<<

MA.a-ttlpgs. qxp 3/31/04 10:01 AM Page 1

Almanac MA.a-ttlpgs. qxp 3/31/04 10:01 AM Page 3

Almanac JUDSON Edited by Judy Galens : Almanac 10 987654321 Printed intheUnitedStatesofAmerica any form. including therightofreproductioninwholeorpart All rightsreserved, U•X•L, AnimprintoftheGale Group Copyright ©2001 orously defended. and classificationoftheinformation.Allrightstopublication willbevig- ing: uniqueandoriginalselection,coordination,expression,arrangement, to theunderlyingfactualmaterialhereinthroughoneormore ofthefollow- other applicablelaws.Theauthorandeditorsofthisworkhave addedvalue laws, aswellbymisappropriation,tradesecret,unfaircompetition, and This publicationis acreativeworkfullyprotectedbyallapplicablecopyright sion oftheCorbisCorporation. Cover photographofcrusadersdisembarkinginEgyptreproducedbypermis- Marco DiVita, theGraphixGroup, Kenn Zorn, Pamela A.E.Galbreath, Dorothy Maki, Evi Seoud, Rita Wimberley, Robyn V. Young, Pamela A.Reed, Daniel Newell, Randy Bassett, Maria Franklin, Margaret Chamberlain, Thomas L.Romig, Carol DeKaneNagel, Diane Sawinski, Staff Judy Galens, Judson Knight Knight, Judson aes Judy, 1968-II.Title. Galens, 0.7d2 00-059442 909.07–dc21 D117.A2 K652000 ISBN 0-7876-4856-6 Includes bibliographicalreferencesandindex. Middle ages.Almanac/JudsonKnight;JudyGalens,editor. 1. MiddleAges—History. 2.World history. 3.Civilization,Medieval.I. p. cm. Assistant Production Manager Product DesignManager Library ofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Library Imaging DatabaseSupervisor Imaging Specialist Manager Permissions Manager Permissions Editor U•X•L SeniorEditor Image Coordinator Senior Buyer Senior ImageEditor U•X•L Publisher U•X•L ManagingEditor Permissions Associate(Pictures) Permissions Senior Art Director Senior Art Typesetting CIP Contents

Reader’s Guide...... ix Timeline of Events in the Middle Ages ...... xi Words to Know ...... xxxi Research and Activity Ideas...... xli

Chapter 1: The Middle Ages ...... 1 Understanding Medieval Times...... 4

Chapter 2: The Fall of the Roman ...... 7 The Decline of the (A.D. 180–c. 350) ...... 8 The Fall of (c. 350–476) ...... 13

Chapter 3: The Merovingian Age ...... 19 Dividing Up Western (400s–500s) ....19 The Church ...... 23 The Merovingians (481–751) ...... 29

v Chapter 4: The Carolingian Age ...... 33 The Carolingian Age (751–987) ...... 33 ...... 37 The (793–c. 1000) ...... 39 The End of the (843–c. 1000) ...... 42

Chapter 5: Eastern Europe ...... 47 The ...... 47 Byzantine Culture ...... 51 The Slavic Peoples ...... 54 The Turning Point for Eastern Europe ...... 58

Chapter 6: The Islamic World...... 61 Preparing the Way for (300s–632) .....61 The Islamic Faith...... 66 Islamic ...... 68 Muslim Civilization ...... 72 The Splintering of the Islamic World (c. 875–1258) ...... 75

Chapter 7: The Turks...... 77 Early Turkish Empires (500s–) ...... 77 The Seljuks (900s–1243) ...... 79 The (1252–1517) ...... 81 The Ottomans ...... 82

Chapter 8: The Jewish World ...... 85 , Judaism, and Anti-Semitism ...... 85 Jews in the and North ....87 Jews in ...... 88 Jews in Europe ...... 90

Chapter 9: The Eleventh ...... 93 Europe on the Eve of the ...... 93 The Recovery of the Church ...... 99 The (1095–99) ...... 102 vi Middle Ages: Almanac Chapter 10: The Twelfth Century ...... 107 A Changing World ...... 107 The Cross and the ...... 113 The Age of ...... 116

Chapter 11: The Thirteenth Century ...... 121 The End of the Crusades...... 121 The New Europe ...... 126

Chapter 12: The Mongols ...... 133 Genghis (c. 1162–1227) ...... 133 Conquests in Eastern Europe (1227–41).....134 A Shift to Southwest Asia (1241–60) ...... 136 Kublai Khan (1215–1294) ...... 136 Tamerlane and the End of the Mongols (1294–c. 1500) ...... 137

Chapter 13: ...... 141 A Land of Divisions ...... 141 Muslim Empires and Hindu Kingdoms .....145

Chapter 14: ...... 151 Indochina ...... 151 The Malay Peninsula and Archipelago .....155

Chapter 15: ...... 161 New , New Ideas ...... 161 The Sui (589–618) ...... 163 The T’ang Dynasty (618–907) ...... 164 The Sung Dynasty (960–1279) ...... 169 Yüan Dynasty (1279–1368) ...... 171 Glory Days of the (1368–c. 1500) ...... 172

Contents vii Chapter 16: ...... 175 From the Kofun to the Nara Period (250–794) ...... 175 The (794–1185) ...... 180 The Kamakura and Muromachi Periods (1185–1573) ...... 181

Chapter 17: The ...... 185 The Maya ...... 185 The Aztecs ...... 190 The Incas...... 194

Chapter 18: Africa ...... 201 Ethiopia ...... 201 The ...... 203 Bantu Kingdoms and Cities ...... 207

Chapter 19: The ...... 213 Pestilence and War ...... 213 The People and the Powers ...... 220

Where to Learn More ...... xlvii Index ...... xlix

viii Middle Ages: Almanac Reader’s Guide

he Middle Ages was an era of great changes in civilization, Ta transition between ancient times and the modern world. Lasting roughly from A.D. 500 to 1500, the period saw the growth of the Roman in Western Europe and the spread of the Islamic faith in the Middle East. Around the world, empires—the Byzantine, Mongol, and Incan—rose and fell, and the first nation-states emerged in , Eng- land, and Spain. Despite the beauty of illuminated manu- scripts, soaring Gothic cathedrals, and the literary classics of Augustine and Dante, Europe’s civilization lagged far behind that of the technologically advanced, administratively orga- nized, and economically wealthy realms of the Arab world, , India, and China.

Middle Ages: Almanac offers a comprehensive overview of this period, these empires, and the societies they created. Several of its nineteen chapters are devoted to specific eras, such as the Carolingian Age (about 750–1000) and the late Middle Ages (1300–1500), while others focus on geographical regions, including China, Africa, Eastern Europe, and the Americas. Distinct ethnic and religious groups, among them

ix the Jewish people; the Mongols; the , Turks, and other Middle Eastern peoples; the Ghanaians, Songhai, and Malians of West Africa; and the Maya and Aztecs of are extensively covered as .

Additional features Nearly one hundred illustrations and maps and dozens of sidebar boxes exploring high-interest topics bring the text to life. Definitions of unfamiliar terms and a list of and Web sites to consult for more information are in- cluded in each chapter. The volume also contains a timeline of events, a general glossary, research and activity ideas, and an index offering easy access to the people, places, and sub- jects discussed throughout Middle Ages: Almanac.

Dedication To Margaret, my mother; to Deidre, my wife; and to Tyler, my daughter.

Comments and suggestions We welcome your comments on this work as well as your suggestions for topics to be featured in future editions of Middle Ages: Almanac. Please write: Editors, Middle Ages: Al- manac, U•X•L, 27500 Drake Rd., Farmington Hills, MI 48331- 3535; call toll-free: 1-800-877-4253; fax: 248-699-8097; or send e-mail via www.galegroup.com.

x Middle Ages: Almanac Timeline of Events in the Middle Ages

122 Roman forces begin building Hadrian’s Wall, a barrier intended to protect Roman citizens from Picts, or na- tive Scots, on the isle of Britain. The wall is a sign that the Roman Empire has ceased to expand and will begin to shrink in coming .

135 Banished from by the Romans, Jews begin to spread throughout the Mediterranean.

180 The death of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius marks the end of the “Pax Romana,” or Roman peace. Years of instability follow, and although Rome recovers nu- merous times, this is the beginning of Rome’s three- century decline.

220 The of China to an end, plunging the country into three of turmoil. c. 300 Mayan culture enters the Classic Period, which lasts until 925, during which time the Maya undertake the vast majority of their most important building pro- jects.

xi 300s , which originated in India, begins to take hold in China. 312 Roman emperor Constantine converts to . As a result, the empire that once persecuted Chris- tians will embrace their and eventually will begin to persecute other religions. 325 Constantine calls the Council of , first of many ecumenical councils at which gatherings of determine official church policy. 325 Ezana of Aksum accepts Christianity. Eventually most of Ethiopia will become Christianized as a re- sult. 330 Constantine establishes Byzantium as eastern capital of the Roman Empire. 372 Headed westward, the Huns cross the Volga River, dis- placing the and setting in motion a chain reaction that ultimately to the downfall of the . 395 After the death of Emperor Theodosius, the Roman Empire is permanently divided in half. As time pass- es, the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire) distances itself from the declining Western Roman Empire. 410 Led by Alaric, the sack Rome, dealing the Western Roman Empire a blow from which it will never recover. 429 Having subdued (France) and Spain, the cross the Mediterranean to and conquer most Roman territories there. Mid-400s Angles, , and Jutes from invade the former Roman colony of Britain. 451 Roman troops score their last important victory, against Attila’s Huns in Gaul. 455 The Vandals sack Rome. 476 The German leader Odoacer removes Emperor Romu- lus Augustulus and crowns himself “king of .” This incident marks the end of the Western Roman Empire. xii Middle Ages: Almanac 481 The Merovingian Age, named for the only powerful dynasty in Western Europe during the period, begins when Clovis takes the in France. 500 Date commonly cited as beginning of Middle Ages. 500–1000 Era in European history often referred to as the Dark Ages, or Early Middle Ages. 529 Benedict of Nursia and his followers establish the at Monte Cassino, Italy. This marks the be- ginning of the monastic tradition in Europe. 534–563 Belisarius and other generals under orders from Jus- tinian recapture much of the Western Roman Empire, including parts of Italy, Spain, and North Africa. The victories are costly, however, and soon after Justin- ian’s death these lands will fall back into the hands of barbarian tribes such as the Vandals and . 535 Justinian establishes his legal code, a model for the laws in many Western nations today. 540 The Huns, or Hunas, destroy India’s , plunging much of the Indian subcontinent into a state of anarchy. 541 The Byzantine Empire is hit by the first wave of a plague that will continue to strike off and on for the next two centuries. Millions of people die in these epidemics, which greatly weaken the once-powerful empire. 563 Irish St. Columba forms the first important monastic settlement in the British Isles, at Iona off the coast of . In years to come, with Western Europe’s cultural center in Italy under attack from barbarians, in places such as Iona and Lindis- farne help preserve reading and writing. 568 The last wave of barbarian tribes descends on Italy as the Lombards invade. They will control the peninsula until 756. 589 More than three centuries of upheaval in China come to an end with the establishment of the . 590 Gregory I begins his fourteen- reign. Also known as Gregory the Great, he ensures the survival

Timeline xiii of the church and becomes one of its greatest me- dieval leaders. Late 500s Invading Europe, a tribe called the Avars intro- duces the , which they picked up in their mi- gration from . By making horsebound combat possible, the stirrup ultimately paves the way for knighthood and feudalism. 618 A revolt against the cruel Sui dynasty leads to the es- tablishment of the highly powerful and efficient T’ang dynasty in China. 622 Arab prophet Muhammad and his followers escape the city of Mecca. This event, known as the hegira, marks the beginning of the Muslim . 632–661 Following the death of Muhammad, the Arab Mus- lims are led by a series of four caliphs who greatly ex- pand Muslim territories to include most of the Middle East. 661 The fifth caliph, Mu’awiya, founds the Umayyad , which will rule the from , , until 750. 680 Husayn, son of Ali (the fourth caliph, assassinated in 661), leads an unsuccessful revolt against Umayyad rule. As a result, his supporters, the Shi’ite — whose power base is chiefly in Persia—break away from the majority, who are called Sunni Muslims. 711 from North Africa invade Spain, taking over from the Visigoths. Muslims will rule parts of the Iber- ian Peninsula until 1492. 711 Arabs invade the Sind in western India, establishing a Muslim foothold on the Indian subcontinent. 727 In , the Iconoclasts begin a sixty-year war on icons, or images of and other religious figures, which they consider idols. Though the Greek Ortho- dox Church ultimately rejects iconoclasm, the contro- versy helps widen a growing division between Eastern and Western Christianity. 732 A force led by repels Moorish invaders at , halting Islam’s advance into Western Europe. xiv Middle Ages: Almanac The battle firmly establishes the use of armored caval- rymen (in other words, ) in warfare. 750 A descendant of Muhammad’s uncle Abbas begins killing off all the Umayyad leaders and establishes the in , . 751 The Carolingian Age begins when Charles Martel’s son Pepin III, with the support of the pope, removes the last Merovingian king from power. 751 Defeated by Arab armies at Talas, China’s T’ang dy- nasty begins to decline. A revolt led by An Lu-shan in 755 adds to its troubles. 756 Pepin defeats the Lombards in Italy and in an act called the Donation of Pepin turns their lands over to the church. This creates the , which will exist for more than eleven hundred years. 768 Reign of , greatest ruler of Western Eu- rope during the Early Middle Ages, begins. 793 Viking raiders destroy the church at Lindisfarne off the coast of . Lindisfarne was one of the places where civilized learning had weathered the darkest years of the Middle Ages. Thus begins two centuries of terror as more invaders pour out of Scan- dinavia and spread throughout Europe. 800 Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne “Emperor of All the Romans.” This marks the beginning of the political al- liance later to take shape under Otto the Great as the . c. 800 The Khmers, or Cambodians, adopt Hinduism under the leadership of their first powerful king, Jayavarman II, founder of the Angkor Empire. 800s Feudalism takes shape in Western Europe. 820 A group of Vikings settles in northwestern France, where they will become known as . 827 Muslims take , which they will hold until 1072. Later in the 800s, they very nearly win control of Italy itself. 843 In the Treaty of Verdun, Charlemagne’s son divides the among his three

Timeline xv sons. These three parts come to be known as the West Frankish Empire, consisting chiefly of modern France; the “Middle Kingdom,” a strip running from what is now the all the way down to Italy; and the East Frankish Empire, or modern . The Middle Kingdom soon dissolves into a patchwork of tiny principalities. 862 A group of Vikings called the Varangians invade East- ern Europe, where they come to be known as Rus, the first Russians. Under the leadership of , they es- tablish the city of Novgorod and found a dynasty that will remain in power for more than seven centuries. 907 China’s T’ang dynasty comes to an end after almost three centuries of rule, and the empire enters a period of instability known as “Five and Ten King- doms.” 910 Establishment of the Benedictine monastery at Cluny in France signifies a recovery of the church, whose leaders had become increasingly corrupt in the pre- ceding centuries. 911 The last of the Carolingian line in the East Frankish Empire dies. Seven years later, Henry the Fowler of , father of Otto the Great, takes leadership of the German states. 960 The Oghuz, a group of Turks that includes the Seljuks, convert to Islam. 960 Beginning of the Sung dynasty in China. 962 Having conquered most of Central Europe, Otto the Great is crowned emperor in Rome, reviving Charle- magne’s title. From this point on, most German are also crowned ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. 987 Russia converts to Greek Orthodox Christianity and gradually begins adopting Byzantine culture after Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of Emperor Basil II. 987 The last Carolingian ruler of France dies without an heir, and takes the throne, establishing a dynasty that will last until 1328. xvi Middle Ages: Almanac 1000–1300 Era in European history often referred to as the . Guilds, which had existed in ancient times but disap- peared from Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, come back into existence. 1001 Vikings led by Leif Eriksson sail westward to and during the next two will con- duct a number of raids on the coast of what is now Canada. 1001 A second Muslim invasion of the Indian subconti- nent, this time by Turks, takes place as the Ghaz- navids subdue a large region in what is now , Pakistan, and western India. 1025 Basil II dies, having taken the Byzantine Empire to its greatest height since Justinian five centuries earlier; however, it begins a rapid decline soon afterward. 1035 Death of Canute, the last great Viking ruler, who briefly controlled England, , and . 1054 After centuries of disagreement over numerous issues, the Greek Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church officially separate. 1060 Five years after Turks seize control of Baghdad from the declining Abbasid caliphate, their leader, Toghril Beg, declares himself and thus establishes the dynasty. 1066 leads an invading force that defeats an Anglo-Saxon army at Hastings and wins control of England. The Norman invasion is the most important event of medieval English history, greatly affecting the future of English culture and language. 1071 The Seljuk Turks defeat Byzantine forces at the in . As a result, the Turks gain a foothold in Asia Minor (today known as ) and the Byzantine Empire begins a long, slow decline. 1071 A Norman warlord named drives the last Byzantine forces out of Italy. Byzantium had con- trolled parts of the peninsula since the time of Justin- ian.

Timeline xvii 1072 Robert Guiscard’s brother Roger expels the Arabs from Sicily and takes control of the island. 1075–77 Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV become embroiled in a church-state struggle called the , a debate over whether or emperors should have the right to appoint local bishops. Deserted by his supporters, Henry stands barefoot in the snow for three days outside the gates of a in Canossa, Italy, waiting to beg the pope’s forgiveness. 1080 Invaders from destroy , the first sig- nificant kingdom in sub-Saharan Africa. 1084 Reversing the results of an earlier round in the In- vestiture Controversy, Henry IV takes Rome and forcibly removes Gregory VII from power. The pope dies soon afterward, broken and humiliated. 1092 Following the death of their sultan , the Seljuk Turks begin to decline. 1094 Norman warrior Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard, takes control of Rome from Henry IV and hands the city over to Pope Urban II. Fearing the Normans’ power and aware that he owes them a great debt, Urban looks for something to divert their attention. 1095 Byzantine Emperor Alexis Comnenus asks Urban II for military assistance against the Turks. Urban preaches a sermon to raise support at the Council of Clermont in France, and in the resulting fervor the First Crusade begins. Among its leaders are Bohemond and his nephew Tancred. 1096–97 A pathetic sideshow called the Peasants’ Crusade plays out before the real First Crusade gets underway. The peasants begin by robbing and killing thousands of Jews in Germany; then, led by Peter the , they march toward the Holy Land, wreaking havoc as they go. In a local Turkish sultan leads them into a trap, and most of the peasants are killed. 1097–99 The armies of the official First Crusade conquer and , the first of several “.” xviii Middle Ages: Almanac 1099 The First Crusade ends in victory for the Europeans as they conquer Jerusalem. It is a costly victory, howev- er—one in which thousands of innocent Muslims, as well as many Europeans, have been brutally slaugh- tered—and it sows resentment between Muslims and Christians that remains strong today. c. 1100–1300 Many of the aspects of life most commonly as- sociated with the Middle Ages, including heraldry and chivalry, make their appearance in Western Europe during this period. Returning crusaders adapt the de- fensive architecture they observed in fortresses of the Holy Land, resulting in the familiar design of the me- dieval castle. This is also the era of romantic and heroic tales such as those of King Arthur.

1100s Beginnings of medieval trading fairs in Champagne and Flanders, a sign of Europe’s reawakening. c. 1100 Inca civilization emerges in . Around this time, the Incas establish Cuzco (now in Peru), the oldest continually inhabited city in the New World.

1113 Founding of the first great chivalric order, the Knights Hospitalers.

1119 Founding of the Knights Templars, the second of the three great chivalric orders.

1127 An invasion by the Juchen nomads forces the Chinese to move their capital from southward to Hangchow. This marks the end of the Northern Sung period and the beginning of the Southern Sung. c. 1140 In Cambodia Khmer emperor Suryavarman II devel- ops the splendid temple complex of Angkor Wat.

1146 After the Muslims’ capture of Edessa in 1144, Pope Eugenius III calls on the help of his former teacher, , who makes a speech that leads to the launching of the .

1147–49 In the disastrous Second Crusade, armies from Eu- rope are double-crossed by their crusader allies in the . They fail to recapture Edessa and suffer a heavy defeat at Damascus.

Timeline xix c. 1150 Romanesque, the dominant style of architecture in Western Europe since about 1000, gives way to the much more ornate and advanced style of Gothic. Also in this period the art of stained- windows reaches its height. 1158 Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa establish- es Europe’s first at , Italy. 1159 Frederick I Barbarossa begins a quarter-century of fruitless, costly wars in which the Ghibellines and Guelphs—factions representing pro-imperial and pro- church forces, respectively—fight for control of . 1160 German cities begin banding together to form the , designed to help them secure greater privileges in international markets. 1163 Building begins on the Cathedral of Notre Dame in , perhaps the most well known example of Goth- ic architecture. 1165 A letter supposedly written by , a Christ- ian monarch in the East, appears in Europe. Over the centuries that follow, Europeans will search in vain for Prester John, hoping for his aid in their war against Muslim forces. Even as Europe enters the modern era, early proponents of exploration such as Henry the Navigator will remain inspired by the quest for Prester John’s kingdom. 1182 France under Philip II becomes the first Eu- ropean country to expel all its Jews. 1183 Frederick I Barbarossa signs the Peace of Constance with the cities of the Lombard League, thus ending his long war in northern Italy. After this he will con- centrate his attention on Germany and institute re- forms that make him a hero in his homeland. 1185 For the first time, Japan comes under the rule of a shogun, or military dictator. Shoguns will remain in power for the next four centuries. 1187 Muslim armies under Saladin deal the crusaders a dev- astating blow at the Battle of Hittin in . xx Middle Ages: Almanac Shortly afterward, Saladin leads his armies in the re- conquest of Jerusalem. 1189 In response to Saladin’s victories, Europeans launch the . 1191 Led by Richard I of England and Philip II of France, crusaders take the city of Acre in Palestine. 1191 Founding of the Teutonic Knights, the last of the great chivalric orders. 1192 Richard I signs a treaty with Saladin, ending the Third Crusade. 1198 Pope Innocent III begins an eighteen-year reign that marks the high point of the church’s power. Despite his great influence, however, when he calls for a new crusade to the Holy Land, he gets little response—a sign that the spirit behind the Crusades is dying. c. 1200 Cambodia’s reaches its height under Jayavarman VII. 1202 Four years after the initial plea from the pope, the Fourth Crusade begins. Instead of going to the Holy Land, however, the crusaders become involved in a power struggle for the Byzantine throne. 1204 Acting on orders from the powerful city-state of , crusaders take , forcing the Byzantines to retreat to Trebizond in Turkey. The Fourth Crusade ends with the establishment of the . 1206 Qutb-ud-Din Aybak, the first independent Muslim ruler in India, establishes the . 1206 Genghis Khan unites the Mongols for the first time in their history, and soon afterward leads them to war against the Sung dynasty in China. 1208 Pope Innocent III launches the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars, a heretical sect in southern France. 1212 The pathetic “Children’s Crusade” ends with most of its participants captured and sold into slavery in the Middle East.

Timeline xxi 1215 In Rome, Pope Innocent III convenes the Fourth Lat- eran Council. A number of traditions, such as regular confession of sin to a , are established at this, one of the most significant ecumenical councils in history. 1215 English noblemen force King John to sign the , which grants much greater power to the nobili- ty. Ultimately the agreement will to increased freedom for the people from the power of both king and nobles. 1217–21 In the Fifth Crusade, armies from England, Ger- many, , and attempt unsuccessfully to conquer . 1227 Genghis Khan dies, having conquered much of China and Central Asia, thus laying the foundation for the largest empire in history. 1228–29 The Sixth Crusade, led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, results in a treaty that briefly restores Christian control of Jerusalem—and does so with a minimum of bloodshed. 1229 The brutal Albigensian Crusade ends. Not only are the Cathars destroyed, but so is much of the French no- bility, thus greatly strengthening the power of the French king. 1231 Pope Gregory IX establishes the Inquisition, a court through which the church will investigate, try, and punish cases of heresy. c. 1235 The empire of , the most powerful realm in sub- Saharan Africa at the time, takes shape under the leadership of Sundiata Keita. 1236 Mongol forces enter Russia and within a few years subdue the land, which becomes known as the Em- pire of the . 1239–40 In the Seventh Crusade, Europeans make another failed attempt to retake the Holy Land. 1241 After six years of campaigns in which they sliced across Russia and Eastern Europe, a Mongol force is poised to take Vienna, Austria, and thus to swarm xxii Middle Ages: Almanac into Western Europe. But when their leader, Batu Khan, learns that the Great Khan Ogodai is dead, he rushes back to the Mongol capital at Karakorum to participate in choosing a successor.

1243 Back on the warpath, but this time in the Middle East, the Mongols defeat the last remnants of the Seljuk Turks.

1248–54 King Louis IX of France (St. Louis) leads the Eighth Crusade, this time against the Mamluks. The result is the same: yet another defeat for the Europeans. c. 1250 The Aztecs settle in central Mexico.

1252 In Egypt, a group of former slave soldiers called the Mamluks take power from the , es- tablished many years before by Saladin.

1253 Mongol armies force the Thais from southern China into Southeast Asia, where they are destined to be- come the dominant power in later centuries.

1258 Hulagu Khan, who controls Mongol forces in south- , kills the last Abbasid caliph and declares the region a separate khanate under his leadership as “Il-khan.”

1260 The Mamluks become the first force to defeat the Mongols, in a battle at Goliath Spring in Palestine.

1260 Kublai Khan, greatest Mongol leader after his grandfa- ther Genghis Khan, is declared Great Khan, or leader of the Mongols.

1261 Led by Michael VIII Palaeologus, the Byzantines re- capture Constantinople from the Latin Empire, and Byzantium enjoys one last gasp of power before it goes into terminal decline.

1270–72 In the Ninth Crusade, last of the numbered cru- sades, King Louis IX of France again leads the Euro- peans against the Mamluks, who defeat European forces yet again.

1271 Marco Polo embarks on his celebrated journey to the East, which lasts twenty-four years.

Timeline xxiii 1273 The Hapsburg dynasty—destined to remain a major factor in European politics until 1918—takes control of the Holy Roman Empire. 1273 Italian philosopher and theologian completes the crowning work of his career, the mon- umental Summa theologica. The influential will help lead to wider acceptance of the idea, introduced earlier by Moses Maimonides, Averroës, and Abelard, that reason and faith are compatible. 1279 Mongol forces under Kublai Khan win final victory over China’s Sung dynasty. Thus begins the Yüan dy- nasty, the first time in Chinese history when the country has been ruled by foreigners. 1281 A Mongol force sent by Kublai Khan on a second at- tempt to take Japan—a first try, in 1274, also failed— is destroyed by a typhoon. The Japanese call it a “di- vine wind,” or kamikaze. 1291 Mamluks conquer the last Christian stronghold at Acre, bringing to an end two centuries of crusades to conquer the Holy Land for . 1294 At the death of Kublai Khan, the Mongol realm is the largest empire in history, covering most of Asia and a large part of Europe. Actually it is four empires, includ- ing the Golden Horde in Russia; the Il-Khanate in the Middle East and Persia; Chagatai in Central Asia; and the Empire of the Great Khan, which includes China, , and . Within less than a century, how- ever, this vast empire will have all but disappeared. 1299 Turkish chieftain Osman I refuses to pay to the local Mongol rulers, marking the beginnings of the . 1300–1500 Era in European history often referred to as the Late Middle Ages. 1303 After years of conflict with Pope Boniface VIII, France’s King Philip the Fair briefly has the pope ar- rested. This event and its aftermath marks the low point of the papacy during the Middle Ages. 1309 Pope Clement V, an ally of Philip the Fair, moves the papal seat from Rome to Avignon in southern France. xxiv Middle Ages: Almanac c. 1325 The Aztecs establish their capital at Tenochtitlán, on the site of present-day Mexico City.

1337 England and France begin fighting what will become known as the Hundred Years’ War, an on-again, off- again struggle to control parts of France.

1347–51 Europe experiences one of the worst disasters in , an epidemic called the . Sometimes called simply “the Plague,” in four years the Black Death kills some thirty-five million people, or approximately one-third of the European popula- tion in 1300.

1368 A group of Chinese rebels overthrows the Mongol Yüan dynasty and establishes the Ming dynasty, China’s last native-born ruling house.

1378 The Catholic Church becomes embroiled in the Great Schism, which will last until 1417. During this time, there are rival popes in Rome and Avignon; and from 1409 to 1417, there is even a third pope in , Italy.

1389 Ottoman forces defeat the Serbs in battle at Kosovo Field. As a result, all of Southeastern Europe except for Greece falls under Turkish control.

1392 General Yi Song-ye seizes power in Korea and estab- lishes a dynasty that will remain in control until 1910. c. 1400 Melaka, or Malaya (modern-day Malaysia), adopts Islam. In later years, it will become a center for Mus- lim culture in Southeast Asia.

1402 After conquering much of southwestern and central Asia, Tamerlane defeats the Ottoman sultan Bajazed in battle. An unexpected result of their defeat is that the Ottomans, who seemed poised to take over much of Europe, go into a period of decline.

1413 India’s Delhi Sultanate comes to an end. As a result, power in the subcontinent is splintered between the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar in the south and smaller Muslim states in northern and central India.

Timeline xxv 1415 English forces under King Henry V score a major vic- tory against the French at Agincourt, one of the most important battles of the Hundred Years’ War.

1417 The Council of Constance ends the Great Schism, af- firming that Rome is the seat of the church and that Pope Martin V is its sole leader. Unfortunately for the church, the Great Schism has weakened it at the very time that it faces its greatest challenge ever—a gather- ing movement that will come to be known as the Re- formation.

1418 The “school” of navigation founded by Prince Henry the Navigator sponsors the first of many expeditions that, over the next forty-two years, will greatly in- crease knowledge of the middle Atlantic Ocean and Africa’s west coast. These are the earliest European voyages of exploration, of which there will be many in the next two centuries.

1428 In Southeast Asia, unites under the leader- of the Le dynasty, which will turn the country into a regional power and control it until 1788.

1429 A tiny French army led by Joan of Arc forces the Eng- lish to lift their siege on the town of Orléans, a victo- ry that raises French spirits and makes it possible for France’s king Charles VII to be crowned later that year. This marks a turning point in the Hundred Years’ War.

1430–31 Captured by Burgundian forces, Joan of Arc is hand- ed over to the English, who arrange her for in a court of French . The trial, a mockery of justice, ends with Joan being burned at the stake.

1431 In Southeast Asia, the Thais conquer the Angkor Em- pire.

1431 The Aztecs become the dominant partner in a triple alliance with two nearby city-states and soon after- ward gain control of the Valley of Mexico.

1438 Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui, greatest Inca ruler, takes the throne. xxvi Middle Ages: Almanac 1441 Fourteen black slaves are brought from Africa to Por- tugal, where they are presented to Prince Henry the Navigator. This is the beginning of the African slave trade, which isn’t abolished until more than four cen- turies later.

1451 The recovery of the Ottoman Empire, which had suf- fered a half-century of decline, begins under Mehmet the Conqueror.

1453 The Hundred Years’ War ends with French victory.

1453 Turks under Mehmet the Conqueror march into Con- stantinople, bringing about the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Greece will remain part of the Ottoman Em- pire until 1829.

1455 Having developed a method of movable-type print- ing, of , Germany, prints his first book: a Bible. In the years to come, the inven- tion of the will prove to be one of the most important events in world history. By making possible the widespread distribution of books, it will lead to increased literacy, which in turn creates a more educated, skilled, and wealthy populace. It will also influence the spread of local languages, and thus of national independence movements, and also on the gathering movement for religious reformation.

1455 Just two years after losing the Hundred Years’ War to France, England is plunged into the , which will last until 1485.

1464 In the last-ever crusade, Pope Pius II attempts to re- take Turkish-held Constantinople for Christendom. However, he dies en route to Greece, bringing the cru- sading movement to an end.

1472 Ivan the Great of Muscovy marries Zoë, niece of the last Byzantine emperor, and adopts the two-headed Byzantine eagle as the symbol of Russia—the “Third Rome” after Rome itself and Byzantium. His grand- son, Ivan the Terrible, will in 1547 adopt the title czar, Russian for “caesar”—title of Roman and Byzantine emperors for the past fifteen hundred years.

