Issues in Canadian Geoscience - Women in the Geosciences in Canada and the United States: a Comparative Study Franz W

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Issues in Canadian Geoscience - Women in the Geosciences in Canada and the United States: A Comparative Study Franz W. Nentwich

Volume 37, Number 3, September 2010 Article abstract The literature on women in the geo-sciences is mainly limited to the URI: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/geocan37_3icg01 experiences of women in Canada and the United States. Compared to women in other scientific careers, women in the geosciences have historically been See table of contents disadvantaged relative to men because of restrictions on working in the field combined with the lesser value accorded to laboratory and office work. Recently, however, times have changed; linear extrapolation of data from the Publisher(s) USA suggests that women earned 50% of undergraduate geoscience degrees in 2008. In Canada the situation has been similar, with 45% of bachelor’s and The Geological Association of Canada other undergraduate degrees in geological and earth sciences/geo-sciences disciplines in 2005–2006 having been awarded to women. However, current ISSN trends suggest that US women will not attain 50% of geo-science doctorates until about the year 2021 and will not make up half of geoscience faculty until 0315-0941 (print) 2084. Increasing the proportion of women faculty is appropriate, given that 1911-4850 (digital) gender parity has been achieved at the undergraduate student level. The obvious geoscience departments to begin recruiting more women would be Explore this journal those with the lowest percentage of female faculty. Faculty gender representation should better reflect the fact that 34% of geoscience doctorates were awarded to women in North America in 2002, and probably approached Cite this article 40% in 2010. Overall in Canada in 2006, 18.8% of all geologists, geochemists and geophysicists were women and in the USA for the same year, 16% of Nentwich, F. W. (2010). Issues in Canadian Geoscience -: Women in the geoscientists were women, so the percentages are low for both countries. Geosciences in Canada and the United States: A Comparative Study. Geoscience Canada, 37(3), 127–134.

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er, current trends suggest that US faudrait attendre autour de 2021 avant women will not attain 50% of geo- que 50 % des doctorats en géosciences science doctorates until about the year ne soient décernés à des femmes, et 2021 and will not make up half of que ce ne serait qu’en 2084 qu’elles geoscience faculty until 2084. Increas- représenteraient 50 % du personnel ing the proportion of women faculty is enseignant universitaire. L’accroisse- appropriate, given that gender parity ment de la proportion de femme has been achieved at the undergraduate enseignant à l’université est justifié student level. The obvious geoscience étant donné que la parité a été atteinte departments to begin recruiting more au niveau des étudiants du premier women would be those with the lowest cycle. Évidemment, les premiers ISSUES in CANADIAN percentage of female faculty. Faculty départements de géosciences visés gender representation should better devraient être ceux comptant le moins GEOSCIENCE reflect the fact that 34% of geoscience de femmes dans leur personnel Women in the Geosciences doctorates were awarded to women in enseignant. La représentation des gen- North America in 2002, and probably res chez les enseignants universitaires in Canada and the United approached 40% in 2010. Overall in devrait mieux refléter le fait que 34 % States: A Comparative Canada in 2006, 18.8% of all geolo- des doctorats ont été décernés à des gists, geochemists and geophysicists femmes en Amérique du Nord en Study were women and in the USA for the 2002, et approchera probablement 40 same year, 16% of geoscientists were % en 2010. Globalement, au Canada Franz W. Nentwich women, so the percentages are low for en 2006, 18,8 % de tous les géologues, 65 Broadway Avenue both countries. géochimistes et géophysiciens étaient Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1S 2V5 des femmes et, aux É.