r

Fire and Rescue Service Manual

FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE Volume 2 LIBRARY & INFORMATION RESOURCE CENTRE

RETURN OR RENEW ON, OR BEFORE, THE LAST Fire Service Operations DATE STAMPED BELOW (2 RENEWALS MAX.) FINES ARE PAYABLE ON ANY ITEMS RETURNED LATE Safe Work at Height

THE FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE LIBRARY MORETON-IN-MARSH GLOUCESTERSHIRE GL560RH

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The Fire Service College

00155071 London: TSO

- Safe Work at Height

Published by TSO (The Stationery Office) and available from:

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Mail,Telephone. Fax & E·mail TSO PO Box 29, Norwich, NR3 IGN Telephone orders/General enquiries: 0870 600 5522 Fax orders: 0870 600 55)) Contents E4 mail: customer,[email protected] Textphone 0870 240 370 I TSO Shops vii 123 Kingsway, london,WC2B 6PQ Purpose of this Guidance 0207242 6393 Fax 020 7242 6394 /6 Arthur Stree~ Belfast BTI 4GD Scope vii 028 9023 845 I Fax 028 9023 540 I 71 lothian Road, Edinburgh EH3 9AZ. Acknowledgments viii 0870 606 5566 Fax 0870 606 5588 TSO@Blackwell and other Accredited Agents Chapter 1 - trategic Framework 1 The Legal Framework 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 European Legislation 1 1.3 United Kingdom Legislation 1 1.3.1 The Health and Safety at Work Etc. Act 1974 1 1.3.2 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 2 1.3.3 Work at Height Regulations 2005 (WAHR) 3 1.3.4 Confined Spaces Regulations 1997 7 Published with the permission of the Department for Communities and Local Government 1.3.5 Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992 and Personal Protective on behalf of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office Equipment Regulations 2002 (PEP) 7 1.3.6 The Provision and Use ofWork Equipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER) 7 © Crown Copyright 2006 1.3.7 Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 (LOLER) 7

Copyright in the typographical arrangement and design rests with the Crown. 1.4 Organisational Roles and Responsibilities 8 1.4.1 Fire and Rescue Authorities 8 This publication, excluding the Royal Arms and any logos. may be reproduced free of charge in 1.4.2 Principal Officers/Brigade Managers 8 any format or medium for research, private study or for internal circulation within an organisation. 1.4.3 Management ofWork at Height Activities 8 This is subject to it being reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. The material 1.5 Key Hazards and Risks 9 must be acknowledged as Crown copyright and the title of the publication specified. 1.5.1 Equipment 9 10 This is a value added publication which falls outside the scope of the HMSO Class Licence. 1.5.2 Nature of the Work 1.5.3 Work Site and Prevailing Environmental Conditions 11 Applications for reproduction should be made in writing to 1.5.4 Equipment Use 12 HMSO,The Licensing Division,St Clements House. 2-16 Colegate, Norwich. NR3 1BQ 1.6 Developing Safe Systems of Work 12 Fax: 01603 723000 or e-mail: [email protected] 1.6.1 Clothing 12 1.6.2 Before Work at Height 12 1.6.3 During Work at Height 14 ISBN (10) 0 11 3413122 1.6.4 Post Work at Height 17 ISBN (13) 978 0 11 3413126 Chapter 2 - Operational Practice 19 Cover photographs: Chris Hawkins; The National Rope Users Group; Hampshire Fire and Rescue Service Part-title page photograph: Chris Hawkins 2.1 General Techniques 19 2.1.1 Collective Safeguards for Arresting Falls 19 Printed in Great Britain on material containing 75% post-consumer waste and 25% ECF pulp. 2.1.2 Individual Protection 20 2.2 Access Techniques 27 Printed in the United Kingdom for The Stationery Office 27 ID545954C 11/06 C25 2.2.1 Working Platforms (General) 2.2.2 Scaffolding and Access Towers 27

Safe Work at Height 111 3.5.7 Tripods/Quadpods/Frames 79 2.2.3 Mobile Elevated Work Platforms (MEWPs) 28 3.5.8 Stretchers 80 2.2.4 Continuity of Means of Protection 29 2.2.5 Portable Ladders 29 3.6 Ropes 80 2.2.6 Fixed Ladders 30 3.6.1 General 80 2.2.7 Ropes, Harnesses and Associated Equipment 31 3.6.2 Categories of Rope 84 3.6.3 Associated Rope Working Equipment 85 2.3 Systems ofWork 38 2.3.1 Anchors and Anchor Systems 38 3.7 Equipment Identification 85 2.4 Securing Casualties, Equipment and Other Items 46 3.8 Stowage of Ropes and Associated Equipment 86 2.4.1 Knots 46 3.9 Equipment Inspections, Examinations and Tests 86 2.4.2 Lifting, Lowering and Hauling 51 3.9.1 Pre-use and after-use checks 86 2.4.3 Winches and Pulley Systems 54 3.9.2 Detailed Inspection 86 2.4.4 Mechanical Advantage and Velocity Ratio 55 3.9.3 Maintenance 87 2.4.5 Securing Casualties and Performing Rescues from Height 59 3.9.4 Record Keeping 87 2.4.6 Casualty Management 61 3.9.5 Disposal of Equipment 88 2.5 Operational Environments 62 2.5.1 Existing Places ofWork 62 Chapter 4 - Training 89 2.5.2 Unprotected Edges 62 4.1 General Requirements 89 2.5.3 Roofs - Flat Roofs, Sloping Roofs and Fragile Roofs 64 4.1.1 Training Structure 89 2.5.4 Flat Roofs 64 4.1.2 Instructors 89 2.5.5 Sloping Roofs 64 90 2.5.6 Fragile Roofs/Surfaces 65 4.2 Training Requirements for all Firefighters 2.5.7 FRS Vehicles 67 4.3 Specialist Rope Operator Support Duties 92 2.5.8 Service and Utility Structures 68 4.4 Specialist Rope Operator Duties 94 2.5.9 Trees 69 4.5 Rope Work Supervisor 96 2.5.10 Collapsed Structures 69 2.5.11 Working Near Water 69 4.6 Rope Work Instructor 97 2.5.12 Confined Spaces 70 4.7 Technical Rope Work Officer 98 98 Chapter 3 - Equipment 71 4.8 Continuation Training and CPD 4.9 Use of Live Casualties 99 3.1 Selection of Equipment 71 3.2 Ladders and Aerial Appliances 71 Bibliography 101 3.2.1 Portable Ladders For Fire Service Use 71 3.2.2 Thrntable Ladders (TL) 72 Glossary 103 3.2.3 Hydraulic Platforms (HP) 72 3.2.4 Aerial Ladder Platforms (ALP) 74 Appendix 'A' - Work at Height Flow Chart 110 3.3 Working Platforms 74 3.4 Textile Based Equipment 75 3.4.1 General 75 3.4.2 Webbing Slings 75 3.4.3 Lanyards 75 3.4.4 Safety and Work Harnesses 76 3.5 Metal-Based Equipment 76 3.5.1 General 76 3.5.2 Connectors (karabiners, safety hooks, screw links) 77 3.5.3 Pulleys 77 3.5.4 Wire Strops 78 3.5.5 General Metal Hardware 78 3.5.6 Rope Control Devices 78

Safe Work at Height V IV Fire and Rescue Service Manual

n Safe Work at Height

Purpose of this Guidance

The Work at Height Regulations 2005 (WAHR) Regulations apply to all workplaces where the are made under the Health and Safety at Work etc. HSW Act applies. Act 1974 (HSW Act) and bring into effect the requirements of Council Directive 2001l45/EC This document gives guidance on legislation that amended the Use of Work Equipment relevant to work at height and identifies good Directive (89/655/EC). This amendment is known practice, which supports safe systems ofwork. The as the 'Temporary Work at Height Directive'. The guidance is for use by fire and rescue services for primary objective of WAHR is to ensure that planning operational service delivery and training. all work at height is performed safely. These

Scope

Work at height covers all work activities where • Offshore fire fighting and rescue. there is a possibility that a fall likely to result in • Climbing fixed structures. personal injury could occur. Work at Height • Working close to an excavation area where specifically includes access to and exit from a someone could fall. place ofwork. Examples ofwork at height include: • Working near a fragile surface. • Vehicle and property maintenance. • All training or work where there is a risk of falling. The following are not considered to be work at • Using a ladder. height, but they would need to be covered by risk • Working on an aerial appliance decking or assessments if they posed a significant risk. platform. • Working on the roof of a vehicle. • Slips and trips on the level. • Rope rescue work and training. • Falls on permanent stairs if there is no • Working in confined spaces. structural work or maintenance being • Working on cliffs. undertaken. • Tower crane rescues. • Work on the upper floors of a building where • Fire fighting and rescues on embankments, there is no risk from falling. docks and quays.

Safe Work at Height VU k at Height

Acknowledgments

The contribution of the following individuals and organisations to the production of this manual is acknowledged:

Diane Bell Her Majesty's Fire Service Inspectorate Chris Bilby Leicestershire Fire and Rescue Service Lawrie Booth Cambridgeshire Fire and Rescue Service John Burke Cleveland Fire Brigade Phil Crook Hampshire Fire and Rescue Service Roy Harold Buckinghamshire Fire and Rescue Service Gary Jeffery Essex County Fire and Rescue Service Steve Jones South Wales Fire and Rescue Service Denys Rama Her Majesty's Fire Service Inspectorate Mark Wilson Essex County Fire and Rescue Service

Chief Fire Officers' Association Fire and Rescue Service National Rope Users' Group Health and Safety Executive

VUl Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height Chapter

Chapter 1 - Strategic Framework

THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 1.3 United Kingdom Legis ation

.J Introduction 1.3.1 The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 This chapter attempts to provide an overview of the legal framework which fire and rescue services General duties of employers to their employees (FRS) have to operate within. It gives an insight into the legislative requirements, both from the UK (1) It shall be the duty of every employer to and from the EU, in the form of EU Directives, ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the which govern UK health and safety law. health, safety and welfare at work of all his employees. 1.2 European Legislation (2) Without prejudice to the generality of an The Single European Act of 1987 amended the employer's duty under the preceding Treaty of Rome permitting the Community to subsection, the matters to which that duty introduce minimum standards for the health and extends include in particular - safety of workers. The means of standard setting is by Directives; these bind each member state (a) the provision and maintenance of plant but leave to each the means of implementing and systems of work that are, so far as is Directives into its own law. reasonably practicable, safe and without risks to health; The Framework Directive is the first and most important of the post-1987 Directives and was (b) arrangements for ensuring, so far as incorporated in to UK law through the is reasonably practicable, safety and Management of Health and Safety at Work absence of risks to health in connection Regulations 1992. Employers are required to: with the use, handling, storage and transport of articles and substances; • Avoid risks to safety and health. • Evaluate risks which cannot be avoided, (c) the provision of such information, • Combat risks at source, adapting the work to instruction, training and supervision the individual. as is necessary to ensure, so far as is • Adapt to technical progress. reasonably practicable, the health and • Replace the dangerous by the non-dangerous safety at work of his employees; or the less dangerous. • Develop a coherent overall prevention policy. (d) so far as is reasonably practicable as • Give collective protective measures priority regards any place of work under the over individual measures. employer's control, the maintenance ofit • Give appropriate instructions to workers. in a condition that is safe and without

Safe Work at Height 1 - risks to health and the provIsIon and 1.3.2 Management of Health and Safety ensure that the demands of the job do not exceed emergency or rescue phase to proceed. The HSE maintenance of means of access to and at Work Regulations 1999 the employees' ability to carry out the work enforcement operational circular advises their egress from it that are safe and without without risk to themselves or others. inspectors that: such risks; Regulation 3: Risk Assessment This requires all employers and self-employed Regulation 14: Employees' duties "Regulation 4 duties should not hinder the work of (e) the provision and maintenance of a people to assess the risks to workers and any others Employees have a duty to co-operate with their the emergency services while they are working in working environment for his employees who may be affected by their work or business. All employer to enable the employer to comply with the emergency rescue phase when life may be in that is, so far as is reasonably employers should carry out a systematic general statutory duties for health and safety. Employees danger or life saving is being attempted. The practicable, safe, without risks to health, examination oftheir work activities, to identify the should also notify any shortcomings in the health intention is not to hinder the speed or effectiveness and adequate as regards facilities and risks to health and safety to any person arising out and safety arrangements, even when no immediate of emergency services acting in this emergency arrangements for their welfare at work. of, or in connection with their work. danger exists, so that employers can take remedial phase but when this phase has passed, the action if needed. Regulations will be expected to apply as normal. Note: Pope v Gould (H M Inspector ofHealth and Where the assessment identifies significant risk, Emergency services will be expected to have Safety) (20 June 1996, unreported) illustrates the adequate control measures must be implemented, Regulation 16: Risk assessment in respect of generic training and experience available to deal stringent way in which the courts enforce this the process recorded, monitored and reviewed. new or expectant mothers with risks associated with the emergency phase. section. In this case, the employer argued that Risk assessments for work at height should take They should also be able to use dynamic risk because he had instructed the employee to operate Regulation 4: Principles of prevention to be account of women who may be new or expectant assessments to cope with changing circumstances." machinery in a particular way, and the employee applied mothers and identify the preventive and protective had not followed his instructions, he was not liable. The general hierarchy of control applies to all measures that are required in Regulation 3. Regulation 5 Competence However, it was held that this section is not work at height. This regulation requires that all those involved in concerned solely with the giving of instructions; 1.3.3 Work At Height Regulations 2005 WAH should be competent, or if being trained, be rather it imposes upon the employer positive duties • Avoid risks. (WAHR) properly supervised by a competent person. in relation to ensuring safe systems of work and • Evaluate risks which cannot be avoided. safe machinery. It is not sufficient for instructions • Combat risks at source. Regulation 1 Citation and commencement For the purposes of this fire and rescue service of a health and safety nature merely to be given to • Adapt work to the individual. The WAHR came into force on 6th April 2005. guidance, a competent person is one who employees; an employer must also ensure that • Adapt to technical progress. understands their responsibilities under these those instructions are carried out. • Replace the dangerous by the non-dangerous Regulation 2 Interpretation Regulations and can demonstrate that they have or the less dangerous. This regulation defines a number of key issues sufficient professional or technical training, General duties of employers and self-employed • Develop a coherent overall prevention policy. including work at height, personal fall protection knowledge, actual experience, and authority' to to persons other than their employees • Give collective protective measures priority systems, fragile surfaces and working platforms. enable them to: over individual protective measures. Employers and the self employed are required to • Give appropriate instructions to employees. Regulation 3 Application • Carry out their assigned duties at the level conduct their work activities to ensure, so far as is This regulation sets out that the WAHR apply in of responsibility allocated to them. reasonably practicable, that people not in their Regulation 8: Procedures for serious and Great Britain to employers and the self employed; • Understand any potential hazards related to the employment are not exposed to risks to their health imminent danger and for danger areas it exempts certain dockside, offshore and ship work (or equipment) under consideration. or safety. When undertaking training or rescue operations at board activities. • Detect any technical defects or omissions in height, suitable and sufficient emergency plans that work (or equipment), recognise any General duties of employees at work should be factored into generic risk assessments Regulation 4: Organisation and planning implications for health and safety caused by and procedures. This requirement is within both This regulation states that WAH should be planned, those defects or omissions and be able to Employees must: the Management Regulations and the Work at supervised and carried out in a manner which is, so specify remedial actions to mitigate those Height Regulations. far as is reasonably practicable, safe. Planning for implications. • Take reasonable care for their health and emergencies is included. WAH should only be safety and that of other people who may be Regulation 11: Co-operation and co-ordination carried out when the weather conditions do not Regulation 6 Avoidance of risks from work at affected by their acts or omissions at work. When staff from more than one employer are in jeopardise the health or safety of those involved in height the workplace (including the incident ground) co­ the work. Emergency services acting in an This regulation sets out the hierarchy of control • Co-operate with their employer in health and ordination and co-operation is required to ensure emergency are exempt from this restriction. measures for performing WAR based on the safety matters. that safety arrangements adopted are adequate. employers risk assessment under the Management The exemption in Regulation 4(4) for emergency • Not interfere with or misuse anything Regulation 13: Capabilities and training services acting in an emergency is to ~nable the provided for their health and safety. When allocating work to employees, FRS's should Note: "authority" here means delegated authority to the work of the emergency services during the individual by his employer to carry out a certain function or duty.

Fire and Rescue Service Manual 2 Safe Work at Height 3 - of Health and Safety at Work Regulations. The says that no person at work should pass across, or HSE can exempt people, activIties, work guardrails and edge protection measures (e.g. for hierarchy is work on or from, a fragile surface where it is equipment or premises from the requirements of drill towers/aerial appliances) should be reasonably practicable to carry out this work safely the Regulations. determined by risk assessment. For construction AVOID WAH if you can. by some other means. Fragile surfaces must be work, the schedule sets the minimum height for If this is not possible then take suitable and indicated by warning notices, but fire and rescue Regulation 16 Exemption of the armed forces guard-rails to be at least 950 mm. sufficient steps to services, acting in an emergency are exempt from This regulation sets out a system for exemption this requirement. of the armed forces in the interests of national Schedule 3 Requirements for working PREVENT the risk of a fall, including security. platforms • Selection ofan existing work place that does Regulation 10 Falling objects This schedule is in two parts, the first part sets out not require additional measures to prevent a This regulation requires steps to be taken to Regulation 17 Amendment of PUWER 1998 the general requirements for: fall and where this is not possible prevent objects falling from height where injury This regulations adds equipment to which • Selection of the most suitable work could result. The risk of falling objects causing regulation 12 (inspections) ofthe WAH Regulations • Working platforms, including Mobile Elevated equipment to prevent a fall occurring injury should be minimised by keeping strict applies to regulation 6(5) of the Provision and Use Work Platforms (MEWPS). Fire and rescue MINIMISE the distance and consequences of control over the working area and that any materials ofWork Equipment Regulations 1998. service aerial appliances fitted with a cage fall any fall. or objects stored at height should be secured. within the definition of a MEWP. Regulation 18 Repeal of section 24 of the • Scaffolding. When selecting work equipment, priority should Regulation 11 Danger areas Factories Act 1961 • Ground conditions, stability of the platform be given to collective fall protection measures over This regulation requires any danger area where This regulation repeals section 24 of the Factories and supporting structures, working surfaces, personal protection. someone or something could fall and cause injury Act 1961. construction and loading. to be clearly indicated and actions taken to prevent Regulation 7 Selection of work equipment people entering the danger area. Regulation 19 Revocation of Instruments The second part of the schedule covers detailed This regulation sets out the general principles to be This regulation sets out a number of consequential requirements for scaffolding. applied when selecting work equipment for WAH. Regulation 12 Inspection of equipment revocations to a number of regulations specified in These principles include, working conditions, This regulation sets out the inspection and column I of schedule 8 to the WAHR. Schedule 4 Requirements for Collective distance and consequences of a fall, duration and recording requirements for equipment provided for Safeguards for Arresting Falls frequency of use, emergency evacuation and WAH. An inspection can vary from a simple Schedule 1 - Requirements for places of work This schedule sets out the requirements for additional risks present when the equipment is visual check to a detailed comprehensive at height collective safeguards to be suitably anchored, of being set up or taken down. inspection, which may include some dismantling This schedule sets out the requirements for existing sufficient strength and stability to withstand and testing. places ofwork at height, including means ofaccess loading in the event of a fall and that in the event Regulation 8 Requirements for particular and egress. Existing places of work at height are ofa fall by any person the safeguard does not itself work equipment Regulation 13 Inspection of places ofWork at those that do not require any additional safety cause injury to that person. This regulation requires that work equipment Height measures to prevent a fall from occurring; the selected for a particular task must comply with the This regulation states that the work surface and requirements ofthis schedule include comment on: Schedule 5 Requirements for Personal Fall requirements laid out in the appropriate schedules every parapet, permanent rail or other such fall Protection Systems to the Regulations: protection measure of every place of work at • Strength and rigidity of the structure. This schedule is in five parts, height, so far as is reasonably practicable, is • Suitable dimensions to carry out the work • Guard rails, toe boards, barrier or similar checked on each occasion before the place is used. and permit the safe passage of plant and Part 1 sets out the general requirements for all collective means (Schedule 2). equipment. personal fall protection systems, including fall • Working platforms, including aerial Regulation 14 Duties of persons at work • Provision of suitable edge protection ­ prevention, work restraint, work positioning, fall appliances (Schedule 3. part I). This regulation reflects the duties placed on the height of sills and parapets should be arrest, rescue systems, and rope access and • Collective Safeguards (Schedule 4). employees by the Management of Health and determined by a risk assessment under the positioning techniques. Before using such systems • Personal fall protection systems (Schedule 5, Safety at Work Regulations and emphasises the Management Regulations, and activities in the a risk assessment must indicate that: part I). importance, in the context of work at height, of area should be controlled by the findings ofthe • Work restraint (Schedule 5, part 5). employees using the equipment provided by the risk assessment. • The work can so far as is reasonably • Work positioning (Schedule 5, parts 2 and 3). employer to prevent or mitigate falls from height • Means to prevent objects from falling. practicable be performed safely while using • Fall arrest systems (Schedule 5, part 4). and of doing so in accordance with training they • Means to prevent slipping and tripping. that system and the use of other, safer work • Ladders (Schedule 6). have received and instructions concerning its use. equipment is not reasonably practicable. Schedule 2 Requirements for guardrails • The user and a sufficient number of available Regulation 9 Fragile surfaces Regulation 15 - Exemption by the Health and This schedule sets out similar requirements to persons have received adequate training This regulation sets out the requirements needed to Safety Executive schedule 1 for work equipment such ~s aerial specific to the operations envisaged, including prevent people falling through fragile surfaces. It This specifies the nature and extent to which the appliances and scaffold towers. The height of rescue procedures.

4 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 5 All personal fall protection equipment must: Part 4 sets out the additional requirements for fall Step ladders may be exempt from the requirement PPE used for safety at height is categorised as arrest systems including the requirement for a for a secure handhold when a load is carried, but type III (protection against mortal danger). As such • Be suitable and of sufficient strength for the suitable means of absorbing energy and limiting only when a risk assessment identifies low risk and it must be certified to European Standards by an purposes for which it is being used, having the forces applied to the user's body. A fall arrest a short duration of use. independent testing house. This gives rise to some regard to the work being carried out and any system must not be used where: limitations as to which equipment is suitable in foreseeable loading. Schedule 7 Particulars to be included in a different circumstances, although users should note • Where necessary, fit the user and be correctly • There is a risk of the line being cut. report of inspection that certification does not generally take account of fitted. • There is no clear zone beneath the work area This schedule sets out the detail of the contents of additional rescue loads. Where equipment is • Be designed to minimise injury to the user and, and its safe use requires a clear zone. an inspection report on equipment provided for intended for rescue purposes its suitability must be where necessary, be adjusted to prevent the user including allowing for any pendulum effect. WAH. further assessed through a risk assessment of its use falling or slipping from it, should a fall occur. • Its performance would be compromised or in relation to rescue situations • Be so designed, installed and used as to rendered unsafe. Schedule 8 Revocation of Instruments prevent unplanned or uncontrolled movement This schedule provides details of statutory 1.3.6 The Provision and Use ofWork of the user. Part 5 sets out the additional requirements for instruments revoked by the WAHR. Equipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER) work restraint systems to be used correctly and Part 2 sets out the additional requirements for work designed so that they prevent the user from getting 1.3.4 Confined Spaces Regulations 1997 PUWER 98 applies to the provision and use of all positioning systems, including the requirement: into a position in which a fall can occur. work equipment, including that used for work at The Confined Spaces Regulations, 1997 apply to height. It places requirements on duty holders to • For a suitable backup system for preventing or Schedule 6 Requirements for Ladders all premises and work situations where a work area provide suitable work equipment, information, arresting a fall. This schedule requires employers to ensure that a is a fully or partially enclosed space and a defined instructions and training. The primary objective is • That where the system includes a line as a ladder is used for work at height only if a risk hazard is present. These regulations require to ensure that work equipment should not result in backup system, the user is connected to it. assessment has demonstrated that the use of employers to: health and safety risks, regardless of its age, • Where it is not reasonably practicable to alternative work equipment is not justified by the condition or origin. provide a backup system, all practicable circumstances, the short duration of use or existing • Avoid entry to confined spaces. measures are taken to ensure that the work features on site which can't be altered. • Where it is not possible to avoid entry, 1.3.7 Lifting Operations and Lifting positioning system does not fail. establish and follow a safe system of work. Equipment Regulations 1998 (LOLER) The surface on which a ladder is pitched must be • Ensure the safe system of work includes Part 3 sets out the additional requirements for rope stable, firm, of sufficient strength and suitable suitable and sufficient emergency arrangements. All work activities that involve lifting a load come access and positioning techniques, including that a composition to support the ladder and any within the scope of LOLER 1998. 'Lifting rope access or positioning technique shall: intended load. Portable ladders must be prevented Fire and rescue service operations in confined equipment' is defined as work equipment for from slipping during use by: spaces will often involve work at height. In lifting or lowering loads and includes its • Involve a system comprising at least two supplying equipment to account for the risks attachments used for anchoring, fixing or separately anchored lines, of which one ("the • Securing at or near their upper or lower ends. presented by work at height there is always a need supporting the load. A 'lifting operation' is any working line") is used as a means of access, or to provide a suitable recovery system that ensures operation concerned with the lifting or lowering of egress and support and the other is the safety • Providing an effective anti-slip or other safe egress is maintained even if personnel are a load and the term load includes a person. line. effective stability device. injured. Consideration should be given to ensuring • Ensure the user is provided with a suitable or the compatibility of the equipment and systems of LOLER requires 'competent persons' to plan harness and is connected by it to the working • Any other arrangement of equivalent work to meet these requirements. lifting activities, as well as conduct inspections and line and the safety line. effectiveness, which could include 'footing' thorough examinations of all equipment used for • Ensure the working line is equipped with safe the ladder and the use of support or handling 1.3.5 Personal Protective Equipment at lifting at work. means of ascent and descent and has a self­ poles in accordance with accepted fire and Work Regulations 1992 and Personal locking system to prevent the user falling rescue service practices. Protective Equipment Regulations 2002 The Regulations consider a competent person to be should he lose control of his movements and (PPE) one who has such appropriate practical and the safety line is equipped with a mobile fall Ladders must protrude sufficiently above the place theoretical knowledge and practical experience of protection system which is connected to and of landing unless other measures have been taken Some items of equipment that are not normally lifting equipment as will enable them to select, travels with the user of the system. to ensure a firm handhold. Extension ladders must designated as PPE could become so when use, care and maintain lifting equipment and • Only use a single rope system where a risk be resting securely on their pawls before use. assembled into a work system for work at height. accessories. They must receive adequate assessment has demonstrated that the use of When using ladders, a secure handhold and secure Examples may include ropes, harnesses and information, instruction and on the principles of a second line would entail higher risk to support must be available to the user, who must associated equipment which are assembled into a lifting and lifting equipment and be able to account persons and appropriate measures have been maintain a safe handhold when carrying a load. system that prevents a fall. for any limitations on use. taken to ensure safety.