Timeline xxvii 1492 Spain, united by the 1469 marriage of its two most powerful monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Is- abella I of Castile, drives out the last of the Muslims and expels all Jews. A less significant event of 1492, from the Spanish perspective, is the launch of a naval expedition in search of a westward sea route to China. Its leader is an Italian sailor named Christopher Columbus, who has grown up heavily influenced by Marco Polo’s account of his travels. 1500 Date commonly cited as the end of Middle Ages, and the beginning of the . 1517 Exactly a century after the Council of Constance ended the Great Schism, a German monk named Mar- Luther publicly posts ninety-five theses, or state- ments challenging the established teachings of Catholicism, on the door of a church in Germany. The popes had managed to crush earlier efforts at re- form, such as those led by Jan Hus of Bohemia, who was burned at the stake under orders from the Coun- cil of Constance. By now, however, the movement called the Reformation is much stronger, and Luther is far from its only leader. Over the next century, nu- merous new Protestant religious denominations will be established. 1521 Spanish forces led by the conquistador Hernán Cortés destroy the . 1526 Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane, invades India and establishes what becomes the Mogul Empire. 1533 Francisco Pizarro and the Spanish forces with him ar- rive in Peru and soon bring about the end of the . 1591 Songhai, the last of the great premodern empires in Africa’s Sudan region, falls to invaders from Morocco. 1806 In the process of conquering most of Europe, Bonaparte brings the Holy Roman Empire to an end. 1912 More than twenty-one centuries of imperial rule in China end with the overthrow of the by revolutionary forces, who establish a republic. xxviii Middle Ages: Almanac 1914 On the 525th anniversary of the Serbian loss at Koso- vo Field—June 28, 1389—Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip fires a shot at Hapsburg heir Franz Ferdinand. This begins World War I. 1918 Among the many outcomes of World War I are the disintegration of several empires with roots in the Middle Ages: the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires. 1960s Nearly a thousand years after Leif Eriksson and other Vikings visited the New World, archaeologists find re- mains of a Norse settlement in Newfoundland. 1975 The African nations of and , for- mer Portuguese possessions, become the last major colonies acquired in the Age of Exploration to gain their independence. 1979 The Shi’ite Muslim movement, which began almost exactly thirteen hundred years before, enters world headlines as Shi’ite fundamentalists seize control of . 1989 As Communism begins to disintegrate, Europe gradu- ally becomes more united than it has been since the Roman Empire began to decline eighteen centuries earlier. 1989 A Serbian commemoration of the 600th anniversary of Kosovo Field on June 28, 1989 marks the beginning of resurgent Serbian nationalism. In the decade that follows, the Balkans will once again be the site of a great religious and ethnic power struggle, with Serbia backed by its Greek Orthodox ally Russia against the Catholic Croatians and Bosnian Muslims.

Timeline xxix Words to Know

A Age of Exploration: The period from about 1450 to about 1750, when European explorers conducted their most significant voyages and travels around the world.

Alchemy: A semi-scientific discipline that holds that through the application of certain chemical processes, ordi- nary metals can be turned into .

Algebra: A type of mathematics used to determine the value of unknown quantities where these can be related to known numbers.

Allegory: A type of narrative, popular throughout the Middle Ages, in which characters represent ideas.

Anarchy: Breakdown of political order.

Ancestor: An earlier person in one’s line of parentage, usually more distant in time than a grandparent.

Anti-Semitism: Hatred of, or discrimination against, Jews.

xxxi Antipope: A priest proclaimed pope by one group or another, but not officially recognized by the church. : The scientific study of past civilizations. : The leading in an area or nation. Aristocracy: The richest and most powerful members of soci- ety. Ascetic: A person who renounces all earthly pleasures as part of his or her search for religious understanding. : Killing, usually of an important leader, for po- litical reasons. Astronomy: The scientific study of the and other heav- enly bodies, and their movement in the sky.

B Barbarian: A negative term used to describe someone as un- civilized. Bishop: A figure in the Christian church assigned to oversee priests and believers in a given city or region. : A network of officials who run a government.

C Caliph: A successor to Muhammad as spiritual and political leader of Islam. Caliphate: The domain ruled by a caliph. : Formal declaration of a deceased person as a . Cardinal: An office in the Catholic Church higher than that of bishop or archbishop; the seventy cardinals in the “College of Cardinals” participate in electing the pope. : Soldiers on horseback. Chivalry: The system of medieval knighthood, particularly its code of honor with regard to women. xxxii Middle Ages: Almanac Christendom: The Christian world. Church: The entire Christian church, or more specifically the Roman Catholic Church. City-state: A city that is also a self-contained political unit, like a country. Civil service: The administrators and officials who run a gov- ernment. Civilization: A group of people possessing most or all of the following: a settled way of life, , a written language, an organized government, and cities. Classical: Referring to ancient Greece and Rome. : The priesthood. Clerical: Relating to priests. Coat of arms: A heraldic emblem representing a family or na- tion. Commoner: Someone who is not a member of a royal or noble class. Communion: The Christian ceremony of commemorating the last supper of Christ. Courtly love: An idealized form of romantic love, usually of a knight or poet for a noble lady.

D Dark Ages: A negative term sometimes used to describe the Early Middle Ages, the period from the fall of Rome to about A.D. 1000 in Western Europe. Deity: A god. Dialect: A regional variation on a language. : The use of skillful negotiations with leaders of other nations to influence events. Duchy: An area ruled by a , the highest rank of Euro- pean noble below a prince. Dynasty: A group of people, often but not always a family, who continue to hold a position of power over a peri- od of time.

Words to Know xxxiii E Economy: The whole system of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in a country. Ecumenical: Across all faiths, or across all branches of the Christian Church. Empire: A large political unit that unites many groups of peo- ple, often over a wide territory. Epic: A long poem that recounts the adventures of a leg- endary hero. Ethnic group: People who share a common racial, cultural, national, linguistic, or tribal origin. Excommunicate: To banish someone from the church.

F : A food shortage caused by crop failures. Fasting: Deliberately going without food, often but not al- ways for religious reasons. Feudalism: A form of political and economic organization in which peasants are subject to a noble who owns most or all of the land that they cultivate.

G Geometry: A type of mathematics dealing with various shapes, their properties, and their measurements. Guild: An association to promote, and set standards for, a particular profession or .

H Hajj: A to Mecca, which is expected of all Muslims who can afford to make it. Heraldry: The practice of creating and studying coats of arms and other insignia. xxxiv Middle Ages: Almanac Heresy: A belief that goes against established church teach- ings. Holy Land: Palestine. Horde: A division within the Mongol army; the term “hordes” was often used to describe the Mongol armies.

I Icon: In the Christian church, an image of a saint. Idol: A statue of a god that the god’s followers worship. Illumination: Decoration of a manuscript with elaborate de- signs. Indo-European languages: The languages of Europe, India, Iran, and surrounding areas, which share common roots. Indulgence: The granting of forgiveness of sins in exchange for an act of service for, or payment to, the church. Infantry: Foot soldiers. Infidel: An unbeliever. Intellectual: A person whose profession or lifestyle centers around study and ideas. Interest: In , a fee charged by a lender against a borrower—usually a percentage of the amount bor- rowed. Investiture: The power of a feudal lord to grant lands or of- fices. Islam: A religious faith that teaches submission to the one god Allah and his word as given through his prophet Muhammad in the Koran.

J Jihad: Islamic “holy war” to defend or extend the faith.

Words to Know xxxv K Khan: A Central Asian chieftain. Koran: The holy book of Islam.

L Legal code: A system of laws. Lingua franca: A common language.

M Martyr: Someone who willingly dies for his or her faith. Mass: A Catholic church service. Medieval: Of or relating to the Middle Ages.

Middle Ages: Roughly the period from A.D. 500 to 1500. Middle class: A group whose income falls between that of the rich and the poor, or the rich and the working class; usually considered the backbone of a growing economy. : A period of a thousand years. : Someone who travels to other lands with the aim of converting others to his or her religion. Monastery: A place in which monks live. Monasticism: The tradition and practices of monks. Monk: A man who leaves the outside world to take and live in a monastery, practicing a lifestyle of denying earthly pleasures. Monotheism: Worship of one god. : A Muslim temple. Movable-type printing: An advanced printing process using pre-cast pieces of metal type. Muezzin: A crier who calls worshipers to prayer five times a day in the Muslim world. Mysticism: The belief that one can attain direct knowledge of God or ultimate reality through some form of medita- tion or special insight. xxxvi Middle Ages: Almanac N Nationalism: A sense of loyalty and devotion to one’s nation. Nation-state: A geographical area composed largely of a sin- gle nationality, in which a single national govern- ment clearly holds power. New World: The Americas, or the Western Hemisphere. Noble: A ruler within a kingdom who has an inherited title and lands, but who is less powerful than the king or queen; collectively, nobles are known as the “.” Nomadic: Wandering. Novel: An extended, usually book-length, work of fiction. Nun: The female equivalent of a monk, who lives in a nun- nery, convent, or .

O Order: An organized religious community within the Catholic Church. Ordination: Formal appointment as a priest or minister.

P Pagan: Worshiping many gods. Papacy: The office of the pope. Papal: Referring to the pope. : A bishop in the . Patron: A supporter, particularly of arts, education, or sci- ences. The term is often used to refer to a ruler or wealthy person who provides economic as well as per- sonal support. Peasant: A farmer who works a small plot of land. Penance: An act ordered by the church to obtain forgiveness for sin.

Words to Know xxxvii Persecutions: In early church history, Roman punishment of Christians for their faith. Philosophy: An area of study concerned with subjects includ- ing values, meaning, and the nature of reality. Pilgrimage: A journey to a site of religious significance. Plague: A disease that spreads quickly to a large population. Polytheism: Worship of many gods. Pope: The bishop of Rome, and therefore the head of the Catholic Church. Principality: An area ruled by a prince, the highest-ranking form of noble below a king. Prophet: Someone who receives communications directly from God and passes these on to others. Prose: Written narrative, as opposed to poetry. Purgatory: A place of punishment after death where, accord- ing to Roman Catholic beliefs, a person who has not been damned may work out his or her salvation and earn his or her way to heaven.

R Rabbi: A Jewish teacher or religious leader. Racism: The belief that race is the primary factor determin- ing peoples’ abilities and that one race is superior to another. Reason: The use of the mind to figure things out; usually contrasted with emotion, intuition, or faith. Reformation: A religious movement in the 1500s that ulti- mately led to the rejection of Roman Catholicism by various groups who adopted Protestant interpreta- tions of Christianity. : Someone who governs a country when the monarch is too young, too old, or too sick to lead. Relic: An object associated with the saints of the New Testa- ment, or the martyrs of the early church. xxxviii Middle Ages: Almanac Renaissance: A period of renewed interest in learning and the arts that began in Europe during the 1300s and continued to the 1600s. Representational art: Artwork intended to show a specific subject, whether a human figure, landscape, still life, or a variation on these. Ritual: A type of religious ceremony that is governed by very specific rules. Rome: A term sometimes used to refer to the papacy.

S Sack: To destroy, usually a city. : A negative term used in medieval Europe to describe Muslims. Scientific method: A means of drawing accurate conclusions by collecting information, studying data, and forming theories or hypotheses. Scriptures: Holy texts. Sect: A small group within a larger religion. Secular: Of the world; typically used in contrast to “spiritual.” Semitic: A term describing a number of linguistic and cultur- al groups in the Middle East, including the modern- day Arabs and Israelis. Serf: A peasant subject to a feudal system and possessing no land. Siege: A sustained military attack against a city. Simony: The practice of buying and selling church offices. Sultan: A type of king in the Muslim world. Sultanate: An area ruled by a Sultan. Synagogue: A Jewish temple.

T : The application of knowledge to make the per- formance of physical and mental tasks easier.

Words to Know xxxix Terrorism: Frightening (and usually harming) a group of peo- ple in order to achieve a specific political goal. Theologian: Someone who analyzes religious faith. : The study of religious faith. : A system of justice in which the accused (and sometimes the accuser as well) has to undergo various physical hardships in order to prove innocence. Tribal: Describes a society, sometimes nomadic, in which members are organized by families and clans, not by region, and in which leadership comes from warrior- chieftains. Tribute: Forced payments to a conqueror. Trigonometry: The mathematical study of triangles, angles, arcs, and their properties and applications. Trinity: The three persons of God according to Christianity— Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

U Usury: Loaning money for a high rate of interest; during the Middle Ages, however, it meant simply loaning money for interest.

V : A noble or king who is subject to a more powerful noble or king. Vatican: The seat of the pope’s power in Rome.

W West: Generally, Western Europe and North America, or the countries influenced both by ancient Greece and an- cient Rome. Working class: A group between the middle class and the poor who typically earn a living with their hands. xl Middle Ages: Almanac Research and Activity Ideas

he following list of research and activity ideas is intended Tto offer suggestions for complementing social studies and history curricula, to trigger additional ideas for enhancing learning, and to suggest cross-disciplinary projects for library and classroom use.

•Obtain a list of movies about the medieval period. Sources include the Medieval Sourcebook Web site, “Me- dieval History at the Movies” (http://www.fordham.edu/ halsall/medfilms.html) or Videohound’s Golden Movie Re- triever, published by Visible Ink Press, 2001. Watch several movies about the era and discuss them. How accurately do they portray events in the Middle Ages?

•One of the signs of Europe’s recovery during the was the emergence of international fairs at Champagne and in Flanders. Hold a class “fair,” with each student as- signed to bring in an item for “sale.” What do students learn about one another by doing business together?

•Divide into two groups, representing the people of Europe and those of the Middle East. The Europeans are prepar-

xli ing to go on a crusade to seize the Holy Land from the Muslims to place it under Christian control. Debate this issue, considering it from as many viewpoints as possible. Is a crusade justified according to the Christian religion? What is the justification for Muslim control of the Holy Land? How could a crusade be avoided?

•Obtain a world map, and use colored pins to indicate the different locations mentioned in this book, including such routes as those of the crusaders, Marco Polo, or in- vaders of Europe from Central Asia. Discuss the natural features that may have helped Europe become dominant in the period after 1500, as well as the natural barriers that prevented some civilizations from interacting with those of Europe and the Middle East.

•Pretend that you are living in the Middle Ages and de- scribe a typical day. Keep in mind that you would possess virtually none of the modern conveniences that make life easy. There would be no electricity, hardly any commer- cially manufactured products, and no transportation other than by animal or foot. Few people would be able to read and write, and modern standards of hygiene—for instance, bathing every day—would not be observed. The last two facts were most true for Western Europeans rather than for Byzantines, Arabs, or Chinese. How would people of those cultures look upon an unwashed, illiter- ate Western European? How would a medieval person seem to someone now and vice versa?

•Most of the famous women from premodern times were queens, and in fact very few women ever had an opportu- nity to achieve fame of any kind. Discuss the reasons why this was the case, particularly in light of the conditions involved in having children and of taking care of a house- hold. Keep in mind there was very little medical help for problems in pregnancy—nor were there anesthetics to ease the pain of childbirth. There were no disposable dia- pers, no pediatricians, no baby formula or prepared foods for infants. On top of all these challenges, a woman had to cook and clean without the benefit of modern conve- niences. Consider the ways things have changed, not only from the standpoint of technology, but also with re- gard to attitudes about women’s and men’s roles. xlii Middle Ages: Almanac •The list of Arab or Muslim scientists and mathematicians from the Middle Ages is a long one. Starting with this book, compile a list of such figures and arrange for each member of the class to prepare a brief report on that per- son’s achievements. If possible, include visual aids or mod- els as well. Then, after the presentations, discuss the rela- tive level of technological advancement in Western Europe during the Middle Ages and the Arabs’ view of Europeans. Also, consider the relative levels of technological advance- ment in Europe and the Middle East today. Why and how did things change? Sources for information about Muslim scientists include the U•X•L books and Technology Breakthroughs: From the Wheel to the World Wide Web and Math and Mathematicians: The History of Math Discoveries around the World, as well as these Web sites: • “Index of Biographies” (Mathematicians). [Online] Available http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/% 7Ehistory/BiogIndex.html (last accessed August 9, 2000). • Medieval Technology Pages. [Online] Available http:// scholar.chem.nyu.edu/technology.html (last accessed August 9, 2000). • Muslim Scientists and Islamic Civilization. [Online] Available http://users.erols.com/zenithco/index.html (last accessed August 9, 2000). •Hold a “Medieval Biography” day, on which each member of the class takes on the role of an important person from medieval history. Perhaps using the biography and sidebar subjects from Middle Ages: Biographies, which offers names from a range of world cultures, start with a drawing in which each person is assigned a “character.” Then, in ad- dition to creating a costume appropriate to that person (makeshift armor, for instance, or royal robes), each stu- dent should research the person’s biography and be pre- pared to discuss his or her life and significance. •Go through recent newspapers or newsmagazines and cut out or copy stories relating to issues that concerned peo- ple in the Middle Ages as much as they do people today. Such issues would include the conflict of church and state, as well as freedom for and freedom from religious be-

Research and Activity Ideas xliii liefs; the relationship between science and religious faith; the differences between Christianity, Islam, and Judaism; and the clash between societies that have achieved radi- cally different levels of technological advancement.

•Most books and courses of study relating to the Middle Ages place a greater emphasis on Europe than on the cul- tures of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Why do you think that is so? Does it seem strange, given the fact that Western Europe at the beginning of the Mid- dle Ages was far less advanced than many other regions at the same time? Do you think it is right or wrong to place such an emphasis on Europe? How would you feel about that question if you had been raised in a society that had hardly been influenced by Europe? Take a position, pro or con, and explain your reasoning in a short or de- bate it as a class. (As you discuss this, keep in mind that almost all societies throughout history have believed that they were the “best.”)

•During the Middle Ages superstition often took the place of science, and when people could not explain the causes behind something they often made up superstitious expla- nations that seem silly to people today. Research the his- tory of a superstition—for instance, fear of the number 13. With superstitions that relate to science in some way, compare the superstition with the actual facts about a sub- ject: for instance, in the Middle Ages people believed in spontaneous generation, but now people know that when food is left out to spoil vermin are drawn to it, rather than the food actually turning into the vermin. Choose some sort of everyday phenomenon, such as wind blowing trees or the operation of a car, and make up a fanciful, supersti- tious explanation for it of the type a medieval person might have believed. Then compare this superstition with the actual facts regarding the subject—in this case, how the wind blows trees, or how cars operate.

•Medieval history is filled with “what ifs” and things that almost happened. Consider how Europe—and thus Amer- ica and the world—might have been changed, for in- stance, if the Muslims had succeeded in taking Constan- tinople in 718, or had defeated the at Tours in 732; or if the Mongols had kept moving westward into Vienna xliv Middle Ages: Almanac in 1241; or if Tamerlane had not temporarily halted the Turks’ conquest of the Balkans in 1402. Conversely, dis- cuss ways that various events or phenomena could have been avoided. Examples include the fall of the Western Roman Empire; the destruction of the gold-rich kingdoms of West Africa; the European conquest of the Aztecs and Incas; or the failure of the Arabs or Chinese to maintain their technological advantages over Europeans.

Research and Activity Ideas xlv The Middle Ages 1

he Middle Ages, or medieval (med-EE-vul) period, lasted Troughly from A.D. 500 to 1500. It was an era of great changes in civilization, a transition between ancient times and the modern world. With the rise of the Roman Catholic Church and other institutions, Western Europe during this period grew apart from Eastern Europe, which centered around Greece and its Orthodox Church. The Middle East at the same time experienced the explosion of the Muslim, or Is- lamic, faith, and the region became home to a series of Arab and Turkish empires. Farther east, and in Africa and the Americas, other great empires—among them those of the Chinese, the Mongols, and the Incas—rose and fell.

Most historians link the beginning of the Middle Ages with the fall of the Roman Empire, the long decline of which can be traced to the A.D. 200s. By the 300s, Rome had adopted many practices that would come to characterize medieval life. Whereas ancient Romans had worshiped the old pagan gods such as Jupiter, now the official religion of Rome was Christianity—though a form of Christianity heav- ily mixed with pagan practices. And whereas the ancient

1 Words to Know: The Middle Ages

Age of Exploration: The period from Feudalism: A form of political and eco- about 1450 to about 1750, when Euro- nomic organization in which peasants pean explorers conducted their most are subject to a noble, who owns most significant voyages and travels around or all of the land that they cultivate. the world. Leprosy: A disease involving the gradual Ancestor: An earlier person in one’s line of wasting of muscles, deformity, and parentage, usually more distant in time paralysis; relatively common until mod- than a grandparent. ern times. Medieval: Of or relating to the Middle Barbarian: A negative term used to de- Ages. scribe someone as uncivilized. Middle Ages: Roughly the period from A.D. Chivalry: The system of medieval knight- 500 to 1500. hood, particularly its code of honor with Millennium: A period of a thousand years. regard to women. Pagan: Worshiping many gods. Church: The entire Christian church, or more specifically the Roman Catholic Papacy: The office of the pope. Church. Peasant: A farmer who works a small plot of land. Civilization: A group of people possessing most or all of the following: a settled Reformation: A religious movement in the way of life, agriculture, a written lan- 1500s that ultimately led to the rejection guage, an organized government, and of Roman Catholicism by various groups cities. in Europe. Renaissance: A period of renewed interest Dark Ages: A negative term sometimes in learning and the arts that began in used to describe the Early Middle Ages, Europe during the 1300s and continued the period from the fall of Rome to to the 1600s. about A.D. 1000 in Western Europe. Technology: The application of knowledge Economy: The whole system of produc- to make the performance of physical tion, distribution, and consumption of and mental tasks easier. goods and services in a country. West: Generally, Western Europe and Empire: A large political unit that unites North America, or the countries influ- many groups of people, often over a enced both by ancient Greece and an- wide territory. cient Rome.

2 Middle Ages: Almanac Roman economy had been based on naissance (REN-uh-sahnts), or “re- slavery, Rome in the 300s already had birth”; similarly, the Reformation (ref- the beginnings of a new system called ur-MAY-shun) heralded the re-forma- feudalism (FYOO-dul-izm). tion of religion and even politics. The Renaissance and Reformation had The Western Roman Empire their beginnings in the 1300s, and fell in 476, but the Eastern Roman Em- gathered steam after 1450 with the in- pire continued as the Byzantine (BIZ- vention of the printing press, which un-teen) Empire throughout the Mid- made it possible to spread ideas much dle Ages. By the time the Byzantine more quickly. Around the same time, Empire fell in 1453, the medieval peri- the Age of Exploration began with the od was coming to an end as Europe first European voyages around the began experiencing a full-scale trans- coast of Africa. These events collective- formation in the arts, science, politics, ly brought about the end of the Mid- and even religion. The awakening in dle Ages, and the beginning of the the arts and science was called the Re- modern world.

The Middle Ages 3 People began to refer scornfully to me- dieval times as “the Dark Ages,” and for many centuries thereafter, this re- mained the accepted view. In the twentieth century there was a backlash against this interpreta- tion, and indeed it became almost “politically incorrect” to refer to the medieval period as the Dark Ages. Yet the Dark Ages viewpoint is not neces- sarily inaccurate. There can be no question that, in terms of political or- ganization and technology, Western Europe took many steps backward during the centuries leading up to and following the fall of Rome. The Dark Ages interpretation, however, fails to take into account the many great achievements made by Western Europeans during the Middle Ages—from the beauty of manuscript illumination and Many people think of the Middle Ages in to the literary classics of Augustine terms of romance and chivalry: kings, and Dante. On the political and social , and knights battling over the hand level, the Middle Ages laid the ground- of a fair maiden. Reproduced by permission of work for modern times, bringing into the Corbis Corporation. being the first nation-states such as France and England, and establishing Understanding medieval the conditions for explosive economic growth in future centuries. The me- times dieval period was far from a dead spot People in the Middle Ages did between ancient and modern times. not think of their time as “a middle period” between ancient and modern times; that idea only arose during the Renaissance. As Europe reawakened in The Middle Ages around the the 1500s, it was hard not to view the world Middle Ages as a time of ignorance The idea of the Middle Ages in and confusion, an interruption in the general, and of the Dark Ages in partic- progress of humankind. This was par- ular, is specifically European in origin— ticularly true of the millennium’s first or rather, Western European. In con- half, from about 500 to about 1000. trast to Western Europe, Eastern Europe

4 Middle Ages: Almanac Knights, Castles, and Bad Teeth

The view of the medieval period as had any concept of brushing their teeth, let the “Dark Ages” is a stereotype, or oversim- alone the idea of preventing tooth decay. plified image; so, too, is the other extreme, Teeth simply fell out, and therefore the which one might describe as the “knights smile of the fair maiden would indeed be a in shining armor” viewpoint. This is the sight to behold. idea created by fairy tales and sustained by movies, an impression of the Middle Ages At some point, either the knight or as a time of beauty, romance, and mystery. his maiden were likely to come into contact This view centers around images of chival- with a terrible illness for which there was ry—for instance, the knight rescuing the no cure. Certainly if one got sick, it was a fair maiden from a dragon or an enemy, bad idea to visit a so-called “doctor.” Doc- and carrying her on his horse to a castle tors in medieval Europe were actually just gleaming in the distance. moonlighting barbers, and they proposed all sorts of hideous “cures” such as bleed- In fact, if a modern person actually ing the patient to release impurities from got a chance to meet a real medieval knight the body. Not surprisingly, life expectancy and his fair maiden, they would probably during much of the Early Middle Ages was be more than a little disappointed—maybe only about twenty-five or thirty years. Not even revolted. Whereas people in ancient only were lives short; people were short. Greece and Rome had been reasonably Due to a number of factors, most notably clean according to modern standards, by poor diet and medical care, the average- the time of the Middle Ages most of West- sized man was between five and five-and-a- ern Europe had come to believe that baths half feet tall, as opposed to six feet tall were only good as a cure for sickness. If one today. There were also far more people were not sick, then there was no need for a with physical problems of one kind or an- bath. Therefore the knight and his maiden other: hunchbacks, persons with the dread- would be fairly smelly; furthermore, no one ed disease leprosy, and others.

experienced no dark age, and indeed perienced a cultural flowering on a became home to a splendid reminder of scale seldom equaled in human histo- ancient Greek and Roman glory in the ry. While the ancestors of the English form of the Byzantine Empire. and French were still mostly illiterate peasants living in drafty huts, the Nor did the Arabs of the Mid- Arabs enjoyed a degree of civilization dle East view the period as a “dark that easily put them on a level with age”: beginning in the , Arabia ex- . It is not surprising that

The Middle Ages 5 when they first encountered Western fact. In their view, China was the center Europeans during the Crusades begin- of the world, and all other peoples were ning in 1095, the Arabs viewed them barbarians to varying degrees. Just how as ignorant, foul-smelling brutes. Even barbarian the Chinese thought others in modern times, Arab historians do were, of course, had a great deal to do not typically view the millennium that with how much or how little their cul- began in A.D. 500 as a “middle age,” es- ture was influenced by that of China. pecially since the Muslim world does not use the same calendar as Europe: Moving farther east—so far instead of dating their years from the east, in fact, that it is considered birth of Jesus Christ, Muslims begin west—one finds the Mayan civiliza- with the prophet Muhammad’s escape tion in what is now Mexico and from the city of Mecca in A.D. 622. Guatemala. The Maya had never heard of Western Europe, Arabia, or Much farther east, the Chinese China, placing them even farther not only had their own calendar, but from the Western European world of their own long and distinguished histo- knights and castles. Nonetheless, the ry—a history that had nothing to do peoples of America, as well as Africa with Europe. In fact, prior to about A.D. and other regions covered in this se- 100, the Chinese did not know that ries, had their own unique experience Greece or Rome existed, nor did they of the period that in the West is much care when they did learn of the known as the Middle Ages.

6 Middle Ages: Almanac The Fall of the Roman Empire 2

he fall of the Roman Empire is usually considered the Tstarting point for the Middle Ages. In ancient times, Rome—a term that stood not only for the city of Rome, but for the entire world dominated by the Romans—was one of the world’s great civilizations. The city itself was founded, ac- cording to tradition, in 753 B.C., and over the years that fol- lowed, it gradually began to dominate other cities in Italy. In 507 B.C. the Roman Republic, comprising Rome itself and sur- rounding areas, was established. In 390 B.C. a nomadic group from the north called the , or , invaded Rome, and this led the Romans to begin building up their military. The next five centuries saw near-constant warfare, during which Rome expanded its territory to include much of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also nearly constant warfare among the Roman leaders themselves in the century leading up to 31 B.C., when the Roman Empire was estab- lished. During the next two centuries, the Roman world en- joyed a period of prosperity and contentment known as the Pax Romana, or “Roman peace.”

7 Words to Know: The Fall of the Roman Empire

Assassination: Killing, usually of an impor- Martyr: Someone who willingly dies for his tant leader, for political reasons. or her faith.

Bishop: A figure in the Christian Church as- Nomadic: Wandering. signed to oversee priests and believers in a given city or region. Persecutions: In church history, Roman punishment of Christians for their faith. Cavalry: Soldiers on horseback. Convert: A new believer in a religion. Pope: The bishop of Rome, and therefore the head of the Catholic Church. Ecumenical: Across all faiths, or across all branches of the Christian Church. Sack: To destroy, usually a city.

Heresy: A belief that goes against estab- Theologian: Someone who analyzes reli- lished church teachings. gious faith. Infantry: Foot soldiers. Tribal: Describes a society, sometimes no- Legion: A unit in the Roman military, con- madic, in which members are organized sisting of between 3,000 and 6,000 sol- by families and clans, not by region, and diers; used collectively to refer to the en- in which leadership comes from warrior- tire Roman army. chieftains.

The decline of the Roman economy, and other deep-seated eco- nomic problems created an ever- Empire (A.D. 180–c. 350) widening gap between rich and poor, From A.D. 96 to 180, a series of until there was no one in between. able emperors ruled Rome, but the The few Romans who were fabulous- quality of emperors in the next half- ly wealthy gave themselves up to century would be uneven, and several lives of pleasure, while the many liv- were assassinated. Over the coming ing in poverty faced a future of unre- years, that method of replacing lieved misery. Neither group was Roman emperors would become com- having children, the rich because mon. Between 235 and 285, Rome had they could not be bothered, the poor twenty emperors, many of them pro- because they could not afford them. moted to their positions by the army. Both groups practiced widespread Few died a natural death. abortion and infanticide, or the mur- During the third century, an der of children. Soon the Roman increasing burden, a slave-based population began to decrease, and

8 Middle Ages: Almanac N Roman Empire, c. A.D. 110

P E R O U ATLANTIC E C OCEAN a s p i a n Tu sc S a S e a e n k a c a y B l Rome La tiu m Asia ASIA Greece Troy Minor

Carthage M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Egypt

miles 0 250 500

0 250 500 kilometers AFRICA

A map of the Roman Empire at its height, c. A.D. 110. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group. the Italian countryside was filled ly well; then Rome came to the lim- with empty houses. its of its power.