-U. pour la E-mail: [email protected] SOMMAIRE même année, 16 % des géoscientifiques La documentation sur la présence des étaient des femmes; des proportions SUMMARY femmes en géosciences est principale- faibles pour les deux pays on en con- The literature on women in the geo- ment limitée à la main-d’œuvre canadi- viendra. sciences is mainly limited to the experi- enne et étasunienne. Par rapport aux ences of women in Canada and the femmes dans d’autres domaines scien- INTRODUCTION United States. Compared to women in tifiques, les femmes en géosciences ont Although much has been written on other scientific careers, women in the été historiquement défavorisées dû aux ‘women in science’ (e.g. Ramirez and geosciences have historically been dis- restrictions du travail de terrain com- Wotipka 2001; Andres and Adamuti- advantaged relative to men because of biné à la sous-évaluation du travail de Trache 2007; Burke and Mattis 2007; restrictions on working in the field bureau et de laboratoire. Mais la situa- Ceci and Williams 2007; Xu 2008), and combined with the lesser value accord- tion a changé récemment; l’extrapola- there are numerous references in the ed to laboratory and office work. tion linéaire de données étasuniennes Wisconsin Bibliographies in Women’s Recently, however, times have changed; montre que les femmes ont obtenu 50 Studies (ca. 1994), less has been written linear extrapolation of data from the % des diplômes de premier cycle en about female Canadian scientists and USA suggests that women earned 50% géosciences en 2008. Au Canada la sit- engineers (Heap 2003; Ainley 2006), of undergraduate geoscience degrees uation a évolué pareillement, où 45 % and still less about Canadian women in in 2008. In Canada the situation has des diplômes de baccalauréat et de pre- the geosciences. In 2002, in the United been similar, with 45% of bachelor’s mier cycle en sciences géologiques ou States, women made up only 16% of and other undergraduate degrees in sciences de la Terre ou géosciences ont all employed scientists, compared to geological and earth sciences/geo- été décernés à des femmes en 2005- 45% of all employed people, suggest- sciences disciplines in 2005–2006 hav- 2006. Cependant, les tendances éta- ing that the growing demand for sci- ing been awarded to women. Howev- suniennes actuelles montrent qu’il ence and technology workers would 128 not be met without a policy aimed at men be asking research questions that WOMEN IN THE GEOSCIENCES recruiting women to senior positions at women have perceived as not suffi- FROM A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE universities, government and industry ciently relevant to themselves or socie- (Organization for Economic Coopera- ty? Research questions, after all, are Canada tion and Development (OECD) 2006). selected by researchers and in this The first woman geology graduate in However, some women have com- sense, science is not as objective as has Canada, according to available records, mented that they have felt a backlash been advertised (Harding 1986). Would was Grace Anna Stewart, who received and discrimination as a consequence of women researchers be more interested her undergraduate degree from the affirmative action programs. Also, they in selecting different research topics? University of Alberta in 1918 and went have reported that the most common Or could it be that women do not on to complete M.A. and Ph.D. problem for women in science, tech- receive enough research support? In degrees. She opted for an academic nology, engineering and mathematics this regard, only 17% of the 1000 position in the United States because (STEM) positions has been balancing chairs awarded in the Canada Research of a lack of opportunities at Canadian work and family responsibilities (Ross- Chairs Program went to women, even universities and because of prejudice er 2006). though women constituted 26% of against women at the Geological Sur- The problem of not produc- full-time faculty, a discrepancy that vey of Canada (Ainley 1990). In fact, ing sufficient scientists in Canada has prompted a complaint to the Canadian the only woman geologist in the first been even more acute: there were 1163 Human Rights Commission (Birchard half of the 1900s to have had a suc- science graduates per 100 000 2004). cessful academic career in Canada was employed people in the 25 to 34 year There is also a gender gap in Madeleine Fritz at the University of age group, compared with the OECD average salary at universities, according Toronto (Ainley 1990). Another average of 1295 (Tibbets 2007). How- to the annual University and College woman geologist to reach prominence ever, such statistics must be viewed Academic Staff Survey; in 2005/2006, in Canada was Alice Wilson cautiously because critical to the matter male faculty earned at least $15 000 (1881–1964), who completed an Hon- is the capacity of a country to absorb more per annum than female faculty at ours B.A. in modern languages and his- its graduates into the workforce. For several Canadian universities (Statistics tory in 1911 at Victoria College in university programs in mathematics, Canada 2008). However, in Canada in Toronto and a Ph.D. in Geology in engineering and computer science, 2007, female Full Professors earned 1929 from the University of Chicago enrollment of women in Canada 95%, Associate Professors 97%, and (Meadowcroft 1990; Montagnes 1966), increased from 441 students in 1972 to Assistant Professors 96% of the salary with her doctoral thesis on the geology 9805 in 1995, but the increase in of their