6 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Sale Work at Height 7 - Any person carrying out a thorough examination 1.4.3 Management of Work at Height service premises or representatives from other • Instructions on use which have been provided. must have such appropriate practical and Activities agencies working within an inner cordon. • Training in the use of the work equipment or theoretical knowledge and experience ofthe lifting safety device. equipment to be thoroughly examined as will All managers with a responsibility for organizing, 1.4.3.2 Duties of employees enable them to detect defects or weaknesses and to planning and supervising work at height must be 1.5 Key Hazards and Risks assess their importance in relation to the safety and competent. Specific work at height responsibilities Employees must report to their supervisor any continued use of the lifting equipment. should be included in health and safety policies activity or defect relating to work at height which The hazards and risks associated with working at and job descriptions appropriate to the needs ofthe is likely to endanger the safety of themselves or height arise from the Equipment and its use, the 1.4 Organisational Roles and service. any other person. Work equipment or safety nature of the work undertaken, the work site and Responsibilities devices provided for work at height must be used prevailing environmental conditions. Each hazard When a decision is taken to undertake specialist in accordance with: may give rise to one or more risks, with a range of 1.4.1 Fire and Rescue Authorities technical rope-working activities, an officer should control measures, as listed in the tables below. be nominated to take overall management The Integrated Risk Management Plan (IRMP) responsibility for the activity. The duties of the will set out the range of risks that individual Fire responsible officer will include: and Rescue Authorities will consider when developing their plan. Work at Height should be • Formulation, evaluation, review and Key Hazards and Risks identified as a hazard in the IRMP process and Fire modification of service procedures. Table A: Equipment and Rescue Authorities will then allocate suitable • Monitoring records of training, equipment use and sufficient resources to allow such work to be and equipment testing. i\litigalil\~ Control Ml'asures , planned, supervised and carried out safely. • Evaluation of new equipment and procedures and identification of their suitability for use in 1.4.2 Principal Officers/Brigade the brigade. Effective procurement management Managers • Representing the serVIce 1I1 rope working system. matters at local, regional and national level. Appropriate labelling. On behalf of Fire and Rescue Authorities, principal • Supervising dealings with rope working • Unsuitable equipment. Provision of suitable and sufficienI officers/brigade managers must consider the equipment and training suppliers. information. • Incorrect use of equipment. outcome ofstrategic risk assessments to establish the Training. • Damaged equipment. extent to which they will undertake work at height. The officer nominated to take overall management Pre-use checks and inspections. responsibility for rope work activities must receive • Incorrect assessment of loading. Death. Safe system of work. The outcomes of systematic risk assessments must such training as is necessary to provide the level of • Excessive force applied to Crushing, asphyxiation and impact Correct use of appropriate then be considered in order to inform decisions on knowledge, skills and understanding required by equipment. related injuries. equipment. which work activities can be undertaken, the role. • Failure of knot or securing Entrapment of body parts. Secondary safety system. outsourced or can't be resourced. This will help system. Falls or impact from falling objects. Inspection and thorough define the service's requirement to provide work at 1.4.3.1 Co-operation with other emergency • Failure of anchor or belay Cuts, bruises etc. system. examination of equipment. height equipment alongside appropriate training services/contractors/responsible persons Rope friction burns. and the development of relevant procedures. Appropriate cleaning, drying, • Entanglement with equipment. Overload of equipment. Fire and rescue authorities must ensure that planning transport and storing of equipment. • Person being raised or lowered Failure or malfunction of In making these decisions it will be necessary to: for work at height takes account of circumstances striking or entangling with Records of use, examinations, equipment or work systems. where work may be undertaken in conjunction with obstructions. maintenance and testing. Damage to equipment. • Take account of all relevant statutory other emergency services, agencies or contractors. • Uncontrolled descent. Planning and effective supervision of lifting and towering operations. provISions. • Descent or being lowered off the • Establish policies, set priorities and define safe Planning and risk assessments should be jointly end of a rope. Correct selection and use of anchor systems of work. undertaken and procedures will need to define points. • Suspension trauma. • Ensure the provIsion of appropriate who has overall responsibility at the work site. The Provision of energy absorbing equipment, information, training and regulations are clear in that employers have equipment. supervision. responsibility for work at height by their Stopper knot tied in end of rope. • Review policies and procedures and revise as employees and any other person under their Use of deviation. appropriate. control, to the extent of that control. This will Effective communications. • Ensure suitable and sufficient resources are apply, for example, to contractors working on fire available to provide safe systems of work.

8 Fire and Rescue Service Manua/ Safe Work at Height 9 -- Key Hazards and Risks Key Hazards and Risks .. Table B: Nature of the Work Table C: Work Site and Prevailing Environmental Conditions

Miti~ating Control Measures ;\Iitigating Control J\lc~lsures

Selection of personnel with Selection of personnel with physical fitness and mental physical fitness and mental aptitude for the task. aptitude for the task. • Sloping, loose or slippery Training. surfaces. Training. Provision of suitable and sufficient Provision of suitable and sufficient Falls or impact from falling objects. • Uneven ground. information. information. • Working at height. Fatigue. • Fragile roofs. Falls or impact from falling objects. Effective supervision. Effective supervision. • Darkness and inadequate Slips and trips. • Access and egress to the work Entrapment and crushing. Work area management, including area. Selection and use of suitable PPE, lighting. Vertigo, motion sickness. Struck by vehicle. provision of hazard zones. including clothing. • Presence of corrosive or harmful • Duration of the work activity. Strains, sprains and other manual Damage of textile based equipment Use of work restraint, fall arrest or substances. Selection and use of suitable PPE, • Casualty/victim handling. handling injuries. leading to equipment failure. including clothing. work positioning equipment. • Microwave, RF, laser or other • Physiological effects. Medical contamination by blood or Eye injuries, temporary blinding, Secondary safety system. electromagnetic transmissions. Sufficient, well sited and effective burns. • Psychological effects. other fluids. lighting. Work area management, including • Sharp or protruding edges and Fatigue, cold, hypothermia, heat Entanglement of clothing or • Working with other agencies. provision of hazard zones. abrasive surfaces. Use of work restraint equipment or stress, dehydration. equipment. fall arrest equipment. • Members of the public. Use of ladders and aerial • Movement or failure of the Unpredictable reaction to exposure. Obscured surfaces. appliances. structure or work area. Use of ladders or crawling boards Potential for confusion/conflict. Impaired/reduced vision. and information relating to fragility. Minimum numbers of personnel • Vehicle movements in the work committed. area. Windblown material. Adequate welfare arrangements. Appropriate first aid training. • Unstable working platforms. [ncreased background noise. Avoid entering path of laser / Exposure to cold, hypothermia, microwave transmissions. Adequate we! fare arrangements. • Lightning. wind chill. Maintain safe distance from Pre-planning and liaison. • Rain. electromagnetic transmissions. • Cold weather conditions. RF monitoring equipment. • Hot weather conditions. Use of rope protectors, pads or • Wind. edge rollers. Cessation of operations.

10 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 11 Key Hazards and Risks relevant to the risk profile ofthe area in which they Safe Person Table D: Equipment Use may respond. This will allow decisions to be made • Numbers of people required to undertake the on the balance between core working at height task - is it a single person or larger numbers? i\litigating Contml Measures skills and the need for more specialised systems. In • The total exposure of all the workers involved carrying out these assessments, generic and site to risk, and the degree of that risk - how many specific risks must be evaluated. people are exposed to the risk and how severe • Inappropriate use of equipment. Planning and effective supervision is it? of lifting and lowering operations. • Overload of equipment or Generic hazards may include tall buildings, masts, • Competence of the crews and the level of excessive force being applied to Correct use of appropriate pylons, cranes or scaffolding, tall chimneys, cliffs, supervision required - are they in training, the equipment. equipment. steep embankments or dams, deep shafts or wells, under development or assessed as competent? • Failure of knot or securing Training. Fall or being struck by falling agricultural or other silos, chair lifts, gondolas, system. object. Use of back-up safety device kept cable cars, trees, etc. A management system should be developed for • Failure of anchor or belay as high as possible. Damage to equipment. work at height with superVISion that rs system. Use of separate anchor point for Catastrophic equipment failure. Specific sites - such as large buildings or proportionate to the risk and: • Entanglement with equipment. each rope. industrial complexes, known recreational or Entanglement/ entrapment with • Person being raised or lowered Provision of energy absorbing climbing venues, theme parks, or potential suicide equipment resulting in crush. • Takes account of the experience and striking or entangling with equipment. amputation or other physical injury. sites may include the presence of one or more of capability of the people involved in the work. obstructions. Stopper knot tied in end of rope. the above generic hazards. For example trainee firefighters would require Crushing, asphyxiation and impact • Uncontrolled descent through a greater degree of supervision than a related injuries, death. Use of stretchers. equipment failure or operator The factors to be considered in the risk assessment competent crew. Rope friction burns. Use of deviation. error. should include: • Includes a process of briefing personnel to Effective communications. • Descent or being lowered off the ensure they are aware of hazards and specific end of a rope. Safe Place circumstances in which they might have to ask • Suspension trauma. • Weather and environment - what effects will for further assistance. • Inadequate communications. the weather and environmental conditions have • Puts in place a rescue plan to cater for on outdoor work at height? emergencies which considers additional risks • Conditions on site - are the ground conditions to rescuers and, any need for additional stable and secure enough to support a ladder or resources. 1.6 Developing are ystems of Work particularly harnesses and associated equipment, aerial appliance? • Ensures that working practices are modified to should be specifically considered. • Stability of the working environment - is it a provide systems of work that minimise risk to 1.6.1 Clothing fragile or unstable surface? health or safety during the emergency phase of 1.6.2 Before Work at Height • Danger from falling objects - is there a risk of an incident in inclement weather. Planning for work at height activities should people being hit by falling objects? include consideration of appropriate clothing for 1.6.2.1 Policy and Planning 1.6.2.2 Liaison with Other Agencies and a.ll reasonably foreseeable circumstances. In some Safe Process Voluntary Organisations cases the clothing provided may be classified as [njuries can be caused by falls from relatively low • Task to be performed - is it operational, PPE whilst on other occasions it may be part of a heights. Injury statistics show that falls from head training or routine maintenance? When developing work at height procedures, it is clothing system to ensure comfort to the individual height or lower account for two-thirds of major • Most suitable equipment for the task after a essential that the fire and rescue service liaises in a particular working environment. injury accidents caused by falls. It cannot be risk assessment - should a ladder, rope rescue with other agencies, commercial and voluntary assumed that little or nothing need be done to equipment, or aerial appliance be used? organisations within their area that may already Although standard fire-fighting PPE is suitable for prevent falls, therefore risk assessments must be • Duration ofthe task - is it a single task ofshort provide a similar service, or with whom the fire many activities undertaken whilst working at completed before performing work at height. A duration or protracted working? and rescue service may be expected to work at height, more technical activities involving rope risk assessment, undertaken by a competent person • Frequency with which the task needs to be incidents. This is particularly important in the case access or rope rescue, may require clothing that is will identify the health and safety risks and performed - is it a one off, or an everyday of mountain or cave rescue associations who are specific to the activity. This may involve different appropriate control measures, for incorporation occurrence? likely to have specialist expertise, which may be of levels of protection from environmental factors or into standard operating procedures and training. • Risks that arise from pre and post use of the benefit to the FRS. Where such organisations clothing to facilitate comfort and free movement. equipment - for example is there additional exist, a working protocol should be developed with When identifying capacity and capability risk in pitching a ladder? local teams. When assessing the suitability of clothing and appropriate to hazards, each fire and rescue • Rescue procedures if something goes wrong ­ PPE provided for use during work at height, its service should undertake a risk assessment to what contingency arrangements need to be in In the case of fire and rescue services whose area compatibility with other elements of PPE, determine the issues relating to work at height place? incorporates coastline or estuaries, close

Safe Work at Height 13 l.. 1_2 F._ir_e_a_n_d_R_e_sc_L_le_s_e_rv_i_ce_M_a_nu_a_' ;;I>.... _ cooperation with the Maritime and Coastguard • The need for trainees to be carefully appropriate control measures. Individual Agency (MCA) is essential during pre-planning monitored. protection may be appropriate for work at height Command Structure for coastal and littoral incidents. CFOA and the • The need for individuals who experience involving rescue or other urgent operational Simple incident, single appliance MCA have agreed an outline Memorandum of psychological difficulties to be identified activities to protect human life or control a Understanding for rescue on cliffs or from littoral during training and to be given the deteriorating situation in the early phase of an Incident areas. opportunity to withdraw or be withdrawn from incident. Consideration should, however, always be I Commander specialist operations. given to collective protection systems particularly I 1.6.2.3 Industry Liaison when urgent activities have been completed. I I See Figure 1.1. Rescue Support Sector specific guidance for work at height IS All work at height operations must be adequately Team Team produced for a number of different industries. Occupational health screening facilities can assist supervised as appropriate to the nature and in this area. In view of the above, it is complexity of the situation. When implementing a Businesses that undertake work at height have a unlikely that fire and rescue services \vill consider safe system of work, ongoing dynamic risk Figure 1.2 Command Structure: Simple incident. specific duty to prepare plans to rescue their own that specialist operations of this nature should be assessments should be proportionate to the level of single appliance. workers in the event of an emergency. Where a compulsory. risk involved and consider: business wishes to include the fire and rescue service as part of their emergency arrangements 1.6.3 During Work at Height • Alternative ways of working. they should formally agree this expectation before • Time imperatives for action and duration of including it in their emergency procedures. Fire 1.6.3.1 Planning and Command activities. Command Structure and rescue services may wish to consider whether • Competence of personnel relative to the Complex incident, multiple appliances such arrangements should be classified as The nature and urgency of the task to be complexity of the intended activities. chargeable special services. undertaken must be considered when determining • Availability of suitable resources. Incident • Environmental conditions. Commander 1.6.2.4 Selection and Training of Personnel • Access and egress. • Organisation of the work area. Rope Sector No person shall engage in any work at height • Supervision. Commander activity unless they are competent to do so, or are • Communication requirements. under supervision during training. This includes • Safety management systems. Safety Officer ~ planning, organising, supervision, selection and • Emergency Procedures. I use of equipment as well as carrying out the • Control measures appropriate to the number of activity itself. This principle applies to both staff people exposed to the risk. I I directly engaged in work at height and relevant Rescue Team Support Leader Team Leader managers. Issues identified in the dynamic risk assessment should be clearly communicated to all personnel I There is a general requirement for all employees involved through a safety briefing before I I Evacuation who may need to work at height to be able to work operations commence. Rescue Top-side - Crew Equipment, route preparation safely when doing so. More specialist work at anchorages, height, which involves activities in high and When rope work systems are operated by specialist etc. exposed situations, places particular demands on technical rope work teams, the incident command individuals, such that some people are not able to structure should include supervision by competent cope with the psychological or physiological specialist personnel. Depending on the complexity Figure 1.3 Command Structure: Complex incident, stressors involved. Personnel selected as members and duration of the incident, a suitable management mldt/ple appliances. of specialist teams must have an appropriate structure may include a: attitude and aptitude for such work. Selection and training processes should take account of: • Rope sector commander. • Work at height supervisor. • Medical, physical and psychological fitness to • Rope safety officer. work in high and exposed locations. • The need for specialist operators to work in difficult environments out of sight of their Figure I. IA photograph showing a typical location jor supervIsors. rope working. high and exposed.

14 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 15 1.6.3.2 Hazard Zones imperative that clear communications exist 1.6.4.3 Auditing between agencies to establish clarity of what needs To minimISe the risk of injury to personnel and to be done, how it needs to be done and all Audit processes should enable fire and rescue members of the public, hazard zones must be associated risks. services to reinforce, maintain and improve their established, cordoned off and operated in line with ability to reduce risks associated with work at inner cordon principles. This must include the The location and potential exposure of places of height. The audit process should seek to ensure working location and areas ofrisk above and below work at height means evidence may be lost through that: when: environmental influences. Consideration should be given to taking active measures that protect a scene • Appropriate training, equipment, procedures • Individuals are working at height and there is a of investigation, although such measures must be and supervision are in place. risk of a fall likely to cause injury. proportionate to the risk encountered and remain • Staff demonstrate competence for work at • Individuals are at risk of being struck by within the boundaries of safe working practices. height. falling objects. • Staff understand their legal responsibilities • Rope is being used to haul, lift or lower loads, 1.6.4 Post Work at Height for work at height. or for working at height. • Adequate risk controls exist and they reflect 1.6.4.1 Debriefing the nature and complexity of work at height Hazard zones should be established in accordance activities. with the following principles: OPERATOR All work at height activities should be followed by • Fire and rescue services improve performance HAZARD ZONE an appropriate level of debriefing, with other and respond to change. • The hazard zone must be large enough to agencies involved as appropriate. Any significant • Systems include operational audit of work enable the risk to be controlled. The size may outcomes should be documented and then used to at height activities. be influenced by available space, nature of review systems and equipment, making changes as risk, high winds or other adverse conditions. necessary. On stable ground and in good weather conditions, a minimum distance of three 1.6.4.2 Monitoring and Reviewing metres from an unprotected edge may be considered appropriate. Work at height systems should be regularly • The boundary of the zone must be effectively monitored and reviewed to ensure they continue to indicated, providing a physical barrier and reflect good practice, service standards and local illuminated during hours of darkness. requirements. Both active and reactive review Consideration should be given to the need for systems should be used. the boundary of the zone to be staffed or identified by hazard warning signs. • The number of personnel within the hazard zone should be kept to the minimum. • All individuals who enter a hazard zone must be fully briefed and correctly protected with appropriate PPE. Figure 1.4 Diagrams showing typical Hazard zones/or: • Rope anchor and belay points should, where Hauling or lowering equipment. Cliffor crag rescue. possible, be placed outside the hazard zone. • Casualty holding areas and equipment dumps should be placed outside the hazard zone. endangered life. This is particularly so when See Figure lA. activities involve work at height, as the fire and rescue service generally provides the primary 1.6.3.3 Inter-Service Liaison and Control of resources to implement safe systems of work. It Operations also frequently assists other agencies that may need to work at height and in such circumstances The FRS will always maintain a high level of manages overall scene safety. Control reverts solely operational responsibility and control at any to the police when an incident involves suspected incident where there is a requirement to save terrorist activities. In either circumstance it is

16 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 17 Safe Work at Height Chapter 2 Chapter 2 - Operational Practices

2.1 General Techniques use may be appropriate in training or routine work environments. They are increasingly being adopted Work should not be carried out at height if there is as a safety measure by industry, so it is likely that a reasonably practicable means to carry out the fire and rescue service personnel may find such work safely, otherwise than at height. Where work measures already in place when attending an is carried out at height, measures should be taken incident. Nonnal service safety provision by the to prevent a fall. Where it is not practicable to use of PPE can be considered the most appropriate prevent the risk of a fall, the distance and way to manage risk, although in certain limited consequence of a fall must be minimised. Work at circumstances pre-installed collective safeguards height involves a series of speci fic considerations, for arresting falls my be considered for inclusion overlapping techniques and procedures including: in the safety measures taken. Fire and rescue service personnel are unlikely to possess the • Collective safeguards comprising: competences required to assess the suitability and • Nets. effectiveness of these systems, so specialist on-site • Air bags. advice must be taken before relying on them at an • Bean bags. incident. Collective safeguards that have already • Mats and other soft landing systems. been subjected to an impact should not be • Individual protection by: considered to provide suitable protection for • Work restraint. fire and rescue service personnel. In such • Fall arrest. circumstances personal protection systems • Work positioning. should be provided for rescuers. • Access techniques with: • MEWPs. Collective safeguards for fall arrest may be • Working platforms. considered when it is not appropriate to prevent a • Ladders. fall occurring by either collective or personal • Ropes, harnesses and associated equipment. protection systems. They must be strong enough to • Systems of work to control: safely arrest a fall, be securely attached to suitable • Falling objects and Hazard zones. anchors, remain stable during any subsequent • Anchors and anchor systems. rescue and must not, in themselves, cause injury. • Securing equipment and other items. • Lifting, lowering and hauling. Safety netting is generally the preferred collective • Securing casualties and performing rescues safeguard for fall arrest used in industry as it does from height. not rely on individual user discipline to guarantee acceptable safety standards. See Figure 2.1. 2.1.1 Collective Safeguards for Arresting Falls The following points are considered industry good practice when using safety nets: Collective safeguards comprise nets, air bags, beans bags, mats and other soft landing systems. • Nets should be installed by a competent These systems are not generally appropriate for rigger and be as close as possible beneath the fire and rescue service operations, although their work area to minimise the distance of any fall

Sale Work at Height 19 and withstand a person falling onto them (2 metres is considered the maximum safe Work Restraint - Example I fall). There must be at least 3 metres clearance below the net and proper A pump operator working adjacent to a dockside installation should be confirmed by the could be secured to a suitable point at the rear of the issue of a handover certificate. appliance preventing them from reaching the dock • For a net to be considered safe to use, it must edge. be attached to a structure with appropriate capacity, have no gaps and any joins between nets must have an overlap of at least 2 metres. •A visual inspection should be undertaken before safety nets are used. Figure 2.2 Air bags 011 construction site. • The following activities are considered unsafe: (Ph%: Health and Saki)' Executivr?) • Walking in, or jumping into the net. • Storing equipment or materials in the net. 2.1.2 Individ ual Protection • Tampering with or adjusting the net an attachment. Individual protection can be achieved 10 one of • Ensure a rescue plan including any rescue three ways: equipment is in place before commencing work. • Work restraint. • The area underneath safety netting should be • Fall arrest. included in the hazard zone. • Work positioning. Work Restraint - Example 2 Air bags, bean bags and mats provide suitable he most appropriate method of individual collective safeguards for arresting falls when they protection must be determined through a risk A fire fighter working in any location with unguarded can be placed close to the working level in order to assessment of each work environment and the edges from which there is a risk of a fall that could minimise the consequences of a fall from height. circumstances of the activity to be undertaken. cause injury can be easily protected by the provision They should be appropriately anchored, stable and of a waist belt or harness, attached to a suitable if they distort on impact should afford sufficient This list indicates the hierarchy normally used anchor point by a rope that is shorter than the clearance to prevent injury. A risk assessment during operational activities, but in other distance between the anchor and the edge. should consider the suitability of this equipment if circumstances work positioning may generally be the fall to the air bags, bean bag or mat is greater considered before fall arrest. than 2 metres. See Figure 2.2. When making decisions about the use of individual protection systems and the need for and levels of PPE, it is relevant to note that accidents involving falls occur more frequently during the latter stages of incidents than during the initial period of emergency activity. This is considered to be because individuals have an increased awareness of danger during the early and urgent stages of activity, but that such awareness reduces as the incident progresses.

2.1.2.1 Work Restraint

The objective of work restraint (or travel restriction) is to restrict an individual's movement so that access to any location where there is a risk figure 2.4 Firefighter working near the edge o/aflat mof Figure 2./ Safety nets on constructio/1 site. of a fall from a height is not possible. Work (PholO. Heallh and Sa/en' Execulivi?) restraint equipment is not designed to sustain high

20 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 21 Height of Fall Fall Factors - Example 1 Fall Factor = Leng~ofRopeinthe An individual working on a vertical ladder wearing System a full body harness is attached to the ladder by a one-metre lanyard. If the individual falls from a In this situation the fall factor is calculated as position where the attachment point of the lanyard to 2 metres (fall) divided by 1 metre (rope or lanyard), the ladder is 1 metre below the attachment point to giving a fall factor of 2. the harness, the total resulting fall will be 2 metres. The fall factor is calculated by comparing the length of the fall with the amount of rope. Figure 2.6 Photo 0.(af(tll arrest system providing safety when accessing a shafi via a fixed vertical ladder.

Figure 2.8 (near right) Diagram 0/start BEFORE AFTER position showing Figure 2.5 Work Restraint - Technique using PPE tu distances. prevent personnel moving into an area o.r(al/ putential.

shock loads and is unsuitable for work positioning Figure 2.9 (far right) or fall arrest situations. Diagram a/finish position showing distances. Equipment Selection for work restraint The minimum system required to achieve the necessary restriction on travel will be:

•A suitable waist belt or harness. 2M •A rope or lanyard. •A reliable anchor point.