The empire stopped growing All around it, the empire faced along with the population. For cen- natural or manmade boundaries: turies, Rome had survived on con- deserts in North Africa and the Middle stant warfare, which brought in East, the military force of the slaves and captured treasures. No and others on its southeastern bor- one thought about expanding the ders, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, economy by learning better ways to and the North Sea to the northwest. cultivate crops or by creating more Worst of all, along its northern and goods to sell; therefore once there northeastern frontiers, formed by the were no more nations to attack, (RYN) and Danube (DAN-yoob) there would be no more wealth. Up Rivers respectively, were dozens and to the A.D. 100s, the system of dozens of tribal “barbarians.” The mis- growth by conquest had worked fair- sion of Rome’s armies turned from

The Fall of the Roman Empire 9 conquest to mere survival, as they cheering spectators watched. One rea- tried to hold on to lands they had won son for this treatment was Christians’ centuries before. But Romans them- rejection of Roman ways, in particular selves had lost their will to fight; there- the pagan religion. Whereas the Ro- fore as time went on, the ranks of their mans worshiped many gods, repre- legions were increasingly filled with sented with statues everywhere, the foreigners—primarily barbarians. Christians had just one god, and it was against their religion to worship statues. The gods of Rome were such a Barbarians and Christians part of life that to reject them was to The barbarians would later reject Rome itself: therefore Christians bring down the empire, but the decline were scorned as “atheists” and danger- of Roman society itself made possible ous anti-Roman activists. the barbarian takeover. The Romans had grown weak, but the tribes around The Christians meanwhile had their borders were strong; and whereas their own type of government, with the Romans were cowardly, the barbar- leaders called bishops presiding over ians were brave. In many ways, the bar- each major city. According to tradi- barians—who, despite their brutality, tion, in his last days the apostle Peter were often honest and noble in their became the bishop of Rome, and be- behavior—most resembled the ancient cause Rome was the center of the Romans who had built the great soci- world at the time, Peter’s office came ety that was now crumbling. to have a great significance. Therefore the bishop of Rome took on a special Only one group within Rome title: father, or papa—that is, pope. could match the barbarians’ vigor and During the Middle Ages, hundreds of energy: a small group of religious be- men would hold the title of pope, or lievers called Christians, so named be- leader of the Roman Catholic Church, cause they followed the teachings of and the papacy (office of the pope) Jesus Christ. The Christian religion would come to hold great power. had originated in the Middle East dur- ing the first century A.D. and spread to The early popes, however, were Rome through the efforts of numerous far from powerful; and whereas many apostles, or teachers, including Paul, popes in the Middle Ages did things Peter, and others. Most likely Peter and that Jesus Christ would have con- Paul died in Rome during the reign of demned—for instance, living on Emperor Nero (ruled A.D. 54–68), who wealth that they had taken from the conducted the first wave of persecu- poor—the early popes typically led tions against Christians. lives of poverty. As for the Christians as Over the next two-and-a-half a whole, it seems that persecution centuries, Rome treated its Christian made them more sincere in charity and minority mercilessly: for instance, love, concepts taught by Christ, and Christians were fed to lions while indeed it would be hard to find a class

10 Middle Ages: Almanac This painting, The Apparition of the Cross to Constantine, by Giulio Romano, depicts the event that persuaded Constantine to convert to Christianity. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. of people more heroic than the early tober 28, A.D. 312, he saw a cross in Christian martyrs (MAR-turz) who sac- the sky superimposed over Greek rificed their lives for their faith. words meaning “In this sign [you shall] conquer.” He won the battle and The age of Constantine accepted Christianity. Rome may have lost its will to Constantine’s version of the rule the world, but it did not die easi- Christian faith, however, was mixed ly. From the late 200s to the early with a heavy dose of the old-time 300s, the empire recovered under the Roman religion, and as emperor he re- leadership of Diocletian (die-oh-KLEE- mained high priest of the pagan gods. shun; ruled A.D. 284–305) and later Nonetheless, under his rule, Christian- Constantine. Diocletian was the last ity became not only legal, but socially emperor to persecute Christians. Con- acceptable. At the same time church stantine later claimed that before leaders, seeing the advantages of going into battle at the Milvian Bridge working with the Roman system along the River Tiber (TY-bur) on Oc- rather than against it, eased restric-

The Fall of the Roman Empire 11 tions against Christians taking part in tians, by contrast, believed that God public life. the Father and God the Son (Jesus) were one and the same being. Arian- Meanwhile more and more ism had by then gained a number of people converted to the new religion, converts, particularly in Greece and and this rising popularity—combined Egypt. In response, the 220 bishops at with imperial support and the church’s the Council of Nicaea declared Arian- new openness to participation in polit- ism a heresy (HAIR-uh-see)—a belief ical affairs—soon gave Christians con- that went against the Christian faith. siderable power. Many church leaders The bishops also adopted the Nicene used their influence to foster the prin- (ny-SEEN) Creed, a form of which is ciples of brotherhood and tolerance still recited in churches today: “We be- taught by Jesus, but many others lieve in one God, the Father Almighty, seemed eager to turn the tables on the maker of all things visible or invisible; pagans who had mistreated them for and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son so long. Indeed, in many cases, the for- of God, begotten ... not made....” merly persecuted Christians them- selves became persecutors. One of Nicaea was the first ecumenical their most notable victims was Hypatia (ek-yoo-MIN-i-kul) council, a meeting (hy-PAY-shuh; A.D. 370–415), the only of all believers at which church leaders known female philosopher of ancient established the official Christian posi- times, who in 415 was brutally at- tion on a variety of issues. In the view tacked and killed by a group of “Chris- of Constantine and later church lead- tians” opposed to her pagan teachings. ers, in order for Christianity to survive and grow, there could be no diversity of Constantine made a number opinion. Gradually the church began to of valuable contributions to early call itself “catholic,” which means uni- Christianity, particularly by linking versal. Indeed, for many centuries the the power of the church with the church would maintain a semblance of power of the state—in this case, the unity, though in fact there were many Roman government. He also called an varieties of Christianity. extremely important conference of Constantine in his later years Christian bishops, who met in the city placed his stamp all over Christianity of Nicaea (nie-SEE-uh) in Asia Minor and the medieval world. Adapting a in 325 to discuss a problem that type of Roman building called the threatened to destroy Christian unity basilica (buh-SIL-i-kuh), he made its at the very moment of triumph. open floor plan a model for church de- A Greek named Arius (AR-ee- sign that is still used today. He also es- uhs; c. A.D. 250–337) had been preach- tablished the city of Constantinople ing that God was separate from all of (kahn-stan-ti-NOH-pul), which became his creation—and that Christ was one the capital of the Eastern Roman Em- of those creations; this idea came to pire. Realizing that the empire had be- be called Arianism. Mainstream Chris- come too big to control from one city,

12 Middle Ages: Almanac in 330 he established a second capital at a Greek city formerly called Byzan- tium (bi-ZAN-tee-um). Thus he re- stored the empire for a time, but he could not arrest its steady decline. By The Romans had their own num- the mid-300s, the threat to Rome’s bor- ber system, quite unlike the nu- ders had become too severe to ignore. merals (1, 2, 3, etc.) used throughout the world today. The symbols included: I = 1 The fall of Rome V = 5 (c. 350–476) X = 10 The ultimate source of Rome’s L = 50 downfall lay many centuries and C = 100 many thousands of miles away. When D = 500 the Chinese began building their Great M = 1,000 Wall in 221 B.C. to keep out barbarian All other numbers were created invaders, they displaced a number of by combinations of these seven numbers; nomadic peoples who had long threat- for example, the numbers from 1 to 10 ened them from the north. Among are: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X. From these were the Hsiung-Nu (shung- 11 to 20, the pattern repeated, but with NOO), a group of extremely able an X at the front, standing for 10: XI, XII, horsemen and warriors. The Hsiung- XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX, XX. Nu began moving westward, leaving a trail of death and destruction as they went. The first Europeans unfortunate enough to cross their paths in the A.D. 300s gave them a new name: Huns. A German group known as the For more than a century, the very began moving southeastward in word “Hun” was a synonym for terror. the A.D. 200s, and as they did, they split into two groups. The eastern Meanwhile, a number of other Goths or Ostrogoths settled in what is tribal groups emerged in Europe. There now , and the western Goths were the Gauls, or Celts (KELTZ), who or Visigoths put down roots in north- lived in what is now France and the eastern Greece and modern-day Ro- British Isles. Farther east and north mania. No one knew it then, but these were other groups, so many that the two tribes would become key players Romans had long before given up try- in the chain of events that brought ing to distinguish between them. They about the fall of Rome. all seemed to have blond hair and blue eyes; therefore the Romans called Though the Romans called them by a word that, in the Latin lan- them barbarians and thought of them guage, meant “related”: Germanus. as uncivilized, in fact the Goths had a

The Fall of the Roman Empire 13 that point, Rome had seldom willing- ly allowed barbarian tribes inside its borders; but Valens agreed to let them in if they would surrender their weapons and give up their children as hostages. The Romans took advantage of the Visigoths’ desperation to charge them outrageous prices for food—a loaf of bread, for instance, went for ten pounds of —and sold most of the Visigoths’ children into slavery. Because the Visigoths were rel- atively peaceful and civilized—though that would change in time—the Ro- mans’ treatment of them was particu- larly cruel. This says a great deal about the moral character of the Romans; so too does the fact that the Visigoths were able to bribe Roman officials into letting them keep their weapons. In the end, the Visigoths revolted, and began overrunning the region, burn- ing and looting as they went. The Great Wall of China, which the Chinese began building in 221 B.C., was built to repel In 378, Valens lost his life in a barbarian invaders. Reproduced by permission battle with the Visigoths, a battle that of AP/Wide World Photos. according to one historian was the worst Roman defeat in nearly six hun- great respect for Roman civilization. dred years. The victory of the Gothic They seemed to understand that the cavalry also marked the beginning of Roman Empire was on the decline, medieval military tactics: whereas foot and they hoped to preserve what was soldiers (or infantry) had dominated for best about Rome. Thus it was a partic- more than a millennium, horsemen ular tragedy when, in 372, the Huns would now control the battlefield. crossed the Volga River and attacked the Ostrogoths. They then moved The Visigoths sack Rome westward and dealt the Visigoths a It was the beginning of the end harsh blow as well. for Rome. Theodosius (ruled 379–395) The Visigoths begged the was the last emperor to rule a united Roman emperor Valens (VAY-luhnz; realm; thereafter the Eastern Roman ruled 364–378) for permission to cross Empire would chart a separate course. the Danube into the empire. Up to Among Theodosius’s generals was a

14 Middle Ages: Almanac Augustine and the City of God

One of the greatest minds of the Middle Ages, and indeed in Western histo- ry, was the theologian and church leader Augustine (aw-GUS-tin; 354–430). Raised in North Africa, he experimented with loose lifestyles and the Manichaean faith, an obscure Persian religion that viewed all existence as a battle between good and evil, before embracing Christianity in 386. Later he became bishop at the Mediter- ranean port city of Hippo, now part of northeastern . Augustine wrote a number of important books, including the Confessions and De civitate Dei, or the City of God. The former, the world’s first autobi- Augustine. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis ography, was a deeply personal work, Corporation. whereas the latter discussed the whole his- tory of the world. true. The Visigoths were a punishment Augustine wrote the City of God from the Christian God for the Romans’ after the Visigoths sacked Rome in 410. continued sinfulness. He then went on to This event was far more devastating than outline a number of ideas that would be- the actual end of the Western Roman Em- come essential to medieval European pire sixty-six years later, and wise men thought. The world was divided into two throughout the Roman world looked for groups, he wrote: the city or society of reasons why it had happened. They did not people who were loyal to God on the one try to provide a military or political expla- hand, and those loyal to earthly exis- nation, as modern analysts would; in a tence—which was the same thing as loyal- fashion more typical of premodern people, ty to Satan—on the other. The City of they saw the event purely in religious God, as he called the first group, was des- terms. The gods of Rome, many claimed, tined to triumph over the City of Man. were angry at the Romans for turning away This idea provided a basis for later claims from them in favor of Christianity. by the popes that the church, as the City Not so, claimed Augustine in the of God, should dominate the state, or the City of God; in fact, quite the opposite was City of Man.

The Fall of the Roman Empire 15 tribe that, following their defeat by the Visigoths in Constantine’s time, had requested and received permis- sion to settle within the empire. Stili- cho himself had proven such an able commander and administrator that he essentially ruled the Western Roman Empire, and he was able to repel an earlier attack by Alaric. However, a rival managed to convince the reign- ing emperor that Stilicho was a traitor, and he was executed in 408—two years before Alaric’s troops returned. The Romans tried to bribe Alar- ic, who had surrounded the city and cut off all food supplies. For a time, Alaric considered it, but in the end he invaded the city. For three days in Au- gust 410, Rome experienced a terror it had not known since the Gauls’ inva- sion exactly eight hundred years be- fore. The Visigoths and their army, which included Huns and runaway Attila, leader of the Huns, spread fear Roman slaves, looted, burned, and throughout Western Europe, though Pope killed, virtually destroying the city. Leo I was able to convince him not to attack Rome. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Later a rumor would spread Corporation. that the Visigoths had destroyed Rome because they were pagans and resented Rome’s acceptance of Christianity. brilliant Visigoth king named Alaric This rumor helped bring about one of (AL-uh-rik; c. 370–410). After Theodo- the most important books of the Mid- sius died, Alaric turned against Rome. dle Ages (see box, “Augustine and the To protect themselves against City of God”), but it was not true: the invasion, the Romans had moved Visigoths were Christians, though they their capital from Rome itself to subscribed to the Arian heresy. They Ravenna, a city in northeastern Italy even spared the Church of St. Peter, surrounded by marshes. Yet Rome still center of the pope’s authority. remained the center of the Western world, and one of its greatest defend- ers was a “barbarian” named Stilicho Huns and Vandals (STIL-i-koh; c. 365–408). Stilicho’s Certain barbarian leaders, de- people were the Vandals, a Germanic spite their reputations for cruelty and

16 Middle Ages: Almanac ruthlessness, had an odd respect for religion—including the religions of other peoples. Certainly that was true of the Huns, particularly their leader, Attila (c. 400–453). For a few years in the mid-400s, Attila held Western Eu- rope in terror, and when he invaded Gaul in 448, it looked as though he were poised to deal the Roman Empire a fatal blow. A combined force of Romans and barbarians actually scored a mili- tary victory over Attila—Rome’s last— in 451, but in the following year he ap- peared with his troops right outside Rome itself. However, he allowed Pope Leo I, or Leo the Great (ruled 440–461), to talk him out of attacking. This inci- dent was an example of how much po- litical authority the church could wield, establishing an important pat- tern for later popes. Attila withdrew and died a year later, and after that the Huns faded into the larger European , leader of the Vandals, led a population. Only the name of the devastating attack on Rome in 455, contributing greatly to the fall of the Roman country where they briefly settled in Empire. Reproduced by permission of Archive the early 400s, Hungary, serves as a re- Photos, Inc. minder that they existed. In the time between Alaric and grown. For a time, the Romans were Attila, Western Europe had been rav- able to bribe Gaiseric, but in 455 his aged by a new threat, the formerly forces sailed across the Mediterranean peaceable Vandals. Impressed by Alar- for Rome itself. This time Pope Leo ic’s victories, the Vandals and other could not convince the invaders to tribes plundered and pillaged their turn away: they devastated Rome, and way through Gaul and into Spain. By ever since, the term “vandal” has been 429, they had crossed the Mediter- used to describe a destructive person. ranean Sea and landed in North Africa, which had been under Roman control for centuries. Led by Gaiseric (GY-zu-rik; ruled 428–477), they The final hours quickly subdued the fertile coast, The Western Roman Empire where most of Rome’s food was was in its final hours, and after the

The Fall of the Roman Empire 17 Vandals, it was just a matter of time For More Information before it caved in completely. Rome itself, once home to some 1.5 mil- Books lion people, had shrunk to one-fifth Bardi, Piero. The Atlas of the Classical World: Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Illustra- that size, and it would be more than tions by Matteo Chesi, et al. New York: a thousand years before another Peter Bedrick Books, 1997, pp. 34–59. Western European city grew larger Burrell, Roy. First . New than ancient Rome. A parade of lead- York: Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. ers, each more forgettable than the 206–315. one before, gained control of the Caselli, Giovanni. The Roman Empire and the empire’s remains; then in 475 a gen- Dark Ages. New York: P. Bedrick Press, eral named Orestes (ohr-ES-teez) 1985. placed his son on the throne with Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient the imposing title of Romulus Au- and Medieval World, Volume 8: Christian- ity and Islam. New York: Marshall gustulus. Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1015–32. Around the same time, a new Martell, Hazel Mary. The Kingfisher Book of the wave of German invaders swarmed Ancient World. New York: Kingfisher, 1995, pp. 76–87. over the Italian Peninsula. When Orestes refused to give them one-third Severy, Merle, editor. The Age of Chivalry. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic of Italy, they replaced his son with Society, 1969, pp. 13–42. their own elected leader, Odoacer (oh- doh-AY-sur; c. 433–493). Thus the Western Roman Empire came to an Web Sites end on August 23, 476. At the time, “EAWC: Ancient Rome.” Exploring Ancient however, few perceived the event as World Cultures. [Online] Available http:// eawc.evansville.edu/ropage.htm (last ac- particularly significant. cessed 28, 2000). Odoacer sent a message to Imperium Romanorum. [Online] Available Zeno (ruled 474–491), ruler of the http://wwwtc.nhmccd.cc.tx.us/people/ crf01/rome/ (last accessed July 28, 2000). Eastern Roman Empire—thenceforth the Byzantine Empire—promising that Roman Emperors: De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online of Roman Emper- Zeno would have the title of ruler over ors. [Online] Available http://www.salve. the West as well if he would allow edu/~romanemp/startup.htm (last ac- Odoacer to govern in his place. Zeno cessed July 28, 2000). had no reason to refuse, and no power Roman Sites—Gateway to 1,849 Websites on in Italy to back him up, so he accept- Ancient Rome. [Online] Available http:// ed. To many it seemed as though the www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ ancient_rome/E/Roman/RomanSites*/ empire had been reunited, not de- home.html (last accessed July 28, 2000). stroyed; but in fact Odoacer ruled Italy Rome Resources. [Online] Available http:// as a kingdom entirely separate from www.dalton.org/groups/rome/ (last ac- the Byzantine Empire. cessed July 28, 2000).

18 Middle Ages: Almanac The Merovingian Age 3

estern Europe includes what is now Germany and Italy, Wthe countries between them such as and Austria, and lands to the west, including France, Britain, and Spain. At the beginning of medieval times, however, few of these nations existed; only during the course of the Early Mid- dle Ages (c. 500–c. 1000) would they emerge from the ruins of the Western Roman Empire. The first half of the Early Middle Ages began with great unrest, as barbarian tribes swept over the region. Only the Catholic Church served to provide the area with a unifying culture. The church would in turn lend its support to one of those tribes, whose royal dynasty would give a name to an entire era: the Merovingian Age (481–751).

Dividing up Western Europe (400s–500s) Europe in the late 400s and early 500s was a confusing mass of tribes, mostly Germanic (i.e., from a group of related tribes in northern Europe) and mostly moving westward and southward. More than a few of these peoples gave their names to regions and entire nations, names that would long outlast

19 Words to Know: The Merovingian Age

Abstract art: Painting or other artwork that Nomadic: Wandering. shows forms or designs, but does not Nun: The female equivalent of a monk, who represent objects as they really appear. lives in a nunnery, convent, or abbey. Aristocracy: The richest and most powerful Order: An organized religious community members of society. within the Catholic Church. Ascetic: A person who renounces all earth- Papal: Referring to the pope. ly pleasures as part of his or her search Purgatory: A place of punishment after for religious understanding. death where, according to Roman Canonization: Formal declaration of a de- Catholic beliefs, a person who has not ceased person as a saint. been damned may work out their salva- Cloister: A monastery, or sometimes the tion and earn their way to heaven. inner part of a monastery. Relic: An object associated with the saints of the New Testament, or the martyrs of Convent: A dwelling in which nuns live. the early church. Dialect: A regional variation on a language. Representational art: Artwork intended to Divine: Godlike. show a specific subject as it really ap- Dynasty: A group of people, often but not pears, whether a human figure, land- always a family, who continue to hold a scape, still life, or a variation on these. position of power over a period of time. Rome: A term sometimes used to refer to Excommunicate: To banish someone from the papacy. the church. Serf: A peasant subject to a feudal system and possessing no land. Illumination: Decoration of a manuscript with elaborate designs. Trial by ordeal: A system of justice in which the accused (and sometimes the accuser Manorialism: An early form of feudalism as well) has to undergo various physical that lasted from the late Roman Empire hardships in order to prove innocence. into the Merovingian age. Tribal: Describes a society, sometimes no- Monastery: A place in which monks live. madic, in which members are organized Monasticism: The tradition and practices by families and clans, not by region, and of monks. in which leadership comes from warrior- Monk: A man who leaves the outside chieftains. world to take religious vows and live in a : A type of country estate in Roman monastery, practicing a lifestyle of deny- times; more generally, any kind of large, ing earthly pleasures. wealthy estate.

20 Middle Ages: Almanac N Invasion Source of invasion

ANGLES HUNS SWABIANS SAXONS ATLANTIC S K N OCEAN A R F HU NS OSTROGOTHS C a s VANDALS p i VISIGOTHS a NS LOMBARDS n ABIA SW O S c k S e a e S l a T B a R OTHS O SIG G VI Rome O TH S

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a miles 0 250 500

0 250 500 kilometers

A map of Western Europe, c. A.D. 500, showing the movements of the various tribes across the continent. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group. the tribes themselves. Though the 774. As for the Franks, they settled in Western Roman Empire was finished, Gaul—which, because of them, would out of its collapse would come many thenceforth be known as France. beginnings. The Franks in time dropped Such was the case, for instance, their Germanic language and adopted with the Burgundians, for whom a re- Latin, which would emerge as a local gion—later to emerge as an important dialect and then as a full-fledged lan- French kingdom—was named. They guage, French. Before the Franks and came in the 400s, only to be subdued by before the Romans, however, Gaul had the powerful Franks, another Germanic been controlled by the Celts, a group tribe, in 534. And there were the Lom- whose language had little relation to bards, who in the 500s stormed out of either Latin or German. Celts had Eastern Europe and into the part of Italy spread from the European continent to that came to be known as . the isle of Britain, where they came to They, too, succumbed to the Franks in be known as Britons; and beyond

The Merovingian Age 21 tended some seventy-three miles across what is now Scotland and was designed to keep out a native Scottish people called the Picts. The Picts overran it several times, however, and threatened to do so again after the Romans perma- nently withdrew their legions in 410 to protect Rome itself from the Visig- oths—another failed project. By then the Britons had be- come Romanized and had accepted the Christian religion. They saw themselves as the last line of defense between civi- lization and barbarism. To assist their defense against the Picts, one of the Britons’ leaders asked the help of three Germanic tribes—the Angles, the Sax- ons, and the Jutes—living in what is now northern Germany and Denmark. But once they arrived, the re- alized how defenseless the natives were, so they simply took over the island.

Hadrian’s Wall, built between A.D. 122 and Today the greater part of 128, stretches across some seventy-three Britain is named England after the An- miles of Scotland. Reproduced by permission of gles, and the term “Anglo-Saxon” is the Corbis Corporation. used to describe persons of English de- scent. The German invaders’ language, Britain to , where the Celtic lan- which completely replaced the Britons’ guage of Gaelic is still spoken today. Celtic tongue, ultimately became Eng- lish, or rather . An English- speaker today would have trouble rec- Britain becomes England ognizing Old English, yet modern When Rome added Britain to English maintains many words from its empire in the first century A.D., the distant past—usually short, highly Roman power had seemed limitless. Yet direct terms such as “hit” or “gold.” it was in Britain that the emperor Hadrian (ruled 117–138) had given physical form to the idea that Rome’s power did indeed have limits: Hadri- Barbarian kingdoms of Western an’s Wall. Built between 122 and 128 Europe and possibly inspired by travelers’ tales To varying degrees, the Ger- of the Great Wall of China, the wall ex- mans of Western Europe were true bar-

22 Middle Ages: Almanac barians. In place of Rome’s highly so- phisticated system of justice, they practiced trial by ordeal (see box, “Trial by Ordeal”). They had turned Trial by Ordeal from their own brand of paganism to The system of law practiced by Christianity; but they possessed little the Germanic tribes of Europe in the 400s concept of Christian mercy or kind- and 500s often demanded trial by ordeal. ness. This meant that in order to prove his in- More advanced were the Visi- nocence, the accused had to walk over goths in Spain, who chased out the hot coals, stand with his arms out- Vandals in the mid-400s and estab- stretched for long hours, or endure some lished a kingdom that would rule other form of torture. If the person was until the arrival of the Moors in 711. innocent, the logic went, he would be The Visigoths adopted Latin and, like able to withstand these pains. the Franks, developed their own di- Sometimes the reasoning was alect. This became the foundation for even more twisted—and deadly. In some one of the most widely spoken lan- scenarios, the accused would be bound guages today: Spanish. hand and foot and thrown into a river. A Meanwhile in Italy, the Ostro- priest prayed that the water would reject goths under Theodoric (c. 454–526) the evildoer, meaning that if a person invaded, killed Odoacer, and briefly drowned, he was innocent. Those who established the most advanced of the survived, on the other hand, were early barbarian kingdoms. Raised with guilty—and therefore were executed. An- a profound respect for Roman civiliza- other form of ordeal was trial by combat. tion, Theodoric tried to preserve what Accused and accuser underwent hand-to- was best about Rome. To do this, he hand combat, and whoever survived was kept his own people separate from the judged the innocent party. The only ad- Romans, and put Romans in charge of vantage to this system was that it proba- Italy’s civil administration while his bly kept down the number of false or own forces oversaw the military. Not petty accusations. long after Theodoric’s death, however, Byzantine armies would eliminate the Ostrogoth kingdom. would establish the first significant The Byzantines, as it turned Western European kingdom of the out, were unable to hold on to Italy, Middle Ages, the Merovingian (mair- which succumbed to the Lombards a oh-VIN-jee-un) dynasty. few years later. Italy would never again be the center of power in Europe that it had once been; that center had The church shifted northward, to what is now The north was on the rise, but France and Germany. There the Franks Italy still had a few things going for

The Merovingian Age 23 Peter and Paul would have been shocked to see this alignment between the church they had helped establish and the empire that had killed them; but much had changed in the five cen- turies since their time. The Bible’s New Testament had referred to all Christians as “saints,” but by the A.D. 100s, believers in Rome and elsewhere had come to recognize certain figures as special. These people were canonized, or for- mally declared as saints, and thence- forth referred to as such—for example, “St. Peter.” By the year 1000, there were more than 25,000 saints. The saints would eventually come to be worshiped in their own right, complete with pictures and stat- ues representing them, a practice that recalled Roman paganism. Just as there had been a god assigned to near- St. George, patron saint of England, is ly every town and every profession— usually depicted as he is here: on horseback, for instance, Vulcan was the god of slaying a dragon. Reproduced by permission of blacksmiths—now there was a patron the Corbis Corporation. saint for each. Later, as nations emerged during the High Middle Ages, each would have its own patron saint; it—in fact, two big things. There was for instance, St. George was England’s the legacy of the Roman Empire on the patron saint. one hand, and on the other hand the spiritual empire of Christianity, led by the pope. Thanks to Constantine, the The identity of Jesus Christ church had become tied to the Western Belief in saints as intercessors, Roman Empire, and with the fall of the or go-betweens for God and people, latter, popes had increasingly taken on arose in part because of church teach- the Roman emperors’ role as leaders of ings that encouraged believers to Western Europe. Popes drew their think of God as so holy and so pure power in part from the influence of that no sinner could dare approach Christianity, but to a perhaps greater him directly in prayer. The Old Testa- extent from the thousand-year influ- ment had taught the same thing; but ence of Rome. No doubt the apostles according to the New Testament,

24 Middle Ages: Almanac Jesus, as God’s son, was humankind’s worship, allowing her to be linked intercessor. The early Church, howev- with pagan mother goddesses such as er, placed heavy emphasis on the fact the Greeks’ Artemis or the Romans’ that Jesus was God, and therefore . The worship of Mary, still prac- downplayed the intercessor role. ticed in some parts of the world today, gained force during the High Middle This emphasis arose in re- Ages. It should be said, however, that sponse to heresies such as Arianism for the most part the church did not (the belief that Jesus Christ was not officially encourage Mary-worship: as God) and . A Persian with the saints, it was a practice that priest named Nestorius (died 451), who arose from the people, and the church became bishop at Constantinople, had merely sought to make a place for it. declared that Jesus had two separate identities, one human and one divine. The Council of (EF-uh-sus) in 431 declared Nestorianism a heresy, Monasticism but the belief found many adherents in The 500s saw the appearance of the East—most notably the Far East, two key figures in church history. The where it established a firmer foothold first was Benedict (c. 480–547), who es- than any other branch of Christianity. tablished the tradition of monasticism (moh-NAS-ti-sizm), or the life of In 451, the Council of Chal- monks, men who leave the outside cedon (KAL-suh-dahn) declared that world to live in a monastery or cloister. Jesus had two natures, both human There had been monks before Bene- and divine, in one. This became the ac- dict, and indeed the idea of the ascetic cepted position of western Christiani- (uh-SET-ik)—someone who gives up ty; but the Monophysites (muh-NAH- comfort to pursue spiritual wisdom—is fu-zytz) in the Middle East, reacting to an old one. Before Benedict, however, Nestorianism, began preaching that monks and ascetics were inclined Christ was only divine and not human to be undisciplined, practicing what at all. This led the pope to excommuni- amounted to self-torture. Benedict cate, or banish from the church, most called for an end to such excesses. believers in that region. Whole branch- In 529, Benedict and his fol- es of Christianity, most notably the Ar- lowers demolished a pagan temple to menian and Coptic (Egyptian) church- build Monte Cassino, a high moun- es, split with Rome for good. tain retreat where they established the Jesus had become so removed Benedictine (ben-uh-DIK-teen) Order. from humanity that now Christians Not only were they the first true order needed an intercessor to go to him, of monks, and one that exists today, and the Council of Ephesus named the were the first to re- one: Mary, mother of Jesus. In declar- quire that their members swear vows. ing Mary “Mother of God,” the Coun- Thus a man wanting to become a cil set her up as a potential figure of monk would live in the monastery,

The Merovingian Age 25 Monte Cassino was built by Benedict and his followers in 529. The Benedictine Order was the first true order of monks, and it still exists today. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

enduring all kinds of hardships; then winter and two in summer when days if he chose to go on, after a time he were longer; to speak only when nec- would take the vows. Among the essary; to walk with their eyes turned things monks vowed to give up were to the ground; not to joke or laugh; sex, laughter, and possessions. They and to let their sleep be interrupted agreed to eat only one meal a day in for prayer.

26 Middle Ages: Almanac Benedictine spread throughout Europe; meanwhile, the tradition of nuns and convents devel- oped for women who chose to take vows of poverty and chastity. Accord- ing to legend, the first convent was founded by Benedict’s twin sister, Scholastica, near Monte Cassino in 530. Whatever the case, the first order of nuns was the Benedictine, and soon there were as many nuns as there were monks. Over the centuries that fol- lowed, these men and women would serve as a symbol of Christian meek- ness and kindness, often providing shelter and care for the poor. And at about the same time Benedict founded his order, another group of monks did nothing less than preserve Western civ- ilization (see box, “How the Monks Saved Civilization”).

Gregory the Great This image depicts the , the cup Another key figure in early Jesus drank from the night before he was medieval Christianity was Pope Gre- crucified. This religious relic has never been gory I (the Great; ruled 590–604). Gre- found. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. gory’s name is today associated with Gregorian chants, a type of prayerful singing in Latin with minor variations ular beliefs. But that did not stop Gre- in tone, performed by Benedictine gory from asserting, for instance, that monks throughout the Middle Ages. eyesight could be restored by contact Though he did not invent the chants, with a set of chains supposedly used Gregory ordered that they be written to imprison Peter and Paul. As the down for future use. Middle Ages went on, relics abounded, In his writings, Gregory ap- none more venerated than the Holy proved of the veneration, or admira- Grail and the “True Cross.” The for- tion, of relics. Like belief in the saints, mer was the cup from which Jesus the idea that an object could be sacred drank on the night before his crucifix- because of its association with Jesus or ion, the latter the cross on which he the saints had little to do with the was killed. Despite many claims to the Bible, and everything to do with pop- contrary, neither was ever found.

The Merovingian Age 27 How the Monks Saved Civilization

One popular misconception con- Ireland was converted to Christiani- cerning the Middle Ages is the idea that the ty by St. Patrick in the 400s, and in the fol- church squelched learning, which it associ- lowing century, monks began arriving on ated with the pagan societies of Greece the British Isles from continental Europe. and Rome. Quite the opposite is true. With The first major monastic settlement in the the Roman Empire gone and the barbarian area was founded by the Irish missionary tribes threatening to extinguish the candle St. Columba (c. 521–597) at Iona, off the of civilization, only the church kept it lit. coast of Scotland, in 563. Monks from the Iona community in turn founded Lindis- Much of that light came from farne off the coast of England in 634. The Rome, of course, but Rome itself was threat- latter community would become famous ened when the Lombards invaded Italy in for the Lindisfarne Gospels, and Iona be- 568. Around the same time, a group of came famous for the Book of Kells. Both monks traveled to the farthest reaches of were gorgeously illuminated manuscripts. the Western world—the British Isles. There, in dank, cold monasteries on the harsh The communities of Iona and Lind- coasts of the North Sea and the Atlantic, isfarne were destroyed by the last great they copied down the Bible and early wave of Germanic barbarians in the Middle church writings. But they did not simply Ages, the Vikings, in the 790s. Many of the copy; the books they produced were works monks left before the Vikings arrived; in any of art in themselves, with lavishly illuminat- case, they and their brethren had managed ed lettering that served to illustrate the fact to keep learning alive during the darkest that to these scholars, words were sacred. years of the Middle Ages.

