official residence, was Palácio da Foz, in Lisbon (April 1981), estab- bombed, and the monarch was advised to go to lishes the following: «After detailed consideration the Mafra’s National Palace, where his mother, the on the subject, it was decided unanimously to Queen, and his grandmother, the Queen Mother recommend that, in future, the terms “Regresso” Maria Pia of Savoy would join him. Te next day, and “Retorno” will be used with the following after the Republican victory, Manuel II goes to meanings (...): “Regresso”: whenever the journey the Ericeira beach to embark on the Royal yacht to the country of origin is voluntary; “Retorno”: Amelia and head to Oporto. Te officers aboard whenever the exit from the host country is com- prevented him and he was taken to Gibraltar in- pulsory». stead. Upon arrival, he received news that Oporto had adhered to the Republic - the coup was over. Te Royal family moved to the United Kingdom, where it was received by King George V. 6 See for example, regarding to the hijacking of the ship Santa Maria, the news published in Janu- ary 24, 1961 by News Paper (Jornal de Notícias) (Porto) and Diary of Lisbon (Diário de Lisboa); also the ones that have been published about the diversion of the plane by the Daily Illustrated (Diário Ilustrado) and Diary of Lisbon (Diário de Lisboa) in November 10, 1961. 7 Te song of José (Zeca) Afonso, «Grândola, Vila Morena», recorded in 1971 in Paris region, gave Forbidden Heaven to Basque Refugee Children

Susana Sabín-Fernández

Abstract agreement between interest groups in During the Spanish Civil War and soon a variety of countries, some of them fi- after the bombing of the Basque towns nally came to be hosts for the children of Durango and Gernika, about 32,000 but the US did not. children were evacuated to other coun- Which agents became involved and fi- tries looking for safety. Whilst countries nally decided the outcome of this en- such as France had already received deavor? What was their agenda? How thousands of refugees, the UK govern- did they manage to engage other parties ment had firmly refused to take refu- to gain the necessary support? How did gees, arguing that this was against its they influence the decision makers in policy of nonintervention. Evacuation power? Tese fundamental issues are ad- to the UK only materialized as a result of dressed from a perspective which utilizes enormous public pressure on the British a wide range of primary sources. government and private initiative. Ultimately it is argued here that the Simultaneously, there was an attempt to powerful pro-Francoist Catholic circle evacuate 500 Basque children to the US. in Boston was a main agent responsible Initially this initiative was supported by in stopping the evacuation to the US by numerous government officials and a placing the debate within a religious and considerable section of the population, anti-communist perspective. On the to the extent that it was debated to in- other hand, in countries such as the UK crease the number to 2,000. However, the Roman Catholic Church was not a the project was eventually rejected and key player and society put the emphasis no refugee children were authorized to on the humanitarian aspect of the ven- enter the country. ture. Tis article examines who were the key players involved in the process of nego- Basque Refugee Children tiating the evacuations, and the societal Soon after the war started in July 1936, impact of the strategies these players committees were set up by trade unions employed in order to succeed, with an and humanitarian organizations to aid emphasis on the US case. It also explores Basque children, but the massive evac- the reasons why despite significant dis- uations abroad began in the spring of 48 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 1937 immediately after the bombing of vated as a result of: the towns of Durango (31st March) and - An international embargo, Gernika (26th April). which was in effect favoring the In order to frame the issues that sur- insurgents. rounded and led to the evacuations we - Te Italian and German attacks must remember the complex interna- of ships that carried supplies. tional diplomatic scenario of the Europe - Te naval blockade of Bilbao in of the 1930s. Te prevailing policies of March 1937, ordered by Franco to appeasement had led to a Non-interven- stop food entry, which generated tion Agreement signed by 27 countries1 much controversy with regard to in- at the end of August 1936, which in ternational law. turn was counterbalanced by the birth of a significant international volunteer Consequently the Basque Government movement. made an appeal to the world to save Aerial bombardment targeting civil- the Basque children. Te cry for help ians and killing thousands in Basque throughout the territories loyal to the towns and cities was new within the Eu- Republic was Salvad a los niños! (Save ropean context. As a result large numbers the children!), since they were the most of the population began to flee towards vulnerable members of society. Bilbao, leaving their homes behind to Te next step for the Basque Govern- seek refuge. An important consequence ment was to organize the evacuations; was that this generated a revived interest both the internal ones within the ter- and a broader, often passionate, debate ritory controlled by the Basque forces, about the War of 1936 within the inter- for which they had the support of the national community. It certainly played Spanish Republican Government and a decisive part in the general response the Generalitat (Catalan Government), concerning relief. and those to other countries. A variety Te idea of large numbers of chil- of foreign institutions and committees dren being evacuated to other countries, collaborated in order to facilitate pop- which had previously been rejected by ulation displacements. Te committees the foreign governments approached, were mainly formed by political organi- became a real prospect. Tese would zations, trade unions, and humanitarian be the first massive child evacuations, a aid groups, very often set up with the new phenomenon in European contem- sole purpose of helping refugees in gen- porary history. Due to the particularly eral or to provide asylum to a particular brutal treatment to which the Basques group, such as the children. were subjected there was a shift in pub- Each evacuation was advertised in the lic opinion, and to some degree govern- local press, where information with re- ments relaxed their previous inflexible gard to destination and other relevant stance with regard to non-intervention. matters was displayed. Tere was also an Te treatment included: indication of any compulsory require- • Civilians targeted by aerial bombings. ments that needed to be met, such as • Starvation and related illnesses aggra- those related to the medical condition SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 49

Dead child in Bilbao after a bombing operation by the Luftwaffe in 1937. Photo: Irujo-Ametzaga Archive of the children. Once the parents had finish soon and all parties involved saw seen the details and acceptance criteria, these evacuations as a temporary meas- they decided whether to register their ure, therefore it was assumed that if chil- children for the voyages or not. dren were evacuated to safety, the family It is not surprising that parents separation would be brief. strongly approved of the Basque Gov- For a number of reasons there are no ernment’s initiative to evacuate their exact figures of how many children were children and voluntarily signed up for evacuated. Firstly, there were constant it. Tere was such a demand that often movements and relocations of refugees there were more requests than places on within the host country. Sometimes they offer, as parents’ concerns for their chil- stayed in a country for a short period of dren’s safety intensified as they learned time, only to be taken to another later how the insurgents were increasingly tak- on; for instance, occasionally France was ing control of areas nearer Bilbao. Tey a first step towards another destination feared an imposed new regime which such as Belgium, Mexico, Denmark and would bring about a totalitarian educa- other countries. Secondly, many of the tion system that would reeducate their primary sources were destroyed during children according to Francoist fascist the war and the subsequent forty years values, and also retaliation and almost of Franco’s dictatorship.2 For these certainly imprisonment for many, if not reasons, frequently historians can only death. Furthermore, at that point it was estimate approximate numbers, which generally believed that the war would fluctuate between 31,000 and 33,000. 50 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Tis was nearly one fifth of the child European countries and also in the US. population3 of the provinces of Bizkaia Eventually some of these countries came and Gipuzkoa at the beginning of the to be hosts for the children while some 1930s. others did not. Here we mean ‘organized’ evacua- Te French republic became one of tions of children, as, for instance, about the major receptors of Basque refugee 20,000 were sent officially to France, children. When the Republican govern- but in 1939 there were approximately ment initially approached the European 68,000 refugee children there. Also, democracies to request their support, it there was only one organized evacuation was anticipated that France would col- of children to Mexico, which consisted laborate. Tis was the closest country of a group of 455, but there were a total in the geographical sense but also with of 20,000 republican exiles in Mexico, regard to socio-cultural and historical which included 4,000 children. In total, traditions4, thus this could potentially approximately 150,000 to 200,000 be the most suitable source of help. people escaped to exile between 1936 Léon Blum’s Popular Front coalition and 1939, therefore children’s exile rep- had recently won the elections and the resented a big proportion of the total official response was affirmative as ex- Basque exiled population. pected. However, there were profound Although not directly involved in the internal divisions within the political war, refugee children became a central spectrum and also amongst the public. element in the political arena. Tey On the one hand, socialists and com- would be the next generation in a post- munists were committed to deliver the war society and, more importantly, they promised aid to the bordering country. turned out to be an excellent propagan- On the other, the political right, large distic resource for the two warring sides. sectors of the state administration, some Both the democratically elected Repub- Catholics, and the army rejected the lican government and the rebels would proposal. Tey demanded strict adher- use the children in an attempt to gain ence to neutrality. Urged to stay neutral credibility and international support for by other countries, particularly the UK, their cause. and bowing to enormous internal pres- Although the reasons for the evacu- sure finally the government withdrew its ations had originally been to take the offer of help. children away from the disasters of the Despite this, France received more war, the Francoist press and the Catho- refugee children than all the other host lic hierarchy asserted that the organizers countries combined; collective refuge were in fact following Moscow’s orders. homes, namely colonies, were set up Tey were obviously thinking of the ef- for the children throughout the coun- fect this argument would have on the try. It is noteworthy that some of these international community and managed were subsidized by foreign organiza- to provoke swings of public opinion. As tions and humanitarian groups. It is a result there were serious disagreements generally acknowledged that in 1939 between interest groups throughout the there were about 170,000 non-combat- SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 51

Basque refugee children’s camp in the United Kingdom. Photo: NARA. ant refugees in France, of which 68,000 English officials prepared to use navy were children. With regard to organized ships to transport refugees. After several evacuations of children figures oscillate initial failed attempts regarding a poten- between 20,000 and 22,000 according tial evacuation of Basque children to the to different sources. Te British posi- UK, finally, after the destruction of Ger- tion towards the Spanish Civil War and nika and consequent universal reaction, the evacuation of children represents an on 30 April 1937 the government gave excellent example of the complex situ- in to the massive public pressure. Tey ations that this war generated at an in- agreed to a limited evacuation of 2,000 ternational level. It also shows a number Basque children between the ages of 5 of internal discrepancies between British and 12, but imposed severe restrictions state interests and the civil society’s hu- such as the firm refusal to use any public manitarian and political agenda. monies for the operation or to have any As for the UK, initially the Conserv- responsibility for the children once they ative Government firmly refused to take were in the UK. Hence, on the 15 May refugees arguing that this was against its 1937 the Basque Children’s Committee policy of non-intervention. However, was created, under the umbrella of the for humanitarian reasons there were National Joint Committee for Spanish 52 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Relief. Tis non-governmental commit- volume of children after France. More tee would be responsible for the care than 5,000 children, of whom more and housing of the children from the than 3,300 were Basque, settled in Bel- moment they arrived in England. gium exceeding all initial expectations. Eventually, in May 1937, approxi- As noted above, these children did not mately 3,861 children between the ages travel directly from their towns of ori- of 5 and 15 were evacuated to the UK gin, nor was Belgium their originally in- on the ship Habana, accompanied by a tended destination; they had been taken small number of adults. Uniquely this to France in the first instance. was the only official evacuation to the Te evacuations of children to the UK, thus all the refugee children of the USSR, and also to Mexico, were espe- Spanish Civil War in the UK went to- cially significant, both because of the gether on the same voyage. Tey became volume of refugees and also because of a very easily identifiable group which how the events developed afterwards. has been known to the present day as An important point was that while other the Basque Children, even though those countries were in a hurry to repatriate who are still alive are on their late eight- the children from a very early stage, the ies and nineties. USSR and Mexico decided not to send Belgium did not seem an ideal coun- them back to a country ruled by Franco. try to be approached in relation to evac- Helping the Republic was not initially uations. Firstly, in comparison with the in the Soviet agenda. However, the open great powers it was not perceived as a support that Germany and Italy provided key player in the political sphere. Sec- to the rebels from the onset of the war ondly, its distance from Spain, both pushed the USSR, and to a certain extent geographically and in the sense of how Mexico, to eventually support the Repub- little it was known, in addition to its lican Government. Tus, in addition to physical proximity to Germany, did not any humanitarian intentions there was a make it an obvious choice. Finally, the strong political agenda behind their deci- Belgian coalition government was also sion to accept evacuees. Te fact that the deeply affected by strong internal divi- ‘Catholic’ Basque Government sent chil- sions with regard to the matter of help- dren to the ‘communist’ USSR created ing the Spanish Republic. Paradoxically, much controversy and was used to fuel both sides of this remarkably polarized the debate on evacuations and as political argument were defended most enthusi- propaganda by the insurgents. Indeed, astically by socialist leaders. the Basque Government never intended In the end Belgium decided to remain to send children to the Soviet Union and neutral, but another paradox was still it was the pressure from various sectors of on its way. Tanks to the enormous sol- the Basque Socialist Party and the Com- idarity demonstrated by Belgian fami- munist Party that finally made of the lies, trade unions, humanitarian groups, USSR a recipient country. However, the religious and non-religious people and Basque authorities demanded from the in spite of the governmental decision, parents who were willing to send their this country gave asylum to the largest children to the Soviet Union a special SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 53 form including a declaration stating their Tere are large discrepancies regard- will to send them there. ing figures, and whilst some sources give In any case, between March and Octo- an estimate of about 450 children in ber 1937 there were four official expedi- Switzerland, others practically double tions which transported a total of nearly it, quoting two groups of approximately 3,000 children to the USSR. In June 400 each. In any case this remains an 1937 there was an official evacuation of under-researched topic that evidently 455 children to Mexico, known as the requires further investigation. Niños de Morelia. Denmark was one of the twenty-four Switzerland was of considerable inter- countries which formed the Interna- est as a safe haven for refugees. It seemed tional Commission for the Assistance of to be a perfect solution for relief effort Child Refugees, previously named Inter- owing to its neutral status and politi- national Commission for the Assistance cal stability. It was also acknowledged of Child Refugees. In 1937, the Com- for having a distinguished history of an mittee for Children’s Spanish Sojourn in ethical approach to armed conflicts, as Denmark was conceived as a response to the Swiss were the pioneers of initiatives the appeal for help. Te intention was such as the Red Cross and the Geneva to organize shelter for some 300 Span- Convention. ish children with Danish families. Te Despite some initial internal disagree- support for this particular venture was ments on whether to stay neutral or to not nearly as massive as it had been for provide help, the Swiss authorities in aid some previous relief action in relation organizations established contacts with to other conflicts, and it resulted in the representatives of international groups small number of 122 Spanish children and, in February 1937, the Swiss Com- from the Basque Country, Cantabria mittee to Aid Spanish Children was for- and Asturias being taken to Denmark. mally created. Te committee was then However, despite the low number, the renamed Swiss Aid. press dedicated some space to the chil- However, at this point something dren on a daily basis, and the campaign unexpected happened. Once the Swiss had popular support. Tese children support had been officially offered, the travelled from France in two separate Spanish Republican Government’s atti- groups in September 1937 and they tude changed and they started to lay a were not accommodated privately but series of obstacles on the table. Conse- in two colonies in Ordrup and Odense, quently the project of taking a group of near Copenhagen. After a few months 500 children to the Helvetic Federation there their presence became a rather did not materialize. Whatever the dif- controversial topic and in August 1938 ferences and the fruitless first attempts, it was decided to send them back to once the international community France, where they would be supported became involved with the organized with Danish funds in a mansion near evacuations in the spring of 1937, Swit- Paris. Tere was also a colony subsidized zerland became part of the scheme and by Danish funds in Catalonia before it received a number of children. fell to Franco. 54 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Basque refugee camp in the Northern Basque Country (Donoibane Garazi) in 1937. Photo: Irujo-Ametzaga Archive.

Also involved in the International •Maintained colonies organized by the Commission for the Assistance of Child Basque Government. Refugees in Spain5, Norway and Sweden •Generally provided financial assis- were the last countries approached with tance, voluntary staff, clothing and regard to the evacuations. While at an food. official level they both remained neu- tral and refused to host children in their Bilbao fell in June 1937 and as soon as territories, there were some individuals the Basque Country was occupied by who became highly involved with relief the insurgents Franco initiated a polit- work. Also, these countries were sympa- ically motivated campaign to repatriate thetic to the Republican cause and sup- the children from the host countries plied aid in a broad variety of practical which had given them refuge. Accord- ways, usually through the hundreds of ing to the Francoist authorities’ and committees created for that purpose in also to the Spanish Catholic hierarchy’ both countries: propaganda there was not a better place •Maintained many colonies in French for the Basque children than Catholic territory.6 Spain. On March 17, 1937 the Span- •Subsidized colonies on the Spanish ish Ministry of Justice of the Francoist Mediterranean coast, in the Catalonia regime commended parents, guardians and Valencia regions. or relatives of evacuated children to give •Collaborated with expeditions to their names, addresses and general data America. to the authorities.7 In many instances, SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 55 as in the UK, the Spanish administra- more than once to participate in the tion sent forged letters in the name of savage destruction of open cities Stop the –absent or even dead- parents of ref- Te German planes belonging to the ugee children asking for the repatriation armies of invasion have chosen on the of these children. In 1939 the Francoist other hand to try out in Barcelona a authorities continued to press families new type of bomb which shatters twelve with children abroad to be returned. large buildings in a single minute bur- ying in the ruins all the families living Offer U.S. Haven to 500 Little there Stop the women and children of Basque Refugees Barcelona who are aware of the feeling After the bombing of Gernika, news you have shown for the Basque children of the Basque refugees in Europe soon turn to the United States they ask the reached the United States, and the idea great American nation to raise its voice of helping them quickly arose among against this indescribable horror and to Basque-Americans. One of the first pro- put an end to the policy which prevents posals to help evacuation from Bilbao the legitimate Spanish government came from U.S. Ambassador Claude from acquiring the means necessary to G. Bowers who, in contact with the defend itself against the assassination British embassy, knew that Great Brit- of a thousand women and children in ain had agreed to protect refugee ships a single day.9 on the high seas, outside the three-mile limit, and that the British authorities On April 30, 1937, four days after the had asked Franco not to interfere. Te bombing of Gernika, French Foreign Spanish merchant ship Habana had left Minister Yvon Delbos told the U.S. Bilbao for Bordeaux with 3,200 women ambassador to the French Republic, and children, escorted by the British William C. Bullit, that the French gov- destroyers Fury and Fortune. But there ernment was open to receiving approx- were still 150,000 refugees waiting to be imately 100,000 women and children transported abroad. from the Basque Country.10 Te Basque Spanish Foreign Minister of the Re- government had the ships to transport public Julio Álvarez del Vayo wrote a the refugees but asked for financial help telegram to Eleanor Roosevelt after the from the American Red Cross.11 On the bombing of Barcelona in February and same day, the U.S. State Department, March 1938 in the following terms: after seeking a legal opinion from the Department of Justice, informed Bul- Words cannot convey to you the bru- litt that it would not violate Article 3 of tality with which Barcelona has been the Neutrality Act12 to provide financial bombarded Stop Te number of dead contributions to help women and chil- and wounded exceeds three thousand dren in Bilbao if the funds were used to Stop German aviation has converted relieve human suffering or to provide the most fantastic conceptions of aerial medical assistance or food and supplies. warfare into most horrible reality Stop Te organizations soliciting or collect- Rebel Spanish aviators have refused ing the funds could not act on behalf 56 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 of the Basque or Spanish Republican cial schools. Tey would also suffer from governments, and the State Department the lack of basic food and medicine as would have to issue certificates to or- a result of the region’s devastated econ- ganizations that wanted to solicit funds omy. All the families were asked by the and make contributions within the lim- Basque government to sign a form re- itations of the law.13 Six days later, on questing and consenting that their chil- May 6, 1937, the State Department dren be sent abroad. reported to the American Embassy in Tere were no Basques among the Paris that the Red Cross could collect members of the organization. Te ex- up to $5,000 to help the Basque refugee ecutive committee included Dr. Frank population in France but that the group Bohn, general secretary; William E. could not provide direct contributions Dodd Jr., treasurer; Gardner Jackson, to the French government, only to the Washington representative; Dr. Alge- French Red Cross.14 Te funding was rnon D. Black, Pauline Emmet and delivered by May 1937. Spanish Foreign Katherine Meredith, associate secretar- Minister Julio Álvarez del Vayo thanked ies. Te board also included an advisory Bullitt for having helped the refugees in committee of Virginia C. Gildersleeve, the besieged city of Bilbao.15 Albert Einstein, William Brown Mel- Te American Board of Guardians oney, Caroline O’Day, Laura de los Ríos, for Basque Refugee Children, created in James T. Shotwell, Dorothy Tompson May 1937, undertook the first attempt (1893-1961) and Mary E. Woolley. Fi- to bring Basque children to the United nally, Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962) States16. Te group hoped to transport agreed to become the board’s honorary 500 children to New York by the end of president. June. Te refugees would be shipped by On May 22, 1937, the board sent a sea from Bilbao to Donibane Lohitzune, request to the U.S. secretary of state ask- the location of the U.S. Embassy to the ing for permission to bring 500 Basque Spanish Republic, and then by train to refugee children to New York.17 Te Paris to embark for the United States first step for the board was to apply for within a month. visitor visas for the children. Te State Te children would be hosted ei- Department had no reason to deny the ther by Basque families or by a nursery visas. Tus, on May 23, 1937, the U.S. school in New York under the care of Navy sent a communiqué to the U.S.S. Basque priests, nurses and teachers, as Kane reporting that between 500 and done in the Basque colonies of Great 5,000 Basque children would be issued Britain and France. Te children would visas to be sent to the United States.18 remain in New York during the war In response to the Spanish Embassy and, if necessary, after the war if their in Washington, the State Department parents were dead, missing or in prison. pointed out that, “as to the question of If they had to remain in Spain, children their obtaining passport visas, the deci- whose parents had been involved in pol- sion is placed by law upon the appro- itics or who had fought for the Republic priate American consular officers, who would have to be “re-educated” in spe- must be guided by the provisions of ex- SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 57 isting laws governing the admission of and this Embassy would have the great- aliens into the United States. Although est pleasure and satisfaction in seeing I am not in a position to give you any permits issued for the entrance of the assurance at this time as to the final ac- said children into this country.20 tion which may be taken in regard to the visa applications of these children when Te petition had many other support- made, I assure you their cases will have ers, including Florencio Laucirica,21 the most sympathetic consideration.”19 president of the New York Basque On June 16, the Spanish Republic’s Center; the U.S. Committee for Ger- ambassador to the United States wrote man-American Relief for Spain; and the to the secretary of state with the Basque Workers Fellowship of the Society for government’s official request to send the Ethical Culture in New York. During children to the United States: a meeting at the Basque center, a com- mission of 27 members was formed to With reference to the conversation execute the project. Te first step was to which I had the pleasure of having contact the State Department to deter- yesterday with the under Secretary of mine regulations for bringing children State, Mr. Summer Wells, with regard into the United States and for fami- to obtaining the necessary permission lies who wished to adopt a child. Te so that Basque Societies, enterprises and State Department replied on May 25, persons, domiciled in this country may noting that visitor visas could only be be able to bring here a certain number issued to aliens who were able to qual- of children from Bilbao and from the ify as non-immigrant temporary visitors Basque Country in order to perform under Section 3 (2) of the Immigra- the humanitarian work which they tion Act of 1924. Section 3 of the Im- believe is incumbent upon them and migration Act of 1917 also stated that demonstrate their solidarity with the “all children under sixteen years of age, philanthropic work which the Basque unaccompanied by or not coming to colonies in other countries, such as one of both of their parents, except that Mexico, France, United Kingdom, etc. any such children may, in the discretion are doing. I take pleasure in advising of the Secretary of Labor, be admitted you that the Basque Government has if in his opinion they are not likely to accepted the idea and proposal of the become a public charge and are other- living Basque elements in North Amer- wise eligible.”22 Te 1917 Immigration ica and I therefore take the liberty of Act also defined as inadmissible “all per- requesting Your Excellency to inform sons whose ticket or passage is paid for the Secretary of Labor or the competent by any corporation, association, society, authorities, that the Basque Societies, municipality or foreign government, ei- entities, and persons can, in my opin- ther directly or indirectly.” But because ion, furnish all the guarantee necessary Bowers was reportedly in favor of the to safeguard the moral, material and project, the final decision was in hands religious interests of the said children, of consular officers abroad. and therefore the Basque Government After the media reported on the news, 58 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 2,700 New York Basque families offered not aware that the parents of many of their homes and funds for the refugee these children had been killed or impris- children. After such a response, the oned. With no home or close relatives, American Board of Guardians asked for many of the children were helpless. permission to bring 2,000 children in- stead of 500. 3. It is not good to deprive the children of However, only three days after news their sacred right to heritage. reports of the project, the Massachusetts Te MCOF was not informed that Catholic Order of Foresters (MCOF) some of the most basic rights of herit- publicized their emphatic – though mis- age, such as the right to speak one’s own informed – opposition to the plan. Te language, had been banned and even MCOF was told, probably by Fascist criminalized by the new regime, which agents in the North American Catho- had passed the first laws on the prohibi- lic hierarchy, that some of the children tion of speaking Basque on September could be communists and that their 25, 1936. U.S. Ambassador Claude G. stay in the United States could be used Bowers reported on the issue on March as Communist propaganda. Joseph A. 24, 1938.26 Calahan, chief ranger of the MCOF23, Francis Talbot and Victor J. Lo Pinto of- 4. If it was imperative to remove the chil- fered a number of reasons to oppose the dren from their homes, the best place to project. Tey included:24 take them was the northern Basque Coun- 1. Bringing refugee children and adults to try, in France, where they could easily be the U.S. in the past had always caused un- returned to their native land when the war told hardship. However, the MCOF let- was over. Once again the MOCF was not ter did not identify the previous efforts well informed since there were already or explain why they had failed. As U.S. thousands of children in the northern Consul William E. Chapman noted re- part of the Basque Country, including garding Mexican refugees in 1917, he at a hospital run by the Basque govern- had been authorized to certify consular ment. Te northern Basque Country, invoices in a hotel within the United which had about 70,000 inhabitants at States since the American Consulate at the time, could not, for obvious reasons, Nogales (Mexico) had been closed be- handle another 150,000 refugees in cause of the revolution, and Venustiano three months (April-June 1937). Carranza (1859-1920) had not yet been 5. Te children should also be placed in recognized president of Mexico. Accord- Catholic homes. Tose supervising the ing to Chapman, the system of issuing welfare of the children should be forced to visas to refugees at a consulate worked guarantee that their religion will be scru- very well at the time.25 pulously safeguarded and protected from perversion.27 2. Te solution for the kids was not to take Calahan and Talbot must have been them abroad since nothing was more sa- unaware that 100 per cent of the New cred than the love of home and family. York Basque families that had agreed to Te members of the MCOF were likely host the Basque children were Catho- SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 59 lic and that Catholic priests and nurses lum offered by Generalissimo Franco’s coming from the Basque country or re- forces, Talbot, Lo Pinto, Calahan could siding in the United States would assist not have known of the evidence for the them. Additionally, they probably did massacres of civilians in places occupied not know that religion was a compul- by the rebels, which the International sory subject of study in all the colonies Red Cross and the British National Joint organized by the Basque government. Committee for Spanish Relief under the presidency of Catherine Atholl had been 6. Te Catholic hierarchy in both France passing to U.S. officials.29 and Spain was willing and ready to ad- minister American relief quickly, effi- 9. Te project may cause undesirable pub- ciently and intelligently among the Basque lic responsibilities for the U.S. administra- refugee families. tion. Again, the MOCF was improperly ad- Once again, the MOCF was not well vised, since, for instance, Monseigneur informed since the American Board of Joseph Clément Mathieu (1882-1963), Guardians for Basque Refugee Children, bishop of Dax, was one of the most fer- the Committee for German-Ameri- vent advocates of sending the children can Relief for Spain and the New York abroad. In addition, the Spanish Catho- Basque Center had already collected the lic church never spent any money on the necessary funds to finance the project. Basque, Catalan or Spanish refugee chil- Besides, the Basque host families had dren abroad. agreed to take care of the children at their own expense. As we will see, other 7. Te siege of Bilbao would end, and the Basque organizations in the United war would soon be over and the kids safe. States were also ready to help. Once again, the MOCF was misled since, after the capture of Bilbao, many 10. Te project may be a real danger for Basque children were removed from the neutrality policy. their homes and sent to “reeducation” As the U.S. State Department deter- camps, where the new regime inculcated mined, humanitarian projects did not its principles. violate the Neutrality Act.

8. Te children have been offered an asy- It should be noted that it was easy to lum on their own soil and among their be misinformed, considering that news- own people by the Nationalists; but a papers in Massachusetts, Maine and merciless leftist government has torn them even Washington and New York were away from their mothers’ bosoms and publishing inaccurate articles, such as homes, regardless of their well-being.28 the following from the Daily Kennebec No children were taken abroad without Journal of Augusta, Maine: formal petitions from their parents. On the contrary, many children would be It’s being charged that this scattering of returned to Spain against their families’ the child refugees is a deliberate plan wills through blackmail. As for the asy- for breaking down the Basque national 60 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 morale. Most of the children may never Francis P. Frazier, John Z. Norton return to their native land and all of and John J. Harrington, grand knights, them will be away long enough to be wrote to U.S. Representative Robert L. nationalized by the countries to which Luce on May 25: they have been sent. Tus they will no longer be Basques and the Basque race Five hundred Knights of Columbus of will eventually disappear off the face Waltham and their families, after spe- of earth as such. Such development is cial meeting last evening, protest the being hotly protested specially in this importation through waiving of im- country. Tis is too far to bring the migration laws by State Department of children anyhow and unless they are two thousand Basque children violently managed with unusual care and skill are aliened from parents and potential pub- bound to suffer much. If they are to be lic charges of this country.31 used for propaganda or other ulterior purposes the plan is cold blooded and Francis P. Frazier, on behalf of the New- cruel. Tis would not detent Commu- ton CKC, called the project a ‘brutal nists, however, who consider no sacri- attempt to gain partisan publicity at fice too great to advance their cause.30 the expense of innocent children;’32 the Falmouth CKC considered it to be a One of the most prominent oppo- ‘monstrous proposal’33; Grand Knight nents to bringing Basque children to J. P. McAndrews of Adams protested New York was Cardinal William H. against that ‘monstrous undertaking, O’Connell (1859-1944) of Boston. noting that it was ‘just another piece And O’Connell soon gained the sup- of Communistic propaganda instituted port of the Adams, Boston, Cambridge, by the followers of the Loyalist group in Falmouth, McMahon, Newton, Spring- Spain who are seeking sympathetic sup- field, Waltham and Worcester Councils port in United States’34; Joseph Z. Ouel- of the Knights of Columbus (CKC). lette, for the Main State CKC, expressed Numerous CKC councils in Massachu- that the children could ‘easily become setts and Maine sent telegrams to both tools of propaganda in favor of the the State Department and the House of Communist Socialist regime;’35 Victor J. Representatives opposing the supposed Lo Pinto called it an ‘unwarranted mass communist conspiracy. Other Catho- kidnapping.’36 Finally, John J. Spillane, lic organizations in O’Connell’s dio- state secretary of the Knights of Colum- cese joined the campaign, such as the bus, also expressed his disapproval on Franciscan Friars of the Atonement, the behalf of the Massachusetts State CKC League of Catholic Women, the Con- to Franklin D. Roosevelt.37 In all these gress of Catholic Women, the Women’s cases, the answer by the U.S. State De- Philomatheia Club, the Ladies Catholic partment was the same: ‘the department Benevolent Association of the State of has taken no action in regard to these Illinois and the Catholic Alumni Sodal- cases, since the responsibility for pass- ity of Boston. Tey all opposed the pro- ing upon the temporary visitor status ject as “Red propaganda.” of each individual case rests upon the SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 61

Ruins of Gernika after the bombing of April 26, 1937 by the Luftwaffe Photo: William Smallwood Archive

American consular officer who receives tary of State Cordell Hull; Rep. Charles the passport visa application’.38 R. Clason (1890-1985) of Massachu- Also, J. F. Robinson, on behalf of the setts, did the same, saying that ‘to use Massachusetts Society of the Sons of the these children for exploitation purposes American Revolution (MSSAR), asked is an example of extreme cruelty and the secretary of state to refuse to cooper- heartlessness’42; Rep. John W. McCor- ate with the project, which he said was mack (1891-1980) of Massachusetts, not in the best interests of either the denounced the project as ‘Red propa- children or the nation.39 Other organi- ganda’ and became one of its most ar- zations, such as the Junior Order of the dent opponents. He met with Secretary United American Mechanics40 and the of Labor Frances Perkins (1880-1965) American Coalition ( ‘an organization to and Undersecretary of State Sumner coordinate the efforts of patriotic, civic Welles (1892-1961) in person. He also and fraternal societies to keep America communicated with the Department American’)41 also opposed the project in of Immigration, the State Department letters to the State Department. and President Franklin D. Roosevelt.43 Te telegram campaign soon reached Finally, Massachusetts Senator David Congress. On May 25, Senator Henry Ignatius Walsh (1872-1947), who re- C. Lodge (1902-1985) of Massachusetts, ported that he had received 500 tele- relayed his disapproval to U.S. Secre- grams in one day opposing the project, 62 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 and Massachusetts Governor Charles in having these unfortunate victims re- Francis Hurley (1893-1946), spoke out turned to their homes and their parents against the venture. When the Labor as soon as possible. He emphasized that Department issued word that it would Mrs. Roosevelt had misunderstood the not be issuing any visas, Walsh and Hur- problem when she pledged her help in ley appeared in a photo in the Boston transporting 500 Basque children to the Post on May 29; beneath the caption, United States.46 ‘Walsh informs Hurley Basque plan is Several protest telegrams reached the dead,’ the picture showed Senator Walsh State Department, including one by the taking a cigar from Hurley.44 Workers Fellowship of the Society for Out of Massachusetts’ 17 represent- Ethical Culture in New York47 and one atives in Congress, only Rep. Joseph by three-time Pulitzer Prize-winner and E. Casey said he thought there was no Librarian of Congress Archibald Ma- basis to the claim that the evacuation cleish (1892-1982): effort was a communist conspiracy: ‘suppose Fitchburg were being shelled Rumors are being spread in New York by airplanes and children were being that your Department refuses asylum in murdered in the streets. What would America to Basque children evacuated you say or do to a man who under any from Bilbao stop May I respectfully urge pretense refused to help rescue them? that you take earliest possible opportu- Tankfully England has raised no such nity to deny these rumors stop It is vital scruples against the rescue of little chil- to self-respect of United States citizens dren from the murderous bombs and that not even in idle talk should this machine-guns of war planes.’45 democracy be pictured as only civilized By June, the U.S. Labor Department country of western world to put itself in had decided not to make an exception so shameful a position stop I realize cer- for the Basque children in its application tain United States organizations are not of the 1917 Immigration Act (which above opposing rescue of these children stated that all children under 16 years of for fear appearance in America of catho- age, unaccompanied, and having their lic refugees escaping from Franco guns tickets paid by an association, would not might expose falsehood of widely dis- be eligible for a visa, unless the secretary seminated contention that Franco and of labor determined that they would not his Nazi and Fascist allies are patriotic become a public liability). On June 30, engaged in protecting Spanish people General Queipo de Llano from Radio against anarchist and communists stop Sevilla spoke of the thousands of chil- But surely such organizations cannot dren who had been evacuated from influence decision of a nation dedicated the Basque Country to other countries to ideals of political and human free- and characterized the withdrawal as dom.48 ‘red propaganda designed to depict the Fascists as ruthless toward such inno- On June 8, the same day that 500 ref- cent victims of the war.’ He added that ugee children were approaching Verac- Franco’s government would lose no time ruz, Mexico,49 the American Board of SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 63 Guardians for Basque Refugee Chil- However, on July 2, Chapman, proba- dren made one last appeal to the White bly pressured by Bowers, contacted the House to try to generate some pressure State Department to discuss the evac- to reverse the labor department’s deci- uation question. On July 19, the U.S. sion: Embassy in Paris sent a note to the U.S. State Department with a copy of a letter Te President: from Chapman noting that he believed Answering the appeal of the Duchess of he was authorized to issue American Atholl who organized removal of 8,792 passports and grant visas in French ter- Basque refugee children to France, ritory. At Chapman’s request, the U.S. 4,000 to England, 500 to Belgium, consul in Bordeaux had sent him pass- 500 to Holland, and 500 to Mexico, port and visa application forms, fee the American Board of Guardians for stamps, and immigrant identification Basque Refugee Children has under- cards. Addison E. Southard, U.S. consul taken to bring 500 children to United general to the French Republic, wanted States to be cared for here for duration to know if Chapman had authority to of civil war. Tey will be accompanied act this way.51 Te embassy never re- by Basque Catholic priests and will be ceived a definite answer. maintained here by responsible organi- Te board sent a petition on June 24 zations which solicit the advice and co- to U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull operation of Federal Children’s Bureau asking to be formally registered to un- of the Department of Labor. dertake a fund-raising campaign for Tis action is strictly non-political. the relief of Basque refugee children Being humanitarian in the broadest in Europe.52 Four days later, the State sense it is in line with the best traditions Department answered affirmatively.53 of our country, which always in the past On July 9, the board received notifica- has given liberal assistance to victims of tion from Charles W. Yost at the State catastrophes throughout the world. Departments’ Office of Arms and Am- World public opinion looks to you, munitions Control that the organiza- Mr. President, to enable American gen- tion could register,54 and they did.55 Te erosity to find its logical expression in organization raised funds by means of this emergency. Other governments letters, advertisements and personal so- have taken emergency measures, but licitations. Te contributions were sent European accommodations for refugees to the Comite International de Coordi- are already overtaxed. nation et D’Information Pour L’Aide a Te situation is critical. Bilbao sub- L’Espagne Républicaine via the North urbs are in flames. Every day’s delay American Committee to Aid Spanish may cost lives.We respectfully urge you, Democracy. Te first funds were sent on Mr. President, to intercede on behalf of July 8, before the board was properly reg- these unfortunate children, thus mak- istered. Tat day, the board sent $1,064 ing possible American participation in to the North American Committee to this great work of mercy.50 Aid Spanish Democracy, which was to transfer it to the board’s coordinating 64 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 committee in Paris. A second transfer Jerónimo Astoreka of New York, ob- of $200 through Spanish Children Ref- tained approval a week later. ugee Assistance was received in August. On May 18, 1938, the Spanish Min- Te board dissolved in August 1937. istry of National Education began to Before it ceased to operate on September make plans to deploy a new lot of teach- 1, the group asked the State Department ers to properly educate the next gener- whether it could transfer its permit to ation of children. Te teachers would another organization. William E. Dodd, all be officers from the National Move- the board’s former general secretary ment, the only lawful political party, and a member of the American League and would teach subjects like ‘correct Against War and Fascism, wrote to the political thought.’ One of the first State Department’s Office of Arms and schools devoted to the ‘reeducation’ of Ammunitions Control announcing that teachers was in Pamplona, in the Basque the group would be disbanded. From Country, to correct the ‘mistakes of the May 25 to August 30, 1937, the board Basque nationalist doctrine’: collected $2,301.06 in donations for The new state must urgently move Basque children. Of that money, 61.6 towards the formation of the national percent was transferred ($1,264), 34.2 body of teachers, formed in a genu- percent was expended in organizational inely Spanish spirit in order that all and administrative charges ($787.06) may respond to what our history and and the rest, 4.2 percent ($250), was our movement exacts and signifies. A used for loans and currency exchanges. complete education is necessary for the On December 18, 1937, Dean Dri- generations of today as well as for fu- scoll of the Idahoan Basque Sheepherd- ture ones which makes them penetrate ers’ Overall Dance Association applied deeply into the Spanish ‘gestas’ (old to the State Department to collect legendary romances) in defend of what money for the relief of Basque refugee is Spanish and of Christianity. All that children.56 Te request was accepted constitutes the complex problem of the only two days later. John Archabal57 formation of the teachers occupies prin- was the official promoter, and the group cipally the attention of this Ministry. planned to collect money at a dance All this will be rapidly done in future at the Riverside Pavillion in Boise on dispositions. (…) Terefore the Minis- December 21. Te association raised try has decreed that: $1,366, and the funds58 were sent to the American Red Cross in Boise to 1. In the city of Pamplona in the Arts and be transferred to the International Red Crafts building will be held a course in Cross in Bilbao. national guidance for primary education. Another group, the Committee for Te opening will take place the first of next the Aid of the Basque Refugee Chil- July. dren in France, also applied a year later, on November 1, 1938, to be registered 2. Said formation course to treat upon the with the Secretary of State.59 Te com- following subjects: mittee, led by Florencio Lauzirika and 1. Religious and military spirit of life. SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 65 2. Spanish fatherland, History of Spain Sources and Bibliography and meaning of Spanish culture. As registered in the notes, the historio- 3. Cultural and national education. graphic sources used to write the present Points of guidance in the spirit of the article are mainly archival documents National Movement. Political doc- from the National Archives and Records trine of the F.E.T. Points of guidance Administration (NARA) at College Park about the New State. (Maryland, USA) and the archive at the 4. Social organization, work law Gernika Peace Museum (Gernika, Biz- (‘Fuero del Trabajo’). kaia). 5. Methods to be followed in the teaching of small children. Agnew, Kate, and Geoff Fox. Children at war: from the First World War to the 6. Teoretical lessons for physical edu- Gulf. London and New York: Contin- cation, anatomy, physiology, hygiene, uum, 2001. psychology of the national education. Alonso Carballés, Jesús J. “Educación, cul- tura e identidad de los niños vascos en 7. Discussion of the subject of physi- el exilio.” In Sesenta años después: Eu- cal education and physical exercise. skal Erbestearen Kultura, edited by Xa- 8. Te course will last 30 days, con- bier Apaolaza, José Ángel Ascunce, Iratxe ducted along the lines of a boarding Momoitio. Donostia: Hamaika Bide Elkartea, 2000. school. Te expense of maintenance will Alonso Carballés, Jesús J. 1937, los niños be borne by the teachers attending, and vascos evacuados a Francia y Bélgica: will cost 150 pesetas.60 Historia y memoria de un éxodo infantil, 1936–1940. Bilbao: Asociación de Niños Evacuados el 37/37an Atzerriraturiko Soon, the children who did not have Haurren Elkartea, 1998. the good fortune to be sent abroad and Alted Vigil, Alicia, et al. (eds.). El Exilio de los Niños. Madrid: Fundación Pablo whose families were suspected of being Iglesias y Fundación Francisco Largo leftist or Basque nationalist were sent to Caballero, 2003.Arrien, Gregorio, and these schools. And those children who Félix Zubiaga. Niños evacuados a Gran were sent abroad, whose parents were Bretaña (1937–1940). Bilbao: Asoci- ación de Niños Evacuados el 37/37an imprisoned, were systematically black- Atzerriraturiko Haurren Elkartea, 1991. mailed to force their return. One of Arrien, Gregorio, and Iñaki Goiogana. El the people in charge of this enterprise primer exilio de los vascos: Cataluña, 1936–1939. Barcelona: Fundación Sa- was Monsignor Ildebrando Antoniutti bino Arana/Sabino Arana Kultur Elkar- (1898-1974), the papal chargé d’affaires goa, 2002. to the Spanish regime for the purposes Arrien, Gregorio. Niños evacuados en 1937: Álbum histórico. Bilbao: Asociación de of “exchanging” prisoners. In 1962, Niños Evacuados el 37/37an Atzerrira- Pope John XXIII named him Cardinal turiko Haurren Elkartea, 1988. Priest of San Sebastiano alle Catecombe. Cloud, Yvonne and Richard Ellis. Te Basque Children in England. An Ac- count of their Life at North Stoneham Camp. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1937. Davis, Kenneth S. FDR, Into the Storm 1937-1940: A History. New York: Ran- dom House, 1993. 66 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Eizagirre, Domingo. Corazón de cartón. Taylor, Richard. “Typhoid Fever in the Bilbao: Sabino Arana Fundazioa, 1999. Basque Refugee Camp”. Te British Ericsson, Kjersti, and Eva Simonsen. Chil- Medical Journal, vol. 2, no. 4006 (Oct. dren of World War Two. Oxford and 16, 1937): 760-761. New York: Berg, 2005. Zafra, Enrique, Rosalia Grego, and Carmen Freud, Anna, and Dorothy Burlingham. Heredia. Los niños españoles evacuados a War and children. New York: Interna- la URSS (1937). Madrid: Ediciones de la tional University Press, 1944. Torre, 1989.61 Goiogana, Iñaki, Xabier Irujo, and Josu Legarreta. Un nuevo treinta y uno: Ide- ología y estrategia del Gobierno de Euz- Notes kadi durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial 1 Tey did not all sign up to the same conditions. a través de la correspondencia de José 2 Also, many of the records that were not destroyed Antonio Aguirre y Manuel Irujo. Bilbao: were seized by Franco and stored in the National Fundación Sabino Arana/Sabino Arana Historical Archives in Salamanca and Madrid. Kultur Elkargoa, 2007. Tese were only made available to scholars from Irujo Ametzaga, Xabier. Homo spelens. the late 1980s. Donostia: Utriusque Vasconiae, 2009. 3 Te child population refers to children between 5 Irujo Ametzaga, Xabier. Expelled from the and 14 years old. Motherland: Te Government of Presi- 4 Also, Euskal Herria (the ‘Basque Country’), a dent Jose Antonio Agirre in Exile (1937 stateless nation, comprises seven territories, of - 1960). Reno: Center for Basque Studies which three are within the French Republic (Baxe - University of Nevada, Reno, 2012. Nafarroa –the ancient Kingdom of Navarre-, Kuper, Jenny. International law concerning Lapurdi and Zuberoa). child civilians in armed conflict. Oxford: 5 In fact the president of the Board of directors of Clarendon Press, 1997. the International Commission for the Assistance Larronde, Jean-Claude. Exilio y solidaridad: of Child Refugees in Spain was the Norwegian La Liga Internacional de Amigos de los Judge Michael Hanson. Vascos. Milafranga: Bidasoa and Hegoa, 6 Holland also provided asylum to a small num- 1998. ber of children and helped to maintain colonies Legarreta, Dorothy. Te Guernica Gener- abroad. ation: Basque Refugee Children of the 7 Notification of the Circular of the Ministry of Jus- Spanish Civil War. Reno: University of tice of March 17, 1939, Busturia, March 24, 1939. Nevada Press, 1984. Bizkaiko Foru Aldundiko Ondare Historikoaren Marten, James A. Children and war: a his- Foru Agiritegia, Ereño Juzgado 0056/030. torical anthology. New York: New York 8 Report from U.S. Ambassador to the Spanish University Press, 2002. Republic to the U.S. State Department. Donib- Pàmies, Teresa. Los niños de la guerra. Bar- ane Lohitzune, May 4, 1937. National Archives celona: Ediciones Bruguera, 1977. and Records Administration, College Park, Pilloud, Claude, et al. Commentary on U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 852.48/…), Document 852.48/77. to the Geneva… Geneva and Norwell 9 Telegram by Julio Álvarez del Vayo to Eleanor (MA): Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and Roosevelt. Barcelona, March 21, 1938. NARA, Te International Committee of the Red College Park, U.S. Department of State Files Cross, 1987. 1930-1939 (Files 852.00/…, Box 6416), Docu- Pons Prades, Eduardo. Las guerras de los ment 852.00/7571. niños republicanos (1936–1995). Ma- 10 Letter by U.S. Ambassador to the French Repub- drid: Compañía Literaria, 1997. lic William C. Bullit to the U.S. State Department. Sabín-Fernández, Susana. Te ‘Niños Vas- Paris, April 30, 1937. National Archives and Re- cos’. Memory and memorialisation of cords Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambas- the Basque refugee children of the Span- sador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), ish Civil War in the UK. Vitoria/Gasteiz: Document 852.48/71. Eusko Jaurlaritzaren Argitalpen Zerbitzu 11 Letter by U.S. Ambassador to the French Repub- Nagusia = Servicio Central de Publica- lic William C. Bullit to the U.S. State Department. ciones del Gobierno Vasco, 2011. Paris, April 30, 1937. National Archives and Re- cords Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambas- SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 67

sador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), telegram campaign asserting that “this is totally Document 852.48/71. foreign to American ideals, it is heart rending, 12 Joint Resolution of Congress approved on May 1, cruel and foolishly unnecessary.” National Ar- 1937 amending the joint resolution approved on chives and Records Administration, College Park, August 31, 1935. U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 13 Report by the Office of Arms and Ammuni- 852.48/…), Document 852.48/99. tions Control of the U.S. State Department. 24 Letter by Joseph A. Calahan, chief ranger of the Washington, April 30, 1937. National Archives MCOF to the U.S. secretary of state. Boston, May and Records Administration, College Park, 25, 1937. National Archives and Records Admin- U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files istration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude 852.48/…), Document 852.48/80. G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 14 Report from the U.S. Embassy in Paris to the U.S. 852.48/88. State Department. Paris, May 6, 1937. National 25 Letter by U.S. Consul at Bilbao William E. Chap- Archives and Records Administration, College man to U.S. Consul General at Paris Addison E. Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files Southard. Donibane Lohitzune, July 11, 1937. (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/79. See also National Archives and Records Administration, Document 852.48/107. College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers 15 Telegram from the U.S. Embassy in Paris to the Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/148. U.S. State Department. Paris, May 5, 1937. Na- 26 Persecution of the Basques: Forbidding Use of tional Archives and Records Administration, Col- Teir Ancient Language. Report by Claude G. lege Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Bowers to the U.S. State Department. Donib- Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/70. ane Lohitzune, March 24, 1938. National Ar- 16 Te board’s central office was located at #20 Ves- chives and Records Administration, College Park, sey St., Suite 301, New York, NY. U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 17 Letter from the American Board of Guardians for 852.402/…), Document 852.402/9. Basque Refugee Children to the U.S. Secretary 27 Letter from Francis Talbot to the Us Secretary of of State. New York, May 22, 1937. National Ar- State. Washington, May 24, 1937. National Ar- chives and Records Administration, College Park, chives and Records Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.00/…, Boxes 3687 to 3701), Document 852.402/…), Document 852.48/128. 852.00/5511. Also Document 852.48/127. 28 Letter by Victor J. Lo Pinto to the U.S. Secretary 18 Report from the U.S. Navy to the U.S.S. Kane. of State. New York, July 22, 1937. National Ar- Washington, May 23, 1937. National Archives chives and Records Administration, College Park, and Records Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/144. 852.48/…), Document 852.48/86. See also 29 Note by the British National Joint Committee 852.48/121, P. 2. for Spanish Relief to the U.S. State Department. 19 Letter from the U.S. Department of State to the Dunkeld (Scotland), August 25, 1937. National Spanish Embassy in Washington. Washington, Archives and Records Administration, College June 24, 1937. National Archives and Records Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/157. Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Docu- 30 “Basque children,” Daily Kennebec Journal, ment 852.48/121. Tursday, May 27, 1937. P. 5. 20 Letter from the Spanish Embassy in Washington 31 Telegram by Grand Knight John J. Harrington to the U.S. Department of State. Washington, to U.S. Representative Robert L. Luce. Waltham June 16, 1937. National Archives and Records (Massachusetts), May 25, 1937. National Ar- Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador chives and Records Administration, College Park, Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Docu- U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files ment 852.48/121. 852.48/…), Document 852.48/89. 21 Also spelled Lauzirika (in Basque Lauzirika). 32 Telegram by Grand Knight Francis P. Frazier to 22 Act of 1917. U.S. Reports of the Immigration U.S. Representative Robert L. Luce. Waltham Commission. Washington D.C.: Government (Massachusetts), May 25, 1937. National Ar- Printing Office, 1917, vol. 1, p. 48. chives and Records Administration, College Park, 23 Mary S. MacNally (Springfield Court of MCOF) U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files and Annie F. Sullivan, Secretary of the Saint Claire 852.48/…), Document 852.48/89. Court Number 106 of MCOF, also joined the 68 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