The rope or lanyard should be adjusted for length, so that once connected it is impossible for the Figure 2.7 Fall Arrest - Technique lIsing PPE to safezl' individual to reach the edge, thus removing the risk arrest afcdl. ofa fall. Adjustment may be managed either by the individual being protected or by a second person before commencing work. The relevant standard operating a rope control device attached to the for a complete fall arrest system is E 363 and it anchor. should be assembled from component parts that comply with their own individual standards (e.g. a 2.1.2.2 Fall Arrest energy absorbing cl ment to [3 EN 355).

Fall arrest systems are designed for use in Fall Factors situations where the risk of a fall likely to cause When choosing equipment for fall arrest it is injury exists. important to understand the elT Cl of faJ] factors. Work systems should be developed to minimise Ifcircumstances demand that individuals operate in the fall factor and systems that give a fall factor a position where a fall resulting in injury could which exceeds one should not be used unless occur, then suitable fall arrest equipment must be unavoidable. High fall factors. with potential high used. Although the primary hazard is that offalling impact forces can be associated with an increased a distance likely to cause an injury, the potential risk of injury and damage to equipment. The and likely consequences ofa falling person striking examples given below illustrate the principle of adjacent objects or surfaces should also be assessed fall factors in III working environment.

22 Fire and Rescue Service iVlanual Safe Work at Height 23 Fall Factors - Example 2 Fall Factors - Example 3 position the resulting fall will be 1 metre. The fall factor is again calculated by comparing the length of If the same individual falls from a position where the In this situation, therefore, the fall factor is calculated An individual being belayed from above whilst the fall with the amount of rope in the system. attachment point of the lanyard to the ladder is at the as 1 metre (fall) divided by 1 metre (rope or lanyard), ascending a vertical ladder. The individual is 9 metres same height as the attachment point of the lanyard giving a fall factor of 1. to the harness, the resulting fall will be 1 metre. below the belay point but the belay rope is slack and In this situation the fall factor is calculated as 1 metre The fall factor is again calculated by comparing the there are 10 metres of rope between the belay point (fall) divided by 10 metres (rope), giving a fall factor length of the fall with the amount of rope in the and the individual. If the individual falls from this of one tenth. system. Figure 2.12 (near right) Diagram 0/ BEFORE AFTER start position with individual on ladder Figure 2.10 (near showing distances and right) Diagram ofstart BEFORE AFTER slack rope. position showing distances.

I Figure 2.13 (lar right) Diagram 0/ Figure 211 (far right) finish position with Diagram ofjinish individual suspended position showing showing distances and distances. tight rope.

1MOF ROPE gM 10M

1M

24 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 25 A lower fall factor results in a lower force with a A fall arrest system may also be Llsed to provide Selection ofequipment for work positioning 2.2 Access techniques lower shock loading transferred to both the anchor protection where an individual needs to work on a A work positioning system must include: and the individual at the point of fall arrest. In any sloping surface. Such a system might incorporate a 2.2.1 Working Platforms (General) fall arrest situation dynamic ropes or energy single top belayed rope and harness system such as •A sit harness or full body harness complying absorbing systems should be used to reduce the that shown below. This system only provides fall with BS EN358. Key considerations relating to the use of working effect of high fall factors by stretching as weight is protection for an individual moving into position • An effective anchor. platforms include: applied during a fall, thereby reducing the to carry out a given task; it does not provide a •A connecting rope and rope control device. or AVOID transferred forces. When working with dynamic means to support the individual's weight. See •A suitable lanyard system. • Overloading. rope or energy absorbing lanyards, it is essential to Figure 2.14. • Use in adverse/windy conditions other than for ensure that an adequate clearance height is When work positioning systems are used in immediate operational need. available below the scene of operations due to the 2.1.2.3 Work Positioning conjunction with breathing apparatus, a full body extension of the system as the fall is arrested. harness with a high attachment point must be PREVENT When attending any incident where individuals must provided to maintain the operator in an upright • Movement with persons or materials on the Equipment Selection for fall arrest be supported in tension or suspension to carry out position. platform. Equipment used for fall arrest is designed to halt a work or affect a rescue, suitable work positioning • Climbing up the outside. fall and reduce the impact forces generated in equipment must be provided. Unlike work restraint In situations where it is envisaged that a harness • Use of ladders, step ladders, boxes, etc. on top doing so. In order to reduce the energy of a fall, or fall arrest, people operating in these situations are may be worn for extended periods, it should to extend the height. excess energy must be absorbed and dissipated totally dependent on the rope system to suppOli their incorporate design and construction features that • Use if any components are damaged. within the fall arrest system, therefore a suitable weight and to prevent them falling. will ensure the comfort of the wearer in • Use on soft ground. fall arrest system will include: suspension. This may include the provision of a MITIGATE When considering the need to provide work work seal. • Always carry out a pre-use check. •A fall arrest harness complying with BS positioning systems, the following principles must • Only use towers that have been properly EN36 I. be applied: erected by a competent person (level, vertical, •A energy absorbing element. all components present and tied if necessary). •A connecting rope or lanyard. • Work positioning systems should always • Only move or use towers if you have received • An effective anchor. include a primary system, from which the the relevant training or are being supervised by individual is suspended and a separate safety a competent person. or backup system that will come into • Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use. operation automatically should the primary fail • Always check that all wheels are locked and for any reason. the tower is the correct height to allow access •A safe system of work will be one where the to the work. failure of a single component or a single error • Check and ensure outriggers/stabilisers or on the part of the operator will not result in an ties are in place as per the manufacturer's uncontrolled fall. The term 100% instruction. redundancy is sometimes used to illustrate this • Only move by applying effort as near the base concept. In order to provide 100% as possible. redundancy, no single item of equipment (other than an approved harness) should be 2.2.2 Scaffolding and Access Towers relied on anywhere within the system. • Separate anchor points should be used, unless Scaffolding and access towers may provide the only one anchor is available, AND it is supporting structure for a work platform which is unquestionably reliable. Separate attachments more stable and provides a safer work environment to that single anchor should still be used for the than can be achieved by working from a ladder or primary and back-up systems. a harness in suspension. The boundary between • Work positioning harnesses complying with scaffolding and access towers is not clearly BS EN358 must not be used for fall arrest defined and some systems that may appear to be situations unless they also comply with scaffolding are technically considered to be access BS EN361 and suitable energy absorbing towers. Some general guidance is, however, elements are included in the work system. Figure 2./4 Photo ufafirejighter being befayed down a provided for fire and rescue services that wish to sfope where a system is required to prevent them/ram Figure 2.15 Example ofa work posilioning system in lIse provide systems for their own use. /afting bilt is not required 10 support their weight. ahove a silo.

26 Fire and Rescue Service tv/anllaf Safe Work al Height 27 In circumstances where scaffolding or access should be performed in accordance with the • Are there alternative means of access and towers are already erected at an incident location, manufacturer's instructions and advice from a egress that avoid the need to use ladders? guidance should be sought from the competent competent person. • Do the working and environmental person on site and a risk assessment must be conditions increase the risk of using a ladder? undertaken as to its suitability for any planned use 2.2.4 Continuity of Means of Protection • Do the weather conditions increase the risk of by fire and rescue service personnel. using a ladder? It may be necessary in certain circumstances to • What is the expected duration of use? Is the FRS policies relating to contractors working on remove guardrails, fencing and other means of ladder going to be used as a work platform or their premises should specify safe working protection for short periods. The regulations make solely as a means of access and egress? requirements for scaffolding and access towers. it clear that this is permissible under the following • Does the nature and duration of work mean conditions: that staff will need relieving? 2.2.3 Mobile Elevated Work Platforms • Is the ladder selected appropriate for the task? (MEWPs) • Removal is only for the time and extent • Can equipment needed at height be safely necessary for the job, then the barrier is carried leaving both hands free for climbing Aerial appliances used in a wide range of replaced. and the ladder or does it need to be hauled aloft? industries are collectively known as MEWPS and • The work is not done unless there is some • Is the construction ofa sloping roof on which a can be effectively used to provide a safe means of other safeguard, e.g. a safety net or work roof ladder is placed or the construction against working at height. FRS aerial appliances fall into restraint system. which the head of an extension ladder rests this category of equipment and when operated by strong enough to support the intended load? competent persons provide a safe work Measures to protect workers while the task is environment. The precautions for safe work from carried out could include safe systems of work (or 2.2.5.1 General Safety During Use Figure 2.16 Example ofa working platform. an aerial appliance include: permit to work systems where appropriate) including the provision of a fall arrest system, When a decision is made that ladders are • Guard rails round the edge of the cage to stop limiting access to specified people and ensuring appropriate for access or to undertake activities at Scaffolding or access tower erection requires the user falling. those performing the task are provided with height, working practices should ensure: specific training to: • Toe-boards round the edge of the platform. adequate information, training and supervision. • Use of stability devices, e.g. jacks. • Non-service portable ladders are not used, as it • Ensure competence. • Use of work restraint, work positioning or fall If regular access or egress is required, such as with will be difficult to confirm they are fit for • Allow recognition of when and where arrest systems with approved anchor points. aerial appliance cages it may be more appropriate purpose. scaffolding can be erected. to provide gates or bars. In all cases the gap in the • That the surface which a ladder stands on is • Ensure erection, use, maintenance, and A safe system of work should be in place that protection should be minimised and replaced stable, firm, of sufficient strength and of dismantling is carried out safely. includes: immediately the operation has finished. suitable composition to support the ladder safely. Access towers must be secure, with stabilisers in • Planning the job to be aware of all hazards, 2.2.5 Portable Ladders • The ladder is positioned so that its rounds place and any wheels locked, before use. Any plans including those from overhead obstructions remain horizontal and it will support the to use jets from a working platform erected on and passing traffic. Portable ladders, including extension, step and roof intended load. scaffolding or an access tower must take account • Use of competent operator(s). ladders, are frequently required for fire and rescue • The heel of the ladder is secured to prevent it of the destabilising effect created by jet reaction. • Use of appropriate harnesses and associated service operational activities. Specific guidance on moving in any direction, by footing the ladder Aerial appliances, which are specifically designed systems. practical techniques for their use is included in The or tying it in place. for this activity, may provide a more appropriate • Instruction to the crews about safety issues. Fire and Rescue Service Manual, Volume 4 Fire • Where appropriate the head of the ladder is solution. • Instructions in emergency procedures, such as Service Training, Foundation Training and secured, e.g. tying the head in to the building. evacuation in the event of power failure. Development. When determining the suitability of • Portable ladders are correctly footed by two If there is a requirement to move an access tower, ladders for any task, the considerations listed in people to ensure stability when used for care should be taken to ensure: Aerial appliances are also lifting equipment for Regulation 7 must be taken into account and the rescue or any activity that may exert a lifting people as defined by LOLER. Fire and following aspects specifically considered: directional force (E.G. operating a branch from • No person or items are on the platform. rescue services should therefore ensure that an the head of the ladder). • Any overhead obstructions or power lines are aerial appliance has a thorough examination by a • Is the activity urgent? Is there an imperative to • Roof and extension ladders can be secured avoided. competent person once every 6 months or in save human life or control a deteriorating together to prevent movement between them • There are no dips or holes in the floor surface. accordance with an examination scheme drawn up situation? Would waiting for an alternative when transferring from one to the other. by a competent person. Routine maintenance means of access compromise the outcome?

28 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 29 2.2.7 Ropes, Harnesses and Associated • Where possible the ladder should generally when in use and where rigid ladders can not be Specific points to consider when assessing Equipment be extended sufficiently above the point of practicably positioned or are not suitable. whether it is appropriate to use a ladder as a work landing to provide a handhold when mounting platform include: These systems provide effective safe systems of and dismounting. Three clear rounds will When using these ladders the following points work, but should only be selected when the risk generally be sufficient. should be considered: • Are alternative safe systems of work assessment of a work activity identifies that • The improvised use of ladders as stepladders, available, or should they be introduced collective methods of protection are unsuitable for bridging, as an anchor system for lifting or •A suitable anchorage is required for the ladder. following initial actions? due to: lowering, or for other similar activities must • An additional fall arrest system is usually • Can the area be controlled with a hazard zone only be undertaken in accordance with the required to protect an individual from the below the work platform? • The urgency of need for access to a location at manufacturer's instructions. effects of a fall from the ladder. • Does the ladder need to be secured to the height. • Very few types of flexible ladder are able structure or can stability be maintained by •A limited number of people being exposed to 2.2.6 Fixed Ladders to withstand a shock loading - as such a footing? risk. separate anchor is required for any fall arrest • Is maintaining a leg-lock suitable for the work • The short duration of a work activity. Fixed ladders are frequently found in environments system. to be undertaken or does other provision need where it is not practical to use fire and rescue • Where possible. controlling movement of the to be made to prevent a fall? In circumstances where access is available to an service ladders for access. Examples may include bottom of the ladder will ensure climbing the • Is the ladder approved for use as a fall arrest area above the scene of operations and a suitable ladders found in ships holds, communication ladder is made easier. anchor and its lateral stability ensured in case anchor site can be established, normal work masts, sewers, wind generators or fire service • These ladders may be difficult to climb when of a fall to the side? restraint, work positioning or fall arrest techniques training towers. laid against a surface, unless fitted with • Can an independent anchor be provided for the should be used. The systems of work generally spacers to hold them off the surface so that fall arrest system? used when work positioning is selected include Fixed ladders with short vertical runs or hooped hands and feet can be easily placed on the • Can the work be carried out without those shown in the examples below (see Figures construction may be used by suitably trained rounds. stretching to a position that could make the 2.17,2.18 and 2.19). personnel without additional fall prevention • Care should be taken during positioning to ladder or person on it unstable? precautions being taken, provided only one person ensure the ladder does not become snagged • Does the ladder need repositioning to ensure is on the ladder at a time. In all other or twisted. stability during the task? circumstances suitable precautions must be taken • What are the manual handling considerations? to prevent or arrest a fall from the ladder. Specific Within the FRS, use of this type of equipment is points to consider include: generally restricted to specialist teams who have received the appropriate training. • Is the ladder in a location where it is regularly used and inspected? 2.2.6.2 Ladders as work platforms • If the ladder is not regularly used and Work Positioning Systems - Example 1 ROPE inspected does it have obvious signs of When work is undertaken from a ladder, rather /CONTROL DEVICE corrosion or instability? than using it solely as a means of access or egress, Top controlled lower on two ropes, ANCHOR • Does the ladder lead into a confined space? it is categorised as a work platform. Ladders one being the working rope and one the • Are safe landing areas or rest platforms should only be used as work platforms where a risk safety rope. provided at regular intervals? assessment shows that the use of other work • Is there sufficient space at the bottom of the equipment is not justified because of either: ladder for personnel to stand clear? • On longer runs of vertical ladders, can • The risk assessment establishes the activity is personnel maintain a sufficient gap to low risk and the task is of a short duration. or accommodate any fall arrest device • There are unalterable features of the work site employed? that preclude the use of more appropriate equipment. 2.2.6.1 Suspended ladders When a ladder is used as a work platform, Suspended ladders, generally of a flexible appropriate measures should be in place to prevent construction, are manufactured of varying or mitigate the effects of a fall. A leg lock should Figure 2.17 Operator being lowered on a materials including wire, carbon fibre and/or nylon only be considered appropriate for short duration working rope with backup provided bv (/ fabric. They are generally used as a temporary tasks within easy reach ofthe ladder, otherwise fall second rope belayed{rom the top. means of access and egress being positioned only arrest equipment must be used.

Safe Work at Height 31 Fire and Rescue Service Manual W: 30 ~~------These systems all describe techniques that allow 2.2.7.1 Use of Lanyards Work Positioning Systems - Example 2 an individual to work using two ropes. In very ROPE This is a relatively simple system, which involves /CONTROL exceptional circumstances where delay could Operator-controlled descent on a working ~~rZ DEVICE threaten human life or allow a situation to the use of two lanyards attached to the operator's rope with a top-belayed safety rope. deteriorate quickly there may be a need for an harness via a suitable energy absorbing device(s) individual to operate with one rope. This may be to arrest a fall. It is often used when ascending RoPfa achieved by either a top controlled lower or vertical ladders or climbing open steelwork. The Protection operator controlled descent on one working rope. operator attaches the first lanyard as high as possible and then starts to ascend, repositioning Using a single rope system should only be each lanyard to a new anchor point as the ascent is considered in extreme situations where inaction made. The operator must ensure that at every point would result in serious injury or death to the during the climb, at least one of the lanyards is rescuer or casualty. A suitable and sufficient risk secured to an anchor that will provide protection ROPE assessment should take place prior to and during should a fall occur. (See Figure 2.20.) ~CONTROL all single rope work. Special attention should be DEVICE given to the suitability of anchors, with all anchors used during single rope work being unquestionably reliable. Figure 2./8 Operator descending on ((.fixed top rope with backup provided by a second rope Once casualty access and safety has been achieved, belayed/ram the top. unless urgent casualty evacuation is required due to medical reasons, consideration should be given to waiting for the arrival of further equipment and/or personnel to allow the addition of a second Work Positioning Systems - Example 3 system. ANCHOR The system deemed most suitable will depend on Operator-controlled descent on a working the situation involved, the experience of the rope with operator-controlled safety device individuals involved and the availability of suitably on a separate safety rope. experienced support personnel.

In circumstances where no access is available to a safe location above the work site it will be necessary to employ a 'bottom up' approach. This will generally involve the first operator having to ascend to a point above the scene of operations where suitable anchors may be established.

ROPE In order to carry out this process safely, there are ~CONTROL two recognised safe climbing methods, using: DEVICE • Lanyards or 'cow's tails'.

• Lead climbing techniques.

Figure 2./9 Operator descending on u(ixed top In either case the individual should trail a second rope with backup safety device attached to a rope, which can be anchored above the work secvndfixed rope. location and provide a more secure system of ascent for subsequent operators.

Figure 2.20 Diagram showing the use oflanyards.

32 Fire and Rescue Service !vfan/lal Safe Wcn'k at Height 33 _ll _ 2.2.7.2 tse of Lead Climbing Tcchniques silo or when accompanying a casualty being raised 2.2.7.4 Highlines and Cabkwa. s on a separate system. Lead climbing is a technique in which the operator Situations occur where ob tacles and projections is protected by a rope or ropes, running through The use of this technique requires that the operator prevent a direct vertical rescue and operators will intermediate 'running belays' and controlled by a is competent in changing from a descent mode to need to change the angle of descent to prevent person operating a rope control device at the base an ascent mode and vice versa. operators or casualties from striking these of the climb. It is a specialist technique, normally obstructions. Techniques to achieve this include only appropriate for specifically trained and These techniques are considered advanced rope the use of highlines and cableways. competent rope work technicians. working skills and as such would only be undertaken by competent rope work technicians. As the operator ascends, the climbing rope will be (See Figure 2.22.) attached to a series of intermediate belay points attached to the structure. These 'running belays' may take the form of previously attached anchor points or may be added by the operator as the first Figure 2.22 A simple ascent takes place (e.g. by placing slings and 3: I recoven'svstem ill karabiners around uitable parts of the structure). operation. Each running belay should be able to support the weight of the operator in the event of a fall.

Should a fall occur. movement of the rope would be limit d by the rope control device at the base of the climb, thus arresting the operator's fall. (See Figure 2.21.)

When using lead climbing techniques:

• Dynamic rope or a suitable energy absorbing system must be used to reduce the shock loads that may be generated in the event ofa fall. and • The degree of extension that will occur during fall arrest must be considered.

2.2.7.3 Recovcry or- Self -Rescue

Wherever possible the operator should descend to the bottom of the risk area. disconnect from the system and walk to a place of safety. If this is not possible a suitable recovery system must be available. This may include a winching system or some other means by which the operator can ascend the ropes on which they were lowered.

To be completely independent, the operator would need to be additionally equipped with suitable rope control devices to ascend the ropes, thereby having independent control of ascent and descent.

Situations in which this technique is of use would include exiting from a confined space such as a FIgure 2.21 Diagram showing the use oflead cfimhing techniques.

34 Fire and Rescue Service iVlanual Sale Work at Height 35 Highlines tensioned to provide the required angle of travel. The simplest example of a highline system is the The movement ofthe rescuer and/or casualty along use of a tensioned tag or guy line that allows the the supporting ropes is controlled by the use of descending casualty and/or operator to be lowered rope control devices at both ends of the control at an angle away from a building. In this system, ropes. the working rope takes the load and the tag or guy line is used to deviate the angle of descent. This The use of these systems can create extreme loads is termed a 'tensioned deviation' system. (See at the anchor points requiring the use of multiple Figure 2.23). anchors and/or back up systems. (See Figure 2.24.)

Cableways Due to the increased complexity of these systems, In more complex systems, ropes support the many fire and rescue services will see the rescuer and/or casualty whilst control ropes are operation of cableways being restricted to used to move them along a planned route. The competent rope work technicians. supporting ropes will be secured at each end and CASUALTY "-'\,

Figure 2.23b (above)

CASUALTY IN /CASUALTY HARNESS

TAG LINE TENSIONEO ~ BY RESCUER

Figure 224 (right) Aerial cableway Figure 2.23a and 2.23b Diagrams ofa lowering by line system being tensioned by an operator: (and detail).

36 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Sale Work at Height 37 2.3 Sy terns ofWork particular, the following points should be before first use and re-tested in accordance with considered: the manufacturer's instructions or written scheme 2.3.1 Anchors and Anchor Systems of work. They must also be checked on a regular • Rocks and boulders should be assessed prior to basis both prior to and during use to ensure 2.3.1.1 General being placed under load. continued safety. (See Figure 2.26.) • Trees must be examined carefully to ensure An anchor can be defined as a safe point or object that they are alive, in a sound and healthy Temporary artificial anchors such as vehicles, to which a load may be securely attached. An condition and deep rooted. Special care should ground stakes, steelwork or climbing aids, are anchor system includes the anchor and the be taken with trees that are growing in shallow objects utilised for anchorage only for the period equipment used to connect it to the load or the rope soil, such as is found near the edges of cliffs of use. In many cases they will have other primary supporting the load. and quarries as they may have inferior root functions but their size, weight or location allows systems. them to be used as anchors. These provide by far In all cases the anchor system provides the • To be considered as a reliable anchor, a tree the majority of anchors for operational fire service foundation for rope work operations and is a should have a minimum trunk diameter of use. (See Figure 2.27.) critical part ofany rope system. The anchor system 15cm and anchors should be secured around must be unquestionably reliable. the base to reduce leverage. 2.3.1.3 Anchor Systems

2.3.1.2 Anchors (b) ArtificialAnchors Anchor systems may comprise a single anchor, Artificial anchors are those specifically positioned commonly known as a 'single point anchor Individual anchors can be divided into two broad by the fire service or others to provide an system' or may incorporate a number of linked categories: attachment to which ropes may be secured. anchors, a 'multi-point anchor system'. Artificial anchors can be further divided into: • Natural anchors. In establishing a safe anchor system, consideration • Permanent artificial anchors. • Artificial anchors. should be given to: • Temporary artificial anchors. (a) Natural Anchors • Attachment to anchors. atural anchors can be described as those Permanent artificial anchors such as eyebolts are • Backing up anchors. furnished by the terrain such as trees and rocks. those that are left in place when not in use. These • Anchor redundancy. Care must be taken when selecting natural anchors anchors are generally considered reliable, as they • Equalisation of anchors. to ensure that they are substantial and that they are have been specifically positioned and constructed • Equalising knots and slings. capable of supporting the intended load. In for anchorage purposes. They must be proof tested

Figure 2.25 Photograph o/mck being used as an anchol:

Figure 2.26 Photo a/permanent artificial anchor. Figure 2.27 Photograph a/temporary artificial anchors.