Eventually the stature of the op; gradually the pope became not popes would become such that they just the spiritual, but the political created relics of their own, making leader of Western Europe. water or oil “holy” simply by praying over them. By that time, the pope was Gregory reinforced the the most powerful man in Christen- church’s power by teaching that the dom (KRIS-in-dum), or the Christian Bible was a difficult book that required world, and for that, too, later popes interpretation by those trained to do had Gregory to thank. Under his so: priests and other leaders of the shrewd leadership, the papacy became church. A version of the Bible had firmly established as something much been translated by St. Jerome (c. more than the office of Rome’s bish- 347–c. 419), and its name, the Vul-

28 Middle Ages: Almanac gate, a term referring to the language spoken by common people, implied that it was meant to be understood by the masses. The Vulgate, however, was in Latin, a language that had long since been replaced by local dialects for everyday use. Yet it remained strong as a written language, and vir- tually every educated person in early medieval Europe understood Latin. The problem was that hardly anyone, outside of a tiny minority within the church, was educated: for many cen- turies, even most kings were illiterate. Eventually people had no idea of what the Bible said, and the church actively discouraged believers from attempting to read the Scriptures. Finally, from Augustine’s writ- ings Gregory adopted the idea of Pur- gatory, a place for people who were too good to go to Hell, but had not quite made it to Heaven. He took this concept and added to it, suggesting that the loved ones of a deceased per- son pray for his or her soul. By the 1000s, the concept of Purgatory had become firmly established.

The Merovingians (481–751) An earlier Frankish king gave Clovis, a Frankish king who ruled from 481 his name to a dynasty that emerged to 511, was the greatest ruler of the among the Franks in the 400s, the . Reproduced by Merovingians, but Clovis (ruled permission of the Corbis Corporation. 481–511) was its first important king. By accepting mainstream Christianity He was also the only notable in 496, he gained the support both of Merovingian ruler. This was because Rome (that is, the pope and the Clovis, like many German chieftains, Church) and of powerful local priests. believed that a king should divide his

The Merovingian Age 29 realm equally between all his sons in- stead of passing it on to the firstborn. While this was a generous idea, in Merovingian Art practice it meant that a kingdom’s power would be diluted quickly. Ancient Greek and Roman artists had tried to depict human beings and Nonetheless, the Merovingians other subjects as accurately as possible, were important in a number of regards. and representational art became amaz- Under Clovis, they conquered much of ingly precise. Then as Rome began to de- what is now France—formerly home to cline in the A.D. 200s, so did Roman por- the Burgundians and Visigoths, as well trayals of the human figure. Faces and as other Frankish tribes—and western bodies began to look all the same, and Germany. With the support of Rome, artists’ depictions of people looked more they were able to establish themselves and more primitive. as a stronghold of Christianity, a fact that became more important with the With the rise of the Merovingians rise of Islam in the 600s. This papal- after Rome’s fall, art took a sharp turn royal alliance set the tone for the Mid- away from representation and toward ab- dle Ages. In the realm of the arts, the stract images. It was as though Merovin- Merovingians were also trailblazers (see gian artists realized that they had lost the box, “Merovingian Art”). ability to accurately represent subjects, so they moved in the opposite direction, producing gorgeous designs with only Manorialism limited representative quality. The Franks adopted few as- The artwork itself may have been pects of and administra- abstract, but the objects produced by the tive rule, but they did maintain one Merovingians—belt buckles, decorative significant link with a late Roman pins for fastening clothing—were decid- practice. When Roman power was edly practical. Much Merovingian art was fading and the people could no intended to be portable, reflecting their longer look to the legions, or army, still somewhat unsettled lifestyle, but the for protection, they had turned to Merovingians also made a significant the owners of large , or country contribution to architecture by introduc- estates, who controlled private ing the idea of a church tower. armies. The serfs gathered their Monks in Merovingian France illuminated dwellings around the villa in what manuscripts and developed an elegant came to be called villages. type of lettering called majuscule (MAJ- Villas were also known as uh-skyool). manors (source of the word “man- sion”), and the Frankish version of the late Roman system came to be known as manorialism (muh-NOHR-ee-ul- izm). Under manorialism, large num-

30 Middle Ages: Almanac bers of serfs became dependent on a large landowner for protection. A serf was like a peasant, a farmer with a small plot of land; but serfs, whose name comes from the same root as “serve,” were more like slaves. The manorial system provided the framework for feudalism. This sys- tem helped bring an end to the Merovingians as power shifted from Merovingian kings to the Frankish aristocracy, who exerted influence through the office of majordomo.

The house of Charles Martel Today the term majordomo, meaning “ of the palace,” refers to someone who takes charge in place of another, which is essen- tially what the majordomos did. The later Merovingian kings lived lives of pleasure, and could hardly be both- Charles Martel was a great leader of the ered to run their kingdoms, but the Frankish kingdom during the Merovingian majordomos were more than happy to Age, and it was his grandson, Charlemagne, assume that job—and the authority who gave his name to the next great that went with it. dynasty: the Carolingians. Reproduced by permission of Archive Photos, Inc. This was particularly true of the greatest majordomo, Charles Mar- tel (c. 688–741). Martel, which meant south: the Moors, Muslims who had “hammer”—thus suggesting Charles’s conquered Spain and were ready to power—was not a family name, or sur- take over France. Had the Moors suc- name; the custom of would ceeded in their invasion of France, not arise until centuries later. Under which they began in 719, Europe his leadership, beginning in 714, the might be quite different today; as it kingdom withstood invasions by the was, a force led by Charles drove back Saxons and (FREE-zhunz), a the Muslims at Tours (TOOR) in 732. Germanic people from what is now Given his vital role in the Frankish Holland. leadership, it is not surprising that Even more significant was his Charles judged it was time for his fam- defense against invaders from the ily to take full control.

The Merovingian Age 31 Severy, Merle, editor. The Age of Chivalry. For More Information Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Books Society, 1969, pp. 13–42. Clark, Kenneth. Civilisation: A Personal View. New York: Harper, 1969, pp. 1–32. Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient and Medieval World, Volume 8: Christian- Web Sites ity and Islam. New York: Marshall Book, Manuscript, and Printing History. [On- Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1032–44. line] Available http://historymedren. about.com/education/history/histo- Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient rymedren/msubprint.htm (last accessed and Medieval World, Volume 9: The Mid- July 28, 2000). dle Ages. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1159–64. The Catholic Encyclopedia. [Online] Available Hanawalt, Barbara A. The Middle Ages: An Il- http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ (last lustrated History. New York: Oxford Uni- accessed July 28, 2000). versity Press, 1998. “The Franks.” [Online] Available http://www. Langley, Andrew. Medieval Life. New York: btinternet.com/~mark.furnival/franks.ht Knopf, 1996. m (last accessed July 28, 2000).

32 Middle Ages: Almanac The Carolingian Age 4

hereas the Merovingian Age had begun in turmoil, but W had led to the establishment of Europe’s first stable dy- nasty in centuries, the period from 750 to 1000 started with the establishment of a new dynasty and ended in turmoil. The Carolingians’ magnificent empire seemed to recall that of Rome, but their power largely centered around one man: Charlemagne. Once he was gone, the empire began disinte- grating. Europe faced new terrors as well, not least of which was the last wave of Germanic barbarians: the Vikings. Other invaders came as well, and it seemed that Europe was on the verge of another dark age.

The Carolingian Age (751–987) A turning point in the history both of Western Europe and of church-state relations occurred in 751, when Charles Martel’s son Pepin III (c. 714–768) sent a message to the pope asking if it would be a sin to remove the Merovingian king from power. The pope, who needed Frankish help to defend against the Lombards, sent word that it would not, where-

33 nasty, the Carolingians (kayr-uh-LINJ- ee-unz). Words to Know: The Carolingian Age The name came from that of Pepin’s son Charles, sometimes known Astronomy: The scientific study of the as Carolus Magnus, meaning “Charles stars and other heavenly bodies, and the Great.” He is better known as their movement in the sky. Charlemagne (SHAR-luh-main; : A lightweight, flexible armor 742–814; ruled 768–814), and he was made of interlocking metal rings. the single most important Western Eu- ropean leader of the Early Middle Ages. Christendom: The Christian world. Under Charlemagne, Western Europe Communion: The Christian ceremony of had something it had not seen for cen- commemorating the last supper of turies: a vibrant, growing empire. Al- Jesus Christ. ready the Frankish territories com- prised most of what is now France and Epic: A long poem that recounts the ad- western Germany, but Charlemagne ventures of a legendary hero. started expanding the boundaries, first Geometry: A type of mathematics deal- by defeating the Saxons to the north ing with various shapes, their proper- in 777. He saw himself as more than a ties, and their measurements. conqueror, however, and with the con- Mace: A club with spikes on the end, typ- quest came the forced conversion of ically used for breaking armor. the Saxons to Christianity. Mead: An intoxicating drink of fermented His father Pepin had already honey, popular among Vikings and dealt the Lombards a harsh blow in 756, other of Northern after which he turned their territories in Europe. eastern Italy over to the church in an act known as the Donation of Pepin. Noble: A ruler within a kingdom who has Thenceforth these were called the Papal an inherited title and lands, but who is States, and would exist as such until the less powerful than the king or queen; 1800s. Charlemagne completed the collectively, nobles are known as the conquest of the Lombards, receiving nobility. their crown as his own in 774. He then Nomadic: Wandering. turned his attention to Spain, where in Vatican: The seat of the pope’s power in 778 he tried unsuccessfully to win back Rome. Muslim-held territories for Christen- dom. Further campaigns resulted in Charlemagne unifying virtually all Ger- man territories, including the kingdom upon Pepin ordered that the last of of in southern Germany. the Merovingians be thrown into a monastery. Thus once again a pope In 794, Charlemagne estab- blessed the establishment of a new dy- lished his capital at (AH-ken;

34 Middle Ages: Almanac North Frankish Kingdom, 732 N Sea Frankish gains, 732–768 Gains under Charlemagne, 768–814

SAXONY Aachen SLAVS miles 0 125 250 FLANDERS Fulda 0 125 250 Mainz kilometers ATLANTIC BRITTANYBRITTANY Paris BOHEMIA OCEAN Tours MORAVIA BAVARIA ALEMANNIA CARINTHIA AVARS FRIULI Milan GASCONY Ravenna Pamplona Roncesvalles Marseilles PATRIMONYPATRIMONY OF ST.ST. PETER UMAYYAD Rome OF CORDOBA Tortosa Barcelona

R E P I E M a n e I N E e d i t e r r a n S e a A N T M B Y Z

A map of Europe showing the territorial gains made under Charlemagne’s rule. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group. in modern-day Germany), a city fa- The Carolingian Renaissance mous for its mineral baths. The year 800 marked the high point of his ca- While in Italy, Charlemagne reer, when he became the first Euro- visited the former imperial capital of pean emperor to visit Rome in three Ravenna, including the Church of San centuries. The Byzantine rulers had Vitale. Built by the Byzantine in- cut themselves off from Rome; there- vaders, the church must have inspired fore Pope Leo III crowned Charle- him, because upon his return to magne Carolus Augustulus, Emperor Aachen, he ordered his architect, Odo of the Romans, on Christmas Day. of , to design a replica. The This was in effect the beginning of chapel at Aachen, as it turned out, was the Holy Roman Empire, which, not an exact reproduction: it was a though it never lived up to its mag- much firmer, less delicate building nificent name, was destined to be- than the original—and thus it helped come a significant part of the Middle establish the essentials of Carolingian Ages. architecture.

The Carolingian Age 35 and laid the groundwork for both Ro- manesque and Gothic architecture. The period of Charlemagne’s rule saw a rebirth in the arts and learn- ing; hence it is sometimes called the “Carolingian Renaissance.” Much of the credit goes to Alcuin (AL-kwin; c. 732–804), an Anglo-Saxon scholar who at Charlemagne’s request became head of the school at Aachen. Surveying the deplorable state of education among the future Carolingian leaders, Alcuin called for a return to the study of Latin and of what the Romans had called the seven liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric (the art of writing and speaking), logic, , geometry, music, and astronomy. Charlemagne himself could barely read and write, yet literacy thrived among the upper classes during his reign. By then parchment, a durable type of paper made from sheepskin, had Charlemagne, who ruled from 768 to 814, come into use. Many of the Greek and was the most significant Western European Roman classics had been saved earlier by ruler of the Early Middle Ages. Reproduced by monks in the British Isles, but Carolin- permission of the Corbis Corporation. gian monks copied so many manuscripts themselves that many took their ver- sions for the originals. The monks had A number of qualities distin- developed the Merovingian majuscule guished the architecture of Carolin- into a highly readable script called mi- gian times from that of the Merovin- nuscule. Later, they created a more gian era, when civilization was still square version of this script that, because by a thread. Merovingian people mistook their manuscripts for buildings were small and boxlike— Roman originals, came to be called like a hut, only bigger and more per- “Roman.” A slanted version of “Roman” manent. Carolingian design, by con- lettering, used at the Vatican, became the trast, incorporated the graceful, open basis for italic—that is, Italian—script. basilica floorplan used by Constan- tine (emperor of the Roman Empire; ruled 310–37). Thus the Carolingians The divided kingdom borrowed Italian concepts for a Charlemagne’s empire did not rougher, hardier northern kingdom, long outlast him. His son Louis the

36 Middle Ages: Almanac Pious succeeded him in 814, but Louis was no Charlemagne, and his rule was marked by quarrels. The Treaty of Ver- dun in 843 arranged for the division Abu al-Abbas of the empire into three parts, one for During Charlemagne’s time, fame each of Louis’s sons. of the great Frankish emperor spread to One son received an area that Arabia, from whence the powerful caliph came to be known as the West Frank- Harun al-Rashid sent him an unusual gift ish Empire, later to become the nation in 802: an elephant called Abu al-Abbas. of France. A second son received what The king and the beast soon became in- was dubbed the East Frankish Empire, separable, and wherever Charlemagne which would unify under the name went on his conquests, Abu went as well. Germany more than a thousand years Abu died in 810, while his master was on later. In between was the “Middle a campaign against the in northern Kingdom,” the inheritance of the Europe. Abu’s tusks were made into other son. This comprised a strip run- pieces. ning from what is now Holland all the way down to Italy. Through inheritance, the lution were knights, heavily armed “Middle Kingdom” would soon be dis- cavalry soldiers who could fight either solved into a patchwork of tiny princi- in massed formations or one on one. palities. The western and eastern em- As such, they represented centuries of pires, by contrast, lasted a bit longer. change and development in society as Descendants of Charlemagne ruled a whole. France until 887, and off and on for In early Merovingian times, all exactly 100 more years; however, the soldiers were more or less the same. real power rested in the hands of vari- Many were farmers who had simply ous feudal lords. Much the same hap- left their fields to fight, and most were pened in the East Frankish Empire, infantrymen, or foot soldiers. This was where in 911 the nobility chose their a pattern that went back to the an- own king from outside the Carolin- cient Greeks. Then in the late 500s, gian line of succession. one of the most important in human history made its appear- ance: the stirrup. Feudalism Actually, a form of stirrup had One of the most important been used in India since before the legacies of the time of Jesus Christ, and perhaps the was feudalism, an economic and polit- Huns picked up the idea as they ical system based on land and loyalty moved across Asia toward Rome. that evolved into a fully defined way Whatever the case, the power of Atti- of life in the 800s. Central to this evo- la’s armies can be attributed in part to

The Carolingian Age 37 the fact that riders were equipped with he had to depend on the nobles with- hanging rings to hold their feet. This in his kingdom. may not sound terribly important, but In early medieval times, all it made all the difference in battle. A wealth was based on land ownership, rider without could use only and the king owned all the land. the strength of his arm to deliver a Below the king were feudal lords, or blow with a sword or ; if he nobles, who were allowed to maintain struck with his full weight, he would estates on the king’s land as long as be thrown from his horse. A soldier they supplied him with a certain firmly anchored in stirrups, by con- amount of knights to defend the king- trast, could strike with his whole dom. The estate was called a fief weight and that of his horse as well. (FEEF), a word that, like feudal, is relat- More than a century after Atti- ed to “fee.” The nobles would in turn la, stirrups—and the types of tactics give knights title to small fiefs of their they permitted—took hold among the own, along with the authority to tax Merovingians. Soldiers began protect- those who lived on the land. ing themselves with armor, typically chain mail, a lightweight, flexible cov- The lowest-ranking people in ering made of interlocking metal feudal society were the serfs, or peas- rings. The first battle using armored ants, by far the largest group. They cavalrymen was probably a fight be- were the ones who worked the land, tween the Franks and Saxons in 626; growing food—most of which they but it was Charles Martel’s victory at turned over to the lords—and paying Tours in 732 over the Muslims (who , which helped maintain knights. had no stirrups) that firmly estab- There were gradations of rank within lished the new technology. the peasantry, with certain types of peasants who acted as foremen over other peasants, but they were all so far below the royalty and nobility that it How the feudal system worked hardly mattered. In return for their To equip a knight was costly: labors, they received protection from not only did he have his armor and outside attack, itself a very real danger his weapons (sword, lance, mace, and in the Middle Ages; but they also tied sometimes ), but he needed themselves and future generations to a more than one horse in case the first life only slightly better than slavery. one was hurt in battle. He also needed a group of servants to assist him, In the medieval world, this along with food for his horses, his ser- arrangement did not seem unfair. Peo- vants, and himself—not to mention ple saw feudalism, if they considered years of freedom from other responsi- it at all, as a system of mutual obliga- bilities in order to train for warfare. tions in which everyone had a place— Not even a king could afford to sup- even the church. Lords provided their port more than a few knights; for this, local church and monastery with pro-

38 Middle Ages: Almanac tection; in return, priests and monks, who had great influence over the peasantry, supported the nobility and the king.

The Vikings (793–c. 1000) Around the time of Charle- magne’s as emperor, just when it seemed that Europe was on the road to safety and unification, yet another great threat appeared from the north. They came from Scandinavia— now , Norway, and Denmark— where the land was rough and rocky, and people lived on the edge of the sea. With the population growing and the land ever more scarce, they began sweeping over Europe, killing and ma- rauding as they went. Frightened Euro- peans called them Northmen, Norse- men, or—using a word from the invaders’ own language—Vikings. This illustration of Duke Rollo of Normandy On , 793, Viking shows an example of chain mail armor. raiders destroyed the church at Lindis- Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. farne off the coast of England—ironi- cally, one of the places where civilized learning had weathered the darkest ing against them. This happened in years of the Middle Ages. In a further Scotland, and again to the south, irony, Lindisfarne, Iona, and other where attacks by the Danes helped scholarly centers now became bases produce the first true hero of English for Viking raids throughout the British history. At first King Alfred (849–899) Isles. The marauders swept through ruled only a small realm called Wessex; Ireland, drawn by the gold and other by 886, however, he had captured the wealth of its monasteries, and estab- city of , and united all English lished colonies on the east coast. lands that were not under Danish con- Among the latter was Dublin, which trol. The Danes were pushed into the later became the Irish capital. northeast of England, which came to The Vikings were particularly be known as the Danelaw; thereafter, savage in their attacks on Britain, so they became landowners and eventu- much so that the natives began unit- ally melted into the population.

The Carolingian Age 39 The Medieval Mind

Western Europeans during the Early to be taken to ensure that a cat or dog did Middle Ages were inclined to believe the not walk across the corpse in the coffin, lest most outlandish ideas, particularly where re- the dear departed turn into a vampire. ligious matters were concerned. For in- Some superstitions have survived from me- stance, they believed Satan was every- dieval times—for instance, saying “bless where; thus one monk wrote that “the you” when someone sneezes, since sneez- whole air is but a thick mass of devils.” An- ing was viewed as an opportunity for a other chronicler told of how a wicked priest demon to enter the body. tried to take sexual advantage of a woman. In place of scientific knowledge, He kissed her with a Communion wafer in people often relied on highly uneducated his mouth, hoping this would win her by af- ideas about cause-and-effect relations. For fection; instead, the wafer caused him to example, people readily accepted an idea suddenly grow so tall he could not leave the that has since come to be known as “spon- church building. He buried the wafer in a taneous generation.” If one were to leave corner of the church, then later dug it up— food out in a room for long enough, it only to find that it had turned into a blood- would of course draw rats; but medieval stained figure of Jesus on the cross. People people, seeing a rat where a piece of who heard this story most likely gave it the cheese had been, reasoned that the cheese same solemn respect that a modern person had actually turned into the rat. They also would for a nightly news report. believed in what was later dubbed “ac- Superstition was an everyday part quired characteristics,” another simple- of life. Immediately after a death in the minded fallacy. According to this notion, if house, for instance, all bowls of water a man lost his right arm in an accident, his would have to be covered so that the loved children would be born missing their right one’s spirit would not drown. Care also had arms as well.

The spread of the Vikings one not nearly as hospitable. Because In 860, Viking sailing they were not worried about people westward found a relatively pleasant overpopulating this area, they gave it and fertile land far beyond England. an inviting name: Greenland. Fearing the overpopulation that had driven them from Scandinavia, they Sailing still farther west, in gave it the discouraging-sounding about 1000 Leif Eriksson landed on name of . Beyond Iceland in what the Vikings called , 982, the Vikings found another land, probably Newfoundland. There they

40 Middle Ages: Almanac did battle with what they called “skraelings”—almost certainly the same people Columbus later mistak- enly identified as Indians. Columbus’s men had guns, whereas the Vikings’ weapons were no more advanced than the war clubs and arrows of the “skraelings.” Therefore the Viking col- onization of the New World was shortlived, and soon forgotten except in legends of Vinland. While some Vikings went west, others went south. From their home- land in Sweden, a group called Varangians in 862 sailed along rivers from the deep into Eastern Europe. Drawn by myths of a rich, gold- en city—perhaps Constantinople—they founded a great city of their own, Nov- gorod, and also established their power in Kiev. The Slavs of the area called the Varangians “Rus,” and eventually Russia became the name of the region. Then there were the Vikings who came to be known as Normans, a corruption of “.” They began moving down the west coast of Europe in the mid-800s, and for the next two centuries battled throughout the western half of the Mediterranean. In 820, another group of Normans set- tled in an area of northwestern France that came to be known as Normandy. They adopted the French language and culture, and in 1066 would launch one of the most significant invasions in history when they conquered England.

Decline of the Vikings By the time the Varangians and A Viking. Reproduced by permission of the New Normans were establishing themselves, York Public Library Picture Collection.

The Carolingian Age 41 (ruled 1016–35), they controlled Eng- land, Denmark, and Norway, but there is a legend about Canute that says something about these last Norsemen’s attempts at conquest. Supposedly Canute ordered the not to wash in on the shoreline; of course it did any- way, thus proving that there are limits even to a king’s power. As it turned out, his empire was shortlived, and the last Danes were pushed out of England by William of Normandy—himself a descendant of Vikings—in 1070.

The end of the Early Middle Ages (843– c. 1000) The late 800s and 900s were a frightening time in Western Europe. Not only were the Vikings on the move, but the continent faced inva- Under the leadership of King Alfred, natives of Britain united in an attempt to defend sion by other forces from the south themselves against attacks by Vikings. and east. The Muslims had already Reproduced by permission of the Library of conquered Spain, and in the 800s Congress. they began menacing Italy. They drove out the Byzantines, who had held Sicily and off and the Vikings as a group were dying out. on for centuries, and even threatened By about 1000, they had accepted Rome itself. At the same time, a Christianity and become relatively civi- group of nomads called the Magyars lized, meaning that they no longer had entered Eastern Europe from Ukraine, the same lust for raiding. In place of where they had been forced out by the old Scandinavian tribal lands, Nor- Central Asian nomads. This seemed way, Denmark, and Sweden emerged as like a repeat of events that had kingdoms, possessing formal govern- helped bring about the fall of the ments with capitals and laws. Roman Empire: indeed, the Magyars One last hurrah for the Norse- even took over the old stomping- men came in the early 1000s, when grounds of Attila the Hun in Hun- the Danes briefly conquered England. gary, from which they launched at- At their high point under King Canute tacks on various German states.

42 Middle Ages: Almanac

The Vikings, or Norsemen, enjoyed great power under King Canute (ruled 1016–35). This illustration depicts the legend of Canute ordering the tide not to wash in. Reproduced by permission of the New York Public Library Picture Collection.

During this age, people who adulterers among the ranks of the looked to the church for comfort were popes during those years. An example bound to be disappointed. The papacy was the man who became known as had severely declined in the 800s and John XII in 955: among Pope John’s 900s, with murderers, thieves, and many accomplishments were bribe-

44 Middle Ages: Almanac Viking Mythology

According to Viking mythology, when soldiers died in battle they would be swept up by warrior maidens called Valkyries (vahl-KEER-uhz) and taken to a kind of heaven. The latter was called Val- halla (vahl-HAHL-uh), and was essentially a more perfect version of the Vikings’ own feasting halls, where they dined on legs of mutton and drank an intoxicating honey malt beverage called mead (MEED). Norse mythology became the basis for a number of great medieval epics: the Icelandic Eddas (c. 900–1241) and Volsung Saga (1200s), as well as the German Niebelungenlied (nee-buh-LOONG-en-leed; Depiction of the Viking god Thor. Reproduced by 1200s). In the nineteenth century, German permission of the Corbis Corporation. composer Richard Wagner (REE-kard VAHG-nur) wrote a majestic series of op- One of the most memorable pieces from eras, The Ring, based on the Nordic myths. The Ring is called “Ride of the Valkyries.”

taking and wild orgies in the papal Great (912–973). In 955, he defeated palace. Yet this period also saw the be- the Magyars, who soon became Chris- ginnings of church reform, led by the tianized and settled permanently in Benedictine monks at Cluny in France Hungary. He then marched into Italy, in 910. The Cluniac (KLOO-nee-ak) by then under threat from a variety of movement stood for a new type of local kings. Otto defeated them, and monasticism: instead of withdrawing in 962, the pope crowned him emper- from the world, the Cluniacs sought to or, reviving the title held by Charle- strengthen the central authority of the magne. A year later, Otto had the pope as a way of reinvigorating the crooked Pope John replaced, showing church, and thus society as a whole. that though the bishop of Rome could crown him, he still held more power. The 900s also experienced the The great struggle of kings and popes, rise of Western Europe’s first great a conflict that would dominate the leader since Charlemagne, Otto the eleventh century, had begun.

The Carolingian Age 45 Severy, Merle, editor. The Age of Chivalry. For More Information Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Books Society, 1969, pp. 43–91. Clark, Kenneth. Civilisation: A Personal View. New York: Harper, 1969, pp. 1–32.

Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient Web Sites and Medieval World, Volume 9: The Mid- Daily Life—Medieval History Net Links. [On- dle Ages. New York: Marshall Cavendish, line] Available http://historymedren. 1996, pp. 1164–1224. about.com/education/history/histo- rymedren/msubmenudaily.htm (last ac- Hanawalt, Barbara A. The Middle Ages: An Il- cessed July 28, 2000). lustrated History. New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1998. Vikings and Scandinavian History. [Online] Available http://historymedren.about. Langley, Andrew. Medieval Life. New York: com/education/history/historymedren/ Knopf, 1996. msubvik.htm (last accessed July 28, 2000).

46 Middle Ages: Almanac Eastern Europe 5

n ancient times, Greece had built one of the world’s greatest Icivilizations, a center of culture and science that reached its peak in the period 490–404 B.C. Even as Greece declined, its influence spread from Italy to Egypt to India, so that by the time the Roman Empire conquered Greece in 146 B.C., Rome had been thoroughly influenced by Greek civilization. Begin- ning in A.D. 330, the Roman Empire began to split into Greek, or Eastern, and Roman, or Western, halves. Divisions between the two lands widened after the West fell and the East became the Byzantine Empire. Ethnic differences further widened the gap: while Germans overran the western half of the conti- nent, much of Eastern Europe came under the dominance of a people called the Slavs.

The Byzantine Empire The Byzantine (BIZ-un-teen) Empire had its begin- nings with Constantine, who in 330 founded a second Roman capital at a city overlooking the strait that separates Europe from Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). The city became Con-

47 Words to Know: Eastern Europe

Civil service: The administrators and offi- Middle class: A group in between the rich cials who run a government. and the poor, or the rich and the work- ing class; usually considered the back- City-state: A city that is also a self-contained bone of a growing economy. political unit, like a country. Missionary: Someone who travels to other Clergy: The priesthood, or all ministers. lands with the aim of converting others Clerical: Relating to priests. to his or her religion. Deity: A god. Nimbus: A halo-like cloud said to hover around a deity or exalted person. Diplomacy: The use of skillful negotiations Patriarch: A bishop in the Eastern Ortho- with leaders of other nations to influ- dox Church. ence events. Plague: A disease that spreads quickly to a : An idealized biography, large population. often of a saint. : A state dependent on a larg- Icon: In the Eastern Orthodox Church, an er, stronger state for military protection. image of a saint. Siege: A sustained military attack against a Legal code: A system of laws. city. Madonna and Child: Mary and the baby Strait: A narrow water passageway be- Jesus, as depicted in religious art. tween two areas of land.

stantinople (kahn-stan-ti-NOH-pul), Greece and what is now , Asia but later scholars used its old name of Minor, a strip of land from Syria to Byzantium (bi-ZAN-tee-um) to identify Palestine, Egypt, and part of Libya. But the entire Byzantine Empire. The By- Justinian (483–565; ruled 527–565), zantine people, however, called them- the greatest of Byzantine rulers, re- selves Romans, and their land the solved to undertake the re-conquest of Roman Empire, which thus continued the Western Roman Empire from the to exist in the East for another thou- barbarians. His brilliant general Belis- sand years after the fall of the West. arius (c. 505–565) won back North Africa from the Vandals in 534, and In 500 Byzantium held most Italy from the Ostrogoths in 540. The of the lands formerly controlled by Byzantines also took southern Spain the Eastern Roman Empire, including from the Visigoths in 550.

48 Middle Ages: Almanac miles N FINNS 0 250 500

0 250 500 kilometers

Novgorod

a Moscow e North S i c Sea l t B a KIEVAN RUS

D on POLAND Vo lga Dn Kiev ieper

S G E N HUNGARY E MAGYARS H C E Danube P c k S e a B l a BULGARIA Constantinople Trebizond Rome

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

Kiev in the

Byzantine Empire, ca. 1000 M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

A map of Eastern Europe in the eleventh century indicating the lands under the control of the Byzantine Empire as well as those controlled by Kievan Russia. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group.

These victories were costly, hundred years ended the life of the however, and except for a few parts of emperor Maurice (ruled 582–602). For Sicily and southern Italy, the Byzan- more than a century, the empire was tines did not hold their conquests for almost constantly at war with Persia, long. The empire soon had other trou- which conquered all Byzantine lands bles as well. Beginning in 541, a south of Asia Minor, and it was only plague devastated Byzantium, and by with the help of the church that Hera- the time it ended in the mid-700s, it clius (hair-uh-KLY-us; ruled 610–41) had killed millions of people. Aside was able to hold on to Constantinople from everything else, this meant that itself. It seemed that things could not the empire’s tax revenues decreased get worse—but they did. dramatically, leaving it unable to pay for its armies. Enemies, including the When the even more powerful Slavs, attacked from all sides, and the Arab caliphate replaced the Persians, first successful rebellion in some three Byzantium seemed doomed. Yet

Eastern Europe 49 thanks to reorganization of the mili- ters at playing their enemies against tary by Constans II (ruled 641–68), the one another; but when they had to go Byzantines put up a strong defense of to war, they were a mighty force. their homeland. They reached a turn- Having adapted to changing ing point in 718, when the Arabs were times, the Byzantines developed a forced to give up the siege of Constan- strong cavalry, along with something tinople. This had enormous signifi- the earlier Roman Empire had lacked: cance for future history: if the Arabs a powerful navy. In fact, the Byzantine had defeated the Byzantines, they fleet used the first modern-style chem- would undoubtedly have conquered ical weapon, “.” The latter and forcibly converted Western Eu- was a combination of petroleum, rope—which lacked unifying leader- peter, quicklime, and sulphur; when ship at the time—to Islam. sprayed on an enemy’s ship it would By the 900s, Byzantium was on cause it to burn. the offensive again, reconquering old One of the most significant territories and dealing severely with a military-related developments, how- tribe called the , who had long ever, had nothing to do with actual posed a threat. These conquests fighting. This was the reorganization reached their peak under Basil II (BAZ- of the army by Constans II in the mid- ul; ruled 976–1025), nicknamed “The 600s, an act that may well have saved Bulgar-Slayer.” Basil annexed Bulgaria the empire. With funds running low, in 1014, and by 1025 the empire had he gave soldiers plots of land called reached a second high point. Egypt, “themes” and made them self- Palestine, and Lebanon were gone for- supporting. This not only saved ever, but the Byzantine lands and pro- money, but also promoted good will tectorates stretched from southern Italy with the troops and encouraged a to Armenia, and from Croatia to Syria. stronger defense, since now the sol- diers were defending their own land.