33 Telegram by the Falmouth Council of the Knights chives and Records Administration, College Park, of Columbus to U.S. Representative Charles Gif- U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files ford. Falmouth (Massachusetts), May 25, 1937. 852.48/…), Document 852.48/110. National Archives and Records Administration, 42 Letter by Representative Charles R. Clason to College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers the U.S. Secretary of State. Washington, May 26, Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/90. 1937. National Archives and Records Adminis- 34 Telegram by Grand Knight of Adams Council tration, College Park, US Ambassador Claude of the Knights of Columbus J. P. McAndrews to G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Document U.S. Representative Allen T. Treadway. Adams 852.48/94. (Massachusetts), May 25, 1937. National Ar- 43 Telegram by John McCormack to the president chives and Records Administration, College Park, of the U.S., Franklin D. Roosevelt. Washington, US Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files June 10, 1937. National Archives and Records 852.48/…), Document 852.48/93. Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador 35 Telegram by Joseph Z. Ouellette, State Deputy Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Docu- Knights of Columbus to U.S. Secretary of State. ment 852.48/130. Brunswick (Main), May 26, 1937. National Ar- 44 Donald F. Crosby, “Boston’s Catholic and the chives and Records Administration, College Park, Spanish Civil War: 1936-1939,” Te New Eng- U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files land Quarterly. A Historical Review of New Eng- 852.48/…), Document 852.48/96. land Life and Letters, March 1971. P. 98. 36 Letter by Victor J. Lo Pinto to the U.S. Secretary 45 “Little Basque refugees,” Te Fitchburg Sentinel, of State. New York, July 22, 1937. National Ar- Fitchburg, Massachusetts, May 28, 1937. P. 6. chives and Records Administration, College Park, 46 Dispatch from Charles A. Bay, at the American US Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files Consulate in Seville to the U.S. State Department. 852.48/…), Document 852.48/144. Seville, July 1, 1937. National Archives and Re- 37 Telegram by John J. Spillane, State Secretary of cords Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambas- Knights of Columbus, to U.S. President Franklin sador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), D. Roosevelt. Worcester (Massachusetts), May 25, Document 852.48/141. 1937. National Archives and Records Adminis- 47 Telegram by the Workers Fellowship of the So- tration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude ciety for Ethical Culture in the city of New York G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Document to the U.S. President. New York, June 16, 1937. 852.48/93. National Archives and Records Administration, 38 Letter by the U.S. State Department to Represent- College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers ative Charles Gifford. Washington, June 4, 1937. Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/119. National Archives and Records Administration, 48 Letter by Representative Archibald Macleish to College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers the U.S. Secretary of State. New York, June 8, Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/90. 1937. National Archives and Records Adminis- 39 Telegram by J. F. Robinson to U.S. President tration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude Franklin D. Roosevelt. Boston (Massachusetts), G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Document May 28, 1937. National Archives and Records 852.48/108. Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador 49 “Spanish orphans arrive in Mexico.” National Ar- Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Docu- chives and Records Administration, College Park, ment 852.48/101. U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 40 Letter by Lester Treadwell to the U.S. Secre- 852.48/…), Document 852.48/134. tary of State. New York, June 9, 1937. National 50 Letter from the American Board of Guardians Archives and Records Administration, College for Basque Refugee Children to the U.S. Pres- Park, US Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files ident. New York, June 8, 1937. National Ar- (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/109. See chives and Records Administration, College Park, also, letter by George G. Grey, Chairman of the U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files New Jersey Committee to the U.S. Secretary of 852.48/…), Document 852.48/112. State. Trenton (NJ), June 11, 1937. National Ar- 51 Letter from Addison E. Southard at the U.S. Em- chives and Records Administration, College Park, bassy in Paris to the U.S. State Department. Paris, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files August 1, 1937. National Archives and Records 852.48/…), Document 852.48/114. Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador 41 Letter by John B. Trevor to the U.S. Secretary of Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Docu- State. Washington, June 9, 1937. National Ar- ment 852.48/148. SUSANA SABÍNFERNÁNDEZ 69

52 Letter from the American Board of Guardians for Basque Refugee Children to the Secretary of State. New York, June 24, 1937. National Ar- chives and Records Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/Relief-Regis. American Board of Guardians for Basque Refugee Children/1. 53 Letter from the American Board of Guardians for Basque Refugee Children to the Secretary of State. New York, June 24, 1937. National Ar- chives and Records Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/Relief-Regis. American Board of Guardians for Basque Refugee Children/2. 54 In compliance with the provisions of paragraph 1 of the rules and regulations promulgated on May 5, 1937, pursuant to section 3(a) of the Joint Res- olution of Congress approved May 1, 1937 (Neu- trality Act). 55 Te registration for the purpose of soliciting and receiving contributions for use in Europe arrived on July 29. 56 Application by Dean Dryscoll to the U.S. Secre- tary of State. Boise (Idaho), December 18, 1937. National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bow- ers Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/ Relief-Regis. Basque Sheepherders’ Overall Dance Association/1. 57 Probably misspelled, John Atxabal. 58 Subtracting expenses for the transfer of the funds ($262), the Red Cross received a total of $1,104 for the relief of Basque refugee children. 59 Letter from the Committee for the Aid of the Basque Refugee Children in France to the U.S. State Department. Washington, November 1, 1937. National Archives and Records Adminis- tration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.48/…), Document 852.48/Relief-Regis. Committee for the Aid of the Basque Refugee Children in France/1. 60 Te Burgos Attitude on Religious and Intellec- tual Freedom. Report by U.S. Ambassador to the Spanish Republic Claude G. Bowers to the U.S. Secretary of State. Donibane Lohitzune, March 1, 1938. National Archives and Records Admin- istration, College Park, U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers Files (Files 852.404/…), Document 852.404/95.

1798-1867: Russian America and its Latvians. In Search of Teir Invisibles: the Personal and Household Servants

Maria Jarlsdotter Enckell

Abstract Tis presentation focuses on the only directed towards the Grand Duchy non-Russian North European (Evan- of Finland, where hundreds upon hun- gelical Lutheran) population’s multifold dreds of Finnish and Swedish speaking contributions toward the development Finlanders were engaged, but also to the of the North Pacific region, with specific Ingrians, and to the Baltic Provinces of focus on Russian America and its mostly Estland, Lifland, and Kurland, where far too ignored Estonian and Latvian Baltic Germans, of military and civil contributions. To get a grip on the many ranks, were recruited as well as Estoni- questions of why, I have for the past 30 ans and Latvians (and in lesser cases to years worked towards the full identifi- such nations as Poland, Prussia, Ger- cation of each one, which is still ongo- many, Denmark, Sweden and Norway). ing, focusing on what I have perceived Te overwhelming majority of this as an often willful suppression of the particular multiethnic population ad- history concerning Russian America’s hered to the Evangelical Lutheran per- entire non-Russian north European la- suasion and numbered no less than a bor-force, recruited from 1799 to 1867 third of the entire “white” population to fill the Russian American Company’s stationed at the Russian American ever present needs at Novo Archangelsk/ Company Colonies’ local head-quarter, Sitka, its administrative site on Baranoff Novo Arkhangelsk/ Sitka, as well as its Island (today part of US-held State of many operating sites on both islands Alaska), and at its many operating sites and on the Russian-held shores around around the North Pacific Rim. Tis cov- the North Pacific Rim. Here this pop- ered everyone from governors, naval of- ulation nestled both with ease, as well ficers, office employees, and sea captains as documented unease within the eth- with their ship crews down to cabin boys nic Russian population adhering to the and personal and household servants. Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic per- Tese recruitment activities weren’t suasion. MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 71 Each one, governor, naval officer, Finska Kadettklubbens Styrelse1960. sailor/mariner, gold-smith, shoemaker, Wirilander 1975. Wirilander 1985. Halén tailor, baker, cabinet-maker, ship- 2011a. Halén 2011b). builder, furrier, Company book-keeper, When considering the even smaller and office employee or black-smith etc., populations of Estland, Lifland & was at all times aware of his/her place Kurland, their numbers of naval and within his own people, as well as his army officers serving in Imperial Russia place among the diverse linguistic and who had risen to the ranks of admirals ethnic groups within his own parish and generals within the Imperial Rus- membership, and his/her place in the sian military, has been known to be hierarchy of Imperial Russian society, far greater than the number of those as well as where his/her place fell within from the Grand Duchy of Finland. … this multiethnic Lutheran parish mem- and most all of those hired for Russian bership, and his place as part of con- America, or commissioned there to quered people under Imperial Russian serve the Russian American Company rule. had either hired and brought their own Tere were internal crossovers within personal valet, or upon arrival the Com- this parish too. As Cygnaeus claimed pany had assigned one to each of them. he wasn’t keen on partaking in such Tese valets were seldom noted, rarely worldly shop-talk circulating around referred to, hardly ever recorded or tackle, sails and ships, he retired to his recognized, were kicked and degraded own rooms. However the more likely when their masters considered they had reason was he had difficulties holding served poorly, as well as dismissed, but his own in conversations held in rapidly when needed they were craved for when spoken German. Of these four Linden- not instantly available. berg and Harder remain unidentified in full. Additionally, of the six only von Society’s Invisible Ones Bartram’s valet and Cygnaeus’ first valet In any society including within the are fully identified. Evangelical Lutheran world of Europe, Considering the fact that Finland the personal servants and household with its small population provided ones were always ranked as the lowest. Russia with a cadre of military men of Tis too held true to society in Russian which 339 naval officers’ biographical America. Tese servants were the invis- and professional records have been doc- ible ones. Still they were part of those umented (Pikoff 1938) of which 9 rose most necessary underpinnings of soci- to the rank of admiral, 21 to the rank ety, no one could be without, and as of vice admiral, and 46 to the rank of with their services they literally upheld rear admiral (Pikoff 1938:4), and in the everything and everyone ranked above military, 1611 officers’ biographical and them. It would have been unthinkable professional records have also been doc- to even think that the governor’s wife umented of which more than 200 rose would have stood in the kitchen pre- to the rank of general (Schulman 1912. paring the multi-course dinners served Nordenstreng 1922. Åkerman 1941. every day at the governor’s house, seat- 72 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 ing 12 to 20 men, or that she by hand cords, and hardly ever mentioned in any would be scrubbing her and her hus- published academic research accounts, band’s dirty clothes in a tub, or wash such as papers and books concerning the dishes and floors herself. Equally the history of Russian America and/or unthinkable was the notion that any the Russian American Company. And gentlewoman, or any elected official’s if any of them are ever mentioned, they wife, burger’s wife and their daughters are mostly hinted at in passing like mere would move through life without the nameless shadow-like figures of no con- assistance of their own chamber maids, sequence, sometimes by their profession: or that a nobleman, gentleman, officer, valet, cook, “my man”, or, if in luck, the elected townsman, government official, men are hinted at by their family name industrialist, burger/townsman, busi- and the women by their given one. ness man, or the like in status, includ- However occasional exceptions are ing their wives and daughters, would stumbled upon, as there were those who move about without their shadow, their occasionally would actually see and reg- personal valet/chamber-maid, who was ister some of them. One who did so was supposed to be ready at his/her beck and Sitka’s known womanizer. In the early call anytime anywhere including long 1840s above mentioned Pastor Cyg- travels made at any season across land naeus wrote the following to his sister and seas. concerning two of his parishioners who In early 1860 when two high-rank- served as chamber-maids: ‘in actual real ing inspectors came to asses the Rus- beauty those two young women outshine sian American Company’s viable health, everything Sitka’s female society can offer, Governor Furuhjelm’s wife wrote her and were they not servants they would be mother concerning the housing of the hottest pursued prospects at any of the these government inspectors, referring balls here at Sitka.’ to Pavel Golovin Captain of the 2nd Te message therein was/is loud and Rank: ‘his manservant must live with clear: ‘never marry a servants however Treibe’ (Christensen 2005:98), that is, beautiful, as its cause is death to any up- Golovin’s valet had to share room with ward mobility within any military career.’ Governor Furuhjelms’ kitchen’s cook, and, as a personal valet, working so to However, invisible or not the Lutheran speak ‘in chambers”, was considered of household staffs in Russian America higher rank than a cook working behind were all members of this small parish the scene in the heat of a kitchen, to the church. valet of a high ranked officer of Impe- rial Russia. Such share lodgings were Te Need for Identification surely seen as an insult, even though the In whatever the case, the task of identi- governor’s cook had traveled the same fying fully any of the Europeans Luther- distance as Golovin’s valet: crossed vast ans in Russian America who between lands and oceans by ship. 1800 and 1839 had been engaged in Seldom if ever are any of these serv- the Russian-American Company, they ants mentioned in any Company re- all would/should have been registered MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 73 into such a Homeland parish church if However, troubles hit as soon as one such an option had been made availa- moves out of the Grand Duchy of Fin- ble to them in Russian America, but at land the Baltic Provinces and the St. Pe- the time period was not, as the closest tersburg and Kronstadt parishes. Why? Evangelical Lutheran Church, with par- Because in Imperial Russia everyone is ish and pastor was at Irkutsk, East Si- identified by that other Russified name beria. And in 1840 when this option imposed there upon all foreigners who was made available at Sitka, the ones lived, worked, or were building their ca- of the Evangelical Lutheran persuasion reer in that vast land. became actually registered members of Here some examples, although none Alaska’s Russian Era Evangelical Lu- of these men are known to have served theran Church. Tat is, registered there as household servants or valets: with their full names given at baptism Finlander Efraim Jacobsson Honka, accompanied by birth year, month a farmer’s son from St. Martin’s par- and day and parish, , full name of par- ish near Åbo was, if at all identified, ents their birth dates, death dates, and found in the recorded into: Index to marriage date and place, father’s social Births, Baptisms, Marriages and Deaths status and occupation, mother’s social in the Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic status and parents, and perhaps even Church in Alaska 1816-1866 (Dorosh siblings and their birth and death dates. & Doroch 1964) under the variations As nothing less will ever do, as family of Efrem Gong/Gongo/Songo/Kongo/ names can be common and so are given Konno. Te same goes for Finlander names also, as their combinations, as Samuel Mathiasson Hyörä, a Journey- well as the patronymics so commonly in man Brewer from Reponmäki village use in several regions of Finland, all of in Rantasalmi parish. He was found in this often additionally running through the same Index under the name of Sam- several generations. uil Khieras/Nieras. And the Finlander Although such an identification pro- Erik Ericsson Rosengren from Knutila/ cess can turn into a most formidable Knuutila farm in Whittisbofärd parish task of detective work, it is the only way was found recorded into the same Index to go about, it as long as this identifica- as Kiril Knutilov/ Knutiloff (Enckell tion hunt takes place within the borders 2007:23,31,48). of Finland, and most likely also within Among the many I manage to iden- the borders of the Baltic Provinces of tify, there is still one glaring exception, Estland, Lifland and Kurland. And al- a man who has turned into my biggest though there are exceptions, among headache, and still remains unidentified. them Helsinge parish in Finland, where In the same Index he is found listed the records in spots are missing, the re- under the name variations of Matvei cords including those Finnish, German Riupp/ Riuppa/Riuppe/Ruppe/Ruppa. In and Baltic parishes in St. Petersburg and the Russian American Company records at Kronstadt, are such they will guar- he is identified as: Matvei Ruppe, a peas- antee a success approaching the magic ant, worker of Vyborg Gubernia, town of number of 80-90+ per cent. Vyborg, Kurvem …. village. 74 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Searching for a match in our database Kodiak for 1850 under the heading for for births under the family name-vari- Spruce Island, page 4, is listed: peasant ations of Riuppe Ruppe etc., only one Matvei Stefanov Riuppe age 58, indicat- came up, that of Mathias Henricsson, ing this Matvei’s birth year to be about born 1794 June 25 at Riippa/Rippa/ 1792, give or take a year or so, and that Rippala in Marinkainen village, Låchteå his father’s given name is/was Staffan/ parish, the third child born to Henric Stefan/Stephan etc. (Enckell 2007:77- Mattsson of Rippa/Rippala etc., mar- 79). ried 1784 November 11: Carin Matts- Here lies one of those many trou- dotter at Kelvå parish (both parishes bles: one is that our Mathias Henrics- situated north of Karleby/Kokkola city son was born 1794 June 25, the other in Ostrobothnia). it’s that “Stefanov” bit. In the first place I don’t harbor any quarrel with any it doesn’t fit above Mathias Henricsson of those in Finland who now suddenly whose father’s first name was Henric, in both privately as well as nowadays pub- Russian mangled to Genrik. Secondly, as licly insist they are related to, or descend- a patronymic was mostly, but not always ents of this Mathias Henricsson Riippa an indication of the father’s name, as at etc., born 1794 June 25 in Ostroboth- times it was a name suitably caught out nia. However, my quarrel lies therein of thin air. As frustrating as it may be that none of those who claim their actual to admit, my search has so far brought kinship to Mathias Henricsson, son of no waterproof results. I nowadays tend Henric Mattsson from Rippa/Rippa/ to think our trouble causing Mathias Rippala etc. farm in Marinkainen vil- might have been a member of Finnish lage in Låchteå parish has so far presented Karelia’s Orthodox community. Tere- me or anyone else, with that most necessary fore, sadly this Mathew falls within that water-tight proof that Mathias Henricsson 10-20 per cent I so far haven’t been able is actually identical to that of my Mat- to identify. vei Riupp/Riuppa/Riuppe/Ruppe/Ruppa, Note: If a Finnish database search for worker of Vyborg Gubernia, town of Vy- the years 1790 to 1796 is made for the borg, Kurvem… village, which claim I name of Mathias, with Staffan/Stefan/ hereby declare to be moot until someone Stephan as the father’s name, then 40 steps forward and does so. In this I’m possibilities turns up, but none have a also to blame, as foolish as I at the time family- or village or farm-name start- was, when I most tentatively thought I ing with the letter R. However, one had with this identification hit the Jack did come up with the village name of Pot. A mistake I have sorely regretted, Kärmetlax which just might be twisted as several years later my most trusted into something similar to that of Kur- contact at Kodiak sent me photocopies vem… also tied to the identity of our of the following original Russian Ortho- Matts/Mathias. When a search under dox Church records for Alaska: the names of Mathias and Stefan* and Confessional Records issued by the the letter R* is made for the family name Alaska Consistory to the Clergy of the only two came up, but the birth dates Church of the Holy Resurrection at were all wrong, and when the same was MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 75 put in with the letter R* for village and shouldn’t come as a surprise as besides or farm/house, then 4 comes up, one of Russian the most common language slight interest for the year 1794: here the heard and spoken every day in Russian village name was Rytty. America was Swedish and Finnish with But the search will go on. inserts of sporadic German. Confronted with photocopies of original documents Difficulties Abound clearly demonstrated the many errors in In 2012 two known researchers pre- this presentation: these whalers in ques- sented at an international conference a tion, and the company in question had paper on the Russian-Finnish Whaling in no way earned any of the negativities Company, and their Finnish whalers, this eminent duo had heaped on these wherein it was clearly pointed to the in- whalers and their valiant endeavors. eptness and lack of work ethic, among Sadly, prior to the delivery of this paper, these Finns and the company they this paper had already been published, worked for, and especially that this com- which now is spreading an unfortunate pany didn’t operate under international heap of nothing but false information. standard rules, which in the case of Additionally several years back one these two researchers were in gross error American scholar and researcher pub- pointed to the incorrect facts: that these lished an article on Alaska’s Russian Era whalers were salaried at all times out at Finnish-born Governor Arvid Adoph sea, and not as common rule demanded Etholén, a handsome dark-haired man. in this particular branch, their earnings No problem with that. However in this were predetermined according to set per- particular article Etholén was presented cent of the catch. What these two most in gross error, not as a governor but as eminent scholars did not know nor had a Russian Alaska Creole, and the life informed themselves well thereof, was he had led as such in Alaska. It’s quite that the archives at Sjöhistoriska Institu- amazing that such an utter mish mash tet vid Åbo Akademi has every conceiv- of a mistaken identity had found such able original document there covering an eminent publisher in the US. all aspects of this company’s endeavors As to Governor Etholén’s wife, the from the company’s birth in 1850 to highly educated Margaretha Hedwig the end in 1861, including, ship crew Johanna Sundwall, a female intellec- lists, log-books and letters as well as re- tual of rank, who prior to her marriage ports published in Finland’s newspapers had served as a professional educator at of that time. And what Sjöhistoriska a female school at Helsingfors (Enckell Institutet does not have Åbo Regional 2003): of her the ever re-occurring old Archives has the originals of, as well as story, by now expected to be discarded, Helsingfors City Archives and the Na- tells she was so devoutly religious it was tional Archives of Finland has, as well unthinkable for her to marry Governor as the Enckell Archives at Åbo Akademi Elect Etholén if, for her 5 years stay in has photo copies of. Te only thing any- Russian America, she was not provided one needs to do is to be able to read old with an Evangelical Lutheran clergyman hand written texts in Swedish. And this and chapel. Tat such absurd ideas still 76 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 keeps appearing in academic as well as fought what he considered to be such an popular accounts, is quite astonishing as unacceptable intrusion within his terri- in Finland women up to 1863 had no tory. Still, by Easter of 1843 the exte- given legal rights at all, and thus couldn’t rior of the church-building stood ready demand any such things. Te fact that at for interior adornment and the grand Sitka the church room in question was installment took place August 24 that between August of 1840 and August year (Enckell 1996:25). By then Sitka of 1843 temporarily installed into the could boast of an established Evangel- Green Room within the walls of Sitka’s ical Lutheran parish with a fluctuat- governor’s mansion (Enckell1996:24), ing membership of 100-175 members that is, up to the time the actual church a year, pointing to the fact that Sitka’s building was completed, seem to have Russian Era Evangelical Lutheran parish been interpreted by some to underscore was quite comparable in size to that of such a twisted and unrealistic notion. Irkutsk’s Lutheran parish with its 150 But even more foolish is the notion parishioners both military and civilians that the Russian American Company (Lenker 1898:648. Wrede1918:81). Te would, just to please a governor’s in- unfortunate thing is that Irkutsk’s Evan- tended wife’s religious devotion, proceed gelical Lutheran parish archives and re- to spend considerable sums, building a cords went in 1879 up in smoke when church-building for just her, accommo- the grand fire on July 7 swept though dating 150 to 200 people, as well as pay the city (Lansdell 1882:163-170. Len- the salary for a hired clergyman, all rep- ker1898:648). Although the same is not resenting a religion other than their own true for Sitka’s Russian Era Evangeli- dominant Russian Orthodox one. cal Lutheran Church, the where-about No way! Such a choice was purely of this parish membership records still economical, as the workforce the Rus- elude us. Only the original birth and sian American Company so ardently baptism records were located in 1995 kept seeking throughout its operating (Enckell 1996:51-59). years, and did recruit, were Lutherans As to Margaretha Hedwig Johanna from Finland as well as from the Baltic Sundwall’s often referred to religiosity Provinces of Estland, Lifland and Kur- I don’t think it was any more feverish land (Grinëv 2009), at that particular or ardent than what was generally ex- time-period subjugated under Imperial pressed or socially expected at the time, Russian rule (Enckell 1996:1-3). and certainly not more Devout Lutheran By the fall of 1840 the logs for the than Madame von Wrangell was re- building had already been brought ported to be (O’Grady 2001:31) or even down from the mountains, but, and as that of Madame Furuhjelm’s devotion, there’s always cropping up a ‘but’: the she so freely drenched those letters with, Orthodox Bishop, at the time at St. Pe- she mailed to her mother (Christensen tersburg, wished to take up this matter 2005). When life at the time was so full with the Czar. Finding His Majesty’s of harrowing events and there were no ear closed to this matter, the bishop, tools yet by which to prevent or mend who arrived to Sitka in the fall of 1841, most of them, the choices were to go MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 77 insane or endure finding solace in the A Short Background History mercy of an All Mighty God. Of this During Czar Paul’s short reign 1796- the Wiborg-born Medical Doctor Alex- 1801, he created by Ukase of 1799 the ander Frankenhaeuser wrote his sister in Russian American Company out of the fall of 1841: a number of small pelt hunting firms, I knew the Etholéns’ firstborn was a firm administrated by a board with dying; however what I feared the most was headquarters initially at Irkutsk, moved that the mother would go insane, which in 1801 to the Imperial capital St. Pe- Margaretha Etholén’s last diary inputs tersburg. Te Company’s operating clearly indicate she was on the verge sitescovered the Russian territories on of losing her mind (Etholén 1839: un the shores and Islands situated around numbered last page). Te original diary the North Pacific. is preserved at Åbo Akademi University Sixty-eight years later Russian Alaska Library’s manuscript department. Te was sold to the US, and 1867 on Octo- Frankenhaeuser letter collection is pre- ber 18 transferred to the United States served in Finland at the said family’s pri- of America. Nowadays at Sitka this vate archives. historic event is remembered as Alaska

Fig 1 The Russian American Company headquarters at St. Petersburg, The Company’s operating sites covered the Russian territories on the shores and Islands situated around the North Pacifc. Photo by A.V. Grinëv gratefully received. 78 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Day with a re-enactment of the actual 2 Finlanders, covering a total of 9 ½ transfer ceremony, a grand parade, mil- years. itary festivities and a truly grand ball. Tat is: of the Company’s highest rank- Of the 14 Governors/Company Chief ing administrators eighteen years were Managers who administrated the Rus- administrated by 5 non-Russians Evan- sian American Company’s North Pacific gelical Lutherans represent 1/3 of the operating sites, all but the first were high total of 14 governors. In numbers of ranking naval officers in Imperial Rus- years these Lutheran governors served sian service, of these were: 1/3 + of the total of 68 years. 9 Russians, covering a total of 49 years 3 Baltic Germans, covering a total of Te Baltic Germans: 8½ years, and Ludwig Karl August von Hagemeister, governor: 1818 January – October

Fig 2 Old map of the Baltic provinces: Estland, Livland & Kurland. MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 79 1818, born 1780 June 6 at Drostenhof, governor: 1840-1845, born 1798 Janu- Lifland, died 1833 December 24 at St. ary 9 at Helsingfors, died 1876 March Petersburg. 29 at Tavastby Manor in Elimäki parish, Ferdinand Friedrich Georg Ludwig von Grand Duchy of Finland, Wrangell, governor: 1830-1835, born Johan Hampus Furuhjelm, governor: 1796 December 29 at Pleskau, Estland, 1859-1864, born 1821 March 11 at died 1870 May 25 at Dorpat, Helsingfors, died 1909 September 21 Nikolai Rosenberg, governor: 1850- at Helsingfors, Grand Duchy of Fin- 1853 (Pierce 1990: 432-434) born 1808 land (Pierce 1986) December 2 at St. Petersburg, died 1857 Note: Johan Joachim von Bartram November 29 in the same city. (Junior) of Scottish & Baltic-German descent, born 1809 August 30 at Wiborg, Te Finlanders: died 1865 February 13 at Elimäki par- Arvid Adolph Etholén, a Finlander, on ish, Grand Duchy of Finland. After his his mother’s side of Pomeranian decent, first round of duty in Russian America

Fig 3 Old map of Russian Alaska. 80 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 1840-1845, he refused a second round, to yet later be offered the Governorship, which he also refused exclaiming: no thank you, as to my knowledge I haven’t yet lost my mind. Unknown is how many others might have refused this position. 1839 June 24: Czar Nikolai I granted full approval for the forming of one Evangelical Lutheran parish (Enckell 1996:2 Letter 8) to cover the Russian American Company’s North Pacific sites (Enckell 1996:1-3), with its headquar- ters placed at Novo Arkhangelsk/ Sitka the capital situated on Baranov Island in the Panhandle of Alaska To comply with the wish expressed by the Russian American Company Head- quarters to maintain close contact with the supervisor of this far away Company parish, St. Petersburg’s Evangelical Lu- theran Upper Synod handed the task to the Finlander Gustaf Fredrik Zandt who since 1835 May 13 had served as Head Pastor at the Finnish St. Katarina Swed- ish language parish at St. Petersburg, Fig 6 The Sitka Russian Era Evangelical Lutheran born 1801 October 21 in Hattula par- Altar painting by the Finlander Berndt Abraham ish Grand Duchy of Finland, died 1881 Godenhjelm, signed and dater 1839, painted while February 5 at St. Petersburg, Russia. the art painter resided in St. Petersburg up to 1848. In accepting this task Zandt took Photo by unknown. upon himself to prepare the traditional package sent along in support of a new • Handbooks: 4 in Finnish, 4 in Swed- church and its parish. ish, 1 in German Included into this package were the • Catechisms: 4 following items: • ABC Books: 3 in German • Bibles: 2 in Finnish, 2 in Swedish, 2 • Altar painting: 1, to be hung above in German (one of the two German the altar ones is preserved at the Jyväskylä • Candlesticks for the Altar: 2 large University museum collection, holds ones made of real plate, each one Cygnaeus’ dedication to Madame holding 3 candles (no image has von Bartram) 2 in Estonian, 2 in Lat- survived), vian. • Hymnals: 10 in German • New Testaments: 15 in Finnish, 10 MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 81