male counterparts (CAUT and paleontology of the Cornwall, female doctoral students was modest, 2010, p 5), so overall the salary gap is Ontario area (Sinclair 1966). Alice Wil- from 2.7% in 1972 to 10.4% in 1994 narrow. More recent Statistics Canada son had two brothers, one a geologist (Gadalla 2001). The data reveal that for data based on the annual survey for and the other a mathematician, accord- engineering and applied sciences in 2008–2009 showed that the University ing to Burek (2002), which may, in Canada, women are still under-repre- of Toronto had the largest salary gap, part, explain her career choice. She sented at postsecondary institutions paying its male full-time teaching staff worked for the Geological Survey of (Canadian Association of University (excluding medical and dental faculty) Canada, first as a Museum Assistant in Teachers (CAUT) 2008). This is not an average of $20 362 more than com- 1909 (Library and Archives Canada the general case, however, given that parable female faculty members, which (LAC) 2005), an Assistant Paleontolo- 58.5% of the 698 607 undergraduate was explained by university officials as gist in 1920 (Russel 1965), an associate students at Canadian universities in a consequence of past hiring practices geologist in 1940 and a ‘full’ geologist 2006–2007 (calculated as full-time favouring men, as well as the age, rank in 1945 (Meadowcroft 1990). Alice equivalent enrolments) were female and gender distribution among differ- Wilson became one of the first Mem- (CAUT 2010, p. 25). ent disciplines having different pay bers of the Order of the British Why are females so under-rep- scales (Cross 2010). For all Canadian Empire, the first woman to be elected resented in the sciences? A number of geoscientists, the Canadian Geoscience a Fellow of the Royal Society of Cana- reasons have been proposed. For Council 2001 Census of Geoscientists da (1938), and the first Canadian instance, Astin and Sax, as quoted in showed, according to Coultish (2002, woman to be elected a fellow of the Pasztor and Slater (2000, p. 335), stated p. 101), that Geological Society of America that “A gender-based differential in compen- (Rossiter 1982). However, she was “…science teaching was seen as alienat- sation is not evident for males and repeatedly denied promotions; LAC ing many students by encouraging compe- females less than 40 years old, but is (2005) and Meadowcroft (1990) docu- tition, which was counter to the sensibili- present for older respondents even after mented some of the details of this ties of women who favour the connected- standardizing for educational level.” gender discrimination. Alice Wilson ness of science to social consciousness and retired officially in 1946, but kept an human welfare.” office at the GSC until she was 82 Could these differences in approaches (Montagnes 1966). She became a lec- and interests explain why women have turer in Paleontology at Carleton Col- not seen science as relevant, and could lege from 1948 to 1958 (LAC 2005) GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 37 Number 3 September 2010 129 and was the first female to be awarded Johns Hopkins University in the late those with lower IQs whose parents an honorary Doctor of Laws degree 1800s, and then started a geology were less educated (Van Langen 2006). from Carleton in 1960 (Meadowcroft department at Bryn Mawr College Given the magnitude of this problem 1990; Montagnes 1966). Another (Arnold 1977). Bascom was important in terms of subsequent barriers to uni- prominent geologist was Marie Stopes, also for educating many of the early versity science programs, this issue a paleobotanist with a Ph.D. from the women geologists (Clary and Wander- should be examined further. University in Munich in 1904 and a see 2007), and became, along with One of the major problems D.Sc. from the University of London Mary Holmes, the first two women to encountered by women geologists in 1905, who undertook paleobotanical be elected to the Geological Society of between the 1700s to about the 1970s work on the Fern Ledges near Saint America in 1889 and 1894, respectively was field work. This problem manifest- John, New Brunswick in 1911, but is (Rossiter 1982). Female geology faculty ed itself in practices ranging from now remembered best for her writings members at women’s colleges included requiring chaperones (in the earliest on sex, marriage and birth control (Fal- Elizabeth Fisher at Wellesley College in days) to sexual harassment (Burek and con-Lang and Miller 2007). As men- 1894, Ida Ogilvie at Barnard College in Kölbl-Ebert 2007). Employers often tioned, the Canadian literature on 1903 and Mignon Talbot at Mount would not permit women geologists to women geoscientists is sparse, Holyoke College in 1904 (Rossiter travel to remote locations. In the case although O’Donnell (2000) interviewed 1981). Among industry geologists, Car- of Alice Wilson, for instance, Meadow- 34 women who worked as geoscientists lotta Maury (1874–1938) became a croft (1990, p. 208) noted that “…it in the resource industry, government petroleum geologist with Royal Dutch would have been considered scandalous, in research, and academia in Alberta Shell (Elder 1982). 