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Retóricas De La Antropología Júcar Universidad

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Retóricas De La Antropología Júcar Universidad RETÓRICAS DE LA ANTROPOLOGÍA JÚCAR UNIVERSIDAD Serie Antropología, dirigida por Alberto Cardín J. CLIFFORD y G. E. MARCUS RETORICAS DE LA ANTROPOLOGÍA Serie Antropología JÚCAR UNIVERSIDAD Título original: Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography Traducción: José Luis Moreno-Ruíz Cubierta: Montse Vega - Juan Pablo Suárez Primera edición: Enero 1991 © University of California Press, 1986 © de esta edición, Ediciones Júcar, 1991 Fernández de los Ríos, 18. 28015 Madrid. Alto Atocha, 1. Gijón I.S.B.N.: 84-334-7032-9 Depósito Legal: B. 1.334 - 1991 Compuesto en AZ Fotocomposición, S. Coop. Ltda. Impreso en Romanyá/Valls. C/ Verdaguer, 1. Capellades (Barcelona) Printed in Spain ÍNDICE Prólogo 9 Prefacio 21 JAMES CLIFFORD Introducción: Verdades parciales 25 MARY LOUISSE PRATT Trabajo de campo en lugares comunes 61 VlNCENT CRAPANZANO El dilema de Hermes: La máscara de la subversión en las descripciones etnográficas 91 RENATO ROSALDO Desde la puerta de la tienda de campaña: El investigador de campo y el inquisidor 123 JAMES CLIFFORD Sobre la alegoría etnográfica 151 STEPHEN A. TYLER Etnografía postmoderna: Desde el documento de lo ocul­ to al oculto documento 183 TALAL ASAD El concepto de la traducción cultural en la antropología social británica 205 GEORGE E. MARCUS Problemas de la etnografía contemporánea en el mundo moderno 235 MlCHAEL M. J. FlSCHER El etnicismo y las artes postmodernas de la memoria 269 PAUL RABINOW Las representaciones son hechos sociales: Modernidad y postmodernidad en la antropología 321 GEORGE E. MARCUS Epílogo: La escritura etnográfica y la carrera antropo­ lógica 357 Autores 365 Bibliografía 369 PRÓLOGO A LA EDICIÓN ESPAÑOLA Luis DÍAZ VIANA La etnografía nos pone en contacto con lo ajeno partiendo de lo propio. Esta aproximación a lo extraño, al mundo de los otros, implica siempre una referencia, por contraste o similitud, a la rea­ lidad que conocemos: a nuestro mundo. Ello hace que las descrip­ ciones etnográficas y los modelos a que dan lugar sean, también, proyecciones alegóricas de la propia cultura. En este sentido, quie­ nes describen las costumbres supuestamente «naturales» de pueblos tenidos por primitivos y aquellos que consignan los saberes de la llamada cultura tradicional, están expresando la misma inquie­ tud: el destierro del «mundo civilizado» de aquel buen salvaje —puro y analfabeto— que nos gusta creer que fuimos. Salvajes de afuera y de adentro Desde esta perspectiva, puede resultar patéticamente inútil que Derek Freeman se esforzara en demostrar que los habitantes de Samoa nunca habían sido como Margaret Mead los describió. De hecho, la divergencia de visiones etnográficas no significa que al­ guien se equivoca o miente, ya que la antropología, hoy, hemos de entenderla como una disciplina que se nutre de retóricas a me­ nudo contrapuestas. La gran aportación de los antropólogos al concepto de cultura consiste, precisamente, en la revisión del mis­ mo, recordándonos que la valoración de los distintos modelos cul­ turales nunca podrá ser objetiva pues siempre dependerá del cao- texto en que se desarrolle, del contexto de quien la jnzgne y, 10 J. Clifford y G. E. Marcus sobre todo, del tipo de sociedad que consideremos más deseable para el futuro. Los europeos del xix, con un planteamiento evolucionista de la historia y de la cultura —pues ésta equivalía, para ellos, a «civilización»— fueron desarrollando una doble estrategia que apun­ talaba su orgullo etnocéntrico: de un lado, cultivaron aquella etno­ logía colonial que, tras sus datos exóticos, les permitía contemplar a los «primitivos de afuera» con una cierta mirada de superiori­ dad; por otra parte, reinventaron el folklore para volver a encon­ trarse, en un gesto que sustituía al desdén por la nostalgia, con la cultura de los campesinos en su papel de «primitivos de aden­ tro», o salvajes de la' puerta de al lado. Aquella estratagema cultural servía, además, de bálsamo para la mala conciencia, ya qUe enmascaraba de una piedad sociológica muy europea la transformación brutal —cuando no el simple aniquilamiento— de otras culturas, fueran éstas lejanas o estuvie­ ran incrustadas en el propio marco espacio-temporal. En el fondo, etnología y folklore funcionaban como retóricas en clave científica de un conflicto cuya transcendencia aún no ha sido suficientemente evaluada: la «ley del progreso» impuesta por las élites de uno u otro signo nos ha llevado a mutaciones tan bruscas que fue preciso entronizar al resorte que nos distanciaba tan ferozmente de lo que habíamos sido. La fe ciega en el progreso vino a susti­ tuir, en cierto modo, a la fe religiosa de manera que su convenien­ cia se convirtió en materia no discutible. El relativismo cultural nos ha hecho reflexionar —aún tímida­ mente— sobre la infalibilidad de ese nuevo dogma. Que ciertas sociedades hayan desarrollado la vertiente tecnológica no equivale, en absoluto, a que su cultura sea mejor o más avanzada que otras. Con todo, hay quienes basándose en esa dudosísima corresponden­ cia intentaron, desde la antropología, marcar