The Byzantine system Justinian had laid the founda- The economy tions for modern law with his legal The “themes” bear some re- code, or system of laws, completed in semblance to aspects of Western Euro- 535. Roman law dated back almost a pean feudalism. Certainly both Byzan- thousand years, but Justinian’s Code tine and Carolingian society were greatly simplified and organized it. made of similar elements: a tiny elite Byzantium also had an excellent and consisting of royalty, nobility, priests, highly organized civil service. Placed and military; and a vast mass of toil- as they were between many lands in ing peasants. The lives of the peasants Europe and Asia, the Byzantines had to may not have been much better than become skilled at diplomacy, or the art those of their counterparts in Western of negotiation. They also became mas- Europe, but thanks to the efforts of

50 Middle Ages: Almanac Mosaic of Justinian and his court from the Church of San Vitale. Justinian was the greatest of the Byzantine emperors. Reproduced by permission of the Granger Collection Ltd. the Orthodox Church, literacy was Byzantine culture much more widespread in Byzantium. From an early time, it was clear The Byzantine Empire even that there was not really just one Chris- managed to create a middle class, tian church. The Catholic Church con- something virtually unknown in the ducted its services in Latin, the Ortho- West until the 1000s. Typically these dox Church in Greek. Catholics looked were who profited from the to the pope for leadership, members of extensive trade routes running the Orthodox faith to the patriarch through Byzantium, linking Europe (PAY-tree-ark) or bishop of Constan- and Asia. Thus Constantinople be- tinople. Gradually the Orthodox came known as a crossroads for the church came to have its own saints, its world and emerged as a most splendid own holidays, and its own rules con- city. At a time when Rome had per- cerning marriage among the clergy. haps 30,000 inhabitants, the Byzan- At the heart of the division be- tine capital boasted a quarter-million tween churches was a debate about the people. identity of Jesus Christ: for Western

Eastern Europe 51 The Nika Revolt

Byzantine society in the 500s was peror Justinian, who had placed extraordi- dominated by two groups, the Blues and narily high taxes on his people and impris- the Greens. The names came from the col- oned members of both factions. ors of their respective horse-racing teams, With an angry crowd gathering out- who competed regularly at the Hippo- side his palace, Justinian found himself un- drome, or race track. Horse races in Byzan- able to make a decision and began listening tium were much more important than they to advisors who suggested he should flee. It are today: by cheering for the emperor’s was then that the Empress Theodora (c. horse or that of a challenger, a citizen was 500–548) stepped in and told him to act making a political statement, and rivalries bravely: “For my own part,” she said, “I hold could often lead to violence. to the old saying that the imperial purple It is not surprising, then, that a dis- makes the best burial sheet”—in other pute that originated in the Hippodrome on words, it is better to die defending the , 532, ended in massive blood- throne than to run away. Justinian listened to shed. This was the Nika Revolt, so named his wife’s counsel and dispatched an army because Nika! or “Conquer!” was the fa- led by his general Belisarius to deal with the vorite cheer of spectators at the races. In revolt. They trapped the rioters in the Hippo- this particular instance, both the Greens drome, where they massacred some 30,000 and the Blues joined forces against the em- of them and reestablished order.

Christians, there could be no doubt In fact depictions of emperors that Christ was God, whereas most and empresses in Byzantine art made Eastern Christians maintained that the use of an ancient pagan symbol called two were separate. In worldly matters, the nimbus, which was said to hover West and East also differed in their around a deity. Oddly, this was one of views on the relationship between the few aspects of Byzantine culture church and state. In Western Europe, that made an impact on the West, popes and kings vied for leadership, where artists began using a related sym- but in Byzantium the emperor’s power bol, the halo; but haloes were for Jesus, was clear. He could even exercise final Mary, or the saints—not for rulers. say in choosing the patriarch of Con- stantinople, and the Byzantines viewed the position of the emperor Iconoclasm (though not necessarily any individual In the Byzantine world, the re- holding that position) as sacred. lationship between art, religion, and

52 Middle Ages: Almanac politics was a complicated one, and little to win favor with the pope in never more so than in the dispute over Rome. The new Byzantine ruler was a Iconoclasm (eye-KAHN-oh-klazm). The ruthless one; however, the real prob- latter was the name for a movement, lem was that this emperor was an em- supported by Emperor Leo III (ruled press: Irene (ruled 780–802). It was 717–41), which held that all “icons,” considered bad enough that a woman or images of religious figures, were ruled the empire, but she added insult idols, and hence went against Christ- to injury by using her authority to call ian teachings. Under orders from Leo, the Second Council of Nicaea, which icons were forbidden, and many exist- condemned Iconoclasm in 787. ing ones were destroyed. A number of The meeting was designated priests died trying to stop soldiers from the seventh ecumenical council, imply- tearing down statues, and under Con- ing that it brought together all Chris- stantine V (ruled 741–75) the persecu- tians. In fact the split between East and tion became even more vigorous. West was only widening, and the pope’s crowning of Charlemagne as Many medieval European Holy Roman Emperor in 800 was in rulers earned a title to distinguish them part a reaction to Irene: since it was il- from others of the same name, a word legal for a woman to rule the Byzantine or phrase that characterized the man, empire, the pope could claim that the his reign, or his greatest achievement: Roman throne was vacant, and thereby thus Pepin III was known as “Pepin the crown Charlemagne. This in turn an- Short,” and Basil II became “the Bulgar- gered the Byzantines, who felt that the Slayer.” Constantine’s title—Coprony- papacy had challenged their claim as mus, which means “name of dung”— the rightful heirs to the Roman Empire. says a great deal about the Byzantine reaction to Iconoclasm, which became more and more unpopular as the vio- Byzantine art lence associated with it continued. As they became more cut off Western church leaders meanwhile from “barbarian” Western Europe, the shared in the Byzantines’ growing dis- Byzantines became convinced that taste for the Iconoclastic movement: theirs was a superior culture that must indeed, Iconoclasm never had many be preserved unchanged. It is easy to supporters in the West, where few peo- understand how they believed this: ple could read. Images were an essen- there was their glorious Greek past, not tial part of worship in Western Europe, to mention the fact that for many cen- and any attack on artwork was seen as turies, Byzantium was the only real civ- an attack on Christianity itself. ilization on the European continent. Thus the Byzantines developed a high- Eventually the anti-Iconoclast ly static, or unchanging, worldview. movement—the Iconophiles (eye- KAHN-oh-fylz)—gained an important This static quality translated to supporter on the throne, yet this did their art, which was brilliant if a bit

Eastern Europe 53 proportion to head size than they real- ly were. Babies looked like small adults, without the relatively large heads and “baby fat” that distinguish- es real babies. The Byzantines were masters in the form called mosaic (moh-ZAY- ik), usually created by arranging col- ored bits of glass or tile to form a pic- ture. The most famous Byzantine mosaics are those depicting Justinian and Theodora in the Church of San Vitale at Ravenna, built during the brief Byzantine occupation of Italy. The greatest example of Byzantine ar- chitecture, however, was not the church in Ravenna but the Hagia (HAH-jah) Sophia in Constantinople. Built by Justinian, the was completed in 537 and quickly became recognized as one of the most magnificent structures in the world. It was dominated by a A mosaic depicting a Byzantine Madonna that, despite its enormous size—184 and Child. This mosaic is from the Hagia feet high and 102 feet wide—seemed Sophia, the church completed under Justinian’s orders in 537. Reproduced by to float over thin air. In fact it rests permission of the Corbis Corporation. on four arches and the stone piers upholding them.

stiff. Iconoclasm caused Byzantine artists to develop a strong sense of ab- stract form—that is, designs and other The Slavic peoples non-representational shapes—but Among the countless peoples there was also a reaction to Icono- inhabiting what is now western Russia clasm; thus in the end, Byzantine art during Roman times, later to be swept was more highly image-oriented than westward by the Huns, was a group ever. Painting relied heavily on formal called the Slavs. Twice they invaded depictions of the Madonna and Child the Byzantine Empire during its trou- (Mary and the baby Jesus), as Western bled years, but eventually they settled European art did later. The human fig- down and became mixed with the ure in Byzantine art was elongated, Avars, Bulgars, and Khazars, other no- with people’s bodies much taller in madic groups in the region. Slavs and

54 Middle Ages: Almanac The Hagia Sophia, built by Justinian, is the greatest example of Byzantine architecture. It was built in the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, which is now Istanbul, Turkey. Reproduced by permission of Archive Photos, Inc.

Bulgars founded the first Slavic king- from the top down, with the king or- dom, Bulgaria, whose independence dering his subjects to convert. Around Byzantium recognized in 716. the same time, the Byzantine protec- torate of Serbia accepted Orthodoxy as In the 800s, two Byzantine well. St. Cyril even developed an alpha- , the brothers Cyril (SEER- bet, based on Greek letters, which the ul; c. 827–869) and Methodius (mi- newly converted peoples adopted, and THOH-dee-us; c. 825–885), began which Slavic Orthodox nations use preaching the Christian message in today: the Cyrillic alphabet. what is now the . This ultimately led to the conversion of the Bulgarians, whose King Boris embraced Eastern Orthodoxy in 865. In a pattern Catholic nations that would be repeated throughout Some eastern European peo- Slavic lands, conversion did not spread ples, while linguistically and ethnical- upward from the people; rather, it went ly Slavic, embraced Roman Catholi-

Eastern Europe 55 Byzantine Literature: Tall Tales and Gossip

Byzantine literature is remembered others. Therefore he wrote a work in which for two opposing tendencies. On the one he told what he really thought. Procopius’s hand, there was the literature of hagiography Secret History was not published until many (hay-jee-AHG-ruh-fee), official biographies of centuries after his death, and no wonder: the Eastern Orthodox saints. These were a had it been discovered, he would undoubt- mixture of truth and legend, designed to edly have been executed. Its chapters have provide readers both with entertainment titles such as “Proving That Justinian and and a moral lesson. Hagiography exaggerat- Theodora Were Actually Fiends [i.e., ed the best qualities of the subject. On the demons] in Human Form.” other hand, Byzantium’s gossipy historians The empress had been a prostitute (who also sometimes presented tall tales as in her younger days, and Procopius spared fact) often tried to make people seem worse no detail regarding her shady past, his ac- than they were, not better. at times verging on pornography. Such was the case with Procopius Other historians, by contrast, offer positive (pruh-KOH-pee-us), a historian of the 500s. accounts of Theodora, and indeed it is Though he wrote a highly acclaimed ac- hard to trust Procopius. He was a member count of Justinian’s wars of conquest, Pro- of the Green faction, whereas Theodora copius secretly held deep grudges against supported the Blues, and this may explain the emperor, the empress Theodora, and some of his ill will.

cism. Instead of the Cyrillic alphabet, Methodius. Later it would become they adopted the Roman alphabet, Catholic after its conquest by Bohemia, used in virtually all Western nations itself converted during the 800s by (including the United States) today. German missionaries. Bohemia and Just to the north of Serbia was Croatia, Moravia, today part of the Czech Re- whose people became a part of Charle- public, would enjoy periods of great in- magne’s empire, as did neighboring fluence during the Middle Ages. Slovenia. To the northeast was Hun- Moravia briefly conquered a large area, gary, one of the few nations in Eastern including to the east, in the Europe that is neither Slavic nor Or- late 800s; and during the 1200s Bo- thodox: its dominant Magyar popula- hemia emerged as a great power. tion became Catholic after their defeat Finally, there was the north- by Otto the Great in 955. ernmost and most influential of the North of Hungary was Moravia, Slavic Catholic nations: Poland, converted to Orthodoxy by Cyril and whose king adopted Christianity in

56 Middle Ages: Almanac This Bulgarian newspaper shows an example of the Cyrillic alphabet, which was developed by St. Cyril (c. 827–869). Reproduced by permission of EPD Photos.

966. Thus a large part of Slavic Eastern the capital of Ukraine. Then in 862 Europe was Catholic, yet to the east the Vikings known as the Varangians was a single Orthodox nation that be- arrived from Sweden and established came larger than all of Eastern Europe the city of Novgorod (NAWV-guh- combined: Russia. rud). Eventually one of the Vikings, whose name was Rurik (died c. 879), emerged as their leader, and founded a dynasty that would remain influential Kievan Russia until 1598. The region just north of the Black Sea has been inhabited since an- Rurik extended Slavic influ- cient times. All the tribes entering Eu- ence north, into the land of the Finns; rope from Asia, including not only the but the real empire-building began Huns and but later the with Oleg (died c. 912), who merged Mongols, passed through it; yet the Kiev and Novgorod into a single enti- Slavs remained. They were probably ty called Kievan Rus or Kievan Russia. the founders of Kiev (kee-YEV), today Oleg’s daughter-in-law Olga accepted

Eastern Europe 57 St. Basil’s Church, located in Moscow, Russia, is a magnificent example of an Eastern Orthodox church. Photograph by Susan D. Rock. Reproduced by permission of Susan D. Rock.

Eastern Orthodoxy; however, her son vast that stretched the rejected it for fear that it would make length of Eastern Europe, from the him a subject of Byzantium. Conver- Gulf of to the Black Sea. sion came during the reign of Vladimir the Great (VLAHD-i-meer; c. 956–1015), who in 987 agreed to The turning point for marry Anne, the sister of the Byzan- Eastern Europe tine Empire’s mighty Basil II. After 1054 and the death of Yaroslav, Kievan Russia began to de- Vladimir set about forcibly cline, torn apart by rivalries between converting Kiev and Novgorod while various city-states. Turkic nomads, by Basil occupied himself with the Bul- then a powerful force in Eastern Eu- gars. A power struggle followed the rope, became more involved in Russ- death of Vladimir, but Yaroslav the ian affairs, and in 1097 a group of Wise (yuh-ruh-SLAHF; ruled 1019–54) Russian nobles divided the empire restored order and began building a with them. This would make Russia

58 Middle Ages: Almanac particularly vulnerable to the Mongol invasion about 150 years later. How Basil Became The year 1054 also marked a the Bulgar-Slayer turning point for Eastern Europe as a whole. It was then that the Eastern In the , Bulgaria’s King Orthodox Church formally broke with Samuel (ruled 980–1014) began creating Rome over a number of issues, includ- an empire to the north of Byzantium, one ing clerical celibacy—that is, the ques- that ultimately included parts of Bulgaria, tion of whether priests could marry. , northern Greece, Serbia, and Orthodox leaders held that they could Albania. He even declared himself czar and should; Rome, particularly after (ZAHR)—Slavic for “caesar.” the split with the Orthodox Church, The Byzantines’ Basil II rightly saw opposed marriage for priests. this as a threat, and the two empires went Soon afterward, Byzantium ex- to war. It took decades to subdue the Bul- perienced another, even more signifi- garians, but Basil won the decisive Battle cant, turning point: its loss to the Turks of Belasitsa on July 29, 1014. His army at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia captured some 14,000 Bulgarian soldiers, in 1071. The Turks even took the and gouged their eyes out; every hun- Byzantine emperor prisoner, and soon dredth man, however, was allowed to afterward helped themselves to all of keep one eye so he could lead the other Asia Minor, thenceforth known as ninety-nine home. It was said that when Turkey. Thus less than fifty years after Czar Samuel saw his army limping home, the victories of Basil II, Byzantium lost he died of a heart attack. everything it had gained, and though the empire would continue for three more centuries, Manzikert was a blow from which it would never recover. Hanawalt, Barbara A. The Middle Ages: An Il- lustrated History. New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1998. For More Information Roberts, J. M. The Illustrated History of the World, Volume 4: The Age of Diverging Traditions. New York: Oxford, 1998, pp. Books 48–95. Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient and Medieval World, Volume 8: Christian- ity and Islam. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1045–68. Periodicals Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient Treadgold, Warren. “The Persistence of and Medieval World, Volume 9: The Mid- Byzantium.” Wilson Quarterly, Autumn dle Ages. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1998, pp. 66–91. 1996, pp. 1243–66. Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient and Medieval World, Volume 11: Empires Web Sites of the Ancient World. New York: Marshall Byzantine Studies—Medieval History Net Links. Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1513–18. [Online] Available http://historymedren.

Eastern Europe 59 about.com/education/history/histo- rymedren/msubbyz.htm (last accessed July 28, 2000). Byzantium: The Byzantine Studies Page. [On- line] Available http://www.bway.net/ ~halsall/byzantium.html (last accessed July 28, 2000). “The Slavs.” Catholic Encyclopedia. [Online] Available http://www.newadvent.org/ca- then/14042a.htm (last accessed July 28, 2000).

60 Middle Ages: Almanac The Islamic World 6

n ancient times, the Middle East produced some of the most Ioutstanding civilizations in the world. First there was Egypt, along with the Mesopotamian civilizations of Sumer, Babylo- nia, and ; then there were , , Syria, and—far to the east—Persia. During all this time, the least distinguished portion of the Middle East was the hot, dry Ara- bian Peninsula. The medieval era, however, would see a com- plete reversal of roles, as the deserts of Arabia produced a mighty faith that swept up the region in a surge of religious passion that remains strong in modern times.

Preparing the way for Islam (300s–632) In the centuries preceding the birth of Islam (IZ-lahm; “submission to God”), two ancient powers dominated the Middle East. At one end was the Byzantine Empire, which controlled Egypt and, for many centuries, the strip of Mediter- ranean coastline between Egypt and Turkey. The other great power in the region was Persia, or more specifically the Sas- sanid (SAS-uh-nid) Empire, which first emerged in A.D. 226.

61 Words to Know: The Islamic World

Adultery: Voluntary sexual relations be- Fasting: Deliberately going without food, tween a married person and someone often but not always for religious reasons. other than his or her spouse. Hajj: A pilgrimage to Mecca, which is ex- Algebra: A type of mathematics used to de- pected of all Muslims who can afford to termine the value of unknown quantities make it. where these can be related to known Idol: A statue of a god that the god’s fol- numbers. lowers worship. Arabesque: A type of ornamentation often : The supreme spiritual leader in used in Arab art, combining plant and Shi’ite Islam. sometimes animal figures to produce in- tricate, interlaced patterns. Interest: In economics, a fee charged by a lender against a borrower—usually a Blasphemy: The act of insulting God. percentage of the amount borrowed. Caliph: A successor to Muhammad as spiri- Indo-European languages: The languages tual and political leader of Islam. of Europe, India, Iran, and surrounding areas, which share common roots. Caliphate: The domain ruled by a caliph. Islam: A faith that teaches submission to Caravan: A train of pack animals and trav- the one god Allah and his word as given elers journeying through an inhospitable through his prophet Muhammad in the region. Koran. Dowry: The wealth that a bride brings to Jihad: Islamic “holy war” to defend or ex- her marriage. tend the faith. : A military and political leader in Is- Judeo-Christian: Describes ideas common lamic countries, whose domain is called to the spiritual heritage of both Jews and an emirate. Christians.

Persia had long been a great trianism taught of a supreme deity cultural center, and it produced a reli- representing ultimate good, who con- gion that influenced the develop- tinually did battle with his satanic ment of Judaism, Christianity, and opposite. Not long after Zoroaster’s Islam: Zoroastrianism (zohr-oh-AS- time, Persian forces took , tree-un-izm). Founded by the prophet which had a large population of Jews Zoroaster (c. 628–c. 551 B.C.), Zoroas- taken as captives from Israel. The

62 Middle Ages: Almanac Koran: The holy book of Islam. Scientific method: A means of drawing ac- curate conclusions by collecting infor- Lingua franca: A common language. mation, studying data, and forming the- : A slender mosque tower with one ories or hypotheses. or more balconies on which a muezzin stands to call the faithful to prayer. Secular: Of the world; typically used in contrast to “spiritual.” Mosque: A Muslim temple. Semitic: A term describing a number of lin- Muezzin: A crier who calls worshipers to guistic and cultural groups in the Middle prayer five times a day in the Muslim East, including the modern-day Arabs world. and Israelis. Muslim: A person who practices the Islam- ic religion. Shi’ism: A branch of Islam that does not acknowledge the first three caliphs, and Mysticism: The belief that one can attain that holds that the true line of leadership direct knowledge of God or ultimate re- is through a series of who came ality through some form of meditation after Ali. or special insight. Sunni: An orthodox Muslim who acknowl- Philosophy: An area of study concerned edges the first four caliphs. with subjects including values, meaning, and the nature of reality. Trigonometry: The mathematical study of Pilgrimage: A journey to a site of religious triangles, angles, arcs, and their proper- significance. ties and applications. Prophet: Someone who receives commu- Zoroastrianism: A religion, founded in Per- nications directly from God and passes sia, that taught of an ongoing struggle these on to others. between good and evil.

Jews were thus exposed to Zoroastri- little concept of a single entity as the anism, by then the dominant religion source of that evil.) Thanks to the in- of Persia, and the Zoroastrian idea of fluence of Judaism on Christianity a devil entered the Jewish scriptures. and Islam, the idea of a devil entered (Parts of the Old Testament written those faiths as well. In addition, prior to this time certainly contained Zoroastrianism also had an impact on references to evil itself, but there was an odd splinter religion known as

The Islamic World 63 C Black Se a a s p O i x a u n s B Y Z S A N e T I N a M E E M P I R E T e ig d r i i t Eu s e r ph r r Qazvin a n a e a t e n S e a s PERSIA PALESTINE KHURASAN Kerbela Ctesiphon Gaza Jerusalem Kufa Fustat Shiraz P N er si an G u l f Medina

e il ARABIA N Mecca miles 0 250 500 R Taif e 0 250 500 d kilometers S e a Arabian Area of Islam, 632 Sea YEMEN Growth to 634 Growth to 656

A map of the Middle East in the mid-600s shows the growth of Muslim territories in the years following Muhammad’s death in 632. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group.

Manichaeism (man-uh-KEE-izm; see siderable trade, and trade routes box, “Manichaeism”). crossed the interior, Arabia was simply a place for goods to pass through on their way between Africa, Europe, and Arabia before Muhammad Asia. The hot, dry, center of the penin- In the early 600s, no one sula, an area about half the size of the would have suspected that the Arabs United States, offered little to attract would soon destroy the mighty Sas- outsiders. sanid Empire and nearly destroy the Byzantines on their way to becoming Arabia was a tribal society, di- the dominant power in the region—all vided between the nomadic (wander- within the space of one lifetime. ing) (BED-oo-unz) of the Though coastal regions such as Oman desert and the settled peoples of the (oh-MAHN) in the east and Yemen coastal areas. A dominant cultural (yeh-MAHN) in the west enjoyed con- center was Mecca, located halfway

64 Middle Ages: Almanac down the coast of the Red Sea that separated Arabia from Africa. Among Mecca’s attractions was a shrine called the Kaaba (kuh-BAH), a cube- Manichaeism shaped building that housed a mete- One of the most interesting reli- orite. According to the traditions of gious beliefs to emerge during the Middle the Arabs, the meteorite had been Ages was Manichaeism, based on the hurled to Earth by a deity known as teachings of the Persian prophet Mani Allah (uh-LAH). In addition to Allah (MAH-nee; c. 216–c. 276). Reflecting both were some 300 other gods and god- Zoroastrian and Christian influences, desses, whose statues filled the Kaaba; Manichaeism taught that the universe was yet Allah was supreme, like the God sharply divided between good and evil, worshiped by Jews and Christians. and between the spiritual and physical worlds. Adherents to the Manichaean sys- tem believed that by practicing an ascetic Muhammad lifestyle, they could help to defeat evil and In the tribal environment of open themselves up to great knowledge. Arabia, loyalties were fiercely defend- ed and family was essential. The lead- Fearing the new belief system, ing tribe of Mecca was called the Zoroastrian priests had Mani skinned Quraish (koo-RESH), and it was into alive; however, the influence of Mani- this tribe that one of the most influ- chaeism grew after its founder’s death. In ential figures of all time, Muhammad his youth, Augustine was a Manichaean, (moo-HAH-med; c. 570–632), was and the religion continued to exert an in- born. Orphaned at the age of six, he fluence in the East until the 1200s. The grew up poor and worked hard beliefs of the Albigenses, a sect that ap- through his teen years, establishing peared in France about a millennium after himself as a thoughtful, trustworthy Mani’s death, mirrored those of the young man. Manichaeans. A wealthy widow named Khadijah hired him to act as her repre- sentative in a business that children was their daughter Fatima took him to Syria, where Muhammad (FAT-uh-muh; c. 616–633), whose undoubtedly gained access to various name means “Shining One.” ideas and traditions, including Ju- daism and Christianity. Khadijah was For many years, Muhammad some fifteen years his senior, but lived the ordinary life of a prosperous Muhammad so impressed her that merchant; then in 610, when he was when he was twenty-five she made about forty years old, he had a vision him an offer of marriage that he ac- in which an angel told him that Allah cepted. Of their many children, the had called him to be his prophet. The only one who lived to bear him grand- vision frightened Muhammad, but

The Islamic World 65 gradually he accepted his destiny. Dur- tual center of Islam, and non-Muslims ing the twenty-two years of his life were forbidden to enter the city. that remained, he would have some 650 of these revelations, which would become the basis for the Koran (kohr- AHN), Islam’s holy book. The Islamic faith Islam shares many features In 613, Muhammad began with Judaism and Christianity, includ- preaching his new faith, focusing on ing worship of a single god whose will three principal themes: that Allah was is revealed in a holy book. East Asian the only god and all the other deities religions such as Hinduism and Bud- in the Kaaba were false idols; that the dhism, by contrast, may have holy rich should share their wealth with texts, but usually there is no one book the poor; and that all men would face supreme above all others. Islam also a final judgment before Allah. The holds biblical figures, from Abraham wealthy Quraish were not enthusiastic to Jesus, in great esteem. In all, the to hear this, and eventually their hos- Koran names twenty-eight true tility forced Muhammad to leave prophets who came before Muham- Mecca along with his family (Khadijah mad; however, Muhammad is clearly died during this period) and his small understood as the greatest of the band of followers. In 622, they settled prophets. Whereas the Old and New in a town thenceforth known as Medi- testaments represent the work of many na (muh-DEEN-uh; “The City”). Mus- writers over a period of more than a lims (those who practice the Islamic thousand years, Muhammad alone religion) call Muhammad’s flight from wrote the Koran—or rather, in the be- Mecca the hegira (heh-JY-ruh), and lief of Muslims, he received the words date their calendar from this event of the Koran from Allah. just as Christians date theirs from the birth of Jesus Christ. Over the next few years, The Pillars of Islam Muhammad led his followers on sever- The Muslim faith has five cen- al raids against trading caravans from tral concepts, called “Pillars of Islam.” Mecca, and this eventually became First is the profession of faith, a recog- outright warfare between Mecca and nition that “there is no god but Allah, Medina. In one battle, a tiny Muslim and Muhammad is his prophet.” Sec- force defeated a much larger Quraish ond is the institution of formal prayer army, which won the new religion at five set times during the day. Each many followers. In 630, Muhammad’s city or town in the Muslim world has army—by now more than 10,000 a large central mosque (MAHSK), or strong—took the city of Mecca, where- temple, crowned by a tall minaret— upon they destroyed the idols in the often the highest point in the town— Kaaba. The latter, and Mecca as a from which a muezzin (moo-ZEEN) whole, would thenceforth be the spiri- calls the faithful to prayer. Worshipers

66 Middle Ages: Almanac typically roll out prayer mats and bow lim law, the Koran offered women a in the direction of Mecca. number of new legal protections. In line with Muhammad’s mes- No longer could men take as sage of charity, the third pillar of Islam many wives as they wanted, for in- is the giving of alms (money or food) to stance: now they could have only the poor. Fourth is the practice of fast- four, and they had to be able to pro- ing, or voluntarily going without food vide financially for those four. Also for religious purposes, during Ramadan significant was the fact that the bridal (RAH-muh-dahn), the ninth month of gift or dowry—that is, the money or the Islamic calendar. Finally, Muslims holdings the groom received at mar- are encouraged to undertake a pilgrim- riage from the bride’s family—now be- age to Mecca, called a hajj, once in their came the bride’s property. If the hus- lifetimes if they can afford to do so. band divorced her, she got to keep the goods. Divorce remained much easier Islam as a political system for a man than for a woman, but a man could no longer divorce his wife Though not one of the five pil- in anger and take her back the next lars, there is one other concept central day; once divorced, he had to wait to the Islamic belief system: jihad (jee- three months before remarrying her. HAHD), or “holy war.” Muslims were And whereas pre-Muslim Arabian soci- expected to defend the faith against ety punished women more harshly persecution or blasphemy, and if neces- than men for adultery, the Koranic sary to go to war for Islam. Obviously penalty was the same for both partici- this aided in the spread of Muslim in- pants: “flog each of them with a hun- fluence following Muhammad’s death. dred stripes.” Islam was from the beginning intended both as a religious and a sec- The Muslim emphasis on giv- ular system, and eventually a whole ing alms made Islam popular among system of law developed around it. the poor; so too did its teaching that Muslims were forbidden to loan all men were equal under Allah. Islam money for interest, to eat pork, or to viewed other religions with toleration drink alcohol. Islamic law also gave and gave Jews and Christians in cap- women more rights than they had en- tured territories special status. Howev- joyed under pre-Islamic society. The er, those who adhered to a faith other status of women in Islam has been a than Islam were not allowed to engage subject of particular significance, as in religious activity outside their some Muslim scholars interpreted churches or synagogues, or to build Muhammad’s teachings to mean that new houses of worship. Furthermore, women should have few rights. Yet non-Muslims had to pay a special tax; women played an important role in to people who did not already feel the foundation of Islam, and though strongly about their faith, this offered men remained dominant under Mus- another incentive to convert.