1913, for a woman to camp out with a group between 1914 and 1999 and concluded Another notable female geo- of men.” At the Geological Survey of (p. 4312) that scientist was Winifred Goldring, who Canada, women were not allowed to “in spite of outdated exclusionary prac- became the state paleontologist of do field work until 1970 (Ainley 1990) tices…a majority of women geoscientists New York, apparently with the support but Alice Wilson was excluded from interviewed in the study are experiencing of Professor Charles Schuchert of this restriction because the Ottawa area or have experienced fulfilling and finan- Yale University (Rossiter 1982). In was not considered remote. cially rewarding careers.” 1949, she became the first President of Teaching and research oppor- At Canadian universities during the Paleontological Society (Arnold tunities for women in the sciences gen- 2005–2006, in the combined category 1977), showing that women were erally, including Earth Science, were of geology and related disciplines at beginning to be recognized for their affected by lateral and hierarchical seg- the assistant, associate and full profes- contributions. Between 1947 and 1961, regation, which was explained by Ain- sor levels, there were still only 63 2675 doctorates were awarded in the ley (2006, p. 252) as follows: females out of a total of 381 faculty geosciences, 96 of which, or 3.6%, “Women often experienced hierarchical members (CAUT 2009). The CAUT went to women at a time when segregation when they remained in under- almanacs from 2005–2006 to ‘woman’s work’ included editing and valued and underpaid positions. They 2009–2010 have shown an increase in compilation of bibliographies (Rossiter were laterally segregated when they were the number of appointments in geolo- 1995). Between 1956 and 1958, only channelled into certain areas of science gy and related subjects from 352 to 217 women were employed in geologi- considered suitable for women, such as 396, with an accompanying but slight cal fields of all kinds, representing a botany or household science.” increase in female faculty representa- mere 2.2% of geologists in the United Both types of segregation were experi- tion from 15.3% in 2001 to 17.4% in States (Rossiter 1995). enced by women in Earth Science 2006. because over time the various tasks of CAREER CHOICES AND BARRIERS geology had gained different degrees United States Among young women, over 40% of of importance, with field work (from Before 1850 only about a dozen of the the effect of gender on majoring in which women were excluded) being 11 000 citations in geology referred to science at university has been attrib- valued most, to laboratory work, which contributions by women, some of uted to inadequate high school prepa- was considered of intermediate value which were textbook contributions and ration (Haines and Wallace 2002). In and from which women were also geological books for children (Aldrich particular, in many countries high excluded, to office work, which was 1990). Several women did paleontolog- school science courses are prerequisites valued least (and dominated by ical work between 1840 and 1960, ini- for postsecondary science studies. In women) (Ainley 1994). In later years, tially as illustrators of specimens Holland, for instance, where this has the formation of all-female geological (Aldrich 1982). Almira Phelps at the been the case, many female students field parties at the Ontario Geological Troy Female Seminary wrote a text- did not select enough science and Survey, the Department of Indian book on geology and in the 1890s mathematics courses in secondary Affairs and Northern Development, influenced women to become geosci- school, and while the exact reason for the Geological Survey of Canada, and entists (Arnold 1977). Another this remains unclear, it was determined elsewhere, solved the problem, but this renowned geologist was Florence Bas- that those female students with higher only happened after a critical mass of com (1862–1945), who received the IQs and more educated parents chose women geoscientists had been hired. first Ph.D. awarded to a woman at more science and math subjects than Questioning the commitment 130 of a female geoscientist deciding to tageous to women. awarded in the combined fields of have a family was also prevalent. As an The low proportion of geology, atmospheric sciences, geo- undergraduate, Ann Edging had a sup- women geoscience faculty (12.5%) in physics, oceanography and space sci- portive male professor, but when she US colleges and universities around the ences, compared