Fig 7 Russian Alaska’s Evangelical Lutheran-church building, drawing by Ilia Voznesenskii, dated to about April of 1843 in Swedish, 10 in German 5 in Esto- • the Estonian Yaani Kirik Church and nian, 5 in Latvian (Enckell 1996:1-2). parish, By 1840 this small Russian era Evan- • the Latvian Jesus-Kirche Church and gelical Lutheran church with its multi parish ethnic membership, gathered under its • Kronstadt’s St. Elisabet Church and single roof, a mirroring in miniature parish, as well as the several ca- the following of St. Petersburg’s many det-school parishes in this city, and Evangelical Lutheran churches and not to be overlooked, all of: Finland’s, their parish: Estland’s, Lifland’s and Kurland’s • the Finnish & Ingrian language St. Evangelical Lutheran parishes. Maria Church and parish, • the Finnish Swedish language St. Te ethnic, language, and cultural di- Katarina Church and parish, versity under its single roof was both • the German St. Petri & St. Anna powerful as well as far from un-signifi- Churches and parishes, cant in Alaska’s Russian Era History, and 82 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Fig 8 St. Petersburg’s Evangelical Lutheran churches: 8:1) the Finnish & Ingrian language St. Maria Church, 8:2) the Finnish, Swedish language St. Katarina Church, 8:3) the German St. Petri Church, 8:4) the German St. Anna Church, 8:5) the Estonian Yaani Kirik Church, 8:6, the Latvian Jesus-Kirche Church, (Lenker 1898:430,435,452,455) MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 83 84 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 its impact on the other diverse cultures placed December 30 by a Russian Mush- must have been significant enough to nik with a reputation of being quiet and reverberate to this day. agreeable. In the fall of 1847 this Mush- nik had arrived from Ajan, and accord- Between 1839 and 1852 Head Pas- ing to investigation, hadn’t yet adopted tor Zandt recruited from Finland three those Sitka ways (Enckell1996:23,48). Evangelical Lutheran pastors to serve Pastor Plathán departed Sitka 1853 De- the Russian American Company’s cember 8 onboard the Company ship sparsely populated Lutherans, who Cezarewich, Captain Berend Jorjan, a were scattered throughout this by area Danish Citizen and a Hamburg resi- huge Evangelical Lutheran parish: dent. Onboard was also his Navigator 1: Carl Johann Ofterdinger also a Danish Russian America’s Finnish Evangeli- citizen, as well as the Finlander, Naviga- cal Lutheran Pastors tor Wilhelm Severin Tengström, as doc- Uno Cygnaeus, 1839-1845. Te Fin- umented into his professional records lander Aaron Sjöström who had arrived preserved at the Åbo Regional Archives. on the Company ship Baikal from Ajan Plathán is fully identified, and his to Sitka in 1839 on August 24 (Enck- years in Russian America are relatively ell 1996:40) was 1840 on May 1 ap- well documented as he recorded them at pointed/ordered to serve as Cygnaeus’ Sitka into four thin note books, all of initial valet, and did so up to November them preserved at Åbo Akademi Univer- of 1841 (Enckell 1996:47). Sjöström is sity Library’s manuscript department. fully identified, although his place and Georg Gustaf Winter, November year of death is yet unknown. Who 1853-1865 April 14 (Enckell 1996:48. then replaced Sjöström as the pastor’s Luther:481-482). Nothing is yet known valet from end of November 1841 up to of the person(s) who served as Pastor Cygnaeus’ departure in May of 1845 is Winter’s valet. Winter’s stay at Sitka is yet unknown (Enckell 1996:35-47,48). the longest one, but details of his life Pastor Cygnaeus is fully identified and there are least known. Less than a hand- his years in Russian America are well ful of letters addressed to his college Uno documented in the profusion of letters Cygnaeus sent from Sitka are preserved (from where my quotes are taken) Cyg- at Finland’s National Archives. naeus sent out of Sitka, nowadays pre- All three pastors are documented to served at Finland’s National Archives. have made several pastoral journeys to Gabriel Plathán, June 1845-Novem- the Company’s far-flung operating sites, ber 1852 (Luther 2000:495-496) that is and on these pastoral journeys they have he worked out of Sitka two years longer been accompanied by their own valet than his predecessor. Of Pastor Plathan’s and their parish sexton-organist. valets the following is known: 1847 No- Te first to serve as organist was the vember 2 his third valet, an unidentified St. Petersburg based Balt Andreas Höp- drunkard, was as unsatisfactory as the pner/Hoeppener: 1839-1843 (Pierce two preceding ones (unknown if none 1990:192. Enckell 1996:39. Grinëv or all three were Finlander). He was re- 209:123) arrived 1839 August 24 to MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 85 Sitka in the same group as the Finlander there crossing the Pacific to Sitka (Enck- Aaron Sjöström on the Company ship ell1996:35-42) is, with different details, Baikal from Ajan (Enckell 1996:40). told as magnificently as Madame von Hoeppener was initially hired for the Wrangell’s own by now famous historic Company office and to manage the account of the exact same journey made Company library at Sitka. He was con- a mere 10 years earlier (O’Grady 2001). sidered to be a superb pianist as well as Otto Reinhold Rehn: served from composer (Enckell 1996:38) and due to September of 1853 up to 1864 April this much favored by Madame Etholén. 14 when pastor Winter departed Rus- Additionally he served as Company or- sian America for good (Enckell 1996: chestra conductor and as its composer. 47,48), and from there Rehn is believed Having completed his contract in 1844 to have upheld Sunday church services he departed for California (Enckell as a lay leader, sexton and organist up to 1996:43, 48). Unknown is if Hoeppener 1867 October 18 when Russian Amer- had the privilege of a Company assigned ica was transferred into USA hands. personal valet? Andreas Hoeppenr is yet Tereafter Otto Reinhold Rehn moved to be fully identified. with his family to Vladivostok, Pacific Siberia. Rehn’s family background and Finlanders much of his life in Russian America has Aaron Sjöström: served from 1840 as been documented. parish clerk/sexton and cantor (Enck- ell 1996:39,42) then with Hoeppener’s In Search of the Parish Members, departure in 1844 Sjöström took over Including the Invisible Ones for 9 full years as the Lutheran parish Between 1817 and 1867 hundreds upon church organist ending in September hundreds of Lutherans who for what- of 1853 (Enckell1996:47,48), as well as ever the reasons, joined and/or were re- orchestra violinist Company orchestra cruited into this Company to serve in conductor and its composer, as well as addition to the multitude of positions the Company music school’s teacher at the Company wished to cover, also Sitka (Enckell 1996:38,46) up to the every task, trade, and service any town early 1860 when he was assigned to the populated by a rigidly held order of rank district of Unga as its Company man- spanning from Governor all the way ager (Grinëv to Enckell) possibly as- down to the seldom ever hinted at but sisted there by a clerk. existing household servants. Sjöström himself documented in 16 1817 or thereabout the earliest preserved letters his years in Russian known Evangelical Lutherans arrived America addressed mainly to brother to Russian America to there join their Carl, nowadays preserved at the archives place and rank held in the Company’s of Borgå Museum. Sjöström’s detailed labor force. description of his and his companions 1964: a huge and absolutely essential of 40+ men’s journey by horseback and register containing 16000 names cov- raft made from St. Petersburg to East Si- ering Alaska for the years 1816-1866, beria’s Pacific port at Okhotsk, and from wherein even Lutherans who married 86 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 into the local Orthodox community, were no Evangelical Lutheran families most of them believed to have remained engaged in the Russian American Col- Evangelical Lutherans. Searching for onies, and that historically speaking, names therein can be frustrating as this the small Lutheran church held no sig- material was originally in Russian, and nificance at all, and therefore rightly, then translated into English, and the could be bypassed and fully ignored. names appear in numerous spellings Additionally attached to the birth (Doroch, Elisabeth & Doroch, John). records were 6 records of deaths, 3 for 1981: the 1870 US Army census of 1956, and 3 for 1859 of which one was Sitka was published. It contained all of 5 a American from New Bedford, another individuals identified as Finlanders and a miner from Rehn, Prussia (Enckell 4 additional ones mentioned in the text 1996:50). Note: the next following has itself (DeArmond 1981). copied most of the names listed in my 1990: the first limited biographical 1996 publication. dictionary appeared attempting to cover 1995: a list limited to Finlanders in the population of some note in Russian Russian America was published in Fin- America (Pierce1990), a most valiant ef- land in the Swedish language. It con- fort. Much is quite accurate, but much tains a list of 790 names, most all of therein is also inaccurate, and nowadays Finlanders, some with very scant in- considered to be somewhat unreliable formation including occasionally the 1995: Sitka’s 1839-1865 all Evangel- mention of home parish, age, and time ical Lutheran church’s birth/baptism re- of arrival, ship, as well as reference to cords were located. Included with each records of passport applications. Many baptism record were also the witnesses of the listed names are repeated in var- /godparents listed for each child (En- ious spellings, when located in various ckell 1996:51-57). Tis record shows records, sometimes up to 5 times. Te that 50 children are listed as born and identifications aren’t always totally ac- baptized at Sitka’s Russian Era Evangel- curate, as among the many found listed ical Lutheran church between 1839 and are such names as Harder, Whermann, 1865 April 14 when the third pastor Koskull, Dingelstedt, Jorjan, Ofterdinger left Russian America for good. Of these etc, with numerous others whose names children 21 were of Baltic Evangelical look like they could/would be Finland- Lutheran parentage, 1 was Danish, 1 ers. However the first 4 mentioned are was of Swedish-German parentage, 2 documented Baltic Germans and the 2 were undefined and the rest were con- latter ones are proven Danish citizens sidered to be Finlanders. Six children (Olin 1996:9-26). died as infants, two of them stillborn. Tis list can still be useful for the re- Others were born onboard ship and searcher who does possess very intimate baptized either at Sitka or at Port Ajan. knowledge of the actual ethnicity of the Te find of this authentic church record who’s who among the multitude of Eu- was magnificent as it totally busted the ropeans in Russian America. myth held by a majority of scholars on 2007: a list of about 160 Finlanders Alaska’s Russian Era history that there including some Balts married into the MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 87 local Russian Orthodox community 2012: a list of Company hired med- were identified and published on the ical doctors serving on Company ships, Genealogical Society of Finland’s inter- or stationed at Sitka and/or at Port Ajan net site as a still ongoing work-in-pro- (on the shores of the Okhotsk Sea): gress (Enckell 2007). Here the attempt the majority Baltic Germans (Enckell was to identify Lutherans who had cho- 2012a). sen to marry into Russian Alaska’s Rus- If all these individuals were added sian Orthodox community, many of the together the final number of Lutherans brides being Creoles, Indians or Native in Russian American Company ser- Russians, and thereby expose the struc- vice would still be far from accurate, as ture of families some Finlanders created new names are continuing to pop up for themselves, concentrated notably on in innumerable old records quite un- Kodiak Island. Note: I have not done expectedly scattered in archival records such a searched for the Balts as I’m still at many sites around the world. And as unable to properly identify them by usual, some categories/groups of indi- name. viduals are as usual missing/left out in 2009: the Grinëv-Enckell collabo- these records. ration resulted in a total of 572 docu- mented as well as partially identified Te Invisibles and now published Finlanders, and In all these listings, the previously re- an additional 100+ Balts identified by ferred to rarely if ever mentioned house- name. All of them provided with short hold servants are one of those truly biographical data, however only indicat- missing ones in most all available records. ing the year of birth and that of death if Terefore they are also of the greatest in- known to the author, lacking what’s so terest. Most civilian men of a certain so- very important concerning the identity cial standing, and military officers of all of all Finlanders: the much needed infor- ranks, had a manservant whose task was mation pinpointing for birth and death to keep his master’s clothing and other not only the year but also the exact day personal affairs under his thumb, ready, and month, rarely with any reference clean and in order at any time, and at to the parents listing their names and Sitka cook their master’s breakfast, sup- their social status (Grinëv 2009). Of the per and evening tee (Enckell 1996:23). 5900+ names published the Lutherans Additionally, they were expected to fol- consisted of an estimated 10 per cent +. low their masters as shadows wherever However this list does by no means in- their masters went, including travel over clude every Finlander and Balt known, land and across the seas. Te same was 2011: a longer list of Finlanders were true for women, both married and un- identified by name and professions married, of a certain civilian standing. (Grinëv 2011), Tese women would never dream of 2012: a number of Finnish sea cap- walking out of house alone or travel an- tains in the Company service have been ywhere without a chamber-maid in tow. identified with in-dept-biographical and At the time it was also quite unthink- professional records (Enckell 2012c). able that a governor would himself take 88 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 care of his own clothing etc, and a gov- ame von Wrangell’s chamber-maid was ernor’s wife would never have been ex- a native of that region, if not also von pected to clean, cook, serve, as well as Wrangell’s valet, as well as their believed do laundry, then the pressing question to be several other household servants. is who were these servants who served Heading in 1838 for Irkutsk in East Si- them, from where did they come, when beria via St. Petersburg, and Moscow, and where were they hired, and the exact the Norwegian scientist, Christopher identity of each one and what was their Hansteen (surely with his valet), en- own family background and ethnicity? countered the von Wrangells in 1829 on September 17 at Tomsk (Hansteen Why Tese ‘Invisibles’ are so 1861:126-127). Important At Irkursk in 1829 on May 27 Household servants have always been when the von Wrangell first born was expected to be fully invisible. However, 4 weeks old the family departed Ir- these so called ‘invisibles’ are themselves kutsk in the company of their physi- vital members of any and all structures cian G. Meier/Meyer/Mayer appointed of the middle to upper class society. Te Chief Physician at Novo Arkhangelsk/ services these invisibles rendered assured Sitka (O’Grady 2001:119,210), as well their employers that the vital underpin- the retinue of their servants (O’Grady nings expected of their class, were up- 2001:58-59). Of his wife Baroness held. Without these ‘invisibles’ society Elisabeth Nathalia Rossillon’s cham- as it then was, would have literally col- ber-maid/servant (O’Grady 2001:166), lapsed. It is as simple as that. we only know she did have one called Annushka that is Anna who accompa- Tree Baltic German Governors nied her mistress to Novo Archangelsk/ Serving in Russian America Sitka (O’Grady 2001:84). How the von Concerning the identity of Ludwig Wrangell household needs were met Karl August von Hagemeister’s valet and run at Sitka, and by whom, such and other household servants, nothing as the identity of the Governor’s valet, at all is yet known, nor who those were their household matron, cook (O’Grady who cared for Hagemeister’s household 2001:92), and nurse-maid nanny Maria at Sitka. Ivanovna (O’Grady 2001:93,95,119) Te same is not quite true for Fer- and a maid named Katherine (O’Grady dinand Friedrich Georg Ludwig von 2001:2009), as well as the interpreter Wrangell. He was the first of the gover- (O’Grady 2001:9), and also their gar- nor elects the Russian American Com- dener Master Michael from St. Peters- pany imposed their brand new rule: in burg (O’Grady 2001:168) are most order to be able to accept the appoint- all still unidentified. Other necessary ment of governor/chief manager of the servants they might have brought with Russian American Company, every gov- them, haven’t to my knowledge been ernor elect had to be married. identified. As the von Wrangells married in their Of Nikolai (von?) Rosenberg’s valet homeland it is quite likely that Mad- nothing is yet known. But was Mad- MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 89 ame Aleksandra Ivanovna Rosenberg’s from 1854 to1858 at Ajan, Pacific Si- chamber-maid called Maria Ivanovna beria? (O’Grady 2001:88)? Madame Rosen- For Furuhjelm’s third 1859-1864 berg was Orthodox and believed to have round of duty, this time again at Sitka been Russian? (Enckell 2007:78). It’s as Governor and Chief Manager of also known she had brought along two the Russian American Company, the serfs who then married at Sitka. Gover- Karnuna parish born Finlander Petter nor Rosenberg, an Evangelical Lutheran Wilhelm Wikström was in December (Enckell 1996:46), converted at Sitka in of 1858 hired at Helsingfors to serve 1852 on February 23 to Russian Ortho- as Furuhjelm’s personal valet, and in doxy. early January of 1859 Wikström took out parish moving papers from Hel- Concerning the Households of the singfors to Sitka in North America. Finnish Governors By now he is fully identified (Furuh- Arvid Adolph Etholén’s Valet was the jelm1832:119. Christensen 2005:162. Helsingfors born Finlander Carl Jacob Enckell 2015:manuscript). Enberg (often mistakenly named Carl However, Furuhjelm’s wife Anna von Johan), and Margaretha Hedwig Jo- Schoultz’s personal chamber-maid has hanna Sundwall married Etholén’s not been identified, and, although quite chamber-maid was the Helsinge par- unthinkable, it’s unsure if she ever had ish-born Finlander Henrica Lovisa Sahl- one during her initial leg of journey from ström, and the household’s errand boy Helsingfors to St. Petersburg. How- was the Nastola parish-born Finlander ever her sister Florence von Schoultz Johannes Carlsson, and widowed Anna had been invited to accompany her as Margaretha Öhmann nee Sundberg, the far as to London, England (Furuhjelm Etholén family’s Finnish Helsinge-born 1932:118), and at St. Petersburg Nikolai Household Matron, and her Lovisa city M. Koshkin, Furuhjelm’s secretary had born under age daughter Elisa (Elise) joined them (Furuhjelm1932:122-123. Adolphina Wilhelmina Öhmann, Sitka’s Christensen 2005:30-31). Finnish Pastor Uno Cygnaeus’ greatest When at Dresden Madame Furuh- love of life. Instead what took place, was jelm’s all-in-one: chamber-maid-house- what her mother all along had wished hold-matron-seamstress etc.: the for: in the spring of 1845 Sitka’s Med- remarkable Ida Hörle about age ical Doctor Alexander Frankenhaeuser 40, was engaged (Christensen married her. All of them were brought 2005:45,108,123), as well as their cook from Finland to cover the Etholéns 5 & pastry chef Carl Bruno Treibe (Chris- year stay at Sitka, and all of them are tensen 2005:157) of Swiss German by now fully identified (Enckell 2002b). nationality with a hidden drinking prob- Unknown is who served as Johan lem (Furuhjelm 1932:122). At Sitka the Hampus Furuhjelm’s personal valet dur- Furuhjelms seem also to have engaged ing his first 1850-1854 round of duty a Russian cook, and when communi- as a Naval Lieutenant at Sitka, Russian cation got muddled Valet Wikström America, and who served as his valet was requested to assist (Christensen 90 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 2005:85-86). Additionally Constance at Helsingfors Madame Etholén’s cham- Furuhjelm, sister to the governor, resided ber-maid Henrika Lovisa Sahlström, at Sitka as a family member from 1859 one of those two great female beauties at September 14 onward. She was attended Sitka in the early part of the 1840s. Two to by her personal chamber-maid Vendla sons were born to them before Enberg Gustava Pernell who several years earlier died of TB. A few years later his widow had been hired at Helsingfors, Finland, stepped into a second marriage. and did so up 1861 November 29 when In the summer of 1860? Governor Constance Furuhjelm died at Sitka of a Furuhjelm’s valet Petter Wilhelm Wik- massive fit of Grand Mal (Christensen ström married at Sitka Constance Furu- 2005:108,172, 213). Pernell is by now hjelm’s chamber-maid Wendla Gustava also fully identified. Pernell. In 1861 on November 29 a During Furuhjelm’s fourth 1865- son was born to them at Sitka (Enck- 1871 term now as Military Governor ell 1996:55). After the Furuhjelms’ de- with seat at Nikolajefsk-on-the-Amur, parture from Sitka in April of 1864 the Pacific Siberia, Furuhjelm’s personal young Wikström family chose to remain valet, the Borgå city born Gustaf Adolf at Sitka up to the time Russian America Lönnqvist, hired at Helsingfors, is fully was sold, and then in 1867 on October identified. But Madame Furuhjelm’s 18 was handed over to the USA. Some- chamber-maid, Mina (Wilhelmina) times thereafter the Wikström family re- ___?, as well as Household Matron Lotta turned back to Finland. Here the family (Charlotta) Nordström, and the family’s prospered. After the death of Wikström’s njanja Greta (Margaretha) ____? born wife Wendla Gustava, Wikström remar- in Finland, a former convict condemned ried and had a second child born shortly to life in Siberia, hired at Nikolajefsk- before he himself died in the late 1800. on-the-Amur, are all yet unidentified Teir first-born son inherited it-all and (Furuhjelm1932:164, 167, 169). at age 30 he sold everything at auction. Johan Joachim von Bartram’s and Naval Lieutenant Captain von Bar- his wife Margaretha Charlotta Swartz’s tram’s valet Johan Fredrik Forstén mar- two household servants: von Bartram’s ried at Sitka in the fall of 1843 Madame valet the Helsingfor born Johan Fredrik von Bartram’s chamber-maid Helena Forstén hired 1839 at Helsingfors (En- Catharina Ruuth the other one of those ckell 1996:43), and Madame von Bar- two great female beauties at Sitka in tram’s chamber-maid Helena Catharina the early 1840s. In 1844 on March 1 Ruuth born in Jorois parish, have also the couple’s first child was born at Sitka been identified (Enckell 2002b:103). and named Helena Margaretha (Enckell Tere is a small sun-shine story at- 1996:52). A few days later the mother tached to the Etholén’s, and the Furu- died in the aftermaths of child birth, hjelm’s personal servants, and a sad one and was buried at Sitka’s small Evangel- attached to the von Bartram one. ical Lutheran cemetery. Nothing sure is On the Etholéns’ return to Finland known about the child’s where-about, the former governor’s valet Carl Jacob beyond the fact that Madame von Bar- Enberg married in the spring of 1846 tram had valiantly cared for her, at least MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 91 while she was still living at Sitka. Te years long adventure to Russian Amer- child’s father I believe I finally have lo- ica, they were to make in the company cated in 1848 at Åbo, where at widower of Fritz Franken-haeuser, brother to Sit- Johan Fredric Forstén was married for ka’s Doctor Alexander Frankenhaeuser. the second time. Renholm, born 1821 August 8 at Kyrk- However none of this applied the Ri- slätt parish, had previously served as a ga-born Baltic German Medical Doctor prison ward, then supplier of meals at Heinrich Sylvester Tiling and his uni- a mental institution. After the return of dentified man-servant/valet, nor to his this Russian Alaska venture which had wife Elisabeth Fehrmann and her equally included visits to Rio, Valparaiso, Sitka, unidentified chamber-maid Medical San Francisco, Sitka, San Francisco, Doctor Tiling mentions, however not Honolulu, Kodiak and Kenai, Sitka and by name in his anonymously published from there back towards home (Enckell account covering his first term of the five 2010:52-65), Renholm ventured into years spent from 1846 to 1851 at Ajan, business as a restaurant and building Pacific Siberia. (Tiling 1854. Enckell owner. In 1847 prior to his departure for 1998). And for his second 1864-1868 Alaska he had married and had 2 chil- engagement at the Company, this time dren. Renlund died 1875 January 29 at as the most senior MD at Sitka, Rus- Helsingfors age 53 years 6 months. His sian America, his manservant/valet isn’t widowed wife died in 1890. Still uni- mentioned at all, nor the chamber-maid dentified is the valet Frankenhaeuser is of his second wife, the far younger Riga presumed to have accompanied him on born Anna Elisabeth Dolch(e)’s (Enck- this long journey. ell 1996:51). Still I expect convention demanded these indispensable servants Conclusion to have been along when the Tilings as What’s the point to all above?Te major they sailed for Russian America. point is that no community can be fully Ten we have the Finlander Henrik studied, examined, and finally better Johan Holmberg a pastor’s son born understood if any part of its member- 1818 on the island of Kökar on the ship is left out. In this case the commu- Åland Islands, Finland. He grew up at nity within-the-community left out are Reval/Tallinn, was educated at Dorpat the members of those called as well as University, said to have married Ca- treated as ‘Invisibles’: tharine Peterson somewhere in Siberia. 1) Alaska’s Russian Era Lutheran com- She was born 1821 October 10 at St. munity’s household-servants, who are Petersburg, widowed, died 1901 Sep- hard to find and fully identify. tember 25 as a member of the German 2) Equally invisible in Alaska’s Rus- parish at Helsingfors at age 79 years sian Era records are the Finnish seamen 11 months 15. In 1850 Mr. and Mrs. below the rank of navigator engaged by Holmbergs accompanied by August Isac the Company for its Colonies, num- Isaacsson Renholm, Holmberg’s valet bering around 150 or thereabout. Tey (Olin 1996:21), and his wife’s yet uni- have been far from included, and hardly dentified chamber-maid, set out for a 4 ever even been hinted at, or mentioned 92 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 in any present day publications covering Lutheran Church and what it did rep- the history of Russian America. resent from 1840 to 1867 and who this 3) All those seamen, below the rank of OTHER parish served there, as this Navigator, numbering in the hundreds, ignored church-building stood there working on ships, either hired by the sticking up as a sore thumb smack in Company, or on the Company’s own the middle of their scholarly sphere ships, sailing the rout: Kronstadt-Sit- of study: Alaska’s Russian Era’s dom- ka-Okhotsk later -Ajan-Petropavlovsk inant Russian Orthodox community. - Sitka-Kronstadt are hardly ever noted, Te fact is that the membership of this even more seldom mentioned, and even OTHER church (spanned as well from less even recognized by Alaska’s Russian lofty governors down to those Invisibles, Era historians. Still, neither a captain the household-servants, as well as filled nor a navigator can sail a ship without the gap in-between with most every so- a crew. However by steadfast held tra- cial and professional category a commu- dition each crew included an older ex- nity wishes for, needed or craved) has by perienced seaman (easily identified by this exclusion of interest been pushed his age on most every preserved crew list into an invisibility equal to that of the found in the many seaman archives of house-servants and the seamen below Finland), who in a pinch was capable to the ranks of Skipper, Sea Captain and sail a ship to the nearest port. In other Navigator. words commanders are dependent of Long ago I had the unpardonable their crew they cannot sail without. As nerve to scold an eminent historian in the household servants discussed above, my own country, telling him he just had these seamen are also made by will in- to choose to either be a historian or a visible, even though at any time in ques- politician, as both he ethically couldn’t tion, a truly significant number of these possibly be. upward mobile seamen who, no matter Unfortunately there still seem to be what social standing they had in society, ample reason to do so, as what some Noble-man or crofter’s boy, all had to historians of Russian America seem to start starting at the lowest rung as Cabin ignore is that it makes far more sense to Boys, to earn their way up the ladder, use an inclusive approach than an ex- worked on whatever rung they for the clusive one. It’ seems foolish to ignore moment happened to stand on, would the historical fact that Sitka’s Russian within a few years pas the required Era Evangelical Lutheran church and exams for Skipper and later Sea Captain parish did only come about though the (Stenius 1874). Company’s own formal application for 4) Troughout years scholars on the it. And the Company was only granted history of Russian America have paid this request through Czar Nikolai Is scant or no attention to that OTHER documented signature, guarantying church, the first Lutheran church on His Imperial Majesty’s official approval the North Pacific Rim, and most likely of it (Enckell 1996:11-12). Tereafter, also the first around the entire Pacific most all of its Lutheran parish mem- rim: Alaska’s Russian Era Evangelical bers were recruited, through-out those MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 93 years, often quite aggressively so by the use in my search for Finlanders in Rus- Russian American Company itself or its sian America, such as church records, many agents, in the pursuit of satisfying passport records, in- and out-moving the Company’s ever ongoing need for parish records, newspaper notices, birth capable professional men competent in announcements, obituaries and the like, various fields desired. as I’m unable to do the same for all the It is ironic that today Sitka’s two Rus- really many Lutherans from Estland, sian era churches, both new: the ortho- Lifland and Kurland, the Russian-Amer- dox one a faithful replica of the old from ica Company had recruited for its many 1848, the older Lutheran from 1840, by North Pacific operating sites. I hope and political manipulation condemned to pray such research will pick the interest be torn down in 1888 (later replaced of some historian(s), as without history by a string of less enticing modern we stand naked without a past to look ones, lacking both patina and soul), still back at, without it we stand without stand on their original Russian Era lots reference points to who and what we so close to each other that anyone who are, and what we stand for. If we lack so will chose can spit from the steps of reference points we have no identity to one and have it land on the steps of the call our own. And, if we don’t value and other. Te former is glorified beyond hold on to our past someone else will imagination as the epitome of Alaska’s grab hold of our past history, to then Russian Era, the other one; historically boldly proclaim it-all as their very own. at least equally significant to that era Further work is required using the is still ignored by the blindness of the same methodology and type of records modern era’s eminent historians. So, if as employed here for the many Luther- Alaska’s Russian Era historians do con- ans from Estland, Lifland and Kurland, tinue to avoid recognizing that Alaska’s whom the Russian-America company Russian Era had two equally significant recruited for its many North Pacific op- parallel white communities, that of the erating sites. Tis article will have been Orthodox and the Lutheran, represent- worthwhile if were to stimulate such ing the cultures of the Orthodox East work. and the Lutheran West with their two markedly different outlooks on life, cul- tures, traditions, values, education, and structures of society, then Alaska’s Rus- sian Era history research will go on its merry way, hobbling slowly along, drag- ging one of its two legs; that other one ignored, unused, turned invisable and lame, yet never buried under 10 feet of soil. Te next point is a message: Please help, as I don’t have access to those much needed tools I have used and still 94 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Bibliography April-June issue, vol. 11 #2. Publisher: Amburger, Erik. 1998. Die Pastoren der Te Swedish Finn Historical Society, Se- evangelischen Kirchen Russland vom Ende attle, Washington, USA. des 16. Jahrhundertsbis 1937. Ein biog- Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2002b A Finnish raphisches Lexikon. Publisher: Institut Sawmill Book Keeper’s Daughter’s Journey Nordost-deutsches Kulturwerk. Mar- to (Russian) Alaska (1839-1846): Recon- tin-Luther-Verlag 1998. structing Anna Margareta Sundberg’s Life Christensen, Annie Constance. 2005. Let- Story (1802-1892) Te Etholéns’ House- ters From the Governor’s Wife. A View of hold Matron. Publisher: Federation of Russian Alaska 1859-1862. Publisher: East European Family History Society = Aarhus University Press. Beringiana-se- FEEFHS Journal 2002 vol. X: 99-114. ries. vol. 3. ISBN 9788779341593 Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2003. Four 8779341594 North European Female Educators’ Toil DeArmond, R. N. Editor.1981. Lady in Russian Alaska 1805-1849. Publisher: Franklin Visits Sitka, Alaska 1870, the Federation of East European Family His- Journal of Sophia Cracroft Sir John Frank- tory Society = FEEFHS Journal 2003 lin’s Niece. Publisher: Alaska Historical vol. XI: 88-103. Society 1981. Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2007. Commonly Doroch, Elisabeth & Doroch, John. 1964. Known Finnish and Baltic Names Found Index to Baptisms, Marriages and Deaths in the Index to Baptisms, Marriages and in the Archives of the Russian Orthodox Deaths in the Archives of the Russian Or- Greek Catholic Church in Alaska 1816- thodox Greek Catholic Church in Alaska 1866. Library of Congress, Washington 1816-1866 (116 pages) Publisher: Gene- DC, USA. (Note: contains about 16000 alogical Society of Finland www.genealo- names) gia.fi see under Enckell. Note: this is still Enckell, Maria J. 1996. Documenting the part of my ongoing research. Legacy of the ALASKA FINNS in the Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2010. Skepp, sjö- Russian Period. Monograph. Vol. 23, #1 folk, guldfynd och sjöresor: Styrman Wil- February 1996. Editor: Gene Knapp. helm Constantin Hjelt och hans samtida i Publisher: Finnish-American Historical Rysk-Amerikanska Kompaniets tjänst, ett Society of the West, Portland, Oregon, försök till översikt för tiden 1833-1853, USA. med slutsummering upp till 1875. Text Enckell Maria Jarlsdotter. 1998. … Und in Swedish. Article. Vuosikirja 2009-10. Sitka’s Gesundheits- Und Fitness Team: #6. Turun seudun Sukututkijat ry. ISSN Dr. Med. Heinrich Sylvester Tiling Und 1797-4992. Seine Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kolle-Gen Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2012a. Tose Im Dienste Der Russisch-Amerika-Nischen Not Russian Russians: Finlanders & Rus- Gesellschaften 18?-1867. Article. Trans- sian-American Company’s Multiethnic lator: Harald Jordan, from MJEnckell’s Evangelical Lutheran Community in the original text in English into German. North Pacific Region 1800-1861. Pub- Publisher: Peter von Tiling in the Tiling lisher: Åland Islands Emigrant Institute, Jurnal: Runbrief der Famille Tiling, #43, ISBN 978-952-67684-0-3. for August 1998. München, Germany. Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2012b. Finn- Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 1999. Tose ish Merchant Skipper August Wilhelm Other Russians, unpublished manuscript. Fredriksson Riedell in Russian-American Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2001. Scandina- Company service 1846-1861. Publisher: vian Immigration to Russian Alaska 1800- Åland Islands Emigrant Institute. ISBN 1867. Article. Publisher: Federation of 978-952 -67684-1-0. East European Family History Society = Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2012c: From the FEEFHS Journal 2001vol. IX. Grand Duchy of Finland to Sitka, Russian Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2002a. Te Ad- America, Territory of Alaska to Baku and ventures Behind “the Godenhjelm Rescue, Astrakhan on the Caspian Sea, the journeys the Symbol of Our Finnish Presence in of 3 women & 5 men 1859-1895. Pub- Russian-Alaska”. Article. Te Swedish lisher: Åland Islands Emigrant Institute. Finn Historical Society Quarterly. 2002. ISBN 978-952-67584-2-7. MARIA JARLSDOTTER ENCKELL 95

Enckell, Maria Jarlsdotter. 2013. In Search Album Academicum der Kaiserlichen of a People Lost: Te Finns in Russian Universität Dorpat. Text in German. America and Teir Descendants. Paper. Publisher: C. Mattisen. Published in Over the Near Horizon: Lansdell, Henry 1882. Genom Sibirien. Proceedings of the 2010 International Text in Swedish, original in English. Conference on Russian America, Sitka, Publisher: Albert Bonniers Boktryckeri Alaska. Publisher: Sitka Historical Soci- 1882, Stockholm, Sweden. ety, Inc. ISBN 978-0-615-70419-7. Lenker, John Nikolas. 1894. Lutherans in all Etholén, Margaretha. Dagbok 1839-1841, Lands, the Wonderful Work of God. Mil- Text in Swedish. Original preserved at waukee, Wisconsin, USA 1894 Åbo Akademi University Library’s Man- Luther, Georg, 2000. Herdaminnen för Ing- uscript Department. ermaland II, De finska och svenska försam- Finska Kadettklubbens styrelse. 1960. Fin- lingarna och deras prästerskap 1704-1940. ska Kadettkårens Elever och Tjänstemän Text in Swedish. Publisher: Svenska lit- 1812-1960 Supplement III. Text in teratursälls-kapet i Finland, Helsingfors Swedish. Publisher: Frenckellska Tryckeri 2000. aktiebolaget 1961. Nordenstreng, Sigurd. 1922. Finska Kadett- Grinëv, Andrei Valterovich. 2009. Who’s kårens Elever och Tjänstemän. Supplement Who in Russian America. Text in Rus- 1812-1921 Biografiska Anteckningar. sian. Publisher: Academia Press Moscow. Text in Swedish. Publisher: Helsingfors ISBN 978-5-87444-340-5. (Note: an Centraltryckeri o Bokbinderi Aktiebolag. English translation is expected) O’Grady-Raeder, Alix 1994. Te Baltic Grinëv, Andrei Valterovich. 2009. Who’s Connection in Russian America. Article. Who in the History of Russian America. Published in the Journal: Jahrbücher für (lists 5990 names of which 572 Finland- Geschichte Osteuropas, Neue Folge 42, ers identified in collaboration with Maria #3 (1994) pp 321-339. Jarlsdotter Enckell) Text in Russian. Pub- O’Grady, Alix. 2001. From the Baltic to Rus- lisher: Academia Press Moscow. ISBN sian America 1829-1836. Te Limestone 978-5-87444-340-5. Press. ISBN -10. ISBN -10. 1895901278. Grinëv, Andrei Valterovich. 2011. Profes- ISBN -13. 978-1895901276. sional Status of ”Native Finns” in Russian Olin, K-G. 1996. Alaska del 3 Namnlistan. America. Publisher: KILO #6. Text in Swedish. Publisher: Ab Olimex Grinëv, Andrei Valterovich. 2011. Social Oy and K-G. Olin ISBN 952-9600-07- Mobility of the Creoles in Russian America. 0. Publisher: Alaska History, Fall 2011, Vol. Pierce, Richard A. 1986. Builders of Alaska: 26, #2. Te Russian Governors, 1818-1867. Halén, Harry. 2011a. Sotilaita Suomesta Alaska History #28. ISBN 0-919642- Venäjän Orientissa. Suomalaisia ja Suomen- 07-1 maalaisia sivilihekilöitä kaukasiassa, keski-aasiassa Pierce, Richard A. 1990. Russian America, ja Venäjän kaukoidässä 1822-1918. Unholan Aitta A Biographical Dictionary. Alaska His- #33. Text in Finnish. Publisher: Harry Halén. tory #33 Publisher: Te Limestone Press, Helsinki 2011. ISSN 1237-1882. ISBN 0-919642-45-4. Halén, Harry. 2011b. Siviiliväkeä Suomesta Pikoff, Eugen 1938. Landsmän i Ryska Venäjän Orientissa, Suomalaisia ja Suo- Marinen 1808-1918. Text in Swedish. men- maalaisia sivilihekilöitä kaukasi- Publisher: Genealogiska Samfundet i assa, keski-aasiassa ja Venäjän kaukoidässä Finland Skrifter XIV 1835-1922. Unholan Aitta #34. Text in Plathán, Gabriel. 1847-1848. Dagbok Förd Finnish. Publisher: Harry Halén. Hel- Under Ensliga Stunder af Gabriel Plathán sinki 2011. ISSN 1237-1882. EvangeliskLuthersk pastor på ön sitka i Hansteen, Christian. 1861. Resa i Sibirien. Norra Amerika. Text in Swedish. Origi- Text in Swedish, (original in Norwegian) nal at Åbo Akademi University Library’s Publisher: Arel Hellstens förlag 1861. Manuscript Department. Stockholm (note: account of a journey to Schaap, Christian. H. 1890. A short Histor- Siberia in the years 1828-1830) ical sketch of the Lutheran Church by C. Hasselblatt, Arnold & Otto, Gustav. 1889. H. Shaap a member of Alaska Historical 96 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Society, Manuscript. Archives of Sitka Lutheran Church. Sitka, Alaska. Schulman, Hugo & Nordenstreng, Si- gurd. 1912 Finska Kadettkårens Elever och Tjänstemän. Biografiska Anteckningar 1812-1912. Text in Swedish. Publisher: G. D. von Essen 1912 Helsingfors Stenius, Carl Evert. 1874. Handbok för sjöfarande: sammanställd efter nyaste in- och utländska källor. Text in Swedish. Publisher: the author: Director of the prestigious Åbo School of Navigation at Åbo. Note: this volume directed to all seafarers, is constructed as a reference book spanning from A to Ö contains absolutely everything any seafarer would need. Te first edition appeared 1874 the last 1890. Tiling, Heinrich Sylvester MD.1854. Eine Reise Um Die Welt Von Western Nach Osten, Durch Siberien Und Das Stille Und Atlantische Meer, initially published anonymously. Text in German. Publisher Verlag Kerbs, Aschaffenburg. Wirilander, Kaarlo. 1975. Suomen arme- jan sotilasvirkamiehistö 1718-1810 vir- katalonhaltijain luettelot. Civilmilitärer vid Finlands armé 1718-1810. Text in Finnish and Swedish. Publisher: Suomen historiallinen seura. Wirilander, Kaarlo.1985. Suomen armejan upseeristo ja sotilasvirkamiehistö 1812- 171 (1880) Viranhaltian luettelot. Text in Finnish. Publisher: Suomen Historial- linen Seura. Helsinki 1985. ISBN 951- 9254-64-1. Wrede, Henrik. 1918. I SIBIRIEN för trettio år sedan. Reseminnen. Publisher: Evange- liska fosterlandsstiftelsens förlagsexpedi- tion.Nordiska Bokindustri A.B. Stock- holm 1918. Åkerman, Birger 1941. Finska Kadettkårens elever och tjänstemän 1812-1940. Sup- plement II. Text in Swedish. Publisher Frenckelska Tryckeri Aktiebolaget 1941. Dreams, Returning Emigrants and Millions of Dollars – What We Get Back from Overseas

Paul-Heinz Pauseback

Have you already seen the American, stein, to North-Frisia and to Husum. the people in a little village ask each In fact this stream affected nearly every other, because someone has arrived native North-Frisian family, for almost there, coming back from the states. all sent family members overseas at one He has an impressive red beard, a grey time or the other. hat and a dark blue overcoat, which he wears open, so that its sides fly with the One result of this stream is the Nord- wind and show the scarlet red lining in- seeMuseum, Nissenhaus in Husum, side the coat and the collar. Now I can which in the 1930s was built and understand, why the people are gather- equipped by the money and the art col- ing in the streets where he appears and lection of Ludwig Nissen, a rich New why they all – old and young – rush to Yorker diamond importer, who be- the windows when he walks by … and queathed his earthly goods to his city of all the more when he begins to tell them birth for the building there of a mu- from the land of the free, from the big seum with a library, an art gallery, and cities, that mushroomed overnight, and an assembly room, for the use of the the mighty rivers there on the other side people. (Pauseback, From Bootblack: of the ocean. And when he tells them 97-109). A more recent example is Pro- how every work earns its good pay – fessor Karen Moloney from the Webber then I can easily understand why they State University in Utah who last year are listening to the American as if his visited the Nordfriisk Instituut, where words contained the ultimate wisdom. the North-Frisian Emigration Archive is located. Professor Moloney’s grand- Tis extract, from a newspaper pub- mother emigrated from North-Frisia lished in 1847 in my home town of to the United States in the end of the Husum, serves as a good way in to this 19th century. Her mother later married article about remigration and the steady an Irishman, so the name changed from stream of material.1 For this article is Tomsen to Moloney, but the contact about remigration and the steady stream with family members in Germany con- of material and immaterial goods back to tinued. Professor Moloney has been vis- Europe, to Germany, to Scheswig-Hol- iting the home area of her grandmother 98 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Fig 1 The NordseeMuseum, Nissenhaus has been built and equipped by the money and the art collection of Ludwig Nissen, a rich New Yorker diamond importer born in Husum. Source: NordseeMuseum Nissenhaus since she began to research her Frisian American car with white sidewall tires roots in the 1970s as a young student. and more than 100 horse power. To a Now a professor of literature she has in boy then they were like visitors from recent years twice recorded her experi- another world. But the 1847 newspaper ences into poetic form, as she explained article from the year 1847, as it contin- to a large audience in the Nordfriisk In- ues, gives another perspective on the stituut about the Finding of her North visitor: Frisian Self. Tat guy knows how to show off … with Te passage quoted above shows one his grey hat and his coat with red lining possible reaction which the home-com- … but in the end he had to look for ing emigrant often meets with: the other people, who take him back with visitor as a celebrity, sometimes being them for free – and that was shabby.2 remembered for a long time. Just a short while ago a seventy-year-old man told As the author indicated, to recruit new me about his relatives from New York emigrants for a free passage he had to visiting Germany in the 1950s. Te first make false or grossly exaggerated prom- thing he mentioned was their big U. S. ises to encourage them to leave. Te in- PAULHEINZ PAUSEBACK tention of the article was clearly against emigration and its author was very crit- ical regarding such visitors as well as most of the letters that were sent back when he wrote:

Oh, paper is patient [in German: “Papier ist geduldig”, the author], and the ships often carry back as big a cargo of lies as they have brought over people and goods.

As we often see in our sources, the first letters written shortly after the arrival were full of enthusiasm for the new and unknown surroundings and contained greatest exaggerations and misleading information. But nearly all emphasized Fig 2 Prof. Karen Moloney, whose grandmother one keyword, which was even men- came from North Frisia to the U. S. and the author tioned in the text I quoted from, and after she told an audience about the «Finding of her North-Frisian Self». Beside her Director Paul-Heinz that was Freedom – the United States as Pauseback, Nordfriisk Instituut. the Land of the Free. Photo: Harry Kunz, Nordfriisk Instituut Te idea of personal freedom was and is in fact a very catching dream. In government of the people, by the peo- Schleswig-Holstein, as in the whole of ple, for the people» as Abraham Lincoln Europe, this dream was antagonistic to expressed it in his Gettysburg address in the absolutist and autocratic authorities. 1863. So in Europe an ideal picture or So many arriving emigrants identified a dream of the United States gradually freedom with the absence of an execu- evolved, as we find it for example when tive power and an oppressing bureau- Teodor Mommsen wrote as an old cracy when they wrote home: man in 1901:

It is a free life in America, there are no If I was 30 years younger I would go to judges and no police and everybody America where – in spite of all its ob- can do what he likes and nobody has to vious misgivings – still lies the hope of bow before a priest or a school teacher.3 the world, W(Pauseback, Übersee-Aus- wanderer, frontispiece). Tis was naïve and could easily be rid- iculed, as in the case of the Husum Teodor Mommsen was a North-Fri- weekly. But the idea of freedom became sian, who became a Professor of ancient very powerful and was seen as danger- history in Berlin and as such a Nobel ous in the eyes of European authorities Prize winner for literature in 1902. when it was defined as democracy, as «a But not all possessed his discriminat- 100 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 ing judgment and so there would often they are an interesting and very inform- be disappointment when the picture of ative source (Pauseback, Aufbruch, 64- the dream clashed with the «misgivings» 74). overseas. In the second half on the 19th cen- Te picture Washington crossing the tury the longing for freedom joined Delaware is an example of how early with the hope for prosperity and to- this development began. Te event it gether they formed that mighty magnet depicts took place in the night of 25 that pulled millions of men, women and December 1776. Our interest here is children into the New World. Like a lit- in who painted the picture, where it tle piece of this big dream the returned was painted, and who were the people migrant symbolized all the longings and for whom it was first painted. Te artist wishes of the ones who stayed behind was Emmanuel Leutze, a German who and his example ‘magnetized’ many of in 1825 came over to America as a boy them who came in touch with him. with his parents. In 1841 he went back And so the suspicions of the authorities to Düsseldorf to study art and painting, were not altogether without foundation, and in 1849 he painted this picture. So as we learn from the article in the Hu- in fact it shows not the Delaware River sumer weekly newspaper: but the Rhine at Düsseldorf. He painted this example of endurance as a stimu- Te American – yes he once had been a lus and encouragement for the German poor fellow too in Germany … but he revolutionists of 1848, whose failure be- had been courageous enough and had came obvious in those days. Te success gone to America and now he is a pros- of the painting in the USA came later perous man. And the poor fellow here, in 1851.4 who hardly ever has a few cents to spare, But this is only aside. Let us return to how will the prospect rejoice his heart, North-Frisia again. Returning migrants when he thinks about all the dollars he generally came back as American citi- will own overseas, and imagines himself zens; as a free person, subject to no one. wearing a grey hat and a blue coat with Self-conscious and protected by their red lining – like the American.5 citizenship papers and the American consuls, these visitors always appeared Efforts of the authorities to curb emi- suspicious to the police and were often gration had little effect, because official a thorn in the flesh of the Prussian mili- warnings or statements were generally tary authorities, which could be very of- distrusted and rejected by the common ficious in their dealing with young men. people. Teir sources of information As a consequence such visitors had to were the many letters, which went from be controlled and out of this originate hand to hand. Sometimes they were between 1867 and 1918 the records re- published in the local newspapers too garding the supervision of emigrants, and got additional publicity that way. who stayed in Schleswig-Holstein as At the beginning of travel to Amer- U.S. citizens. Now these documents are ica and to West- or East India most of in the State Archives in Schleswig and them who left returned, if they had been PAULHEINZ PAUSEBACK lucky enough to survive. From Schle- the islands Ceram and Ambon, where swig-Holstein and North-Frisia at the he served his time. On his way back to beginning of the seventeenth century Europe his ship sank and the surviving they were mostly sailors, mercenaries or passengers and sailors reached Mauri- merchants recruited by the great Dutch tius, from where they were rescued by East- and West India Companies. Te an English ship that took them to Surat stories they told from the lands across in India. Tere Volquart Iversen again the ocean cleared the way for the first entered employment with the Dutch emigrants leaving North-Frisia in the Company. When his second term ended 1630s and 1640s, going to New Am- in 1667 he left East-India and this time sterdam on the Hudson River and a lit- reached Europe in 1668. He went to tle later to the South African Cape too. Husum where his father was still living, Jan Fransse van Housen, for example, being over 80 years of age. He never had who had been a sailor with the West heard anything from his son after the India Company, settled with his wife shipwreck and had taken him for dead. Volkje Jurians van Nostrand in New It was a very emotional return when they Amsterdam in 1639. He bought land both met again and the people seeing from the Mohicans, but continued his and hearing it were very much touched. voyages across the Atlantic, most likely But the story also demonstrates central as a merchant (Pauseback, Übersee-Aus- problem of the returning migrant. Being wanderer:23). in East-India for more than ten years What he and others had to tell was had changed Volquard Iversen. Tose of great interest back home, especially changes were not only physical, for he when there was one returning from the had lost a thumb, so that he could not mythical orient, from the legendary rich work as a bookbinder again. Te soldier lands and islands where the precious that had seen the wonders of the Orient spices grow. And if as happened to Vol- seemed to have had difficulties in ad- quart Iversen from Husum you were justing to a life in his small home town. seemingly coming back from the dead, So he left again after a few months and because the people at home had thought the same ship that brought him back to that you died in a shipwreck, your story Europe carried him to East-India again, would be sure to be printed (Adam this time as a corporal. But where did Olearius, 181-223). Volquart Iversen this ship bring him, to his new home, had been a bookbinder by profession. back home? Tis time he did not return, He left Husum because of unemploy- but settled in Batavia. ment and like many others not only Coming back as a rich man could from the west coast of Schleswig-Hol- reduce the difficulties of the returning stein he went to Amsterdam, the boom migrant. So was the case with Sönke In- town of those days. In 1655 he enlisted gwersen from the village Langenhorn in as a soldier with the East India Com- North-Frisia. (Pauseback, Übersee-Aus- pany, a portion of his payment going wanderer: 35-37) A hundred years later back home to support his father. It took than Volquart Iversen, he came back him a year to reach Batavia and then from Java in 1755 as an immensely 102 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Fig 4 The organ of St. Laurentius in Langenhorn, donated by Sönke Ingwersen to his village of birth. Source: D. Elger, Die Kunstdenkmäler des Landes Schleswig-Holstein, 1952

Again some hundred years later Peter Simon Detlef Bahnsen born 1800 in Fig 3 Sönke Ingwersen (1715-1786) the «Baron 6 of Gelting». Source: D. Elger, Die Kunstdenkmäler Schleswig went to West-India. Being des Landes Schleswig-Holstein, 1952 twenty years of age he tried to make his fortune on the Caribbean island St. rich man. He had lived there for twenty Tomas, which then belonged to Den- years. He had arrived as a surgeon on a mark. His father Bahne Bahnsen had ship, but he was capable and so stead- been born on the Frisian island Nord- ily advanced and later became the chief strand and later became a schoolmaster doctor of the island. In addition he and organist in Schleswig, the capital made much money as a merchant with of Schleswig-Holstein. So his son Peter the East India Company. He married the Simon likely received a good education daughter of a rich pharmacist and when education which surely was useful to she died he returned to Schleswig-Hol- him as a merchant on St. Tomas. He stein. He bought a manor in the region became a successful dealer in coal own- of Angeln and as a reward for financing ing his own ships. After ten years in the the plastering of the King’s New Market Caribbean he married Maria Elizabeth in Copenhagen the Danish King made Wood, the widow of the Danish Gen- him a ‘Baron of Gelting’. To his village eral-Governor and in 1840 the family of birth, Langenhorn, Sönke Ingwersen returned to Europe. Rich enough after donated an organ that can still be seen that, he bought the estate Hintschen- and heard in the church of St. Lauren- dorf near Hamburg, and there was tius. So this returning emigrant left enough money left for the next two traces that are still visible today and his generations to spend. One unmarried life resembles the later typical story of daughter, Maria, was called the ‘Pub- rags to riches. lic Bank of Reinbek’. From his pay as a PAULHEINZ PAUSEBACK soldier with the Dutch East-India Com- pany Volquart Iversen supported his el- derly father in Husum. Here we have another illustration of how money that flows back from over- seas could be useful in enabling in- novations in the local area. Another example is Auguste Petersen from West- er-Ohrstedt a little village near Husum.7 She did not go overseas herself, but re- ceived money from a legacy. Her uncle had been a rich brewer in the United States and he had died unmarried and childless. After his death his relatives in Germany and Denmark received regular payments from a trust. It is interesting to the author, that again it was an un- married woman who developed in the role of a small local investor. It is said Fig 5 Simon Detlef Bahnsen, born 1800, as a young man he emigrated from Schleswig to St. Thomas in that she got angry, when she was asked the Caribbean and returned 1840 as a rich for trifles, e. g. to supply the family cof- merchant.Source: NordseeMuseum Nissenhaus.

Fig 6 View of St. Thomas about 1840, showing the coal wharf of Simon Detlef Bahnsen. Source: Picture in oil from an unknown artist, NordseeMuseum Nissenhaus 104 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 stein only from the year 1871 onwards (Statistisches Landesamt, 39-40). But only during the ten years between 1880 and 1893 which mark the last and heav- iest tide of emigration at least 90,000 men women and children migrated overseas, i.e. nearly 10 per cent of the population of Schleswig-Holstein at that time. Te west coast with North-Fri- sia was among the hotspots. So around 1900 there existed a tightly-knit net- work that connected people from prac- tically every part of our country and especially our region with some relatives or friends mostly in the United States but also in Argentina, Brasilia, Australia and South-Africa. Tis brought back a

Fig 7 Peter Paysen Petersen (1825-1889), a sailor steady and thick stream of letters, par- from Tondern, left his ship in 1853 and went into the cels, money, newspapers and visitors. California goldfelds. After a hundred years and two world Source: North-Frisian Emigrant Archive, Nordfriisk wars only remnants still exists today, e.g. Instituut on the islands Föhr and Amrum, where fee party. But money for a new plough emigration reamained a tradition until or something like that, she always liked the 1950s. to lend. Te Second World War brought Nearly all emigrants wrote home and trouble to her because the heritage was received letters in return, and surely held back. But in the 1950s she was able most of them would have loved to visit again to lend the village the money to home, if only it had been possible, as finance a transformer station, and so it Peter Paysen Petersen, a Frisian from is told that Aunt Guste brought electric Tondern wrote home in 1859: light to Wester-Ohrstedt. Simon Detlef Bahnsen returned I would gladly give up everything I pos- to Schleswig-Holstein in 1840, some sess here – except jacket and trousers – ten years before the first of the three if in return I could spend my time for great emigration waves started over- at least a month between Hamburg and seas. Before the 1890s millions of Tondern.8 German emigrants, hundred thou- sands from Schleswig-Holstein and ten He held the position of second mate thousands from what today is the dis- when in 1853 he left his ship and went trict North-Frisia left for a destination to the goldfields in northern Califor- mostly in North-America. (Pauseback, nia. Te captain’s offer to make him Übersee-Auswanderer, 47-66) Tere are first mate could not change his mind. statistics available for Schleswig-Hol- But what he found only secured his liv- PAULHEINZ PAUSEBACK 105 ing. He never got rich and advised his In 1880 it was believed by the author- younger brother better to stay at home. ities that the returning migrants gave When he became older he gave up dig- them a starting point to act. Tis has ging and worked as a schoolmaster; he to be seen in relationship with the Ban- never returned to Schleswig-Holstein. croft treaty from February 22nd 1868 On the other hand there were many between the North German Federa- men, especially from the North-Fri- tion and the United States of America sian islands, who wished to return, but regarding the citizenship of emigrants.9 were not allowed to come back, because It said that an emigrant from the area they left the country without permis- of the North German Federation, who sion before they served their time in had become a citizen of the United the Prussian armed forces. Emigration States after a continuous residence of and compulsory military service were five years, will be treated as an Ameri- connected closely, and not only be- can citizen when he returns. If he should cause young men between seventeen stay longer than two years it would be and twenty-seven are the most mobile regarded as an abandonment of the U.S. part of any population (Pauseback, Auf- citizenship. Tis regulation became bruch, 317-33). Te first law that was necessary because German (Prussian) enacted in the new Prussian province citizenship ceased only after a ten years Schleswig-Holstein in October 1866, continuous residence outside Germany. regulated the new military service of So the Bancroft treaty was designed to three years for every able 21 year old avoid dual citizenship, and to make man. Compulsory military service was possible shorter visits up to two years, unusual in Schleswig-Holstein, so there regardless of whether the emigrant had was a general dislike for it, intensified been a soldier or not.Tis treaty seems by the common fear regarding the strict to give the young men the chance to discipline in the Prussian army. Tis leave the country before they became li- was especially the case in the northern able to military service, i.e. before their Danish speaking parts of the Duchy of seventeenth birthday, and return after Schleswig where Prussian rule was prin- five years as American citizens – and the cipally rejected, and among the inhab- Prussian authorities could do nothing itants of the North-Frisian islands, who against it. according to old privileges had been ex- In the 1870s not many emigrants empted from military service in times of came back and those who did were not peace. In times of war they served in the really controlled. Looking back, the fleet, for the men mostly were sailors. head of a local district on the island Föhr So from the very start the Prussian wrote in 1891 that many had thought administration in Schleswig-Holstein that it would always stay that way, but suspected that many young man left the when visitors arrived in greater numbers country only to avoid military service at the end of the 1870s, things began and sought for ways to prevent that. But to change. Te authorities registered the few things can stop a young man from influence they had on the population at emigrating, if he has set his mind to it. home, spreading stories of success from 106 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 the New World. Te example that was mation at the age of sixteen. Most of the given by young men who had left be- men worked for some time in the USA, fore military service and then came back their families staying on the home is- as U. S. citizens, were well situated in land. Tis traditional mobility brought comparison to others of the same age many of them into conflict with the new who had stayed and done their time as a military service. As an example there is soldier, was regarded as particularly bad the story of the four brothers Jappen, and undesirable. As Americans they had sons of the teacher Jacob Ocke Jappen to remain untouched and unmolested. from Toftum on the island Föhr. None A hard task for many Prussian officials. of them became a soldier before they In the beginning of the 1880s the in- emigrated. creasing numbers of visitors fell together Otto Christian, the oldest, went with a new rise of emigration caused by with a passport to New York in 1870. the economic boom in the USA. Now His brothers followed him 1873, 1878 the authorities came to recognize a and 1880, all at the age of 16. Tey all connection between the returning mi- became American citizens after a resi- grants and the advancing numbers of dence of five years and then returned to new emigrants. Terefore in 1885, on visit home. Otto and Julius, the second the absolute high tide of emigration, oldest, did marry there. Both younger the treatment of returning migrants brothers, Ingwer and Johannes, just vis- and visitors was adjusted to drastically ited the island when in 1885/86 visitors strengthened rules regarding the depor- in the age for military service were forced tation of such persons. So if they were to leave or to become German citizens not allowed to force them into the army again i.e. to do their three years in the they at least were able to expel them. armed forces. Ingwer and Johannes were Tis measure was indeed a very ‘sharp expelled in 1886. sword’. From then on every emigrant Otto Christian came home the same who came back as an U.S. citizen aged year to take his wife to New York, be- between 17 and 27 was allowed a stay cause regular stays home for a longer limited to some weeks or months, even time were not possible for him anymore. if it was not suspected that he had left to In 1874 as his passport and with it the avoid military service. A visitor would permission to stay abroad expired, he be expelled within days if there was in- had not returned to become a soldier. formation giving cause for suspicion. In Two applications to resign the German addition to that any person who came citizenship were declined in 1872 and back beyond the military age has to 1877, because it was suspected that he proof that he had not left solely for the had left to avoid military service. On purpose of avoiding the military service. Föhr only his American citizenship And that could be very tricky. saved him from punishment. Lone the Tis practice caused much harm espe- youngest of the brothers Jappen, Jo- cially on the islands Föhr and Amrum. hannes Marius, succeeded to return, be- Due to their seafaring tradition the cause he was young enough to serve his young men left the island after confir- full time as a soldier. Tis was generally PAULHEINZ PAUSEBACK 107 the prerequisite to get back the German citizenship. So in August 1891, at the age of twenty seven he became a sub- ject of Wilhelm II, Prussian King and German Kaiser. Up to then he had lived in New York for eleven years. Tere he had married a girl from his home is- land and both had run a little shop in Williamsburg, Brooklyn’s Dutchtown. Tey came back to Föhr with a capital of 15,000 Mark, not an unusual case in those days. Te limitation to a period of two years for a visit home, as specified by the Bancroft treaty, was regarded as discriminating by the German-Amer- icans. Even more the rigorous practice of controlling and ordering out of vis- itors after 1885/86 caused bad feelings on both sides of the Atlantic. On Föhr for example together with the exodus of Fig 8 Johannes Marius Jappen (1864-1943), a shopkeeper in Brooklyn before in 1891 he returned many potential remigrants not the least to Föhr. a noticeable decline of capital for future Source:Volkert F. Faltings, ed., Ein Föhrer blickt investments and innovation was feared. zurück, Bredstedt 1988. Te governmental edict in question from the year 1885 did not exclude ex- sary in a double sense. At least in the ceptions and a petition for clemency to region the author examined it was the the King and Kaiser was always possi- lower and local authorities that tended ble. But a harsh practice, typical of auto- to be more generous. Te documents cratic authorities caused not only on the show that official records were delayed Frisian Islands considerable individual for some weeks, that interrogations hardships. Johann Lützen from Husum were put off for some time or that the had left his home town in 1880 without visitors were simply neglected as long a passport to go to New York. In August as possible. Tis practice caused much 1885 he became an American citizen annoyance on the side of the chief au- and in November he was back home, thority of district, the very conservative just when the new regulations became Landrat Friedrich Werner Nasse (Pause- valid. In March 1886 he was expelled back, Aufbruch, 73). He wrote in his and the police-authorities of the city remarks regarding the planned deporta- were instructed to control strictly that tion of Karl Frerksen from Husum that he didn’t hide in the house of his par- he was of the opinion that Karl Frerk- ents. sen came back home not to recuperate Tis instruction seemed to be neces- 108 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 became increasingly prevalent in the U. S. as autocratic, militaristic and ar- bitrary. On the other side, the United States were identified more and more with unlimited possibilities, freedom and riches. Careers like the one Ludwig Nissen made, telling of luxury and in- fluence in abundance, even including friendship with an American president promoted this image. After World War I Nissen organized gifts for the relief of the people in Germany and Austria as soon as possible. He had travelled to Europe and Germany annually since the late 1880s. But to his birth town Husum he returned for the first time after nearly 50 years in 1920. Neither had he nor Fig 8 Ludwig Nissen (1855-1924), born in Husum his brothers, Fritz and Wilhelm, who and emigrated to New York in 1872 where he lived the «American Dream» par excellance. did also emigrate to New York, served in Source: Portrait in oil from Richard Creifels, Nord- the German army. But no one cared for seeMuseum Nissenhaus that anymore after the war, and surely no one would ask such questions of a from a long illness but to find a wife and visiting millionaire from New York. Hu- had been engaged already. Te reports manitarian aid and Care Packets came of the police-authorities in this matter again across the Atlantic after the next were worthless, so he wrote. He could war. So the United States remained for not prove it but he was sure that they most Germans the land of their dreams. suggested to the visitors the statements Tis positive image was furthered by which were most likely to be successful. rich visitors and many, many letters. Tey, so he summed up, always take the On the other hand, stories that tell side of the people. Likely he was right. about misfortunes very seldom found Te Landrat came from outside, but their way back home. As we can read in they were natives and most of them had the 1847 newspaper article: relatives overseas, as e.g. the head of the police in Husum, Hardesvogt Cumme, I can recall many a person who does not whose son Teodor resigned his Prus- talk much about how they found it in sian citizenship in 1887 and went to the America. Te one who has been lucky USA – 16 days before he became liable praises his faith loudly, but the one who for military service. failed remains stock still … because no But in general the practice was rigid one likes to be laughed at.10 and sent a negative image across the Atlantic. Tis fits well with the picture So from the very beginning we have of the German empire that after 1900 here a kind of self censorship. Who likes PAULHEINZ PAUSEBACK 109 to admit – to others or even to himself We have heard about deriding the ones – that in the Land of Plenty where others who failed. If this young fellow really used to make millions, he is unable to went down south, the Afro-Americans earn a living or make a future for him- there may be still today tell his story self and a good start for the rest of the and laugh at that ‘crazy Dutchman’ who family? tried to make money in the cotton fields. Te ‘Red-beard’ referred to in the Te sources (newspapers, letters, and quotation at the start of this article is a official documents) show us people like real prototype of the newly-rich visitor. him and others, and we learn some In Germany he became proverbial as the details about their trajectories. Not al- ‘rich uncle from America’ arriving, usu- ways nice rich uncles returned from ally in big cars and with suitcases full of overseas. Sometimes there also arrived dollars. He was quite frequently found in other types, like a Nanning Tönissen Germany up to the 1950s. We can read for example.12 He had been born on the that this figure later, in the 1960s and North-Frisian island Amrum. In 1867 1970s, was common too in Poland, east- he emigrated to the United States and and south east Europe and still is in Tur- as an American citizen he came back key (Topçu; Bota; Pham, 64, 76). nearly every year where he married Now coming back home from Ger- twice. Nanning Tönissen was a very big many, Alice Bota, daughter of a migrant and extraordinary strong man and when from Poland to Germany wrote, that drunk, as he frequently was, he became everybody who had escaped the pov- very quarrelsome and quickly engaged erty in Poland in that times, had to be in fights. Ten the other inhabitants of a glorious winner when he came back Amrum feared to meet him. But avoid- to visit relatives. Even if in Germany ing him was not always so easy, because nothing would remain except hard work the island apart from the beach and the and isolation. But at home and in front dunes rather small. Tis problem came of the people who stayed they boasted to an end in 1888 when Nanning was with their money and told stories of how expelled from Germany after his father much bigger and better everything was in in law had made it known to the author- the Reich that means Germany. ities that he had mistreated his family. In So in a letter from the year 1881 it this regard the neighboring island Föhr sounded like an excuse or an apology was luckier. when a young emigrant in the U.S. In the 1950s or 60s remigrants from wrote back to his parents in Husum in New York made known the then very North-Frisia: popular Manhattan cocktail at home. At first this drink was limited to their If you were better off here, why should I advise you against coming over? How families and friends. But more and more can father believe that his own son, people began to like it, and now it is doesn’t tell him the truth … I still do present at nearly every festivity. During not earn more than one dollar a day. the last years the Manhattan has some- Maybe I will go to Texas in the winter what a comeback as New Manhattan in to pick cotton.11 New York. But it was on Föhr that it was 110 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 swig-Holstein and North-Frisia. Many a man tried to find his fortune in the Sacramento goldfields in California. But Australia had its goldrush too. Oelrich Payens, a Frisian from Helgoland, then left his ship in Melbourne to dig for gold. He did not become rich but found enough gold to make a wedding ring out of it. So he came back and married his bride Anna Reimers. In those days (since 1815) Heligoland belonged to the British Empire. In 1890 it became German and Oelrich Payens took this so much to heart that he died soon after. To keep their British citizenship his widow Anna migrated to Australia in1899 ac- companied by two of her sons, taking back the ring where it comes from. Since then the golden wedding ring, as well as the traditional Frisian clothing Anna Payens was wearing and which usually is handed down in the family, traveled several times between Heligoland and Down Under.13 But whoever or whatever comes back, Fig 10 Anna Payens from Helgoland who went to a bragging ‘Red-beard’, a good for noth- Sydney in the age of 61, wearing her traditional ing drunkard, a real dollar-millionaire, Halunder Frisian clothing. Source: North-Frisian Emigrant Archive, a lovesick sailor with a golden ring, or Nordfriisk Instituut as in most cases just a dear and greatly missed member of the family, along with them travelled these stories about lucky never out of fashion. Tere it is liked so and not so fortunate emigrants, stories much that the mixture, consisting in about homesickness, love, extraordi- equal parts of Bourbon, red and white nary events and big fortunes that could Martini, and served with a cherry by the be won by the daring only on the other way, is manufactured, bottled and sold sides of the oceans. Tis kept alive the on the island. So in North-Frisia drink- memories of the many emigrants from ing a Manhattan became a feature char- our home regions who became immi- acterizing people from the island Föhr. grants somewhere else. But I do not intend to end this article with drunks or drinks but prefer a rather romantic story instead. Around 1850 the first emigration wave hit Schle- PAULHEINZ PAUSEBACK 111 Bibliography Notes Olearius, Adam, Jürgen Andersen und Vol- 1 Husumer Wochenblatt, 24. January 1847, Li- quard Iversen. Orientalische Reise-Bes- brary of the NordseeMuseum Nissenhaus, Husum chreibungen, Schleswig 1669, newly 2 see No. 1 edited by Dieter Lohmeier, Tübingen 3 Ibid. 1980. 4 Die Zeit, No. 52 (19. December 2013) S. 19 Pauseback, Paul-Heinz, Aufbruch in eine 5 see No. 1 Neue Welt, Bredstedt 1995. 6 Library of the NordseeMuseum Nissenhaus, Pauseback, Paul-Heinz, Übersee-Auswan- Husum, Germany derer aus Schleswig-Holstein, Husum 7 Story told the author by the mayor of the village, 2000. who was related to “Aunt Guste”. Pauseback, Paul-Heinz, ‘From Bootblack to 8 North-Frisian Emigration Archive, Nordfriisk In- a Position of Trust and Importance in the stituut, Bredstedt Business World. Te Biography of New 9 Bancroft treaty, in Bundesgesetzblatt des Nord- Yorker German-American Ludwig Nis- deutschen Bundes, 1868: 228 sen, 1855 – 1924’, AEMI Journal, 11, 10 see No. 1 2013:97-109. 11 Letter published in: Husumer Wochenblatt, 18. Statistisches Landesamt Schleswig-Holstein Oktober 1881, Library of the NordseaMusueum (ed.), Beiträge zur historischen Statistik Nissenhaus, Husum Schleswig-Holsteins, Kiel 1967. 12 North-Frisian Emigrant Archive, Nordfriisk In- Topçu,Özlem; Bota, Alice; Pham, Khuê, stituut, Bredstedt Wir Neuen Deutschen. Wer wir sind, was 13 Ibid. wir wollen, Reinbek 2012. ‘Migration and the Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) since 1450: the Impact of In-migration in Sustaining the European Economy and Generating Cultural Heritage in Both Regions’