The Islamic World 67 and therefore after Muhammad’s death, the first caliph was her father, Abu Bakr (BAHK-ur; ruled 632–34). The Sufis Next came Umar (ruled 634–44), the father of another wife, and then Uth- In the late 900s and early 1000s, a man (ruled 644–56), who married movement known as (SOOF-izm) one of Muhammad’s childless daugh- appeared in Persia, where it grew out of ters. Fourth was Ali (ruled 656–61), Shi’ite Islam. Incorporating ideas from the prophet’s cousin and husband of Greek philosophy, Christianity, and even Fatima. Buddhism, it stressed the mystical union of the soul with God. At its foundation When Muhammad died, the were the ideas of Rabia al-Adawiyya (rah- Muslims held only the western por- BEE-ah al-ah-dah-WEE-ah; c. 713–801), a tion of Arabia; less than thirty years freed slave woman. In her poetry, Rabia later, the caliphate (KAL-uh-fet) presented an ideal love for Allah, which stretched from Libya to Bactria (mod- was tied neither to fear of Hell nor hope of ern-day Afghanistan), and from the Heaven. to the Nile River. Prob- lems over succession, however, The most influential Sufi thinker threatened to undo these gains and was al-Ghazali (1058–1111), who worked created divisions in the Islamic world to reconcile traditional Islam with Sufi that exist even today. Umar was as- mysticism. The Sufis also had a strong in- sassinated, and Uthman was killed fluence on the poet Omar Khayyám, and during a rebellion; Ali, who had op- in the present day they remain a small but posed the choice of Abu Bakr as first significant group within the Islamic reli- caliph, faced several rebellions him- gion. self, including one led by Aisha. He would ultimately be assassinated by members of a breakaway sect, and his assassination would in turn pave the Islamic empires way for a significant division among Muslims. The first wave of conquest (632–661) Muhammad never clearly The Umayyads (661–750) named a caliph (KAL-uhf), or succes- After Ali’s death, Mu’awiya sor; thus the first four caliphs—the (moo-AH-wee-ah; ruled 661–80), a term became a title for the spiritual member of the powerful Umayyad and political leader of Islam—were (oo-MY-ahd) family, became caliph. men connected to the prophet Mu’awiya had opposed Ali vigorously through wives he married after during the latter’s lifetime, and Khadijah’s death. His favorite wife though he was not accused of the as- was Aisha (ah-EE-shah; 614–678), sassination, it was obvious that he had

68 Middle Ages: Almanac Moorish Spain

Among the most notable of Islamic (toh-LAY-doh) in 1085. By then the territories was Spain, which came under the had fallen, replaced by control of the Moors in 711. The Moors more conquerors from Morocco: first the were a nomadic people from North Africa, Almoravids (al-muh-RAH-vedz) in 1086, where the name of the nation of Morocco and later the Almohads (AL-moh-hahdz) in reflects the region’s Moorish heritage. They 1120. During the 1100s, the Christian re- were a group distinct from Arabs, but the conquest of Spain was in full force, and name “Moor” eventually came to mean all after they conquered Cordoba in 1236, the Muslim peoples in Spain, both North Christians had the Almohads on the run. Africans and Arabs. The latter arrived in 756, The Nasrid (NAHS-reed) dynasty, also from when Abd-ar-Rahman escaped Abbasid as- Morocco, ruled during a final period, be- sassins to establish an Umayyad stronghold ginning in 1238; then in 1492, the in Spain. There he founded what he called Spaniards expelled the last Moors from the emirate (IM-uh-ret) of Cordoba. An emir their country. (i-MEER) is a type of commander in Islamic countries. Eventually the Umayyad leaders The Moors left a strong legacy in declared themselves caliphs, suggesting that the form of architecture, the most notable they saw themselves as the legitimate lead- example of which is a magnificent palace ers of the Islamic world. called the Alhambra. Thanks to the Arab in- fluence, Spaniards enjoyed a highly civilized Christian forces held the north of lifestyle while the rest of Western Europe re- Spain, and scored a major victory when mained mired in the ignorance and confu- they retook the northern city of Toledo sion that characterized the “Dark Ages.”

profited from the death of his old foe. jected the first three caliphs, and By taking power, he founded a new maintained that Ali and the descen- dynasty that would rule Islam during dants of Fatima, starting with Husayn, its period of greatest expansion. constituted a line of infallible leaders or imams (i-MAHMZ). The Shi’ite in- In 680, Ali’s son Husayn led a terpretation of Islam spread among revolt against the Umayyads and was the poorer classes and among non- assassinated. His became a ral- Arabs—particularly in Iran, where it lying cause for Shi’ite (SHEE-ight) remains the dominant faith today. Muslims, who broke away from the majority group, known as Sunni Meanwhile the center of (SOO-nee) Muslims. The Shi’ites re- power in the Islamic world shifted

The Islamic World 69 The Alhambra is a magnificent palace built by the Moors in Spain during their control of the region in the Middle Ages. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

northward to the ancient Syrian city ruh-MAHN; 731–788), who estab- of Damascus, which became the cap- lished a dynasty of long standing in ital of the Umayyad caliphate. The Spain (see box, “Moorish Spain”). Umayyads soon expanded their boundaries to Spain and North Africa in the west, and India and the edge The Abbasids (750–1258) of China in the east. But this vast One of the first steps taken by realm became difficult to govern; the Abbasids (uh-BAHS-idz) was to also, the Umayyads had a policy of move the capital from Damascus to only allowing Arabs to serve as lead- Baghdad in Iraq, many miles to the ers, and this made them many ene- east. The Abbasids would flourish for mies. In 750 a descendant of about 150 years, then rapidly lose Muhammad’s uncle Abbas (uh-BAHS) power; yet they formally held control led a revolt and began killing off all for half a millennium. During that the Umayyad leaders. Only one es- time, Islamic civilization had its bright- caped: Abd-ar-Rahman (AHB’d ar- est flowering, producing achievements

70 Middle Ages: Almanac The Thousand and One Nights

The Thousand and One Nights, bet- ter known as The Arabian Nights, contains some of the world’s favorite tales: Aladdin and his magic lamp, Ali Baba and the forty thieves, and Sinbad the Sailor. From these stories come such familiar concepts as “Open sesame” (the phrase used by Ali Baba to enter a cave filled with treasure), magic carpets, and the genie in the bottle. The collection’s 264 tales, first assembled in the 900s, originated from a variety of Per- sian, Arabian, and Indian sources. From Persia came the “frame story” that ties all the tales together.

It seems that Sultan Shahriyar Aladdin watches the genie emerge from the (SHAR-ee-yar) had decided all women were lamp in an illustration from The Thousand and unfaithful, so he resolved to marry a new One Nights. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis wife each evening, then put her to death Corporation. the next morning. But his bride Shahrazad (SHAR-uh-zahd), or Sheherazade (shuh- would begin a new tale, and buy herself HAIR-uh-zahd), managed to stay alive by another night. After 1,001 nights, during beginning a new story each night and fin- which she produced three sons, the sultan ishing it the next night—at which time she gave up his plans to kill off his wives.

beyond the imagination of most West- came legendary throughout the world. ern Europeans. At a time when the primitive buildings of the Merovingians constituted West- During this time, a number of ern Europe’s greatest architectural great rulers, most notably Harun al- achievements, the Abbasids built great Rashid (hah-ROON al-rah-SHEED; noted for the intricacy of ruled 786–809), led the caliphate. their design. While superstition took Harun was the subject of legend and is the place of in Europe, the believed to be the model for the sultan Arabs founded a school for doctors in in the Thousand and One Nights (see Baghdad; and just as European monks box); likewise the empire he ruled be- were starting to use parchment, the

The Islamic World 71 Arabs were learning paper-making Mathematics and science from captured Chinese prisoners. Along with philosophy, science and mathematical knowledge expand- ed greatly during a two-century period beginning in about 900. Arab Muslims Islamic civilization borrowed a system of numerals devel- oped in India, but the Arabs became so An explosion of knowledge famous as mathematicians that these During the Middle Ages, the came to be known as “Arabic” numer- Muslim world underwent an explosion als. Arab mathematicians laid much of of knowledge like the one that oc- the groundwork for analytical geome- curred in ancient Greece during its try, algebra (itself an Arabic word), and golden age (490–404 B.C.) In fact, Arab particularly for trigonometry. Muslim scholars kept the Greek clas- The Arabs put their mathemat- sics alive, particularly the works of the ical knowledge to use in astronomy, Greek philosopher (AIR-uhs- greatly improving on the stargazing taht-uhl; 384–322 B.C.). Aristotle may equipment available at the time. rightly be called the father of the sci- Through observatories along the entific method and the leading propo- breadth of the Islamic world, from nent of logic, a system of reasoning for Spain to Iraq, they charted the move- testing the accuracy of conclusions. ment of the stars. Thus they were able During the period from the 700s to the to correct many mistakes of the an- 900s, at a time when Western Europe cients, mistakes accepted as fact by Eu- was almost wholly ignorant of ancient ropean astronomers until Arab learn- Greece, writings by Aristotle and other ing trickled into Europe following the Greeks on everything from medicine Crusades. to magic were translated into Arabic. A citizen of , Baghdad, or Learning flourished in the Damascus was likely to receive the great cultural centers of Persia, Egypt, best medical treatment in the world Syria, and Iraq, and the Middle Ages from who carefully ob- saw the emergence of many great served the patient’s condition before scholars. Most notable among these making a diagnosis. Muslim doctors were (980–1137) and Aver- were some of the first to prescribe roës (uh-VEER-uh-weez; 1126–1198). drugs effectively, and many public Avicenna, a leading Islamic interpreter hospitals were built in Islamic cities of Aristotle, wrote some two hundred during medieval times. works on science, religion, philoso- phy, and other subjects. Averroës, with his attempts to reconcile reli- gious faith and Greek philosophy, The arts would influence a number of Jewish As in Byzantium, the Islamic and Christian thinkers. world had its own reaction to images

72 Middle Ages: Almanac An Arabian , an astronomical instrument, made in 1014. The Arabs made tremendous scientific advancements during the Middle Ages. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. in the 700s. Like the Bible, the Koran human or animal forms. Outside the forbade the making of graven images mosque, rules regarding representa- or idols, but some took this to an ex- tion of living creatures were more re- treme, demanding that no religious laxed—with one exception. The face buildings include representations of of Muhammad himself could not be

The Islamic World 73 Arabic and Farsi

Most peoples of the Middle East ans embrace the Shi’ite form of Islam rather today call themselves Arabs. In part this re- than the majority Sunni interpretation. flects an ethnic heritage, since Arabian tribes in the 600s and 700s intermarried During the Middle Ages, Arab cul- with local populations and extended their ture and the Arabic language spread influence throughout the region. More sig- throughout the Middle East. Islamic law at nificant, however, is the common linguistic that time prohibited translation of the heritage of people who speak Arabic, a Se- Koran from the original Arabic, which fur- mitic language related to Hebrew. thered the spread of the language; but the The people of Iran, on the other cultural identity of Persia (as Iran was called hand, are distinct from Arabs. Their lan- at that time) was so strong that its people guage, Farsi or Persian, is an Indo-European resisted the Arab influence. Persians adopt- tongue, meaning that it shares a common ed Arabic-style lettering, yet retained their heritage with most languages of India and own language and literature. Eventually Europe—including English. Ethnically, Irani- Farsi and Arabic both became common ans are also more closely related to Indians languages in the Middle East, often used and Europeans than they are to Arabs. Their by people from different groups as a means distinction is reflected in the fact that Irani- of communicating.

shown; therefore it was usually repre- every available surface, was character- sented either with a veil, or covered by ized by graceful flourishes and or- a glowing fire. nate, flowery lines. Much of it was non-representational, but on secular During the Middle Ages, buildings such as palaces, it might in- mosques took on the form that they clude plants, animals, and even would retain to the present day, in- human figures. cluding an open courtyard and Arabian music, based on a five- “horseshoe” arches modeled on the note scale that gave it a distinctive, rounded Roman arches of Byzantium. haunting sound, developed during became a striking feature of medieval times. Early Islamic music mosque architecture, and the grew out of oral poetry, with flutes, mosques themselves were beautifully stringed instruments, and percussion decorated in a style of ornamentation complementing the poet’s song. Some- known as arabesque (air-uh-BESK). times professional female dancers also Arabesque, which decorated virtually accompanied the performance.

74 Middle Ages: Almanac The splintering of Baghdad in 1258. By then, Islamic civ- the Islamic world ilization had spread far beyond the Middle East. Word of Muhammad and (c. 875–1258) the Koran had reached India and Beginning in about 900, the Southeast Asia, the rocky coastline of Abbasid caliphate began to lose power, Spain, and desert kingdoms in the and the Islamic world gradually broke heart of Africa. Meanwhile, leadership into a confusing array of competing among Islamic peoples had passed to a dynasties. Of these, only a few—in nation virtually unknown during particular, two Egyptian ruling hous- Muhammad’s lifetime: the Turks. es—would go on to assume great sig- nificance. Gradually the cultural cen- ter of Islam moved away from Baghdad to Egypt, the oldest civiliza- For More Information tion of all. Even today, Egypt is among Books the leaders of the Islamic world. Bacharach, Jere L. A Middle East Studies Hand- book. Seattle: University of Washington Members of the Shi’ite Ismaili Press, 1984. (iz-MY-ah-lee) sect founded a dynasty Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient called the Fatimids, named after and Medieval World, Volume 8: Christian- Muhammad’s daughter, that ruled ity and Islam. New York: Marshall Egypt from 909 to 1171. They estab- Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1069–1134. lished the city of Cairo, maintained a Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient prosperous economy, and flourished and Medieval World, Volume 9: The Mid- dle Ages. New York: Marshall Cavendish, for many years before being overtaken 1996, pp. 1225–42. by the Ayyubids (uh-YÜ-bidz). Hanawalt, Barbara A. The Middle Ages: An Il- lustrated History. New York: Oxford Uni- The Ayyubid dynasty came to versity Press, 1998. power under Saladin (SAL-uh-dun; c. Roberts, J. M. The Illustrated History of the 1137–1198). Europeans who fought World, Volume 4: The Age of Diverging Tra- against him in the Crusades came to ditions. New York: Oxford, 1998, pp. 8–47. admire Saladin as the greatest of Mus- Stewart, Desmond, and The Editors of Time- lim heroes; yet he was not an Arab but Life Books. Early Islam. New York: Time- a Kurd, a member of a nation closely Life Books, 1967. related to Iranians. The Ayyubid dy- nasty ruled Egypt from 1169 to 1252, Web Sites when they were replaced by Turkish IslamiCity in Cyberspace. [Online] Available slave soldiers called Mamluks. http://www.islam.org/ (last accessed July 28, 2000). The rise of the Mamluks (Turk- Muslim Scientists and Islamic Civilization. [On- ish rulers) would nearly coincide with line] Available http://users.erols.com/ the destruction of Abbasid power in zenithco/ (last accessed July 28, 2000).

The Islamic World 75 The Turks 7

he , a country that forms a land bridge be- Ttween Europe and Asia, reflects the Turkish heritage of its majority population. Yet the region was inhabited for thou- sands of years before the Turks arrived, during which time it was known variously as Asia Minor or Anatolia. Its ancient civilization and culture were much more closely tied to Greece than they were to the Turks, a Central Asian people who arrived only in the Middle Ages. Once they arrived, how- ever, they soon made their influence known, establishing a distinctive culture and several mighty empires.

Early Turkish empires (500s–900s) As with most ethnic groups, the Turks can be defined not so much on the basis of race or appearance, but according to language. Because of their nomadic (wandering) lifestyle and lack of written records, it is difficult to know much about their movements; nonetheless, it appears that in the 500s a group who spoke a Turkic language were enslaved by a nation known as the Juan-Juan in what is now Mongolia. In about

77 southern Russia, where they estab- lished an empire called the Khazar Khanate (kuh-ZAHR KAHN-et). Khan Words to Know: The Turks is a title of leadership among Central Asian peoples, and though the Diplomat: Someone who negotiates with khanate was loosely organized as befit other countries on behalf of his own. a nomadic tribe, the Khazars viewed Divan: A council of state in the Ottoman themselves as enough of a nation to Empire. send an ambassador to Byzantium in Islamize: To convert to Islam. 568. Later the region came to be known simply as Khazaria, and in the Khan: A Central Asian chieftain. 700s its people converted to Judaism Shi’ism: A branch of Islam that does not (see box, “The Jewish Kingdom of acknowledge the first three caliphs, Khazaria,” chapter 8). and that holds that the true line of In the 600s, another Turkic leadership is through a series of imams group moved westward, where they who came after Ali. became identified as Bulgars. As they Sultan: A type of king in the Muslim world. intermarried with Slavs to found the nation of Bulgaria, their Turkish iden- Sultanate: An area ruled by a Sultan. tity vanished. Also during this time, Sunni: An orthodox Muslim who ac- various groups of Turks controlled an knowledges the first four caliphs. enormous expanse of land from China Terrorist: Frightening (and usually harm- to the Black Sea, and some historians ing) a group of people in order to view this as a single, ill-defined “em- achieve a specific political goal. pire.” Whatever the case, its impact on history was minor, particularly in : A chief minister. the face of the rapid Arab expansion that followed the establishment of the Islamic faith. 550, these Turks overthrew the Juan- Among the Turkish groups in Juan, who moved westward and be- the “empire” to become Islamized (IZ- came known as the Avars. lum-ized) were the Oghuz (oh-GÜZ), converted by missionaries from Persia in 960. Their Islamic faith had enor- Avars, Khazars, Bulgars, and mous significance for the Turks’ future Oghuz history, as did the fact that many Turks The Avars would remain a had served the Abbasid caliphate as threat to the Byzantine Empire for two slave soldiers. The use of slave soldiers, centuries beginning in the late 500s, males raised and trained from child- but in so doing, they had to face an hood to serve a military commander, old enemy. Tribes of Turks had also would become a common practice in moved westward, to what is now Turkish-dominated states throughout

78 Middle Ages: Almanac miles 0 125 250

0 125 250 kilometers MOLDAVIA

ube an D S e a SERBIA a c k BOSNIA B l BULGARIA Trebizond Ad ri KASTAMUNI at ic S Constantinople ea ERTENA Thessalonica ALBANIA Tigris

SARUKHAN KARAMAN MESOPOTAMIA Athens KERMIAN MOREA Eup hra te TEKKE SYRIA s N

Ottoman lands, 1326 Lands acquired by 1359 Lands acquired by 1451 M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a Lands acquired by 1481

A map showing the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group. the medieval world. Slave soldiers began migrating southward and west- often gained their freedom, and many ward into Iran, causing their fellow went on to become leaders: a slave sol- Turks the to spread into dier established the Delhi Sultanate in India. By then the Abbasids controlled India in 1206, and a group of slave sol- their caliphate (the region they ruled) diers called Mamluks won control of in name only; the Buwayhids (boo- Egypt in 1252. WY-edz), a Shi’ite dynasty, actually ruled in Baghdad—that is, until 1055, when the Seljuks seized control. The The Seljuks (900s–1243) fact that the Seljuks were Sunni Mus- In the late 900s, the Oghuz lims, like the majority of people in the split into several groups, among them area, probably helped them win the the , who moved into the allegiance of the conquered. Black Sea area of southern Russia and In 1060, the founder of the would remain there for two centuries. principal , Toghril Beg Another tribe of Oghuz, the Seljuks, (tawg-REEL; c. 990–1063) declared

The Turks 79 City walls of Istanbul, Turkey, formerly Constantinople. The walls were built by the emperor Constantine in A.D. 324. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

himself sultan. His successor, Alp Ar- cline, partly due to a lack of organiza- slan (ruled 1063–72), dealt the Byzan- tion typical among nomadic-style tines a near-fatal blow at Manzikert in rulers. The Crusades also played a role. 1071, and soon afterward the Seljuks The Seljuks had a less tolerant attitude gained control of Asia Minor, which than the Arabs toward Christians visit- they called the — ing the Holy Land, and their harass- that is, Rome. At this point, they con- ment of pilgrims—combined with stituted a tiny ethnic minority in the their use of the name “Rome,” which region, but they had established a implied that they viewed themselves foothold. as inheritors of the Roman Empire— angered Europeans. The Seljuks reached the height of their power under ’s son The Seljuks, finally defeated by Malik Shah (mah-LEEK; 1055–1092), the Mongols in 1243, left several im- controlling a large portion of the Mid- portant legacies. One was an informal dle East. After that, they began to de- power structure based on loyalty to

80 Middle Ages: Almanac The Assassins

Today the word “assassin” refers to During the Crusades, Assassins in Syria ter- anyone who kills for a political purpose; rorized both Turks and Christians, but com- originally, however, the name referred to a bined attacks by the Mongols and Mam- group of fanatical killers whose primary tar- luks in the mid-1200s brought about the gets were the Seljuk Turks. end of the terrorist group.

A terrorist organization associated Crusaders brought the word “as- with the Ismaili sect of Islam, the Assassins sassin” home with them, and eventually it were established in 1090 by Hasan-e Sab- entered the languages of Europe. It is bah, an Iranian religious leader. Hasan was thought that the name derives from the As- known as the “Old Man of the Mountain,” sassins’ use of the drug hashish. According a title that passed to each successive Assas- to Venetian traveler Marco Polo, Assassin sin leader. Operating from a castle in a val- leaders would ensure their men’s loyalty by ley stronghold, the Assassins conducted drugging them and taking them to a gar- acts of terrorism and political killing den where they could enjoy all manner of throughout the Muslim world, but particu- earthly delights—pleasures that, they were larly in Iran and Iraq. Because the Seljuks told, would await them in the afterlife if happened to be in power at that time, they they died on the field of battle. Contempo- were the principal target, and all attempts rary Ismaili sources, however, contain no to uproot the Assassins proved fruitless. mention of this “Garden of Paradise.”

local religious leaders, who in turn gave had used the services of Turkish their allegiance to political leaders. This slave soldiers who came to be known made it possible for conquerors to easi- as Mamluks (MAM-lükz). In 1252, ly replace one another, because the reli- the Mamluks come to power, and gious leaders served as a buffer between they would maintain control of the people and their rulers, who were Egypt for more than 250 years. Dur- often foreigners. Another important ing that time, the elite feature of Seljuk rule was the use of troops typically chose their rulers, slave soldiers, a group of whom would rather than simply passing leader- soon rise to prominence in Egypt. ship from father to son.

One of the Mamluks’ most as- The Mamluks tounding achievements came in 1260, (1252–1517) when they dealt the Mongols the first From the time of the Fa- defeat in their long campaign of con- timids (909–1171), Egyptian rulers quest. Their control spread to Syria,

The Turks 81 The rise of the Ottomans (c. 1300–1389) The Janissaries Osman’s son Orkhan (OHR- kahn; ruled 1326–62) greatly expanded Around the time he conquered Ottoman control, partly by military Bulgaria in 1388, the Ottoman sultan action but even more so by skillful ma- Murad established a force similar to the neuvering. Orkhan introduced the of- Mamluks, an elite military group called fices of vizier and divan (di-VAHN), or the Janissaries (JAN-uh-sair-eez). The latter council of state, and proved his ability was composed of non-Turkish captives as a diplomat in his relations with the who had been converted to Islam and Byzantine emperor John VI Can- subjected to strict discipline. tacuzenus (kan-tuh-kyoo-ZEE-nuhs; ruled 1347–54). In time the Janissaries became so influential that they had the power to Orkhan supported John militar- make or break . The institution ily in a struggle against another continued to exist for more than 400 claimant on the Byzantine throne, and years, until 1826, when Sultan Mahmud II in return the Ottomans received the (ruled 1808–39) ordered the execution of Gallipoli (gah-LIP-oh-lee) Peninsula. A all Janissaries. narrow strip of land some sixty-three miles long, Gallipoli happened to lie on the other side of the strait separating Europe from Asia. and the Mamluks’ capital at Cairo in Beginning with this small ter- Egypt flourished. The late 1200s con- ritory, Orkhan’s son Murad (moo- stituted a golden age for the Mamluks, RAHD; ruled 1362–89) was able to and this was followed by a long, slow greatly expand Ottoman territories in decline. In 1517 they were removed Europe. Following his defeat of Ser- from power by yet another group of bian and Bulgarian forces in 1371, Turks, the Ottomans. Murad moved his capital from Bursa in Anatolia to Edirne (ay-DEER-nuh) or Adrianople in Europe, thus show- The Ottomans ing his determination to keep moving deeper into the continent. In the aftermath of the Seljuks’ defeat by the Mongols, vari- Murad went on to conquer ous Turkish principalities came to Bulgaria in 1388, and on June 28, power in Anatolia. Among the most 1389, his armies defeated a combined prominent was one controlled by the force of Serbians and others at Kosovo Osman (ahs-MAHN) family. Around (KOH-suh-voh) Field in southern Ser- 1300, Osman Gazi (GAH-zee; 1258–c. bia. The battle established Ottoman 1326) founded what came to be power over the southeastern portion known as the . of Europe—all except for the remnants

82 Middle Ages: Almanac of the Byzantine Empire—but Murad Conqueror, who ruled from 1451 to himself did not get to enjoy it for 1481. It was Mehmed who finally long. Soon after Kosovo, he was assas- brought down the Byzantine Empire sinated by a Serbian officer. in 1453, after which Constantinople became the new Ottoman capital, Is- tanbul. Mehmed added Bosnia and Troubled times and recovery Herzegovina (hurt-ze-GOH-vi-nuh) to (1389–1481) the empire, and by the end of his reign Turkish power extended from In 1396, on a battlefield in the coast of the Adriatic (ay-dree-AT- what is now Bulgaria, an army led by ik) Sea, which faces Italy, to the region Murad’s son Bajazed (by-yuh-ZEED; known as the (KAW-kuh-sus) ruled 1389–1402) defeated a com- in southern Russia. bined Hungarian and Venetian force, organized by the pope to protect Eu- rope from an Islamic invasion. The Ottomans seemed poised to begin ab- sorbing more and more of Europe; For More Information then from the east came the Mongol Books armies of Tamerlane, who in 1402 cap- Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient tured Bajazed himself. and Medieval World, Volume 11: Empires of the Ancient World. New York: Marshall As it turned out, Mongol Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1555–65. power was as shortlived in Anatolia as Roberts, J. M. The Illustrated History of the in most parts of the world, and upon World, Volume 4: The Age of Diverging Tamerlane’s death in 1405, the sons of Traditions. New York: Oxford, 1998, pp. Bajazed began vying for power. The re- 97–102, 122–23. stored line of Ottoman rulers faced Stewart, Desmond, and The Editors of Time- numerous military challenges: from Life Books. Early Islam. New York: Time- Venice in the ; from Hun- Life Books, 1967. gary in the Balkans; and from rebel forces in Anatolia and Albania. The leader of the Albanian revolt, Skander- Web Sites beg or George Kastrioti (1405–1468), “End of Europe’s Middle Ages—Ottoman was celebrated throughout the West- Turks.” [Online] Available http://www. ucalgary.ca/HIST/tutor/endmiddle/ot- ern world for his brave resistance to toman.html (last accessed July 28, 2000). the Turkish armies, and Albanians re- “The Seljuk Civilization.” Explore Turkey. [On- member him as their national hero. line] Available http://www.explore turkey.com/selcuklu.htm (last accessed Had the Ottoman Empire kept July 28, 2000). going the way it was, it would not have lasted much longer, but in fact it “The Turkish Dynasties: The Seljuks.” Art Arena. [Online] Available http://www. continued until 1922. Its recovery artarena.force9.co.uk/seljuk.html (last began under Mehmed (meh-MET) the accessed July 28, 2000).

The Turks 83 The Jewish World 8

ecause it is written in the most famous of all books, the BBible, the story of the Jews is more well known than that of almost any other nation. The Old Testament tells that they were “God’s chosen people,” for whom he had selected a spe- cial land in Palestine. The Jewish nation of Israel, with its cap- ital in Jerusalem, maintained control of that land for cen- turies; after 586 B.C., however, a succession of empires ruled. In A.D. 70, about forty years after the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, the Romans destroyed Jerusalem, and in 135, ban- ished all Jews from the city. Over the years that followed, the Jews tried unsuccessfully several times to reestablish at least partial control over the area; by the beginning of the Middle Ages, however, many had moved on to find what they hoped would be a better life.

Jews, Judaism, and anti-Semitism The term “Jew,” strictly speaking, refers simply to someone who practices Judaism, the Jewish religion. A faith rich in symbolism and ritual, Judaism provided the founda-

85 Words to Know: The Jewish World

Anti-Semitism: Hatred of, or discrimina- Messiah: The promised savior of Israel, tion against, Jews. foretold in the Old Testament.

Ashkenazim: Jews who settled in Central Rabbi: A Jewish teacher or religious leader. or Eastern Europe during the Middle Ritual: A type of religious ceremony that is Ages, along with their descendants. governed by very specific rules. Cabala: A Jewish mystical system for inter- Scriptures: Holy texts. preting the Scriptures. Sephardim: Jews who settled in Spain dur- Diaspora: The settlement of the Jews out- ing the early Middle Ages and later side their homeland in Palestine. spread to other parts of the world, along with their descendants. Ethnic group: People who share a com- Synagogue: A Jewish temple. mon racial, cultural, national, linguistic, or tribal origin. Theology: The study of religious faith.

Holy Land: Palestine. Usury: Loaning money for a high rate of interest; during the Middle Ages, how- Judaism: The Jewish religion, whose sacred ever, it meant simply loaning money for text is the Old Testament. interest. Ladino: A dialect spoken by Sephardic Yiddish: A language spoken by Ashkenaz- Jews, combining Hebrew and Spanish. im, combining German and Hebrew.

tion on which both Christianity and Middle Ages—to describe an ethnic Islam developed. The Old Testament, group whose ancestors belonged to the the principal Jewish scripture, con- nation of Israel during ancient times. tains a number of themes familiar to As a nation, the Jews believed that believers in all three religions: sin and they had a special relationship with redemption, faith, sacrifice, obedi- God; therefore the many misfortunes ence, and charity. At the center of all they faced as a people were a punish- these concepts is the idea of law, and ment from God for disobedience. Jewish rabbis were trained in the reli- gious law that originated with the After they were taken into cap- prophet Moses in about 1300 B.C. tivity by the Babylonians in 586 B.C., the Jews gradually came to believe that In practice, “Jew” is often God would send them a Messiah, a used—and certainly was used in the savior who would liberate them. Many

86 Middle Ages: Almanac A page from a Torah scroll. The Torah, which is written in the , comprises the five books of Moses, part of the Jewish scripture. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. people believed that Jesus Christ (c. 6 Middle Ages. This was more than a lit- B.C.–c. A.D. 30) was the promised Mes- tle ironic: not only was Jesus Christ a siah, and this was the foundation of Jew, but the Bible makes clear that all Christianity. However, most Jews re- of humanity—not just the Jews or jected the idea that Jesus was the Mes- even the Roman soldiers who actually siah, and a group of Jewish leaders nailed him to the cross—shares the called the Pharisees (FAIR-uh-seez) had blame for killing the man Christians even arranged for him to be put on believe was God in human form. trial by the Romans, who controlled the region at the time. As a result, Jesus was crucified, or nailed to a wooden cross and forced to hang on it Jews in the Middle East until he died. Not all Jews called for and North Africa his crucifixion, of course, but the fact The settlement of the Jews that some did would later be used as throughout the world is known as the an excuse for anti-Semitism during the Diaspora, but in fact many Jews stayed

The Jewish World 87 in Palestine or nearby Syria. After 638, hads in Morocco from the mid-1100s when the Muslims conquered to the mid-1200s was particularly Jerusalem, Jews were allowed to reen- harsh. Jews were forcibly converted, ter the city, and in general, they lived and those who refused to accept Islam much better under Muslim than were slaughtered. As was the case in under Christian rule. Jews in southern Europe at about the same time, the Al- Arabia fared particularly well: for mohads began forcing Jews to wear many centuries, the region that is now special clothing to set them apart Yemen was a wealthy community of from the rest of society. Arab merchants who embraced the Jewish faith. The center of Jewish life during the Middle Ages lay in Mesopotamia Jews in Spain and Persia—modern-day Iraq and Iran. During much of the Middle Again, the establishment of Islamic Ages, Spain—or rather the Iberian rule benefited the Jews. They had suf- (eye-BEER-ee-un) Peninsula that in- fered some persecution under the Sas- cludes both modern Spain and Portu- sanid rulers of Persia, but after Mus- gal—was a special case in many re- lims replaced the Sassanids in the gards. Geographically and historically 600s, Jews began to hold positions of it was part of Europe, but culturally it influence in Persia. Jews gravitated was part of the Islamic world. Likewise into positions as merchants and Jews in Spain were a distinct group, bankers, and enjoyed considerable called Sephardim (suh-FAHR-dim). control over the Islamic government’s They even developed their own lan- purse strings. The greatest contribu- guage, a mixture of Spanish and He- tion of Jews in Iraq, however, was the brew called Ladino (luh-DEE-noh). Talmud (see box), along with other The Visigoths had persecuted works of literature and philosophy. Jews, who therefore welcomed the North Africa represented ex- Muslim conquest in 711. As in most tremes of good and bad for Jewish other Muslim countries, Jews found communities under Islam. During the themselves tolerated, but they began late 900s in what is now , the to flourish in the 900s, thanks in large town of al-Qayrawan (AL ky-rah- part to one Jewish man: Hisdai ibn WAHN) became the biggest center of Shaprut (kis-DY ib’n shahp-RÜT; c. Jewish life outside of Iraq. The experi- 915–c. 975). Court to Caliph ence of Jews was also relatively good Abd ar-Rahman III, Hisdai acted in the in Egypt at around the same time, capacity of vizier or chief minister, and with the tolerant Fatimids in power; often went on important diplomatic but Jewish communities there de- missions for the caliph. He also used clined after the 1000s, along with the his influence to encourage Hebrew power of the Fatimids themselves. On scholarship in general, and study of the other hand, the rule of the Almo- the Talmud in particular.