to a total in all cate- went on to her masters studies at year 2000 was explained by de Wet et gories of 1.2 million B.Sc. degrees and another university, she felt that she was al. (2002) in this way: 42 000 Ph.Ds (Czujko and Henley not taken seriously as a married stu- “A combination of biological factors, 2003). In 1998, the proportion of B.Sc. dent with a family; nevertheless, she lifestyle choices, dual career pressures, degrees in science awarded to women went on to complete her Ph.D. and double standards for social and profes- was 37% in the geosciences, 52.7% in subsequently began a successful aca- sional interactions, and gender-based dis- the biological and agricultural sciences, demic career (Rosser 2004). Among crimination creates an effective filter, 26.9% in computer science and only men, married male faculty had higher reducing women in geoscience departments 18.6% in engineering (Rosser 2006). In positions and earned more than single to a surprisingly low level.” 2001, 41% of B.Sc. degrees in the geo- male faculty (Bellas and Toutkoushian sciences had been awarded to women, 1999), but the commitment of married STATISTICS ON WOMEN about double that for engineering male faculty deciding to have a family, GEOSCIENTISTS (Huntoon and Lane 2007); in 2002 this in contrast to married female faculty, figure was 42% (Holmes et al. 2008; was apparently not in question. The Canada Table 1). Between 1972 and 1974, desire of many women to have chil- In Canada, most geoscientists work in Ph.D. degrees awarded to women in dren has also conflicted with the mining, petroleum, academia or various the geosciences increased from 8 to tenure process. In fact, the lack of branches of government. In the 1970s, 11%, and between 1986 and 2002, female geoscience academics, accord- however, few women worked in these from 22 to 34% (Crawford et al. 1977, ing to Gail Ashley (quoted in Reed sectors; for example, in 1971 only 21 1987; Holmes et al. 2008; Table 1). 2003), is because women geoscientists worked in the However, as of 2006, only 16% of all “…many women in their mid-30s are mining industry, and in 1974, only 120 geoscientists were women (Gonzales deciding not to continue an academic were employed in the petroleum indus- 2010). career and face the pressures of making try (Mioduszewska 1977; Schwarzer By 1938 in the USA, there tenure because the tenure process occurs and Hileman 1977). Since the 1970s, were only 45 female geology academics at the same time in their lives when the more women have been hired as geo- in higher educational institutions, decision whether or not to have a family scientists. At Canadian universities accounting for 7.7% of all geology fac- becomes biologically critical.” between 1983 and 1993, 14 of the 106 ulty members (Rossiter 1982). By 1946, Ashley believed that a change in the tenure track appointments (13%) went of a total of 11 000 male and 330 tenure system could solve this prob- to women (Pe-Piper 1994). At Canadi- female geologists, the number of lem. Another issue has been a difficulty an universities in 2005–2006 in the female academics had increased to 93 in understanding the weighting of the combined category of geology and (Rossiter 1995), although there was no criteria for awarding of tenure, and related disciplines at the assistant, asso- percentage increase. In the 1996–1997 these vary considerably from one insti- ciate and full professor levels, 16.5% academic year, the American Geologi- tution to another. For example, 628 US were women (CAUT 2009). Overall, cal Institute (AGI) Directory of Geo- geoscience departments were surveyed based on the 2006 Statistics Canada science Departments showed that 911 to investigate the criteria used; 280 of census, 2290, or about 18.8% of a total (about 12%) of 7595 geoscience facul- the completed questionnaires revealed of 12 180 geologists, geochemists and ty members were female, but that 17% the following average percentage geophysicists, were women. of this number were in non-tenurable weights in judging faculty for tenure adjunct, visiting, lecturer or instructor (Foos et al. 2004): teaching, 47.9%; United States positions (Ongley et al. 1998). By 2002, research, 37.1%; service, 14.2%; other, Some of the more comprehensive this number had increased to 1760 0.8%. The range of responses varied recent reviews of women in the geo- (13.6%) of the 12 941 listings in the widely, probably depending on whether sciences by Holmes and O’Connell AGI Directory, although again many of the institution focused on teaching or (2003) and Huntoon and Lane (2007) these positions (especially those held research. How these criteria are weight- have included statistical data revealing by persons without Ph.Ds) were in ed should be made clear to all faculty trends over the past few decades. non-tenure-track ‘cooperating’ faculty, members at their particular institutions. These