Nonja Peters

Introduction On 21 May 2014, the Council of the Eu- ‘Age of Exploration’ from the late 1400s ropean Union adopted ‘Conclusions on to mid 1800s, from nations and states cultural heritage as a strategic resource the British and Dutch had conquered. for a sustainable Europe’. At the EU Te colonialism and imperialism that meeting in Brussels, that day, a historic resulted from these East India Com- policy approach to cultural heritage was pany’s incursion into the IOR were in adopted - tangible, intangible or digital force until the mid twentieth century. - recognising it as a unique and non-re- Although the curatorial focus of these newable resource and a major asset for two museums is the history of humans Europe and for the entire European and culture, it could be argued given project (in which I include Britain). Te their collections and displays, that they ‘Conclusions’ also emphasized the im- in fact commemorate colonialism and portant role that cultural heritage plays imperialism.2 Yet these two cultural in- in creating and enhancing social capi- stitutions along with the many other tal. On a conference tour of Europe in museums in both countries are consid- 2012, that included visits to two iconic ered icons of cultural heritage. Viewed collection institutions – the British Mu- from a heritage tourism perspective they seum (London), and the Rijksmuseum make major contributions to the reve- in Amsterdam and Rijksmuseum van nue of their respective countries. For Oudenheden (RvO) in Leiden, what example, in 2014 the British Museum impacted on me was that the volume (established in London 1753) recorded of artifacts on display were almost ex- its annual attendance at 6.8 million visi- clusively ‘acquired’ from outside Europe tors.3 Visitation at (all) Dutch museums predominantly from Rome, Greece, the is around 20 million per annum. Tis Middle East and Indian Ocean Region noteworthy level of visitation also con- (IOR).1 Most of the artifacts were ac- firms the high level of social capital they quired by maritime explorers during the generate. NONJA PETERS 113 ‘Migration and the Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) since 1450: the Impact of In-migration in Sustaining the European Economy and Generating Cultural Heritage in Both Regions’

Nonja Peters

Fig 1 British Museum artifacts

Aims and Objectives only concentrate here on the Nether- Tis chapter is historical. However, it is lands and Britain) ‘filled their coffers’ also about the past in the present as it re- with cultural heritage artifacts from lates to the movement of humans, goods Rome, Greece, the Middle East and and ideas between Europe and the In- Indian Ocean Region including Africa dian Ocean Region that began with the and Asia. Furthermore, I assert that this trade routes of antiquity, specific aspects was but the beginning of an uneven eco- of which are reflected in the artifact on nomic arrangement that was spawned in display in the BM and Rijksmuseums. antiquity, developed during the ‘Age of Te research will provide a more com- Exploration’, put down roots and ex- prehensive understanding of the fac- panded during Colonialism, that im- tors that motivated people to explore pelled sizeable numbers of Europeans to previously unknown regions and how migrate in pursuit of wealth in far-flung it benefitted their homelands? I reason places and generated in part the cultural that the artifacts in these museum ex- heritage that the EU Conclusion asserts hibitions and collections are symbolic; is ‘a strategic resource for a sustainable that they reflect the truism that for three Europe’. I now delve into history albeit centuries European maritime states (I briefly to present the most significant 114 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 factors that influenced European mo- East before the beginning of the Com- bility, expansion and development from mon Era,9 where the true sources of the late 1400s. these spices were withheld by the trad- ers, and associated with fantastic tales. Te History of Ancient Trade Opium was also imported. Te Egyp- Routes and European Development tians had traded in the Red Sea, import- – a Brief Overview ing spices from the “Land of Punt” and European economic and socio-cultural from Arabia. Luxury goods traded along expansion gained a great deal of potency the Incense Route included Indian from the time when the Silk Road net- spices, ebony, silk and fine textiles. Te work of trade routes began to appear.4 spice trade was associated with overland Formally established during the Han routes early on but maritime routes Dynasty of China (206 BC – 220 AD), proved to be the factor, which helped the ‘Silk Road’ linked the regions of the trade grow. Te Ptolemaic Dynasty the ancient world in commerce from as developed trade with India using Red early as130 BC when the Han peoples Sea ports.10 of China officially opened trade with Silk Road merchants traded with Eu- the west.5 It extended 4,000 miles from rope via the Byzantine Empire with the Europe through Egypt, Somalia, the Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Afghanistan, acting as middlemen through Egypt, Central Asia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India, Somalia, the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Bangladesh, Burma, Java Indonesia, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Sri Lanka, Philippines and Vietnam into China. Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Burma, Tis sophisticated system also sported Java Indonesia, Philippines and Viet- entrepôt trading posts.6 nam and China.11 Trade on the Silk From the 7th century BC to the 2nd Road was a significant factor in the de- century AD, the Greco-Roman world velopment of the civilizations of China, also traded along the ‘Incense route’7 the Indian sub-continent, Persia, Europe and the ‘Roman-India routes’. Aspects and Arabia. It opened long-distance, of these such as the Persian Royal Road political and economic interactions be- were already in existence during the tween these civilizations. Arab traders Achaemenid Empire thus as early as eventually took over conveying goods 500-330 BC.8 Te Incense Route served via the Levant and Venetian merchants as a channel for trading Arabian Frank- to Egypt and Europe. Its main traders incense and Myrrh; Indian spices, pre- were the Chinese, Bactrians, Persians, cious stones, pearls, ebony, silk and fine Romans, Armenains, Indians and Sog- textiles, and from the Horn of African dians.12 rare woods, feathers, animal skins and Overland routes helped the spice gold. Spices such as cinnamon, cassia, trade initially, but maritime trade routes cardamom, ginger, and turmeric were led to tremendous growth in commer- known, and used for commerce in the cial activities. In fact the Kingdom of Eastern World well into antiquity. Tese Axum (CA 5th-century BC–AD 11th spices found their way into the Middle century) pioneered the Red Sea route NONJA PETERS 115 before the 1st century AD. During the Te holy wars, known as the Crusades Medieval period from about the 7th are an example of particularly bellicose century, Islamic Arab traders became campaigns that were sanctioned by the the most prominent merchants on the Latin Roman Catholic Church dur- Silk Road.13 Tey shipped spices from ing the High Middle Ages from 1095. India to the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea Tese penitential war-pilgrimages that and eventually on to overland trade were waged against Muslims and other routes that led to Europe. European enemies of the Church enlisted genera- traders also bought gold from Africa and tions of laymen and laywomen to their exchanged it for spices and silk in Asia. fight. Teir objectives included check- Many other goods were also traded, or ing the spread of Islam, retaking control bartered, as were various technologies of the Holy Land, conquering ‘pagan and philosophies. It was in this period areas’, and recapturing former Chris- that prominent Eastern religions be- tian territories. Tey were also seen by came known to Europeans. many of the participants as a means of redemption and expiation for sins. Cru- Religious Interchanges sading began a rapid decline during the Hindu and Buddhist religious estab- 16th century in response to the advent lishments of Southeast Asia came to of the Protestant Reformation and the be associated with economic activity decline of papal authority.14 Around and commerce as patrons entrusted eight official Crusades took place.15 Jon- large funds which would later be used athan Riley-Smith defines the various to benefit the local economy by estate independent states that this movement management, craftsmanship and pro- established, such as the Kingdom of Je- motion of trading activities. Buddhism, rusalem, ‘the first experiments in “Eu- in particular, travelled alongside the rope Overseas”’.16 maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy. Islam spread throughout Caption Routes of the First the East, reaching Maritime South East Crusades Asia in the tenth century Muslim mer- Te greatest value to Europe of the Silk chants played a crucial part in the trade. Road and Crusades was thus the ex- Christian missionaries, such as Saint change and enriching of culture, Art, Francis Xavier were also instrumental religion, philosophy, technology, lan- in the spread of Christianity in the East. guage, science, architecture, and every Christianity competed with Islam to be- other element of ‘civilization’ along with come the dominant religion of the Mo- the commercial goods the merchants luccas. Te indigenous peoples of the carried from country to country. How- Spice Islands accommodated aspects of ever by mid-seventh century AD the rise both religions. of Islam closed off the overland caravan However, the religious based inter- routes through Egypt and the Suez, and changes were often as violent as the cut off the European trade community trade interactions and both at times from Axum and India. Major changes ended in the genocide of whole cultures. also occurred in the mid fifteenth cen- 116 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 tury when the Ottomans took Con- success is considered one of the more stantinople and the Byzantine Empire instrumental moments in the history was no more. Te Ottoman’s boycott of of navigation likened by some research- trade with the west by closing off the Silk ers to putting a man on the moon.17 Road trade routes around 1453 forced Te motives of the Portuguese were merchants to consider taking to the sea essentially commercial to supplant the to ply their trade thus initiating ‘Te pre-existing network of Arab seaborne Age of Discovery’, which led to world- trade initiated by various Kingdoms wide interaction and the beginnings of during Antiquity.18 a global community. Tese early trading Vasco De Gama’s travels gave the Por- encounters certainly also highlighted to tuguese Empire a stranglehold on Indo- the Europeans the socio-cultural and nesia’s lucrative spice trade throughout economic complexities of the trading the 16th century. Other European na- communities with whom they formed tions accepted having to buy their spices relationships that were greatly enhanc- in Portugal and on-sell throughout Eu- ing the lives of Europeans. rope until the 1590s. However, from a It would, however, be unfair not to Dutch perspective, while Spain, was at mention the large degree to which Eu- war with the Netherlands, and in a dy- rope’s mid-late-fifteenth century mas- nastic union with Portugal, trade was tery over the world’s ocean currents practically impossible. Not wanting and wind patterns, had prepared Por- to be dependent on an expansionist, tuguese, Spanish, Dutch, Britain and non-Christian power for the lucrative French mariners ‘scientifically’ for the commerce with the east, other Euro- ‘Age of Maritime Exploration’. Te new pean nations also set about finding an advancements in knowledge about nav- alternate sea route around Africa.19 igational technology gave European Te Dutch could not circumvent this leaders the means to make these changes situation by sailing direct to Indonesia in trade. Europeans developed astro- as the route was jealously guarded by the nomical instruments and trigonometri- Portuguese until after 1592, when car- cal tables to plot the location of the sun tographer Petrus Plancius published a and stars, replaced oarsmen with sails, series of charts detailing, the route to the and began to better understand wind Indies. Tis led to several Dutch com- patterns and ocean currents. panies organizing charters to the Spice Islands to trade for spices. Te fierce Te Age of Exploration is the competition that followed threatened to Catalyst for Increasing European close down trade. Dutch State interven- Mobility tion resulted in uniting these companies Te growth of the Ottoman Empire and under one banner.20 its disruption of overland trade routes to Te Generale Vereenichde Geoctroyeerde Europe mobilised the Portuguese King Compagnie (General United Chartered to commission Vasco da Gama, to find Company or VOC) was established a maritime route to the East. Da Gama when the States General granted the landed in Calicut on 20 May 1498. His charter on 20 March 1602. Tey fig- NONJA PETERS 117 ured that one united Company could the area and mastered the rules of the be a powerful military and economic local market. Tey entered into (tem- weapon in the struggle against Spain & porary) relations with local women, and Portugal.21 Te octrooi (charter) gave the many trading posts were soon peppered VOC not only monopoly over Asian with their offspring. Most of these chil- trade in its name in the octrooigebied dren remained in the country of their (trade zone between South Africa and birth and were subsumed into the local Japan, it also gave them quasi-govern- community or else entered the service mental powers to wage war, erect for- of the European merchants and compa- tifications, employ soldiers; conclude nies. treaties with Asian rulers; keep a stand- Te Dutch East India Company ing army, and appoint Governors and (VOC) made good use of such people, judges, imprison and execute convicts, born and brought up locally, they could negotiate treaties, coin money, and es- speak the language of their birth coun- tablish colonies.22 Most importantly it try and understood the conventions. set them up in fierce competition against Tey proved excellent middlemen for the Portuguese despite their much ear- the Europeans. For the same reason, lier engagement with the area, the Papal these Eurasians were also extremely use- Bull of 1494 having knocked the Span- ful to the Asian rulers.24 ish out of the IOR equation with the Both the Dutch VOC and its British Treaty of Tordesillas (see figures XX).23 equivalent traded for 200 years and in Dutch merchants enjoyed two main that time brought great wealth to the advantages over their Portuguese prede- Netherlands and Britain. Tey traded cessors. Tey sailed faster, cheaper, and for coveted luxuries such as Asian tea, more powerful ships, were much more coffee, sugar, rice, rubber, tobacco, silk, heavily armed to particularly inflict decorated textiles, gold, copper & tin, maximum damage on the Portuguese. textiles, porcelain, and spices such as cin- Tey also offered both an economic and namon, pepper, nutmeg, cloves, opium, a military edge over their competitors. elephants and exotic plants for medic- Furthermore, the joint-stock company inal purposes and also gardens. Rare through which they conducted trade and unusual plant and fruits become as enabled investors to realize handsome fashionable and expensive to acquire as profits while limiting the risk to their porcelains and lacquer work.25 investments. However, the VOC eclipsed Britain Adapting quickly the Europeans and other rivals such as the French in learned the commercial lingua franca of the Asia trade. Between 1602 and 1796 the area and mastered the rules of the VOC ships carried almost a million Eu- local market. European trading com- ropeans to work in Asian trade. Teir munities sprang up all over Asia along- efforts netted more than 2.5 million side those of the Chinese, the Javanese, tons of Asian trade goods. By contrast, Tamils, Gujaratis, Armenians and oth- from 1500 to 1795 the rest of Europe ers. Adapting quickly, the Europeans combined sent only 882,412 people. learned the commercial lingua franca of Te English26 (later British) East India 118 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Maps of the major VOC settlements along the IOR.

Company fleet – the VOC’s nearest from Asia reached fl. 205 and fl. 667 competitor – was a distant second. Its million respectively; the sales prices of total traffic was 2,690 ships that carried these return wares were fl. 577 million a mere one-fifth of the tonnage of goods in the first period and fl. 1,633 in the carried by the VOC. In total the VOC second.28 A colossal revenue for NL. fitted out some 4,785 ships (653 lost), Te free trade spirit of the time re- nearly 1,785 in the seventeenth century ceived a strong augmentation through and a good 3,000 in the eighteenth. And the development of a modern, effec- between 1602 and 1700, 317,000 peo- tive stock market in the Low Countries ple sailed from Europe on these ships, founded in 1602 by the VOC. And al- while between 1700 and 1795 the total though the banking system evolved in reached 655,000.27 the Low Countries this was quickly in- Trade figures confirm the growth of corporated into the commercial system the business after 1700. Te expenditure of the well-connected English, thereby on equipage, that is to say shipbuilding also stimulating English economic out- and outfitting as well as the money and put. goods that were sent to Asia, which had Two criteria acquired the Dutch East reached the sum of fl. 370 million be- India Company (VOC) the nomencla- tween 1640 and 1700, increased to fl. ture - multinational: (1) it issued shares; 1,608 million in the years 1700-1795. and (2) it operated in more than one In these same periods the purchase country.29 Tis worked well for 200 prices of the return goods shipped home years the length of time the Dutch East NONJA PETERS 119 India Company remained an impor- directly an area that included modern tant trading concern paying an 18 per Bangladesh, most of southern India, and cent annual dividend for almost all that nearly all the territory along the Ganges time. However, in its declining years in River in the north. However, from 1858 the late eighteenth century it was re- these vast areas became a British colony. ferred to as Vergaan Onder Corruptie Teir economic activities also initiated (referring to the acronym VOC), which a first wave diaspora out of Britain into translates as ‘Perished By Corruption’. the colonies that helped relieve some of Te VOC became bankrupt and was the pressure on urban areas in Britain formally dissolved in 1800, its posses- wrought by the large-scale internal mi- sions and the debt being taken over by gration from the countryside into the the government to become a colony the urban areas that accompanied the In- Netherlands East Indies and expanded dustrial Revolution. Te immense pro- over the course of the 19th century to cess of change it incurred from the late include the whole of the Indonesian ar- eighteenth to nineteenth centuries con- chipelago. In the mid 20th century it verted Britain from an agrarian, hand- would form Indonesia. Te trade with icraft economy to one dominated by the Spice Islands that had evolved with industry and machine manufacture.31 Europe also benefitted the economies of However, this was not the only change the great maritime nations of Britain, incurred, the company’s wealth also France, Portugal, Spain as well as the helped create a wealthy British middle Netherlands and for the next three cen- class that could afford to purchase some turies they were in play helped engender of the goods and artefacts imported into the collections of their up coming mu- Britain by its East India Company. seums with amazing and exotic artifacts. Te mobility of peoples that followed Te Dutch East India Company in- on from the early trading routes, Age of cursion into the IOR is also responsible Exploration, and the Agrarian and In- for the European discovery of Australia dustrial Revolutions fuelled an unprec- in 1606. However, this discovery would edented volume of exchange across the ultimately benefit Britain most as it was boundary lines of societies and cultural Britain that colonised Australia from regions including historical objects into 1788 albeit initially as a penal colony. the cultural institutions of Europe. Tey However, initial British economic inter- included luxury items, spices biological est was in India and that commenced species: plants, food crops and animals. around 1600. Initially in opposition to However, this people and goods mobil- the Dutch who had established them- ity is also responsible for the spread of selves securely in Indonesia, the British disease pathogens and DNA into human East India Company (1600–1874)30 populations and regions not previously decided to concentrated on setting up visited. Tese biological exchanges had trading posts at Bombay, Madras, and differing and dramatic effects on human Calcutta. Te area controlled by the populations, destroying some of them East India Company grew over time. through epidemic diseases while en- Eventually, it governed directly or in- larging others through increased food 120 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Images of migrants to Australia and America 1850s- 1920s supplies, richer diets.32 Te period also experiment in ethnic transformation in saw the move away from sailing ships to a period of unprecedented globaliza- steam ships that were more conducive to tion. Tough smaller there were none- moving sizeable populations of people. theless significant diaspora populations Drew Keeling notes in his book Te en-route from the UK to Australia and Business of Transatlantic Migration be- South Africa, possibly less so from NL tween Europe and the United States to the Netherlands East Indies (NEI) 1900-1914, 2013 that eleven million the Dutch despite the VOC were less Europe-born migrants made nineteen likely to migrate in any sizeable num- million ocean crossings on eighteen bers until WWI. thousand voyages by several hundred vessels operated by two-dozen steam- Colonisation and Remittances: ship lines plying between Europe and A Different Flow of Revenue into the principal ports of the USA. Keeling Europe describes the relocation of these Euro- Te Colonial Empires that followed on peans across the Atlantic as a human from the East India Company trading drama, a major international demo- activities engendered a second more in- graphic shift, and a large-scale historical tense migration out of Europe by peo- NONJA PETERS 121

Map of the European settlements in IOR ple attracted initially by a job in trade or representative of the nineteenth century. shipping but later by the possibility of Te personal ones that relied on people acquiring great wealth following multi- mobility significantly supported the ple discoveries of gold in the colonies. lives of family members in Europe and Fortunately, finding gold not being so though not central nonetheless assisted easy to acquire, most of these mobile in the development of the European people were quick to turn their hand to economy. any sort of work so long as it enabled them to financially sustain themselves 1. Personal Remittances and their families back home.34 Many Remittances increasingly assumed an became sojourners staying in the host important role in the economies of nu- land long enough to save the money merous countries. Although the overall they needed to improve the lives of their effects of remittance flows are not readily families in the village back home.35 quantifiable. However, even if they con- Remittances as they were commonly stitute private funds, they have none- known, or transfers of money between theless had a positive impact in terms international migrants and their origin of poverty reduction, household welfare families, are therefore an important out- and human development of the receiv- come of the migration process from the ing country.36 Te New York Post Office earliest period of European diaspora. estimates that between 1901 and 1906, Two forms of ‘financial remittances’ – approximately 12.3 million individ- personal and governmental – both were ual money orders were sent to foreign 122 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 countries, with 50 per cent of the dol- to Italy (35 per cent) and the remain- lar amounts going to Italy, Hungary, ing - 18,761,000 or 65 per cent settled and Slavic countries.37 A conservative abroad permanently. In 2011, there estimate of net migration remittances were 4,115,235 Italians living outside transferred in 1902 to Austria-Hun- Italy and several millions descendants of gary (then America’s largest source of Italians, who emigrated in the last two migrants) amounted to $15,000.000.38 centuries around the world. Teir re- Similar amounts relatively speaking (to mittances turned into a constant flow of those sent to the homeland by Ameri- money amounting, by some accounts, ca’s immigrants) were also sent home by to about 5 per cent of the Italian Gross males from the same ethnic communi- Domestic Product (GDP).41 ties who emigrated to find work in Aus- tralia.39 Twenty first Century Mobility and In that period capital connections re- Remittances mittances sent home by diaspora com- Over the last decades the changing eth- munities benefitted many European nicity of current migrants and refugees nations. For example, Spain, Italy and have engendered a reverse move or re- Ireland were heavily dependent on re- mittances away from Europe. Remit- mittances received from their emigrants tances have always moved away from during the nineteenth and twentieth the ‘stock immigration countries’ – centuries. In the case of Spain, in 1946 USA, Canada, Australia). However, the remittances amounted to 21 per cent of abolition of the White Australia policy its current account income. Te recip- in 1973 that changed the source coun- ient countries also created policies to tries of Australia’s migrants from Europe protect remittances. Italy had enacted to the Middle East, Indian and Pacific such a law in 1901, while Spain was the Ocean regions has also altered the des- first country to sign an international tination of remittances. Foreign workers treaty (with Argentina in 1960) to lower currently send around $4.5 billion each the cost of the remittances received. Te year to friends and family living in Asia economies of Greece, the FMR Yugo- and the Pacific, with banks and money slavia, Scandinavia, Germany, Portugal transfer companies pocketing around similarly benefitted. According to the $450 million.42 Money sent home to rel- Immigration Commission, the sum of atives often helps the poorest people to remittances to Italy totalled $85 million access food, education for their children in 1907.40 and medical treatment. In Asia, these It is also possible to see the effect on remittances play a vital role in helping a specific community. For example, be- people get out of poverty, while in the tween 1861 and 1985, 29,036,000 Ital- Pacific, experts say they keep whole na- ians migrated to countries around the tions afloat. world including Australia and South Every year, more than 215 million Africa. Tese figures include 16 mil- migrant workers send home US$450 lion who arrived before the outbreak billion to developing countries (Inter- of WWI. About 10,275,000 returned national Fund for Agricultural Develop- NONJA PETERS 123 ment).43 Australia has led the way for looking at the remittances required from decades in leveraging the benefits of im- colonial governments to the ‘mother- migration – long-term and short-term, land’. which is driving prosperity at home and improving the financial and social 2. Colonial Government economies of developing countries, par- Remittances ticularly within the APAC region. Te Researchers claim remittances from Co- increasing globalisation of the work lonial India to Britain in the 19th cen- force means that many more millions of tury comprised one fifth of its annual people are leaving their home countries revenue.47 Te impact was referred to as to work abroad and sending monies the ‘drain of wealth’. Tomlinson summa- home.44 Since 2000, remittances have rizes India in the last quarter of the nine- increased sharply worldwide, having al- teenth century as the largest purchaser most tripled to $529 billion in 2012. In of British exports, a major employer of 2012, migrants from India and China British civil servants at high salaries and alone sent more than $130 billion to the provider of half of the Empire’s mili- their home countries.45 tary might. Moreover these were all paid Te huge change in immigration into for from local revenues.48 Europe that began in the late twentieth Government procurement of civilian century reversed the whole financial goods, armaments and shipping were situation. In the twentyfirst century in carried out almost exclusively in Britain, contrast to earlier times ‘remittances’ there were no efforts at developing in- began to leave Europe for immigrants dustrial enterprises in India that could homelands, which more often than not have delivered these goods at probably were in the developing world. In 2010, lower prices. Of these official payments, the top 10 remittance recipients were therefore, service charges on non-pro- Nigeria ($10.0 bn), Sudan ($3.2 bn), ductive debt, pensions, and furlough Kenya ($1.8 bn), Senegal ($1.2 bn), payments can be conspired as a balance South Africa ($1.0 bn), Uganda ($0.8 of payment drain due to colonialism. bn), Lesotho ($0.5 bn), Ethiopia ($0.4 Maddison estimates that during the bn), Mali ($0.4 bn) and Togo ($0.3 bn). 1930s these home charges ranged from According to official estimates, in 2006 between £40 to £50 million a year.49 remittances from overseas residents and However, “had these funds been in- non-resident workers to households in vested in India they could have made developing countries amounted to about a significant contribution to raising $200 billion. Based on these estimates, income levels”.50 Tere were also pri- migrants’ remittances have outpaced of- vate remittances, probably in the region ficial development assistance and may about £10 million a year, and dividend be at levels comparable to foreign direct and interest remittances by shipping investment (FDI) in many parts of the and banking interests, plantations, and developing world.46 However, our story other British investors.51 that began with personal remittances in It is perhaps often less complicated to colonial times is not complete without follow the impact of a Colonial govern- 124 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 ment’s remittances on the motherland oil, rubber, and sugar, to aid Nazi re- economy by viewing them from a loss sistance. Tis they managed to do until perspective. For example the loss of the 1942 when the Japanese invaded, and Netherlands East Indies (NEI) affected Occupied, the NEI until August 1945, the Netherlands in several ways. Te which cut off this particular stream of companies, railroads, and plantations resource supplies to the allies for the re- that had been built with Dutch Foreign mainder of WWII. Te depleted state of Direct Investment (FDI) were national- European Economies due to the costs ized and mutual trade ceased.52 Royal of war, loss of the NEI and depletion Dutch Shell was excluded from being of the housing stock due to war damage nationalized due to Indonesia’s need and lack of building throughout the war for FDI to explore and exploit its oil. years were the main catalysts driving an Te famous catch-phrase ‘Innovation unprecedented movement of people out is the mother of invention,’ seems rel- of Europe leading to its label mass mi- evant here if the economists who pre- gration era. dicted that the Dutch economy would not have expanded to the extent it did Mass Migration Post WWII in the postwar era without the loss of Tis research demonstrates, how the the East Indies are to be believed. It story of European economic and so- prompted the Netherlands to overcome cio-cultural expansion gained potency its losses by modernising and pursuing from trading relationships that date back other business interests. Tese activities to antiquity, the ‘Age of Exploration’ restored its losses as the economy glo- and Age of Religious expansion. Tese balized.53 events stimulated Europeans to move At the close of WWII, the Nether- around the discovering world as explor- lands was not only faced with rebuilding ers, skippers, merchants, evangelisers, itself and restarting the former economy, administrators, soldiers and sailors and but also with constructing a new econ- later as sojourners, colonists, migrants omy without the support of the Nether- and refugees. Sometimes, singly at other lands East Indies, which had helped fuel times in diaspora their migration linked Dutch economic prominence since the forever to the social, cultural heritage 1800s.54 Te colony consisted of 40 per and economic landscape of Europeans cent of all Dutch investment abroad, to countries bordering the Indian Ocean was a steady source of income from Rim/Regions. Te mobility of people investment, and contributed up to 14 often increases after conflicts but not to percent to the Dutch National Income. the same extent that characterized three Te NEI also provided raw materials for decades that followed on from the close the Netherlands to manufacture and ex- of WWII. Australia is my example here. port. After the Occupation of the Neth- Te bilateral immigration agreements erlands by Nazi Germany it was even Australia contracted with the Interna- more important for the Dutch govern- tional Refugee Organisation (IRO) in ment in exile (in UK) to maintain con- 1947 brought in 200,000 Displaced trol over the colony’s resources such as Persons (DPs) from Eastern and Central NONJA PETERS 125 Europe and the Baltic States. Te agree- Te Past in the Present and Future: ments with Britain and various coun- Mutual Cultural Heritage - Tour- tries in Western and Southern Europe ism and Diplomacy that ensued ensured the arrival of one In recent times concepts and processes million migrants from relinquishing focused on strengthening the economies countries in Europe in each of the three of former colonial states and other Asian decades that followed.55 Tese migrants States have gained traction. A geopolit- assist Australia to maintain socio-cul- ical notion to come to the fore that is tural and economic connections with growing in popularity is ‘reversion to Europe via their business relationships a pre-colonial historical past’. Tis is with the homeland, heritage tourism - certainly the position currently under visits back home to see family and to consideration by two of the largest IOR undertake family history research as well economies – India and China –. Both as big business investment in banking have publically proclaimed they will re- and the extractive, oil and gas resources vive an ancient trade route lost to take- industries.56 overs during the Age of Exploration and Australia’s continuing relationships, Colonialism. China is thinking to revive since it’s discovery by the Dutch (1606) the Silk Road and India the ‘Cotton and settlement by the Britain (1788) Road’.58 with Britain and Europe have been in- Te prominence these notions are fluenced by changing migration pat- attracting becomes apparent when one terns, changing business practices, as notes the importance given the three- well as the changing global economy, day International Conference titled technologies and education. By way of ’India & the Indian Ocean: Renewing examples, it should be noted that each the Maritime Trade & Civilisational country has a large commercial presence Linkages’ held at Bhubaneswar, Odisha in the other’s country. In 2013-14, the from 20 March to 22 March, 2015, on two-way trade between UK and Aus- the eastern coast of India.59 Here mul- tralia was worth around $20.29 billion. tiple experts from nine Indian govern- Te UK is Australia’s leading EU trade mental agencies publically announced partner. In 2013 Australian exports to they would recreate the ‘Cotton Route’ UK were worth $7.85 billion and im- to rival China’s Silk Road. Te an- ports from the UK totaled $12.43 bil- nouncement came after Prime Min- lion. In 2013, the NL was Australia’s ister Modi’s key visit to three Indian fourth largest source of foreign direct Ocean states — the Seychelles, Mauri- investment at $29.37 billion, and NL tius, and Sri Lanka. Observers likened was the eleventh highest destination his visit there to a diplomatic pushback for Australian foreign direct investment against rising Chinese influence. India is abroad $7.02 billion.57 Tis illustrates evidently gearing up to confront China the format the socio-cultural and eco- with its own epic trade route plans, and nomic relationships spawned by the it will be interesting to track what form ‘Age of Exploration’ take today. this takes and which prospective (Euro- pean) partners might help propel Indian 126 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

Image Emigration Museums: Auswanderer Haus Ballinstadt success in this initiative.60 try’s repeated requests to relevant Euro- From Antiquity, the Silk Road was a pean States but particularly Britain to key route between China and the Med- return their ‘plundered heritage’. I refer iterranean that not only promoted trade here specifically to the Elgin Marbles61 it also formed a cultural bridge between that Greece claims the UK took with- China, India, Persia, Greece and Rome. out consent.62 Tis and similar stories Te rebirth of the Indian ‘cotton route’ prompted travel photographer and sto- and China ‘maritime silk route’ are it ryteller Raphael Alexander Zoren to ask seems to be undertaken chiefly in an at- ‘Who owns antiquity’?63 In his essay on tempt to restore these earlier trade link- this topic he notes further that: “If recent ages in the hope they will again facilitate and ancient history is to believed, the the potential exploitation of trade and in- owners of antiquity are First-World Mu- vestment they did in the past when they seums that exist merely because they have were still dominated by the ‘Nations’ and looted invaluable relics from developing ‘States’ of the Indian Ocean Region. countries in wars, contraband or simply Another distinctive turn of events using treaties and laws that were signed related to European mobility is tak- by corrupt officials who sold out their ing place in Europe. Driven mainly by own heritage”. Although the situation in Greece it is characterised by that coun- all its complexity is of beyond the scope NONJA PETERS 127 of this essay, the phenomenon does how- their homelands in search of a better ever, acknowledge the substantial degree life across the Atlantic via the port of to which the sustainability of Europe’s Hamburg driven by dire poverty, hun- cultural heritage relied on the history ger, hopelessness, or political and reli- and artefact related to trade routes from gious persecution. Like Prime Minister Antiquity; and its economies the remit- Modi of India the idea behind the new tances sent from colonists who went to ‘emigration’ focus is to lay the ground- work or settle in the foreign lands Euro- work to encourage and assist their sizea- pean’s seized to establish Colonial States ble diaspora communities, which in the in the Middle East and along the IOR. case of the Indian diaspora is the sec- ond-largest in the world at 25 million Other Initiatives people, will like earlier Italian commu- A noteworthy development over the last nities, be an effective international tool decade is the emergence of emigration for promoting homeland policies and museums which in Europe have begun serve as a catalyst for increased intra- to rival war and memory museums as and inter regional integration.64 a attractions. Tese museums trace the Since the demise of colonialism lives of those that left their country of around the end of the 1940s, post origin to make a better life elsewhere. WWII, countries such as Indonesia and It is the first time an interest of this India and other former colonial states sort has been shown. Te hope is that have had to rebuild their trade and a wealthy benefactor (self-made immi- power structures within the context of a grant) will help support such museum rapidly globalising world economy. Eu- ventures. Te opening of the Auswan- ropean mobility into the IOR and other derer Haus (Bremerhaven) and Ball- parts of the world since the Age of Explo- instadt (Hamburg) are examples. In ration created the climate for their his- 2007, Germany opened the Deutsches tories and heritage to intersect, thereby Auswanderer Haus a German Emigra- establishing a mutual heritage unit with tion Center theme museum in Bremer- the possibility of related shared culture haven. At a cost of 21 million euros this activities. For example, the Netherlands ‘stellar center’ is dedicated to the seven Ministry of Foreign Affairs recently for- million emigrants who gathered in mulated ‘mutual (common) heritage Bremerhaven between 1830 and 1974 policy’ has generated a plethora of ma- to board a ship headed for one or other terial and immaterial relics of the past of the ‘new worlds’ (ie Australia, Amer- related to the States where the VOC ica, Canada, Argentina, Brazil or South created trading settlements.65 Its aims Africa). are to preserve mutual cultural heritage A few months later on 4 July 2007 and utilize it as an instrument for shar- the City of Hamburg launched Ball- ing expertise, building capacity for the instadt. At a cost of 13 million euros, cultural field in the partner country(s), is brief is to record the story of the five stimulate cultural and economical de- million emigrants (Germans and Cen- velopment, create public awareness and tral and Eastern Europeans) who left increase knowledge of this heritage. 128 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Conservation of these historic assets is a current remittances out of Europe from critical step in the development process migrants working at jobs in first world aiming at improving the aesthetic and countries to family in the developing recreational qualities of the country as world that rivals, sometimes even exceed- well as enhancement of the local iden- ing foreign aid highlighting again the tity and character of a city or town in import role of human diasporas in sus- former colonial holdings and in Dutch taining and developing homeland econ- diaspora countries.66 omies. Conclusion References and Notes Tis chapter has demonstrated the role 1 I was born in Europe (Netherlands), grew up in Australia and was married to a UK migrant from European expansion during the age of Wales (deceased 2009). discovery played in interconnecting the 2 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ earth’s peoples, cultures, economies, and english/imperialism: Te Oxford Dictionary de- fines as ‘a policy of extending a country’s power polities, how our world become ‘global’ and influence through colonization, use of mili- and the vital role states and nations from tary force, or other means’. Antiquity, the Ottoman Empire, the 3 http://www.britishmuseum.org/about_us/news_ Middle East and Indian Ocean Rim and and_press/press_releases/2013/a_year_of_success. aspx:Te BM also attracts 27 million virtual vis- Americas played in this history. It de- itors per annum; One in four overseas visitors to scribed the main historical events from London and one in ten overseas visitors to the UK the 1500 until the 1940s that stimulated now visit the British Museum as part of their trip. 4 http://www.silkroutes.net/SilkSpiceIncense- the movements of people at various times Routes.htm into either colonial outposts or migra- 5 As the Silk Road was not a single thoroughfare tion countries in the IOR and Americas from east to west, the term ‘Silk Routes’ has be- come increasingly favored by historians, though and the monies, goods and services that ‘Silk Road’ is the more common and recognized were traded, produced or plundered that name. Both terms for this network of roads were supported Europe’s economic and so- coined by the German geographer and traveler, cio-cultural development. It also noted Ferdinand von Richthofen, in 1877 CE, who des- ignated them ‘Seidenstrasse’ (silk road) or ‘Seiden- the increased mobility of peoples during strassen’ (silk routes). colonialism and the extent to which their 6 To illustrate, the reluctance of ships to travel the remittances back home continued after entire length of a long trading route made them more willing to sell to an entrepôt port instead. the age of exploration to ensure Europe’s Te entrepôt port then sells the goods at a higher continued growth into modern times price to ships travelling the other segment of the highlighting the extent to which the 21 route. In modern times customs areas have largely made such entrepôts obsolete. May 2014, Council of the European Un- 7 Important trade routes, known collectively as the ion’s adopted ‘Conclusions on cultural “Incense Route” were mostly controlled by the heritage as a strategic resource for a sus- Arabs, who brought frankincense and myrrh by tainable Europe’ is linked to, has at times camel caravan from South Arabia. Te network of routes also served as a channel for trading of even relied on the trade and cultural her- Indian, Arabian, African and East Asian goods. itage of states and nations in the IOR and Te incense trade flourished from South Arabia to Americas which it doing so has created a the Mediterranean between roughly the 3rd cen- tury BCE to the 2nd century CE. Tis trade was plethora of ‘mutual cultural heritage’. crucial to the economy of Yemen. Frankincense I noted in addition the reverse flow of NONJA PETERS 129

and myrrh trees were seen as a source of wealth historians saw the Crusades through the prism of by its rulers. Te demands for scents and incense their own religious beliefs. Protestants saw them by the empires of antiquity, such as Egypt, Rome as a manifestation of the evils of the Papacy, while and Babylon, made Arabia one of the oldest trade Catholics viewed the movement as a force for good. centres of the world. During the Enlightenment, historians tended to 8 Te Persian Royal Road ran from Susa, in north view both the Crusades and the entire Middle Persia (modern day Iran) to the Mediterranean Sea Ages as the efforts of barbarian cultures driven by in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey) and featured fanaticism. By the 19th century, with the dawning postal stations along the route with fresh horses of Romanticism, this harsh view of the crusades for envoys to quickly deliver messages throughout and its time period was mitigated somewhat, with the empire. Te Persians maintained the Royal later 19th-century crusade scholarship focusing Road carefully and, in time, expanded it through on increasing specialization of study and more de- smaller side roads. Tese paths eventually crossed tailed works on subjects. Enlightenment scholars down into the Indian sub-continent, across Mes- in the 18th century and modern historians in the opotamia, and over into Egypt; Te Incense trade West have expressed moral outrage at the conduct route or the Incense Road of Antiquity (see also of the crusaders. In the 1950s, Sir Steven Runci- the spice trade) comprised a network of major man wrote that “High ideals were besmirched by ancient land and sea trading routes linking the cruelty and greed ... the Holy War was nothing Mediterranean world with Eastern and Southern more than a long act of intolerance in the name sources of incense, spices and other luxury goods, of God”. In the 20th century, three important stretching from Mediterranean ports across the works covering the entire history of the crusades Levant and Egypt through Northeastern Africa have been published, those of Rene Grousset, Ste- and Arabia to India and beyond. Te incense land ven Runciman, and the multi-author work edited trade from South Arabia to the Mediterranean by K. M. Stetton. A pluralist view of the crusades flourished between roughly the 7th century BCE has developed in the 20th century inclusive of all to the 2nd century CE. Te Incense Route served papal-led efforts, whether in the Middle East or in as a channel for trading of goods such as Arabian Europe. Historian Tomas Madden has made the frankincense and myrrh; Indian spices, precious contrary argument that “[t]he crusade, first and stones, pearls, ebony, silk and fine textiles;[2] and foremost, was a war against Muslims for the de- the Horn of African rare woods, feathers, animal fense of the Christian faith.... Tey began as a re- skins and gold. sult of a Muslim conquest of Christian territories.” 9 Abbreviated as CE, is an alternative naming of the Madden says the goal of Pope Urban was that “[t] calendar era, Anno Domini. he Christians of the East must be free from the 10 http://www.nhcgroup.com/spice-history/ brutal and humiliating conditions of Muslim 11 http://www.ancient.eu/Silk_Road/ rule.” 12 Sogdiana, at different times, included territories 15 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ around Samarkand, Bukhara, Khujand, Panjikent topic/144695/Crusades and Shahrisabz in modern Tajikistan and Uzbek- 16 Riley-Smith, J., Te Crusades, Christianity, istan. Peoples of the ancient civilization of an Ira- and Islam (Bampton Lectures in America), nian peoples. Columbia University Press, 2008. http://cup. 13 Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor columbia.edu/book/the-crusades-christiani- in the development of the civilizations of China, ty-and-islam/9780231146241 the Indian subcontinent, Persia, Europe and Ara- 17 Equivalent in fact to putting a man on the moon. bia. It opened long-distance, political and eco- 18 https://books.google.com.au/books?id=4DU- nomic interactions between the civilizations.[5] UrDAiqcIC&pg=PA14&lpg=PA14&dq=Colo- Tough silk was certainly the major trade item nial+powers+in+the+Indian+Ocean&source=- from China, many other goods were traded, and bl&ots=e0G0lMa9g&sig=eEQQ7OEdg- various technologies, religions and philosophies, 3MIbbGLiniJQrOFcgI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=qx- as well as the bubonic plague (the “Black Death”), EwVartF4W7mAXqyIHoAw&ved=0CDAQ6A- also traveled along the Silk Routes. In addition to EwAw#v=onepage&q=Colonial%20powers%20 economic trade, the Silk Road served as ways of in%20the%20Indian%20Ocean&f=false carrying out cultural trade between the network- 19 Religions – Te rise of capitalism in the East – pre ing civilizations. Max Weber 14 Edward Gibbon in Te History of the Decline and 20 http://www.encyclopedia.com/ Fall of the Roman Empire. During the Reformation doc/1G2-2830906009.html and Counter-Reformation of the 16th century, 21 It included a struggle about ownership of the 130 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

sea. In 1610 the great Dutch legal writer Grotius born. Many investors were employees, including wrote a book called “Mare Liberum” made a plea humble carpenters and bakers. In the early days for freedom of the seas on grounds of justice and they were paid their dividends partly in cash and morality; ... but recognised that each country of partly in spices – pepper, mace, or nutmeg. Ex- necessity had jurisdictional rights within certain pensive items are often still referred to as being limits within which they could enforce those pepperduur (as costly as pepper). Traditionally, all rights… outside of which he argued the sea and partners were subject to unlimited liability of the all its products should be free to all. He elaborated company’s obligations. However, the VOC dif- his arguments in a second book in 1625. Eng- fered in that it was the company that was liable lish writer, William Selden in reply wrote Mare and not its partners. Instead, the liability of the Clausum (Closed Sea) in 1929. “Tus began the partners was limited to the amount they agreed to great Mare Liberum—Mare Clausum argument, pay for shares. In this way the shift from unlimited …..and led to the setting out by Bynkershock in to limited liability further reduced the risk to the 1703 the doctrine of the “range of cannon” from non-managing partners. In fact the role of VOC which the 3-mile limit gradually evolved. participants would now be called investors. More- 22 www.tanap.net over, the shares they were issued became tradable 23 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ at the Amsterdam stock exchange, which was topic/599856/Treaty-of-Tordesillas Treaty of probably the first of its kind in the world. Tordesillas, (June 7, 1494), agreement between 30 http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/British_ Spain and Portugal aimed at settling conflicts over East_India_Company.aspx lands newly discovered or explored by Christopher 31 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ Columbus and other late 15th-century voyagers. topic/287204/industrialization In 1493, after reports of Columbus’s discoveries 32 Te mutual heritage impact on Australia is via had reached them, the Spanish rulers Ferdinand visits or shipwrecks of the VOC. Around 30 VOC and Isabella enlisted papal support for their mariners sighted, made landfall, or were wrecked claims to the New World in order to inhibit the on the Australian coastline. Four wrecks have been Portuguese and other possible rival claimants. To identified in WA Batavia (1629), Gilt Dragon accommodate them, the Spanish-born pope Alex- (1656), Zuiddorp 1712 and Zeewijk 1727. ander VI issued bulls setting up a line of demar- Around 200 of the mariners on these ships were cation from pole to pole 100 leagues (about 320 marooned here forever, Aboriginal oral history miles) west of the Cape Verde Islands. Spain was tradition has it that the fortunate ones cohabited given exclusive rights to all newly discovered and with them. Not confirmed as fact yet. undiscovered lands in the region west of the line. 33 Drew Keeling notes in his book Te Business of Portuguese expeditions were to keep to the east of Transatlantic Migration between Europe and the the line. Neither power was to occupy any terri- United States 1900-1914, 2013 that eleven mil- tory already in the hands of a Christian ruler. lion Europe-born migrants made nineteen million 24 Bosma, U, Raben, Being “Dutch” in the Indies: A ocean crossings on eighteen thousand voyages by History of Creolisation and Empire, 1500-1920, several hundred vessels operated by two-dozen Wendie Shaffer; 2008, 9. steamship lines plying between Europe and the 25 Jardine, L., Going Dutch: How England Plun- principal ports of the USA. Keeling describes dered Holland’s Glory, 2008, 241. the relocation of these Europeans across the At- 26 Te original object of the group of merchants in- lantic as a human drama, a major international volved was to break the Dutch monopoly of the demographic shift, and a large-scale historical ex- spice trade with the East Indies. However, after periment in ethnic transformation in a period of 1623, when the English traders at Amboina were unprecedented globalization. massacred by the Dutch, the company admitted 34 Te term colonialism normally refers to a period defeat in that endeavor and concentrated its activ- of history from the late 15th to the 20th century ities in India. when European nation states established and gov- 27 http://databases.tanap.net/ead/ erned colonies on other continents. In this period, 28 ibid. the justifications for colonialism included various 29 While trade exchanges were common in medieval factors such as the profits to be made, the expan- Europe, these were typically for currency, com- sion of the power and various religious and polit- modities and bonds – not shares. In fact by 1669, ical beliefs. Te main colonial powers in the IOR its shares were bringing a 40% return. How- were Portugal, Britain, Spain, the Netherlands and ever, buyers of VOC shares could not cash them France. An in-depth analysis of Colonialism is be- in, only sell them on – and so share trading was yond the scope of this article. NONJA PETERS 131