una diferencia evolu­ tiva entre los modos culturales de «civilizados» y «primitivos». Para los caballeros Victorianos —etnólogos incluidos— la magia era cosa exclusiva de salvajes y, por ello, unos —los «primiti­ vos»— necesitaban manifestarse a través de rituales, mientras los otros —«civilizados»— simplemente tenían ceremonias. Lo mismo cabe decir de la oralidad literaria: se nos ha querido convencer de que la creación y transmisión orales son sólo asuntos de pueblos arcaicos o de iletrados campesinos cuando nosotros mismos esta­ mos inmersos en una oralidad —«tecnificada» o no— de enorme relevancia. Como decodificador —y codificador mediante la escritura— de Retóricas de la Antropología 11 una pugna entre conservación y cambio, innovación y continuidad, el propio etnógrafo se ve envuelto en un proceso cultural: la doble transformación de la sociedad que describe y de la sociedad para la que está escribiendo. Como productor de una retórica interpre­ tativa se acerca de manera peligrosa —según los más cientifistas— a lo literario. Es, quizá, por ello que muchos etnógrafos han con­ trastado, no sin cierto orgullo científico, las descripciones de viaje­ ros anteriores con las suyas, marcando la diferencia entre el escrito y el profesional de la etnografía. Esa concepción del etnógrafo como transcriptor objetivo de la realidad está siendo revisada aho­ ra. Pero los conceptos de literatura y de arte ¿no deberían de ser igualmente revisados? Escribe James Clifford, que «la literatu­ ra emerge en él siglo xix como una institución burguesa fuertemen­ te ligada a la cultura y el arte». Una y otros se convertirán en sinónimo de aquello que por «no utilizarlo» detenta el más alto rango. Llegarán a ser, sobre todo, un lujo de estetas y clases privilegiadas. Sus practicantes y adoradores asumirán, en gran par­ te, la función de coronar aquel sistema europeo de cultura al que antes he hecho referencia. Serán los creadores de un arte sin públi­ co pero siempre con algún crítico o mecenas que les apoye y se sentirán orgullosos de su intrascendencia sabiéndose el broche ne­ cesario de la mayor y más avanzada de las civilizaciones. O, mejor dicho, de la única civilización o cultura concebible por ellos. En una nueva frontera en que los estudios sobre las culturas comienzan a superar esa falsa oposición entre literatura y antropo­ logía —y el libro de Clifford y Mar cus es, en ese sentido, un buen ejemplo— el conocimiento de la retórica en la que la etnogra­ fía se sustenta y articula no debe restarle credibilidad. Por el con­ trario, la transforma en encrucijada de las nuevas opciones que en el mundo de las Humanidades empiezan a vislumbrarse. En su obra Works and Lives. The Anthropologist as Author (El antro­ pólogo como autor, Barcelona, Paidos, 1989), Clifford Geertz pro­ pone un examen de los textos antropológicos muy semejante al que encontramos en este libro y anima a una superación de las autolimitaciones en que algunas disciplinas se encastillan, más por defensa gremial de su parcela que por razones teóricas de peso. «Ciento quince años de prosa aseverativa e inocencia literaria —afir­ ma— son ya suficientes.» Los trabajos compilados aquí por Clifford y Marcus se encuen­ tran en la vanguardia de esa tendencia renovadora que Clifford define como a un tiempo post-literaria y post-antropológica. 12 J. Cttfford y G. E. Marcus La etnografía: mirada y discurso En uno de los capítulos de la obra, Mary Louise Pratt muestra, a través de algunos casos concretos, cómo la escritura etnográfica se halla, con frecuencia, íntimamente ligada a una tradición de relatos realizados por observadores de formación e intereses vanos. Pratt pone de manifiesto esa conexión, pocas veces confesada, que, a menudo, afecta a la propia estructura narrativa de muchas obras antropológicas de hoy. Señala, así, con Geertz, las coinci­ dencias de la ya clásica monografía de Evans-Pritchard sobre The Nuer con la literatura colonial de exploradores en no pocos rasgos de estilo. También en motivos y recursos. En España convendría llevar a cabo un sondeo similar aunque sólo fuera para descubrir esa amplia tradición literaria muy próxima a lo etnográfico que hasta ahora ha venido constituyendo una de nuestras herencias peor conocidas y valoradas. Pratt apunta, con razón, que los antropólogos debieran conocer mejor ese legado de los viajeros y observadores que, antes de ellos, se preocuparon por las culturas de «los otros», pues la etno­ grafía, actualmente, no puede persistir al margen del discurso lite­ rario. ¿Con qué argumentos defenderíamos esa actitud cuando la Física actual se plaga de metáforas para explicarnos el origen del Universo? La consciencia de que lo que ahora hacemos no es tan distinto ni superior a lo que otros anteriormente hicieron —co­ mo en tiempos se pretendió— es tan necesaria tanto si se coincide como si se disiente de aquella tradición. Un ejemplo magnífico de esta conveniencia y de la importancia de la retorica en nuestro campo lo encuentra Mary Louise Pratt en el escándalo provocado por el libro de Florinda Donner Shabono: A True Adventure in the Remote and Magical Hearth of the South American Jungle (Shabono; Barcelona, Planeta, 1985).
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