38 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 39 • Extension of a system following failure. (c) Anchor redundanLJI SECONDARY PRIMARY • Divergence of angles in multiple anchor Whilst the above backup system will be sufficient ANCHOR ANCHOR systems. in the case of a single-point anchor, which is SECONDARY PRIMARY unquestionably reliable it will generally be ANCHOR ANCHOR

(a) Attachment to anchors necessary to ensure that failure of a single anchor WEBBING Consideration can be given to attaching rope cannot result in complete failure of the system SLING directly to certain types of anchors, for example, supporting a load. In order to achieve this, at least around the trunks of trees, but this may have a two anchor points should be used, configured so as detrimental effect on the long-term durabi Iity of to back up each other. This principle is known as the rope. In general, where a connector such as a anchor redundancy. (See Figure 2.29.) karabiner or screw link cannot be attached directly FIG.8 KNOT to the anchor, a sling or strop should be applied It should be noted that secondary anchor points around the anchor. The rope system may then be must be at least as strong as the primary anchor connected to the sling or strop by suitable point. It is not acceptable to utilise multiple poor connectors, taking care to minimise any side anchors in an attempt to create a strong anchor

loading or leverage on the anchor. system. BIG FAT KNOT /

Looping the sling through itself should be avoided, (d) Load sharing between anchors as this will severely reduce the strength of the Where anchors are at different positions with sling. Where a single sling is not long enough to go respect to the line of loading, equalisation of the ROPE CONTROL around the anchor it may be extended by another anchor system allows the load to be divided and DEVICE sling or replaced by a rope loop. Slings must be joined using a suitable connector and not connected directly together as this may weaken them due to friction between the slings. Figure 2.29 Diagram showing one possible configuration ofbackup system providing anchor redundancy. When setting up a 'multi-point' anchor system, the use of a rigging plate should be considered as this Figure 2.30 Diagram showing a system/or anchor distributed between the anchor points. This ensures provides a well laid out and easily checked system. equalisation. (See Figure 2.28.) maximum strength from the available system and also reduces the chance of any individual anchor (b) Backing up anchors failing under load. Where any anchor or anchors Where the anchor selected is a smooth boulder or are not completely reliable, equalisation of the some point during the operation, the load will move laterally between the two. To allow this to take place tapered metal structure, the direction of pull may system is essential. Equalisation may be achieved whilst maintaining an even distribution of the load cause the sling(s) to slip offthe anchor. In this case by a number of methods including the use of the between the two anchors, the load is attached to a an additional sling, termed a backup sling, must be Big Fat Knot (BFK). (See Figure 2.30.) provided. single sling by using an equalising knot. Care must It must be understood that the direction of pull of be taken when making the knot to ensure that it will Where an individual single point anchor is of a load is critically linked to equalisation ofanchors remain secure in the event of failure of anyone of substantial construction and assessed as being and there may be occasions when the load may the anchors. (See Figure 2.31.) unquestionably reliable, it may be used on its own move to a different angle from its original position. to support a load, that may be attached to the The person having control of ropework operations (f) Extension ofa system following failure Where a multiple anchor system is being used, anchor by means of a single sling and connector. must try to anticipate any movement of the load thought has to be given to the effects of one or Although the anchor is unquestionably reliable, the and take this into account when setting up the more of the anchors giving way under load. Ifsuch sling is not and must, therefore, be 'backed up' by anchor system. This will reduce the risk ofanyone a failure occurs and the equalisation of the anchors a second 'duplicate' sling. This will ensure that in element of the anchor system being exposed to has not been correctly applied, there could be an the event offailure of the initial sling, there will be excessive forces. extension of the system towards the load and a suitable backup to prevent the load falling. (e) Equalising knots and slings consequently a shock loading of the remaining An equalising knot is used to distribute a load anchors. Extension of the system is particularly serious if the belay point is at or near a vertical Figure 2.28 Photograph 0/a rigging plate in use. between two anchors when it is anticipated that at

40 Fire and Rescue Service ivfanual Safe Work at Height 41 ANCHORS - Angles of Divergence SECONDARY ANCHOR BEFORE In the first example (Figure 2.33), an angle is BEFORE formed between the two legs extending from the anchors at the point where the rope is directed towards the load.

At first glance, it might appear that when a 100kg load is attached to the main system it would be shared evenly between the two anchors, i.e., with each anchor having a loading of 50kg. This is only

BROKEN the case where the angle between the two legs is CLIFF EDGE ANCHOR zero degrees. The actual force on each anchor depends on the angle between the two slings or legs. The wider the angle, the greater the force exerted on each anchor and its associated rigging.

In Figure 2.34, we see that if the angle between the legs is widened to 90 degrees, the forces on each anchor increase significantly to around 71 kg.

LOAD If the angle is then further widened to 120 degrees (see Figure 2.35) the full weight of the load is AFTER exerted onto each of the anchors and its AFTER associated rigging. Widening of the angle further still would create stresses on each anchor greater than the load itself.

Figure 2.31 Diagram showing the use andfailure ofa BELAYER When dividing loads between anchors angles simple equalising system. . PULLED TOWARD must, therefore, be kept as low as possible and in CLIFF EDGE any case must not exceed 90 degrees. Reducing the angles and thus reducing the load on each anchor may be achieved by extending the length of the drop as it could draw the belayer over the edge. legs from the anchors. Where this is not possible, (See Figure 2.32.) more anchors should be added to help share the load. (g) Divergence ofangles in multiple anchor CLIFF EDGE systems 2.3.1.4 Selection ofAnchors In anchor systems utilising more than one anchor Figure 2.33 (top) Diagram of2 anchors with weight the angle that is formed between the anchors and When choosing anchors and setting up anchor of100 kg at an angle ofzero degrees. (~how the load will affect the force exerted on each systems, firefighters must be careful to match the individual weight at each anchor as 50Kg) anchor. Some examples and explanations are location, size, strength and number of anchors shown below: LOAD required with the forces that the intended task Figure 2.34 (middle) Diagram of2 anchors with might place on the system. Whenever possible, weight of 100 kg at an angle 0/90 degrees. (show Figure 2.32 Diagrams showing the relocation ofthe individual weight at each anchor as Kg) belayer afterfailure ofan anchOf: . individual anchors should be selected so that their 71 maximum strength lies in direct opposition to the loading that will be applied. Figure 2.35 (bottom) Diagram 0/2 anchors with weight 0/100 kg at an angle 0/120 degrees. (show individual weight at each anchor as 100Kg)

Safe Work at Height 43 42 Fire and Rescue Service Manual In most cases the identification and selection of the load to the maximum area of ground contact. of the anchor. Where this is likely, the stakes • Particular care must be taken should it be suitable anchors will be a matter of judgement (See Figure 2.36.) should be arranged in a 'V' configuration to lessen necessary to operate on icy, muddy, based on training and experience. In cases of the effect. An alternative method of constructing a waterlogged or sloping ground, as there is a doubt, firefighters should err on the side of safety. When using stakes as ground anchors, especially combined anchor is by using a metal anchor plate. much greater tendency for the vehicle to be It is always better to incorporate too many anchors when working in soft ground where the potential (See Figure 2.37b.) moved by the load. into a system than too few. of an individual stake failing is high, it may be • Structural parts of the vehicle, such as axles necessary to combine a number of stakes to form a (c) Vehicles as anchors and structural cross members should be used (a) Structural steelwork and masonry single anchor unit. This may be achieved by Where no other suitable anchor is readily available, as anchors. In the absence of purpose built artificial anchors, linking the stakes with slings so that they function a motor vehicle can be considered for use as an • Towing eyes should generally be avoided stntctural steelwork provides one of the strongest as a single unit, commonly known as a 'picket'. anchor. When using a motor vehicle the following unless they are of closed construction and are anchors available. Preferred steelwork includes Where this is done, the connection between the points should be considered: welded or substantially bolted to the chassis. substantial support beams or columns, although first and subsequent stakes needs to be as tight as • Vehicle bumpers, 'bull bars', ladder bars or welded steel handraiIs, supports for heavy possible in the initial construction of the anchor • The vehicle should be placed on firm level grab rails should never be used as anchor machinery and large diameter pipes may also be system. Ifthis is not done, there is a possibility that ground. points. considered. Care should be taken to ensure that: when the load is applied it will loosen the first • The handbrake must be fully applied and the • Textile items such as rope or webbing slings stake and render it useless, resulting in a general wheels chocked at both front and rear. must not be allowed to come into contact with • The edges of steelwork are effectively weakening of the system with the potential to • The vehicle should be placed in gear, the hot parts of the vehicle such as brake dntms, protected. cause progressive collapse of the entire anchor. ignition keys removed and the vehicle locked. engine or exhaust systems. • Handrails are solidly fixed in place. (See Figure 2.37a.) • If the vehicle cannot be locked, a responsible • Sharp edges, battery acid, grease and oil must • Anchors are secured around the base or point person must remain in the vicinity to prevent be avoided. Should contamination occur, of attachment to reduce leverage. Care must be taken to ensure that the load is not unauthorised interference or movement of the textile items including ropes may need to be • Pipework is adequately secured and of allowed to deviate from the direct line of the lead vehicle. withdrawn from use and destroyed. suitable strength and is neither excessively hot stake, as this will greatly reduce the effectiveness nor cold. Figure 2.37a • Insulated pipework should never be used, as Photograph showing the insulation masks the true size and angle and orientation condition of the pipe and could also compress ofground stakes. under load, possibly creating a sharp edge that could cut into rope or slings. • Lightweight or corroded metal and cast iron is avoided. Figure 2,37b Photograph shm.ving V­ configuration of Where structural steelwork is not available, ground anchor system, stntctural masonry such as reinforced concrete beams or columns may be effectively used. Care should be taken to ensure they are of adequate size and that edges are protected to prevent abrasion.

(h) Ground anchors Figure 2.38 Photograph 0/ vehicle Ground anchors may be constructed using round being used as a metal bar stakes, 'V ' or '1' section 'angle iron' temporary artificial stakes, or a variety of purpose designed ground anchor. plates that can be used either alone or in combination. Stakes should be inserted to their optimum depth and angled away from the anticipated load at approximately 15 to 20 degrees back from the vertical. Tests have shown that when using 'angle iron' as ground stakes, maximum benefit will be achieved by placing the stakes so that the closed edge of the 'V' or the flat edge of the '1' points towards the load. This will transfer Figure 2.36 Plan ofground anchor 'T' and'V' stakes.

44 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 45 Figure 2.39 • Hitch - a simple fastening of a rope to some Photograph oJclimbing object by passing the rope round the object and Standing part equipment in use as crossing one part over another. temporary artificial anchor: • Running end - the free end of a rope.

• Running part - the moving part of a rope that is loose and is used to hoist and lower.

• Seizing - the binding together of two or more ropes or parts of one rope to stop them moving in relation to each other.

• Standing Part - the part of a rope that is (d) Climbing equipment anchors 2.4 Securing Casualties, Equipment nearest the eye, bend or hitch, as opposed to Temporary anchorages may also be provided by and Other Items the end. using equipment originally designed for the protection of climbers. These can be positioned in Figure 2.40 Diagram oJparts ofa rope. [n operational situations personnel may need to use • Whipping - binding of the end of a rope with such a way as to act as anchors. Training must be rope or cord, together with knots and hitches to twine to prevent it unlaying or unravelling. the rope and to make the knot as safe as possible, given and personnel assessed to ensure that they join or secure items of equipment or other objects. are competent in the use of this equipment. every knot should be correctly made and tightened. Some tasks are routine and appropriate methods A knot may be formed with a number of loops, Improperly selected or poorly placed equipment can be pre-planned and practiced. Other tasks are hitches or turns involving one or both ends of a To maintain the integrity and security of a knot, a could potentially fail with serious consequences. not routine, requiring more on site planning and rope or of two different ropes and each knot may 'stopper' knot should be tied in the running end of closer supervision to ensure that they are achieved be tied in a number of ways using different the rope. Commonly used stopper knots are the 2.3.1.5 Operational Considerations in a safe and efficient manner. sequences. There are a number of different knots Overhand Knot, the Figure 8 Stopper Knot or the available, some of which have specific functions, To ensure the anchor system is secure, the Single Fisherman's Knot. In safety-critical 2.4.1 Knots whilst others can be used in a number of situations following points must be considered. applications, the running end should be tied off and for more general applications. around the standing part using a suitable knot such Whilst some operational objectives using rope can as a Double Fisherman's Knot. The tail remaining • Individual anchors must be assessed by a be achieved by having fixed loops or connectors 2.4.1.2 Principles of Knot Tying on the running end ofthe rope after tying a suitable competent person as to their suitability for the permanently attached to the end of a rope, on most stopper knot and/or tying off the running end intended load prior to operations commencing occasions the operational use of rope or cordage The general requirements of a knot are: should be at least 100 mm to allow for slippage and monitored during use. will require the selection and tying of various • Main anchors should be backed up unless and ensure that the knot remains secure. knots. Appropriate harnesses must always be used • It should carry out the function for which it is considered 'unquestionably reliable' and the to secure firefighters or casualties to a rope. Direct intended, safely and without slipping. load applied to them limited to an acceptable Many knots provide ideal solutions to specific attachment of a rope to a person does not • It should be easy to tie. level. tasks, although their specialist nature may lead to constitute a safe system of work. • The knot and its intended use should not • Anchors should be protected against infrequent use. This is often compounded by a damage the rope. mechanical and abrasive damage. 2.4.1.1 complicated tying method leading to difficulty in General • It should be easy to untie. • The angles created by multiple anchors must correctly applying the knot. Consideration should, be monitored and kept as narrow as therefore, be given to keeping the knots in use in A knot may be defined as the interlacement of All knots will weaken rope. The amount by which practicable. brigades as simple and effective as possible. To cordage in specific patterns for the purpose of this occurs depends principally on how tight the • Before committing load to a vertical ensure that the most appropriate knot or knots are stopping ends, joining ends, forming loops and radii of the turns within the knot are. The smaller environment, all slack should be removed from selected for a particular application, firefighters securing equipment. There are a number of the radius, the weaker the rope will become at the the ropes. must consider the following: standard terms used to describe parts of a knot or knot. The amount by which the strength ofthe rope • Erratic movement on lines or systems must be rope as follows: is reduced may be lessened by using large knots avoided as this can induce high stress loading • The purpose of the knot within the ropework such as a Double Loop Figure 8, or by increasing on anchors. system. • Bend - to fasten a rope to another rope or to an the amount of rope within the knot such as in a • The area around anchors must be kept tidy to • Whether the knot will remain secure in the object. "Big Fat Knot" (BFK), tied in a doubled or allow easy monitoring of the system for any intended appl ication. quadrupled rope. This not only improves the possible movement. • Bight - the looped or loose part of a rope • Whether it will adequately support any between two ends. strength of the rope but will also make the knot intended or anticipated load. easier to untie. To reduce the effect of weakening ~ 1ttz~ SaJe Work at Height 47 ...... 4._6__.F.I.r_ea.nC.(.R.es.c.u.e.s.erv_ic.e.M.a.n.u.a.I rd.._ Firefighters must be competent in tying knots in 2.4.1.3 Types of Knot the range of conditions likely to be met in Bowline Running Bowline operational situations. They must also be able to (a) 'Standard' Knots Primary Function Primary Function ~ adapt knots and lashings to a particular situation A non-slipping knot also A bowline tied around and training should prepare personnel for dealing The following table contains a list of knots, bends known as the single . the standing part to effectively with non-standard tasks. and hitches that are in general use. In the interest bowline. Should only be ,,\\ S form of a running of clarity the 'running end' is not drawn to scale used to secure a person noose. where a purpose made length in the diagrams below. It should in practice harness or rescue strop is be at least 100 millimetres long in every case to not available. prevent the knot untying.

Figure 2.41 (continued) Standard Knots

Overhand Knot Rolling Hitch Primary Function Primary Function Sometimes known as Used to secure a line to any round object so that the knot a thumb knot. Used will not slip along the object when a sideways pull is as a stopper knot. applied. Often used for securing or hauling hose lines (b) Specialist Knots aloft. There are a number of specialist knots which The knots described are not an exhaustive list and other knots may be suitable for specific tasks. Figure of Eight Stopper Knot perform specific functions within rope systems in a variety of environments. They often act on the Primary Function Stopper knot tied in a rope itself to provide frictional resistance e.g. the single rope. Italian Hitch or to limit direction of rope travel e.g. the Prusik. They are generally only suitable for use with modern kernmantel ropes or nylon webbing.

Half Hitch Round Turn & Two Half Hitches Primary Function Primary Function The basis of a number of Used to secure a line to any Alpine Butterfly Knot Double Fisherman's Knot knots. Used extensively round object. Primary Function in conjunction with other Primary Function For joining two ropes together using two opposing knots for securing To create a loop in barrel stop knots. suction, etc. the centre of a rope that can be loaded in any direction. Double Sheet Bend Primary Function A secure method of joining two lines particularly those of unequal thickness. Fisherman's Bend Barrel Knot BFK (Big Fat Knot) Primary Function Primary Function ' Primary Function This is an alternative to For tying off a running For creating a set of loops " from rope or ropes, usually Clove Hitch the Round Turn & Two end. ~. ..:.: as part of a multi-anchor Half Hitches that allows Primary Function the rope to slide up and system. Used to secure a line to down or along the beam any round object. or spar to which it has been tied.

Figure 2.4/ Standard Knots. Figure 2.42 Specialist Knots.

48 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 49 2.4.2 Lifting, Lowering and Hauling on a rope. Heavier loads may require the use of a Prusik Knot Double Loop Figure 8 proprietary winch or pulley system to provide Primary Function Primary Function All lifting and lowering operations, from simple mechanical advantage. When undertaking lifting Tied with a loop of small For forming two loops using hauling aloft of equipment to advanced casualty and hauling operations the following should be diameter accessory cord a bight of rope. around a rope to create rescue, fall within the scope of The Lifting considered: a locking knot. Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations Note: A prusik knot does (LOLER). The requirement to comply with • As hauling systems rely on some degree of not comply with LOLER Manual Handling Regulations will also have mechanical advantage, there is a risk of unless given a SWL by implications for the design of lifting and lowering exceeding the working load limit at the points supplier. systems and their operation. Lifting, lowering and where the system attaches to the load and to hauling systems all require the following principal the anchor. Klemheist Knot components. • The risk of the load becoming snagged must not be overlooked. Any tendency to overcome Primary Function Tied with a loop of 2.4.2.1 Secure anchors additional resistance by increasing the power Rethreaded Figure 8 Knot nylon tape around a input has the potential to injure casualties and rope to create a Primary Function Any load should be securely attached to a rescuers, or overload the system causing it to locking knot. For tying on directly to a dedicated anchor system, unless: fail. harness or round a fixed Note: A Klemheist object. • Lifting system should be set up so that once knot does not comply • It is light weight; and lifting stops an auto-locking device or with LOLER unless •A risk assessment confirms it can be safely appropriate knot automatically holds the load given a SWL by controlled without a dedicated anchor; and at the height to which it has been raised. Once supplier. • There are no safety critical considerations held, there must be a facility to release the load so that it can be lowered again under control. 2.4.2.2 A secure method of attaching • Where a lifting or hauling system is used to Italian Hitch the load move a live load, an independent back up Mariner's Knot Primary Function system must be deployed to hold the load Primary Function Used in conjunction with a When attaching loads for lifting or lowering should the primary system fail. Locking off a pulley karabiner to create frictional resistance to lower a load purposes they must be secured so that they cannot system. Can be slip or fall, by: 2.4.2.4 A controlled lowering system released under under control. load. Must not be used without additional equipment to • Enclosing the load in a harness, lifting bag or 'Lowering' describes any operation that relies on create a fail safe system net, or where this is not possible. rope to control the distance and rate of descent of when dealing with live or • Securing the load by means of purpose a load. Lowering systems use the force of gravity heavy loads. designed strops or slings. otherwise.; to generate movement, the rate of which is • Tying the load directly on to the rope by use of controlled by physically applying friction to the appropriate knots. rope through a rope-control device, friction brake Tensionless Hitch (or No-Knot) or by hand to ensure that the load does not descend Single Loop Figure 8 Primary Function 2.4.2.3 A controlled lifting / hauling system in an uncontrolled fashion. Primary Function To provide an anchor For forming a single loop. without significantly Lifting or hauling operations will either rely on: The weight of the load is a critical factor when reducing the strength deciding which system or equipment to use. If the of the rope. • Direct force, such as fire fighters hauling a load is lightweight, it may be feasible to either length of hose aloft. or lower hand over hand whilst wearing gloves or • Indirect force, applied through a winch or control the speed of descent by a turn round a pulley system. bollard or the use of an Italian Hitch.

In both cases the force applied must be sufficient As the weight of the load increases however, it to overcome the force being exerted by a becomes more difficult to maintain control by combination of gravity, friction over edges and physical strength alone and a rope control device Figure 2.42 (continued) Specialist Knots. within the system itself. Lifting lightweight items should be used. of equipment may be achieved by simply pulling

50 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 51 Figure 2.44 Edge Protection ANCHOR

Deviated Rope Protection -KARABINER ~======"'ii~-PULLEY

~s~~~~·-Rope Control ...__- Device

Suitable methods of protection are to:

• Redirect the rope through a pulley at a high fashion is suitable for the high forces that can point above the edge or hazard. This will be imposed upon it including an adequate Figure 2.43 Photograph ofan artificial high directional (AHD) in use at an edge. prevent the rope from dragging over the edge margin for safety above those forces. and will make it easier to load. The pulley can • Protect the rope using proprietary equipment be suspended from a suitable anchor or a metal such as pads, mats or rollers. Where this is not The following points should be considered before •A safe route of egress at the base of the lower frame or tripod may be needed to available improvised protection may be commencing lowering operations: should be identified and maintained. provide the necessary anchor point. It is provided using equipment such as salvage important to ensure that equipment used in this sheets, chimney sheets or equipment bags. • Anchor systems must be of sufficient strength 2.4.2.5 Rope & Equipment Protection to support the load. • Ropes must be of sufficient length to reach at Whenever ropes or fabric slings are laid across least the full distance that the load is to be loose ground, abrasive surfaces or an edge, every lowered, unless personnel are competent to effort must be made to ensure adequate pass knots through the system. precautions are taken to protect the equipment • Suitable edge protection is in place. from damage. Points to consider include: •A suitable knot (such as a figure 8 stopper knot) is tied near the end of the rope so that it • When exposed to a sharp or abrasive edge, a wi II not pass through the lowering device. tensioned rope or sling is more vulnerable to • Lowering devices should be suitable for the failure than when not under tension. load that may be applied. • Rope protection is especially important with • Lowering devices should be suitable for the 'non-moving' ropes and slings where the same type of load to be lowered (auto-locking part is in constant contact with the edge. devices should be used for live loads). • Moving ropes, whilst less vulnerable to • There should be a suitable backup system In damage from edges, are more prone to place where appropriate. dislodge rocks and other debris, which may •A hauling system should be available to raise fall onto personnel or equipment. the load should the need arise, e.g. the load • The method of protection selected should not becoming snagged during the lower. hinder the use of the rope or sling. Figure 2.45 Photographs oj'various types a/rope edge protection.

52 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 53 2.4.3 Winches and Pulley Systems 2.4.3.2 Pulley Systems

2.4.3.1 General A pulley system or 'tackle' is a combination of pulleys through which a rope is threaded in such a Lifting or hauling lightweight items of equipment way that a force applied to one end is increased. may be safely achieved by using rope, with This increase in force is dependent upon the STANDING BLOCK appropriate knots and manual handling techniques. number of pulleys in the system and the manner in Heavier loads, such as rescuing people or moving which the rope is rove through them. Pulleys heavy objects, will generally require the use of containing more than one sheave are known as HAULING PART winches or pulley systems. pulley blocks. The block being the shell or body in which the sheaves are housed. 2.4.3.2 Winching Systems The pulley blocks in a 'tackle' or pulley system Winching systems can be either manually operated are known as the 'standing block' and the 'moving RUNNING PART or powered by some form of electric, hydraulic or block'. The standing block is attached to the anchor STANDING PART fuel-driven power unit. Powered winches offer the and the moving block is attached to the load. The advantage of speed in use, a simple system ofwork rope that is rove through the pulleys is known as the'fa]]' and has a 'standing part', a 'hauling part' DIRECTION and minimum numbers of personnel to operate. OF PULL They may be difficult to control with sufficient and a 'running part'. (See Figure 2.47.) accuracy to safely lift a live load and the potential MOVING BLOCK hazard of a person being caught on an obstacle A third type of pulley block is the 'directional Figure 2.48 Diagram ofa directional pulley. must be considered. The system must be capable of block' or 'directional pulley'. The function of the being stopped quickly if necessary. directional pulley is simply to alter the direction of the hauling part of the rope. It does not confer any In Figure 2.49 , there are two parts at the moving Manually operated winches are better suited for increase in force to the pulley system itself. block, therefore, the mechanical advantage is two the lifting and hauling ofpeople but can be slow in Directional pulleys must always be attached to an (MA = 2). In this situation the force exerted on the operation. They can be divided into the following anchor, never to the load. Any number of hauling part to lift the load of 100 Kg is only 50 Kg. groups, dependent upon their method of operation: directional pulleys may be used in a system to obtain the necessary direction of haul. As with all • Capstan winches. pulleys, however, there will be some loss of Figure 2.47 Diagram o(a pullev system, showing blocks and the rope connecting them. • Rope clamp winches. efficiency due to friction within each pulley and 50 Kg the number of directional pulleys should, (See Figure 2.46.) therefore, be kept to a minimum. (See Figure 2.48.) 2.4.4 Mechanical Advantage and Velocity Ratio

Lifting and hauling systems can be configured in a variety of ways but all rely on the concepts of mechanical advantage and velocity ratio to multiply a force exerted on a rope. Thus it is possible for firefighters, either as individuals or in teams, to lift or haul loads that exceed bodyweight.

(a) Mechanical Advantage The amount by which the force exerted on the hauling part is multiplied by the pulley system is known as the mechanical advantage (MA) and in a simple system, excluding frictional loss, is the same as the number of parts of the rope at the moving block. Figure 2.49 Diagram ofa simple pulley system with a Figure 2.46 Photographs o(Capstan and Rope Grab Winches. MA 0(2.

54 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 55 (b) Velocity Ratio objects over increased distances. This type of Mechanical advantage is only gained at the system is essentially a simple pulley system (often expense of speed of working. It can be seen that, 3: J or 4: I) that instead ofbeing attached directly to for any two metres of movement on the hauling ROVE TO the load, is attached to a rope connected to the load, part, the load will only be lifted through a distance ADVANTAGE ROPE usually by a rope grab. This allows the load to be of one metre. The ratio between the distance CONTROL moved through the full length of a single rope by moved by the hauling part and the distance moved DEVICE periodically re-setting the pulley system by by the load is known as the 'velocity ratio', operation of the rope grab. (See Figure 2.52.) referred to as X: I. In a simple system X is always the same as the number of parts of the rope at the 113 LOAD 113 LOAD moving block.

In any pulley system, considerable friction is created, both in the bearings within each pulley block and by the rope passing over the pulleys. 113 LOAD This friction accounts for the difference between the mechanical advantage and the velocity ratio of the pulley system. In a simple system where the velocity ratio is 3 (3: I), friction may reduce the mechanical advantage to about 2.3 (MA = 2.3).