reviews, as well as other studies, adjunct professor, lecturer and research In this regard, more time teaching cor- have shown that the geosciences are associate positions (Holmes et al. relates with lower research output, and still under-represented by women in a 2008). In terms of departmental rank- women have been found to teach more number of ways. ings, the breakdown of female faculty than men only at research universities The Bureau of Labour Statis- members during 1994–1995 shows (Bellas and Toutkoushian 1999). This tics (2010) reported that in 2008 there 13% full professors, 24% associate disparity in teaching loads, and the was a total of 33 600 geoscientists, professors, 30% assistant professors, importance of research to career excluding college and university faculty. 3% department chairs, 4% emeritus advancement at research universities, Each year in the USA, about 4000 professors, 9% research associates, and suggests a division of labour disadvan- bachelor degrees and 800 Ph.Ds are 17% other (Macfarlane and Luzzader- GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 37 Number 3 September 2010 131

Table 1. US and Canadian comparisons of geoscience degrees awarded to women initiative to increase the proportion of and the percentages by rank of female geoscience faculty. Note that the Canadian women in STEM fields was the data report student enrolment rather than degrees awarded. National Science Foundation’s ADVANCE program (Holmes and USA Canadian O’Connell 2003). Recommendations to Academic percentages Academic percentages eliminate gender bias in academe by Rank/Degrees as of 2002 Rank/Student as of 2005-06 the Committee on Maximizing the Awarded (Holmes et al. 2008) Enrolments (CAUT 2009) Potential of Women in Academic Sci- Full Professor 8.0 Full Professor 10.6 ence and Engineering (CMPWASE) Associate Professor 14.0 Associate Professor 23.7 have included calls to recruit, retain Ph.D. Degree 34.0 Ph.D. Enrolment 34.4 and promote women into faculty and Masters Degree 45.0 Masters Enrolment 48.9 leadership positions by soliciting the Bachelors Degree 42.0 Bachelors Enrolment 45.0 support of trustees, university presi- dents, provosts, deans, departmental Beach 1998). reasonable to assume that more of chairs and tenured faculty (CMPWASE Linear extrapolation based on these women will expect to pursue 2006). However, Hausman (2008) has the data in Macfarlane and Luzzader- careers related to their geoscience qual- criticized inaccurate statements in the Beach (1998) and Holmes et al. (2008), ifications. CMPWASE (2006) report. suggests that in the USA in 2009, DISCUSSION about 40% of Ph.Ds in the geo- Female Role Models In Canada, CAUT (2008) pointed out sciences would have been awarded to Webb (1995) reported that female role that more than 6000 (67%) of the women and that 20% of geoscience models and inclusive language in envi- 9000 full-time university teachers hired faculty were female, but unless the ronmental science are considered between 1984 and 2004 were women. trends change, equal numbers of male important to make women feel at From 2001 to 2007, the percentage of and female faculty members in the home, as is equal treatment of males full-time female university teachers geosciences will not be reached until and females by professors. However, increased from 28% to 34%, and for 2085. female geoscience students have fewer 2006–2007, 40.6% of the 2616 role models because many female hold- appointments of full-time university THE ISSUE OF FEWER WOMEN ers of geoscience doctorates have teachers were female (CAUT 2010). SCIENTISTS AND EFFORTS TO decided on careers outside of academe However, in the geosciences the per- INCREASE THEIR NUMBERS (Karsten 2003). Even so, the increasing centage of women appointed to tenure number of female graduate students track positions between 1983 and 1993 Women Choosing Careers Other should have an influence as Teaching was only 13% (Pe-Piper 1994), and in Than Science Assistant and Research Assistant role 2006–2007 females accounted for only Have women been under-represented models. The effect of female profes- 28.6% of the 21 appointments (CAUT in the sciences because they have sors as role models does seem to have 2010), below the average for all fields. decided to choose other careers? A a positive effect on women in geology, Many early women geologists survey of 204 men and women in the but not in engineering, according to were attracted to paleontology, possibly final undergraduate year of their sci- Bettinger and Long (2005), suggesting because of its close relationship to ence programs revealed that at least that female role models should be biology. With the dramatic drop in these males and females had different studied separately for these disciplines. enrollments in geology between 1980 career aspirations, with more males and 1985, following the plunge in oil than females aspiring