35 Peters, N, Trading Places au/books?id=RLZ9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9&lp- 36 http://diaspora.iom.int/mandasoldiaca- g=PA9&dq=Zanden+J.+L.,+1998.&source=- sait-first-italian-website-remittances-transfer bl&ots=tXl0EUxMwE&sig=V4R4B6vWv6TqA- 37 Wyman, Mark, Round Trip To America (Ithaca: gA0emkb-VW_46o&hl=en&sa=X&ei=l-BAVc- Cornell University Press), 1993, 61. 6JL-LCmAXMl4DoDg&ved=0CB4Q6A- 38 Keeling, 34. EwAA#v=onepage&q=Zanden%20J.%20 39 Peters, N., Trading Places, Italian, greek, Dutch L.%2C%201998.&f=false and Vietnames Enterprise in Westen Australia, 54 http://emergingequity.org/2015/03/31/modis-ri- PhD, University Western Australia, 2000. val-to-chinas-silk-road-indias-cotton-route/ 40 Forster, Robert, Te Italian Emigration of Our 55 Since October 1945, more than 7.5 million peo- Times, New York: Russell & Russell, 1919, 374. ple have migrated to Australia—over 800 000 41 Ibid. arrived under the Humanitarian Program. Aus- 42 http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-12-18/an-re- tralia’s population has increased from seven mil- mittances-call/5165928 lion in October 1945 to 23 589 200 million as at 43 http://opportunity.org.au/what-we-do/microfi- 15 April 2015. Currently, one in four of Australia’s nance-approach/remittances population were born outside Australia. Austral- 44 http://www.australiancentre.com.au/News/remit- ia’s economic development is on the backs of its tances-their-role-trends-and-australian-opportu- migrants. nities 56 Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) 45 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remittance#cite_ county fact sheets: http://dfat.gov.au note-12 57 http://dfat.gov.au/geo/netherlands/Pages/nether- 46 World Bank, 2006); Una Okonkwo Osili “Un- lands-country-brief.aspx derstanding Migrants’ Remittances: Evidence 58 http://emergingequity.org/2015/03/31/modis-ri- from the U.S.-Nigeria Migration Survey, Under- val-to-chinas-silk-road-indias-cotton-route/ standing Migrants’ Remittances: Evidence from 59 http://www.dsalert.org/news-bank/press-releas- the U.S.-Nigeria Migration Survey’, Department es/1088-international-conference-on-maritime- of Economics Indiana University Purdue Univer- trade-and-civilisational-linkages-among-ior-coun- sity Indianapolis tries-to-be-held-in-march-2015-in-bhubaneswar Feb 2007; http://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/pdfs/projects/ 60 http://emergingequity.org/2015/03/31/modis-ri- african-migrations-workshops-pdfs/rabat-work- val-to-chinas-silk-road-indias-cotton-route/ shop-2008/una-osili-amw-08 61 http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/high- 47 https://books.google.com.au/books?id=R- lights/articles/w/what_are_the_elgin_marbles. Do9AQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA44&lp- aspx :Te ‘Elgin Marbles’ is a popular term that in g=RA1-PA44&dq=he+annual+drain+on+In- its widest use may refer to the collection of stone dia+in+remittances+to+England&source=- objects – sculptures, inscriptions and architectural bl&ots=3xHyKV8umB&sig=Afewqx- features – acquired by Lord Elgin during his time suVp_s5L32GDTMNqiCrTw&hl=en&sa=X- as ambassador to the Ottoman court of the Sultan &ei=PHovVbCuK8HAmAX0soDAD- in Istanbul. More specifically, and more usually, it Q&ved=0CCwQ6AEwBA#v=onep- is used to refer to those sculptures, inscriptions and age&q=he%20annual%20drain%20on%20 architectural features that he acquired in Athens India%20in%20remittances%20to%20Engl- between 1801 and 1805. Tese objects were pur- and&f=false; http://www.jwsr.org/wp-content/ chased by the British Parliament from Lord Elgin uploads/2013/09/Ziltener_Kuenzler_vol19_no2. in 1816 and presented by Parliament to the British pdf Museum. Te collection includes sculptures from 48 ibid. the Parthenon, roughly half of what now survives: 49 Maddison, A., ‘Te Economic and Social Impact 247 feet of the original 524 feet of frieze; 15 of 92 of Colonial Rule in India of Class Structure and metopes; 17 figures from the pediments, and var- Economic Growth: India & Pakistan since the Mo- ious other pieces of architecture. It also includes ghuls, 1971: http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/arti- objects from other buildings on the Acropolis: cles/moghul_3.pdf the Erechtheion, the Propylaia, and the Temple of 50 Maddison, 20. Athena Nike. In the nineteenth century the term 51 Madison, 1971. ‘Elgin Marbles’ was used to describe the collection, 52 Vanderheide Publishing Co. Ltd., 1995. which was housed in the Elgin Room at the British 53 Zanden J. L., Agriculture and Economic Develop- Museum, completed in 1832, where it remained ment in Europe Since 1870, edited by Pedro Lains, until the Duveen Gallery was built; seE also Vicente Pinilla, 1998; https://books.google.com. http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/ 132 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

article/0,28804,1883142_1883129_1883001,00. html 62 http://journeywonders.com/museums-own- ers-of-antiquity/ 63 http://journeywonders.com/museums-own- ers-of-antiquity/ 64 http://emergingequity.org/2015/03/31/modis-ri- val-to-chinas-silk-road-indias-cotton-route/ 65 www.tanap.net: At sites across Asia, Africa, and Europe, remnants of this global past lie in wait. Kilometres of archives have survived centuries of humidity and tropical heat, and historians have only just begun to unearth their secret treas- ures-answers to the riddle of humankind’s collec- tive past. Only a few experts are able to decipher the handwritings of the archives or even to deter- mine its languages. Tis unique collection of re- cords has been glorified in the colonial past and despised in nationalist awakenings, but as modern historians unravel its secrets – layer by layer – they become more and more convinced the Archives of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), the world’s first multinational that operated between 1602-1796 contains the most complete and exten- sive source on early modern World History any- where. Te Archives of the VOC Record Groups are kept by repositories in the Netherlands, In- donesia, India, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Malaysia and the United Kingdom that jointly make up the archives of the Dutch East India Company. 66 http://www.culturalheritageconnections. org/wiki/Mutual_Cultural_Heritage_Pro- gramme_2013-2016. Baby Migration

Sarah Marijnen and Jeroen Doomernik

Introduction Intercountry adoption (ICA) is a pecu- doned children came from (former) war liar and often unnoted form of interna- zones in Southeast Asia and later from tional migration. Its roots are found in other underdeveloped countries such as the years immediately after the Second India, Bangladesh and Colombia. Te World War. Orphans from war-torn sentimentalized idea of adoption, cre- European countries were given loving ated by developed countries, had such homes in the United States (US). In a significant influence that it obscured Kapstein’s words: ‘after World War II, reality. Te increasing demand for chil- American families adopted European dren in developed countries resulted orphans, chiefly from Germany, Italy, in a billion-dollar industry where chil- and Greece; after the war in Korea they dren were being transferred without took in children from that devastated any form of regulatory mechanisms peninsula’ (Kapstein 2003, 116). Love- (Goodwin, 2010; Herrmann, 2010; lock (2000) argues that the practices Kapstein, 2003). Tis market consists of ICA in the post Second World War of the demand (couples or singles who period can be conceptualized as having are involuntarily childless from devel- occurred in two waves. Te first wave oped countries), the supply (orphans involved the placement of orphans from or abandoned children) and the inter- Europe, because finding families for mediaries (adoption agencies, but also children was both an international and corrupt (governmental) organizations a domestic issue in the post-war period. and criminal networks). Te adoption Te second wave started after the mid- of a child costs between 20,000-35,000 1970s until the present and has also been euro and prospective parents are willing shaped by humanitarian considerations to pay even more in order to reduce the for children born into poverty. However, waiting time and to increase the chance the second wave has also been driven by of getting a child (Schaepmaker et al., social and demographic changes in the 2008). receiving countries (Lovelock 2000, In this particular part of the migra- 908). Te desire to have children took tion business, adoption agencies, ad- on an even stronger charitable character vertisers and attorneys can flourish and when many adopted orphans and aban- benefit from adoption. In ‘Te Eco- 134 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 nomics of the Baby Shortage’ by Posner Tird, the Optional Protocol to the and Landes (1978), the market forces Convention on the Rights of the Child and financial exchanges that drove ICA on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitu- were exposed for the first time. It was tion and Child Pornography (from here followed by a wave of criticism because referred to as the Optional Protocol) opponents argued that when applying was adopted in 2000, came into force in an economic framework to adoption, it 2002 and is ratified by 117 states. Te would turn adoptable children into sale- first paragraph of article 3 calls on States able objects in a mechanical economics parties to ensure that coercive adoption analysis (Goodwin, 2010, 4). Moreover, is completely covered under criminal within the human trafficking discourse, law. Tus, the article criminalizes the this issue received more attention and act of ‘improperly inducing consent, as it became clearer that regulations were an intermediary, for the adoption of a required in ICA in order to protect chil- child’ (art. 3 (c)). Furthermore, para- dren (Meier, 2008; Smolin, 2004). graph 5 of the same article demands that From this perspective, four inter- States parties should take all appropriate national normative frameworks were administrative and legal measures to en- established. First, the United Nations sure all individuals involved in ICA act Declaration on Social and Legal Prin- in conformity with international legal ciples relating to the Protection and instruments. Welfare of Children, with Special Ref- Fourth, the Convention on Protec- erence to Foster Placement and Adop- tion of Children and Co-operation in tion Nationally and Internationally, was Respect of Intercountry Adoption (the established in 1986 and recognizes that Hague Convention) was adopted in an adopted child should not be deprived 1993 and came into force in 1995. It of his or her name, nationality or legal is considered as the major multilateral representative (art. 8). It also established instrument regulating ICA. As chapter the principle of subsidiarity, which 1 (art. 1) describes, the Convention has means that ICA should only take place three principal objectives: when domestic suitable adoptive par- -‘to establish safeguards to ensure that ents cannot be found (art. 17). intercountry adoptions take place in the Second, the Convention of the Rights best interests of the child and with re- of the Child (CRC) entered into force in spect for his or her fundamental rights 1990 and dedicates several paragraphs as recognized in international law; to the phenomenon ICA. Te most im- - to establish a system of co-operation portant one is Article 21 (d), which in- amongst Contracting States to ensure dicates that State parties should take all that those safeguards are respected and measures to ensure that the placement thereby prevent the abduction, the sale of children does not result in improper of, or traffic in children; financial gains for those involved. Te - to secure the recognition in Con- Convention is the most widely ratified tracting States of adoptions made in ac- treaty in history as 193 States are party cordance with the Convention.’ to it. Te second chapter (art. 4 and 5) out- SARAH MARIJNEN AND JEROEN DOOMERNIK 135 lines the requirements for ICAs. Author- tered by the Optional Protocol which ities in the sending states are charged explicitly criminalizes such practices. with the responsibility of determining Yet, as we will demonstrate, it is ques- whether a child is adoptable. Te re- tionable whether this presents a suffi- ceiving states are responsible for deter- ciently effective response to the policy mining whether prospective parents are issues posed by international adoption suitable to adopt. Te mechanisms for processes which are the substance and regulating ICA are outlined in the third remainder of this article. First we will and fourth chapter of the Convention. discuss the nature of international adop- Each contracting state has to create a tion and the ways in which it has taken central authority that is required to un- on the features of a market with legal dertake all measures required to prevent and illegal elements. With that knowl- improper financial gains. Tese central edge in mind we then look at the stake- authorities are charged with exchanging holders in this market discussing what information relating to the prospective the precise nature of their interests is. parents and the child and facilitating the ICA process. Te central authorities in Te Structural Factors Under lying sending and receiving countries must the Market for ICA both agree before the adoption can pro- Te main reasons that have been identi- ceed. Tey too are required to ensure fied for the increasing demand for chil- the safe transfer of the child. dren in developed countries are social Tis international legal framework and demographic changes, such as the was an attempt to restrict the profits legalization of abortion, the increased and market forces in the ICA system. In use of contraceptives, higher workforce spite of this, the large discrepancy be- participation of women and highly tween supply and demand has kept into regulated domestic adoption processes effect powerful economic mechanisms, (Graff, 2008). However, the increased where children are being treated as com- demand for ICA is mainly the result of modities, at least by some actors. ICA is the significant rise in infertility rates over thus driven by its customers and money, the last decades. More than six million and the system has become infected Americans in the reproductive-age pop- with a substantial degree of “child laun- ulation suffer from infertility. Between dering”. Child laundering occurs ‘when 1968 and 1980 the number of persons children are taken illegally from birth who sought treatment for infertility families through child buying or kid- doubled (Bartner, 2000, 406). Along napping, and then “laundered” through with the increased number of infertile the adoption system as ”orphans” and individuals came a tremendous influx then ”adoptees” (Smolin, 2004, 112). of money and the creation of the ‘fam- Terefore, one could wonder whether ily building’ industry. As Bartner further adoption agencies are in search of a lov- explains: ‘infertile couples seem driven ing family for a child or of children for to incredible lengths to bring children homes in developed countries. Tis per- into their lives and to create the tradi- version of the adoption system is coun- tional, American, nuclear family. Cou- 136 AEMI JOURNAL 2015

ples pour tens of thousands of dollars older, are not. In sum, the structural de- into infertility treatments in frenzied mand for children comes from developed attempts to become pregnant’ (Ibid.: countries and the structural supply from 407). However, treatment fails for about underdeveloped ones (Graff, 2008). ICA thirty five percent of infertile couples in has gradually been shaped by demand developed countries. Such couples may and supply, which belied its humanitar- then turn to ICA as their last chance to ian and altruistic nature especially when create a family (Ibid.: 408). it became infected with large amounts of In addition to the social and demo- money. Tus, as Graff states, ‘unless we graphic changes in developed countries, recognize that behind the altruistic ve- there are long-term processes in devel- neer, international adoption has become oping nations that come into the equa- an industry -- one that is often highly tion. Te same factors that drive irregular lucrative and sometimes corrupt -- many migration to the US and the European more adoption stories will have unhappy Union are creating significant numbers endings’ (Ibid.: 66). of adoptable children: a high incidence of Selman (2013) has analyzed the re- poverty, poor governance or downright cent tendencies in ICA and identified failed states, restrictive abortion regula- several factors and trends behind the tions, high fertility rates and unplanned numbers. Table 1 shows the ICAs from births. It is a great paradox of our times 2003 to 2012 for 23 receiving states. As that the youngest migrants are welcome Table 1 demonstrates, the global num- whereas those who seek to migrate on ber of ICAs peaked in 2004 with around their own account, i.e. when they are 45,000 children. SARAH MARIJNEN AND JEROEN DOOMERNIK 137

Tis fall was marked by contrasting fac- by 98.5 per cent and from Vietnam by tors and trends in receiving countries. 250 per cent between 2001 and 2007 For instance, in Italy, the total number (Selman, 2009, 581). of adoptions in 2010 was about 20 per- cent higher than in 2004. From 2006 to Globalization 2009 the numbers of Canada have been Increased globalization has a direct rising as well. While most receiving bearing on ICA’s supply and demand. countries shared the general trend of a It would have been hard for previous rise in numbers up to 2004 followed by generations to adopt a child from the a decline since, the story is very different other side of the world, whereas, these for sending countries where the pattern days, such adoptions are “normal” and of change over the period from 2003 to something celebrities advocate. Masson 2012 varies greatly. Table 2 shows the 15 (2001) identifies three perspectives on countries from which most children are the “normalization” of ICA. Promoters, adopted. abolitionists and pragmatists stand for Adoptions from China peaked in three normative positions. Promoters 2005 and adoptions from Russia in consider ICA as a way to help individ- 2004. Te reduction in the number of ual children who are in need of loving children sent from Russia and China is homes. In their view, the problem of partly compensated by the continuing ICA is the presence of too much bu- growth in the number of children sent reaucracy. Terefore, ‘like natural par- by Ethiopia and the large rise in num- ents, those seeking to adopt should not bers from Guatemala and Vietnam. For be subject to assessment or restrictions’ instance, adoptions from Ethiopia rose (Ibid.: 149). 138 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 In contrast to the promoters’ view rmann notes, the ICA process is seen about the positive impact of ICA, the ‘as “shopping” for a child, with parents abolitionists have focused on the nega- selectively seeking a child that best fits tive impact because they stress that it is their personal needs’(2010, 414). a product of neo-colonialism and eth- In short, the ICA market is strongly nocentrism. Children are being adopted related to the outcomes of globaliza- from poor states for the need of people tion. It has become a global practice in rich, powerful states. In addition, ab- where in discussions three positions olitionists argue that if the money spent are present (promoters, abolition- on adopted children would be spent on ists and pragmatists). A preference children’s services in the sending coun- for particular children is a market ele- tries, the lives of many children could be ment because it involves valuing and improved. Abolitionists are in particular pricing, as the next section shows. concerned about whether abuse is in- creasing to meet the demand for chil- Te Intermediares dren, and that ‘accepted practices such In case of a competitive market, there as requiring donations to orphanages, are many buyers and sellers exchang- can easily develop into corruption, pos- ing the same goods. ICA is governed by sibly even the selling of children’ (Ibid.: such a market because the demand of its 149). customers creates an upward pressure Pragmatists accept ICA because they on the supply. Tis became evident at a believe it can be controlled. It is con- meeting for prospective adoptive parents trollable by a range of unilateral, bi- organized by a Dutch agency (Verenig- lateral and international measures and ing Wereldkinderen) we witnessed.1 A statements, the Hague Convention in representative explained that the staff particular. According to pragmatists, has to be in the office at 1.30 A.M. once legislative action alone is not enough be- every month, i.e. when the list of ad- cause it will not raise standards. Tere- optable children in China is being up- fore, ‘new practices will have to displace dated. Tis list is consulted by adoption existing ones, challenge the beliefs of ap- agencies all over the world. Terefore, as plicants, agencies, the judiciary of and the employee explained, it needs to be immigration services, and focus on the checked immediately. All the children attention of governments’ (Ibid.: 150). would otherwise already been placed by Consumption patterns are also being the time the office opens. Tus, the chil- altered by globalization. Te world has dren are matched to parents by adop- become a consumer society where desires tion agencies in a split second, in order and tastes have become essential parts of to secure the supply of children and to our lives. Te ICA system also satisfies complete the mediation between the desires and tastes. An overwhelming parents and the adoption agencies. preference for children of a certain age, Completing the mediation is very sex, and ethnicity exists (Graff, 2008; important for adoption agencies. Ac- Goodwin, 2010; Kapstein, 2003; Meier, cording to Professor Emeritus of Adop- 2008; Zamostny et al., 2003). As Her- tion Dr. René Hoksbergen2, adoption SARAH MARIJNEN AND JEROEN DOOMERNIK 139 agencies have to mediate in a minimum same country. For example, Vereniging number of adoptions in order to re- Wereldkinderen charges 14,713 euro tain their business viability. Te profit for the adoption of an Ethiopian child, principle has become the most impor- while Stichting Afrika charges 16,000 tant concern for adoption agencies. Jan euro.5 Wierenga, the former director of the Te price differentiation as presented Supervisory Board of Wereldkinderen, above is another market feature in ICA. acknowledged in an interview3 that due Te Hague Convention stipulates that to the competitive character, adoption costs and fees should be reasonable and agencies cannot spend sufficient time on improper financial gains are prohibited. adoption cases. Terefore, they run the However, the adoption agencies that risk of conducting the adoption process publish their costs and fees online do not less accurately and thus putting the in- specify these. Terefore, it is impossible terest of the adopting parents above the to know where the money goes. Speak- interest of the adoptive children. For ex- ing with Vereniging Wereldkinderen, ample, as Wierenga explains, while the we learned that prospective parents have best interest of a child can be domestic to donate to the orphanages a sum of adoption, driven by commercial inter- money of up to 4,000 euro for the care ests adoption agencies may choose not of their child before the adoption.6 It is to investigate this option. up to the sending side to ask for a certain Te commercial aspect is visible when donation and it is in their power to ask we look at the costs for an adoption, for large amounts, as prospective parents which vary widely. According to Good- are willing to pay because of their deeply win (2010), the adoption of a child rooted wish to have children. Te do- costs between 20,000 – 50,000 USD. nation is included in the agency’s fee, All the adoption agencies in the Neth- together with the cost of foreign salaries erlands are accredited under the Hague and operations and staff travel. Tis en- Convention and therefore required to courages corruption (Graff, 2008, 59). inform adopting parents about the costs In the Dutch case, because of the high involved in ICA. An analysis of the web- costs involved the Dutch Ministry of sites of the six Dutch agencies that have Social Affairs and Employment provides a license from the Ministry of Security a subsidy of 3,700 euro per adopted and Justice to mediate in ICA shows dif- child.7 In this way the Dutch govern- ferences in fees. Different fees apply to ment is partly responsible for allow- different countries. For instance, adopt- ing and stimulating massive financial ing a child from China with the medi- flows into the ICA system. According ation of Wereldkinderen costs around to Goodwin (2010), the donations 20,000 euro (excluding travel costs and by prospective adoptive parents to or- such), while the costs of adopting a child phanages and government agencies in from Morocco, South-Africa and the countries of origin create valuable con- Philippines are no more than 13,000 tacts and therefore, it secures the supply euro.4 Fees also vary between the adop- of children for the adoption agencies. tion agencies for adoptions from the 140 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 Preferences US adoptive parents, she was surprised Prospective parents are faced with vari- how several parents fantasized that their ous choices to make. For instance: which Chinese adopted children were not ‘all sending country (or race) to choose, the Chinese’. Evidence for some ‘white- age and gender of the adoptable child ness’ was red highlights in their hair and and whether to be open to a child with how they fit well into a private all-white special medical needs. With such con- school (Dorow, 2006:375). siderations adoptive parents exercise a Several scholars claim that in Europe key element of the market: the ability racial preferences also play a role. For ex- to make a choice (Goodwin, 2010, 10). ample, according to Herrmann (2010) Based on the analyzed Dutch websites and Selman (2012), European countries of adoption agencies, parents can ex- such as Spain, Germany and France press their preferences, but there seems are adopting Russian children in large to be no variation in the price related numbers. Tis is likely because of the to gender, race or age. However, Higgins availability in Russia of ‘Eurasian chil- & Smith (2002) and Goodwin (2010) dren’ and that Russia is able to meet the state that in the US race-based baby val- desires of the prospective parents (Her- uing occurs. As Goodwin argues: ‘Cou- rmann, 2010, 414). Hilbrand Westra of ples may spend upward to fifty thousand United Adoptees International (UAI), dollars to adopt a healthy white infant. an organization that criticize the adop- Black infants, however, are adopted for tion market and its tendency towards as little as four thousand dollars. Adop- child trafficking, confirms in an inter- tion agencies attempt to clarify this view8 that racial categorization occurs discrepancy by explaining that black in the ICA market. Te white children children are more difficult to place than are most wanted, followed by the light white children’ (2010, 6). Tis logic colored Asian children, biracial chil- seems incorrect, because even if black dren, the dark colored Asian children children are harder to place, why is more and last, the African children. work cheaper? Also biracial children at- Conversely, there are some mecha- tract higher prices than black babies. nisms involved in the ICA process that Graff even states that not only black ba- go against the idea of choice because bies are cheaper, but older children or some parents are considered as being special needs children can be adopted incompetent in the ICA market. Teir with a ‘discount’ (2008, 59). Tus, pref- financial, medical and personal status erences matter in the ICA market. Tis defines whether they are suitable can- could explain the fact that the US has didates or not. Especially their finan- the biggest demand for Chinese and cial status plays a significant role (Graff, Korean babies, because they are ‘almost 2008). Due to the high costs involved white’ and very young (Selman, 2009). it is impossible for persons with a low According to Dorow (2006), Chinese income to adopt a child. Terefore, it babies are attractive for US prospective can be said that with market mecha- adoptive parents because they are racially nisms within ICA, the (white) rich al- flexible. In the interviews she had with ways outbid the poor or low-income SARAH MARIJNEN AND JEROEN DOOMERNIK 141 parents when it comes to the adoption defined as the biological mother or fa- of white babies. Consequently, social ther. Second, adoptable children are ex- and economic inequalities within soci- changeable for money. Tird, the value ety are being maintained. Moreover, the of adoptable children is being scaled, whole adoption market is only possible which is defined as commensurability. because of, and as well reproducing, Fourth, this ranking involves a financial the structural inequalities between un- value (monetization), because adoptable derdeveloped and developed countries. children are ranked and have different Tus, only the rich in the developed prices. countries adopt babies from the un- Tis commodification of children is derdeveloped or semi-developed coun- particularly visible in the use of advertis- tries and are seeking children that best ing by adoption agencies. Several adop- fit their preferences (Hermann, 2010). tion agencies use a catalogue to present the availability of adoptable children Commodification to the prospective parents (Higgins & As analyzed above, the demand by the Smith, 2002). For example, the Amer- prospective parents creates an upward ican adoption organization All God’s pressure on the supply and on the eco- Children is using a catalogue for pre- nomic value per adopted child. Tus, senting their ‘waiting children’ to the the value of a child is determined by the audience. Te catalogue contains pro- mechanisms of supply and demand. As files and pictures of adoptable children a result its “commodification” lies just from all over the world. Underneath the around the corner. picture are the child’s name and a pro- According to Radin (1996), com- file. Te profiles amounts to between modification can be identified in terms 200-300 words and features informa- of four characteristics; 1) exchanges of tion about the level of affection, social things in the world (2) for money, (3) skills, age, disabilities and the racial in the social context of markets and (4) requirements of the prospective adop- in combination with four conceptual tive parents.9 By making use of these indicators which characterize complete catalogues, prospective parents are in a commodification. As previous sec- position ‘to shop’ for a child that best tions demonstrated, children are being fits their preferences. Higgins & Smith exchanged in the world for sizeable even claim that the marketing of adopt- amounts of money in a market that is able children can be compared ‘to fast driven by its customers. Te four con- food, an industry where qualities of the ceptual indicators which character- standardized product have receded into ize complete commodification, which the background, replaced with a sin- Radin is referring to, are: objectification, gular concern for effective distribution’ exchangeability, commensurability and (2002, 187). monetization (Ibid.: 118-120). First, Following from the above, it seems objectification is taking place by adopt- accurate to argue that because of the able children because they are being sep- large amounts of money involved and arated from ‘their holder’, which can be because there is a market driven by the 142 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 demand, children are seen and treated as lifts crashed and all the children died. commodities in the ICA system (Good- Another example is how the adoption win, 2010; Kapstein, 2003; Meier, processes were completed in a very short 2008). period of time and therefore lacked an Te question we now turn to is how accurate background check of the chil- states are involved in this adoption mar- dren. It turned out that some of the ket. On the surface it may seem that the babies who were classified as ‘orphans’, practice of ICA is achieved by individ- still had one or two parents (Ibid.: 623). uals who are motivated by their own Many Americans were convinced that needs and that the concerns of a nation, Operation Baby Lift was ‘a cynical at- as manifested in policies, are somehow tempt on the part of the U.S. govern- different from their nationals. However, ment and the government of South as Lovelock states, ‘it is misleading to Vietnam to gain sympathy for the war’ conceptualize the needs and concerns of (Lovelock, 2000:923). Tus, the na- prospective parents as being somehow tional concerns, in this case the domestic outside of or separate from the needs political concerns in the US about the and concerns of the nation. Individuals diminishing support for the war, shaped who adopt from abroad do so within a the migration of Vietnamese babies. particular domestic/international/po- litical context’ (2000, 910). Terefore, Te State: Legal Responses the practice of individuals often serves Lovelock claims that the decision to rat- national purposes, especially when these ify the Hague Convention by states was individuals are powerful in terms of fi- clearly shaped by the need to secure the nance and influence. supply of and access to adoptable chil- Lovelock (2000) concludes that all dren for their citizens (2000, 944). As three states she studied (US, Canada discussed earlier, the Hague Convention and New Zealand) have been prioritiz- seeks to take measures to ensure that ing their national needs over the needs ICA is conducted with respect for the of child migrants from the underdevel- fundamental rights of the child and in oped countries for a long time. A clear its best interests. In addition, it should demonstration of this reality is Opera- prevent the abduction, sale or traffick- tion Baby Lift, which refers to a large ing of children (Kapstein, 2003, 122). scale adoption program initiated by However, the Hague Convention does the US. Tis program airlifted more have a number of shortcomings and as a than 2000 Vietnamese babies, mainly result it is up to the state to define, reg- to the US, for adoption and was con- ulate and act on irregularities (Lovelock, sidered a heroic humanitarian response 2000, 942). Regulating independent to children in the war-torn Vietnam adoption agents and agencies, and as- (Bergquist, 2009:622). However, the suring that they are not involved in any motivations of the US behind this op- improper practices is problematic. Karin eration became quite controversial. Te van Doorn from adoption agency Sticht- operation encountered several prob- ing Afrika explained in an interview10 lems. For instance, one of the helicopter that the sending states are in a position SARAH MARIJNEN AND JEROEN DOOMERNIK 143 to use the Hague Convention to their the adoption of their child. Terefore, own advantage because the Convention child trafficking plays a much larger role does not include strict rules. Tis is not in the ICA market than states want to least the case while many key terms are admit. left undefined, such as ‘non-profit objec- In sum, states may choose to prior- tives’ and ‘adoptability’, nor clear defini- itize the needs of their citizens over those tions of what constitutes a ‘reasonable of child migrants from underdeveloped fee’ or ‘improper financial gain’ are in- countries. Despite the Hague Conven- cluded in the Convention (Herrmann, tion’s goal to protect the rights of adop- 2010; Lovelock, 2000). Te Conven- tive children, in actual fact it allows tion’s implementing in effect is left to the receiving states to secure the supply of political will of sending states, which is adoptable children for their citizens and shaped by the ongoing political realities for sending states to be the beneficiary that creates the demand for ICA. Given of a billion-dollar adoption industry. its history, the responses to conventions and the contemporary practices of ICA, Te Agencies it seems ‘reasonable to question the po- In order to justify the need for ICA, tential implications of this reliance on adoption agencies widely quote the sta- ‘political will’’ (Lovelock, 2000, 941). tistics on institutionalized children and Finally, children from non-contracting orphans by UNICEF. In 2006, this or- states obviously are not protected in the ganization reported an estimated 132 first place. Tere are 32 states involved million orphans in underdeveloped and in ICA that have not ratified the Hague semi-developed countries. However, Convention, mostly sending states, such UNICEF’s definition is different from as Ethiopia, South-Korea and Haiti. In that employed in many industrialized these states, the political will to protect countries, where only a child which children’s interests as all decisive. has lost both parents is an orphan. Te international adoption organiza- UNICEF’s definition includes children tion UAI has little faith in the political who have lost the father or the mother. will of states to protect the interests of Only ten percent of the total has lost adoptees. It claims that only those of both their parents.11 In most cases these prospective parents are served. Accord- orphans are living with their extended ing to Westra of UAI, despite of all the family (Graff, 2008, 61). mistakes made by adoption agencies, Some scholars argue that because the Dutch government never closed any adoption agencies are in competition, of them. Once adoption agencies have their prime objective is to find adoptable been licensed states fade into the back- children rather than to identify caring ground of the ICA system. Adoption families (Herrmann, 2010; Lovelock, organizations are subject to minimal in- 2000; Schaepmaker, 2008). Although spection and mistakes are easily made. Wierenga (the former director of the Nicolas from UAI argues that in be- Supervisory Board of Wereldkinderen) tween 60 to 70 per cent of all ICAs, the acknowledges the competition on the birth parents did not give permission for demand side (between adoption agen- 144 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 cies), he does not recognize competition income of more than 30.000 euros. Te to exist on the supply side. Yet because representative replied that ‘she does not the agencies work in a demand-driven have to worry because people can add up market, in which some children are all their possessions’ and ‘also sneak in more popular than others, this cannot a few thousand dollars extra because of but result in some kind of competition the minimum inspection’. He continued on the supply side as well (Graff, 2008; by saying that ‘there is no need to worry Hermann, 2010). about the educational level either, even According to Wierenga, adoption if you only finished secondary school. agencies are aware of the changed na- Because when the prospective parents ture of ICA and have become ‘more show to the Council that they finished businesslike’. He recalled that before secondary school, Wereldkinderen will ICAs became popular, there were many make sure that their education will meet children available and more and more the requirements of China’. parties appeared on the adoption mar- Tese observations demonstrate how ket. 12Nowadays, adoption agencies are an adoption agency is doing everything doing everything they can to mediate in its power to make sure that prospective in as many adoption cases as possible. parents can proceed with the adoption. Tis corresponds with the observations Tis may mean abusing its powerful po- at the information meeting of Wereld- sition, because according to the sending kinderen.13 Te agency’s representative country, their infant citizens should not explained how the Dutch Council for be matched to prospective parents if Children’s Protection (Raad voor de these do not meet all requirements. Te Kinderbescherming) is doing family re- adoption agency makes sure that this is search in the Netherlands. Te Council the case and the adoption process can investigates the needs, capacities and be completed. Te use of online mar- motivations of prospective adoptive par- keting by adoption agencies also shows ents. Te aim of the Council is to un- that adoption agencies are intend on derstand the ability of the applicants to selling the idea of adoption in order to raise an adopted child.14 In addition, to have as many mediations as possible and be eligible for the adoption of children thus to maintain their business viability. from China, the Chinese authorities set a number of requirements to prospective Associations with Trafficking parents. For instance: an annual (com- Te demand-driven character make bined) gross income above the modal adoption agencies more aware of the fact income for Dutch households (30,000 that they should not be associated with euro). Prospective parents must further- child buying practices. As Wierenga more have attained certain educational notes, ‘a rumor is fatal for adoption levels. When the agency’s representative agencies’. Nevertheless, as he argues, is it enumerated these requirements, one almost impossible to control everything prospective parent expressed her concern because adoption agencies are depend- about the fact that she and her husband ent upon the authorities of the send- might not be able to prove a combined ing countries.15 Tese authorities are SARAH MARIJNEN AND JEROEN DOOMERNIK 145 responsible for determining if the chil- driven by the demand of involuntarily dren are orphans or not. Even when a childless people in developed countries scandal hits the news, according to Irene was discussed by half of the interviewed van Ark of Wereldkinderen, it does not adoptees. Adoptee Iris expressed her always involve child trafficking. As she concern about the importance of eco- explains, ‘in some cases the media depict nomics in the world and in ICA: ‘Te adopted children as being sold because market [in ICA] facilitates the demand it turns out that they were not orphans, and the supply of children, there are but in fact they were living on the streets parties who deal with the demand and for years and maybe the mother has a supply and this makes us the products better life now and therefore she wants because the demand will always be to reclaim her child’.16 present’. Adoptee Graciella argued that It can be concluded that adoption ‘everything in the world is made into a agencies are in a powerful position be- commercial business, in which the de- cause they benefit from the ICA market, mand is determinative. Te adoption of as the above stakeholder analysis has children is made into a business where demonstrated. As market agents they do norms and values are not playing a role’. everything in their power to strengthen Te commodification of children is their market position. Even when this indeed a practice in which norms and includes being in the shadow of, or values do not seem to matter. Children maybe even being involved, in child from underdeveloped countries are con- trafficking practices. sidered as something that is saleable. Adoptee Rogrido noted, ‘we are living in Te Adoption Triangle a consumption society where people ap- Adoptees propriate the right of having children by Voices not often heard in academic dis- buying a child’. Within this commod- cussions are those of the adoptees. At least ification process the rights of adoptees in some ways they possess expert knowl- are at stake because not the interest of edge, notably of the outcomes interna- the children has priority, but the huge tional adoption practices. For this reason amounts of money and the demand that we interviewed ten people who migrated drives this market. All adoptees that to the Netherlands in this way.17 During were interviewed made it clear that the the interviews, most adoptees expressed rights of adoptees are at stake and could their discontent about the way adoption and should be reinforced. is framed in society. According to adop- Tis echo from the interviewees is not tee Nadia18, adoption is wrongly seen as a unusual. Since decades, adoptees have way to rescue children. Adoptee Rodrigo been making themselves heard by es- also stated: ‘others decide that this [adop- tablishing organizations to defend their tion] is right for you, however adoption rights. Two examples are the Dutch is nothing more than a way to meet the organization Los Hijos and Arierang. demands of involuntarily childless peo- Both organizations were established to ple’. improve the rights of either Colombian Te fact that the adoption market is or Korean adoptees in the Netherlands. 146 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 In the interviews19 both organizations infants (Ibid.: 412, 427). In addition, state that organizing ‘roots travels’ is adopting a child is an emotional experi- one of the most important activities of ence for prospective parents and the im- their organization. Adoptees who want mense need for getting children makes to search for their biological family can them not want to look to practices that sign up for a ‘roots travel’ and during do not seem to be totally legal. their search they receive assistance in Once they have become adoptive order to find their biological families parents and a scandal is revealed with and travel with the organization and disturbing news about their little ones, other adoptees to their country of birth adoptive parents can only say in their to meet their family. UAI is another or- defense that they trusted their adop- ganization which makes itself heard on tion agencies. Graff gives an example the position of adoptees by criticizing of an American mother who adopted the adoption market and its tendency a little Cambodian girl and her adop- towards child trafficking. According tion agency told her that her Cambo- to Nicolas Yoon Gelders of the UAI, dian daughter was an orphan. However, the supply in the ICA market is dwin- when her daughter could speak English dling, while the demand is rising20. well enough after a year, she spoke about Tis results in a massive pressure on the her mommy and daddy and her broth- sending countries to meet the demand ers and sisters, all of which have been and therefore corruption plays a big found to be alive (2008:65). role on the ICA market. Te financial In short, adoption agencies and (pro- incentives involved in the ICA market spective) adoptive parents have mo- stimulate corruption. As Westra of the tivations to ignore evidence of child UAI explains: ‘Te intercountry adop- laundering practices. Nonetheless, this tion market is full of corruption. Espe- is becoming increasingly apparent in the cially on informal corruption there is no ICA system, and the patterns are obvious control and therefore children are easy for those with eyes willing to see. Tus, victims of child trafficking practices’.21 ‘credulous Westerners, eager to believe that they are saving children, are easily (Prospective) Adoptive Parents fooled into accepting laundered children As already mentioned, prospective par- -- for there is no fool like the one who ents are responsible for the high demand wants to be fooled’ (Smolin, 2005:135). for young adoptable infants. Terefore, ‘prospective parents continue to con- Biological Parents tribute large sums of money into a po- Scholars have been dealing with the tentially corrupt system in order to find well-being of adoptees or with the posi- adoptable children abroad’ (Herrmann, tion and demand of prospective parents 2010:417). Not all prospective parents in the ICA market. Unfortunately, there are aware of the existence of corruption is a lack of research about the position of and have this misconception that or- the adoptees’ biological parents in this phanages in underdeveloped countries demand-driven market. Herrmann and contain an endless supply of healthy Kasper (1992) argue that the mere ac- SARAH MARIJNEN AND JEROEN DOOMERNIK 147 ceptance of ICA overlooks the negative therefore it is questionable whether their impact on birth mothers. Tey argue adoption cases were processed in a fair that in some underdeveloped countries and legal manner. Te prospective par- illegal baby trade is seen as a solution ents are responsible for the high demand to the problem of inadequate prenatal but at the same time are not aware of services and care. In this view, women the negative impact on the ICA mar- are considered as ‘breeders’, who pro- ket, because they are easily fooled into duce healthy babies for the ICA mar- putting their trust in adoption agencies ket (Ibid.: 48). Te responsibility of who again may be tricked into accepting the governments of sending states to orphans who actually are not. provide for family planning services and improve the position of (teenage) moth- Conclusions ers is avoided by participating in the When migration takes on market fea- ICA market. tures, we can differentiate, like Salt & Terefore, as Schaepmaker et al. Stein (1997) have done before us, be- (2008) argues, ICA often comes down tween legal and illegal sides of the busi- to exploitation of vulnerable families ness. Among the legal aspects of ICA who have no other choice. Parents are we can list instances where a child is often persuaded by tricks to give their truly an orphan, cannot domestically be children away, without understanding matched with suitable adoptive parents exactly what adoption means and as- and therefore migrates to another coun- suming that their children will come try thus serving its best interests. On the back (Ibid.: 33). Anthropologist Shellee other end of the spectrum we find de- Colen (1995) believes that adoption is ceptive practices and children being sold a product of ‘stratified reproduction’, and bought in order to satisfy the needs which refers to reproductive labor by of prospective adoptive parents abroad. women structured by political, eco- In between these two positions we find nomic and cultural forces and results a grey area in which both worlds seem in unequal hierarchies of race, class, to meet and in which it seems often un- place and gender in the global economy. clear whose interests are served in what Known from the trafficking of children particular manner. It also has become for sexual exploitation are cases in which clear that attempts to bring and keep the parents see themselves forced to sell one market in international adoption above or more children in order to be able to board by means of (international) legal support the remaining household mem- interventions are not easy. Tis appears bers (Doomernik, 2006) and doing so not least to be so while policies at the for adoption would appear a humane receiving end (the countries of adoptive option in comparison. parents) aim to serve different needs To conclude, the consequences of a that are at odds to each other, at least to demand-driven market for adoptees are some extent. Adoption should not fall painful because not only the interest of under the restrictive regimes that as a the costumers in the market are put first, rule govern migration from developing the adoptees are being commodified and nations while it fulfills affective needs 148 AEMI JOURNAL 2015 among citizens. Otherwise a full stop to Posner, R. & Landes, E. (1987) Te Economics of the Baby Shortage. Te Journal of Legal Studies Vol 7. the practice and alternative protection No 2.: 323-348. of vulnerable orphans - in the country Radin, M. (1995) What, If Anything, Is Wrong with of origin - would be a viable consider- Baby Selling? Pacific Law Review Vol. 26: 135- ation. 146. Radin, M. (1996) Contested Commodities: Te Trouble with Trade in Sex, Children, Body Arts References and Other Tings. Harvard University Press: Bartner, N. (2000) Intercountry Adoption and the United States. Convention on the Rights of the Child: can the Salt, J. & Stein, J. (1997) Migration as a Business: free market in children be controlled? Syracuse Te Case of Trafficking. International Migration Journal of International Law & Commerce Vol. Vol. 35, 4: 467-494. 27 Issue 2: 405-430. Schaepmaker et al. (2008) Adoptie onder vuur. Bergquist, K. (2009) Convention on the humanitar- Justitiële verkenningen, 34: 1-207. ian evacuation and ‘rescue’ of children Operation Selman, P. (2009) Te rise and fall of intercountry Babylift or Baby abduction?: Implications of the adoption in the 21st century. International Social Hague. International Social Work Vol. 52: 621– Work Vol 52, 5: 575–594. 633 Selman, P. (2013) Key Tables for Intercountry Adop- Colen, S. (1995) Conceiving the New World Order: tion: Receiving States 2003-2012; States of Origin Te Global Politics of Reproduction. University 2003-2011. Of California: California Smolin, D. (2004) Intercountry Adoption as Child Doomernik, Jeroen (2006) ‘Te Globalisation, Mi- Trafficking. Valparaiso University Law Review gration and Trafficking Nexus: European Out- Vol. 39, 2: 281-325. comes’ in Christien van den Anker & Jeroen Smolin, D. (2005) Child Laundering: How the In- Doomernik (eds) Trafficking and Women’s Rights tercountry Adoption System Legitimizes and Houndmills: Palgrave, pp. 201-218. Incentivizes the Practices of Buying, Trafficking, Goodwin, M. (2010) Baby Markets: Money and the Kidnapping, and Stealing Children. Te Wayne New Politics of Creating Families. Cambridge Law Review Vol. 52, 113: 115-200. University Press: Cambridge. Legal documents and reports Graff, E. (2008) Te Lie We Love. Foreign Policy OHCHR (2002) Optional Protocol to the Con- 169: 59–66. vention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of Herrmann, K. & Kasper, B (1992) International children, child prostitution and child pornogra- Adoption: Te Exploitation of Women and Chil- phy. Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Pro- dren. ProQuest 7: 45-58. fessionalInterest/Pages/OPSCCRC.aspx Herrmann, K. (2010) Reestablishing the Humanitar- Te Hague Convention (1993) On the Protection of ian Approach to Adoption: Te Legal and Social Children and Co-operation in Respect of Inter- Change Necessary to End the Commodification country Adoption, United Nations. Available at: of Children. Family Law Quarterly Vol. 44: 409- http://www.hcch.net/index_en.php?act=conven- 428. tions.text&cid=69 Higgins, M. & Warren, S. (2002) Engaging the com- Te Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990) modified face: the use of marketing in the child United Nations. Available at: http://www.ohchr. adoption process. Business Ethics A European Re- org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx . view Vol. 11: 179-190. Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to Kapstein, E. (2003) Te Baby Trade. Foreign Affairs the Protection and Welfare of Children, with Spe- Vol. 82, 6: 115–125. cial Reference to Foster Placement and Adoption Lovelock, K. (2000) Intercountry Adoption as Mi- Nationally and Internationally. Available at: http:// gratory Practice: A Comparative Analysis of In- www.un.org/documents/ga/res/41/a41r085.htm tercountry Adoption and Immigration Policy and Practice in the United States, Canada and New Zealand in the Post W.W. II Period. International Migration Review Vol. 34, 3: 907-949. Masson, J. (2001) Intercountry adoption: a global problem or a global solution? Journal of Interna- tional Affairs, 55: 141-166. SARAH MARIJNEN AND JEROEN DOOMERNIK 149 Notes 1 Meeting for prospective adoptive parents at Wereldkinderen on 22-03-2014, the Hague, the Netherlands. 2 Interview with Dr. René Hoksbergen, Professor Emeritus of Adoption on 24-04-2014, Soest, the Netherlands. 3 Interview with Jan Wierenga on 05-05-2014, Gouda, the Netherlands. 4 www.wereldkinderen.nl/websites/implementatie last accessed on 13-05-2014. 5 www.stichtingafrika.nl/images/pdf/kostenethio- pie.pdf and www.wereldkinderen.nl/websites/im- plementatie, last accessed on 13-05-2014. 6 Interview with Irene van Ark, working at Wereld- kinderen on 19-05-2014, using Skype. 7 www.agentschapszw.nl/subsidies/tegemoetkom- ing-adoptiekosten, last accessed on 14-05-2014. 8 Interview with Hilbrand Westra on 27-05-2014, using Skype. 9 www.allgodschildren.org/adoption/our-adop- tion-programs/waitingchildren (received user- name and password waitingchildren) Last accessed on 15-05-2014. 10 Interview with Karin van Doorn on 26-05-2014, using Skype. 11 http://www.unicef.org/media/media_45279. html, last accessed on 19-05-2014. 12 Interview with Jan Wierenga on 05-05-2014, Gouda, the Netherlands. 13 Meeting for prospective adoptive parents at Wereldkinderen on 22-03-2014, the Hague, the Netherlands. 14 http://www.adoptie.nl/p/1564/adoptieproce- dure_stap_voor_stap/, last accessed on 20-05- 2014. 15 Interview with Jan Wierenga on 05-05-2014, Gouda, the Netherlands. 16 Interview with Irene van Ark on 19-05-2014, using Skype. 17 Te interviews with ten adoptees took place be- tween 01-04-2014 and 20-05-2014. 18 Nadia is a fictitious name for an adoptee who re- quested to remain anonymous. 19 Interview with Los Hijos on 12-05-2015, using Skype. Te interview with Arierang on 08-05- 2015, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 20 Interview with Nicolas Yoon Gelders on 27-05- 2014, using Skype. 21 Interview with Hilbrand Westra on 27-05-2014, using Skype.