(c) Rove to AdvantagelDisadvantage The number of parts at the moving block and therefore the velocity ratio is always greater when ROVE TO the hauling part comes away from the moving DISADVANTAGE block. A pulley system using this configuration is said to be 'rove to advantage'. In circumstances, usually caused by topography or the need to alter the direction of pull, where the hauling part comes away from the standing block, is said to be 'rove to disadvantage'. (See Figure 2.50.) MOVING 2.4.4.] Simple and Complex Pulley Systems BLOCK

Pulley systems are extremely adaptable and can be configured in a variety ofways to achieve different functions. Pulley systems can be classified as simple or complex.

Figure 2.51 Diagram o{simple pulley system 3: I. (a) Simple Pulley Systems Figure 2.50 Diagrams ofa 2: J pulley system - rove to advantage and rove to disadvantage. (b) Complex Pulley Systems Simple pulley systems are straightforward to The nature ofcomplex pulley systems and the high construct and operate and are generally suitable for distance. Other pre-rigged systems include a fixed forces they can generate are such that system use by all firefighters. These systems consist of block that also acts as a capstan winch when specific training must be given. Complex systems one moving block and one standing block. Each undertaking lowering operations. must be supervised in use and operated by block may have one, two or even three pulleys. competent personnel. There are two main forms of They are designed to be quick to set up and easy to Because each part of the fall extends the full complex pulley system: use but are usually limited to a mechanical distance between the standing and fixed blocks, advantage of 2, 3 or 4. Some manufactured simple systems use a lot of rope, e.g. a 3: I system 'Piggy-back' Pulley Systems systems are pre-rigged using small diameter cord lifting a load from 10 metres requires in excess of To overcome the limitations of simple systems, a Figure 2.52 Diagram of3: J Piggy-back pulley system and can create velocity ratios of 6: lover a short 30 metres of rope. (See Figure 2.51.) 'piggy-back' system can be used to lift or haul and rope grab.

56 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 57 Compound Pulley Systems •A manual handling assessment. • The load placed on the anchor of any pulley 2.4.5 Securing Casualties and These systems are constructed by using one pulley • The number of competent personnel available. can be up to twice the load being lifted, Performing Rescues from Height system to act directly on a second system, thus • The work area that is available, as space may therefore anchors for pulley systems must be multiplying the force that can be exerted on the be very limited. unquestionably reliable. When deciding appropriate equipment and load. The moving block of the second system is • The effective weight of the load. • For maximum efficiency in lifting operations, systems to use for the rescue of casualties, the usually attached to the hauling part of the first • The distance to be travelled by the load. pulley systems should be anchored directly determining factors will be: system by a rope grab. For example, a 3: I system • The urgency of the situation and the time above the working area or a directional pulley connected to a 2: I system will generate a velocity available to undertake the work. should be provided directly above the work • Physical environment. ratio of6 (6:1). (See Figure 2.53.) area. • Casualty's injuries. 2.4.4.3 Operational Considerations • Personnel operating pulley systems in the • Medical requirements. 2.4.4.2 Selection ofAppropriate Systems hazard zone must be provided with the • Time constraints. When constructing and using pulleys and pulley appropriate PPE and linked to a suitable • Available resources. When selecting the appropriate system for a systems the following points should be considered: anchor. particular operational situation, the degree of • The force exerted over an edge when using If the casualty's condition or situation requires mechanical advantage required can be determined •A dynamic risk assessment encompassing a hauling system is greater than the force immediate rescue the use of work at height from: manual handling issues. produced when lowering a load. This increased equipment may not be appropriate. The decision to force can damage ropes and increase abrasion undertake a rescue from height without work at so all edges must be well protected or height equipment can only be taken after a robust alternatively, ropes should be deviated away dynamic risk assessment. This type of rescue could Figure 2.53 Diagram from abrasion points. include assisted ladder walk-downs and casualty ANCHOR t.m~.m- afCompound pulley • The force applied to a pulley system must be carrydown. .system. controlled, as it is easy to exceed the safe working limits of equipment when systems Other than the most urgent of rescues, any system that provide mechanical advantage are used should allow for basic first aid procedures to employed. be applied throughout the rescue and facilitate any ROPE CONTROL •A suitable rope control device should be used medical interventions or care required by the DEVICE in the pulley system to prevent uncontrolled casualty. It is often more effective to limit medical descent of the load should it be necessary to care to basic life saving measures and evacuate release the hauling part. quickly in order to begin advanced medical 3-1 • Where the load being hauled or lifted is a treatment on more secure terrain where the person, a separate safety rope system that will casualty is more accessible to qualified medical ROPE prevent the uncontrolled descent of the person personnel and equipment. SYSTEM 2 in the event of a failure in the pulley system should be employed. In order to offer medical, physical and emotional • Effective communications within the team support it may be necessary for the casualty to be operating the pulley system are vital to ensure accompanied by a rescuer throughout the safe operation. Signals to pull, stop, release evacuation. In rope-based systems, this approach and lower must be clear and pre-determined. will increase the loading on the anchors and the Where possible the load should be under close equipment and therefore specific consideration observation throughout the lifting or hauling must be taken of the forces applied to the operation. Hand signals are detailed in components within the system. Appendix 7 of Fire and Rescue Service Manual Volume 4, 'Fire Service Training, When it is not feasible to raise a combined load Foundation Training and Development'. consideration should be given to raising the • Firefighters pulling on the hauling part of a casualty and rescuer individually. pulley system must stop as soon as any increase in resistance is felt as this may 2.4.5.1 Securing Casualties indicate the load has jammed. Continued strain on the hauling part can quickly lead to Immediately upon accessing the casualty, an dangerous forces being created or, ifthe load is assessment of the situation must be made to a person, to serious injury. determine whether immediate evacuation IS

58 Fire and Rescue Service ll1anual Safe Work at Height 59 required and what equipment and systems of work • If time and circumstances permit an aerial When using rope systems, the route by which the prolonged period of suspension can result in can be implemented. appliance may be appropriate. Specific casualty is to be rescued and the method of serious trauma in less than 30 minutes whether or considerations include: movement should be established before starting not a harness is worn. If immediate evacuation is not necessary then • Availability. work. If a casualty is stranded at height the most casualties should be secured against the risk of • Access. suitable route may be to lower them, providing In unconscious, immobile and injured casualties falling, until suitable systems of work can be • Overhead hazards. egress is available from the base of the hazard suspension trauma has been known to be fatal in as implemented. • Underground hazards. zone. Raising and traversing with casualties is little as 2 to 3 minutes. Factors that may affect • Increased rescue loads. more complex and places greater requirements on casualties in suspension and lead to orthostatic The casualty should not be directly attached to a • Time constraints. resources and higher loadings on equipment. shock include: rope unless there is an immediate risk of the • Operating envelope. casualty falling and a proprietary rescue sling or • In situations where neither of these options are • If immediate rescue is necessary to prevent • Exhaustion. harness is unavailable. viable or reasonable then the use ofrope based serious injury or death, the most appropriate • Hypothermia. systems may be appropriate. Rope systems for solution may be to use fire and rescue service • Hypoglycaemia. 2.4.5.2 Rescue casualty rescue should incorporate the ladders for assisted walk-downs or carry­ • Head trauma. following: downs. (See Figure 2.55.) • Dehydration. There is a hierarchy that should be applied when •A casualty harness, rescue strop or • Shock. deciding the method of rescuing casualties from stretcher. 2.4.6 Casualty Management • The degree of inclination of the body. height. This will be determined by the • Two independent rope systems. • Time delay in casualty access. circumstances of each incident and risk •A secure anchor point for each rope 2.4.6.1 Suspension Trauma (Orthostatic assessments must give due consideration to the system. Intolerance) If possible, movement of the casualty's limbs following options: Two rope control devices; one to control the whilst suspended may mitigate the effects of rate of descent, one to provide a backup in With the increasing use of harnesses and rope orthostatic shock; however, rapid evacuation from • Remove casualties to a place of safety via a the event of failure. systems for recreation and in the workplace, a the suspended position to immediate medical safe route or existing means of egress, such as medical condition associated with prolonged treatment is the preferred option. The possibility of an internal stairway, which doesn't require any suspension has been identified. Known as suspension trauma must always be considered with additional safety equipment. orthostatic intolerance or suspension trauma, the any suspended casualty. However, the casualty's condition occurs where an immobile person is other injuries must not be ignored. suspended in a harness or from a rope system. A Figure 2.54 Diagram a/lirefighters carrying out casualty evacuation using 1>1'0 rope system Figure 2.55 The and rope control relationship bet>veen No Time Minimum devices aI/ached to an risk. time available and Constraints Risk improvised anchOl: the selection o{rescue method. For simplicity. back up Safe route system not shown. or existing means of egress

Specific provision for Rescue from height

Urgent Rescue Limited Potential Time Required Increased Risk

60 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Sale Work at Height 61 2.4.6.2 Stretcher Rescues An existing (safe) place ofwork can change, due to • Roofs. A minimum barrier height of 950mm is defined in changing conditions, for example: • Cliffs and Embankments. Schedule 2 of the Regulations. This requirement Casualties whose condition or injuries do not allow • Shafts, wells, sewers, etc. only applies to work at height during construction for the use of casualty harnesses during rescue • The structure may become unstable due to fire • Railway rolling stock, large goods vehicles, work covered by the Construction (Health, Safety may need to be packaged and removed using a spreacl, etc. buses, aircraft, etc. and Welfare) Regulations 1996. It may, however, stretcher. Generally, unconscious casualties and • If windows are removed or broken and as a • Shipping. be used as a good practice guide in other those with major or spinal injuries should always result unprotected openings are created. • Silos, storage tanks, industrial plant, etc. environments although the actual height required be transported by stretcher in a horizontal position, must be determined through a risk assessment as with movement in a vertical position only being Any change in circumstances that give rise to the The normal hierarchy for work at height applies in relevant to each particular circumstance. temporarily used to negotiate obstacles. When risk ofa potential fall means that a location can no all these environments, irrespective of whether using stretchers the following points must be longer be considered an 'existing' place of work. they are stable, in normal condition, or have been Where edge protection is not present, and addressed: Dynamic risk assessment must be undertaken and damaged by some sort of incident. construction of such protection is not feasible the situation monitored at regular intervals, with within available timescales, such as during the • The stretcher and associated equipment must appropriate actions taken to prevent a fall or The height of edge protection and other early stages of emergency work, then risk can be be fit for the intended use. mitigate the consequences. appropriate control measures to prevent falls from avoided by preventing access to the hazard zone. • The stretcher and associated equipment must these environments should be derived through an Based on the maximum distance that an individual be used within a safe system of work at all Some examples of an existing place of work that appropriate risk assessment. This must consider could conceivably slip or trip, on level ground, this times (e.g. during the transfer at height of the can be considered 'safe' are: the range of people who may be at risk (including should extend a minimum of 3 metres from any: stretcher to an aerial appliance). children), with the height of barriers and any gaps • Extra loading on the system due to the use of •A non-fragile roof with a permanent parapet or in them being such that accidental falls are • Unguarded edge. operators as stretcher attendants. guard rail. prevented. It can be seen, therefore, that there is no • Sloping surfaces or embankment leading to an • Physical protection for the casualty to prevent •A silo or storage tank etc, with fixed defined universal height for barriers that provide unguarded edge. Injury. guardrai Is. collective protection from falls. • Warm clothing or covering for the casualty to • Mezzanine floor with fixed edge protection. prevent hypothermia. Additionally, safe places of work at height should: The use of attendants accompanying stretchers in rope rescue should be considered an advanced • Be stable and of sufficient strength and technique and fire and rescue services will wish to stability. restrict such stretcher use to specialist teams. • Be of sufficient dimension to allow safe work There are many systems of work suitable for use and passage of persons and materials. with stretchers and further advice can be sought • Have suitable and sufficient means of from the National Rope Users Group or specialist preventing a fall. training providers. • Not present slip, trip & fall hazards. • Have no surface gap through which a person 2.5 Operational Environments could fall.

2.5.1 Existing Places ofWork A drill tower may be considered a 'safe place of work' if the risk assessment considers that all of An 'existing place of work' at height is best the above apply e.g. the internal ladder access gap thought of as a place of work with permanent fall will need to be adequately protected and the top of prevention measures such as guard rails or a railings or parapets on roofs and window openings parapet and no need for any additional equipment are of adequate height to prevent a fall. to remove the risk of a fall. Parts of buildings or permanent structures (including the means of 2.5.2 Unprotected Edges access and egress) generally fall into this category and should be used for work at height in preference Unprotected edges, where there is a risk of a fall, to any place provided by temporary work may be found in a range of work environments, equipment. including:

Figure 2.56 Example 01 edge protection retrofitted to ailat roolto prevent faUsfrom height.

62 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 63 As an incident progresses supervision by a safety be considered fragile and appropriate precautions construction and environmental variables, such as Subject to a suitable risk assessment, it may be safe officer and the erection of simple barriers, such as taken. moisture, ice, snow and lichens all influence the to work without a roof ladder when the pitch of a tape or rope will identify the safe work area and degree of risk. Key considerations when working sloping roof is shallow, the surface provides a good access routes to it. Small openings may be 2.5.3.1 Hierarchy of Control with sloping roofs are: foothold and secure edge protection or other protected by securing props horizontally across the appropriate fall protection is provided. openmg. Avoid • The roofsurface should not be directly stepped It is important that personnel planning for, or on unless suitable protection from a fall is in 2.5.6 Fragile Roofs/Surfaces 2.5.3 Roofs - Flat Roofs, Sloping Roofs responding to incidents involving roof work, make place. and Fragile Roofs a conscious effort to identify alternative methods • The slope can obscure the view of the ground A fragile surface is one that will not support the of work such as working from the ground, an aerial giving a false sense of height and security. weight of a person and the load they are carrying. The risks of working on roofs are substantial appliance or staging. As an example, attacking a • It may be difficult to arrange secure anchors Falls through fragile roofs or surfaces have been however long or short the work and high standards chimney fire from the grate is usually the simplest for personal protection systems. identified by the HSE as causing an average of ten of safety are necessary at all times. The principal and quickest method. It avoids the need to carry fatal accidents per year. Typical examples of risks are falls through fragile roofing materials and equipment aloft and work at height thereby Falls from sloping roofs are a common cause of fragile roof materials are: falls from unprotected roof edges. The normal eliminating the risk of falls and of anything falling serious accidents and most frequently occur when hierarchy applies, with the first control measure onto someone below. working at the eaves or gable ends, by slipping on • Plastic/Perspex roof light sheets. being to avoid working on roofs. Where avoidance the exterior surface or by breaking through into the • Fibre cement sheets. is not possible, a risk assessment should be carried Prevent interior void. • Corroded metal sheets. out and a safe system ofwork adopted, for example Where working on a roof cannot be avoided, • Glass. eliminating or reducing the distance of any fall by: prevent the risk of a fall by using available Edge protection should be put in place for work on • Wood wool slabs. protection such as guardrails and travel restraint sloping roofs unless the work is of short duration. • Fire damaged materials. • Working from an 'existing place of work'. systems. Where prevention is impracticable, Emergency fire and rescue service work will • Materials weakened by structural collapse. • Utilising an aerial appliance. reduce the risk by using roof ladders, roof generally fall into the short duration category, for (See Figure 2.57.) platforms, crawl boards and similar equipment. which the erection of edge protection may be Getting on and off a roof is a major risk in itself. A impractical. Safe systems of work must, however, The stability of a surface must be determined secure means of access/egress is essential. Ladders Mitigate provide: before work begins. It can be difficult to are commonly used, although access may be gained Where the risk of a fall from a roof can't be distinguish between roof light sheets and metal by use of an aerial platform or via internal avoided, suitable collective protection or personal • Safe means of access to roof level. sheets particularly in certain light conditions and stairways. Aerial platforms provide a safe workplace protection systems must be used. •A properly constructed and securely pitched this has been a major factor in past fatal accidents. and should always be considered as an alternative to roof ladder. All roofing sheets should be treated as fragile and working on the roof itself or off a ladder. 2.5.4 Flat Roofs should not be directly walked on unless it can be Roof ladder anchorage should bear on the opposite determined absolutely that they are of adequate Many other methods of accessing roofs may be Falls from flat roofs not only occur from the edges, roof and not depend on the roof ridge capping as strength to support the load. Work must be available to fire and rescue service personnel at an but also through openings or gaps in the roof and this can break away. Roofladders rely on load being arranged to ensure that personnel do not walk on incident, including scaffolding, MEWPS, through fragile roof material. applied at right angles to the surface on which they or work near fragile surfaces. An identified three suspended access equipment, masts and platforms. rest, to ensure that the securing hook at the head of metre exclusion zone would be appropriate for safe Before any such method of access is used a full Before walking or working on a flat roof, it is the ladder, and the bearers under the ladder, transfer working. General principles are: risk assessment must be carried out with advice important to identify its strength and stability. Flat load to the roof structure evenly across their entire taken from appropriate competent persons, as the roofs can often be used for working on e.g. surface. Any twisting or turning movement may ALWAYS: history of erection, use and maintenance may not installation or maintenance of ventilation jeopardise this security. Consequently, roof ladders • Treat Asbestos cement roof or roofs treated be available to fire and rescue service staff. equipment etc, but some are fragile and may not should only be considered as secure anchorage for with bitumen or any other surface coating as have the ability to support the weight of a person work restraint or fall arrest systems after dynamic fragile. The Regulations do not prohibit working on a roof and are not designed for walking or working on. risk assessment. Where they are to be used as a from a ladder, but ladders must be used work location for anything more than short duration DON'T: appropriately after a risk assessment has been 2.5.5 Sloping Roofs operations, an independent fall protection system, • Stand on, walk on or step across any carried out. using an alternative anchorage, is preferable. This roof-lights. It should be noted that not all roof construction For safety assessments it is not practical to can be achieved by deploying fall protection • Run on or jump onto roof surfaces. systems can support the weight of a person under determine the specific angle which distinguishes systems anchored at ground level on the opposite • Drop equipment onto roof surfaces. normal conditions and generally stable strong roof sloping roofs from flat roofs. Falls are most likely side of the building, with securing lines passing up • Treat bolt lines as a safe route. structures can be significantly weakened by fire or if the slope is steep, if the surface is slippery and over the roof, to firefighters working on the other collapse. In cases of doubt, a roof structure should in windy conditions. Different materials of side of the premises.

64 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Sale Work at Height 65 Figure 2,57 Complex but they may not be capable of supporting a • Ensure safe access and egress from the roof. roofarea with examples ofrooflights. concentrated load similar to a person walking over • Short duration work where possible. fragile sUljc/ces and it. The whole of a roof structure ne ds to be • Beware of fragile and slippery surfaces. barriers providing considered, including the overall construction, • Use the most appropriate equipment for the collective protection. internal structure, loading, surface, skylights or work. other openings and weakening due to fire or • Control the risks from falling objects when structural damage. working on a roof.

Key points for roof work: 2.5.7 FRS Vehicles

• Avoid roof work where possible. Working on the decks or roofs of fire and rescue • Use work equipment or other measures to service vehicles should be avoided. Where this is prevent falls. not possibl suitable systems of work must be • Where roof work cannot be avoided and the established to prevent falls or mitigate their effects. risk of a fall cannot be eliminated, use work A range ofgeneral principles should be considered equipment or other measures to minimise the and applied as appropriate to local circumstances, distance and consequences of a fall should one including: occur.

CONSIDER: • Old roofs treated with bitumen paint/mastic will have many hidden dangers. • Cracked sheets that will certainly be fragile • The pre:.;cnce of profiled roof-lights that blend into their surroundings. • Failing washers and fixings making the roof fragile.

Fragile material should be clearly marked with a sign as indicated on Figure 2.58.

The Regulations provide an exemption for the emergency ser ices from the requirement to use warning signs for fragile surfaces, when acting in an emergency. In an operational environment, if it is not reasonably practicable to provide signage to alert personnel to the presence of fragile surfaces, other measures should be taken such as briefing crews, posting a safety officer or taping an area off. The absence of a warning sign must not be taken to mean the surface is safe and advice should be sought from the premises owner, occupier or Figure 2,58 0!fJicalfragile material warning sign. other knowledgeable source as to the integrity of the roof.

Some roof coverings can give a false sense of security by supporting an evenly distributed load Figure 2.59 Access steps and working platform for vehicle Inaintenance,

Fire and Rescue Service Manual 66 Safe Work at Height 67 • Ensuring that procedures are in place for safe these conditions may suffer an early onset of anything falling from high levels may land When working in or on collapsed structures and working on the decks and designated access fatigue and exposure. some distance away from the structure. there is a risk of a fall from height, the normal areas or roofs of fire and rescue service • Accessing many structures of this type may • Effective communication can be difficult due hierarchy of control should be used: appliances. Procedures must include risk need lead-climbing techniques to be applied. to wind noise. assessment and appropriate control measures, These require specialist skills, including a • Voice operated communications equipment • Avoid: Is it possible to achieve the task in a specific training requirements, fault reporting comprehensive understanding of fall factors, may be needed to allow hands-free operation. different way that does not represent as and the safe system of work. the use of dynamic ropes and placement of • Structure operating companies may have an in­ significant a hazard? As an example USAR • Information and instmction must be provided running belay points. house rescue capability, with specific crews may be able to utilise an aerial in relation to both operational and maintenance • Working on these types of structure may knowledge relating to the risk, although their appliance or crane for access to a work site activities. involve operating at extreme height. The response times can be extended. Pre-planning rather than climbing over a rubble pile to gain • Specifications for new appliances should effects of this can include fatigue from the should include liaison with these teams access. follow the principle of design that avoids the effort of sustained climbing, vertigo caused by wherever possible. need for access to parts of the vehicle where the high and exposed location in which • Prevent: Where there is potential for a fall, there is a risk ofa fall, otherwise collective fall activities may have to take place and motion 2.5.9 Trees work restraint systems may provide a suitable prevention measures should be provided. For sickness due to the flex and movement ofsome control system, capable of preventing any fall. example, operator control positions could be at structures. Incidents involving rescue from trees may occur in ground level by utilising remote control • The open nature of structures, such as high locations with difficult access needing off road • Mitigate: Fall arrest and suitable rescue/ systems. Existing appliances should be masts and tower cranes may lead to some vehicles to transport personnel and equipment. recovery systems should be available when reviewed in relation to the same criteria. individuals suffering an adverse psychological Specific points to consider include: necessary to reduce the effects of any fall • Where collective protection measures are not reaction. This generally relates to the extreme and/or recover any casualties. practicable individual protection may be exposure experienced and may not manifest • Specialist tree climbing or lead climbing required, but attention must be glven to itself in other high environments, such as involving technical rope work skills may be At large structural collapse incidents, fire and training and supervision. working on cliffs. Before working on such required. rescue services and other supporting agencies will • Operator positions on a vehicle must be open structures operationally, personnel should • Anchor selection can be difficult and any often be drawn from a large area and work in close designed to prevent accidental falls. have experienced the level of exposure during branches used as anchors must be thoroughly proximity to each other. Compatibility of • Deck surfaces should be slip resistant and training. inspected prior to use. equipment and procedures must be considered a maintained as such. Trip hazards must be • High voltage electricity may be present, • Chain saws and other tools that were being when planning work on a collaborative basis. removed, or where this is impractical particularly on pylons, wind generators and used by a casualty may pose additional identified with high visibility markings. turbines. Such equipment should wherever hazards. 2.5.11 Working Near Water • Deck edge markings and safety signs should possible be isolated and earthed before work • Advice and assistance that may be available be high visibility. starts. from skilled arboriculture staff on site. When working at height above or near water, • Various types of radio frequency, microwave, • Casualty rescue may require branches and protection from falls must be provided in the same 2.5.8 Service and Utility Structures infrared, laser or high power light transmission foliage to be cut to establish a safe rescue way as in all other work at height environments. may frequently be present. Such equipment route. Many of the skills and much of the equipment Structures of this type include masts, pylons, should wherever possible be isolated before required for technical work at height and water cranes, towers, chimneys, radio/TV aerials, work starts in accordance with agreed 2.5.10 Collapsed Structures rescue are similar, so in reality the two steeples, wind generators, turbines and various preplanning. capabilities are complementary and may be other open structures. These structures will often • Personnel should avoid passing in front of or When working in or on collapsed structures combined. be very high as well as being built in isolated and working in close proximity to transmitters. additional hazards may be encountered due to exposed locations, with safe access requiring • Radio transmission masts, particularly confined spaces, unprotected edges, unstable Compatibility of equipment and procedures must technical rope working skills. mobile phone masts, may be disguised for ground and surfaces that can cause damage to be confirmed when designing dual purpose work environmental reasons and therefore not equipment. It is important to ensure that any work at height and water rescue systems. For example, The hazards of working on service and utility easily identifiable. Examples include trees, at height equipment is sufficiently robust to work at height systems are normally designed so structures alter significantly according to the type church towers, flagpoles and water towers. operate in these environments and is closely that they can not be disconnected under load, but a and location of the structure. Specific • Machinery with hazardous moving parts may monitored and protected during use to avoid critical requirement of water rescue systems is that considerations include: be present, including lifts, winches, hoists and damage that may increase the risk of equipment any rescuer entering water must be secured by a transmission dishes that may move without failure. Consideration must also be given to the system that can be released one-handed by the • Exposed and isolated locations where the warning due to remote operation. requirement for safe work at height practices to be wearer, whilst under load. effects of the weather and in particular the • The hazard zone below very high structures applied as a consequence of the Confined Space wind can be extreme and temperatures reduce may need to be significantly extended as Regulations, which may be applicable to some with increased height. Personnel exposed to aspects of work in collapsed structures.