to science Support Groups and Initiatives to prices, geoscience departments added careers; also, it was found that among Increase Female Representation in more environmental geoscience pro- those with science degrees, females the Geosciences grams (Rhodes 2008). For example, were 4 times more likely to take up The Association for Women Geoscien- Schneiderman and Sharpe (2001) non-science careers than their male tists (AWG) is an international organi- developed an Environmental Earth counterparts (Nevitte et al. 1990). As zation of 1200 members created in Science course with a ‘feminist’ per- more and more women enroll in the 1977 in San Francisco to support spective, but this kind of initiative is at geosciences and more women achieve women in environmental geology, geo- an early stage of development. Given successful careers related to their edu- chemistry and geophysics (AWG 2001). the increase in Environmental Earth cation, one would expect fewer losses In the USA, in 2003 ‘The Joint Society Science programs, it would be interest- of females to careers other than the Conference on Increasing Diversity in ing to obtain recent percentages for geosciences. Given that 45% of the the Earth and Space Sciences’ was held men and women in this field versus the 1843 B.Sc. and other undergraduate in Maryland with the purpose of more traditional specialties, such as degrees in geological and earth sci- examining ways of increasing the hir- petroleum geology or economic geolo- ence/geoscience disciplines in Canadi- ing and retention of women, minori- gy. Information for the USA has an universities were awarded to females ties, and people with disabilities in the shown that at institutions granting in 2005–2006 (CAUT 2009), it seems geosciences (Karsten 2003). Another Ph.Ds, the decreasing order of female 132 representation in geoscience faculty by this. Furthermore, the tenure process Toronto online library services, specialty was as follows: geochemistry, should be made more transparent so women’s studies bibliography data- paleontology, oceanography, soil sci- that the relative weightings for teach- base, http://biblioline.misc.com.myac- ence, geology and geophysics (Holmes ing, research and service are under- cess.library.utoronto.ca/scripts/login.d and O’Connell 2003). stood by everyone. Another problem ll?16042009144017_1 Based on USA B.Sc. degrees faced by women is their greater teach- Bellas, M.L., and Toutkoushian, R.K., 1999, Faculty time allocations and research awarded from 1964 to 2001 in the geo- ing load at research universities com- productivity: Gender, race and family sciences (Huntoon and Lane 2007), pared to men, a situation limiting avail- effects: Review of Higher Education, female and male undergraduate per- able time for their own research and v. 22, p. 367-390. centages should have reached equal related promotion opportunities. To Bettinger, E.P., and Long, B.T., 2005, Do numbers in 2008. However, the trends improve the representation of women faculty serve as role models? The for US geoscience Ph.D. degrees geoscientists in North America from impact of instructor gender on female (Crawford et al. 1977, 1987; Holmes et the current ratio of about 1 female to students: The American Economic al. 2008), suggest that equal numbers 4 males, much needs to be done. Review, v. 95, p. 152-157. of male and female Ph.Ds will not be Birchard, K., 2004, Canada’s billion dollar reached until about 2021. The question ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS controversy (university research): The that naturally follows is, “At what rate I thank Linda Muzzin of the Depart- Chronicle of Higher Education, should women faculty be recruited to achieve http://find.galegroup.com.myaccess.li ment of Theory and Policy Studies, brary.utoronto.ca/itx/start.do?pro- parity with men if parity is considered desir- Ontario Institute for Studies in Educa- dId=ITOF able?” If male/female parity is consid- tion/University of Toronto for review- Bureau of Labor Statistics (U.S. Depart- ered a desirable goal, then the rate at ing an early version of the text. In ment of Labor), 2010, Occupational which it is to be achieved should be addition, I am indebted to Reg Wilson Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition, fair to both genders. Hiring the best and Jim Teller for further constructive Geoscientists and Hydrologists, qualified person of either gender criticisms that improved the manu- http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos312.htm seems reasonable, but the ‘best quali- script. Burek, C.V., 2002, History of geoscience: fied’, like beauty, is in the eye of the Women in the history of geoscience, beholder. The most objective criteria REFERENCES in Lerner, K.L. and Lerner, B.W., eds., for hiring might be course grades and Ainley, M.G., 1990, Last in the field? 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