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Patterns of Skinhead Violence University of New Hampshire University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository Doctoral Dissertations Student Scholarship Fall 2008 Patterns of skinhead violence Derek Bowen University of New Hampshire, Durham Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.unh.edu/dissertation Recommended Citation Bowen, Derek, "Patterns of skinhead violence" (2008). Doctoral Dissertations. 441. https://scholars.unh.edu/dissertation/441 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Scholarship at University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PATTERNS OF SKINHEAD VIOLENCE BY DEREK BOWEN BA, Dalhousie University, 1997 MA, University of New Hampshire, 1999 DISSERTATION Submitted to the University of New Hampshire in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology September, 2008 UMI Number: 3333518 INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3333518 Copyright 2008 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 E. Eisenhower Parkway PO Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 This dissertation has been examined and approved. DissertatiogHJitector, James E"TTucker, Associate Professp/of Sociology Benjamin^. Brown, Associate Professor of Sociology Cesar J. Reb/ellon, Assistant Professor of Sociology Nicrjolas J. Smith, Associate Professor of Philosophy Alynna J. £yon, Assistant Pjse^sor of Political Science tyto Date ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the people and institutions that made this dissertation possible. I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee; James Tucker, Cliff Brown, Cesar Rebellon, Alynna Lyon, and Nick Smith, for their comments and Support. I would also like to thank Deena Peschke and Lynn Beaver for all the advice, support, friendship and coffee. Most of all I wish to acknowledge the unwavering patience and support of my wife, Angela. I would like to acknowledge the generous financial support I have received over the years from Graduate School of the University of New Hampshire. My dissertation research was made possible by Summer TA Fellowships in 2000 and 2001 and by a Dissertation Year Fellowship. I would also like to acknowledge the research support provided by the UNH Sociology Department through the Arnold S. Linsky Award. in TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Hi LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES viii ABSTRACT ix CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction to the Study 2 Statement of the Problem 6 Research Objectives 6 Theoretical Framework 7 Definition of Terms 8 Overview of Remaining Chapters 13 II. SKINHEADS AND VIOLENCE 16 A Brief History of Skinheads 15 The Media and Watchdog Groups 19 Three Explanations of Skinhead Violence 27 Donald Black's Theory of Conflict Management 42 Alternative Explanations 57 Summary and Predictions 64 III. METHODOLOGY 68 Doing Research with Skinheads 68 iv Research Methodology 75 Research Issues 91 The Sample 93 Data Analysis Methodology 95 THE CREWS 105 Group Membership 106 Dress and Symbolism 111 Group Organization 118 Racism 126 Skinheads and adult hate groups 133 Becoming a Skinhead 141 Joining a Crew 144 Crew Activities 148 Leaving the Crew 152 Discussion 157 OUT-GROUP CONFLICTS 162 Second Party Characteristics in Out-group Conflicts 163 Handling Out-Group Conflicts 165 Conflicts with Minorities 166 Conflicts with Other Skinheads 170 Conflicts with Members of Other Subcultures 178 Conflicts with Other Outsiders 181 General Patterns of Violence 183 Conventionality and Respectability of Second Parties 193 Alternative Conflict Outcomes 195 Discussion 198 VI. IN-GROUP CONFLICT 206 Sources of Conflict 207 Violent In-group Conflict 215 Third Parties and Violence 223 Aftermath of Violent Conflict 232 Nonviolent Conflict Outcomes 234 Discussion 243 VII. CONCLUSION 245 Characteristics of Racist Skinhead Violence 245 Crew Structure and Conflict Management 257 Influence of the Media and Watchdog Groups 260 Limitations 262 Theoretical Implications 264 Other Avenues for Future Research 267 Conclusion 269 APPENDIX A: STATISTICS 271 APPENDIX B: IRB APPROVAL 277 REFERENCES 278 vi LIST OF TABLES PAGE Table 3.1 Dependent Variables 98 Table 3.2 Principal Party Variables 99 Table 3.3 Principal Party Organizational Variables 99 Table 3.4 Third Party Variables 101 Table 3.5 Additional Variables 102 Table 5.1 Perceived Minority Status 163 Table 5.2 Relationship between Principal Parties 164 Table 5.3 Subcultural Affiliation of Other Parties 165 Table 5.4 Characteristics of Minority Principal Parties 166 Table 5.5 Relationship between Skinhead Principal Parties 170 Table 5.6 Relationship with Members of Other Subcultures 179 Table 5.7 Relationship in Other Out-group Conflicts 181 Table 5.8 Conflict Handling by Principal Party Characteristics 183 Table 5.9 Conflict Handling by Principal Party Relationship 184 Table 5.10 Social Ties and General Third Party Action 188 Table 5.11 General Third Party Action and Conflict Handling 190 Table 6.1 Sources of In-group Conflict 207 vii LIST OF FIGURES PAGE Figure 2.1 Varieties of Self-help 48 Figure 2.2 Conditions that Promote Nonpartisan Behavior 53 Figure 2.3 Conditions that Promote Strong Partisanship 54 VIII ABSTRACT PATTERNS OF SKINHEAD VIOLENCE By Derek Bowen University of New Hampshire, September, 2008 Violence committed by racist skinheads has often been characterized as being motivated by racial hatred and by white supremacist ideology. This ideological aspect has been used to make a distinction between the violent acts committed by racist skinheads and violent acts committed by other groups of young males. Recent research on skinheads has indicated that this distinction may have been overstated. Researchers doing fieldwork with skinheads have found that racist skinheads are involved in violent conflicts with a variety of opponents, and that this violence often lacked an overtly ideological character. Building on this emerging research, I hypothesized that racist skinhead violence was a product of both the skinhead subculture and the social structure of the conflicts in which skinheads are involved. In order to examine the dynamics of skinhead conflict, I conducted 30 face-to-face interviews with current and former racist skinheads in the northeastern United States and Eastern Canada. The subjects in the sample were, or had been, members of five different skinhead groups. These interviews yielded detailed accounts of 211 separate conflicts in which the skinheads had been involved. These accounts were used to create models of events with violent outcomes and events with nonviolent outcomes. By comparing across cases I was able to identify some factors that seemed to limit the use of violence and others that seemed to promote violent outcomes. The majority of these conflicts were not with members of minority groups or homosexuals, but with other young white males. Most of these adversaries were other skinheads or were affiliated with other youth subcultures. The likelihood of skinheads engaging in violence varied with the social structure of the conflict. The presence of skinhead allies and a lack of crosscutting social ties between the parties involved in a conflict increased the likelihood of violent outcomes. The findings suggest that the social structure of a conflict plays an important role in determining whether conflicts will be handled violently, or in other ways. x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In this dissertation I explore the behavior of racist skinheads. The actions of these skinheads are most often discussed in broader contexts, usually with the adult white supremacy movement or hate crimes as the principal object of study. As the body of research on racist skinheads has grown, divergent ideas about the nature of skinhead motivations and actions have emerged. While these ideas challenge many widely held views, they seem to have had little impact on the way racist skinheads are portrayed by the media, activist groups and many academics. This is especially true with regards to the violent behavior of racist skinheads. Racist skinhead violence is often presented as being virtually synonymous with hate crime. While there are many assumptions made about racist skinhead violence, there is still little research that specifically addresses this issue. In the course of this dissertation I examine some of these assumptions, and evaluate their veracity based on both the available literature and my own findings. I pay particular attention to the few theories that seek to explain where, when, and with whom, racist skinheads engage in violence. I also examine the possibility that a unique theory of skinhead violence might obscure similarities to more general patterns of violent behavior. To achieve this latter goal I will employ Donald Black's structural theory of
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