68 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work af Height 69 Safe Work at Height Chapter

2.5.11.1 Hierarchy of Control 2.5.11.2 Ships

Application of normal risk management systems Normal shipboard activities carried out solely by 3 to work at height near water provides a template the ships' crew, under the direction of the master, for developing control measures: are outside the scope of the Regulations. This exemption does not apply to fire and rescue Chapter 3 - Equipment • Avoid: It is impol1ant that personnel planning service personnel, who will need to comply with for, or responding to incidents, first consider the Regulations when operating on a ship. alternative methods of work. For example, a casualty trapped by the tide at the base of a 2.5.12 Confined Spaces cliff may be safely rescued by inshore lifeboat 3.1 Selection of Equipment 3.2 Ladders and Aeria Appliances rather than by rope up the cliff face. Working in confined spaces may involve using vertical access or egress routes where personnel Selection of work equipment and PPE should be 3.2.1 Portable Ladders for Fire Service • Prevent: The three metre hazard zone should can be at risk from a fall. In many circumstances based on the requirements of individual FRSs Use be observed as a minimum safe distance when the techniques used to provide safe work at height following risk assessment of work environments in there is a risk of a fall into water. can be applied, although some specific issues must line with the requirements of their IRMP. New ladders being procured for introduction into be considered, including: the service should meet the requirements of The Where there is the potential for a fall into water The range of equipment that should be considered Provision and Use ofWork Equipment Regulations when working at height, work restraint or work • Harnesses and associated equipment must be for work at height includes: 1998 and BS EN 1147:2001, portable ladders for positioning may provide a suitable control compatible for use in conjunction with fire service use. This standard specifies measure. For example a pump operator working breathing apparatus. • Ladders. requirements, test methods and performance on a dockside can be provided with a safe system • There is a potential for damage from • Aerial appliances. criteria for portable ladders for fire service use and of work by using work restraint equipment chemical contaminants and sharp edges to • Working platforms. associated purposes. that prevents reaching the unguarded edge. textile based equipment, including ropes and • Scaffolding. wire rope may be more appropriate. • Ropes, harnesses and associated equipment. These ladders vary in length and are usually • Mitigate: Where the risk of a fall can not be • Points of access or egress may also be at height manufactured from aluminium using a riveted and prevented, appropriate fall arrest systems must and have little or no working platform around Equipment should be purchased or specified by a trussed construction. Double or triple extensions be provided to mitigate the effect of a fall and them. Aerial appliance cage/platforms or competent person who should consider conformity are common and the numbers of firefighters wherever possible prevent accidental entry into tripod systems above point of entry may be with current standards as part of the selection needed to pitch them will vary up to a crew offour. water. Ifcircumstances are such that accidental needed to provide high anchor points. process. Personal protective equipment meeting entry into water cannot be ruled out life jackets • An emergency or secondary retrieval system the requirements of the European Standards body 3.2.1.1 Terminology must be provided and a safety boat utilised as must be available throughout any confined and showing the '(E' mark should be selected appropriate. Further guidance is provided in space entry. where possible, although 'non-CE' equipment Firefighters should first ensure they are familiar Fire Service Manual "Safe Working Near, On may be selected where it can be shown as suitable with the proper terms for the various parts of a or In Water". for the intended purpose. 'Certificates of Con­ ladder as indicated in Figure 3.1. They should note formity' should be requested where appropriate. in particular that the fire and rescue service always Demonstrations in the correct wearing of PPE refers to the rungs of a ladder as the rounds. must be undertaken as appropriate and at suitable Firefighters should also familiarise themselves intervals. with the following terms used in operations with these ladders: Instructions and guidance for use provided by the suppliers of equipment for work at height must Extend always be considered when developing safe to raise the extending portion, increasing the systems of work. Suppliers' instructions should be length of a ladder followed whenever they differ from the general guidance given in this document. Extend to lower to raise the extending pOlition of a ladder to clear the pawls for lowering

70 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work al Height 71 .. Heel in, out 3.2.2.1 Terminology to move the heel of a ladder towards or away Top extension from a building Firefighters can carry out a number of different 1 manoeuvres with a TL and use it for a variety of Head in, out purposes. To avoid any confusion the Fire and to place the head of the ladder against or move Rescue Service has adopted a standard it away from the building terminology for use when referring to the various operations. Second extension Lower Depress to retract the extending portion of a ladder to lower the head of the ladder by reducing the angle of elevation Pitch to erect a ladder against a building Elevate to raise the head ofthe ladder by increasing the Slip angle of elevation Fulcrum frame to remove a ladder from an appliance Extend to increase the length of the ladder Turntable

Head House to reduce the length of the ladder I Plumb 8th (to right or left) String Figure 3.2 The principal parts ofa turntable ladder. 7th to keep the centr line of the ladder in a vertical plane by eliminating any tilt to one 6th side when the ladder is extended on a slope. 5th This increases stability and obviates side stress hinged. The third boom takes the form of a pivoted Knuckle or telescopic extension arm at the upper end of the the pivoting joint between booms. 4th Projection second. the horizontal distance measured from a Over-ride 3rd vertical line dropped from the head of the a control as the base operator's position. 3.2.3.1 Terminology 2nd ladder to the rim of the turntable Plumbing 1st round Shoot up As with turntable ladders, firefighters have use of the jacks to compensate for any camber to extend the ladder with a firefighter already adopted a standard tem1inology for use when up to five degrees and bring the vehicle level. at its head operating HPs. Heel Projection Train Booms the distance from the outside ofthe jack foot to (to right or left) the two or three jointed sections which carry the outside edge of the cage when the Figure 3.1 The principal parts ofa laddet: to move the head of a ladder by rotating the the cage. bottom boom is fully elevated and the second turntable. (NB manufacturers tend to use the boom horizontal, at right angles across the Cage expression 'slewing') chassis. 3.2.2 Turntable Ladders (TL) (or platform) the personnel compartment at the end of the Safe working load (S. J¥.L.) Firefighters should first familiarise themselves second or, if fitted, third boom. the specific payload which an HP can In essence, a turntable ladder is a self-supporting with these basic terms and with the various parts normally carry anywhere within its working and power-operated extension ladder mounted of a TL named in Figure 3.2. Depress range. It can be affected by the vehicle being on a turntable. The ladder assembly is mounted to reduce the height of the cage. incorrectly plumbed, strong winds, or the at the rear of a heavy, self-propelled, chassis 3.2.3 Hydraulic Platforms (HP) Elevate imposition of extra loads on the booms, e.g. by approximately above the back axle. The ladder to increase the height of the cage. use of the monitor. itself usually consists of a main ladder, secured Hydraulic platforms consist essentially of two or by a strong pivot bearing to the swinging frame, three booms hinged together. The two lower booms Height and three or four extensions which extend pivot in a vertical plane on each other and on the the distance of the cage bottom from the telescopically. fulcrum frame, on which the bottom boom is ground.

72 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Sale Work at Height 73 Train Plumbing The surface ofany working platform must not have pre-formed and pre-stitched into slings with a to move the cage in a circular route by use of the jacks to compensate for any camber any gap through which a person could fall or certificated safe working load. moving the turntable. up to five degrees and bring the vehicle level. through which any item could fall and cause injury. It should also be positioned so that there is The following points should be considered in Turntable Projection no risk of slipping, tripping or any person being relation to the use of equipment based on webbing the revolving platform, exactly on the centre the distance from the outside of the jack foot to caught between the working platform and any tape: line of the chassis, which carries the fulcrum the outside edge of the cage when the adjacent structure. frame and one end of the bottom boom. ladder/boom is fully elevated and the second • Webbing capable of creating a sling with a boom horizontal, at right angles across the 3.4 Textile Based Equipment minimum rated static strength of 22 kilo­ 3.2.4 Aerial Ladder Platforms (ALP) chassis. newtons (kN) should be used. Safe IVorking load (S. 'f¥.L.) 3.4.1 General • Stitching should be in a contrasting shade or These appliances combine the principal features of the specific payload which an ALP can colour to that of the webbing to facilitate its the Turntable Ladder and Hydraulic Platforms into normally carry anywhere within its working Textiles currently in use are generally based on inspection. Stitching should only be carried one appliance. They usually consist of 2 range. It can be affected by the vehicle being polyamide, polyester webbing, and cordura sheet out by a competent person, normally a hydraulically operated telescopic booms and a incorrectly plumbed, strong winds, or the or nylon derivatives. Webbing tape is generally commercial supplier. large rescue cage. Attached to the booms is a large imposition of extra loads on the booms, e.g. by constructed from nylon thread woven into a web, • Webbing equipment should preferably be extending ladder, which can be used for access, use of the monitor. the longitudinal threads called the warp and the supplied with pre-stitched identification labels egress and rescue purposes. lateral threads called the weft. Webbing tape is to assist individual identification for Turntable light, has great tensile strength and as such forms inspection and recording purposes. Where this 3.2.4.1 Terminology the revolving platform, exactly on the centre the core of many types of textile based rope is not possible, the manufacturer should be Iine of the chassis, which carries the fulcrum equipment including slings, lanyards and contacted for advice before webbing articles Extend frame and one end of the bottom ladder/boom. harnesses. are marked or labels attached. to increase the length of the ladder/booms 3.3 Working Platforms •A repair to webbing tape is normally not House The following points should be considered in possible, the item being disposed of if to reduce the length of the ladder/booms relation to the use of equipment based on webbing damaged. A working platform is any platform used as a place tape: Train of work, a means of access to, or egress from a • Stitching may be in a contrasting shade or 3.4.3 Lanyards (to right or left) place of work at height and includes an aerial colour to that of the webbing to facilitate its to move the cage/head of a ladder/booms by appliance fitted with a cage. It also includes any inspection. Lanyards are short lengths of dynamic rope, or rotating the turntable. (NB manufacturers tend place of work on a scaffold, cradle, mobile • Webbing equipment should preferably be textile webbing, usually terminating in a connector to use the expression 'slewing') platform, trestle, gangway. gantry or stairway. All supplied with pre-stitched identification labels at either end. Their primary use is to secure a working platforms should be properly supported Ladder/Booms to assist individual identification for person to an anchor to prevent a fall, acting as a and provided with guard-rails and barriers set at the telescopic ladder and booms which carry inspection and recording purposes. Where this link between the anchor and the harness. To the appropriate height. Working platforms must the cage. is not possible, the manufacturer should be achieve this they must be able to withstand any be: contacted for advice before webbing articles shock loads that may be imposed on them. Cage are marked or labels attached. Webbing lanyards incorporate an energy absorber (or platform) • Of sufficient dimensions to allow safe passage that slows the fall thus reducing the shock load on the personnel compartment at the end of the and safe use of equipment and materials. 3.4.2 Webbing Slings the anchor and should meet the requirements ofBS ladder/booms. • Free of hazards that could cause trips, or allow EN355. Dynamic rope lanyards achieve the same people's feet to pass through the flooring. Depress Webbing si ings are often preferred over rope when outcome through the physical properties of the • Constructed to prevent feet and objects passing to reduce the height of the cage. loads are passed over edges as the load is rope, which should be a minimum of 10.5 mm in over the edge i.e. toe boards or edge protection distributed over the whole width ofthe tape, which diameter and meet the requirements of BS EN892. Elevate are in place. reduces the load on individual fibres. Protected The length of the lanyard should be as short as to increase the height of the cage. • Kept clean and tidy e.g. do not allow mud to webbing slings, therefore, are used extensively for practicable and the overall length including build up on platforms. Height wrapping around objects creating anchors to which connectors normally limited to the length of the the distance of the cage bottom from the • Secure. a rope system may be secured. Webbing tape does operator's reach. ground. not absorb shock loads as effectively as dynamic The supporting structure for any working platform rope. Lanyards may also be used for other purposes such Over-ride must be prevented from moving during work at as work restraint, maintaining a link between a a control as the base operator's position. height and be stable while being erected, used and Webbing slings take the form of loops in various rescue operator and a stretcher or casualty. dismantled. lengths made from flat or tubular webbing tape Specialised lanyards are available for use when

74 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Saje Work at Height 75 climbing open structures such as vertical ladders, chest harness, it should be noted that such a Note: Do not drop metal-based items of higher quoted strength than the minimum of 15 kN masts, tower cranes or scaffolding. combination should be tested as a complete unit to equipment. The shock of equipment striking a specified in SS EN 362. BS EN361. solid surface with force can cause damage, 3.4.4 Safety and Work Harnesses undetectable by normal methods of examination, 3.5.2.2 Safety hooks 3.4.4.3 Casualty Harness which may significantly weaken it. The primary functions of a harness are to support Provide for quick connections between two the wearer's body whilst suspended from a rope or There are many types of harness available for Some alloy steel components can be affected by components and are used where a link has to be to spread the load in the event of a fall. In view of casualty rescue. They range from simple slings or acidic or alkaline atmospheres, which may weaken connected and disconnected regularly i.e. a lanyard the variation in sizes of potential users, harnesses rescue strops to full body harnesses. When the metal sufficiently that it becomes brittle and connecting a harness to a structure. The gate on must be capable ofsufficient adjustment to provide selecting a rescue harness, care should be taken to could fail if subject to a shock loading. This is these hooks should be automatic of spring-loaded and maintain an acceptable lever of comfort. ensure that it is quick and simple to deploy, that termed 'hydrogen embrittlement'. Items suspected thus preventing accidental disconnection. Harnesses should comply with relevant standards it will provide an adequate level of support, of being so affected, should be withdrawn from appropriate to the intended use. reassurance for the casualty and that it is service for inspection by a competent person. 3.5.2.3 Screw links (also known as Maillon compatible with other equipment and Personal Rapides or Quick Links) 3.4.4.1 Work-positioning Harness Protective Equipment (PPE) that may already be 3.5.2 Connectors (karabiners, safety 10 use. hooks, screw links) Are made from alloy or steel, usually delta, oval or In situations where fire-fighters must work '0' shaped. The 'gate' is provided by a screw suspended from a rope or where the rope is 3.4.4.4 Safety Belts These metal load-bearing components are used in mechanism that makes them slower is use than supporting most of their bodyweight, a suitable nearly all rope systems. The purpose of a karabiners. They have the advantage, however, of harness must be considered. Harnesses designed A waist belt complying with the requirements of connector is to link together the various parts of the closed gate being as strong as the other sides. for work positioning must support the wearer in a SS EN358 is sufficient for work restraint, e.g. the rope system. Each connector has a gate into Therefore, they offer more security when cross comfortable working position whilst allowing preventing a fire-fighter from accessing a position which equipment can be inserted, the gate is then loaded as long as the gate is securely shut. In unhindered operation of other devices in the where a fall might occur. These belts are closed to prevent accidental disconnection. situations where a load may be applied in more system. This is particularly important where the inappropriate where personnel are suspended on a Connectors with a gate that cannot inadvertently than one direction or axis a suitable maillon or harness is to be used in conjunction with breathing rope or where a fall might occur. Suitable belts open, e.g. screwgate or sel f-Iocking, are the only screw link should be used in preference to a apparatus in which case the provision of a suitable based on webbing tape are broad or have padding types that can provide the required level ofsecurity karabiner. elevated attachment point is essential to maintain for support and a locking buckle that cannot be for fire and rescue service use. Connectors that are the operator in an upright position. The relevant accidentally released. A connector attaches the to be used with any fixed anchor such as a hangar, 3.5.3 Pulleys standards are EN813 for sit harnesses and EN358 wearer to a suitable anchor, lanyard or the rope. eyebolt or shackle should be of such a design and for work positioning. size that they are able to rotate freely in the anchor These are devices with a grooved wheel (sheave) 3.5 etaI-based Equipment without hindrance and without loosening the used to reduce friction. This reduction in friction is Sit harnesses and full body harnesses suitable for anchor. Connectors used for static rigging and achieved by a combination of the rotational work positioning also provide an alternative to the 3.5.1 General personal attachments should conform to SS EN movement of the sheave and the increased radius safety belt for work restraint e.g. travel restriction. 362 or a similar standard. A minimum strength of around which the rope runs. The optimum size of Increasing industrial and leisure use has led to 25 kN (in the direction of maximum loading) is the sheave is four times the diameter of the rope. 3.4.4.2 Fall Arrest Harness many advances in the use of steel, high-grade recommended for karabiners, safety hooks, and Their construction is such that a connector can be alloy, plastic and carbon-fibre components in rope screw Iinks. attached, usually through side plates. In most In all operational situations where there is a risk of work systems. These components have many uses modern designs the side plates swing to allow the a fall that may result in injury, it is recommended in the fire and rescue service, from the simplest 3.5.2.1 Karabiners pulley to be attached at any point along the rope that those at risk wear a suitable fall arrest harness system to the most complicated, including: (commonly known as 'swing cheek pulleys'). complying with BS EN361. Fall arrest harnesses May be constructed from steel or metal alloys, are Pulleys come in a variety of designs and sizes are usually fitted with chest or dorsal attachment • Connectors, linking other components and usually oval or '0' shaped and are designed to be including some that are large enough to a(Jow points and either may be used dependent upon ropes together. loaded along the longitudinal axis only, i.e. along knotted ropes to pass through them. The relevant circumstances. In many cases, following a suitable • Rope Control Devices that act on the rope the spine. If the load is applied to the transverse standard is ENI2278. risk assessment, fire and rescue services may find itself usually by means of friction. axis or is offset from the spine, the weaker, 'gated' that a fall arrest harness is also suitable for work • Pulleys, for reducing friction or applying side of the connector may fail under a load less Pulleys containing more than one sheave are positioning use. mechanical advantage. than specified for the component. Care should, known as pulley blocks. The block being the shell • Wire Strops, as part of anchor systems. therefore, be taken to ensure that karabiners do not or body in which the sheaves are housed. Whilst most sit harnesses can be converted to fall • Tripods, Quadpods and Frames, to alter the become 'cross loaded' whilst in use and have a arrest standard by the addition of an appropriate direction of rope travel. suitable factor of safety by using connectors of a

76 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 77 3.5.4 'Vire Strops 3.5.6.1 Devices intended primarily When choosing a descender, brigades should bear They operate such that they will move along the for belaying in mind its suitability for use in the environmental second rope as the operator ascends/descends the Wire strops can be made from lengths of wire rope conditions (e.g. wet, muddy, icy, abrasive, or primary rope but will grab the rope should there be with formed eyes at each end for the attachment of There is a broad range of devices available that are corrosive) that are likely to prevail a sudden movement instigated by the individual a connector. They are particularly useful when the designed for use when controlling a rope by falling due to the primary system failing. chosen anchor is made of abrasive material or belaying. The vast majority of these devices are Where long descents are likely, descenders should has sharp edges (e.g. brick piers or steelwork) that designed primarily for sports use and rely for their have good heat-dissipating properties to prevent To reduce the shock loading that occurs when may cut or abrade rope or webbing tape slings. effective operation on friction being applied to the burning of the operator's hands or heat damage to these devices activate to arrest a fall, they should rope by direct positive manual action by the the working rope. They should also minimise be monitored to ensure that any slack between the 3.5.5 General Metal Hardware belayer. Whilst such devices provide a simple twisting of the rope. Whenever any device is being device and the individual is kept to a minimum method of controlling a rope, they cannot in used to support a load and a hands free situation is This may include ground anchors, rigging plates or themselves be relied upon to 'fail safe'. It is, required, the device must be physically locked off These devices should normally comply with E.N. any other piece of equipment designed to be used therefore, recommended that where belay devices to prevent uncontrolled adjustment. 353-2. in conjunction with rope or anchor systems. are being used to control the lifting or lowering of Equipment should conform to relevant standards. persons or to provide safety backup, only those Descenders should normally comply with BS EN It should be noted that devices intended for If no standard is available then the fire and rescue devices that are designed to auto-lock (i.e. fail 341. hauling/ascending and devices intended for service is responsible for ensuring that any safe) should be considered suitable for general use backing up work in similar ways. It is important equipment is used in accordance with by Fire & Rescue Services. 3.5.6.3 Devices intended primarily for that any device used for these purposes should be manufacturer's instructions and that a competent hauling or ascending assessed prior to use as to its suitability and used person performs a risk assessment as to the 3.5.6.2 Devices intended primarily for in line with its manufachlrer's guidelines. suitability of the equipment. lowering or descending These devices, commonly known as 'ascenders' or 'rope grabs' may be used when the operator wishes 3.5.7 Tripods/Quadpods/Frames 3.5.6 Rope Control Devices These devices, commonly known as 'descenders', to grip the rope for the purpose of hauling or are used to attach an operator to the main working ascending. These are portable frames that provide high For the purposes of classification, rope control rope allowing the operator to control their own attachment points to assist with access to a hazard devices may be split into four types: descent. They may also be attached to the anchor Ascenders generally fall into one of two groups, zone for rescue purposes, or to allow loads to be point and used remotely to lower an operator or i.e. those that work by means of a toothed cam that lifted or lowered from ground level. There are • Devices intended primarily for belaying. load. grips onto the sheath or 'mantle' of the rope and many variations available, including tripods (3 • Devices intended primarily for lowering or those that utilise a toothless profiled cam that legs), quadpods (4 legs), 'A' frames (2 legs) and descending. Descenders should: operates by compression of the rope. It should be specialist luffing frames. Tripods and quadpods • Devices intended primarily for hauling or • Give the user suitable control over the speed of noted that all cam devices have the potential to generally have adjustable legs to allow them to be ascending. descent. damage rope if shock loaded or operated with positioned on uneven ground. When selecting • Devices intended primarily for backing up the • Be such that if the user loses control, they will excessive loads. Ascenders should be of a type suitable devices, consideration should be given to failure of another device or system. stop or allow only a slow, controlled descent in that cannot be accidentally detached from the rope the environment in which the equipment will be the hands-off position. and should be chosen so that the risk of damage to used. Systems such as tripods for example, are Due to the versatility of many of the devices • Be designed to 'fail safe' in operation. the rope is minimised when in use. When primarily designed to be used for a vertical lower described below, some can be used for purposes choosing a suitable ascender, Fire & Rescue or lift over an access point such as a sewer access other that their primary role. One device may, for Descenders should not: Services should consider its suitability for use in or silo hatch. Others are designed specifically to example, be able to act as either an ascender or as • Cause significant abrasion or damage to the the environmental conditions that are likely to provide a projection for access over an edge such a rope brake in a back up system, whilst another sheath when suddenly clamped onto the prevaiI. as at a cliff. This is frequently referred to as an may be suitable as a belay/lowering device or as an working line. artificial high directional. abseil device. • Cause undue shock loads to the working rope 3.5.6.2 Devices intended primarily for when braking. backing up the failure of another device It should be borne in mind that this type of When these types of equipment are put to any use • Be capable of accidentally detaching from the or system equipment can be subjected to high physical other than their 'primary' use, users should ensure working line. stresses in certain operational situations such as the manufacturer has guaranteed the device will • Be capable of being detached under any These devices may be used when personnel when lifting or lowering loads. Extreme care must, operate in the manner they wish to use it. circumstances while carrying a person's working on a rope need a secondary device therefore, be taken when using these devices to weight. connected to an additional rope to provide a safety ensure that they are effectively anchored to prevent system should there be a failure in the primary movement or slippage. This is especially important system. when operating on unstable or uneven surfaces or on sloping ground.