AEMI JOURNAL

Volume 14 • 2016

Special Issue on

‘Europe and Migrations in the Tird Millenium’

Editor Hans Storhaug

Association of European Migration Institutions www.aemi.eu

AEMI Journal Editor: Hans Storhaug

Te Association of European Migration Institutions Protocol of the Annual Meeting

23 - 26 September 2015 Turin, Italy

Members of the Association of European Migration Institutions (AEMI) and other experts on migration issues met for a three day conference in Turin, Italy. The conference was hosted by Centro Altreitalie sulle Migrazi- oni Italiane, located on the premises of the Fondazione Luigi Einaudi, Via Principe Amedeo, 34. Photo: Dario Cieol. 154 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 Tursday, 25 September 2015 Stella Capuano, Institute for Employ- After an informal gathering in the ment Research, Nuremberg, Germany center of the city of Turin Wednes- and Silvia Migali, University of Aarhus, day evening, conference members met Denmark:Te migration of professionals Tursday morning in Sala Conferenze within the EU: any barriers left? Migra- Fondazione Luigi Einaudi tion, institutions and business cycle Via Principe Amedeo,34. Welcome Donatella Greco, University of Tri- speeches by Maddalena Tirabassi (Di- este, Italy: New migration routes: mobil- rector Centro Altreitalie, Vice Chair ity and self-perception of young Italians AEMI), Ilda Curti (Turin City Council- abroad lor), Hans Storhaug (President AEMI), Emilia García López, Head of For- Piero Bassetti (President Globus et eign Affairs of the Council for Galician Locus), Piero Gastaldo (General Secre- Culture, Santiago de Compostela, Spain tary Compagnia di San Paolo) marked New mobilities of migration in Galicia the official opening of the 25th Annua (2010-2014) AEMI conference. In his opening le- Domenico Gabrielli, University of cure, Ferruccio Pastore, FIERI, Turin Rome “La Sapienza”, National Institute spoke about the crisis of the European of Statistics, Rome, Italy: Te emigration migration regime: how we got here and of Italian citizens in the 2000s: a special which ways forward? His message to the focus on the United Kingdom audience was that the refugee crisis rep- Daniele Valisena, University of resented a timeshift in European history Modena, KTH Stockholm, Sweden: that would change the continent for From migrations to new mobilities in the ever. European Union transnational space. Ital- Te rest of the day was devoted to ians in Berlin between anomie and mul- papers and discussions related to the ti-situated identity theme New European migrations. Francesca Mazzuzi, Silvia Aru, Uni- versity of Cagliari, Italy: Beyond the Session 1 and 2: New European numbers: socio-cultural backgrounds and Migrations expectations of the new Sardinian (e)mi- Chair: Marco Demarie, Compagnia di grants in the time of the crisis San Paolo, Turin. Speakers: Session 3 Old and New European Solange Maslowski, Center for Com- Migrations parative Law of the Faculty of law of Chair: Professor Adam Walaszek, Jagiel- Charles Univ. in Prague, Cechz Repub- lonian University Institute of American lic: Expulsion of economically inactive Studies and Polish Diaspora, Krakow, European Union citizens from their host Poland. member state Speakers: Laura Bartolini, European Univ. Federica Moretti, Katholieke Univer- Institute, Florence, Italy: Drivers of sity, Leuven, Belgium: Old and new Ital- highly-skilled emigration from Southern ian migrations in Belgium Europe in time of crisis Suzana Cascão, University of Rome: ANNUAL MEETING 2015, TURIN, ITALY 155 ‘Ethnic media’ Te role of the leading Por- Chair: Hans Storhaug, Norwegian Em- tuguese newspaper (“Contacto”) in Lux- igration Center, Stavanger, Norway. embourg Speakers: Margherita Di Salvo, Tuscia Univer- Brian Lambkin, Mellon Centre for sity, Viterbo, Italy: From Italy to England Migration Studies, Ulster American and back between histories, identities and Folk Park, Omagh, UK: Te Irish Na- languages tional Diaspora Centre Carlo Stiaccini CISEI; Andrea Torre Margaret Hills de Zárate, Queen Centro Studi MEDI’, CISEI, Genova, Margaret Univ., Edinburgh, UK; Lore- Italy: Mobility in Genoa during economy dana Polezzi, Univ. of Warwick, UK: crises: from history to present times Transnational Italian networks and trans- Maria M. Berglund, Swedish Mi- national Italian studies gration Center, Karlstad, Sweden: Fa- Paul Pauseback, Nordfriisk Instituut, ther in new fatherland, mother in new Bredstedt, Germany: Making Europe mother soil. new fatherland, mother in Bottom Up: migration from and to the re- new mother soil. Depictions of migrant- gion of North-Frisia in Schleswig-Holstein hood and parenthood in Swedish fiction from 1800 till today 2004–2014 Sarah Clément, Génériques, Paris, France: European citizenship through Eu- Friday 25 ropean migration history Session 4: European Diaspora Maria Luisa Caldognetto, Nicolas Chair: Brian Lambkin, Mellon Centre Graf, Centre de Documentation sur for Migration Studies, Ulster American les Migrations Humaine, Dudelange, Folk Park, Omagh, United Kingdom. Luxembourg: Food traditions amongst Speakers: Italian migrants in Luxembourg, between Janja Žitnik Serafin, Slovenian Mi- the need to be faithful to the past and new gration Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia: future challenges Care for diasporic communities: the case Nonja Peters, Curtin University and of a bilateral agreement between Slovenia University of Western Sydney, Australia: and Bosnia and Herzegovina Developing a sustainable model in mutual Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade, Cen- cultural digital heritage tro de Estudos das Migrações e das Relações Interculturais, Universidade An unforgettable farewell dinner at Villa Aberta, Lisboa, Portugal: Bonding the Abegg, hosted by Marco Demarie, Head Portuguese diaspora: secular, religious and of Research in Philanthropy at Com- leisure catalysts politics and practices pagnia di San Paolo, marked the end Elisa Gosso, University of Turin: of the 25th annual international AEMI Crossing Boundaries: negotiating transna- conference. Te participants enjoyed tional heritage and belonging in the Ger- Italian gourmet food and wine at this man Waldesian Diaspora historic building, which is the surviving part of the vineyard that belonged to the Session 5 and 6: Archives, regent Christine of France, daughter of Museums and Projects king Henry IV of France. 156 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 Minutes of the General Assembly LWL Industrial Museum Hannover of the Association of European Colliery - Westphalian State Museum Migration Institutions of Industrial Heritage and Culture, Bo- Te General Assembly of the Associa¬- chum, Germany, represented by Dr. tion of European Migration Institu- Dietmar Osses tions was called to order Saturday 28 Te Directorate for Relations with september 2015, 11.00 a. m. at Centro Basque Communities Abroad, Basque Altreitalia, in Turin, by chairman of the Country, represented by Mr. Asier organisation Hans Storhaug. Vallejo and Mr. Benan Oregi Te Åland Islands Emigrant Institute, Attendance Register and Apologies Mariehamn, Åland, represented by Ms. Chairman Hans Storhaug conveyed Eva Meyer apologies from Le Bois du Casier, Te Norwegian Emigration Center, Charleroi, Belgia; Institute of Migra- Stavanger, Norway represented by Mr. tion, Turku, Finland; Cité de la Mer, Hans Storhaug Cherbourg, France; Musée de l’Histoire Te Swedish Migration Center, de l’Immigration, Paris, France; Ball- Karlstad, Sweden, represented by Mr. instadt Emigration Museum, Hamburg, Mathias Nilsson Germany; Deutches Auswandererhaus, Te Center of Migration Studies and Bremerhaven,Germany; Johannes Intercultural Relations, Universidade Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Aberta, Portugal, represented by Prof. Germany, Dunbrody Famine Ship, Co. Maria Beatriz Rocha -Trindade Wexford, New Ross, Ireland, Centro Altreitalie-Center on Italian Migra- Internazionale Studi Emigrazione Ital- tions, Turin, Italy represented by Prof. iana- CISEI, Genoa, Italy, Het Centrum Maddalena Tirabassi voor de Geschiedenis van Migranten, Te Institute of American Studies Leiden, the Netherlands, National Li- and Polish Diaspora, Jagiellonian Uni- brary, Dept. for Norwegian American versity, Krakow, Poland, represented by Collections, Oslo, Norway, Museu da Prof. Adam Walaszek Emigração e das Comunidades, Fafe, Te Danish Emigration Archives, Portugal, Museo Dell´Emigrante, San Aalborg, Denmark, represented by Mr. Marino, House of Emigrants, Goth- Jens Topholm enburg, Sweden, Karlstadt University, Te Danish Immigration Museum, Department of Political, Religious and Denmark, represented by Ms. Cathrine Cultural Studies, Karlstad, Sweden, Lat- Kyö Hermanssen and Ms. Freja Borst- vians Abroad Museum and Research ing, Susanne Krogh Jensen. Centre, Riga, Latvia. Te Migration, Ethnicity, Refugees and Citizenship Research Unit, Curtin It was noted that the following repre- University, Perth, Australia, represented sentatives of 23 member institutions by Dr. Nonja Peters were present: North Frisian Institue, Bredstedt, Génériques, Paris, France, repre- North Frisia, represented by Mr. Paul- sented by Ms. Sarah Clément Heinz Pauseback ANNUAL MEETING 2015, TURIN, ITALY 157 Consello da Cultura Galega, Santiago signed. Te President of ETTW, Niels de Compostela, Spain, represented by JörgenTögersen, was invited to join us Emilia Garcia Lopez at this meeting in Turin, but unfortu- Te Red Star Line Museum, repre- nately they could come. Te Presiding sented by An Lombaerts Officer thanked the Chairman for his Te Mellon Centre for Migration presentation and moved the adoption Studies represented by Brian Lambkin of the report. Te assembly adopted the Te Slovenian Migration Institute motion. represented by Janja Zitnik Serafin 4. Secretary’s Report 2014-2015 Te Chairman then moved that Profes- AEMI´s Secretary Sarah Clement gave sor Adam Walaszek be elected Presiding her report of the year focusing on the Officer of the General Assembly for the following activities: presentation of reports by members of • AEMI Website the Board. Te motion was agreed and Te Board has invited Mathias Nils- Professor Walaszek took the chair. son, director of the Swedish Migration Center in Karlstadt, to take over the 2. Minutes of the General Assembly of responsibility of the AEMI website to AEMI, Saturday 28 September 2014, make in more dynamic and interactive. Castle of Cesis, Latvia Members were therefore encouraged to Te Minutes of the General Assembly send him any relevant information to be of AEMI Saturday 28 September 2014 published on the web. at Te Castle of Cesis, Latvia, were ap- • Contacts and meetings proved as accurate records. Sarah has met with the French-German Youth Office and discussed ways to col- 3. Chairman’s report 2014-2015 laborate. Te chairman thanked the board for their work over the year, and the host 5. Treasurer’s Report: Financial Statement for this assembly, and gave his report and Accounts, 2014-2015 summarizing key points and referring Treasurer Eva Meyer presented the 2014 to the full text at the AEMI website. financial report, and addressed the ques- He presented the report of the year and tion of removing members that had not some perspectives for the year coming. paid their subscription for many years AEMI has accepted the invitation to a from the member list. Members of the partnership with the Europeans Trough- GA proposed to make two lists: one for out Te World - ETTW- network, which paying members and another one for would give AEMI direct participation members who have not paid or joined in many of the ETTW´s operational the meetings for the last five years. Te working groups and with the European Presiding Officer thanked the Treasurer media house EURACTIV (www.eurac- for her presentation and moved the tiv.com) – publishing daily news in 12 adoption of the Treasurer´s Report. Te languages. No formal meetings has yet meeting adopted the motion. been held and no agreements have been 158 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 6. Auditor’s Report 10. Member’s Project As the Auditor Knut Djupedal was not Maddalena Tirabassi encouraged mem- present, the Presiding Officer read his bers of the GAto contribute to her pro- report affirming that AEMI´s accounts ject on European migrations ‘Making are in good order. Te Presiding Officer Europe Bottom Up’. then moved the adoption of the report, Assier Vallejo recommended a stronger and the GA adopted the motion. connection to Europeans Troughout the World - ETTW - in order to take advan- 7. Proposed Budget 2015-2016 tage of their contacts to the European Te GA agreed on the proposed 2015- Commission. 2016 budget. 11. Next Venues 8. Editor’s Report 2014-2015 Te Galician Emigration Archives in Te Editor apologised for the delay in Santiago de Compostela, Spain has been publishing the Journal, and refered to chosen as the venue for 2016. Te GA both health problems and an unclarified discussed potential themes for upcom- situation at the Emigration Center. He ing conference, e.g. identity, ethnicity focused on the positive development of and multiculturalism. Te GA also AEMI, and encouraged all members to stressed the necessity to include topics target new members, offering them pre- on the European asylum and refugee vious editions of the Journal as a wel- policy, and how migration and cultural coming gift. institutions in Europe respond to the migration crisis. Te conference dates 9. Admission of New Members will be 28. Sept till 2. October. Ricardo Roba has applied for individual In 2017 the North Frisian Institue membership and was accepted. in Bredstedt, North Frisia, will host the Porta Polonica, the Documentation 27th Annual AEMI meeting and inter- Centre for the Culture and History of national conference. Paul Heinz Pause- Poles in Germany represented by Jacek back has already proposed topics related Barski, has applied for membership and to integration and segregation. is accepted as member. Te aims of the Centre is to research and document the 12. Others traces and influences of Polish life in In order to increase the membership, Germany and to make them visible on Nonja Peters, Australia, moved that insti- the internet via the homepage Porta Po- tutions from outside Europe that wished lonica. At the same time the Documen- to apply for full membership could do so. tation Centre sees itself as a forum for Her motion was adopted by the GA. Te Poles living in Germany. GA also moved that the board should be Te new members were encouraged more proactive in recruiting members by to send information about there insti- putting information on how to become tutions to be published on the AEMI a member on the website. Te GA also website. discussed the idea to offer students schol- arships for the subscription money. Te Association of European Migration Institutions Chairman´s Report 2014 – 2015

Ladies and Gentlemen: the Association’s Journal and Chair- In opening this report on the activities man (Norway). I should also mention of the Association over the last year, may Mathias Nilsson (Sweden) who hosted I begin by recalling our Annual Meeting the conference in Karlstad has approved in 2014 in the city of Riga, Latvia which to step in as our webmaster. was hosted by the Latvians Abroad – Your Chairman, as last year I am Museum and Research Centre and the afraid to say, has been distracted by University of Latvia, Faculty of Social other business from giving as much time Science. Riga was our choice as it had as he would have liked to the affairs of been elected European Capital of Cul- the Association. However, I am very ture of the year. Te meeting also in- glad that our vice-chair Maddalena Tira- cluded a visit to exhibits at “Stūra māja” bassi has devoted so much of her time to (former KGB building) as well as the make preparations for the Associations´ neigbouring city of Cesis, which actu- 25th Annual Meeting and International ally was one of the candiadate cities for Conference here in Turin. To assist her the Capital of Culture. We again thank with the final details of the programme, Maija Hinkle, Marianna Auliciema, some of the board members had a two- Biaba Bela and their colleagues for wel- days meeting here in Turin in early coming us so warmly to Riga. June. During our meeting we also had Te Board that you elected last year in the pleasure of meeting Mr. Marco De- Riga for a new three-year term has been marie, Compagnia de San Paolo, sponsor Maddalena Tirabassi, (Italy) as Vice- of the conference, and host of the galla chair, Sarah Clement, (France) Secre- dinner at Villa Abegg. Tis large complex tary, Eva Meyer (Åland Islands, Finland) is the surviving part of the vineyard of as Treasurer, Marianna Auliciema (Lat- Madama Reale which used to belong to via) as representatives of last year’s host Maria Cristina of France (1606-1663). institution, and myself as Editor of She was the sister of Louis XIII and the 160 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 Duchess of Savoy by marriage. At the Mr. Tøgesen contacted me shortly death of her husband Victor Amadeus after the Riga meeting, on the recom- I in 1637, she acted as regent of Savoy mendation from our Basque collegue, between 1637 and 1648. When she died Mr. Asier Vallejo Itsaso, director for the large complex became the property the Basque Community Abroad, and of different religious congregations and we have emailed regularly since. De- remained this way until recently when spite many attempts, lack of resources it became the property of the Com- and bad timing has prevented us from mune. Te symmetrical villa with two meeting. However, your board has de- entrances is surrounded by a romantic cided to become partner, and our two park of trees and a small lake. organisations are now exchanging infor- As this years meeting is the twenty-fifth mation and have linked our websites. in a row, I am particularly happy that As ETTW has members and associated the association is attracting new mem- members in countries where AEMI is ber institutions. Last year was very suc- not represented (e.g. Malta, Romania, cessful in that respect, as we had the Slovakia, Lithuania and Switzerland), I pleasure of adding four new institutions believe the network represents a great to our membership list: Institute for potential for further enlargement of our Migration Research and Intercultural association. Studies (IMIS), Osnabrück (Germany), Te Centre for the History of Migrants (CGM), Leiden (the Netherlands), Karlstad University, Department of Po- litical, Religious and Cultural Studies Hans Storhaug, (Sweden) and the House of Emigrants, Chairman Gothenburg (Sweden). Te enlargement of our Association September 2015 is part of our strategic planning, and it therefore caught my immediate interest when I was addressed by the president of ETTW - Europeans Troughout the World - Niels Jørgen Tøgesen, asking AEMI to become a partner organization. Europeans Troughout the World – Les Européens dans le Monde is a pan-Eu- ropean umbrella organisation, which works at a European level for all Euro- pean expats. It does not replace the na- tional and other associations of expats. It is an added-value to them – helping them to make Europe work actively for our millions of expats in Europe and all over the world. Expulsion of Economically Inactive European Union Citizens1

Solange Maslowski2

Te freedom of movement and residence deed, before 2004, Union secondary has for a long time been reserved to eco- law was not only differentiating eco- nomically active persons (workers and nomically inactive Union citizens from self-employed persons), who represented workers but also the different categories a kind of privileged category of nationals of economically inactive Union citizens of Member States3. Since the establish- between themselves, each category being ment citizenship of the European Union dealt with in a different directive8. Te by the Maastricht Treaty, economically number of legal instruments regulating active and inactive nationals of Mem- the freedom of movement of Union cit- ber States henceforth constitute only izens was undermining the clarity and one category, the one of Union citizens. the legal security of this fundamental Economically active and inactive Union right. Te Court of Justice of the Euro- citizens enjoy all the rights provided by pean Union also played a considerable Article 20 of the Treaty on the Function- role in the recognition of the freedom ing of the European Union (hereinafter of movement of economically inactive ‘TFEU’)4, the right of freedom of move- Union citizens as its decisions served ment and residence being the first right as grounds for the writing of Directive mentioned by the article. Tis right is 2004/38/EC. moreover enshrined in primary Union Who are these economically inactive law in Article 21 TFEU5 and in Article Union citizens? Taking into account 45 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Article 7 of Directive 2004/38/EC, we Rights6. Nevertheless, economically in- can differentiate two main categories of active Union citizens had to wait until economically inactive Union citizens al- the adoption of Directive 2004/38/EC, lowed to reside in host Member States: referred to as the Citizenship Directive,7 - Economically inactive persons who to see their right of freedom of move- are self-sufficient and in possession of ment associated to the right of mobile sickness insurance coverage, including workers in one single instrument. In- pensioners, first-time job seekers9 and 162 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 job-seekers who no longer retain the and 5 years for student loans or grants). status of workers10. Tis freedom of movement is nev- - Students whose primary purpose is ertheless restricted by some Member to follow a course of study in the host States willing to protect their social Member state. assistance system or public policy in a Some doctrinal works establish a more time of economic crisis. In the last few precise categorization of economically years, a growing number of inactive inactive Union citizens while reminding Union citizens have been expelled from that a single citizen can be at the same their host Member state and this phe- time an economically active and inac- nomenon seems to continue. tive person. Silvia Gastaldi, for example, Tis article will try to describe the differentiates four categories of econom- process of expulsion of economically in- ically inactive Union citizens: job-seek- active Union citizens by quoting in the ers, recipients of services under Article first part the main legal grounds for ex- 56 TFEU (tourists, recipients of medi- pulsion used by the Member States and, cal care), students and other economi- in the second part, tools of protection at cally inactive Union citizens (pensioners the disposal of mobile citizens. and poor citizens). She also reminds that economically inactive citizens are a kind I. Legal Grounds used for the Ex- of sub-category, economically active cit- pulsion of Economically Inactive izens being the main category expressly Union Citizens mentioned in primary and secondary Directive 2004/38/EC allows host Mem- EU law11. ber States to terminate the stay of Union Economically inactive Union citizens citizens who fall under the legal grounds are increasingly enjoying their funda- for expulsion, such as threat to public mental right of freedom of movement policy, public security and public health within the territory of the Member (Articles 27 and 29), abuse of rights or States of the European Union. However, fraud (Article 35), and unreasonable contrary to workers, they do not benefit burden on the social assistance system from an unconditional stay in the host of the host Member States (Article 14). Member state. Teir right of residence Teoretically, threat to public policy, for more than three months is indeed public security and public health, abuse dependent on their possession of suffi- of rights or fraud may be used indiffer- cient resources and of a comprehensive ently against workers and economically sickness insurance coverage in the host inactive citizens while the legal ground Member state. Likewise their right to of unreasonable burden concerns only equal treatment with nationals of the economically inactive Union citizens. In Member States is not total (contrary to practice, the legal grounds of abuse of workers) as their access to social assis- rights and threat to public policy is also tance and to student grants or loans is regrettably targeting mostly economi- conditioned upon the length of their cally inactive Union citizens as national residence in the host Member state (at practice shows. Te first section will deal least three months for social assistance with general grounds of expulsion while SOLANGE MASLOWSKI 163 the second section will focus on specific ber States of the necessity to clearly de- grounds targeting only economically in- fine the protected interest of society, and active Union citizens. make a clear distinction between pub- lic policy and public security. Despite A. General Legal Grounds for Ex- these safeguards against an abusive use pulsion Applying to Economically of the concept of public policy, national Inactive Union citizens practices very often demonstrate a dis- From the four general legal grounds proportionate use of it. Tis has been provided by Directive 2004/38/EC, just rendered possible especially because of two are mainly used by Member States either a lack of a national definition against economically inactive Union giving a free hand to Member States or citizens: the ground of threat to public of an over-extensive definition exceed- policy and the ground of abuse of rights. ing the spirit of primary and secondary Te two other general grounds, respec- Union law. tively the threat to public health and the As an example of an extensive defi- threat to public security, despite their nition of the concept of public policy, applicability to economically inactive France has implemented Article 27 of Union citizens, will not be mentioned Directive 2004/38/EC into French law in this article because of the lack of im- by two articles, Articles 63 and 65 of pact of the social or economic status of the Act of 2011 on Immigration. Arti- the Union citizen on their operation12. cle 63, part of the French Code of Entry and Residence of Aliens and the Right 1. Expulsion on the Ground of to Asylum (CESEDA) under Article L. Treat to Public Policy 521-5 repeats the terms of Article 27 to Article 27 and Recital 22 of Directive the effect that removal is justified when 2004/38/EC allow Member States to the personal conduct constitutes a gen- restrict the freedom of movement and uine, present and sufficiently serious residence of Union citizens on grounds threat for the fundamental interests of of public policy. Tis legal ground is not society. Article 65, part of the CESEDA defined in the Directive or in primary under Article L-213-1, gives the concept law. Each Member state is responsible of breach of public policy a broader in- for defining threats to public policy in terpretation than Article 27 of Directive its national legislation as far as it re- 2004/38/EC. According to this article, spects EU law and standards (Rutili certain offenses such as drug trafficking, C-36/75). Nevertheless, as a deroga- trafficking in human beings, robbery, tion from the fundamental freedom of exploitation of begging and illegal occu- movement, the concept of public policy pation of land are considered breaches must be interpreted strictly, so that its of public policy being subject to crim- scope cannot be determined unilaterally inal prosecution. No conviction is re- by each Member state without being quired, the mere suspicion of a breach subject to control by the institutions of of the order is sufficient to constitute a the Community (Van Duyn C- 41/74). threat to French public policy. As many Te Commission also reminded Mem- Bulgarian and Romanian citizens of 164 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 Roma origin illegally occupy land, beg, by human rights defenders and orga- or steal, French authorities have, with- nizations at both national and interna- out any difficulty, been able to expel tional levels14 after French authorities them on the ground of threat to public proceeded to expel a large number of policy13. Te concept of threat to pub- Romanian and Bulgarian citizens in lic policy, normally reserved to serious 2010. Luckily, French national courts threats to fundamental interests of the of appeal cancelled most such expulsion State, is in fact used to expel economi- orders on the grounds of lack of suffi- cally inactive Union citizens. cient proof of the abusive behaviour15. Unfortunately, the right to judicial re- 2. Expulsion on the Ground of dress is not often used by the expelled Abuse of Rights persons and therefore most expulsion Article 35 of Directive 2004/38/EC and orders are not judicially reviewed. Recital 28 allow Member States to re- fuse, terminate or cancel rights of move- B. Specifc Legal Grounds Target- ment and residence of mobile Union ing Only Economically Inactive citizens in cases of abuse of rights or Union Citizens fraud. Once again the concept of abuse Economically inactive mobile Union of rights is not defined in the Citizen- citizens are not equal to mobile workers ship Directive, which is just mentioning and to nationals of host Member States one example, but include marriages of as far as residence rights16 and access to convenience and leaving this concept social assistance and student loans are open to other kinds of behavior. Each concerned17. But they are also being Member state is also responsible for “discriminated” against as far as expul- transposing Article 35 according to its sion is concerned. Indeed, their right of own vision of abuse of rights and na- residence in a host Member state is con- tional definitions vary from one Mem- ditioned upon their not being an unrea- ber state to another. sonable burden on the social assistance French legislators, for example, have system of the host Member state. Tis opted for a very extensive definition of particular ground is reserved to econom- the abuse of rights comprehending two ically inactive Union citizens and does cases: not apply to workers and self-employed - First: Te Union citizen is renewing persons. It is targeting non-self-suffi- stays of less than 3 months in order to cient mobile Union citizens who have remain on French territory while the recourse to the social assistance system conditions for a stay of more than 3 of the host Member state in such a way months are not met (self-sufficiency and that it affects the budgetary resources of health insurance). this particular state. Recourse to social - Second: Te Union citizen is stay- assistance in itself is not forbidden; just ing in France with the primary aim to the “unreasonable” use of social assis- benefit from the French social assistance tance can lead to expulsion (Article 14- system. 3). Both grounds were harshly criticized Short-time residents up to three SOLANGE MASLOWSKI 165 months (only obligated to possess a having worked in Belgium less than valid ID or passport) who become un- 12 months, cannot be expelled on the reasonable burdens on the social as- ground of unreasonable burden on the sistance system do not have a right of social assistance system as job-seeking residence according to Article 14-1 and allowances are not considered as social Preamble 16. Tey might be expelled. assistance. Moreover, Article 14-4b says Tese provisions allow Member States that as long as a job-seeker is able to pro- to protect themselves against potential vide evidence that he or she is continu- abusers while freedom of residence is ing to seek employment and that they not conditional during the first three have a genuine chance to be engaged, months of residence. Te dependency the Union citizen should not be ex- of stays in excess of three months from pelled. Likewise, students are supposed the possession of sufficient resources is to possess sufficient financial resources, aimed to avoid unreasonable burden on but a simple declaration of self-suffi- the social assistance system of the host ciency should be accepted by Member Member state. Likewise permanent res- States according to Article 7-1c. Tere- idence is offered only to economically fore Belgian authorities should not au- inactive Union citizens who are legal tomatically doubt the self-sufficiency of residents, that is to say self-sufficient. foreign students. Belgium has expelled a consider- Even a fourth category of Union cit- able number of Union citizens on the izens has been targeted: workers under ground of being an unreasonable bur- Article 60-7 of the Belgian Law of 8 July den for its social assistance system18. 1976. It relates to social work with re- Tree main categories of economically habilitation goals subsidized by the Bel- inactive Union citizens have been af- gian state, the CPAS being the employer fected by the Belgian measures: poor of the beneficiary. Te Belgian Office des citizens benefiting from the integration étrangers does not consider such activi- revenue of the Centres Publics d’Action ties as effective and genuine economic Sociale (CPAS), job seekers benefiting activities20 and, for this reason, puts the from Belgian job-seeking allowances, beneficiaries of these services into the and students. Tese measures have been category of economically inactive Union strongly criticized at the national and citizens. Surprisingly, full-time workers European level because of their contra- have been expelled on the ground of diction with the spirit of the Citizenship unreasonable burden on the social as- Directive. Te first category being tar- sistance system because of the non-rec- geted by Belgian administration, benefi- ognition of their status of worker by ciaries of the CPAS, indeed should not Belgium administration. be expelled on the only ground of their Tese practices have been criticized recourse to the Belgian social assistance because the necessary elements lead- system as it is prohibited by Article ing to a burden on the social assistance 14-3 of Directive 2004/38/EC. Simi- system like the total amount of the so- larly, job-seekers who have overlapped cial aid, the length of the aid and the the 6 month allowance period,19 while personal situation of the beneficiary 166 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 have not been checked by the Belgian the first three months of their stay with- authorities. Te Observatoire des poli- out checking whether they were repre- tiques sociales en Europe even talked of senting an unreasonable burden. Tis is a simply unjustifiable and unacceptable an abuse of their expulsion powers be- attitude from an ethical, political and cause the only obligation for a stay up legal point of view21. In February 2013, to 3 months is the possession of a valid the European Commission informed ID or passport. Belgium about its concern concerning its practices against mobile Union citi- II. Protection Against Expulsion zens. Unfortunately, such practices are Expulsion being the most serious sanc- still going on. For these reasons, many tion against mobile Union citizens, the well-known Belgian academics even re- Citizenship Directive very carefully reg- commended firmer actions against Bel- ulates its use by Member States. Never- gium22. theless, state practices show abuses of Te Netherlands has also used the expulsion powers and lack of respect ground of unreasonable burden to expel for the material and procedural safe- Union citizens. It indeed considers ac- guards inscribed in Directive 2004/38/ cess to emergency housing to be an un- EC. After a quick review of the existing reasonable burden on its social assistance system of protection of Union citizens system. Tis gives to the Dutch author- against expulsion, some further steps ities the possibility to expel Union citi- aiming to limit such abuses will be pro- zens that are homeless and in search of posed. housing. Te management of the poor- est economically inactive Union citizens A. Existing Protection is also a question that has to be addressed Directive 2004/38/EC provides special in the future. Non-self-sufficient, both protection against expulsion of mobile in their home country and in their host Union citizens through its general and country, they have to rely on the gener- procedural safeguards based on Articles osity of their state of residence. Shall we 27, 30 and 31 that can be used by both consider the temporary use of shelters or economically active and inactive mobile emergency care as unreasonable burdens Union citizens. Union citizens are first on the social assistance system or just as protected by Article 27, which states a hand to a person who is temporally that it should not serve economic ends unable to take care of herself?23 and should be based on the personal Some Member States go even fur- conduct of the individual representing a ther by mentioning as a legal ground genuine, present and sufficiently serious for expulsion the non-self-sufficiency of threat affecting one of the fundamental mobile Union citizens, in contradiction interests of society. Article 28 protects with Article 27 which says that expul- Union citizens against expulsion by re- sion should not serve economic ends. quiring the host Member state to take France and Belgium expelled econom- into account considerations of integra- ically inactive Union citizens on the tion, such as how long the individual ground of non-self-sufficiency during concerned has resided in its territory, SOLANGE MASLOWSKI 167 his/her age, state of health, family and tails for appeal. Article 31 on procedural economic situations, social and cultural safeguards guarantees to mobile Union integration and the extent of his/her link citizens the right to judicial or adminis- with the country of origin. Te more in- trative redress. tegrated the Union citizen is in the host Besides these general safeguards avail- Member state, the higher protection able for all mobile Union citizens, the against expulsion he will receive. Just Citizenship Directive also regulates the a few legal grounds for expulsion can particular protection of certain catego- be used against a long-term, integrated ries of economically inactive Union citi- mobile Union citizen. Indeed only seri- zens. Two main categories of persons are ous grounds of public policy24 might be supposed to be protected, despite some used against Union citizens who have the Member States specifically targeting right of permanent residence and only them with expulsion orders: imperative grounds of public security25 - Tose who have recourse to so- may be used against Union citizens who cial assistance are protected against au- have resided in the host Member state tomatic expulsion orders (article 14-3). for the previous ten years. Similarly, mi- - Tose who have entered the nors are especially protected against ex- territory of the host Member state to pulsion, which is only possible if based seek employment. Tey should not be on imperative grounds of public secu- expelled as long as they can provide ev- rity or if necessary for the best interests idence that they are continuing to seek of the child according to the United Na- employment and that they have a gen- tions Convention on the Rights of the uine chance to be engaged (article 14- Child of 20 November 1989. 4b). Moreover, mobile Union citizens are Tis protection is nevertheless insuffi- also protected by the proportionality cient because of certain Member States’ principle (Article 27-2), which plays a abuse of their expulsion powers. For this significant role for economically inac- reason, some important steps should be tive Union citizens because it frames the undertaken to better protect econom- intended distinction between a “reason- ically inactive mobile Union citizens. able” and “unreasonable” burden26, the Te first step should obviously be a bet- latter leading to an expulsion. Likewise, ter definition of legal grounds leading prohibiting a Member state from basing to expulsion, the second step being the an expulsion order on purely economic exceptionality of the use of the expul- ends should prevent economically inac- sion sanction, and the last step being a tive Union citizens from being expelled European-level approach to the rights of only on the ground of not being self-suf- movement and residence of economi- ficient. cally inactive Union citizens. Article 30 of Directive 2004/38/EC requires the notification in writing of B. Challenges expulsions orders, which clearly and Economically inactive Union citizens fully states the content and the implica- are not protected enough against ex- tions of such decisions as well as the de- pulsion, despite the existing safeguards. 168 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 Tis gap results firstly from the weak- For these reasons, it would be desirable ness of definitions of the legal grounds to unify national definitions of legal on the European level allowing Member grounds leading to expulsion orders. States to abuse their expulsion power. And if states‘ sovereignity does not allow Furthermore recent events showed the such step, it would be at least desirable necessity of a deeper reflection on the to establish limits to national discretion. right of residence of economically in- active Union citizens as well as on their 2. Te Exceptional Use of the Ex- access to social assistance. pulsion Sanction Sanctions deriving from a violation of 1. A Better Defnition of Legal the provisions of the Citizenship Di- Grounds Allowing Expulsion of rective can range from a simple refusal Union Citizens of social assistance to expulsion. Ex- Legal grounds allowing expulsion of pulsion is the most severe sanction that Union citizens are either not defined or can be used against mobile Union cit- are defined too generally in the Citizen- izens. As Recitals 23 and 24 of Direc- ship Directive and in the relevant trea- tive 2004/38/EC state, expulsions can ties. Large leeway is given to individual seriously harm the migrants and, for Member States. Tis leads to a multi- this reason, should be used only excep- plicity and diversity of national defini- tionally against mobile Union citizens. tions which is endangering: Te Observatoire des politiques Sociales en · Legal security, because there is a Europe reminds us that the notion of ex- clear risk of abuse of expulsions powers pulsion today, which is so easily associ- by the Member States. ated to the destiny of Union citizens, is · Te uniformity of application of really scaring because it is something so the law of the Union, because it is not close to us all and could happen to every realized in practice. one of us28. Likewise, as Professor Lher- · Te principle of equality of noud already proposed, a clarification of treatment between Union citizens on the consequences of unlawful stays of the move, because for example, a Union Union citizens is needed, knowing that citizen can be expelled in France on the ultimate sanction, i.e. the expulsion, the ground of renewing stays of three should be avoided as much as possible29. months while he would not be expelled, National practices however show the for the same facts, in the Czech Repub- contrary: expulsion orders being used lic. on a large scale, without attempting first In the Chakroun case (point 34)27, the to regulate the problematic situation by Commission submits that the discretion less severe sanctions like the refusal of left to the Member States in implemen- social assistance. ting the Directive must not adversely Moreover, expulsion can only be used affect its objectives or effectiveness. Na- within the allowed scope of EU law tional practises show that national im- (threat to public order or security, threat plementations are often affecting the to public health, unreasonable burden Directive’s objective and effectivness. on the social assistance system, abuse of SOLANGE MASLOWSKI 169 rights or fraud) and under the conditions not seeking employment in Germany provided for by Article 28 (protection and not having a genuine chance of against expulsion), Article 30 (written being engaged, the Court opted for a notification requirements), Article 31 less severe sanction than expulsion. (procedural safeguards) and Preamble 23 (respect of the principle of propor- 3. A Deeper Tought on the tionality). Expulsions of Union citizens Concept of Lawfulness of the Stay based on national grounds contradictory of Economically Inactive Union to Union law, as it is unfortunately the Citizens for More Tan 3 Months, case in some Member States, is violating Reserved Until Now to only the fundamental freedom of movement Self-sufcient Citizens. of persons. As Elspeth Guild quoted in As the report on Union Citizenship: her commentary of the Citizenship Di- Development, Impact and Challenges rective, free movement of persons is not underlines, the requirement of self-suf- available for structural reforms because ficiency for lawful residence of econom- it is one of the four founding freedoms ically inactive Union citizens is one of of the EU. According to her, a Member the most controversial features of cit- state which no longer wishes to comply izenship law31. It aims to preserve the with the right of citizens of the Union stability of public finance of the host to move, reside, and exercise economic Member state against an abusive use of activities anywhere in the Union be- social assistance by mobile Union citi- yond the very limited scope which is zens. Te question is to see whether this permitted by the Directive has no op- criterion is compatible with the limita- tion but to consider withdrawal from tion of Article 27 stating that expulsion the EU (unless all the Member States should not serve economic ends. were able to agree on an amendment to Tis criterion applicable to econom- the Treaties as regards free movement of ically inactive Union citizens residing persons)30. Tis is particularly notable in for more than three months in a host the present challenging circumstances of Member state has to be eased as the level the Brexit controversy. of self-sufficiency resources varies from Te Court of Justice of the Union, one Member state to another. What after a very generous attitude towards Germany, Belgium or France consider economically inactive Union citizens, as non-self-sufficiency would be consid- has recently hardened its approach, at ered as a very good standard of living in least concerning the access of econom- the Czech Republic, Poland, Bulgaria or ically inactive Union citizens to social Romania. By imposing on the poorest assistance in the host Member States. Union citizens “western” standards of It complies more with the stricter der- living, some Member States are in fact ogations to the principle of equality of “discriminating” against Union citizens treatment provided in Article 24 of Di- from the poorest countries, unlikely rective 2004/38/EC. Nevertheless, even able to reach such standards just after a in the case of Ms Dano, an economi- stay of three months32. A Romanian or cally inactive Romanian citizen, visibly Bulgarian citizen accustomed to living 170 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 in poor conditions in his or her home Interior of Austria, the Federal Minister Member state, has obviously less needs of the Interior of Germany, the Minister than a French or German citizen. Te for Immigration of the Netherlands and fact that he or she is living under what is the Secretary of State for the Home De- considered by the host Member state as partment of United Kingdom wrote a self-sufficient does not mean that his or common letter to Commissioners Red- her needs are not fulfilled33. Should not ing, Malmstrom and Andor denouncing the self-sufficiency criterion be based on the fraudulent and abusing use of free- the capacity of the mobile Union citizen dom of movement by Union citizens. to fulfill his or her needs without rely- Te reasons argued by these states were ing unreasonably to the host social as- the considerable strain put upon their sistance system rather than on national vital local services, their social assistance references based on the richness of the system and their national citizens. Tey host country? were requiring from the Commission Freedom of movement of persons in legal and financial measures allowing the EU is also facing a growing phe- more effective sanctions, such as a ban nomenon as a consequence of the eco- on re-entry after an expulsion order. nomic crisis: the rise of the number of Te European Commission answered one particular category of economically these claims by stating that, according inactive Union citizens, non-self-suffi- to figures communicated by Member cient Union citizens, not capable of ful- States and a study published in October filling their own needs, such as beggars 2013 by the European Commission, in and homeless people. Tese persons are most EU countries34 EU citizens from not benefiting from a right of residence other Member States use welfare bene- for stays in excess of three months ac- fits no more intensively than the host cording to Directive 20034/38/EC. Na- country‘s nationals35. Moreover, as Paul tional approaches towards such category Minderhoud recalls, access to social assi- of economically inactive Union citizens stance remains, in most Member States, vary from one State to another ranging far from being unconditional36 and from passive tolerance to expulsion on so just accessible to a few. Some more the ground of threat to public policy or recent events surrounding the Brexit, of unreasonable burden on the social such as the requirements of the United assistance system of the host Member Kingdom to condition the freedom of state. movement of mobile workers, is much Te present time is not favorable for more worrisome. Such a step would de- freedom of movement of economically stroy the fundamental right of freedom inactive Union citizens. Te recent refu- of movement of Union citizens that has gee crisis is currently pulling the attention existed since the foundation of the EEC of politicians, European and national for mobile workers. It is a very dan- institutions and the general public away gerous step that is questioning the ex- from economically inactive Union citi- istence of the European Union and its zens. Nevertheless, we should not forget first version, the European Economic that in 2013, the Federal Minister of the Community, putting into doubt the vi- SOLANGE MASLOWSKI 171 sion of the fathers of Europe. Likewise, and by the measures adopted to give them effect. 6 Every citizen of the Union has the right to move and the questioning on the Schengen agree- reside freely within the territory of the Member States. ments and their non-respect by Member Freedom of movement and residence may be States, as well as the lack of mutual soli- granted, in accordance with the Treaty establishing darity between the Member States in the the European Community, to nationals of third countries legally resident in the territory of a refugee crisis, constitute considerable Member State. breaches into the construction of the 7 Directive 2004/38/EC of the European Par- European Union. Member States of the liament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on EU seem to seek prosperity and secu- the right of citizens of the Union and their fa- mily members to move and reside freely within rity in a very individualistic way, forget- the territory of the Member States. ting the values on which the European 8 See, for example, Council Directive 93/96/EEC Union37 is based and their obligation of of 29 October 1993 on the right of residence solidarity38. Times of hardship are excel- for students, Council Directive 90/365/EEC of 28 June 1990 on the right of residence for em- lent opportunities for solidarity, trust in ployees and self-employed persons who have cea- one another, and respect of fundamental sed their occupational activity, Council Directive rights, common vision and confidence 90/364/EEC of 28 June 1990 on the right of resi- dence. in a nicer future. 9 Directive 2004/38/EC differentiates between first-time job seekers who move to another Mem- ber state to seek a job and job seekers who retain Notes the status of workers after involuntary unemploy- 1 ment (Article 7-3). 10 According to Article 7 of Directive 2004/38/ 2 Tis article has been supported by the Czech EC, job-seekers who are former workers who have Science Foundation – GAČR through its project been involuntary unemployed after the first twelve N. 15-23606S Selective Issues Deriving from the months retain the status of workers for no less Transposition and Implementation of Directive than six months. After this period of six months, 2004/38/EC. they might lose their status of workers and fall into 3 Freedom of movement of workers and of self-em- the category of economically inactive Union citi- ployed persons today is regulated by Article 45 zens. TFEU and Article 56 TFEU, which were already 11 See Silvia Gastaldi, Citoyenneté de l’Union et inscribed in the founding EEC Treaty as part of libre circulation: du critère économique au statut the four freedoms (freedom of movement of per- unique, L.G.D.J.,Paris, 2013. sons, of services, of capital and of goods). 12 Both grounds are not used in practise by Mem- 4 Tese rights include the right to move and reside ber States willing to expell economically inactive freely within the territory of the Member States, Union citizens. Moreover, the ground of public the right to vote and to stand as a candidate in health is very special and totally independent of elections to the European Parliament and in mu- the economic status of the mobile Union citizen. nicipal elections in the host Member State, the It can be used only during the first admission of right to diplomatic protection in the territory of the Union citizen or during the first three months a third country, the right to petition the European of her or his stay. Te ground of threat to pub- Parliament and the right to apply to the Om- lic security is the most serious ground requiring budsman, the right to write to any Community exceptional circumtances that can hardly be used institution or body in one of the languages of the against an economically inactive mobile Union Member States and to receive a response in the citizen not committing criminal offences under same language and the right to access European Article 83-1 TFEU. Parliament, Council and Commission documents. 13 Regrettably, reports from the European Roma 5 Article 21 TFEU: Every citizen of the Union shall Rights Centre from 2015 state that more than have the right to move and reside freely within the 11,000 Roma migrants were forcefully evicted territory of the Member States, subject to the li- in France in 2015. Tat shows that no lesson has mitations and conditions laid down in the Treaties been learnt from the collective expulsions of Ro- 172 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016

manian and Bulgarian citizens in 2010. a certain category of Union citizens, specifically 14 For example, the French Défenseur des droits, the Romanian and Bulgarian citizens, Belgian expul- French Commission nationale consultative des sions do not differentiate between citizens of poor droits de l’homme, the European Commission, or rich countries of origin: expulsion orders con- the European Parliament, Commissioner for cern indifferently French, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Human Rights and the European Committee of Romanian or Bulgarian citizens. Social Rights of the Council of Europe. 19 Article 7-3c retains the status of worker for a pe- 15 See, for example, decisions of French Admini- riod of six months to any job-seeker duly registe- strative court of appeals of Lyon of 2. 5. 2012, red who has been involuntary unemployed after of 16. 5. 2012, No 1203741, No 1203740, No having worked for less than 12 months in the host 1201114 as well as of Douai of 25. 10. 2012, No Member state. 12DA00853. 20 According to case Udo Steymann v Staatssecre- 16 Indeed, workers benefit from a total unconditional taris van Justitie (C-196/87), activities constitute freedom of movement and residence for short and economic activities in so far as the services may be long-term stays. On the contrary, freedom of regarded as the indirect quid pro quo for genuine movement and residence of economically inac- and effective work. tive Union citizens is conditional to the respect of 21 See Carlo Caldarini, Les expulsions de citoyens some requirements laid down by the Citizenship et citoyennes européens. Un phénomène qui Directive from 2004: nous alarme, et nous mobilise, Observatoire des · For stays up to three months, the directive re- politiques sociales en Europe, May 2014, online minds that they should not be an unreasonable http://www.osservatorioinca.org/section/image/ burden on the social assistance system of the host attach/Carte_blanche_-_Open_brief_-_Lettera_ Member state. aperta.pdf. · For stays more than three months, their right of 22 See Libre circulation des citoyens européens : du residence is conditional to the fulfillment of two mauvais usage par la Belgique de ses banques de requirements: données sociales, 5.2.2015, online http://www. - Te possession of sufficient financial resources lalibre.be/debats/opinions/libre-circulation-des- to support themselves and their family members citoyens-europeens-du-mauvais-usage-par-la- (Article 7-2 and Article 8-4), the aim being again belgique-de-ses-banques-de-donnees-sociales- not becoming an unreasonable burden for the host 54d36df135701001a18fe98b. Member State. 23 For more details on freedom of movement of - Te possession of comprehensive sickness insur- homeless people in Europe, see FEANTSA- Fé- ance. Te insurance’s form (private or public) and dération Européenne d’Associations Nationales origin (from the host Member state or another Travaillant avec les Sans-Abri, Libre circulation et State) are not relevant as far as the insurance cov- sans-abrisme, Printemps 2013. ers the territory of the host State and provides for 24 Permanent residents are protected against the a comprehensive coverage. ground of „normal“ public policy. Tey can be ex- · Concerning the last type of residence, the perma- pelled on the ground of „serious“ grounds of pu- nent residence, economically inactive Union citi- blic policy. Member States are supposed to clearly zens should demonstrate a first legal stay five years differentiate „normal“ and „serious‘ grounds of in the host Member State, a right which is opened public policy on which the expulsion can be taken. just to the self-sufficient inactive residents. 25 Ten year residents cannott be indeed expelled on 17 If workers on the move benefit from a total equal- the ground of public policy or public health and ity of treatment with nationals of the host Mem- not even on the ground of public security. Just ber state, economically inactive Union citizens are imperative grounds of public security can apply not automatically entitled to social assistance: to them. Member States are supposed to clearly - Generally speaking, during the first three months differentiate in their national legislation „nor- of their stay, the host Member state is not obliged mal“ grounds of public security and „imperative“ to grant them any social assistance. grounds of publi security. - Ten, job seekers are not entitled to social assis- 26 See General Report: Union Citizenship: Deve- tance during the period of active search of a job lopment, Impact and Challenges. / Shaw, Jo; Nic which might be longer than three months. Shuibhne, Niamh. Union Citizenship: Develop- - Students are not entitled to grants or loans before ment, Impact and Challenges, Te XXVI FIDE the acquisition of the permanent residence. Congress in Copenhagen, 2014 Congress Pub- 18 Contrary to other Member States which focus on lications Vol. 2. ed. / Ulla Neergaard; Catherine SOLANGE MASLOWSKI 173