88 Middle Ages: Almanac The Talmud

First compiled in the 500s, the Tal- mud brings together Jewish oral law as a complement or supplement to the written law, the Old Testament. It consists of two major parts, the Mishnah and the Gemara. Later scholars produced commen- taries on the Talmud. Rashi (Shlomo Yitz- haqi; 1040–1105), a rabbi in France, added insights drawn from the Jewish experience in Christian Europe during the Middle Ages. Even more important were the Tal- mudic commentaries of Moses Mai- monides a century later.

A rabbi reading the Talmud. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

Jewish culture in Spain Umayyads (Muslim rulers) had been, reached a high point during the but Christians were beginning to re- eleventh century. Following Hisdai’s conquer the northern part of the example, a number of Jews attained country. The takeover by the Almo- positions of influence in the Muslim hads in the 1100s signaled an even fur- government, none of them more ther decline in the Jews’ situation, yet prominent than Samuel ha-Nagid it was during this period that Spain (hah-NAH-geed; 993–c. 1055). A Tal- produced the greatest Jewish thinker mudic scholar and military comman- of the Middle Ages: Moses Maimonides der, Samuel was the actual power be- (my-MAHN-uh-deez; 1135–1204). As hind the caliph, handling all political Muslim philosophers before him had and military matters himself. He also done, Maimonides attempted to strike found time to write several classics of a balance between the philosophy of medieval Jewish scholarship. the ancient Greeks on the one hand, and religious faith on the other. Conditions for Spanish Jews began to decline after the Almoravids With the Almohads conducting took power in 1086. Not only were the massacres and forced conversions as new rulers less tolerant than the they had done in Africa, many Jews fled

The Jewish World 89 kuh-NAHZ-im), and in contrast to the Sephardim, they followed worship rit- uals established in Palestine rather than in Iraq. Beginning in the 800s, Jews in Central Europe began develop- ing their own language, a mixture of Hebrew and German called Yiddish. It is sad but true that during the Middle Ages, persons acting in the name of Christianity—a religion root- ed in Judaism and based on compas- sion, charity, and love—typically treated Jews with cruelty and brutality. Thus the Jews fared better under pagan rulers in Rome and among the barbarians than they did later, when the Romans and barbarians converted to Christianity. This is not to say that all Chris- tian peoples treated them badly: in the 500s, the Ostrogoths and later the Lombards in Italy, both Christianized Moses Maimonides, a great Jewish thinker tribes, accorded Jews a high degree of from the Middle Ages, attempted to blend respect. Even in the Carolingian Em- religious faith with . pire, where all other non-Christian re- ligions were forbidden, Jews were al- to other parts of Europe. Muslim power lowed to continue holding services in in Spain dwindled and conditions their synagogues or temples. worsened in the 1200s, yet Jewish intel- lectual life continued to bear fruit. Dur- Anti-Semitism gathers force ing this era, many talented minds em- In fact the situation for Jews in braced the cabala (kuh-BAH-luh), a Western Europe did not really deterio- mystical system for interpreting the rate until the Crusades in the 1000s. Scriptures based on the belief that every The timing is ironic, since the purpose word and punctuation mark in the of the Crusades was supposedly to re- holy texts contains a secret message. capture the Holy Land—that is, Pales- tine—from the Muslims; but the Cru- saders had no intention of returning it Jews in Europe to the Jews. Instead, Jews were seen as European Jews outside of enemies because they had rejected Spain were called Ashkenazim (ash- Christ, and the fact that they had lost

90 Middle Ages: Almanac their nation and were forced to wan- der seemed like a clear-cut judgment from God. The Jewish Kingdom of Khazaria In the frenzy that attended the First Crusade in 1096, people in a Though Israel ceased to be a na- number of German towns slaughtered tion in 586 B.C. and would not be reestab- Jews as enemies of Christ. Thereafter, lished until A.D. 1948, a Jewish kingdom anti-Semitism would periodically die did flourish during the Middle Ages. It down, then reemerge in new forms. In was ruled not by descendants of the an- 1215, the pope ordered that Jews had cient Israelites, however, but by Turks. to wear special clothing so that Chris- This was Khazaria, the kingdom tians would not accidentally associate that emerged from the Khazar Khanate in with them. During the Black Death of southern Russia. Accounts vary, but it ap- the 1300s, a rumor spread that Jews pears that in the 700s, the Khazars con- had caused the plague by poisoning verted to Judaism, and thereafter followed . Economic problems, too, were all Jewish rituals. The kingdom flourished blamed on Jews. until the 1000s, when it was conquered by Kievan Russia. The economic explanation Economic motivation certain- ly explains some of Europeans’ hatred. Jews had long been dominant in the lending money and charging interest, business world, in part because a Jew- no matter how low the rate. ish businessman traveling to a faraway In fact, when lenders are able city knew that he could count on the to charge a reasonable rate of interest, finances and connections of the Jew- this helps the entire economy to grow ish community there. Therefore some, and benefits the poor as well as the though far from all, Jews were rich. People in medieval times, howev- wealthy, a fact that enraged many of er, had no notion of such concepts: re- Europe’s poor. jecting reason in favor of emotion, Furthermore, Jewish skill in they found it easy to blame the Jews business, combined with a growing at- for the problems in their lives. titude of anti-Semitism, had forced Jews into positions such as pawnbro- ker, moneylender, and banker. At that Expulsion and forced time those professions were viewed conversion with disdain. The Catholic Church Eventually many nations had condemned usury (YOO-zhur-ee), worked themselves into such a fever of which today means lending money at anti-Semitism that they forced all Jews an extremely high rate of interest; in to leave. It happened first in France in the Middle Ages, however, it meant 1182, when King Philip II Augustus ex-

The Jewish World 91 pelled all the Jews in order to seize throughout North Africa and the Mid- their assets. Over the following years, dle East. France pursued an erratic policy to- ward its Jews, repeatedly inviting them back long enough to grab more wealth, then expelling them again. For More Information England took a much simpler Books approach to the Jews, who first ap- Abrahams, Israel. Jewish Life in the Middle peared in Britain following the Nor- Ages. : Jewish Publication Society, 1993. man Invasion of 1066. English nobles had managed to profit off of the Jew- Cohen, Mark R. Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton, NJ: ish community for some time before Princeton University Press, 1994. King Edward I sent them away in Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient 1290. Jews would not be readmitted to and Medieval World, Volume 10: Medieval England again until the 1600s. Politics and Life. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1369–74. But the most disastrous situa- tion for European Jews was on the Luchs, Alvin Schanfarber. Torchbearers of the Middle Ages. Illustrated by Stanley Iberian Peninsula, where Jews had Maxwell. Freeport, NY: Books for Li- once been tolerated. Beginning in braries Press, 1971. 1391, as the Christian re-conquest of Spain gathered , Jews were offered the option of conversion or ex- Web Sites pulsion. Some chose conversion—and “Beyond the Pale: The Middle Ages.” [Online] were dubbed Marranos (muh-RAH- Available http://www.friends-partners. org/partners/beyond-the-pale/english/ nawz; “pigs”) by disdainful Christians. 06.html (last accessed July 28, 2000). In 1492, Spain ordered all Jews out, The Khazaria Info Center. [Online] Available and five years later, Portugal did the http://www.khazaria.com/ (last accessed same. Thereafter the Sephardim spread July 28, 2000).

92 Middle Ages: Almanac The Eleventh Century 9

central theme of the eleventh century (the 1000s) in Eu- Arope was the struggle between church and state, or be- tween popes and kings. From the mid-800s to the early eleventh century, a series of corrupt popes succeeded in near- ly destroying the reputation of the papacy, just as emperors such as Otto the Great were enhancing their own power. In the 1000s, however, church reformers would bring Rome greater authority than it had ever enjoyed and would eventu- ally launch Europe on an ambitious campaign of military and religious conquest called the Crusades.

Europe on the eve of the Crusades Just as Charles Martel had established the Carolingian throne on the ruins of the Merovingian dynasty (see Chapter 3: The Merovingian Age), so medieval France grew from the ruins of Charlemagne’s empire. In 987, the Carolingian ruler of the West Frankish Empire died without an heir; therefore French nobles and church leaders gathered to choose a succes- sor. They elected a member of France’s most powerful family,

93 Words to Know: The Eleventh Century

Abbess: The head of a convent. Infidel: An unbeliever.

Abbey: A monastery or convent. Indulgence: The granting of forgiveness of : The head of a monastery. sins in exchange for an act of service for, or payment to, the church. Absolution: Forgiveness of sins, particular- ly by a priest. Investiture: The power of a feudal lord to Antipope: A priest proclaimed pope by grant lands or offices. one group or another, but not officially Mass: A Catholic church service. recognized by the church. Cardinal: An office in the Catholic Church Ordination: Formal appointment as a higher than that of bishop or archbish- priest or minister. op; the seventy cardinals in the “College Principality: An area ruled by a prince, the of Cardinals” participate in electing the highest-ranking form of noble below a pope. king. Cleric: A priest. Saracen: A negative term used in medieval County: In the Middle Ages, an area ruled Europe to describe Muslims. by a relatively low-ranking type of no- bleman called a count. Simony: The practice of buying and selling church offices. Duchy: An area ruled by a duke, the high- est rank of European noble below a : A rite in which a candidate for prince. priesthood had part of his hair removed; Eucharist: Communion, or the Lord’s Sup- later this became the name for the hair- per service. style of monks and other clerics. Habit: The clothing worn by a monk or Vassal: A noble or king who is subject to a nun. more powerful noble or king.

Hugh Capet (kuh-PAY; ruled 987–96), Outside of a small region con- whose Capetian (kuh-PEE-shun) dy- trolled by the Capetians, however, nasty would rule the country until France was divided into a number of 1328. As his capital, Hugh Capet chose principalities, one of the most signifi- a city along the River Seine (SEHN), a cant of which belonged to the Nor- town that had existed long before the mans. Descendants of the Vikings, the Romans captured it in 52 B.C.: Paris. Normans had first sailed up the Seine

94 Middle Ages: Almanac Scene of William the Conqueror and his army on the attack; this image is part of the Bayeux Tapestry, which provides a visual account of the Norman Invasion. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. in 820, and by 911 the Carolingian Duke Richard I of Normandy. From king had been forced to make a treaty then on, the Normans had their eye recognizing their right to occupy a on the English throne, and in 1042, large area of northwestern France. The Ethelred’s and Emma’s son Edward the Normans agreed to convert to Chris- Confessor became king. During his tianity and to protect France from reign, many Normans settled in Eng- other invaders; in exchange, they re- land; then in 1066, the Normans ceived the region between the English launched a full-scale invasion of Eng- Channel and Paris, which became land. On October 14, they dealt the known as Normandy. English a decisive blow on a beach near the town of Hastings. The leader In 1002, the English king of this victorious force, the new king Ethelred the Unready—so named for of England, was William the Con- his inability to resist the invasions of queror (c. 1028–1087; ruled 1066– Canute—married Emma, daughter of 1087).

The Eleventh Century 95 As it turned out, the Norman southeast led to the establishment of Conquest would have wide-ranging the “eastern kingdom”—Österreich, or effects felt even today (see box, Austria. To the southwest, Otto recon- “Chickens, Churches, and Normans”); quered territories formerly controlled more immediately, however, it posed a by Charlemagne, including Lorraine challenge for France. Kings of England and Burgundy, today in eastern France. after William held the title “duke of With Otto’s conquest of Italy Normandy”; and after 1154, an Eng- and the reviving of the Holy Roman lish king was also count of Empire, German kings thenceforth (ahn-ZHOO), a French province. claimed the title of emperor, which France began reconquering French they usually received in a coronation lands in 1254, and by 1450 would ceremony overseen by the pope. Otto’s place all of Normandy under the rule grandson Otto III (ruled 983–1002), of Paris; along the way, however, Eng- whose mother was a Byzantine lish claims to French lands would princess, grew up nourished on grand spawn a series of conflicts. dreams of an empire. He believed that the empire could become more than just a name. As emperor, he presented Germany a crown to his counterpart in Byzan- Germany was formally under tium, proclaiming him ruler of the the control of the Holy Roman Em- East as Otto was of the West. The pire, though that name did not actual- Byzantines, however, had no interest ly appear until 1254. In any case, the in an alliance, and Otto’s magnificent Holy Roman Empire was—to quote a visions of an empire died with him. joke almost as old as the Middle Ages—neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire. In fact it was a mask for the Italy , itself a loose collec- Italy had revived in the 700s, tion of duchies such as Saxony and thanks to its increased contact with Bavaria. Each had its ruling nobles, the highly civilized Arab world; but by and with the end of Carolingian power the late 900s, it had become mired in in 911, these began electing kings to a state of near-constant warfare that lead the various German states. would not lift for more than three The election of Saxony’s king centuries. During this time, a force for Henry, father of Otto the Great, in 918 stability was the port of Venice in led to a century of Saxon domination. northeastern Italy. Built on lagoons, Otto vastly expanded Germany, trans- islands, and mud flats, the city had ex- forming the kingdom into a true em- isted since the 300s and had flour- pire. His victories over the Slavs to the ished as a province of the Byzantine northeast added lands that would be- Empire. By the 1000s, Venice re- come Prussia, or eastern Germany, and mained one of the few Byzantine the conquest of the Magyars in the colonies on the Italian mainland, and

96 Middle Ages: Almanac Otto III standing at the tomb of Charlemagne, finding the body of the dead emperor undecayed. Otto III had dreams of leading a great empire as Charlemagne had done almost two hundred years earlier. Reproduced by permission of Archive Photos, Inc.

The Eleventh Century 97 it would soon become clear that Byzantium lacked the power to con- Chickens, Churches, trol the city. and Normans At the south end of the penin- The of 1066 sula was the triangle-shaped island of was the central “before and after” in Eng- Sicily, which had fallen under Muslim lish history, and in the history of the Eng- control in 827. Therefore the church lish language. The Anglo-Saxon invasion was inclined to view the Normans of the 400s had established the Germanic who conquered it as heroes for Christ, roots of English, but the invasion by the though the truth was not so glorious. French-speaking Normans added a whole These Normans had first come south new Latin-based (or Romance) layer. It is in the early 1000s, when the duke of for this reason that English is perhaps the Naples used them to subdue Lombard richest and most varied of languages. princes eager to reassert their power. To use an everyday example, In return, the Normans had received a there is the German word for chicken, county in Italy, thus establishing a Hünchen (HÜN-ken), which sounds much foothold in the area. like its English counterpart. In French, this The church and the German is poulet (poo-LAY), a close relative of the empire each wanted to oust the Byzan- English word “poultry.” Thus English has tines, Lombards, and others, then estab- two words, where German and French lish full control over Italy. Their biggest each have just one. Another example in- rivals (besides one another) were the volves the English words “church” and Normans, and specifically Robert and “ecclesiastical” (ee-klee-zee-AS-ti-kul), an Roger Guiscard (gee-SKARD), sometimes adjective meaning “church-related.” The known as the de Hauteville (DOHT- first word is close to the German Kirke veel) brothers. At first the papacy at- (KEER-kuh), the second to the French tempted to stop the de Hautevilles with eglise (ay-GLEEZ). military force, but by 1059 the pope re- An English-speaker who studies alized they were too powerful. German will be pleasantly surprised at all So Rome tried a different strate- the familiar-sound words such as Buch, gy, much like the one used by French Auto, and Freund (FROIND)—respectively kings with the Normans’ ancestors “book,” “auto,” and “friend.” German nearly 150 years before: in return for a grammar, however, is much more of a promise that they would defend the challenge to English speakers, since Eng- Papal States against all other invaders, it lish primarily took on Romance, rather conferred the title of duke on both than German, sentence structure. brothers. The de Hautevilles also agreed to drive the Muslims out of Sicily, and Roger began conquering the island in 1061. Meanwhile Robert drove the Byzantines from southern Italy in 1071.

98 Middle Ages: Almanac Eastern Europe In Eastern Europe, Catholic nations prospered: Poland briefly flourished under the Piast (PYAHST) dynasty, and in 1085 Bohemia emerged as an independent kingdom. At the same time, Orthodox lands ex- perienced a severe decline. After the decline of Kiev, the only significant principality in Russia was Vladimir, an area to the northeast first settled in the 900s. Its people were originally Finnish in origin, but as Kievan Russia fell apart, more Slavs moved into the towns of Vladimir and Rostov, where they intermarried with the Finns to form a stable local popu- lation. Around 1147, the Russians es- tablished a fortress in the area, and named it Moscow. One day it would become the center of a great empire; but that day was long in the future. In 1071, the same year they A gondola approaches the Bridge of Sighs in were driven from Italy, the Byzantines Venice, Italy. Venice flourished as a province had suffered a devastating defeat by of the Byzantine Empire during the early the Turks at Manzikert. Fearing Muslim Middle Ages. Photograph by Susan D. Rock. conquest, Emperor Alexis I Comnenus Reproduced by permission of Susan D. Rock. (kahm-NEEN-us; ruled 1081–1118) ap- pealed to the pope for military help. Despite the relatively recent break be- tween the Greek Orthodox and Roman The recovery of the Catholic churches, Alexis had reason church to believe that his Christian brothers The church had declined dur- would aid him in the fight against the ing the 800s and 900s, a period in infidels. He had no idea of the forces which many church leaders obtained he was unleashing, however. Over the their posts not through great devotion next two centuries, Byzantium would to God but in return for money. The get more “help” than it could stand as practice of buying and selling church Europeans unleashed a series of wars offices was called simony, and the called the Crusades, which would church took no specific measures have a devastating effect on the against it until the 1000s. Another Byzantine Empire. issue of concern was that of clerical

The Eleventh Century 99 marriage, which in the view of many Given its size, the organiza- church leaders would only encourage tional system of the church was ex- priests to think about sex. Therefore ceedingly simple. For a long time, the the church officially prohibited cleri- only level above a priest was a bishop, cal marriage in 1059. with the bishop of Rome occupying the leading position as pope. By 1059, The pope who put the ailing however, the church came to recog- church on the road to recovery was nize certain “cardinal”—most impor- Gregory VII (ruled 1073–85). Gregory tant—bishops, eventually known sim- started as a Benedictine monk, and ply as cardinals. Like bishops, the under his leadership the monasteries cardinals represented given regions, or abbeys became an important instru- though their regions were larger, and ment of reform. Gregory’s new activist there were fewer of them. Originally monasticism would later find its fullest there were only seven, but in time this expression with the establishment of number grew to seventy, a group the Cistercian (sis-TUR-shun) order in known as the College of Cardinals. France. Cistercian monks, who typical- Distinguished by their red caps, cardi- ly lived in isolated areas, worked hard nals were the men who gathered to clearing land for agricultural use, elect a new pope upon the death of growing crops, making , keeping the old one. bees for honey, and even . Another key instrument of church organization was the ecumeni- The organization of the church cal councils. Actually, the last truly ec- By the eleventh century, the umenical one—joining both Eastern church had a well-established system and Western churches—was the of organization for monks and nuns. Fourth Council of Constantinople in They were usually led by an abbot or 869, or eighth ecumenical council. , and they wore simple gar- Then, more than 250 years later, ments of rough, loose-fitting material Catholic bishops in 1123 met at called a habit. Monks were a part of Rome’s Lateran (LAT-ur-un) Palace, the the priesthood, and all priests were papal residence. Whereas the first distinguished by the tonsure (TAHN- eight councils had focused on issues of shoor), a type of hairstyle in which belief and heresy, the four Lateran the top of the head was shaven. After councils and others that followed cen- meeting certain obligations, a candi- tered on matters relating to church date for priesthood joined the church, discipline. then progressed through a series of “minor orders.” A man could leave the minor orders if he chose, but ordina- The church-state struggle: tion—the act of formal appointment round one as a priest—was irreversible, and leav- With the church on the rise ing the priesthood was a grave sin. after a period of decline, and with

100 Middle Ages: Almanac German emperors seeking to establish their power, the two forces were bound to collide. The showdown Transubstantiation: came in 1075, when Gregory faced off Body and Blood with Emperor Henry IV (ruled A central aspect of worship dur- 1056–1106) in a bitter struggle called ing the Middle Ages was ritual, and the Investiture Controversy. The term nowhere was this tendency more appar- investiture referred to a king’s authori- ent than in the Eucharist (YOO-kuh-rist), ty to give property to appoint or “in- or Communion service. The Eucharist had vest” local church leaders, a right originated with the Last Supper of Jesus Henry claimed on the grounds that and his disciples. There Jesus stated that bishops and held political as the bread they ate was his body, which well as spiritual power. would soon be broken on the cross, and On December 8, 1075, Grego- the wine they drank was his blood, which ry sent Henry orders to stop appoint- would soon be shed. In the future, he told ing bishops and abbots, and Henry re- them, they should eat bread and drink sponded by calling Gregory a “false wine together “in remembrance of me.” monk.” Gregory then brought the full Originally it was understood that power of his papal authority to bear: the bread and wine were symbols of not only was Henry excommunicated Christ’s body and blood, but by the (1076) and his rulership of Germany 1000s, the church had come to embrace declared null and void, he was con- the idea of transubstantiation (trans-sub- demned to eternal damnation. Henry stan-shee-AY-shun). According to tran- quickly lost the support of his nobles, substantiation, the bread became so in January 1077, in a symbolic act Christ’s literal body, and the wine his ac- of humility and submission, he ap- tual blood. This did not mean it was peared at the castle of Canossa (kuh- physically the same as actual flesh and NAH-suh) in northern Italy, where the blood, but it was Christ’s body and pope was temporarily residing, and blood all the same. In 1215, the Fourth waited barefoot outside in the snow Lateran Council confirmed the doctrine for days until the pope granted him of transubstantiation. absolution. But the story did not end with Henry in the snow at Canossa. Seven years later, Henry marched into Rome and had Gregory removed, to be re- out his days under the protection of placed by the antipope Clement III (c. the de Hautevilles. Yet Gregory passed 1025–1100). Only the help of Robert his fervor for reform and papal au- Guiscard returned Gregory to power, thority on to Urban II (ruled but in the process Robert’s troops so 1088–99), who would prove the abili- badly devastated the city that the peo- ty of the church to make emperors ple turned against Gregory. He lived and kings do its bidding.

The Eleventh Century 101 ing spot was Rome, not only as the center of the papacy, but also because of its association with the saints and martyrs of the early Church. Yet one place exceeded the glory even of Rome. This was the place where Jesus himself had walked, and where many events from the Bible had occurred: the Holy Land, or Palestine, specifical- ly the city of Jerusalem. For centuries, the Holy Land had belonged to the Muslims, or Sara- cens (SAR-uh-sunz) as many Europeans called them. The Arab caliphate had re- spected the right of Christian pilgrims to visit Jerusalem, a city holy to Islam as well; yet the Seljuks had proven less tolerant than the Arabs and had begun harassing pilgrims visiting the Holy Land. Therefore when Alexis I Com- nenus sent a request to Urban II for military help against the Turks, Urban saw it as something much bigger: a Santiago de Compostela, in northwestern chance to reclaim the Holy Land for Spain, was a favorite destination for pilgrims Christ, to bring the Orthodox Church because it was said to be the burial place of the apostle James. Reproduced by permission of back within the Catholic fold—and to the Corbis Corporation. make the pope the most powerful man in the world. Furthermore, he needed a foreign war to occupy the energies of the Normans. The First Crusade (1095–99) During the Middle Ages pil- Launching of the crusade grimages became popular both as an Like Gregory before him, act of devotion to God and as a form Urban had found himself dependent of retribution for sins or even crimes on the de Hautevilles, in his case (see box, “Punishment, Prison, and Pil- Robert’s son Bohemond I (BOH-ay- grimage”). A favorite site for pilgrims maw; c. 1050–1111). Bohemond took from France was Santiago de Com- Rome from Henry IV in 1094, and postela in northwestern Spain, where thus allowed Urban to take control of the apostle James had supposedly been the Lateran. Certainly Urban was buried. In Europe as a whole, the lead- grateful for the assistance, but he was

102 Middle Ages: Almanac also aware that the Normans were in- terested primarily in conquest and treasure, not the church. Therefore Punishment, they could easily become dangerous Prison, and Pilgrimage foes, and Urban was only too happy Medieval justice had severe pun- to send them far, far away to attack ishments, such as branding or mutilation, someone else. In so doing, he claimed, for serious crimes. For less serious offens- that would be performing God’s work. es, however, or for crimes committed by There were other, equally un- persons of high social rank, fines were godly, forces motivating the “wars of generally imposed. Later, the practice of the cross,” or Crusades, that followed. judicial pilgrimage replaced fines as a Kings and nobles were eager for a punishment. chance to prove the strength of their First introduced in Ireland during armies. Later crusades would involve the 500s, judicial pilgrimage might seem commercial powers such as Venice, like an easy sentence. But this was a time whose interest was expansion of trade. when travel in any form was highly un- Among the common people, plenty comfortable—especially if one had to were drawn by the desire for riches, or walk barefoot and in chains, as most crim- even worse by a lust for killing. Cer- inals did. Persons accused of murder often tainly some genuinely believed that had to walk with their murder weapons they were fighting to rescue God’s holy chained to them, and these might come city from the hands of unbelievers— in handy, since the roads of Europe were but many of these same people be- teeming with bandits and cutthroats. lieved that this gave them justification to kill every Muslim or Jew they found.

In the speech that began the YAWn) in France, later to be idealized First Crusade, Urban promised that as the perfect knight; Godfrey’s broth- participants would enjoy the protec- er Baldwin of Boulogne (boo-LAWN); tion of the church over their homes and Raymond IV, count of and loved ones while they were away, (tuh-LOOS). and that they would earn complete forgiveness for their sins. This was an early example of an indulgence, the The Peasants’ Crusade granting of forgiveness for sins in ex- Alongside these figures were change for some act of service to the men who possessed neither wealth church. Many powerful men heeded nor official power, but who could his call, and in turn mobilized their command masses of followers. Most armies, setting a pattern for crusades notable among the latter was Peter the to come. Aside from Bohemond, there Hermit (c. 1050–1115), a French as- was his nephew Tancred; the French cetic who mobilized thousands with noble Godfrey of Bouillon (boo- his speeches; and Gautier Sans Avoir

The Eleventh Century 103 Byzantine territory at the city of Bel- grade, the frightened Byzantines tried to turn them back, so the peasants began looting and pillaging. They were attacked by troops in Bulgaria, and by the time they reached Con- stantinople, their numbers had been reduced by one-quarter. They began conducting raids against Byzantine homes and churches, so Emperor Alexis wisely offered to ferry the entire peasant army across the strait called the Bosporus (BAHS-pur-us) and into Anatolia. They never got much far- ther: a local Turkish leader led the “Franks”—the Turks’ name for the Eu- ropeans—into a trap, and most of them died. Peter himself, away in Constantinople to seek aid from Alex- is, survived.

Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade in Spoils for the victors 1095 as an attempt to seize the Holy Land Meanwhile the official crusade from the Muslims. Reproduced by permission of was just getting started. Unlike the the Corbis Corporation. peasants, the nobles had taken time to organize and prepare their armies, which reached the Holy Land in early (GOH-tee-ay SAWNZ a-VWAH, “Wal- 1097. They scored their first major vic- ter the Penniless”), a French knight. tory at Nicaea in June—but only with These two led the disastrous Peasants’ the help of Alexis, who claimed the Crusade (1096–97), which shadowed city for Byzantium. A few months the official First Crusade. later, Baldwin took Edessa in eastern The armies of peasants first Asia Minor and established the Coun- made a shameful name for themselves ty of Edessa, the first of several “cru- in 1096, when they massacred count- sader states”; but he seized it from Ar- less German Jews as “enemies of menian Christians, not Turks. Christ,” then helped themselves to the Meanwhile the main body of cru- Jews’ possessions. From there they saders besieged Antioch (AN-tee-ahk), headed southeastward in a traditional an ancient city on the border between pilgrims’ route that took them Turkey and Syria that had been an im- through Hungary. When they entered portant center of the early church. An-

104 Middle Ages: Almanac A Crusader. Reproduced by permission of the New York Public Library Picture Collection.

The Eleventh Century 105 tioch became another crusader state, hatred of Christians among many under the rule of Bohemond. Muslims—had been set into motion. Then in July 1099, forces under Tancred and others conducted a brutal assault on Jerusalem, and seized the city after slaughtering thousands of For More Information Muslims. Ironically, Jerusalem was no Books longer in the hands of the Turks; a year Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient earlier, it had fallen under the control and Medieval World, Volume 9: The Mid- of the Egyptians, who despised the dle Ages. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1213–24. Turks almost as much as the Europeans did. The Egyptians had promised that Hanawalt, Barbara A. The Middle Ages: An Il- lustrated History. New York: Oxford Uni- once they controlled Jerusalem, the versity Press, 1998. Christians would have full access to all Jones, Terry, and Alan Ereira. Crusades. New holy sites. But the original purpose of York: Facts on File, 1995, pp. 11–80. the Crusades had already been lost: the Langley, Andrew. Medieval Life. New York: Europeans wanted land and treasure, Knopf, 1996. and they could only get those by steal- Severy, Merle, editor. The Age of Chivalry. ing. In the end, Godfrey of Bouillon Washington, D.C.: National Geographic emerged as the ruler of the new Latin Society, 1969, pp. 92–130. Kingdom of Jerusalem. With the establishment of a fourth crusader state, the County of Web Sites Tripoli, the crusaders controlled the “The Cistercians.” [Online] Available http:// www2.csbsju.edu/osb/cist/intro.html entire Mediterranean coast of what is (last accessed July 28, 2000). now Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. “The First Crusade.” [Online] Available Though the Crusades would continue http://history.idbsu.edu/westciv/ for centuries, this was the high point crusades/01.htm (last accessed July 28, from the Europeans’ perspective; from 2000). then on, they would mostly be fight- Medieval Sourcebook: Empire and Papacy. [On- ing to hold on to what they had line] Available http://www.fordham. edu/ gained in the . Eventually the halsall/sbook1l.html (last accessed July 28, 2000). Muslims, caught off guard by the First Crusade, would begin to react in a The Norman Conquest. [Online] Available http://historymedren.about.com/educa spirit of jihad. One of the most nega- tion/history/historymedren/msub tive outcomes of the Crusades—a deep norm.htm (last accessed July 28, 2000).

106 Middle Ages: Almanac The Twelfth Century 10

hough the Crusades would continue in some form until T1464, the reached its peak during the twelfth century, as Europeans fought to maintain what they had gained in the First Crusade. The Crusades were the heart of the Middle Ages, source of the ideas and images most closely associated with the medieval period; but they were also the turning point, the beginning of the end. Conceived in ignorance, greed, and superstition, these so-called “holy wars” would have the unexpected effect of exposing Euro- peans to new ideas; as a result, the Europeans and their world were forever changed. From 1100, the reawakening of Europe began to pick up speed, and soon there was no turning back.

A changing world Early in the twelfth century, England had its own In- vestiture Controversy. William the Conqueror’s son William II (ruled 1087–1106), though he proved greedy and foolish as a king, was smart enough to appoint an outstanding man as archbishop of , the leader of England’s church.

107 Words to Know: The Twelfth Century

Allegory: A type of narrative, popular Moat: A large deep trench, filled with throughout the Middle Ages, in which water, that surrounds a castle. characters represent ideas. Page: The first step in training for knight- Artillery: and other heavy fire- hood, usually undertaken by young boys power. who performed menial tasks for a knight Archbishop: The leading bishop in an area or feudal lord. or nation. Penance: An act ordered by the church to Buttress: An exterior supporting structure. obtain forgiveness for sin.

Chateau: Originally a type of feudal castle Reason: The use of the mind to figure in France, but later a name for a large things out; usually contrasted with emo- country house. tion, intuition, or faith. Classical: Referring to ancient Greece and Squire: The middle stage in training for Rome. knighthood, usually undertaken by Coat of arms: A heraldic emblem repre- teenaged boys who became a knight’s senting a family or nation. personal assistant.

Courtly love: An idealized form of roman- : A type of poet in tic love, usually of a knight or poet for a who composed in French rather than noble lady. Latin, and whose work chiefly concerned Heraldry: The practice of creating and courtly love. studying coats of arms and other in- Trinity: The three persons of God—Father, signia. Son, and Holy Spirit—which according Intellectual: A person whose profession or to are also a single lifestyle centers around study and ideas. entity.