78 Fire and Rescue Service lv/anua! Safe Work at Height 79 . • 3.5.8 Stretchers 3.6.1.1 Rope Construction 3.6 Ropes Nylon There are two types of stretcher in common use: 3.6.1 General The properties and capabilities of rope are Desirable Characteristics dependent upon both the material and the type of • Rigid. • Good shock absorption There are many operational actIvItIes where the construction. Analysis of these factors will allow • Fairly high melting point • Flexible. use of rope is necessary to achieve tasks or assessment of the most appropriate rope for each • Good resistance to abrasion objectives. Rope may be used as part of a safe situation. In selecting the most suitable type of • Resistant to alkalis and other chemicals 3.4.8.1 Rigid stretchers system of work in a variety of situations, for rope for a task it is impor1ant to consider the • Low surface friction example to: following: These are either moulded from plastic material or Undesirable Characteristics constructed from metal (normally aluminium alloy • Secure items such as branches or salvage • Physical characteristics, including tensile Can be seriously damaged by certain or stainless steel), though a combination of sheets. strength, weight, flexibility and texture. corrosives e.g. acids materials may be used. Due to their rigidity, this • Stabilise vehicles or ladders. • Ability of the rope to absorb the energy of Loss of strength when wet (up to 15%) type of stretcher is not well suited for work in • Move loads, e.g. equipment. people or shock loads. confined spaces and is normally deployed for animals by hauling, lifting or lowering. • Ability ofthe rope to withstand repeated shock rescues in open air. Rigid stretchers can either be loadings. • Use safety ropes when working near Polyester one piece (e.g. a preformed basket stretcher) or unguarded edges. • Degree of elongation under load. Ropes made from polyester (terylene) offer a sectional (requiring assembly prior to use). • Degree of absorption of water and other • Work at height or in confined spaces. suitable alternative to those made from nylon, liquids. • Carry out specialist rescues. however, as polyester is less able to absorb shock 3.5.8.2 Flexible stretchers • Resistance to physical and chemical damage. loadings it is generally not used in situations where The general description given to all forms of fibre substantial falls may occur. It may, however, be Usually comprise a plastic frame or sheet with a rope is cordage, which may be referred to as either Natural Fibres appropriate in specific circumstances for example, fabric cover and textile webbing attachments and a rope or a line depending on its particular Fire and rescue service ropes were traditionally where chemical pollution is present. have a limited degr e of inherent rigidity. This type application. FRS terminology refers to ropes cut to made from natural fibres such as Italian hemp, of stretcher is designed to wrap around the specific lengths for particular purposes as lines, manila, sisal, coil' and cotton. Whilst some of these Polyester casualty and gains additional rigidity once the although the term rope is more generally used for ropes may still be in use they have generally been casualty has been secured within it. The inherent specialist rescue activities. superseded by those made from synthetic materials. Desirable Characteristics flexibility of these stretchers makes them ideal for • High tensile strength even when wet use in confined spaces. Flexible stretchers are British Standard BS 3367: 1999 refers to 'ropes and Natural Fibre • Fairly high melting point usually supplied in a custom made bag or valise lines for fire service use other than for rope rescue • Good resistance to abrasion and require minimal stowage space. purposes'. The Standard sets out the specification Desirable Characteristics • Resistant to damage from acids and for rope that is used in the manufacture a range of • None organic compounds Most stretchers can be supplied with additional fire and rescue service lines, which are to be made equipment for casualty packaging, including head from polyester, and general purpose lines that may Undesirable Characteristics support blocks, casualty harnesses and integral be made from polyester or polypropylene. The • Low shock absorption Undesirable Characteristics head protection. Standard does not apply to: Loss of strength when wet (up to 50%) Can be seriously damaged by certain • High absorption of water corrosives, e.g. alkalis Stretchers can be attached to a rope system by the • Ropes used in conjunction with specialist rope Poor resistance to chemicals Poor shock absorption (compared to nylon) use of slings and connectors. or specially designed rescue equipment. • Loses strength over time strops. These can normally be used in a range of • Guidelines and personal lines for use with • Lower breaking strength than synthetic configurations allowing the stretcher to be hauled breathing apparatus. rope Polyolefin or lowered at any angle between vertical and Ropes manufactured from polyolefins such as high horizontal. Ropes complying with BS 3367: 1999, should have modulus polyethylene and high tenacity a ferrule or sleeve permanently marked with: Nylon polypropylene are often used in water rescue When selecting a stretcher, consideration should Ropes made from polyamide (nylon) are because oftheir buoyancy. Polyolefins are not very be given to the environment in which it will be • The manufacturer's name, trademark or considered most suitable for the vast majority of strong and cannot absorb shock well, so most used and the uses to which it will be put. identification mark. fire and rescue service applications and should water rescue ropes combine these fibres with Particular care must be taken (when appropriate) • The material, the nominal size of the rope and normally be considered for rope access, rescue or nylon to provide strength. to ensure compatibility with helicopters or for date of manufacture or batch number of the personal safety use. water rescues. coil from which the rope was made. • The number of the relevant British Standard.

80 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work al Heighl 81 Polyolefin Wire Rope Plaited Rope Kernl1lQlltel Rope This construction method involves plaiting the Kernmantel rope comprises a central core of Desirable Characteristics Desirable Characteristics strands either in a single or double layer around a continuous filaments known as the kern, which is • Highly resistant to water (they float) • High tensile strength central core, which has the benefit of producing a the predominant load-bearing element. This is • Good resistance to mildew • High resistance to abrasion smoother and more flexible construction. The two surrounded by a woven outer sheath known as the main types of construction are: mantle, which shares a portion of the load, but • Resistant to damage from acids • No stretch has the primary role of protecting the core from • 8-plait rope having a core of any constmction abrasion and the ingress of dirt and grit. (See Undesirable Characteristics Undesirable Characteristics encased in a sheath made from eight Figure 3.5.) Low tensile strength (compared to nylon) No shock absorption interlacing plaits, four in a clockwise direction Poor shock absorption Easily damaged by repeated bending, and four in an anticlockwise direction. Poor resistance to abrasion particularly over small radius objects Kernmantel ropes may be supplied pre-treated to Poor resistance to sunlight (ultraviolet Tendency to needle • 16-plait rope having a parallel core encased decrease the absorption of water and other degradation) in an 8-plait initial sheath, comprising eight chemicals. They can be supplied in a variety of Low melting points, heat damaged interlacing plaits, four in a clockwise colours and markings that may assist in rope 3.6.1.2 Types of Construction direction and four in an anticlockwise identification and with tracking of the rope direction and comprising a secondary braided through rope control devices whi lst in use. In order Aramid Fibre There are three types of construction for ropes sheath made from 16 interlacing plaits, eight in to suit a variety of applications, kernmantel ropes This is generally known as 'Kevlar' and has great used in the fire service: a clockwise direction and eight in an are manufactured as either low stretch or dynamic. tensile strength, although it is not considered anticlockwise direction. (See Figure 3.4.) suitable for general rope construction. • Hawser Laid. Low Stretcll Ropes • Plaited. Where ropes are being used for descent or Aramid Fibre lowering and a shock load is not anticipated, the • Kernmantel. working rope and the safety rope should be low­ Desirable Characteristics stretch and should meet the requirements of the ~ • High tensile strength even when wet Hawser Laid Rope -" .. European standard for low-stretch kernmantel Very high melting point Rope manufactured by tWlstll1g individual yarns ropes, BS E 1891: 1998. into strands, a number of which are then twisted together in the opposite direction to form the Undesirable Characteristics finished rope. This has the effect of ensuring that Poor resistance to abrasion the individual yarns do not become untwisted and Poor shock absorption that the load is evenly distributed throughout the Figure 3.4 Diagram v/plaited rope. Easily damaged by repeated bending, rope. particularly over small radius objects Poor resistance to sunlight (Ultraviolet The process of twisting the individual strands to Figure 3.5 Diagram degradation) 0/Kernmal1tel rope make a hawser laid rope is known as 'laying up'. construction_ Ropes may be 'laid up' either right-hand (known as 'Z lay'), or left-hand (known as'S lay') Wire Rope respectively. (See Figure 3.3.) Certain working environments including marine, structural collapses and some confined space incidents may produce a higher potential for damage to textile rope. In these situations the use of wire rope may be preferred. In many respects the systems used with wire rope will be similar to those used for texti le ropes, although control equipment is specific to wire rope. Wire ropes frequently require some form of mechanical system to control the movement ofthe rope. A wire rope system that may be subject to a shock load should include suitable energy absorbing Figure 3.3 Diagram showing hawser laid rope in Manufacturer's Identification Ribbon equipment. traditional "S' and "Z' lays.

82 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 83 There are two categories of rope covered by this In these circumstances, subject to a dynamic risk Figure 3.6 Photograph standard, i.e. types: A and B. Only ropes meeting assessment, general-purpose ropes may be used showing a variety of types ofrope and the requirements of BS EN 1891: type A, should until specific rescue equipment becomes available cordage including be used for rope access, work positioning and work at the incident. kernmantel rope; restraint, including rescue or for any purpose British Standard J6mm involving the lifting or lowering of people. Smaller diameter rope, between 3mm and 8mm hawser laid polyester diameter, often in the form ofa pocket line, may be GP line and an Dynamic Ropes used for attaching or securing equipment but must example offioating rope. These ropes are designed and manufactured to not be used in safety critical applications. stretch when placed under load, dependent on the length of rope between the anchor point and the Cordage of kernmantel construction, between applied load this may be up to 40% of the original 3mm and 8mm diameter, is commonly known as length. accessory cord (Prusik line). Whilst this may be used as part ofa specialist or rescue application, an Where ropes are used to arrest a potential fall i.e. appropriate risk assessment must be applied to lead climbing, and the possibility of a substantial ensure that it is fit for purpose. shock loading exists, dynamic rope complying with BS EN 892: 1997 should be used. Accessory cord tied into a loop (prusik loop) must have a manufacturer's certificate of conformity 3.6.2 Categories of Rope and safe working load if it is to be used in circumstances covered by LOLER. 3.6.2.1 General Purpose Ropes 3.6.2.1 Ropes for Rescue or Personal Fall British Standard 3367:1999 specifies that general­ Protection Systems purpose ropes for fire and rescue service use should be made from 16mm nominal diameter Textile ropes suitable for rescue or personal fall hawser laid polyester or polypropylene. Subject to protection systems will generally be of kernmantel a risk assessment that shows it is 'suitable for construction. A nominal diameter of 10.5 to 13 purpose', other rope may be appropriate for millimetres with a minimum tensile strength of general-purpose usage. Examples of general­ 2500 Kg is recommended. purpose ropes are: 3.6.2.2 Floating Ropes for Use in Water • Long lines, ropes usually of 30m in length, Rescues used for securing or hauling equipment aloft and creating barriers around hazard zones. This type ofrope is specifically designed for use in • Short lines, ropes, ISm in length, used in connection with water-based activities. Unlike applications where a long line would prove natural fibre ropes that have a degree of buoyancy, 3.6.3 Associated Rope Working 3.7 Equipment Identification cumbersome such as securing suction hose to the man made alternatives will float even after Equipment an appliance. submersion in water for long periods oftime. Sizes Equipment used for work at height must be range from Smm for lightweight throw lines to The equipment that is connected to or that acts uniquely identifiable for inspections, tests and General purpose rope must not be used for 16mm for general-purpose ropes. upon the rope is of equal importance to the rope tracking purposes. Requirements for identification personal safety or the lifting or lowering of itself in creating a safe system of work. Rope of equipment should be specified when it is persons. It is acknowledged, however, that Construction may be plaited or kernmantel design, equipment can be classified by the material it is procured. Where a fire and rescue service wishes circumstances of urgent operational need may with a polyester sheath to provide abrasion and constructed from: to add further identification to equipment the arise where there is: heat resistance and a polypropylene core to method and location of marking must be in maintain buoyancy. These ropes will not shrink • Textile based equipment, e.g. webbing, accordance with instructions from the • An immediate threat to human life or safety. when wet. harnesses and lanyards. manufacturer or supplier. and • Metal based equipment, e.g. karabiners, rope • The correct equipment is not readily available. control devices and pulleys. • Marking pens may chemically damage textile and • Equipment constructed from metal, plastics items and must not be used unless approved by • Inaction would result in death or serious injury. and textiles, e.g. stretchers. the supplier of the equipment.

84 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 85 • Stamping or etching may physically damage or 3.9 Equipment Inspections, When prescribing a thorough examination as part Guidance from manufacturers and suppliers must weaken metal items if carried out on load Examinations and Tests of an inspection routine, the competent person be incorporated into prescribed maintenance and bearing components. must: inspection regimes. The inspection of working at height equipment is FRS should have a system in place, which will detailed in Regulation J 2 and specifies general • Take account of manufacturer's and supplier's 3.9.4 Record Keeping ensure that equipment not designed for lifting or inspection requirements. All equipment for work at guidance. lowering persons cannot be used for such a height must be subject to a structured inspection or • Consider the frequency and environment of The following information should be kept and purpose. Whilst ropes and rope equipment that are test regime. use of the equipment. made available for inspection for as long as the suitable for the lifting and lowering of persons can equipment is available for use: be used for other purposes, fire and rescue services All equipment should be thoroughly examined Competent persons should have practical and may wish to restrict these applications in order to after use and where necessary washed and dried theoretical knowledge and experience of the • Certificate of conformity. minimise damage caused by excessive or shock before re-stowage. Cleaning and stowage should equipment that is to be examined. This will enable • All reports of detailed inspections. loads, or the risk of contamination by oil or be in accordance with the manufacturer's them to detect defects or weaknesses and assess • All reports of defects. chemicals. instructions. their likely effect on the continued safe use of the • Records of routine inspections. equipment. Competent persons must also have 3.8 Stowage of Ropes and Associated The appropriate method of inspecting equipment sufficient independence of authority to allow Each report of a detailed inspection should include Equipment for work at height is by visual and tactile decisions to be made on the continued suitability the following information (WaHR Regulation 12): examination. Load testing of equipment must only of equipment. This does not mean the competent Correct stowage of rope and associated equipment be undertaken in Iine with specific instructions persons must come from independent • The name and address of the employer for is the second stage in an effective maintenance provided by the supplier. organisations, rather that "in house" examiners are whom the detailed inspection was made. regime. All rope equipment should be kept clean, given genuine authority and independence to • The address of the premises where the dry and free from contamination in a cool place 3.9.1 Pre-use and after-use checks ensure that examinations are completed correctly detailed inspection was made. out of direct sunlight. Care should be taken to and that any subsequent recommendations are • Information sufficient to identify the ensure that ropes and equipment that will be used All equipment that may be used for work at height implemented. equipment including serial numbers. for rescue or for any purpose involving the lifting must be checked to ensure that its condition is • In accordance with timescales specified by an or lowering ofpersons, are stowed well clear ofoil, appropriate for its intended use: Interim inspections may be needed between examination scheme, or after the occurrence of grease or chemicals and are not allowed to come detailed inspections when risk assessments have exceptional circumstances. into direct contact with hot surfaces. • After each occasion of use, e.g. operational identified that there could be a significant • That the lifting equipment would be safe to incident or training session. deterioration, affecting the safety of the equipment operate or otherwise. Equipment may be best stowed grouped and • Before every training session where the before the next detailed inspection is due. The need • Identification of any part found to have a bagged ready for use to ensure that no essential potential failure of any component could have for and frequency of interim inspections will defect that is or could become a danger to item is left behind. Bags may be colour coded for life safety implications. depend on the level and environment of use, persons and a description of the defect. ease of identification and may be marked with a • At suitable intervals between detailed including exposure to potential contaminants. • Particulars of any repair, renewal or alteration description of the contents. inspections. required to remedy a defect found to be a • Generally personnel who have received 3.9.3 Maintenance danger to persons. Stowing equipment in this way serves several training in the use of equipment can be • In the case of a defect which is not yet but purposes: considered competent to undertake It is essential that all equipment used for work at could become a danger to persons, the time by inspections and pre-use checks. height operations is maintained in efficient which it could become such a danger and • The equipment is ready for immediate use. working order and good repair. Maintenance particulars of any repair, renewal or alteration • The equipment is protected from deterioration 3.9.2 Detailed Inspection regimes should be: required to remedy the defect. caused by exposure to ultra-violet light. • The date of the detailed inspection. • The equipment is protected from mechanical All equipment must be thoroughly examined by a • Planned preventative - where adjustments are • The name of the person signing or damage. competent person: made and parts replaced at pre-set intervals. authenticating the report. • The equipment is protected from chemical • Condition based - where the condition of • The date of the report. damage. • Before bei ng brought into use for the first safety critical parts are regularly monitored • The equipment is easily identified. time. and repaired or replaced as required. Records should be kept at the premises of use but • In accordance with any pre-determined • Carried out or supervised by a competent where this proves impractical they may be held at The equipment may be readily transported to the examination scheme. person. a central location. They must still, however, remain scene of operations and is immediately available • Ifit has been involved in an accident, near miss for use. or dangerous occurrence.

86 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 87 Safe Work at Height Chapter

available for inspection. There is no requirement to keep a record of pre-use checks. 4 3.9.5 Disposal of Equipment

Any item of equipment used for work at height Chapter 4 - Training which reaches the end of the manufacturer's recommended life expectancy or fails an inspection and cannot be repaired, should be removed from service and be destroyed to prevent re-use. In order to assist brigades discharging their 4.1 General Requirements • Continuing professional development (CPD), general duty of care the principles of safe disposal to provide a point in time review ofknowledge, should be considered when any item of equipment In order for individuals to work safely at height it skills and understanding. is withdrawn from service. is important that a systematic process is in place to ensure that personnel are properly trained and they The training needs of individuals, their level of demonstrate possession of the necessary experience, and the circumstances of local work knowledge, skills and understanding. environments will dictate the quantity and frequency of training activities. All specialist Fire and rescue services should implement specific technical training activities should be planned and training programmes for personnel to achieve and conducted by a competent technical supervisor or maintain the required level of competence for instructor. work at height. Each fire and rescue service will need to determine the boundary between core Model training aims and objectives for work at skills applicable to all personnel who work at height are outlined under the following headings: height and the more technical skill required ofstaff who undertake specialist duties. Appropriate levels • Knowledge skills and understanding required of training in specialist activities cannot easily be by all firefighters. achieved for all personnel. • Training for specialist rope operator support duties. Specific good practice guidance on training for • Training for specialist rope operator duties. work at Height is provided by: • Rope work supervisor training. • Rope work instructor training. • The Health and Safety Executive,.l:through their • Continuation and CPD training. Work at Height Syllabus preJ:ared by the • Ongoing assessment. Advisory Committee on Work at Height Training (www.acwaht.org.uk). 4.1.2 Instructors • BS 8454:2006: Code of practice for the delivery of training and education for work Fire and rescue services that undertake technical at height and rescue. specialist rope work activities should appoint a senior rope work instructor who will be 4.1.1 Training Structure responsible for:

Training programmes should include: • Validating the technical aspects of rope. working and the suitability of equipment. • Initial training, to acquire the required • Assessing the knowledge, skills and knowledge skills and understanding, along understanding of other instructors. with assessment of initial development. • Supervising the conduct and assessment of • Continuation training, to provide ongoing specialist rope operator courses. assessment of individual and team levels of knowledge skills and understanding.

88 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 89 Fire and rescue services must ensure that rope 4.2 Training Requirements for all Aim 2 work instructors are competent and have Firefighters Use ropes to secure equipment and other items. appropriate experience. When this is not available Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills within the fire and rescue service, consideration Training for safe work at height should be Use ropes knots and lashings in a range of different should be given to: provided at trainee stage. Where FRSs operate Application, use and Limitations of ropes, knots and contexts. specialised rope work equipment, familiarisation lashings. • The use of competent instmctors from other should also be provided. It may also be appropriate Capabilities and limitations of ropes in general use fire and rescue services. for elements of more specialised training to be within the fire and rescue service. • Provision of training by external training provided where there is a realistic probability that providers. such skills will be generally required. In these circumstances fire and rescue services should add the relevant parts ofspecialist training described in Aim 3 later paragraphs. Understand the practical application of general lifting and lowering techniques and apply them in practice. Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills Training Aims Knowledge Skills and Understanding Required by all Firefighters Meaning of Safe Working Load, Working Load Limit, Factor of Safety and associated terminology. Prior Learning Practical Skills Limitations imposed by manual handling Apply systems using mechanical advantage to rope work activities. Aim I Recognise circumstances where work at height may lead to the risk of a fall requirements. and implement appropriate safety systems. Mechanical advantage. Aim2 Use ropes to secure equipment and other items. Use and limitations of attachments and ancillary Use attachments and ancillary equipment for lifting purposes. Aim3 Understand the practical application of general lifting and lowering techniques cquipment used for lifting purposes. and apply them in practice. Aim4 Inspect and maintain ropes and associated equipment in general use.

Aim 4 Inspect and maintain ropes and associated equipment in general use. Aim 1 Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills Recognise circumstances where work at height may lead to the risk of a fall and implement appropriate safety systems. Inspection and maintenance requirements for ropes, Demonstrate the inspection and maintenance of ropes, harnesses and other webbing equipment. harnesses and other webbing cquipment. Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills Inspection and maintenance requirements for Demonstrate the inspection and maintenance of Requirements of the Work at Height Regulations 2005. Select and use work practices that avoid work at height. connectors, other hardware and ancillary equipment. connectors, other hardware and ancillary equipment. Specific guidance can be found in the HSE Work at Select and use equipment to prevent the risk of a fall. Stowage and transport of ropes, harnesses, other Demonstrate the correct stowage and transport of ropes, Height Syllabus prepared by the Advisory Committee hardware and ancillary equipment. harnesses, other hardware and ancillary equipment. on Work at Height Training (www.acwaht.org.uk). Select and use work equipment to minimise the consequences of a fall. Circumstances where actions should be taken to protect personnel from the risk of a fall. Use and limitations of different fall prevention and fall Select and use appropriate collective or personal protection equipment and systems. protection systems. Limitations of use for safety belts and harnesses. Suitable anchor points and their limitations. Select and use suitable anchor points. Capabilities and limitations of ropes, slings, connectors Use ropes, slings, connectors and associated equipment and associated equipment used for 'work restraint' and for 'work restraint' and 'fall arrest' systems. 'fall arrest' systems. Principles of safe practices for working near unguarded Apply safe practices for working near unguarded edges. edges.

Safe Work at Height 91 90 Fire and Rescue Service Manual 4.3 Specialist Rope Operator Suppo."t AIM 3: Duties Undertake safety checks Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills Personnel expected to work in this role should Demonstrate the safety checks undertaken before a Safety checks undertaken before a specialist rope receive training specific to the use of specialised specialist rope work team operator descends a rope or work team operator descends a rope or ascends equipment. Such training need not be to the same ascends a structure. a structure. extent as training required by operators, but should Demonstrate the safety checks undertaken throughout the Safety checks undertaken throughout the time that include such things as preparation prior to use, time that personnel are suspended from rope. personnel are suspended from rope. operational use, operational safety points and incident command principles.

AIM 4: Training Aims Set up and manage rope belay points and anchor systems Specialist Rope Operator Support Duties Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills Prior learning Possession of the knowledge, skills and understanding of rope working required Set up and monitor a secure rope belay for each type by all firefighters. Various types of anchor system available for use and of anchor. their limitations. Aim I Identify, establish and manage the hazard zone above, adjacent to and below any Describe the issues to be taken into account when working area. monitoring rope belays and anchors. Aim2 Meet the equipment and support requirements of specialist rope work teams. Aim 3 Undertake safety checks. Aim4 Set up and manage rope anchorage and belay points. AimS Inspect and maintain ropes and associated equipment. AIM 5: Inspect and maintain ropes and associated equipment in specialist use Knowledge and Undustanding Practical Skills Inspect ropes. harnesses, other webbing equipment, Inspection and maintenance requirements for harnesses Aim 1: connectors and ancillary equipment and demonstrate and other webbing equipment. Identify, establish and manage the hazard zone above, adjacent to and below any working area maintenance regimes. Inspection and maintenance requirements for Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills connectors and ancillary equipment. Principles and guidelines for setting up and Set up a hazard zone and demonstrate its Stowage and transport of specialist ropes, harnesses managing a hazard zone. management. and all associated equipment. Methods of safe working within the Demonstrate the methods of safe working within the hazard zone. hazard zone.

AIM 2: Meet the equipment and support requirements of specialist rope work teams Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills

Name and describe items of specia'lised rope working Select items of specialised rope working equipment equipment. by name and description Principles and guidelines for equipment management at Set up an equipment dump and demonstrate its an incident management. Principles of rope hauling and lowering Set up, monitor and operate rope hauling and lowering systems. systems. Principles of safety back-up systems. Set up and monitor safety back-up systems.

Safe Work at Height 93 92 Fire and Rescue Service lvlanual 4.4 Specialist Rope Operator Duties • The need for individuals who experience signs of psychological or physiological difficulties Specialist rope work which involves activities in ~~~e~s to be identified and to be given the opportunity a scene of operations and return to the starting point using standard techniques high and exposed situations, places particular to address these problems or to withdraw or be Knowledge and Understandmg. Practical Skills demands on the individual, such that some people withdrawn from specialist activities are not able to cope with the psychological or Equipment appropriate for use in a range of specialist Select and don the correct equipment for physiological demands involved. Members of activities. the task. After completing a course of initial trammg, specialist rope work teams must have the attitude Safety checks undertaken before descent Undertake all safety checks necessary before descent specialist rope operators should undertake a further and aptitude for such work. Selection and training or ascent. or ascent. period of consolidation training which should: processes should take account of: Standard techniques for descending and ascending a Use standard techniques to·descend and asccnd a rope rope and the application of a safety back-up system III a and apply a safety back-up system in a range of locatIOns • Be under the direct observation of a specialist range of locations to meet local nsks. to meet local risks. • Medical, physical and psychological fitness rope work supervisor or instructor. to work in high and exposed locations. Standard practices for ascending and descending a Ascend and descend a structure using fall-arrest • Cover all specialist rope work activities. structure using fall-arrest techniques. techniques. (Fire and rescue services may wish to use their • Conclude with a formal assessment of occupational health screening facilities to Improvised systems of work and the relevant safe Use improvised systems of work within the safe knowledge, skills and understanding, applied working limits of equipment. working limits of equipment. identify these characteristics.) to range of simulated rescue scenarios. • The need for specialist operators to work in Additional rope techniques (e.g. cableways, hauling Use additional rope techniques (e.g. cableways, hauling systems etc) that are appropriate to meet the full ,range systems etc) as appropriate to the range of local nsks and difficult environments out of sight of their of local risks and the anticipated reqUIrements at anticipated requirements of JI1cldents. supervisors. Specialist operators should not be considered for specialist rope work duties in an operational incidents. • The need for new trainees to be closely monitored. context until the consolidation training and a formal practical assessment has been successfully completed. AIM 3: Training Aims Rescue a casualty Specialist Rope Operator Duties Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills Prior learning Possession of the knowledge, skills and understanding required for specialist rope operator support duties. Standard techniques for rescue using a rescue harness Rescue of a casualty from a range of different locations/ or stretcher in a range the circumstances appropnate to environments using a rescue harness or stretcher. Aim I local risks. Understand the hazards and risks associated with specialist rope activities and apply appropriate control measures in practical situations. First aid and casualty handling to the standard required Aim2 by Health and Safety First Aid at Work RegulatIOns or Access a scene of operations and return to the starting point using standard rope techniques. Aim3 Rescue a casualty. any such equivalent first aid or casualty handlJl1g . Aim4 qualification in line with fire and rescue servIce policy. Apply effective casualty care. Provide a safe work environment for other personnel, e.g. paramedics who may need The range of injuries likely to be sustained by casualties to access the work area. and the implic

AIM 1:

Understand the hazards and risks associated with specialist rope activities and apply appropriate control measures in practical situations AIMProvide4: a safe work environment for other personnel e.g. paramed.ICS who may need to access the work area KnOWledge and Understanding Practical Skills Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills General safety procedures. Application of general safety procedures. Principles of site management and incident command at Safety factors required to provide a safe work Brief relevant people on all safety factors and confirm specialist rope work incidents. Apply the principles of site management and incident environment understanding. command at specialist rope work incidents. IdentitY situations requiring the use of restraint, work PPE and systems of work to lower and recover other Select appropriate PPE, lower other personnel to and positioning or fall arrest equipment. Select the correct equipment and PPE for use personnel to and from a work site. from a work site and recover them to a safc place. in a range of special ist rope activities. Identify appropriate PPE for a range of specialist rope activities. Fall factors and the dangers of excessive shock loads.