Jacqueson; Nina Holst-Christensen. Vol. 2 1. ed. 34 See DG Employment, Social affairs and Inc- Denmark: DJØF Publishing, 2014, p. 87. lusion, A fact-finding analysis on the impact on 27 See C-578/08, Rhimou Chakroun v Minister van Member States’ social security systems of the enti- Buitenlandse Zaken. Tis case related to Direc- tlements of non-active intra EU migrants to spe- tive 2003/86/EC (family reunification for third- cial non-contributory cash benefits and healthcare -country nationals) and not to 2004/38/EC, but granted on the basis of residence, 14. 10. 2013 is nevertheless very useful concerning the interpre- and C. Dustmann, T. Fratinni, Te Fiscal Effects tation of the concept of „recourse to the social of Immigration to the UK, CDP No 22/13. assistance system“ by the Court of Justice. See also 35 See Memo from the European Commission, Eu- case C-140/12, Pensionsversicherungsanstalt v ropean Commission upholds free movement of Peter Brey, para.71. people, Brussels, January 2014. 28 See Observatoire des politiques sociales en Eu- 36 See Paul Minderhoud, Access to Social Assistance rope, Les expulsions de citoyens et citoyennes eu- Benefits and Directive 20014/38, in E.Guild, K. ropéens. Un phénomène qui nous alarme et nous Groenendijk, S. Carrera (eds.), Illeberal Liberal mobilise, May 2014, p.4. States, Immigration, Citizenship and Integration 29 See Lhernoud J.P., L’éloignement des Roms et la in the EU, Ashgate, 2009, pp.221-238. Directive 2004/38 relative au droit de séjour des 37 According to Article 2 of the Treaty on the Eu- citoyens de l’UE, Droit social, 2010, 1024–1036. ropean Union, the Union is founded on the values 30 Guild E., Peers S., Tomkin J., Te EU Citizen- of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, ship Directive, A commentary, Oxford University equality, the rule of law and respect for human ri- Press, 2014, Introduction, p.11. ghts, including the rights of persons belonging to 31 See General Report: Union Citizenship: Deve- minorities. Tese values are common to the Mem- lopment, Impact and Challenges. / Shaw, Jo; Nic ber States in a society in which pluralism, non- Shuibhne, Niamh. Union Citizenship: Develop- -discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and ment, Impact and Challenges, Te XXVI FIDE equality between women and men prevail. Article Congress in Copenhagen, 2014 Congress Pub- 3 dealing with the goals of the EU states also that lications Vol. 2. ed. / Ulla Neergaard; Catherine the Union shall combat social exclusion and dis- Jacqueson; Nina Holst-Christensen. Vol. 2 1. ed. crimination, and shall promote social justice and Denmark: DJØF Publishing, 2014, p. 89. protection, equality between women and men, 32 Of course, it is desirable that after a reasonable solidarity between generations and protection of period of time, the poorest Union citizens residing the rights of the child. It shall also promote econo- in an economically richer Member State are able mic, social and territorial cohesion, and solidarity to reach the national level of standards of the host among Member States. Tis seems in favor of the Member state. economically inactive Union citizens and of their 33 Tis point of view is supported by the Court of right to freedom of movement. Justice in the Chakroun case where the claimant 38 According to Article 4 TEU, pursuant to the prin- stated that since the extent of needs can vary gre- ciple of sincere cooperation, the Union and the atly depending on the individuals, that authoris- Member States shall, in full mutual respect, assist ation must, moreover, be interpreted as meaning each other in carrying out tasks which flow from that the Member States may indicate a certain the Treaties.It shall also promote economic, social sum as a reference amount, but not as meaning and territorial cohesion, and solidarity among that they may impose a minimum income level Member States, according to Article 3. below which all family reunifications will be re- fused, irrespective of an actual examination of the situation of each applicant (point 48). From Migrations to New Mobilities in the European Union: Italians in Berlin Between Anomie and Multi-situated Identity

Daniele Valisena

Introduction multicultural people, mostly under 35 “Une ville transhumante, ou metaphori- years old, to their countries, giving them que, s’insinue ainsi dans le texte clair de la the opportunity - or the necessity - to ville planifiée et lisible”1. (A transhumant leave and to enter in a brand new pattern or metaphoric city arises in the once of life that, for its specificities can not clear text of the planned and readable be identified as a traditional migration city). Tis statement, written more than flow. As Sayad wrote2, they experience a 35 years ago by Michel De Certeau, double absence: they have been left be- perfectly highlights the relationship be- hind by state welfare and work polities tween urban space and new forms of and their inclusion in the self-narration mobility in the European Union. Glo- discourse of the immigration country is balized world cities are transformed into linked to the still very fragile concept of havens of many transnational patterns. European identity. Besides they mostly Te French historian and anthropolo- do not have the opportunity or the will gist individuated in the passage dimension to participate in the internal politics of (le voyage), the key perspective to study host states. On the contrary, states like the links between urban spaces and life Germany and the United Kingdom, and practices of these new social actors. Tis also Belgium, are actively working to transnational perspective is more than re-nationalize this particular intra-Euro- ever a must for researchers who want to pean migration wave, introducing what focus on intra-European migrations at Edith Pichler recently called new exclu- a time in which national paradigms as sive “citizenship mechanisms”3. well as political and ethnical networks Furthermore, the fragmentation of are losing their power to gather, influ- the labor market, the short term future ence and direct human patterns. assured by most of their precarious jobs, Te 2008 crisis revealed not only the unite with the ease with which they can economic contradictions and disparities move to another city or another country, between North and South Europe; it has can lead to a new form of anomie: no na- also cut the bond that tied a generation tional affiliation, no welfare state polity, of high skilled workers and globalized no social status increase through labor, DANIELE VALISENA 175 and no relation with any of the tradi- borders and no customs duties, as well tional local urban inclusion structures. as with the europization of labor market, Tese new migrants, whose cultural ref- counting the numbers of EU citizens erences are not set within a territory, a who cross the invisible borders of Euro- nation or a common political militancy, pean States to sell their workforce in the they just seem to pass without putting Union simply does not have any mean- any roots down or leaving footprints of ing anymore. Tat is why most of the their passage. Tey don’t establish Little old statistical indicators are no more re- Italys, they don’t look for older compa- liable. For what concerns the case of Ital- triots and they rarely participate to the ians in Berlin, AIRE (Register of Italians life of national or local associations. living abroad), referring to DESTATIS – Also, they seldom have contacts with Statistisches Bundesamt, states that Ital- trade unions. ians in Berlin are 25.250 (06.15)5. Te With regard to migration history, Amt für Statistik states that on 31.12.14 neither push and pull, nor political and in Berlin lived 31.276 Italians6, putting economic paradigms can explain this together Italian citizens and German new migration wave. In the same way, with Italian migration background. In chain migration, melting pot or dias- 2004 the same office certifies 13.800 poric models, as well as ethnic and local Italians in Berlin7. analysis able to totally comprehend this At the same time, the Migrationbericht new phenomenon, which, framed in a states that in the last two years Italians long period analysis, shows us a strong immigration rate registered a positive discontinuity with last century’s migra- trend of 16.343 and 23.305 people. tion paths. Referring to this new mi- From the point of view of new mobil- gration paradigm, researchers use the ities, what is interesting is not the sum, expression new mobility4. but the number of people who “passed”, Where do the roots of new mobiles which is of 47.485 in 2013 and 36.896 lie? Which social markers do define their in 2012. In 2012 only 19.489 were reg- life patterns? Is this transnational gener- istered (Angemeldet), according to the ation the prototype of the future a-na- Ausländerzentralregister8. tional European citizenship? Otherwise, In the United Kingdom, AIRE states does this fluid, glocal and rootles gener- that last year more than 13.000 Italians ation experience a state of anomie that moved to Great Britain. At the same puts in question the inner migration and time, 51.000 Italians asked for the social integration model of the EU? security card, following English regis- ters: a very large discrepancy9. A Matter of Numbers Unfortunately, I was not able to find Te first problem that researchers ex- any data referring to the number of reg- perience in working on new mobilities istration requests in Berlin which could is the problem of numbers; traditional serve as a much better mobility indica- statistics in fact can no more give us the tor. Tis data would not be 100 percent exact picture - if they ever did - of cur- accurate, because it would not show the rent migration routes. With no physical black work numbers, which involves a 176 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 not negligible part of young unskilled meglio le masse. Io vedo la parte trag- workers. Still, it is much more accurate ica in questo, perché la spoliticizzazione than the AIRE and official population di un essere umano ha sempre un ele- registers stats. In any case, what inter- mento ideologico, così facendo gli togli ests me here is to underline that num- la possibilità di pensare a un mondo bers are not the right methodological migliore…a Berlino è tutto ancora più instrument to follow here: numbers are tragico, perché ci sono tanti ragazzi che misleading, because they try to freeze a vanno lì per fuggire dalle ‘menate’ itali- phenomenon that influences the social ane, pur magari facendo qualche forma imaginary.. di resistenza… In the end, glomigrants scholars, to- I didn’t look for the Italian Democratic gether with their own subjects should Party section in Berlin, but it’s a prob- accept the impossibility to have the lem I have, I know, I like to criticize mathematic comfort of demographic from outside, well, maybe creating an data. Permanence is simply the wrong extra-parliamentary group. I get too marker to look for when referring to angry with politicians. Being depo- new mobilities. On the contrary, this liticized is the new mode now; in this volatility is one of the main features of way it’s easier to control the masses. I the whole phenomenon. see the tragic in this, because by de- politicizing a human being they take New Migration Paths and Multi- away from him the possibility to think situated Identities to a better world. In Berlin this is even For many years, migration history has more tragic, because many people go been thought within two big frames: there just to flee from Italian blabber- economical migration and political ing, setting up eventually some sort of migration. Tat was a methodological resistance…10 structure that reflected the strong politi- sation of society and groups, in a world Once fuoriusciti used to leave Italy permeated by division: social classes, because of their political adhesion. In national citizens, political actors, state contrast contrary, at the origin of this socialism world, etc. As for a dantesque new wave of migration we can observe retaliation law, Berlin, which experi- a strong denial of the institutionalized enced more than any other place in the political order that new mobiles expe- world this rift, after 1989 developed a rienced. At the same time, this detach- peculiar attractiveness to people that ment goes together with the search for wanted to overthrow this dichotomy. new forms of militancy and adhesion. As Sam Scott stated, ‘it’s no more possi- Non l’ho cercata la sede PD, ma è un ble or appropriate to separate the cultural mio problema con la politica, mi piace from the economic’11. Mobility has to be criticare dall’esterno, magari creando intended as a particular life strategy that un gruppo extraparlamentare, perché _ consciously or not _ ‘leads [migrants] mi incazzo troppo. Nel 2013 è di moda to their appropriation of social, cultural essere spoliticizzati…così si controllano and economic capital’12, as per Bourdieu. DANIELE VALISENA 177 What is also interesting is that ‘world Yes, I feel I am a migrant. As per the media cities’, as Krätke stated - and Ber- technical definition of the term, I am a lin is one of the more prominent in EU migrant; immigrant for Germans. But - are developing more and more a pecu- I didn’t leave Italy with the cardboard liar self-narration of ‘urbanity based on suitcase: If they had offered me a dif- lifestyle’13, which is self-defining in terms ferent path in Italy, probably I would of adhesion and attractiveness. In other have stayed, but it didn’t happen, so, word, world cities like Berlin are able here am I14. to attract and structure communities because of their particular and self-de- Migrant, but “in a different way”: the fining ‘cultural agency’. Seen in this per- self-perception of glomigrants is built as spective, the decision to move to Berlin a statement of diversity against the tra- states a particular form of cultural ad- ditional image of the poor and desper- hesion to the city, or to what the city ate Italian migrant that walked through symbolizes. Ellis Island, Gare de Lyon in Paris, Tis means that according to migra- Wolfsburg, etc. Tis sadly famous and tion socio-history, neither push and pull sort of shameful rejected path - a point nor strictly economic paradigms can re- of view inherited by familiar and pub- ally explain this new migration. In the lic narration of previous Italian migra- same way, chain migration, melting pot tion experiences - pushes new mobiles or diasporic models, as well as ethnic to distinguish themselves from previous analysis do not seem to be able to totally Italian migrants, and this corresponds to comprehend this new phenomenon. a de-nationalization of the glomigrant New mobility paradigm in fact fo- figure. Europe and its unified labor cuses on peculiar features of new migra- market is the common horizon, which tion patterns, which cannot be analyzed keeps in the same self-narration a gen- without a transnational perspective. eration of migrants from Spain, Greece, Ryanair Generation moves in a transna- France, but also Poland, Portugal and so tional space more and more and rapid on. It is for the same reason that some in its evolution. Individual and group migrants prefer to use the term “expat”, strategies, temporal horizons and life which doe not entail the shadows and trajectories develop in social and urban the memory of the previous economic spaces that do not refer to traditional so- migration of the twentieth century. ciability structures. In a way new mobiles do fulfill the transnational and post-national idea A New Paradigm for New that lies behind the European Union Migration birth, but without a political or welfare Sì, mi sento un emigrato…sono emi- inclusion policy intended to link them grato “tecnicamente”, e immigrato per strongly to any locally defined social tedeschi. Non son partito con valigia di environment. In fact, they do not share cartone…se mi avessero offerto un per- any inherited narration able to link corso differente in Italia probabilmente them with previous migration networks sarei rimasto, non è successo, eccomi qua. or associations, and there are no circu- 178 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 lar or straight trajectories to drive their ison with other national groups. Also, a paths. sense of undefined time and durability Migrante solo a Berlino? Bella do- informs the self-perception of new mo- manda, potenzialmente anche da biles. In a way it is like if multiple doors altre parti, anche se Berlino ha carat- were always simultaneously opened for teristiche uniche…se avessi un’offerta them. potrei, ma non al buio, per un peri- […] fermo restando che chissà come odo, ma dipende da stipendio, carat- diventerà Berlino nei prossimi anni, teristiche…siamo un po’ una “setta” ma la considero, anche a lungo ter- (italiani), siamo più o meno tutti nella mine, che una caratteristica ‘portu- stessa situazione, che in un modo ale’…disabituati in una società mobile nell’altro ci siamo ritrovati a Berlino, a pensare alla durata…come si fa dire ci intendiamo, condividiamo analisi ‘per sempre’ ora?. Se un diamante è comuni. Europei, anche loro, francesi, per sempre, non lo è il contratto di fatto scelte simili, non è così diverso… lavoro…non certo per la nostra gen- nessuno dice ci starò per sempre. Tutti erazione. hanno progetti più o meno duraturi, Anche chi compra casa là dall’Italia stazione di transito, più che di arrivo, lo fa per idea di investimento che per non è un paese per vecchi, nei quar- idea di vita16. tieri cha conosciamo noi (Kreuzberg, […] Who knows how Berlin is going etc…), ascensori, strade pulite…dopo to change in the next years? Anyway una certa età inizia a diventare ostile I can’t help but thinking about it as […] a ‘haven’, also in the long term...In Would it be possible for me to be a a moving society we aren’t used any- migrant elsewhere? Good question. It more in thinking about permanency can be, but Berlin has really unique (durability?)…How can you say ‘for- characteristics...We Italians are a bit ever’ nowadays? If a diamond lasts for- of a sect, more or less we’re all in the ever, the work contract doesn’t…for same situation and we found each sure not for our generation. other here in Berlin. We get along and we share common views. Also other No permanency, no national, political Europeans, they made similar choices, or economic bond to a place or a social French also…is not really different… group, extreme volatility in self-per- no one says: “I’m going to stay here ception of one own da-sein: should we forever”. Everyone has a longer or assume that new mobiles are unable shorter project, but Berlin is not a ‘to find their place’, that is to say, un- place for old people…when you reach able to construct their own self-narra- a certain age it becomes hostile15. tion linking it to a place and a shared social belonging? In other words, do Once again, short-termism is the key these new migrants experience what factor in the new mobility. Te national Durkheim called anomie, the absence category merges within the discourse, of any resilient link to the society they but only to be neutralized by a compar- move in? DANIELE VALISENA 179 Conclusions: Between Anomie and look for a new job, to improve, without New Multi-situated Identity giving up your dream, tough it’s not easy ‘To migrate is to migrate with one own his- and you don’t know if you’ll ever make tory, traditions and one own peculiar way it. Still, you have this possibility, while in of thinking and feeling’17, wrote Sayad. Italy what would I do?19 Migration studies, especially nowadays, I think, are more about understand- Te moving identities of new mobiles ing this point of view that comes from follow paths built on shared cultural fea- below than to translate it into general tures, common pratiques du quotidien, defining structures. Tese structures are everyday life practices, and collective probably not yet established. values that overlay inherited ethnical, New mobilities break the former national and politically structured ele- link between the spatial localization of ments. Tis process, which needs to be the identity construction and migrants’ re-negotiated everyday, can easily lead agency, which previously was mediated to an anomic state of isolation and mar- by the state, the village, the political ginalization, shaped by the impossibility party or the country. We could say that to find a belonging space, imaginary or they push us to re-think the relationship physical. between space and identity. On the other side, many mobiles From the point of view of economic find in this volatility the opportunity to migration paradigm, new mobilities are grow professionally and socially, giving more a ‘continuation of risky life paths’18, up the ‘burden’ of national belonging. as Verwiebe wrote, that can lead to a Also, new, transnational practices, such new social achievement, especially for as urban gardening, gender or sexual high-educated middle class migrants. freedom, antifascist, environmental or At the same time, new mobility life other form of political militancy from patterns are risky from a social point of below are spreading, creating new forms view, because they are not mediated by of inclusion and so new a-national, Eu- a network, like it was in the past. Tey ropean identities. Social and private are create also new inequalities, socially (so- mixed to recreate a new form of agency cial advantages through nationality), po- through an explicit adhesion that else- litically (exclusive nationalized welfare where could lead to a state of marginal- policies) and economically (bad job for ity and exclusion. high skilled workers from the South). To paraphrase the famous D’Azeglio So, we can see a double movement: statement, we made the Europeans, now continuation of a life-work path, but we need to make Europe: between mov- also a risk: ing identities and the absence of identity – anomie - it is a delicate balance. Here in Berlin also being a waitress is OK, because they pay you as they should and here you can manage to live with it, not like in Italy. […] Also, it’s OK be- cause you have always the opportunity to 180 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 References and 2002, International Migration 52, 4, 2014 Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg, Einwohner- J.P. Zuniga (ed.), Pratiques du transnational. Terrains, innen und Einwohner mit Migrations-hinter- preuves, limites, EHESS, Jouve, 2011 grund am Ort der Hauptwohnung in Beriln am 31.12.2014 , Potsdam Notes Ausländische Bevölkerung, Fachserie 1 Reihe 2 - 2014 1 M. De Certeau, L’invention du quotidien. Arts de Z. Baumann, Modernità Liquida, Laterza, Ro- faire, Gallimard, Paris, 1990, p. 142 ma-Bari, 2001 2 A. Sayad, La double absence. Des illusions de l’émi- M. De Certeau, L’invention du quotidien. Arts de faire, gré aux souffrances de l’immigré, Seuil, Paris, 1999 Gallimard, Paris, 1990 3 In particular, I’m referring to the new laws that A. Del Pra’, Giovani italiani a Berlino: nuove forme di are supposed to fight the so-called Sozialmiss- mobilità europea, Altreitalie 33, 2006 brauch or Welfare Turism. Cfr. A. Reimann, Der T. Faist, Te mobility turn: a new paradigm for social Spiegel, 11.06.2014; Frakfurter Allgemein On- sciences?, in Ethnic and Racial studies, 36, 2013 line, 05.22.2014; S. Swinford, Te Guardian, S. Krätke, City of talents? Berlin’s regional economy, 11.11.2014; H. Maquet, RTBF, 03.14.2014. See socio-spatial fabric and worstpractice urban govern- also E. Pichler, Germania e nuova immigrazione ance, International Journal of Urban and Regional in Europa. Il dibattito fra bisogni del mercato del Research, 28, 3, 2004 lavoro, “aggravio sociale” e Willkommenskultur, in S. Krätke, Urbanität heute. Stadtkulturen, Lebensstile Altreitalie, 50, gennaio-giugno 2015, p. 114 und Lifestyle-Produzenten im Kontext der Globalis- 4 I use the term “new mobility” and new mobiles ierung, in A. Mayr, M. Meurer and J. Vogt, Stadt because it underlines at the very best the most und Region: Dinamik von Lebenswelten, Leipzig, important characteristic of new intra-European 2006 migration: mobility. Also the term glomigrant en- R. V. Kozinets, Netnography: understanding networked visage this feature in a similar way, that’s why I’m communication society, in A. Quan-Hasse, L. using these expressions almost as synonym in this Sloan, Handbook of Social Media Research Meth- paper. For a deeper reflection on this theme, M. ods, York University Press, Toronto, 2015 Tirabassi, A. Del Pra’, La meglio Italia. Le mobilità S. Luconi, Nuove mobilità o nuove migrazioni?, in Alt- italiane nel XXI secolo, Academia University Press, reitalie 43, Luglio-Dicembre 2011 Turin, 20014, p.6; Z. Baumann, Modernità Liq- Migrationbericht 2013, Budesministerium des In- uida, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 2001; S. Luconi, Nuove nern, Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge, mobilità o nuove migrazioni?, in Altreitalie 43, Berlin, 2015 Luglio-Dicembre 2011; M. Sheller, Te new mo- E. Pichler, Germania e nuova immigrazione in Europa. bilities paradigm, in Environment and Planing 38, Il dibattito fra bisogni del mercato del lavoro, “ag- 2006, pp. 207-226; T. Faist, Te mobility turn: a gravio sociale” e Willkommenskultur, in Altreitalie, new paradigm for social sciences?, in Ethnic and Ra- 50, gennaio-giugno 2015 cial studies, 36, 2013, pp. 1637-1646; E. Recchi, E. Recchi, A. Favell, Pioneers of European Integration. A. Favell, Pioneers of European Integration. Citizen- Citizenship and Mobility in the EU. Cheltenham, ship and Mobility in the EU. Cheltenham, 2009 2009 5 Ausländische Bevölkerung, Fachserie 1 Reihe 2 – A. Sayad, La double absence. Des illusions de l’émigré 2014, Statistisces Bundesamt, 2014 aux souffrances de l’immigré, Seuil, Paris, 1999 6 Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg, Einwoh- S. Scott, Te social morphology of skilled migration: the nerinnen und Einwohner mit Migrations-hinter- case of the British middel-class in Paris, Journal of grund am Ort der Hauptwohnung in Beriln am Ethnic and Migration Studies, 32, 7, 2006 31.12.2014 , Potsdam, p.24 M. Sheller, Te new mobilities paradigm, in Environ- 7 Ibidem ment and Planing 38, 2006 8 Migrationbericht 2013, Budesministerium des In- M. Tirabassi, A. Del Pra’, La meglio Italia. Le mobilità nern, Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge, italiane nel XXI secolo, Academia University Press, Berlin, 2015 Turin, 20014 9 S. Nava, Lavorare all’estero: nel 2014 oltre 100mila R. Verwiebe, Migration to Germany? Is a middle-class in fuga dall’Italia, Il Sole 24 ore, 03.23.2015 emerging among intra-European migrants?, Migra- 10 Interview with Riccardo Motti, freelance jour- tion Letters 1, 2008 nalist, philosopher and new mobile, migrated to R. Verwiebe, Why do Europeans Migrate to Berlin? So- Berlin from Reggio Emilia. Reggio Emilia, March cial-structural differencies for Italian, British, French 2013. Original tape conserved by the author. and Polish Nationals in the period between 1980 11 S. Scott, Te social morphology of skilled migration: DANIELE VALISENA 181

the case of the British middel-class in Paris, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 32, 7, 2006, p. 1109 12 Ibidem 13 S. Krätke, Urbanität heute. Stadtkulturen, Lebens- stile und Lifestyle-Produzenten im Kontext der Glo- balisierung, in A. Mayr, M. Meurer and J. Vogt, Stadt und Region: Dinamik von Lebenswelten, Leip- zig, 2006, p.227 14 V.V. Berlin, July 2013. 15 Ibidem 16 R.M. , Reggio Emilia, March 2013. 17 A. Sayad (1999), p.19 18 R. Verwiebe, Migration to Germany? Is a mid- dle-class emerging among intra-European migrants?, Migration Letters 1, 2008, p.13 19 A.M. , Berlin, July 2015. Broken Dreams of a Dream Country: Italy Between Wishes and Disenchantment Federica Moretti

Abstract of the second/third generation students In the past decades – especially between enrolled at the University of Leuven. the fifties and the seventies –, Italy expe- Te research unfolds and compares the rienced a massive migration flow; many two groups’ conceptions of Italy, espe- Italians migrated from the southern to cially focusing on two issues: (1) how is the northern part of the country and to Italy ‘imagined’ and (2) how do these wealthier European countries. Moreo- imaginaries open up to various courses ver, the ‘Bel Paese’ is currently witness- of action. ing to a new outbound flow of Italians, Based on an ethnographic research leaving in search of opportunities and and through the lenses of an anthropo- relief from the shortcomings of a severe logical perspective, the research demon- financial crisis. Amongst the ‘migra- strates that whilst imaginaries may be tion-target’ countries, Belgium is one conceived as mere fantasies or dreams – of the most important. Indeed, many thus as a sort of a meta-world of intangi- Italians moved to and settled in the Bel- ble images –, such conception would be gian territory, laying the foundations for restrictive. In fact, the empirical investi- what is now a large Italian community, gation shows that imaginaries influence composed by the older – first, second the lives and the identities of the people, and third generations – and the younger and the ways they behave and choose. Italian migrants. Key words: imaginaries, Italians, Italy, Te paper investigates the above-cap- Leuven, practices tioned issues, focusing on the experi- ences of young Italians currently residing Introduction in Leuven (Belgium). For the sake of ‘It is normal that one can go growing analyzing how the two phenomena his own dreams far away from home. – the older and the more recent mi- [...] Tat’s beautiful. However, it is gration flows –, are interconnected, the fundamental that people willing to paper first describes the experiences of come back could do it. Tat’s the graduate students currently pursuing marker of distinction.’(Italian1 Prime Master or PhD programmes at the Uni- Minister Renzi, 2014 ) versity of Leuven, and second of those FEDERICA MORETTI 183 ‘Coming back to Italy means - tion: how do the meta- and empirical in my field means - to accept a job worlds of people interact and set in mo- that it is not really your dream job. tion? More precisely, the query was ana- If you are lucky, it gets close to it. lysed following three sub-questions: For [...] I don’t want to exclude the pos- the purposes of the present paper the sibility, but if I should think about focus shall be on the first – how is Italy my future, I wouldn’t think to come imagined? – and on the third – how do back. [...] For me, Italy is the top for imaginaries open up to various courses vacations. For my working future of action?. it would be extremely difficult and Terefore, the hereby paper addresses counter-productive to go to Italy’. some aspects of the processes of envis- (Marco) aging and reviving Italy as emerged throughout the fieldwork and especially Te Internet is crowded with magazines, the interviews conducted in Leuven – blogs and social networks on young Ital- Belgium – among the Italian new first ians. Tey often cover the same topic, and second/third generation of mas- namely the 2 fuga dei cervelli – i.e. the ter and PhD students following pro- brain drain. Te above quote of the Ital- grammes at the KU Leuven.3 ian Prime Minister is a clear-cut exam- Te research, analyzing how people ple. On the contrary, the Italian second envisage Italy and how imaginaries in- and third generations are often left aside fluence actions, allows to shed light on from the debates. the informants’ stances towards an at- Interested in capturing the movement tainable physical return to the country. of people, and in unfolding what trig- In the following pages I shall, first, gers their (im)mobility – both physical briefly introduce the size of the current and mental – I engaged into an eth- Italian population residing in Belgium. nographic research framed by the the- I shall then concisely elaborate on the oretical concept of imaginaries. Te underlying theoretical framework en- investigation started indeed driven by a closing the investigation. Finally, I shall will to delve into the above mentioned delve into the practical insights collected fuga dei cervelli, to understand the po- throughout the fieldwork to give an an- sitions vis-à-vis the debate of the young swer to the two above-raised questions. Italians directly involved into the pro- cess of leaving Italy. However, what I Setting the Context: Italians in was particularly keen on uncovering was Belgium ‘the return’ addressed in the aforesaid Te words of the Italian Prime Minis- quotes both by the Italian Prime Min- ter opening the hereby introduction ister and Marco, as well as by Gloria, might be an appropriate way to begin the daughter of an Italian emigrant who a paper on young Italians abroad. Tis shared with me her desire to look for a is even more true if one considers that job in Italy. the data on the current Italian emigra- To this extent, the investigation was tion describe the recent outbound flow guided by the following research ques- as composed by highly educated people 184 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 older than 25, as it is indeed testified by ven made the town the perfect location the increase in the percentage of gradu- to site the fieldwork. ates from 11.9 percent in 2002 to 27.6 percent in 2011 (Istat, 2012). On top A Note on the Hereby Intension of of that, since 2007, the number of Ital- Imaginaries ians emigrating augmented dramatically It is not our feet that move us along-it and it further strengthened throughout is our minds. (Ancient Chinese Prov- the years, with 155,000 Italian citi- erb, Salazar, 2014:55) zens moving their residence abroad in 2014 (Idos, 2015) – thus reaching the In few but eloquent words the amount of 4,828,279 people currently above-captioned sentence neatly depicts residing beyond the Italian borders the scope of the investigation. Imagi- (MAE, 2014). naries are, in fact, the Leitmotiv guiding In addition, a glance at the target the research. After a short introduction countries reveals some sort of circular- of the extension of the concept, I shall ity in history: as in the 1950s, one of move to its intension as understood the most popular destinations today is throughout the research. Belgium. According to the A.I.R.E.4 5.9 As far as the extension is concerned, percent of the almost 5 million Italians notwithstanding the imaginary’s osten- living abroad are in Belgium,5 being sible chimerical definition within the 157,400 on a total Belgian population literature (Ingold, 2013; Durand, 1999; of 11,239 million (Eurostat, 2013).6 Axel, 2003; Salazar, 2010; Strauss, 2006; Considering therefore the size of the Sneath et al. 2009), a deeper inquiry Italian population in Belgium, I could into the essence of the concept does not but site my fieldwork in the coun- reveal some meaningful reflections onto try. Indeed, the research took place in its inherent meaning (Gaonkar, 2002; Leuven, a small city about thirty kilo- Crapanzano, 2004; Appadurai, 2005; metres east from Brussels. Te decision Strauss, 2006; Salazar, 2011a/b; Salazar, to locate the fieldwork in Leuven rests Graburn, 2014),7 which is characterized on the fact that the Flemish city hosts by an intertwined and reciprocally en- the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven riching dialectic between imaginaries (KU Leuven), attracting some 50,000 and individuals. students every year. KU Leuven pulls Certainly, more could be said about indeed thousands of international stu- the extension of this intriguing notion. dents and researchers from EU and However, considering the space at my non-EU Countries. For instance, in the disposal, I shall now turn the atten- 2014-2015 academic year, the interna- tion on how the underlying intension of tional students numbered for more than imaginary is conceived in this inquiry. 10,000. Importantly, the Italians are the Drawing from the Saidian concept of second European group with 595 stu- imaginative geography (Said, 1977) and dents (KU Leuven, 2015). Evidently, Salazar’s conceptualization of imaginary being master and PhD students the re- (Salazar, 2010a, 2011a/b, 2012), in search’s focus, the peculiarities of Leu- the research I re-elaborated the former FEDERICA MORETTI 185 into a slightly different notion of geo- representational assemblages, through graphic imaginary. Tis served the pur- which people explore, escape, trans- pose of clarifying the imaginary’s role in form, expect, experience and make sense place-constructing, whereby places are of the occurrences in their lives. Tey conceived as phenomenological spaces are, in this sense, dynamic. around and through which narratives None of those features is overarching and practices are developed. As far as the vis-à-vis the others. On the contrary, imaginary’s conception is concerned, they are caught in a mutually-influ- Salazar’s definition proved particularly encing tie, epitomizing a cause-effect useful to grow my own understanding of circular relationship. Tus, the result- the imaginary. In his own words imagi- ing portrait shall bear a multi-coloured naries are ‘socially shared and transmit- livery, whereby every shade fades into ted (both within and between cultures) the other, offering a vivid picture of the representational assemblages that inter- mind and the world lived by the indi- act with people’s personal imaginings viduals. and are used as meaning-making and world-shaping devices’ (Salazar, 2011b, Envisaging Italy: Between Wishes p. 576). Likewise, I held utmost bene- and Disenchantments ficial his reflections on the connection Maybe I already adjusted to the ste- between imaginaries and (im)mobility. I reotype that there is here. I think especially shared the author’s suggestion about the sun – but last time that I that imaginaries have the ability to trig- went to Italy it was Christmas, and ger people’s motion (ibid.). Evidently, there was no sun. Ten the sea – but this conception of imaginary overcomes Modena has no sea. One follows the the level of the mind, to foster practi- stereotype. (Marco) cal consequences on the ways people (re)invent, (re)produce and (re)create Envisaging is a complex phenomenon: places (Salazar, 2010 & 2011), and on rather than still-life drawing, minds the ways people relate to them.Bearing shape images of reality that are com- the above in mind, in this work I shall pounds of synesthetic/unique con- refer to the imaginary as a meta-empiri- ceptions. As a collage is composed by cal and dynamic concept. smaller tiles giving form to the final As far as the meta-empirical dimen- oeuvre, so is the imaginary of Italy. Not sion of the notion is concerned, it suf- a homogenous, but a manifold picture fices to note that far from being just a emerges from the accounts, whereby in- meta-world of intangible images, the tertwined bonds link the temporalities imaginary influences the lives of the and the meta- empirical worlds. Post- young people participating in the re- cards, family pictures, economic news- search. casts, socio-historical and culinary books Ten, imaginaries are dynamic be- are recalled in the stories, thus conjuring cause they are involved in a circular an image mentally and empirically lived relationship with everyday empirical ex- by the Italian protagonists. periences. Essentially, they are protean In this paragraph, I shall disclose such 186 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 manifold collage, to disentangle the first accounts disclosing the double-sided fil question raised, namely “how is Italy rouge above mentioned. imagined?”. As shall be clear from the Te first side of the fil rouge is com- following pages, a double-sided fil rouge posed by images characterized by pleas- characterizes the narratives. Between ant feelings of warm and vivacity. In wishes and disenchantments, Italy is Italy, the food tastes better and the sun portrayed both as “the place of all the shines brighter, the Italians are radiant beautiful things of life” (Gloria), and as and friendly. Furthermore, whilst most a “mess”, since there are no means to of the narratives focus on the people, settle and build a safe future there (Glo- some offer an account of Italy as a place ria). for “vacations, nature, relax, eating”, As a three-sided prism, reflecting a where “all the beautiful things of life” single-coloured light beam into a rain- are, since “there, you have all the relaxing bow, so does the question “how is Italy things. It is funny” (Gloria). Similarly, imagined?” refract into a multitude of Bertino pictures Italy as a compound of colourful answers. Even when the par- bucolic landscapes, with nature – “sun, ticipants’ account overlap with the most sea, beaches, and mountains”. Tus, the classic stereotypes – e.g. sun, food and country appears to be the perfect place job-crisis –, the narratives are perme- for vacation, amusement and relax. ated by intimate sentiments, deriving However, a deeper investigation into from the personal relationship they the narratives reveals the other side of had – and/or still have – with the coun- the fil rouge: a variegated and manifold try. Hence, together with some post- picture, where, to use Anna’s words, cards-like portrays, they offer unique Italy “is not always a bed of roses”. Te and subjective insights into what Italy resulting image of the country rests is. Tus, the imaginary conveys at the indeed on a fundamental dichotomy, same time trite and original pictures of whereby beautiful natural landscapes the country. Tis, however, should not and troublesome social scenarios are the come as a surprise. Indeed, the literature two sides of a same coin. recognizes that “multiple narratives can Hence, the narratives display a ten- sometimes render a particular place or dency to have wishes and hopes fading state in a number of ways simultane- into disenchantment. Whilst a less op- ously” (Dalby, O Tuathail in Al-Mah- timistic image emerges from the analysis fedi, 2011, p. 4). In other words, rather of the narratives, the country remains than triggering a single/universal image, “good for family and holidays” (Car- places promote diverse understandings men), and, “after all there is still a posi- and meanings (Rodman, 1992). Ac- tive image of Italy” (Daniele). Tus, the cordingly, places are not passive targets newly arose picture distorts the previ- of sentiments: they are caught into a ously drawn portrait, without however mutual relationship of co-influence dispelling it. with people. In light of this paragraph it emerged To describe this interesting phenome- that wishes and disenchantments are in- non, the attention shall be turned on few tertwined in the narratives of the partic- FEDERICA MORETTI 187 ipants: Italy emerges both as a desired practical life of the individuals. In light and a not-for-now country in the sto- of the past – as shaped/evoked through ries. Tus, Italy’s representations display the imaginaries –, people experience a well-recognized feature of the imagi- the present, while building expectations naries, namely that they are not unidi- about the future. Hence, imaginaries rectional, but to be read “in terms of navigate through the everyday travel of co- and counter-imaginaries” (Salazar, life. 2011b, p. 578). What should, then, be understood as Te same twist also reverberates on the potential of imaginaries? How do the lives of the people involved into the they influence everyday lives, shaping research. In the next paragraph I shall the present and future choices? In this then focus on the relationship amidst section, I shall argue that they provide imaginaries and reality, to investigate people with the power to materialize how the participants’ conceptions re- their mental image. flect on their life choices. Terefore, I shall elaborate now on the second question, thus discussing Reviving Italy: Life Choices how imaginaries open up to various Te Italian language always inspired me. courses of action. Although concisely, I It is part of me. (Carmen) shall endeavour to illustrate how sharp is the influence of Italy’s imaginaries on Te ethnographic research revealed im- life choices. aginaries of Italy characterized by several Tereby, I shall move in the wake of remarkable features; they are, in fact, at Vigh (2006), and analyse the prospec- the same time, manifold, diverse, unique tive scopes of the imagination to un- and shared, similar and stereotypical. derstand the role of the imaginary in From the stories collected emerged people’s mapping of their life trajecto- that places, senses, past, present and ries (Sneath, 2009). In fact, the stories future are all linked by the power of portray how Italy’s imaginaries – and imagination into variegated mental the thereby shaped identities – con- conceptions. So, one might think that tribute directing the informants’ life imaginaries are purely mental, for they choices, thus determining what their fu- solely belong to the realm of the mind ture ought to have become: from mov- and they bear no influence on the em- ing abroad, to pursue a work/academic pirical lives. Such conception would career, as well as the choice of not-for- however be flawed, since imaginaries now future in Italy. do not merely concern the individu- To give a taste of the results, I shall als’ conception of reality; rather, they focus on Sidney’s narrative about how likewise shape reality itself. As protean his imaginaries influenced his decisions representational assemblages, the im- Sidney is a young man, is born and aginaries are involved in a circular rela- grew up in Palermo. As a boy, he nour- tionship with reality: for the meta- and ished the image of Italy as a trouble- empirical dimensions are intertwined, some country. He saw it as a not much and the mental images influences the to offer, no-future land. His idea and 188 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 his conception of the country, however, choice based on his imaginary. In fact, gradually changed as soon as he moved he chose to pursue a career into culture, to Belgium. He realized the immense to develop and foster his knowledge cultural substratum of the country; he about his home country. Terefore, became aware of Italy’s fascinating cul- Sidney’s ‘return’ is, at least for now, tural traits; and his newly shaped image pursued through his engagement with guided him to plan to live a life out of his work of study and research on the it. He decided to make ‘the Italian cul- Italian culture. Hence, Italy’s imaginary ture’ his life-job. So, as he explained to has pushed him to come back home, al- me, his job at the university represents a though not physically. means to increase his understanding of Te feeling of being torn between the country, and ‘to do something’about hopes and fears, wishes and disenchant- Italy’s culture. ments, is recurring in the participants’ In his accounts, Sidney draws some stories. Often, in fact, the imaginary of remarkable reflections, which I could Italy twistedly influences the inform- not but feel as intriguingly contradict- ants’ choices about their futures: push- ing the Urrian idea that that too much ing them both towards and away from involvement with the past can reduce Italy. Tis particularly materializes in the vitality of the present (Urry, 1992). the working and career plans. In short, Indeed, the past is for Sidney a means as Marco said, the problem is usually to understand the present. Tus, past, phrased as: ‘coming back to Italy means present and future are deeply tied in accepting a job that it is not really your Sidney’s narrative. Te latter temporal dream job’. dimension, however, is what I need to Yet, as already said, whilst living in briefly pause the discussion on. Not- Italy may not be seen as ‘a bed of roses’, withstanding his ‘hope’ that Italy could it is neither felt as insurmountably ar- be ‘his future’ – and not only his past duous. Feelings are torn between wishes –, while elaborating on his future plans, and disenchantments, and future plans Sidney does not really appear incline to are always accordingly twisted between move back to his home country. As he resolutions to come back and to stay said, “for the time being, I feel really abroad. Te pleasant images of Italy and good here [in Belgium]. I have abso- the appealing idea of going back home lutely no projects to go back living in are indeed only one side of the coin. On Italy. Maybe in a far future… I don’t the other, there is often melancholia and know, you never know. But, for now, I disenchantment. Neither side is overar- see my life here. However, I do have this ching vis-à-vis the other. Tey are both dedicated interest for my country, my quintessentially intertwined with life culture that I consider to be the Italian choices and decisions. one [...]”. What, then, are the lessons to be Evidently, Sidney has made his drawn from the stories? How do the im- choice. He does not want to go back. aginaries influence life choices? I think Not now, at least. What is more, how- there are at least a couple of points to be ever, that Sidney also took a second life- made. First, the participants’ relation- FEDERICA MORETTI 189 ship with their images of Italy does not the popular debates on the brain drain merely occur at the meta-empirical or issue. So, on the one hand I wanted to empirical levels; for it does, on the one capture the stories of these young peo- hand, transcend people’s practical lives, ple. Yet, on the other, I likewise wanted but, on the other, it likewise interferes to bring into the discussion other sub- with the everyday practices and the life jects, who are commonly neglected. I choices. Italy’s imaginary indeed rever- hereby refer, evidently, to the children of berates on the participants’ lives, in the the past emigrants, the so called second relationships with themselves, the others and third generations. and the environment. Second, the imag- To pursue my goal, I firstly endeav- inaries have proven to connect the past, oured to capture what was most signifi- the present and the future of the partic- cant about the informants’ conceptions ipants, enabling them to take positions of Italy, and, secondly, to disclose how and decisions vis-à-vis their present/fu- the imaginaries relate to physical, geo- ture in light of their past. graphical and temporal dimensions. Fi- Terefore, in similar and different nally, I delved into how the imaginaries ways, the imaginaries of Italy enable the influence daily choices and life’s per- (im)mobility of the people, both physi- spectives. cally and mentally, making them pow- I have soon realized how all three erful – and intriguing – conceptions aspects are entangled; imaginaries are, amenable of influencing on people’s in fact, dynamic and travelling mean- lives. ing-making and world-shaping devices (Salazar, 2011a/b). Terefore, they are Conclusions not mere meta-worlds of intangible im- Tis whole investigation started almost ages, but they influence people’s lives. two years ago when, driven by my thirst Te imaginary of Italy thereby mediates for knowledge, I decided to enrol at the the reality and bears practical implica- KU Leuven to pursue a master in an- tions on how people (re)invent, (re)pro- thropology. However, as it is often the duce and (re)create places, and on the case, a prior captivation pulled me to- ways how people relate to them. wards the study of imaginaries and how To briefly conclude, the geographic they are intertwined with the mobility imaginary of Italy emerges in the re- of people – both physical and mental. search as a collage of images produced/ I was puzzled by the ways people and evoked through memories, sensorial ex- places intertwine, and I urged to grasp periences and projections towards the and disentangle their patterns of rela- future, linking the physical, the social tionship and their reciprocal inter-con- and the individual world(s) in a dialectic nections. of co-influence and co-creation. Terefore, the underlying rationale of my work was to capture how young Italians abroad conceive Italy. I wanted to make them subjects rather than the objects of discussion – as for instance, in 190 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 Overall Notes Palestine, in Te Criterion. An International Jour- nal in English, Vol. 2, Issue 3:1-26. Te hereby paper originates from the Ansa, (2015), (9.07.2015), Ocse: in Italia 42.7% di pages of a master thesis successfully sub- giovani è senza lavoro. Raddoppiati dal 2007. mitted in the Academic year 2014-2015 Crescita ancora timida inferiore a Eurozona, http://www. ansa.it/sito/videogallery/economia/2015/07/09/ at the KU Leuven to obtain the degree ocse-in-italia-427-giovani-e-senza- lavoro_ of Master of Science in Social and Cul- e713adb8-f8ee-4085-9b80-2e778c5c8d6c.html, tural Anthropology. last access: 9.07.2015. Te researched community is com- Appadurai, A., (2005), Modernity at Large. Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, University of Minne- posed by young Italians residing in sota Press, Minneapolis. Belgium. Te ten participants may be Axel, B., K., (2003), Te Poverty of the Imagination, in classified in two sub-groups. Four (three Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 76, No. 1: 111- 133. women and one man) are the so called Bade, K., J., (2001), L’ Europa in movimento. Le mi- children of the emigration, namely the grazioni dal Settecento a oggi, Laterza, Bari. Bade, descendants of past emigrants. Tey are, K., J., Emmer, P., Lucassen, L., Oltmer, J., (2010), (ed.by), Enzyklopädie Migration in in other words, the second and third Europa. Von 17. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, Ferdi- generation of Italians in Belgium. Te nand Schöningh, Paderborn, [2007]. remaining six (one woman and five men) Bertagna, F., Maccari-Clayton, M., (2010), are, on the contrary, the new first gener- Südeuropa. Italien, in Bade et al., (2010), (ed. by): 205-219. ation. Indeed, they are born and raised Burgos, (1969), (ed. by), Méthodologie de l’imaginaire, in Italy, and they only recently moved Circé, Cahiers du centre de recherche sur l’imag- to Leuven to study or work at KU Leu- inaire, Paris. Braidotti, R., (2013), Te Posthuman, Polity Press, ven. More precisely, the investigation Cambridge. involves master and PhD students, liv- Brann, E., T., H., (1991), Te World of the Imagina- ing aside Erasmus students, since their tion, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc., Lan- ham. stay is normally short and thus strongly Caestecker, F., (2010), Belgien und Luxemburg, in temporary. Bade et al., (2010), (ed. by), pp. 110-121. To abide by the requests of some par- Caltabianco, C., Gianturco, G., (2005), (ed. by), Gio- ticipants and by the guidelines of the vani oltre confine. I discendenti e gli epigoni dell’emi- grazione italiana nel mondo, Carocci, Roma. anthropological Code of Ethics (AAA, Carchedi, F., Pugliese, E., (2006), (ed. by), Andare, 2012), I refrained from mentioning the restare, tornare. Cinquant’anni di emigrazione ital- names of those who expressed their wish iana in Germania, Cosmo Iannone Editore, Iser- nia. to remain anonymous. I indeed either Castoriadis, C., (1987), Te Imaginary Institution of referred to them by the use of a pseudo- Society, MIT Press, Cambridge, [Engl. trans. nym – personally chosen by the inform- Blamey, K.], [1975]. Crapanzano, V., (2004), Imaginative Horizons. An ants – or by the use of initials. Essay in Literary- Philosophical Anthropology, Uni- versity of Chicago Press, Chicago. Di Giovine, M., A., (2014), Te Imaginaire Dialectic References and the Refashioning of Pietrelcina, in Salazar, N., AAA, American Anthropological Association, (2012), B., Graburn, N., H., H., (2014), (ed. by): 147- Code of Ethics, in Robben, A., C., G., M., Sluka, 171. J., A. (2012), (ed. by):359-364 Dumoulin, M., (1985), Pour une histoire de l’immigra- Al-Mahfedi, M., H., K., (2011), Edward Said’s “Im- tion italienne en Belgique: 1945-1956, in Aubert, aginative Geography” and Geopolitical Mapping: R., Dassetto, F., Dumoulin, M., (1985):27-52. 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Notes