94 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work af Heighf 95 4.5 Rope Work Supervisor Rope work supervisors should be drawn from AIM 3: personnel who have demonstrated competence as a Plan and supervise the activities of teams undertaking rope work The role of rope work supervisors is to: specialist rope operator and in general Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills instructional skills. Plan work and supervise work teams in operationa'l • Supervise continuation training. Application of specialist rope activities in operational situations. • Undertake assessment of the knowledge, skills Supervisor status should be reviewed periodically. situations. Supervise equipment maintenance, inspection and and understanding of specialist rope operators It is recommended that this process take place at Equipment maintenance, inspect,ion and testing testing regimes. on an ongoing basis. least every three years and should include CPD. regimes. • Act as team leaders at incidents.

Training Aims • Advise management on systems of work and Rope Work Supervisor 4.6 Rope Work Instructor equipment. Prior learning Possession of the knowledge, skills and understanding required to undertake specialist rope operator duties. Individuals nominated for training as instructors Fire and rescue services should appoint a Experience in undertaking the role of a specialist rope operator. for rope work, should be experienced rope work competent person to co-ordinate and manage Possession of general instructor skills. supervisors. instructor training. Aim I Plan and conduct a continuation training session for persOlmel. Rope work instructors will undertake the following Aim2 Give instruction on equipment and technical aspects of rope working. Rope work instructor status should be reviewed roles: Aim3 Plan and supervise the activities of teams undertaking rope work activities. periodically. It is recommended that this process • Initial training of specialist rope operators, takes place annually and should include CPD. supervisors and other instructors. • Continuation training for supervisors and other Training aims and objectives should include: AIM 1: instructors. Plan and conduct a continuation training session for personnel • Formal assessments of knowledge, skills and Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills understanding for all operators, supervisors and instructors. Deliver a practical and a theoretical training session and demonstrate the assessment of performance. Identification of training needs, preparation of Iraining Identify training needs and prepare a lesson plan for a Training Aims sessions, assessment of performance and provision of practical and a theoretical training session. Rope Work Instructor feedback on specialist rope work activities. Provide effective feedback on performance and identify Prior learning Possession of the knowledge, skills and understanding required to undertake any further training needs. the role of a rope work supervisor. Experience in undertaking the role of a specialist rope work supervisor.

Aim I Provide training courses for all specialist rope operators, rope work supervisors and instructors. AIM 2: Aim2 Monitor the performance of rope work activities and give advice on procedures Give instruction on equipment and technical aspects of rope working and equipment. Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills

Use of equipment, limitations as to use, safety factors, Prepare and deliver continuation training on equipment. care and maintenance and safe systems of work Prepare and deliver continuation training on systems of work. Fall factors and shock loads. Describe the meaning of fall factors and explain their importance in relation to shock loads.

Safe I'Vork at Height 97 96 Fire and Rescue Service Manual • Provide a mlnllnUm of six opportunltles for The guiding principles for the use oflive casualties AIM 1: each specialist rope operator to handle should ensure that: Provide training courses for all rope work operators, supervisors and instructors equipment and apply systems of work in a Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills simulated rescue situation evenly distributed • The use of live casualties is avoided unless essential to the outcomes required. Prepare and deliver specialist rope operator, supervisor over each each twelve-month period. and instructor initial training courses. • Provide more frequent opportunities for • Any exposure to risk is justified and effectively managed to achieve clear and Identification of training needs, pre,paration of training Prepare training programmes and deliver supervisor and personnel with limited experience of specialist sessions, assessment of performance and provision of instructor continuation training courses rope work to handle equipment and apply established learning outcomes. feedback on specialist rope work activities. Conduct performance assessments of specialist rope systems of work to simulated rescue • The risk is not disproportionate to the operators, supervisors and instructors, Give feedback situations. benefits. and identify further traini,ng needs. • Provide an assessment of knowledge, skills • The risk to the 'casualty' should not be greater and understanding for specialist rope than that to the rescuer. operators who have been away from specialist • Live casualties are used when casualty care is duties in excess of twelve weeks or other the prime objective of the training session. • Live casualties are provided with appropriate AIM 2: period as determined by individual service Monitor the performance of rope work activities and give advice on specialist procedures policy. The assessment will either confirm PPE, including a separate safety system as and equipment competence to undertake operational duties or appropriate. indicate the need for refresher training. Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills • Provide opportunities to develop new relevant These same principles could be applied when Maintenance and knowledge of developments in Review procedures, equipment and working practices on knowledge, skills and understanding assessing of the need for personnel to be trained to equipment, good practice and safe systems of work. a regular basis. Provide guidance and advice on revisions. undertake a 'carry down' using fire service 4.9 Use of Live Casualties ladders. If it is determined that such an activity is foreseeable and training therefore needs to be When training for work at height, the part of the provided, the technique of mounting a ladder 4.7 Technical Rope Work Officer structured and systematic way to ensure all aspects casualty or victim is generally best served by use carrying a live casualty could be practiced at low are addressed on a regular basis and that all of a training manikin. Manual handling level on a purpose designed facility with appropriate fall protection in place. The officer nominated to take overall management relevant personnel are included. A specific considerations must be taken into account, responsibility for technical rope work should programme should be in place for personnel who particularly during the placement of a manikin for If the purpose of the exercise is to practice ensure that an appropriate level of corporate use ropes, harnesses and associated equipment in a rescue. There are circumstances where risk to descending a ladder carrying a load over a knowledge is maintained and new developments more specialised technical way. personnel in placing the manikin in a realistic distance, then a simulated load could be used to are properly considered. Suitable activities will rescue situation is such that the activity should represent the casualty and the individual include: The more specialist aspects of rope working are by preferably be avoided. Risk assessment of training nature complex and critical in their application. It sites will identify such locations. undergoing the training could be protected with a fall arrest system as necessary. • Attendance at seminars and conferences. is essential, therefore, that the knowledge, skills • Participation in User Groups. and understanding of specialist rope operators is There are times when the experience of working • Attendance on appropriate courses provided by regularly assessed through a structured programme with or receiving continuous feedback from a live other brigades or recognised external trainers. of activities. casualty is a key part of learning (e.g. for casualty • Reviewing technical journals and handling) and the required learning outcomes manufacturers' information. Good practice developed in FRSs that have cannot be met if a training manikin is used. A live • Liaison with other agencies involved in rope operated specialist rope rescue teams over a casualty should be an individual competent to working activities. number of years indicates that ePD and work at height. continuation training will: 4.8 Continuation Training and CPD When competent specialist personnel undertake • Be structured and progressive to address the the role of the casualty, valuable feedback on 4.8.1 General Requirements knowledge, skills and understanding required performance can be provided with safety by specialist rope operators on a continuing observations and direct instructions being given as Ongoing assessment of knowledge, skills and basis. needed. understanding is essential to ensure systems for • Include ongoing assessment of performance in safe work at height continue to be applied practical skills, procedural knowledge and correctly. This should be undertaken in a equipment management.

Safe Work at Height 99 98 Fire and Rescue Service Manuaf Safe Work at Height

Bibliography

Legislation Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992 (PPE) SI 1992/2966 and Attention is drawn to the following acts and amendments, and guidance document Personal regulations, and HSE approved codes of practice protective equipment at work 1992 (HSE L25). (ACoP) and guidance. Provision and Use ofWork Equipment Regulations Health and Safety at Work etc. Act J974. 1998 (PUWER) SI 1998/2306 and ACoP Safe use of work equipment (HSE L22). Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 (CDM Regulations) SI 199413 Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 140 as amended and ACoP Managing construction 1992 SI 1992/3004 as amended and ACoP for health and safety (HSE L54). Workplace health, safety and welfare (HSE L24).

Work at Height Regulations 2005 (WAH The Confined Spaces Regulations 1997, SI No. Regulations) SI 2005/735. 1713 1997; ACoP and Guidance, Safe work in confined spaces (HSE) L 101 Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations J996 (CHSW Regulations) SI H E Guidance 1996/1592 (as amended by the Work at Height Regulations 2005 SI 2005/735). HSG 150 Further information on guardrails (and working platforms). Construction (Head Protection) Regulations 1989 SI 1989/2209. HSE Information Sheet MISC614, Preventing Falls From Boom-type Mobile Elevating Work Electricity at Work Regulations 1989. Platforms

Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981. HSE INDG 367 Inspecting Fall Arrest Equipment Made from Webbing or Rope. Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 (LOLER) SI 1998/2307 and HSE Information Sheet Construction ACoP and Guidance Safe use oflifting equipment Information Sheet No: 49 (Revision) General 1998 (HSE LlI3). Access Scaffolds and Ladders

Management of Health and Safety at Work HSE Information Sheet Construction Information Regulations 1999 (MHSW Regulations) SI 1999 Sheet No: 10 (Revision 4) Tower Scaffolds. 13242 and ACoP Management ofhealth and safety at work (HSE L21). Fire and Rescue Service sp cifie

Personal Protective Equipment Regulations 2002 Fire & Rescue Manual Volume 4, Fire Service SI 200211 144. Training, Foundation Training & Development, 2004

Safe Work at Height 101 Safe Work at Height

HM Fire Service Inspectorate, 1998: Fire EN 1677-6, Components/or slings - Safety - Part 6: Service Guide 'Dynamic Management of Risk at Links. Grade 4 Operational Incidents' EN 13411-1, Terminations .for steel wire ropes ­ [HM Stationery Office 1998 ISBN 0 11 341221 5] Safety - Part 1: Thimbles/or steel wire rope slings EN ISO 1968:2004, Fibre ropes and cordage ­ HM Fire Service Inspectorate, 1998: A Guide for Terms and dejinitions (ISO 1968:2004) Glossary Managers, Health and Safety, Fire Service guide EN ISO 7500-1: 1999, Metallic materials ­ Volume 2. Verification of static uniaxial testing machines ­ [The Stationery Office ISBN 0 I1 3412193] Part 1: Tension/compression testing machines (ISO 7500-1:1999) HM Fire Service Inspectorate, 1998: A Guide to EN ISO 12100-2, Sa[ety of machinery - Basic This Glossary refers to terminology that is likely to be encountered in relation to rope working and goes Operational Risk Assessment, Fire Service Guide concepls, general principles jar design - Part 2: beyond the detail included in the main text of this document. Volume 3 Technical principles (1S0 12100-2:2003) [HM Stationery Office 1998 ISBN 0 II 3412207] Fall Protection HM Fire Service Inspectorate, 2001: A Guide for active ropellive rope Rope tied to the harness of a movmg rescuer or load and BS EN 354, Personal protective equipment against Managers, Health and Safety, Fire Service Guide controlled by a belayer. falls from a height - Lanyards. Volume 2, Module 18, Health and Safety Audit BS EN 355, Personal pmtective equipment against [The Stationery Office ISBN 0 11 341248 7] aid climbing Progression by clipping into successive anchor points using short falls from a height - Energy absorbers. lanyards, etriers, andlor ropes, to gain access to higher or more BS EN 358:2000, Personal protective equipment DeOL 05/2004 Item A: Guidance relating to difficult places. .for I'vork positioning and prevention of/allsfrom a personnel on decks of aerial appliances height - Belts for work positioning and restraint anchor; anchor point A safe point or object to which an individual or system may be and work positioning lanvards. DeOL 03/2004 Item E: Aerial Appliances ­ securely attached. BS E 360, Personal prorective equipmenl against Provision of anchor devices. falls.from a height - Retractable typefall arresters. anchor rope Flexible rope connected at least at one end to a reliable anchor British Standard Institution BS EN 361, Personal protective equipment against to provide a means of support, restraint or other safeguard for a IallsFom a height - Full bodv harnesses. person wearing a body support. An anchor rope may be a working Lifting Equipment BS EN 362, Personal protective equipment against rope or a safety rope. falls from a height - Connectors. EN 696, Fibre ropes for general service ­ BS EN 363, Personal protective equipment against ascender A mechanical rope control device which, when attached to a rope Polyamide fallsfrom a height - Fall arrest sysrems. of appropriate type and diameter, will slip freely in one direction EN 697, Fibre ropesjor general service - Polyester BS EN 795: 1997, Protection against jaILs from a but lock under load in the opposite direction. EN 698, Fibre ropes for general service - Manila height -Anchor devices - Requirements and testing. and sisal BS EN 813, Personal protective equipment.for the back-up device A rope control device for a safety rope of appropriate type and EN 699, Fibre ropes for general service ­ prevention offalls from a height - Sil harnesses. diameter, which accompanies the user during changes of position Polypropylene BS EN 892: 1996, Mountaineering equipment ­ or allows adjustment of the length of the safety rope, and which EN 1050: 1996, Sa[ety o/machinery - Principles of Dynamic mountaineering ropes Safet)' locks automatically to the safety rope, or only allows gradual risk assessment requirements and test methods. movement along it, when a sudden load occurs. EN 1261, Fibre ropes for general service - Hemp BS EN 1497, Personalfall protection equipment­ EN 1677-1, Components for slings - Sa/ery - Part Rescue harnesses. back-up rope; safety rope; Rope provided as a safeguard. This rope is used to protect against 1: Forged steel components, Grade 8 BS EN 1891: 1998, Personal protective equipment secondary rope falls if the rope operator slips or if the primary supp0l1 (e.g. the EN 1677-2, Componentsjor slings - Safety - Part 2: for the prevention offalls from a height - Low working rope), anchor or positioning mechanism fails. Forged steellifiing hooks with latch. Grade 8 stretch kernmantel ropes. EN 1677-3, Componentsfors/ings-Sajety-Part 3: BS 8437:2005 - Code o/practice.for selection, use belay Place where ropes or people may be anchored or secured. Forged steel self-locking hooks, Grade 8 and maintenance of personal fall protection The practice of providing safety backup by use of a rope and EN 1677-4, Componentsfor slings - Saje(y - Part 4: systems and equipmentj(;,. use in the workplace. rope control device attached to an anchor. Links,Grade8 EN 1677-5, Components/or slings - Safety - Part 5: ISO 114(): 1990, Ropes - Polyamide - belaying or life lining Method of providing a safety rope to a person op.erating in a Forged steel lifiing hooks with latch, Grade 4 Specification. hazard area where a fall or slip is likely. The rope IS controlled ISO 1141: 1990, Ropes - Polyester - SpeCification. by a rope control device, operated by the belayer.

Safe Work at Heighr 103 102 Fire and Rescue Service Manual 'below' A warning that is shouted when any object is thrown, dropped or energy absorber A device designed to limit the shock load on equipment and anchor dislodged from a height and is applicable to all persons in the points generated by a fall to 6kN - also thereby minimising the hazard area. impact load absorbed by the body of the faller. It may do this by deforming under a shock load. bight The middle part ofa length of rope. The term also applies to a loop of rope, and to 'make a bight' is to form a loop. etrier System of loops to provide foot and hand purchase using rope or tape mimicking a rope ladder. body support A belt or harness used to attach a person to a rope or anchor point. existing place of work An existing building or permanent structure including its means of breaking load; failure load The load which, when applied to an item of equipment when it access or egress from which there is no risk of a fall occurring. It is new will cause complete failure (previously called breaking does not require the use or addition of any work equipment to strain). prevent a fall.

cable way Tensioned rope suspended between two points, along which exposure (a) a subjective measure of the insecurity induced by the effect of rescuers and casualties may traverse. height and/or an area of expanse beneath the operator/rescuer. (b) cooling of the body resulting from an inability of the body's clearance Required distance below a person or load to prevent them/it metabolism to generate heat as rapidly as the environment is striking the ground in the event of a fall, taking account of any removing it, often leading to Hypothermia. energy absorber plus any stretch or give in the system. factor of safety The figure by which the breaking strength of new rope is divided to connector Openable device used to connect components of a rope working determine its safe working load. system. fail safe A term used to describe either a device that will auto-lock when cow's tail Short strop, lanyard or sling connected to the mall1 attachment used in accordance with the manufacturers instructions, or a point of a harness. system with sufficient redundancy that should anyone item fail, there is adequate back-up to prevent an accident. danger area Defined in the Work at Height Regulations. Referred to in this document as a 'Hazard Zone' failure load; breaking load Minimum breaking load of an item of equipment when it is new, previously called breaking strain. descender Manually operated, friction inducing, rope control device, which when attached to a rope of appropriate type and diameter, allows fall arrest Technique using PPE to safely arrest a fall in the event of loss of the user to achieve a controlled descent and (dependent on controlled contact with the working surface. specific model) a stop at any point on a rope. fall factor A measure of the maximum force of a fall expressed as a dogging the tails; rope dog Consists of two I metre tails of rope at one end and a sewn eye at number - derived from the height or distance of the fall divided by the other. When laced onto a working rope, it provides a method of the length of rope in the belay or fall arrest system. The higher the attaching a hauling system while applying minimum damage to the figure the more serious the effects of the fall. rope. It works on a similar principle to a spliced rope. hazard zone An area inside the field of operations within which the degree of Note: Dogging the tails does not comply with LOLER unless given risk from potential hazards including falls or falling objects is a SWL by supplier sufficient to warrant the application of special control measures. dynamic rope Rope specifically designed to absorb energy in a fall by extending hawser-laid Rope made of three strands laid up in the form of a helix in the in length, thereby minimising the impact force. opposite direction to the lay ofthe strands. edge rollers Pulley-type devices used at the edge of vertical or angled drops to hitch A simple fastening of a rope to some object by passing the rope reduce friction and also avoid rope abrasion. round the object and crossing one part over the other. edge protection Within the context of the WAH Regulations 'edge protection' is a term used to describe physical barriers such as parapets, sills, guard rai Is etc.

104 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 105 impact force The force generated by a fall - depends principally on the fall load Any item that is being lifted, lowered or supported. Under LOLER facrar, the weight of the faIler or load, the elasticity of the the term load includes any person, when it is then referred to as a components that link the faller or load to the anchor (primari ly 'liveload'. the rope) and the amount of friction in the system. low stretch rope Textile rope with lower elongation and, therefore, less energy karabiner Type of connector, formed as a complete loop, with a spring loaded absorbing characteristics than dynamic rope. entry gate often lockable in the closed position by a screwed ring (when it is known as a 'screwgate karabiner') or automatic locking mailIon rapide; screwlink Screwlink type of connector formed as an open loop, which device. is closed by a threaded sleeve rather than a hinged gate (see karabiner), thus capable of sustaining loads applied in more than kernmantel rope Textile rope consisting of a core enclosed by a sheath. The core is two directions. Used where a strong, secure fastening is required usually the main load bearing element and typically consists of that need not be opened or closed quickly. It should be noted that parallel elements which have been drawn and turned together in 'maillon rapide' is a trade name, which has come into common use single or several layers, or of braided elements. The sheath is to describe this type of connector. generally braided and protects the core, for example from external abrasion and ultra violet degradation. mousing An object secured across the opening of a hook to prevent the fastening secured to the hook from unhooking. knot The interlacement of cordage in a specific pattern for the purpose of stopping ends, joining ends, forming loops, securing natural anchor A solid object occurring naturally such as a boulder or tree. Must equipment, etc. A knot may be formed with a number of loops, be at least as strong as the rope tied to it unless the load is shared hitches or turns involving any part of a rope or ropes. For the over a number of anchors. purposes of this manual, the term knot is also deemed to include various bends, lashings and hitches. passive rope Rope which is directly attached to an anchor and which is not moving, such as a rope being used to descend with descent laid A descriptive term to indicate the style of makeup of the rope controlled directly by a rescuer. (see hawser-laid). payout To ease out or slacken a rope. lay The pitch of one complete turn of a strand measured in a straight line parallel to the axis of the rope. proof load Test load applied to verify that an item of equipment will not exhibit permanent deformation under that load, at that particular lead climbing Technique for reaching a higher point during which the climber is time. This result can then be theoretically related to the protected by ropes, running belays, and a person (known as a performance of the test piece under its expected conditions belayer) operating a fall arrest device. In service. life lining or belaying Method of providing a safety rope to a person operating in a prusiking A method of climbing a fixed rope by means of rope gripping hazard area where a fall or slip is likely. The rope is controlled devices such as knots (i.e. prusik knot) or mechanical ascend rs. by a rope control device, operated by the belayer. redundancy Spare capacity built into the system to ensure that a sufficient lifting equipment Work equipment for lifting or lowering loads, including degree of safety remains in the event of a pa11ial system failure. attachments used for anchoring, fixing or supporting, e.g. chain or rope sling or similar, ring, Iink, hook, plate-clamp, shackle, I'ceve, rove To thread a rope through a pulley block. swivel, eyebolt, webbing. rope Cordage formed by laying three or more strands together to form a line Traditional term for cordage cut to a specific length for a helix round a central axis or by braiding strands around a central particular purpose. Used to differentiate between a full-length rope core. as originally manufactured (traditionally in imperial measure 120 fathoms, or 720 feet, which equates to 219 metres) and lengths cut from it.

106 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work al Heighr 107 - rope access Technique using ropes, normally incorporating two separately shock absorber See 'energy absorber'. secured systems, one as a means of access and the other as a safety back-up, used with a harness in combination with other shock load The additional load imposed on equipment and anchor points when devices, for getting to and from the place of work and for work a fall or movement is stopped suddenly. positioning. splicing A method ofjoining two ropes together, or of making an eye in the rope control device A mechanical device, generally relying on friction, which end of a rope, by unlaying the strands for a short provides control over the movement of rope or any attached load. distance and then interlocking the strands of the two parts into one Generic name for ascenders, descenders and back-up devices. another. rope dog; dogging the tails Consists of 2 dne metre tails of rope at one end and a sewn stance A position where a rope operator can stand balanced on his/her feet "thimble" at the other. When laced onto a working rope, it is a with both hands free to work. method of attaching a hauling system while applying minimum damage. It works on a similar principle to a spliced rope. standing part The part of the bight of a rope that is nearest the eye, bend or hitch, as opposed to the end. rope protection Protection for rope or other equipment where it passes over or rests on any edge. May also be referred to as edge protection. static rope Old term for rope with lower elongation characteristics than dynamic rope, superseded by the term 'low stretch rope'. Now only running belay A belay through which a rope is threaded and through which it can applies to ropes with negligible stretch, such as wire or Kevlar, move freely. which show little extension at failure and hence have little or no ability to absorb shock loads. running end The free end of the rope. tensile strength The point at which a material no longer has resistance to breakage. running part The moving part of a rope which IS loose and IS used to hoist or lower. traversing Broadly horizontal progression, normally in suspension, using aid climbing techniques and/or pulley systems on transverse ropes or 'safe' A term to be used by anyone during a tralOlOg or operational cables. incident when they have reached a position ofsafety and are secure. whipping Binding around the end of a rope to prevent the strands from safe working load (SWL) Designated maximum working load of an item of equipment under unlaying (unravelling). particular, specified conditions. See also working load limit (WLL). work positioning A system of work in which the firefighter's weight is supported to allow the firefighter to carry out necessary work by using PPE in safety rope; secondary rope; A rope which is under the control of a competent person and tension in such a way as to prevent a fall. back-up rope connected via a rope control device to an anchor point in such Technique using PPE to prevent a firefighter reaching a point a way that it will protect a worker against a fall in the event of work restraint where the potential of a fall likely to cause personal injury exists. a slip or a failure of the primary working rope or system.

Zone outside the 'Hazard Area' where rope operations such as screwlink; (mailJon rapide) Type of connector formed as an open loop, which is closed by working area a threaded sleeve rather than a hinged gate (see karabiner), thus operating pulley systems should be carried out. capable of sustaining loads applied in more than two directions. Primary rope used for work positioning or restraint - including for Used where a strong, secure fastening is required that need not be working rope opened or closed quickly. It should be noted that 'maillon rapide' is descending and ascending. a trade name, which has come into common use to describe this Maximum load that can be lifted by an item of equipment under type of connector. working load limit (WLL) conditions specified by the manufacturer. seizing Binding used to fasten two ropes or parts of one rope to prevent them moving in relation to each other.

Sale HIll''' ut Height 109 108 Fire and Rescue Service t'vlanual Safe Work at Height APPE DIXA

Appendix A- Work at Height Flowchart

Identify, risk assess and record where work at height is carried out t Is there a risk of a pel'son falling a distance liable to cause injury? t t Yes I I No t Perform that task in a safe manner

Is it reasonably practicable to avoid work at height? t t Yes I I No

Perform that task in a safe manner from the ground

Take suitable and sufficient steps to: PREVENT the risk of a fall, MINIMISE the distance and including: consequences of any fall. This includes • Selection of an existing work place taking account of the factors detailed that complies with schedule 1 and in regulation 7. where this is not possible When selecting work equipment give • Selection of the most suitable work priority to collective fall protection equipment in accordance with measures over personal protection. regulation 7

110 Fire and Rescue Service Manual