1 Personal translation 2 Te debate appears to be controversial for researches (Fondazione Migrantes, 2013 & 2014), the public and political debate, and people themselves do not always refer to the young emigration flow as com- posed by escaping brains. Indeed, on the one hand the political debate stresses both the provisional and permanent nature of the mobility. On the other hand, the young people I spoke with high- light that the decision to go abroad could be de- termined for both necessity and desire. A necessity often pushed by the desire of having recognized one’s own abilities. 3 I am referring to the young people who recently moved to Belgium as the new first generation to acknowledge their potential to permanently settle in the country. Indeed, some of the participants seem to consider it as a possible option for the near future, and some already have a Belgian partner. 4 A.I.R.E. is the acronym for the Anagrafe Italiani Residenti all’estero (General Register Office of the Italians residing abroad). 5 Te extent of the Italians living out of Italy may be even more. In fact, the percentages above men- tioned do not take into consideration a part of the current mobility flows. Indeed, it is possible to assume that a portion of the intra- European mobility is left aside, for people recently moved to Belgium not necessarily cancel their Italian res- idence nor communicate their new foreign living address to the A.I.R.E. 6 An inspection of different sources reveals contrast- ing data. In fact, according to the 2014 MAE (the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs)’s report, the Italians residing in Belgium amount to 266.168. 7 For insightful investigations and reflections on or- igins and developments of the notion: (Burgos, 1969), (Brann, 1991) and (Durand, 1969 & 1999). Portuguese Language Media in Luxembourg: Te Newspaper Contacto, a Step Towards Integration

Susana Cascao

Tis paper briefly summarizes the main Duchy (170) and the significant weigh findings of my Master’s thesis, in which they might translate into in terms of I studied the case of the Portuguese lan- votes has been the source of a lively me- guage newspaper Contacto, a weekly pe- diatic debate that has culminated in the riodical that traces the complete history pioneering June 2015, referendum on of the Portuguese speaking community extending the right to vote in general in Luxembourg. Its founding coincided elections to foreign nationals.3 with the first and biggest wave of Portu- Portuguese immigration to Luxem- guese migration to Luxembourg in the bourg has its origins in the late 1960’s 1970’s, making it particularly valuable and its flow has been uninterrupted as a tool for understanding the self-rep- since. In 1970, a bilateral agreement be- resentation of the Portuguese commu- tween the Portuguese and Luxembour- nity throughout its development. A gish governments kicked off a wave of thorough qualitative content analysis migration towards the Grand Duchy, was possible thanks to full access to all of limited by the quotas established for Contacto’s archives since its inception.1 workers in the construction sector. Such In order to better understand the Por- quotas were largely overwhelmed by a tuguese language media panorama in determination to immigrate born from Luxembourg, it is essential to first give economic push factors, opposition to an account of some essential structural the political regime then in place and and demographic elements regarding the ongoing colonial war. Portuguese the Grand Duchy. It is a small country have been emigrating in large numbers with a population of 535,000 of which to Luxembourg ever since, although the almost 40 per cent are foreign residents; beginning of the 2000’s has seen a shift of those foreign residents 43 per cent towards professionals with higher educa- are Portuguese nationals (92,100).2 Te tion working mainly in the financial, IT country represents a reality with an un- and services sector (Berger, 2008). usual proportion of foreigners given its Te media panorama in the Grand total population. Te immense vari- Duchy of Luxembourg includes more ety of nationalities living in the Grand and more ‘ethnic media’, a concept 194 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 which is neither straightforward nor Contacto was founded in 1970 by a unanimous and whose definition is Luxembourger, Lucien Huss, and a Por- often dependent on a given country’s tuguese, Carlos Pina, both working then social context and immigration his- at the Catholic Mission, an association tory. In this article we prefer to define that provided guidance and assistance ethnic media as that, ‘produced by and upon the arrival of immigrants to Lux- for a) immigrants, b) racial, ethnic and embourg. Teir first co-signed editorial linguistic minorities as well as c) indig- left no doubt about the newspaper’s enous populations living across different goals: it was there to ‘build bridges’4. countries,’ (Matsaganis, Katz and Ball- In its first years, informing its readers Rockeach, 2011). Ethnic media can help about the political situation in Portugal to understand a minority’s or communi- was at the core of its editorial mission, ty’s social, economic and cultural back- understandable in light of the political ground (Matsaganis et al., 2011) as well turmoil Portugal was undergoing at the as act as countervailing representation time. Tis tendency to focus on Portu- to the potentially negative depictions in gal’s daily affairs changed in the 1980’s, mainstream media (Titley, 2008); they when Luxembourgish affairs began to also create a self representation and ful- be given equal coverage, making the fill the dual role of providing a space for newspaper become more transnational. the expression of language and culture However, the core focus of Contacto and act as a resource to facilitate set- continued to be primarily and essen- tling in a new country. Other potential tially anything affecting the interests of strengths of ethnic media are the way in the local Portuguese speaking commu- which they can support various forms nity. It is currently the preferred media of engagement with the host society, outlet for Portuguese in Luxembourg, through actions that we will be seeing with audience levels reaching 55,400 bellow, and its capacity for mediating readers per week, i.e. 12 per cent of the and empowering a group’s participation total Luxembourg population.5 in the public sphere (Georgiou, 2006; Cascão, 2013). Teoretical Framework: Intercul- Te range of Portuguese language turalism, Integration and Intercul- ethnic media in Luxembourg includes tural Media Integration radio stations like Radio Latina, with Before introducing the key concept of a programme mainly aimed at the Por- intercultural media integration (Geiβler tuguese speaking community, websites and Weber-Menges, 2009), it is useful such as bomdia.lu, and in print the two to first examine the political concept newspapers Contacto (founded in 1970) of interculturalism and the ways it ap- and Correio (founded in 1999). All of proaches cultural diversity in contempo- the above media are addressed not only rary societies. Interculturalism directs us at the Portuguese nationals but also im- to particular national contexts and dif- migrants from former Portuguese colo- ferent stands taken politically on immi- nies in Africa such as Cape Verde and gration issues and assumptions on what Guinea Bissau as well as Brazilians. integration should entail. In Europe, SUSANA CASCAO 195 interculturalism was officially endorsed the homeland. Te research presented with the publishing of its core values in this article attempts to show evidence and policies in 2008, through the White of a form of intercultural integration Paper on Intercultural Dialogue6. Te framed through the perspective of Con- concept of interculturalism, as Barrett tacto’s efforts towards a mutual under- (2013) affirms, ‘represents a two-way standing. process in which both majorities and Geiβler and Weber-Menges’ (2009) minorities accommodate and take steps notion of “intercultural integration” into knowing each other’. Among the does not expect homogeneity but rather main features of its policy implementa- mutual knowledge and communica- tion and core values are a recognition of tion about the differences between the the major importance of practices of in- communities (host and newcomers). tercultural dialogue, especially at school, Tis integrative model of media is one in the workplace, in community spaces, in which the local host population and and at the institutional level, providing minorities mingle and as such intercul- training in intercultural issues to public tural communication takes place. It aus- administration, civil society and mass pices both a proportional participation media workers. On the political level of minorities in the majority media, other key steps engage the possibility and formulates the ideal functions of of dual nationality and increased polit- ethnically targeted media: it expects ical involvement through the extension that migrants with knowledge of the of voting rights. Intercultural policies host society produce media in a way presume a teleology of integration, in that promotes intercultural integration which integration is a step towards an and in turn demands that mainstream actual assimilation attained over at media include minorities voices more least a three generations, though more frequently and more visibly in the inter- broadly integration is an ever changing ests of promoting adequate coverage of and fluid concept that is often subject to the issues the latter face. Furthermore, politicized interpretations. among its core values is the notion that One of the main features of the prin- ethnic minorities should take an active ciple of intercultural integration, as role in the production of mainstream set out by Geiβler and Weber-Menges media as well. Alongside such participa- (2009), is the attempt to balance the in- tion, the intercultural integration model terests of the newcomers and the host as set out by Geiβler and Weber-Menges in a more ‘human’ approach than as- attributes utmost importance to the fact similation, which foresees no choice for that media should recognise the added immigrants other than adapting to the value brought by immigration and pro- dominant culture and ‘forgetting’ about mote its general acceptance. Moreover, one’s background. I argue that this no- a two way use of both mainstream and tion is essential in Contacto’s expression ethnic media should be part of an ideal of intercultural efforts, which promote intercultural integration; whilst it is un- local engagement without having to re- realistic to expect that the host society linquish the community’s attachment to makes use of ethnically targeted media, 196 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 if for no other reason, the lack of knowl- Portuguese citizens that had been born, edge of the vehicle language, it is on the raised and educated in Luxembourg to other hand essential that ethnic minor- access Luxembourgish nationality until ities make use of mainstream media in they were 18 (the right to dual national- order to get acquainted with issues relat- ity was introduced by law in 2008). ing to the host country. c) Trough the request for a right to Contacto has been serving the com- vote and be elected in municipal elec- munity in a facilitating role that I argue tions 9 (expressed in many articles as of represents a step towards a desired in- the late 1970’s), and more recently the tegration, regardless of further in depth battle for the extension of voting rights reflections that can and should be made in parliamentary elections to foreign around such a multi-layered and com- residents (in 2015). Tese were themes plex concept. Its role in such efforts finds systematically tackled and whose de- evidence in the actions outlined below, bate Contacto promoted actively. Such among others. I chose to highlight three socio-political demands have found of its essential actions that illustrate a thorough support in Contacto and were clear effort toward intercultural media eventually achieved through the Eu- integration: a) the interaction with local ropean Parliament’s recognition of the organisations b) the demand for dual right to vote and be elected in munic- nationality and c) the open support for ipal elections for all European citizens more political involvement of the Portu- (1999). Such a political victory resulted guese community: however in dismay; when the right a) Trough the assistance provided to to vote was finally introduced, the in- the Portuguese speaking community ar- volvement of the Portuguese in the local rival in the new country: be it through elections in Luxembourg was far from posting jobs, advertising language ideal (Besch, 2004). Te Portuguese courses or literally translating workers’ participation resulted in a very low rights by engaging into a strict coop- rate of registrations, participation and eration with the LCGB (Luxembourg representation, if we take into account Confederation of Christian Trade Un- the context of minority- majority10 of ions), one of the Grand Duchy’s largest Portuguese nationals in some circum- trade unions. From the 1970’s and up scriptions. Te Portuguese community’s until today-Contacto regularly shares interest in electoral politics remains rel- information and provides advice on atively low, which eventually served as workers’ issues in the newspaper weekly justification for those against extending editions.7 Tis represents an example of the right to vote in parliamentary elec- a long lasting cooperation with one of tions to foreign residents in the period Luxembourg’s biggest organisations. leading up to the June 2015 vote.11 Con- b) In its demands for the introduction tacto openly campaigned for a ‘yes’ vote, of dual nationality8, an issue that con- with lively articles and debates before- cerned especially the second generation hand and dismay in the aftermath of the at a time when only jus sanguinis was in referendum at the unexpected landslide place, thus not allowing the children of 78 per cent of votes against.12 SUSANA CASCAO 197 Conclusions: Building Bridges intercultural dynamics and highlight an Between the Community and Host approach that presumes an ideal interac- Society tion between minorities, organisations It is undeniable that foreigners play a and Institutions of the host country. key role in Luxembourgish society, if As for politically related landmark con- they were not yet granted the right to tents, they featured as early as 1979, participate in general elections they will with the coverage of parliamentary Lux- with certainty over the generations to embourgish elections, or the first of the come become Luxembourg’s future cit- interviews with Jean-Claude Juncker izens. (then prime minister of Luxembourg). Contacto’s promotion of the interac- On the cultural level, efforts were tion and mutual knowledge between taken to promote intercultural integra- both the Portuguese speaking commu- tion, as seen through the above-men- nities and the host society is a palpable tioned first editorial by Huss and Pina demonstration of its intercultural ef- expressing the wish to establish bridges forts. In view of the central role media between the Portuguese and the Lux- play in this particular interpretation of embourgish community. As well, there integration, we consider that Contacto have been numerous weekly articles on is indeed a platform where intercultural historic and cultural aspects of Luxem- media integration has been taking place bourg, and consistent coverage of mat- for decades. A limitation to this study ters relating to inter-ethnic relations.14 lies, however, in the difficulty13 of ver- As the leading Portuguese-language ifying, in parallel, how politics and newspaper in Luxembourg, Contacto mainstream media in Luxembourg have has assumed that dual role of providing acted to put the same model into prac- space to the group for the expression of tice. A comparison between Contacto its language and culture, while simul- and mainstream media sources would taneously acting as facilitator upon the have certainly contributed to a deeper settling in a new country, throughout understanding of the role intercultural four decades of existence. It has been media plays in current processes of in- the guardian of the mother tongue, pro- tegration. moting the affection bonds and prac- In Contacto’s approach to the promo- tices that unite every immigrant with tion of intercultural integration, we can his own roots without however having trace various features of both a political gone down the road of ‘ghettoization’. and a cultural nature. On the political Te analysis of 40 years of publications level, we can point to the call for dual shows that the newspaper has not been nationality, the insistence on the need at risk of promoting a marginalization for participation in both municipal of the Portuguese community in Lux- and general elections, and the raising embourg, rather the opposite. Findings of awareness on the rights of workers revealed that although concerned with through the 40 year presence of the keeping strong links with its mother Trade Union LCGB in its pages. Tese tongue and culture, and in perpetuating cannot be but an expression of desirable some Portuguese traditions, it was not 198 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 Contacto’s intention to show merely one References side, or to keep Portuguese held back in Barrett, Martyn. (2013). Introduction. Intercultural- ism and Multiculturalism. Concepts and contro- the past. Contacto seems to have found versies. In Martyn Barret (Ed.), Interculturalism that balance between a minority’s right and Multiculturalism. Similarities and differences. to an attachment to its roots and the Strasbourg : Council of Europe Publishing need to look at the future, a future that Berger, Frédéric. (2008). Zoom sur les primo-arrivants portugais et leurs descendants. INSTEAD-CEPS, is always moving towards a more inte- no.49, September, 1-2. grated life in Luxembourg. Te pro- Besch, Sylvain. (2004) Les candidats portugais aux posed theoretical approach to this case élections locales luxembourgeoises. Cahiers de l’Urmis, no. 9, February, 77-87. study suggested, however, (Geiβler and Cascao, Suzana L. (2013) Espaco público. La presse Weber-Menges, 2009) that the same lusophone et sa participation à l’espace publique ‘mediation effort’ is needed from the luxembourgeois. Revue Forum, February, no.326, 45-47. host country individuals, institutions, Geiβler, Rainer, & Weber-Menges, Sonja. (2009). community and media. Tey should also Media Reception and ideas on media integra- pave the way to make minority commu- tion among Turkish, Italian and Russo -German nities known to the wider audience, the migrants in Germany.In R.Geiβler & H.Pöttker (Eds.) ,Media-Migration-Integration: European majority of the host society by giving and North American perspectives (pp.27-43 ), them a place to be seen from the privi- Medienumbrüche, Media Upveals, Volume 33. leged perspective of the ‘bigger window’ transcript Verlag, Bielefeld Georgiou, Myria (2006).Diaspora, Identity and the that mainstream media provides. By Media. Diasporic transnationalism and mediated doing so they could prepare the ground spatialities. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc. for a more active participation of such Matsaganis, Matthew D., Katz, Vikki. & Ball- Rockeach, Sandra. (2011). Understanding Ethnic communities in their respective host so- Media. Tousand Oaks, California, Sage Publica- cieties as the occasion of the recent June tions 2015 referendum well illustrates. Titley, Gavan (2008). Media Transnationalism in However, further in-depth research Ireland: an examination of Polish media prac- tices. Te Irish Migration, Race and Social Trans- on both ethnic and mainstream media formation Review. Translocations, 3 (1), 29-49. in this and other communities is neces- Retrieved June 3, 2015 from http://www.translo- sary, including explorations of interdis- cations.ie ciplinary approaches, in order to fully grasp what media can do to improve the integration process of minorities. Particularly, this research is necessary to work against the spreading of ignorance, invisibility and simplification that some mainstream media promote whenever diversity issues are tackled. SUSANA CASCAO 199 Notes tion) make up a majority of the local population 1 My thanks to BNL, Bibliothèque Nationale de 11 Delano(2015) Should foreigners get the vote? Te Luxembourg for providing me with full access to key referendum question. June issue Contacto’s archives. 12 Correia, José Luís. (2015, June3). Editorial: Caros 2 STATEC Le Portail des Statistiques du Lxemburgueses. Contacto :1. Grand Duché de Luxembourg. (2014). Of- 13 In the framework of a master thesis, due to in- ficial statistics report a population of 92.100, herent time and financial constraints faced when however real figures suggest more than research is performed by a single individual. 100.000, many arriving without registering 14 Contacto (1970) Conhecimento do Luxem- themselves. Retrieved August 23, 2015 from. burgo. January, 1 ; Contacto (1971) O que http://www.statistiques.public.lu/stat/ deve saber. April: 4; Contacto (1989) O pres- TableViewer/tableView.aspx?Repor- idente do Governo fala ao Contacto. April,: tId=384&IF_Language=fra 3; Contacto (1990) Entrevistas com famílias 3 Te right to vote and be eligible in municipal Luso-Luxemburguesas. Família Kierps-De elections, for EU nationals has been in place since Soure. December: 2; Contacto (1991) Serviço 1999 . de Imigração - Uma porta aberta aos es- 4 Contacto (1970) Editorial. January, p.1. trangeiros. June:11. Contacto (1998) Merci à 5 Source: survey by TNS ILRES Plurimedia un pionnier de l’intégration, Monsieur Luc- Luxembourg (2013-2014). Retrieved August ien Huss. 17 July:13. ; Contacto (2010) Grão 8, 2015, from https://www.tnsilres.com/cms/_ Duques nos 30 anos do CASA. 28 April:17. tnsNewsAttachments/Communique_de_presse_ etudeplurimedia_2014.pdf 6 White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue- Living to- gether as equals with dignity (Council of Europe, 2008) 7 Heintz. N (1970) Legislação Geral Luxem- burguesa – o que os trabalhadores emigrados devem saber. Contacto, March, p.3; Con- tacto (1984) O Trabalhador. Campanha pela abolição das discriminações para com os imi- grados. Annex, May, p. 4. Contacto (1974) O sindicato LCGB e a Imigração. April: 2.; Contacto (1983) O Trabalhador. Os proble- mas dos Emigrantes no Luxemburgo.Anexo, February, p.1.; Contacto (1984) O Tra- balhador. Campanha pela abolição das dis- criminações para com os imigrados. Annex, May: 4. 8 Contacto (1986) Revisão da legislação sobre a nacionalidade luxemburguesa. October, :1; Contacto (1989) Que política a favor dos imi- grantes? September/October, : 6. ; Contacto (1990) Os portugueses já não são estrangei- ros na Alemanha. July/August,: 15. 9 Contacto (1979) Eleições no Luxembur- go…E os emigrantes?! March, p.1; Contacto (1979); Bernardino, C. (1979) Têm os em- igrantes o direito a uma verdadeira partic- ipação na vida local? Contacto, January: 1; Contacto (2012) Comunas contiunam a im- pedir a inscrição de portugueses. 8 February: 2-3. 10 Term used in the United States to refer to a juris- diction in which one or more racial and or ethnic minorities (relative to the whole country’s popula- Crossing Boundaries: Negotiating Transnational Heritage and Belonging in the German Waldensian Diaspora

Elisa Gosso

Introduction bly no other place in which anything Te case of the German Waldensians similar has occurred. Tis is the reason examined in this article was studied as why this cluster of valleys is known as part of my research work for a Ph.D. in the ‘Waldensian Valleys’, or, among the Anthropological Sciences1. Tis research Waldensians, simply as ‘the Valleys’. focuses on the Waldensian diaspora and Te very definition of the Waldensian transnationalism, and the resulting re- Valleys has been gradually established turn visits of the descendants of Walden- both for external and internal purposes. sian emigrants to the homeland2. Under the Savoy dynasty the Piedmon- Te term ‘Waldensian’ defines an tese government long sought to confine Italian religious Protestant group, that the Waldensian population to this area. originated in Lyon, France, as an hereti- Tat policy culminated around the mid- cal movement in the early Middle Ages dle of the eighteenth century in the crea- (Tourn, 1980). In 1532 their members tion of a sort of Waldensian ghetto in the decided to adhere to the Protestant Ref- Valleys. Waldensians were not allowed ormation and, consequently, to organize to live outside the boundaries of the Val- themselves as a Church. Because of per- leys, they could not attend high school secutions from both the political power and were forced to celebrate Catho- and the Catholic Church they were soon lic festivities. Tat condition ended in banished from Lyon and scattered across 1848, when king Charles Albert, with other regions. his Statute, granted civil rights to the Already in the thirteenth century Waldensians and the Jews of the king- they had found very suitable conditions dom. Te new freedom had the effect to settle in some Valleys of the Cottian of dissolving not only the boundary as Alps, in Western Piedmont, about 70 an obstacle, but also – paradoxically – km far from Turin. Waldensians have the boundary as a protective shell for lived in these valleys virtually since the Waldensian culture. Te group itself, origins of their religious movement up especially its intellectual and ecclesias- to the present day, and there is proba- tical components, tried in various ways ELISA GOSSO 201 to idealize the Valleys as a point of ref- frequent development of a return move- erence for all the Waldensians (through ment (not only a definitive return, but the creation of museums as well as of also periodical visits to the homeland), celebrations and, not least, of Walden- a strong ethnic group consciousness, a sian historic sites, with the consequent sense of empathy with co-ethnic mem- transformation of the landscape into bers in other countries and a feeling of cultural heritage). tolerance for pluralism in the host coun- Te aim of these introductory re- try. marks about the cultural definition of All these features are to be found in the Waldensian Valleys is to convey the the case of the German Waldensian di- importance that the Church has always aspora and refer to other key concepts I assigned to cohesion and to the main- will use to analyze the case of German tenance of a certain identity for the Waldensian transnationalism. Waldensian community. Tey also allow First of all, the concept of ‘homeland’. us to fathom the constant attempt to Te Waldensians who migrated to Ger- manage migration and prevent chaotic many in the late seventeenth century diaspora. Tis is also the reason why the (de Lange et al., 1999) came all from study of the wide variety of forms taken a specific place in the Valleys: from the by Waldensian migrations and colonies so-called high Chisone Valley and from provides a useful and in many ways a portion of the low Chisone Valley, unique testing ground to assess some of which at that time were both under the tenets of transnationalism. French rule, while the other Waldensian communities in the rest of the Chisone Homeland, nostalgia and return Valley and in the Germanasca and Pel- visits lice Valleys were subjects of the Duchy From the Middle Ages to the twentieth of Savoy. century the Waldensian waves of migra- In 1685 king Louis XIV of France re- tion from the Valleys were mainly due voked the Edict of Nantes, which nearly to socioeconomic causes. Te only case one hundred years before had conceded of forced migration because of religious religious and civil freedom to the French persecutions was the one of the German Protestants. Te French Waldensians of diaspora. the Chisone Valley had to choose be- Based on comparative studies of di- tween conversion to Catholicism or aspora histories, many social scientists exile. Some of them converted, but the have attempted to define the notion majority decided to migrate elsewhere. of ‘diaspora’. Te conceptualization Tey joined the stream of migration of proposed by Robin Cohen is helpful the French Huguenots from their lands to understand and define the Walden- to countries of Protestant tradition, such sian case. Cohen (2008) identifies some as Switzerland and Germany. Waldensi- common features of a diaspora that refer ans settled in some areas of south-west- to the displacement from a homeland ern Germany, in Baden-Württemberg and the creation of a collective memory and Hessen. Te local lords eager to in- and a myth about this homeland, the crease their population in order to make 202 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016

Fig. 1 From the twinning celebrations in Pragelato, the homeland of German Waldensians. their lands cultivable and improve their man instead of French. Te end of the financial condition. Tis is why they nineteenth century witnessed a renewed accorded to the Waldensians some priv- interest in the Waldensian past and the ileges, such as the freedom to practice establishment of close links between the their religion, or to speak French. German communities and the Walden- After the French Revolution, a period sian communities of the Valleys, that of secularization started also in Ger- increased after World War I. In 1936 many. One of the last laws of the Holy there was the creation of the Deutsche Roman Empire, which at that time in- Waldenservereinigung, the Association of cluded the German land, unified many German Waldensians3, whose purposes domains that had previously been sep- were to support the relationship be- arate religious units. Te result was the tween the German Waldensians and to unification of the Protestants churches: preserve Waldensian past and traditions. Lutherans and Reformed. In this con- For my research, I focused on one text, Waldensians were assimilated to German Waldensian community: the the united churches: they lost their Waldensergemeinde Rohrbach-Wem- specific liturgy and began to speak Ger- bach-Hahn, in Hessen, about 50 km ELISA GOSSO 203 south of Frankfurt. Te peculiarity of topophilia, a relationship of deep affec- this group is that in 1974 it established tion that exists between a physical space a twinning agreement with the native and human feelings. According to the land of their Waldensian ancestors, author, topophilia derives from the sur- Pragelato, in the high Chisone Valley. rounding reality, and people pay atten- In 2014 the two groups celebrated the tion to those aspects of the environment 40th anniversary of the twinning, and I that command awe, or promise support took part in the celebrations as part of and fulfillment in the context of their my fieldwork. lives’ purposes. Homeland implies another key con- Tere is little doubt that the people cept: ‘nostalgia’. Tis concept is much of Waldensergemeinde Rohrbach-Wem- discussed in human geography, although bach-Hahn feel a deep topophilia for their the authors who have written about homeland and manifest it with travels it are very eclectic in their researches. to this place of origin. I identified three David Lowenthal, for example, in his kinds of travel. Te first is a personal or Te Past is a Foreign Country, introduces family travel, while the second and the the notion of nostalgia in relation with third are group travels: in the first case, the attitude toward the past. In this the community visits Pragelato and the conception, it is something related with Valleys during the twinning’s celebra- time and space that, he says, ‘engulfs the tions, while in the second case young whole past’ (1985: 6). I think the term is people of the community who just did particularly useful in analyzing diaspora, their confirmation4 in the church have as it derives from the Greek nostos, that the habit of visiting together the land of means ‘return to native land’, and algos, origin of their ancestors as a sort of rite ‘suffering’ or ‘grief’, and is therefore con- of passage. David Timothy Duval, an nected with the concept of homeland American lecturer in Tourism studies, and its representation. Another author defines the return visit as a periodic, but who uses the concept of nostalgia is an temporary, sojourn made by members American geographer Dallen Timothy of diasporic communities to either their whose studies are particularly focused external homeland or another location on genealogical tourism. He analyzes the in which strong social ties have been connection between diasporic groups forged (Duval, 2004). and tourism to their lands of origin and Pragelato, the homeland of German he speaks of a complex of emotions and Waldensians, possesses some character- a ‘sense of nostalgia’, which would help istics that attracted my attention, the to idealize the past and the places of ori- most striking one being that it is now gin and, at the same time, would help to a ‘Catholic town’, and I observed that create a desire to visit these places: ‘Nos- the religious dimension has a very sig- talgia implies a yearning for some past nificant role in the life of the commu- socio-spatial condition(s)’ (2008: 118). nity. After the Waldensian exile, the Tis attitude is highlighted by a no- high Chisone Valley was catholicized tion borrowed from another geogra- and it was excluded from the process of pher, Yi Fu Tuan (1974), who speaks of creation of the Waldensian Valleys’ rep- 204 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 resentation. Te priest of Pragelato, with Transnational Heritage in Dias- the mayor, was one of the central figures poric Communities of the twinning celebrations. He organ- Another feature I identified in my re- ized the visit of the Germans to Prage- search is the notion of ‘heritage’. David lato in the month of September 2014. Lowenthal observed that heritage clari- On that occasion there were two ecu- fies pasts so as to infuse them with pres- menical celebrations, jointly performed ent purposes (1998). Each Waldensian by the Catholic priest, a Waldensian transnational group I met identifies it- Italian minister and the minister of the self with a Waldensian heritage (Gosso, German community. 2015). Some testimonies from my field- Te first celebration took place in work are particularly significant: the so-called ‘places of memory’: Laval and Troncea, the two highest hamlets We are Americans, but this is our her- of Pragelato. Laval is uninhabited since itage» (G. L. C., Waldensian Presbyterian 1942, but in the summer the shep- Church, Valdese, USA, 2014). herds use the village as a base to reach Te doctrine and the tradition of my an- the highest pastures. Here there is an cestors belong to me» (C. L., Waldenserge- old church, S. Giacomo, where the cel- meinde Rohrbach-Wembach-Hahn, ebration was held. Tis building has a Germany, 2014). symbolic meaning for two reasons. Te bell of the church is the ancient bell of I consider myself very blessed to have a the old Waldensian temple, destroyed in rich heritage and legacy left to me by the the seventeenth century, and the church Waldensian people of the Piedmont Valleys of Italy» (S. G., Cardon Families Organiza- itself was erected as late as 1698. More- tion, USA, 2014). over, the small cemetery next to the church, called the ‘graveyard of the min- Heritage was a word very much used by ers’, contains the victims of an avalanche my informants to describe their identi- that in 1904 overwhelmed the workers fication within the Waldensian world, who were coming downhill from the and it was a useful term also for me mines of Beth, about one hundred me- to describe them, because, as I said for ters above Laval. Te tragedy of Beth, the case of the Germans, Waldensians though painful, marks the history of the abroad gradually migrated into other Pragelato community. Te miners who religious denominations. Te only ex- lost their lives in that accident were both ception is the case of the Waldensians Catholics and Waldensians, originating who migrated to South America, where from the nearby Waldensian Valleys. they maintained an official Waldensian Te episode is therefore very significant Church (Geymonat, 1994). What is in- in the twinning celebration, so that the teresting today is that in Italy it is possi- priest and the pastor mentioned it in ble to convert and become a Waldensian, their speeches. while in the cases of Germany and North America people are Waldensian by birth (Watts, 1947), which entails ELISA GOSSO 205

Fig 2. The motto of the village: “To the Fathers, for a faithful thought. To the Children, for a constant memory. the creation of a sort of quasi-ethnicity. Waldensian heritage. Having a Walden- Te religious community of Rohr- sian ancestor in one’s own family is a bach-Wembach-Hahn belongs to the strong marker of identification with reformed branch of the Evangelical such heritage. However, this feeling Church in Hessen and Nassau and is is not reduced to individual and fam- identified as Sondergemeinde, a special ily bonds: it apparently extends to the community. It keeps the ancient right to whole community. Te emigrant an- choose its own pastor, whereas the other cestors are represented as a single body. communities have their pastors auto- Tus, for example, in the motto of the matically assigned from the ecclesiastical village the term ‘Fathers’ of the commu- organization. nity is mentioned5. At the same time, Heritage includes some social and this familial lexicon is extended to the cultural beliefs and practices. Tere is current inhabitants of Pragelato. During a deep bond that unifies the members my fieldwork I heard many times the lo- of the community with their forebears, cals speaking about ‘brothers’, ‘cousins’, and genealogy is the element that most ‘children of the same mother’, and so of all characterizes the belonging to the on. So, if the genealogy intervenes by 206 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016

Fig 3. The focal point of the Waldenserfest is an historic parade where many women and children and little girls wear the typical Waldesian dress. establishing rigid boundaries of belong- an historic parade that starts from a for- ing, on the other hand there are criteria est on the edge of the village, after the of permeability that allow one to cross celebration of a religious service. Here the boundary, even if the boundary it- there is a sort of cabin called Waldens- self remains, as noted by Fredrik Barth er-Schutzhütte, where the ancestors are (1969) in his influential discussion of believed to first stopped when they ar- ethnic boundaries. rived in Rohrbach. Te parade crosses Another feature of the Waldensian some streets of the town and arrives in heritage of Rohrbach-Wembach-Hahn the central square, in front of the tem- is a particular celebration, connected ple. Tis procession is full of symbolic with the memory of the forebears. Tis elements: there is the Waldensian em- celebration is called Waldenserfest and blem6; some people dress like ancient takes place every year at the end of June farmers, as their ancestors from the since the middle of the nineteenth cen- Valleys are thought to have done, and tury. In 2014 a delegation of Pragelato carry some old agricultural tools; many took part in it during the twinning cel- women and little girls wear the typical ebration. Waldensian dress7; there is also a tor- Te focal point of the Waldenserfest is ture wheel, to remember the ancestors’ ELISA GOSSO 207 persecutions. Te Waldenserfest, besides Tere is apparently a disagreement being part of the Waldensian heritage, in the interpretation and representation a ‘diacritical feature’, to use Barth’s ex- of being Waldensian. Surely the fact of pression (1969)8, is a time of ‘expanded talking about religion complicates this community’: celebrations involve all issue. During the Sixties and the Sev- the inhabitants of Rohrbach-Wem- enties, the same period in which there bach-Hahn, not only those belonging was a heritage revival in the transna- to the Waldensergemeinde. During my tional contexts, in the Italian Walden- fieldwork I came to know, for example, sian Church there was a rethinking of that the main organizer of the celebra- Waldensian history and tradition. Te tion was a Catholic inhabitant of Rohr- specific historical circumstances in bach. which this new thought originated were characterized by specific social and po- Conclusion: Negotiating Heritage’s litical movements and led to value other ‘Authenticity’ Between Diaspora dimensions of being Waldensian, such and Native Land as the universality of being inserted into Te role of the Waldensian heritage in Protestantism or evangelization. Some shaping the sense of belonging to the Waldensian researchers argue that this community allows me to introduce my attitude led to belittle Waldensian his- last concept: the notion of authenticity. tory. Bruna Peyrot, for example, ob- Authenticity refers to the title of the served that in the second half of the paper: ‘Negotiating transnational herit- twentieth century, many Waldensians age and belonging’. I speak about nego- reduced Waldensian historiography to tiation for two reasons. a minor, local and folkloristic history: First of all, emigrated Waldensians “Te ‘real’ Waldensian had to be Prot- had to negotiate their belonging in the estant, engaged in modern society and host society. Tey always maintained a free from the ties with a past consid- heritage, more or less strong and clear, ered unfit to face reality” (1990: 55). depending on the single cases and on Te debate is still open, so it is difficult the different historical periods. In gen- to judge. However it is likely that this eral, we can say that there was a revival thought influences the view of transna- of this heritage in the 1960s and the tional Waldensian groups. 1970s. An essay by Debora Che, an Ameri- Second, the negotiation involves the can lecturer in Tourism and Hospitality Waldensian people of the Valleys, es- Management, was clarifying to me. She pecially today. One of the testimonies wrote about the history and evolution of that I collected during my fieldwork Tulip Time, a festival which takes place in the Valleys seems to assume that the in Holland, Michigan, and celebrates Waldensians abroad do not exist, while diasporic Dutch heritage. Her conclu- my interviews in Rohrbach have instead sion was that this festival can be con- emphasized a strong feeling of valdesità sidered authentic even if it is not static that would connote the descendants of and even if it incorporates unrelated fea- the emigrants today. tures, because it does not celebrate the 208 AEMI JOURNAL 20152016 homeland, but it rather celebrates the working? How did their faith evolve and diaspora: ‘Tulip Time is a celebration of what is still remaining of it? How fast did diasporic Dutch heritage in Michigan, they integrate with the Germans? Grip- not the heritage of the Netherlands. ping questions [spannende Fragen] for Tulip Time is an (emergent) authentic which we still seek answers today (Syria, event that has acquired meaning for Iraq, North Africa),with openness and the local community through self-rep- understanding towards foreigners. It resentation before tourists. […] festivals is a commitment for me today to look like Tulip Time that have (emergent) au- back to my ancestors’ history and to thenticity can help enhance group (i.e. carry on the Waldensian teaching» (C. community) and place (i.e. regional, L., Waldensergemeinde Rohrbach-Wem- local) identity’ (2004: 274). bach-Hahn, Germany 2014). Te descendants of Waldensian emi- grants are also perfectly aware of their being here and now, and identify their heritage as an important component of their life. In this perspective, the adjec- tive transnational’ would seem to make the difference: Waldensian heritage abroad is made of negotiations, dia- logues and exchanges with the Walden- sian context of origin. Tanks to these dynamics, within which the return visits seem to play a fundamental role, it is not static and fixed process, but some- thing in endless evolution. I conclude by quoting a few words told me by a member of the Waldens- ergemeinde. Tis testimony highlights the last feature of Cohen’s prototypical diaspora: the possibility of a distinctive, creative, enriching life in host countries with a tolerance for pluralism. Walden- sian transnational heritage is considered exemplary for the migratory processes and events of today and brings to light not only a feeling of tolerance, but a feeling of empathy as well: We can learn a lot from Waldensian history, this in- cludes people seeking asylum. How did their settlement in Germany take place? How did they integrate with a differ- ent language and different methods of ELISA GOSSO 209 References Notes Barth F., Introduction, in Barth F. (ed.) Ethnic groups 1 Doctorate in Psychological, Anthropological and and boundaries. Te social organization of culture Educational Sciences, Doctoral School in Human difference, Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1969: 9-38. and Social Sciences, University of Turin. Che D., Reinventing Tulip Time: Evolving Diasporic 2 Ethnographic fieldwork was conducted in the Dutch Heritage Celebration in Holland (Michigan), Waldensian community of Rohrbach-Wem- in Coles T., Timothy D. J. (ed.), Tourism, Dias- bach-Hahn in Germany, the Waldensian Presby- poras and Space, London-New York, Routledge, terian Church of Valdese, North Carolina, USA, 2004: 261-77. the Cardon Families Organization of the United Cohen R., Global Diaspora: An Introduction, Lon- States and the Waldensian Church of the River don-New York, Routledge, 2008. Plate in Uruguay and Argentina (Gosso 2015). In De Lange A., Schneider M., Tron D., Desel J., Köhler this paper I focus on the case of Rohrbach-Wem- B., Ehmer H., Langner B. (eds.), Dreihundert bach-Hahn. Jahre Waldenser in Deutschland 1699-1999: Her- 3 Web site: http://www.waldenser.de. kunft und Geschichte, Karlsruhe, Evangelischer 4 It is the confirmation of the baptism received from Pressverband für Baden, 1999. children, that establishes the entry into the com- Duval T. D., Conceptualizing Return Visits: A Transna- munity of the church members. tional Perspective, in Coles T., Timothy D. J. (eds.), 5 Te motto of the village, written on a bronze Tourism, Diasporas and Space, London-New plaque situated in the central square of Rohrbach, York, Routledge, 2004: 50-61. declaims: Den Vätern zum treuen Gedenken, den Geymonat R., El templo y la escuela. Los valdenses en el Kindern zur steten Erinnerung, that means ‘To the Uruguay, Montevideo, OBSUR, 1994. Fathers, for a faithful thought. To the Children, Gosso E., Il passato è una valle straniera. Continuità for a constant memory’. e discontinuità nei processi di patrimonializzazione 6 A lighted candelabrum surrounded by seven stars fra le valli valdesi e i contesti valdesi transnazionali, with the motto Lux lucet in tenebris, ‘Light shines in Porcellana V., Gretter A., Zanini R. C. (eds.), in the darkness’. Alpi in mutamento. Continuità e discontinuità nella 7 Te costume consists of an ankle-length dress, trasmissione delle risorse in area alpina, Alessandria, usually dark blue, black or purple. Around the Edizioni dell’Orso, 2015: 35-56. waist a silky and colored apron is tied with long Köhler B., Dreihundert Jahre Waldenserkolonie Rohr- ribbons. On the shoulders it is used to wear a bach-Wembach-Hahn: Herkunft und Geschichte white or black shawl, with long fringes and floral ihrer Bewohner, Ober-Ramstadt, Verein für Hei- embroidery on the back. Te most characteristic matgeschichte e.V., 1999. element of the Waldensian costume is the precious Lowenthal D., Te Past is a Foreign Country, Cam- bonnet, usually white for adults and black for the bridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985. girls who are not yet confirmed. Lowenthal D., Te Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of 8 In Barth’s analysis, ‘diacritics’ are parameters that History, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, the members of a group develop in order to found 1998. a feeling of internal unity and to distinguish from Peyrot B., La roccia dove Dio chiama. Viaggio nella me- the others. moria valdese fra oralità e scrittura, Sala Bolognese, Arnaldo Forni Editore, 1990. Timothy D. J., Genealogical Mobility: Tourism and the Search for a Personal Past, in Timothy D. J., Guelke J. (eds.), Geography and Genealogy. Lo- cating Personal Pasts, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2008: 115-135. Tourn G., Te Waldensians. Te first 800 years (1174- 1974), Turin, Claudiana, 1980. Tuan Y. F., Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Per- ception, Attitudes and Values, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1974. Watts G. B., Te Waldenses in the New World, Dur- ham, Duke University Press, 1941.