This was Anselm (c. 1034–1109), who Anselm and Abelard (c. 1079– quarreled first with William and later 1144), two of the medieval world’s with his younger brother Henry I greatest philosophers, worked to recon- (ruled 1100–1135)—a much more cile reason with religious faith. Like competent ruler—over the powers of Anselm, Abelard was a cleric; indeed, the church versus those of the king. there was simply no other place for an Finally Henry and Anselm reached a intellectual. His position in the church, compromise in 1105. however, had not stopped him from

108 Middle Ages: Almanac engaging in a celebrated love affair with his young student Héloïse (EL-uh-eez; c. 1098–1164). They conceived a child and were secretly married, but their re- lationship angered her uncle, a power- ful church official, who arranged to have Abelard castrated. Abelard entered a monastery, while Héloïse joined a convent, and they became a symbol of enduring, if tragic, love. During this time he wrote a work in which he ques- tioned established teachings about the Trinity, or the three-part nature of God. Abelard was an early propo- nent of , a philosophical movement that attempted to bring to- gether Christian faith, classical learn- ing, and knowledge of the world. It marked the first stirrings of an intel- lectual reawakening in Europe. More typical of the medieval mind, howev- er, was Bernard of Clairvaux (klair- VOH; 1090–1153), a Cistercian who Héloïse and Abelard. Abelard was one of the perceived reason as a threat to reli- greatest philosophers of the Middle Ages, gion. This made him an outspoken but he is also remembered for his tragic love critic of Scholasticism in general, and affair with Héloïse. Reproduced by permission of of Abelard in particular. the Library of Congress.

The Second Crusade (1147–49) ran out of wooden ones, and in an ex- Bernard was also a passionate tremely dramatic move, he began cut- speaker, and in the Second Crusade, he ting his own garments into crosses and combined the roles formerly played by passing them out to the crowd. Urban II and Peter the Hermit. After the Muslims captured Edessa in 1144, Among the royal leaders of the Pope Eugenius III, a former student of crusade were Conrad III, founder of Bernard, called on his help. On March the dynasty (hoh-un- 31, 1146, Bernard made his first cru- SHTOW-fun), which was destined to sade sermon in France, and as was the rule Germany for a century, and Louis custom, he handed out wooden cross- VII of France. This Crusade even in- es to those who volunteered to go. So cluded a woman, one of the most ex- many men “took up the cross” that he traordinary figures of the Middle Ages:

The Twelfth Century 109 Damascus, the Muslims dealt the cru- saders a heavy blow; meanwhile the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem negotiat- ed a separate peace with the enemy and withdrew from the fight.

Castles and arms The Crusades exposed Euro- peans to the Middle Eastern art of castle-building. Since the fall of the Western Roman Empire, when inva- sions by barbarian tribes had made it necessary to build forts, castles had existed in a crude form, as earthen mounds surrounded by ditches. Usu- ally the mound had a high wall and perhaps a tower made of wood. In Palestine, however, wood was far from plentiful, and in any case, stone made for more sturdy fortifications. Impressed by the defensive architec- ture of the Byzantines and Muslims— Bernard of Clairvaux, a powerful church not to mention their considerably leader, called for the Second Crusade in a more sophisticated military technol- famous sermon on March 31, 1146. ogy—the Europeans began imitating Reproduced by permission of Archive Photos, Inc. their fortresses. Some of the greatest castles were built in the Holy Land, to defend the crusader states, and Louis’s wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine (c. later they appeared in Europe itself 1122–1204). (see box). The Crusade itself was a devas- The Crusades would transform tating failure, largely due to the treach- the entire structure of knighthood, be- ery of the crusaders’ supposed allies in ginning with the knight’s appearance. the Holy Land. On their way through The heat in Palestine made chain mail Anatolia, the crusaders suffered heavy uncomfortable, and to deflect the losses, but they were determined to ’s rays, crusaders began wearing take Edessa. Then the Europeans con- sleeveless coats, decorated with cross- trolling Jerusalem convinced them to es and other designs, over their armor. attack Damascus—one of the only Only knights were allowed to wear Muslim cities in the area still on good these “coats of arms,” as they came to terms with the Christians—instead. In be called. The exact appearance of

110 Middle Ages: Almanac When a Castle Was a Castle

Castles changed dramatically dur- ed a number of defensive towers, linked by ing the Middle Ages, and with each new walkways from which defenders could fire. offensive technique developed by invading Within the castle walls was a court- forces, castle-builders added new defen- yard where troops could assemble and re- sive technology. For instance, because cas- group, and beneath ground level was the tles were vulnerable to attack by sappers, dreaded dungeon for prisoners. There were men who dug under the walls and caused also stables and storerooms just inside the the foundations to collapse, builders sur- walls, and the main building housed sleep- rounded castles with moats, or large deep ing quarters, a kitchen, the great hall (for trenches. dining and meeting), and a chapel. To make it easy for troops to re- Castle defenses became increasing- treat into the castle without the enemy ly elaborate, but the development of can- pursuing them, builders added draw- nons and other new forms of artillery in the bridges, which were lowered and raised by late 1300s began to render the medieval a series of cranks. Eventually they also castle obsolete. Eventually the chateau added an outer gate house, a fortified (sha-TOH), a massive but delicate structure tower that stood in front of the drawbridge with real windows instead of small slits and provided an additional line of defense. from which to fire at attackers, took the In place of the single tower that had domi- place of the castle as a residence for kings nated early castles, later structures includ- and noblemen.

their insignia, which they also carried reflected in art and architecture. From on their shields, was important be- about 1000 onward, a style termed Ro- cause it identified them on the field of manesque (roh-mun-ESK) had domi- battle. Therefore men known as her- nated; but in about 1150, this gave alds were charged with keeping track way to the Gothic, which originated of the knights’ symbols, and they de- in France and spread throughout the veloped the art of heraldry, which sur- continent during the next four cen- vives today in many a family’s or turies. The names appeared later, and country’s coat of arms. “Romanesque,” at least, is accurate, since aspects of this style resembled Roman architecture—particularly its Romanesque turns to Gothic use of vaults and round arches. But The world was changing, and there is little in the delicate beauty of so were Europeans’ perceptions of it as Gothic architecture to suggest the

The Twelfth Century 111 DAHM; “Our Lady”) in Paris, started in 1163; and Chartres (SHART), south- west of Paris, built after the old Ro- manesque cathedral there burned down in 1194. These two became models for the Gothic style, imitated throughout Catholic Europe, from northern Spain to Poland.

The cathedral’s spire was al- ways the highest point in any me- dieval city. Not only was the building a symbol of man’s yearning to reach heavenward, but the height empha- sized the power of the church above all other forces in medieval society. In order to achieve this height, Ro- manesque architects developed but- tresses, or exterior supporting struc- tures. These not only made it possible to build higher towers, but also gave buildings a distinctive appearance. What Romanesque churches lacked, however, was light: fearful that win- This church, located in Lithuania, is a fine dows would weaken the structures, de- example of Romanesque architecture, which dominated in Europe from about 1000 to signers allowed only narrow slats. about 1150. Photograph by Cory Langley. Architects of the Gothic era Reproduced by permission of Cory Langley. solved this problem with a number of innovations. First was the pointed arch, which not only looked more Gothic tribes that destroyed the striking than the curved arch, but was Roman Empire; in fact later art histori- also more sound structurally. This al- ans used the deceptive name as a way lowed more windows and a higher of identifying the entire medieval pe- roof. In place of Romanesque-style riod with barbarism. buttresses, Gothic designers used a fly- ing buttress, a stone support connect- Gothic became the style for ed to the building by an arch. cathedrals, which were not simply large churches but the centers of their The building of a cathedral communities, the place where the took place over decades, and there was bishop had his throne, or cathedra. never a single architect who received Among Europe’s finest Gothic cathe- credit for the design; instead, a team drals are Notre Dame (NOH-truh of architects (typically former stone-

112 Middle Ages: Almanac Notre Dame, located in Paris, France, is a magnificent example of a Gothic cathedral. Photograph by Jeffrey Hill. Reproduced by permission of Jeffrey Hill. masons) worked under a master archi- with metallic oxides of various colors; tect. Yet even the names of the master but in the century after 1150, the art of architects are lost to history, in part stained glass reached a high point. due to the medieval world’s lack of When sunlight entered a church win- emphasis on individual achievement. dow and illuminated scenes of Jesus Christ and the saints, it filled believers The same is true of the many with the sense that the light of God was sculptors whose work filled Chartres shining down upon the world. and other sites. In an age when few people could read and write, the intri- cate sculptural work decorating virtual- ly every surface provided clearly under- standable “sermons in stone” depicting The cross and the sword events from the Bible. Stained glass A new struggle between pope served the same purpose in a particular- and king, sparked by the efforts of Em- ly striking way. Since the 800s, artists peror Frederick I Barbarossa (bar-buh- had known how to use melted glass ROH-suh; “Red Beard”; ruled 1152–90)

The Twelfth Century 113 to forge a single German state, began England’s own struggle in the . Frederick set out to sub- As with the Investiture Contro- due all rival princes, and initially allied versy, events in England reflected the himself with Adrian IV, history’s only church-state struggle in Central Eu- English pope. Soon afterward, howev- rope. In 1152, Eleanor of Aquitaine had er, Frederick broke off the alliance. divorced Louis VII of France to marry Henry II of England (ruled 1154–89), He invaded northern Italy in which gave England title to new 1154, and after twenty years of fight- French lands and further heightened ing, he succeeded only in making him- tensions between the two countries. self more and more unpopular with Meanwhile, Henry became involved in the Italians. One of his most bitter foes a heated dispute with Thomas à Becket was Pope Alexander III (ruled (uh BEK-et; 1118–1170), the archbish- 1159–81), against whom Frederick sup- op of Canterbury. ported an antipope. Alexander coun- tered by helping to organize the Lom- The conflict centered around bard League, an alliance of cities the question of whether a church offi- opposed to Frederick. In 1175 Freder- cial charged with a crime such as rape ick also had a falling-out with Henry or murder should be tried by the the Lion, Duke of Saxony and a mem- church, as Thomas maintained, or the ber of the powerful Welf family. Soon state. Knights loyal to Henry attempt- Frederick’s Italian opponents began ed to settle the issue on December 29, calling themselves Guelphs (GWELFZ), 1170, when they murdered Thomas and joined forces with the church inside his cathedral. This only made against the emperor and his support- Thomas a martyr: he was canonized ers, the Ghibellines (GIB-uh-leenz; see just three years after his death (a very box, “Church vs. State vs. People”). short interval), and Henry had to do penance at Thomas’s shrine in Canter- Frederick suffered a major mil- bury. Eventually, however, Henry per- itary defeat in 1176 and made a truce suaded the pope to make a series of with Alexander a year later. The Peace compromises that gave the English of Constance in 1183 gave Lombard king greater power over church affairs. League cities their freedom. Frederick had meanwhile turned his attention to his homeland, where he adopted an The Third Crusade (1189–92) entirely new strategy, supporting the Henry’s and Eleanor’s son German noblemen he had once op- Richard I, the Lion-Hearted (ruled posed. To give the nobles more power, 1189–99), became one of the leading he adopted feudalism, which had long figures in the Third Crusade. He was since taken hold in France and Eng- joined by Frederick I Barbarossa and land. The resulting peace and unity Philip II Augustus of France (ruled among the Germans made him one of 1179–1223), who is remembered for his nation’s greatest heroes. turning his nation into a great power.

114 Middle Ages: Almanac Church vs. State vs. People

Americans typically guard against the development of government by the encroachments on their freedom by church people occurred during the Middle Ages, authorities, citing “separation of church when a group of English nobles forced and state” as one of the bedrock principles King John to sign the Magna Carta, or of the U.S. government. Thus it is easy for “Great Charter,” in 1215. Thenceforth Eng- them to sympathize with the Ghibellines, land’s government would take quite a dif- supporters of the Holy Roman emperor, in ferent course from that of France and other their long struggle against the pro-papacy nations on the European continent, which Guelphs. Yet upon closer investigation, one continued to be dominated both by priests finds that the Guelph-Ghibelline rivalry was and kings. really about power and not principle; thus Later, English settlers in the New by the 1300s, two centuries after the con- World brought with them advanced notions flict began, it had become little more than about the idea of freedom, and these would a struggle between various Italian families. find their greatest expression in the U.S. As opposed to government by Constitution (1787). In fact the latter does church or state, America’s system is based not contain the phrase “separation of church on a third force, the people, who exercise and state”: what it does say, in the First authority through elected representatives. Amendment, is that the government may One of the most important milestones in not favor one religious group over another.

To complete this assembly of great On his way to the crusade, personalities was their brilliant oppo- Frederick drowned in Anatolia. Richard nent: Saladin. arrived late in Palestine, having stopped to conquer the strategically lo- Saladin had united Egypt with cated island of (SY-prus) in the Syria and Mesopotamia, then con- Mediterranean. (Cyprus would remain quered a number of cities in Palestine. a crusader state until 1384, and briefly On July 4, 1187, he dealt the crusaders a emerged as an imperial power during devastating blow in the Battle of Hittin, the mid-1300s.) Arriving in what is where the Europeans found themselves now Israel, Richard joined Philip out- on a dry, desolate plain, overcome by side Acre (AH-kruh), an important trad- thirst. Saladin’s forces set fire to the dry ing center for the Italian city-states of grass around them, nearly wiping out (JEN-oh-uh) and Pisa (PEE-zuh). the European forces, and went on to Their use of the siege engine, a recently capture Jerusalem on October 2. developed catapult for hurling stones

The Twelfth Century 115 Richard and Saladin, two of the most romantic figures of the Middle Ages, squared off against one another. Though their conflict inspired many legends, in fact it ended in a stale- mate—and the two men never even met. Richard needed to get back to England, where his brother John (ruled 1199–1216) had been making trouble for him, so in September 1192, he signed an agreement with Saladin. The Muslims still held Jerusalem, but the crusaders had regained a number of areas along the coast.

The age of chivalry Prior to about 1200, knights had been mere soldiers employed by the nobility; after that time, however, they were recognized as nobles in their own right. During this period, knights began to adopt a code of honor known as chivalry (SHIV-ul-ree; from chevalier, the French word for knight). In modern times, chivalry is understood chiefly in terms of male courtesy toward women, but in fact this was only part of the larger code, which included offering protection for the weak and defenseless and perform- ing service for God. As with much Thomas à Becket was murdered as a result of about medieval times, of course, the his conflict with King Henry II of England. truth is rather more complex than the myth: even under the code of chival- ry, knights were often brutal creatures. over castle walls, helped the Europeans But before the church began its at- gain victory at Acre. tempts to civilize them in the 900s, in- In 1191, Philip learned that troducing concepts that developed his only heir had taken ill, so he into chivalry over the centuries, they rushed back to France. This left just were truly brutal.

116 Middle Ages: Almanac A young boy who wanted to become a knight went to work as a page, waiting table for a knight or lord and performing other menial tasks. In his late teens, a page who had proved himself became a squire, who cared for the knight’s horse—his most trust- ed companion—and carried the knight’s shield and armor into battle. Then in his early twenties, a squire who had received the blessings of his lord was chosen for knighthood. A royal, noble, or priestly figure con- ferred the title of knight by the cere- mony of dubbing, touching a young man’s shoulders with a sword.

The orders of knights Eventually, knights began to see themselves as soldiers for Jesus Christ. Just like monks, these knights formed themselves into orders, their stated purpose being to protect pil- Richard I, also known as Richard the Lion- grims. First of the three great orders Hearted, was a leading figure of the Third was the Knights Hospitalers, or Knights Crusade, which ended in a stalemate when of St. John of Jerusalem, formed in Richard had to return to England to protect his throne. Reproduced by permission of the 1113. They wore distinctive colors and Corbis Corporation. insignia, including the eight-pointed Maltese cross, and built one of the me- dieval world’s greatest castles, Krak des that Christ had been buried before his Chevaliers (DAY shuh-VAHL-yay), in resurrection. Their name came from Syria. After the end of the Crusades, that of another holy site, where the they occupied a series of Mediter- temple of King Solomon had stood. In ranean strongholds, and in 1530 ended contrast to the Hospitalers’ black up on the island of , where they cloaks with white crosses, the Tem- became known as the Knights of Malta. plars wore white cloaks with red cross- The Knights Templars, or Poor es. They developed so much military Knights of Christ, were formed in and economic power, and thus 1119 to defend one of the most sacred aroused so much hostility in England, spots in Palestine, the Holy Sepulchre France, and Spain, that in 1312 the (SEP-ul-kur), where it was believed pope disbanded the order.

The Twelfth Century 117 King Arthur: Fact and Legend

Such a great legend has developed around King Arthur that it may come as a surprise to learn that the character is based on a real person: a Christian general named Ambrosius Aurelianus, who led the Britons to victory over the invading Anglo- Saxons at the Battle of Mount Badon in 516. This figure became associated with Arthur, and as the centuries passed, legend obscured fact. There are literally hundreds, per- haps thousands, of Arthurian tales, but most depict Arthur as king over a realm centered in western England and Wales, where he had his castle at Camelot. There he held This medieval French manuscript illustration council with his Knights of the Round Table, shows , the greatest of King Arthur’s among whom the greatest was Sir Lancelot. knights, embracing a lady. Reproduced by A pure Christian sworn to defend his king, permission of the Corbis Corporation. Lancelot fell in love with Arthur’s beautiful queen, Guinevere (GWIN-uh-veer), and was And there was the account of Arthur’s torn by conflicting loyalties. In the end, he death, after which fairies whisked him away gave in to his passion and thus helped usher to a magical land called Avalon, where he in the end of Camelot. was restored to life and would one day re- The legend of Camelot included turn to save England. numerous mystical elements. There was, All in all, it is one of the most in- for instance, the figure of Merlin, a magi- triguing tales in Western literature, though cian with amazing powers who seemed to in fact it is not purely English in origin. Dur- live forever. There was the knights’ quest ing the Middle Ages, an extensive body of for the Holy Grail, said to be the cup from French, German, Italian, Spanish, and even which Christ had drunk at the Last Supper. Hebrew Arthurian legends developed.

The last of the great orders was Knights, or the Teutonic Order. In formed in 1191, and consisted primar- 1225, they set out to conquer the last ily of Germans: hence its name, the two non-Christian European tribes: Teutonic (too-TAHN-ik; German) the Prussians of eastern Germany, and

118 Middle Ages: Almanac the Lithuanians farther east. They tan and Isolde (TREES-tahn; ee- tamed the wilds of Prussia, destined to SOHld), whose love was doomed be- become the most powerful of German cause Isolde was married to Tristan’s states, and built Europe’s largest castle uncle, a powerful king. at Marienburg in 1309. One notable type of courtly love poetry was the aubade (oh- The literature of chivalry BAHD), or “dawn song.” This was a In addition to the three spiri- song of parting, or to put it more tual orders of knights, there were nu- bluntly, of a knight who has to beat a merous secular orders throughout Eu- hasty retreat from his lady’s bedroom rope—among them the Order of the in the morning. The aubade was Garter, which exists today as an honor meant to be taken seriously; by con- conferred on Englishmen of merit. trast, the Romance of the Rose, written Chivalry itself assumed a non-religious by two French poets in the mid-1200s, character, and became much more was a biting work of satire demon- concerned with things of this world strating what its authors perceived as than with matters of the spirit. In fact the fickleness of women. It was an ex- chivalry spawned some of the world’s ample of allegory, a type of narrative first self-help literature, “courtesy popular throughout the Middle Ages books,” or manuals that taught people in which characters represent ideas. how to behave politely—a rare skill in The great poetic narratives of the Middle Ages. Most popular were the High Middle Ages were often courtesy books for pages, squires, and called “romances,” and they typically knights. Books for pages taught them concerned one of three basic subjects: how to act like little men rather than the classical world (ancient Greece boys, whereas squires’ courtesy books and Rome); France, or specifically dealt with more adult issues, such as Charlemagne; and Britain’s great hero how to be a brave soldier, a loyal ser- Arthur. An example of the first type vant of a lord—and a discreet lover of was the Romance of Troy, written by a a lady. French clerk in the court of England’s A more well-known type of lit- Henry II. The greatest of the Charle- erature associated with chivalry was magne epics was the Song of , courtly love poetry, popularized by a set during the emperor’s otherwise un- new breed of poets called eventful campaign against the Mus- (TROO-buh-dohrz). The latter, who lims of Spain in 778. Then there was came from Provence (pruh-VAWNts) in the legend of Arthur, which gained southern France, took the revolution- popularity in the 1100s and later ary step of composing not in Latin, but found expression in one of the first in the local language, French. Courtly printed books produced in England, love poetry drew on stories from the Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte D’Arthur past, such as the Celtic legend of Tris- (“The Death of Arthur”; 1470). A

The Twelfth Century 119 thousand years before Malory, howev- Castles Are Rubbish. [Online] Available http:// er, there really was a King Arthur— www.castlewales.com/rubbish.html (last accessed July 28, 2000). perhaps (see box, “King Arthur: Fact and Legend”). “The Chivalry FAQ Sheet.” [Online] Available http://members.tripod.com/~Baron91/ Chivalry_FAQ.html (last accessed July For More Information 28, 2000). The Crusades. [Online] Available http://histo- Books rymedren.about.com/education/history/ Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient historymedren/msubcrus.htm (last ac- and Medieval World, Volume 9: The Mid- cessed July 28, 2000). dle Ages. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1267–78. Knighthood, Chivalry & Tournament Glossary of Jones, Terry, and Alan Ereira. Crusades. New Terms. [Online] Available http://www. York: Facts on File, 1995, pp. 81–180. chronique.com/Library/Glossaries/ Langley, Andrew. Medieval Life. New York: glossary-KCT/glssindx.htm (last accessed Knopf, 1996. July 28, 2000).

Severy, Merle, editor. The Age of Chivalry. Knight Life. [Online] Available http://history Washington, D.C.: National Geographic medren.about.com/education/history/ Society, 1969, pp. 131–271. historymedren/library/blknighttoc.htm (last accessed July 28, 2000).

Web Sites Medieval Sourcebook: The Crusades. [Online] Armor. [Online] Available http://www.geo Available http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ cities.com/Vienna/9604/armor.html (last sbook1k.html (last accessed July 28, accessed July 28, 2000). 2000).

120 Middle Ages: Almanac The Thirteenth Century 11

f the twelfth century was the peak of the Middle Ages in IWestern Europe, the thirteenth century (or the 1200s) of- fered clear signs that the medieval period was drawing to a close. The Crusades continued, but the crusading spirit lost force; and though the church reached the pinnacle of its powers in the mid-1200s, other elements were gaining influ- ence. Among these competing forces were kings and emerg- ing nation-states such as France and England. But kings and popes were far from the only influential figures in thirteenth- century life: merchants and scholars, though they had little in common, threatened to tear down the power of both church and state.

The end of the Crusades By the time of the Fourth Crusade (1202–04), Euro- peans had begun to lose faith in the whole crusading enter- prise. Only a figure as strong as Innocent III (ruled 1198–1216), who controlled the papacy at the time of its greatest power, could even have mobilized the people for an-

121 Words to Know: The Thirteenth Century

Alchemy: A semi-scientific discipline that Journeyman: A middle stage in the train- holds that through the application of ing of a craftsman, in which a teenaged certain chemical processes, ordinary boy worked for wages; if he proved him- metals can be turned into gold. self as a journeyman, the guild would declare him a master craftsman. Apprentice: A first stage in the training of a craftsman, in which a young boy went Mendicant: Dependent on charity for a liv- to work, for no wages, in the shop of a ing. master. Minstrel: A wandering musician. : The study of the stars and plan- ets with the belief that their movement Nation-state: A geographical area com- has an effect on personal events. posed largely of a single nationality, in Friar: A type of cleric, neither a priest nor a which a single national government monk, who both preaches and teaches. clearly holds power. Guild: An association to promote, and set Working class: A group between the mid- standards for, a particular profession or dle class and the poor, who typically business. earn a living with their hands.

other crusade; even so, his initial call father. In the meantime, they had to for troops in 1198 raised little interest. pay off their Venetian sponsors, so It took four years to pull together a big they captured one of the Byzantines’ enough army. port cities, Zara, in October 1202. When the Byzantines overthrew Alex- Other than Innocent, this Cru- is in 1204, the crusaders took over sade lacked the strong figures who had Constantinople. driven the first three ventures; this time the guiding force was Venice, Thus the Byzantine capital be- which provided five hundred ships came the center of yet another crusad- and expected to make a profit. The er state, the so-called Latin Empire, crusaders set off for Egypt, which they which consisted of little more than a intended to conquer before going on portion of Greece. The Byzantines re- to win back Jerusalem, but they never treated to Trebizond in Turkey until got past Constantinople. There they the recapture of Constantinople in became involved in a power struggle 1261 by Michael VIII Palaeologus in which they helped the Byzantine (pay-lee-AHL-uh-gus; ruled 1259–82). prince Alexis seize the throne from his Michael founded a dynasty under

122 Middle Ages: Almanac which Byzantium enjoyed its last gasp of power, but the damage done by the crusaders was irreparable. This proba- bly bothered the Western Europeans little, however: they despised the Greeks even more than they did the Muslims and were happy to partici- pate in Byzantium’s destruction—even though to do so was to erode an em- pire that had long served as a buffer between Western Europe and its ene- mies to the east.

The Albigenses and the Inquisition The next “crusade” did not even take place in the East, and its tar- get was not Muslims but a religious group called the Cathars. Based in Albi, France, they were also called Al- bigenses (al-buh-JIN-seez), and they practiced a faith similar to Manichae- St. Dominic founded the Dominicans, an ism. Like the Manichees long before, order of friars who depend on charitable the Albigenses believed that all of ex- donations. Reproduced by permission of the istence was a battle between evil and Corbis Corporation. good, and that they alone were capa- ble of understanding the terms of Innocent III ultimately decided this battle. to deal harshly with the Albigenses, The church considered this and in 1208 launched the so-called Al- heresy, and at first it dealt with the Al- bigensian Crusade. Invaders eager for bigenses by sending them missionaries land and treasure swarmed over south- such as St. Dominic (c. 1170–1221). ern France, seizing the estates of the Dominic later founded the Domini- nobility and replacing bishops who cans, a mendicant (that is, dependent had sympathized with the Cathars. on charity for a living) order of fri- ars—neither monks nor priests, but The Albigensian Crusade, preachers and teachers. Another men- which ended in 1229, had a powerful dicant order was the Franciscans, effect on history. By displacing much founded by St. Francis of Assisi (uh- of France’s nobility, it greatly strength- SEE-see; c. 1182–1226). ened the French king, and from then

The Thirteenth Century 123 on France would have a powerful cen- Land, and though some returned tral government in contrast to the home safely, many were captured and looser system that had prevailed under sold into slavery in the Arab world. feudalism. This in turn tied the French There were other such crusades royal house close to the church, and by the downtrodden; meanwhile, for- eventually the two would become in- mal Crusades continued with ever- separable. The Albigensian Crusade diminishing success. The Fifth Crusade also led to the establishment of the In- (1217–21), also ordered by Innocent quisition by Pope Gregory IX in 1231. III, included leaders from England, The Inquisition, which lasted Germany, Hungary, and Austria, and until the 1300s, was the name for a took place entirely in Egypt, which the court through which the church in- crusaders tried unsuccessfully to con- vestigated, tried, and punished cases quer. The Sixth Crusade (1228–29) is of heresy. Many inquisitors, Church significant not so much for its outcome officials appointed to oversee investi- as for its leader: Holy Roman Emperor gations, were excessive in their meth- Frederick II (ruled 1212–50), a figure of ods, but generally the Inquisition was many and varied talents whose interest not as harsh as is popularly believed. in literature and science made his court During the 1200s in France, for in- an exciting place. He and Gregory IX stance, only about one percent of ac- also quarreled openly, as other emper- cused heretics were burned at the ors and popes before them had, and stake; some ten percent were impris- during his reign the Guelph-Ghibelline oned, and the rest received lesser sen- conflict turned into open warfare. tences. When modern people talk about the horrors of the Inquisition, As for the crusade itself, it was what they are actually referring to is chiefly a matter of diplomacy and not the Spanish Inquisition, an entirely warfare. Though Frederick worked out separate system (see box, “The Iberian an agreement with the Muslims re- Peninsula,” chapter 19). garding possession of Jerusalem and visits to holy sites, neither side was happy with the arrangement. Gregory also organized the Seventh Crusade Later Crusades (1239–40), another failure. The last The year 1212 saw the pathet- two numbered Crusades, the Eighth ic “Children’s Crusade.” Some histori- (1248–54) and Ninth (1270–72), were ans believe that the participants in led by France’s King Louis IX (ruled this crusade were not children, but 1226–70), better known as St. Louis. poor people from the countryside who By then the Seljuks’ power had faded, were viewed as childlike innocents by and the Mamluks were the enemy; but medieval society. Perhaps, many be- the results were the same. lieved, these “children” could achieve what kings and knights had not. In The Mamluks conquered the fact they never made it to the Holy last Christian stronghold at Acre in

124 Middle Ages: Almanac The Children’s Crusade was a failure—the crusaders never even reached the Holy Land, and many were captured and enslaved along the way. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

The Thirteenth Century 125 and the crusading movement died with him.

The new Europe In about 1100, Western Eu- rope began changing rapidly, a change characterized by the reemergence of large towns and cities. The largest ones were Paris, with a population of some 200,000; London, somewhat smaller but still a great city; and Rome, struggling to return to its for- mer glory. Then there were the great Italian cities, each with a population of about 100,000: Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and . Driving this growth was an economic boom, itself a partial result of the Crusades. The latter had ex- posed Europeans to the idea of inter- national trade, which grew rapidly in Frederick II, leader of the Holy Roman the twelfth and thirteen centuries. Empire, led the Sixth Crusade (1228–29). The largest component of interna- tional trade, however, was not com- merce with lands outside of Europe, 1291, thus ending two centuries of Eu- but between European states. Such ac- ropean presence in the Holy Land. tivity took place at large annual trad- There were still crusades of a limited ing fairs that sprang up during the nature in later years, but the targets 1100s in two great centers: Cham- were usually in Asia Minor or Egypt. pagne, a county in northwestern In addition, there were crusades France; and Flanders, a coastal region against heretics or rebellious emper- in the area of modern-day ors, not to mention the and Holland. (ray-kawn-KEES-tah), or reconquest, of Spain from the Muslims (see box, Not only did merchants from “The Iberian Peninsula,” chapter 19). all over Europe present their wares at The last crusade of any kind came in these gatherings, but the fairs also fa- 1464, in response to the Ottoman cap- cilitated cultural exchanges; and for ture of Constantinople in May 1453. peasants and poor people, they broke Pope Pius II (ruled 1458–64) led the up the monotony of daily life. Soon Crusade himself; but he died en route, the fairs became great celebrations

126 Middle Ages: Almanac The Positive Side of the Crusades

In the modern view, the Crusades the Arabs passed on both scientific astron- were a shameful episode in European histo- omy and the hocus-pocus of astrology, not ry, a time when savagery in the name of to mention the “science” most closely as- God reached a low point. The truth, how- sociated with the Middle Ages, alchemy. ever, is far more complex: though the Cru- From the latter, however, would come the sades were unquestionably a brutal act of serious scientific discipline of chemistry. invasion—not to mention a massive fail- There are other legacies of the ure—they were crucial to the opening of Crusades in almost every aspect of life—for trade routes to the East and to the reawak- instance, chess. The game originated in ening of Europe. Through these vicious, India during the 500s, and later spread misguided “holy wars,” Western Europeans throughout the Muslim world, where it gained exposure to Byzantium and the reached the crusaders. Originally the fig- Arab world, civilizations in which learning ures on the chess board were based on had never faded. ranks within the Indian army; later they Arab figures such as Avicenna and took on a specifically European character Averroës helped reintroduce Greek learning that reflected the power of the church: to the West. In fact, contact with Arab civi- hence the most useful piece, after the lization led to nothing short of a full-scale queen, is the bishop. Of course the king is reintroduction of scientific learning in Eu- not a particularly useful piece, but his loss rope. At that point, neither the Arabs nor marks the end of the game—checkmate, a the Europeans knew the difference be- term that comes from a Persian expres- tween real science and false science: thus sion, shah mat.

with all sorts of entertainment provid- than a collection of fantastic stories ed by acrobats, minstrels, or wander- about other lands. ing musicians, and others. International commerce also The growth of trade led to forced an improvement in European greater increases in knowledge. When travel conditions. New roads were Marco Polo (1254–1324) of Venice em- built for the first time since the fall of barked in 1271 on his celebrated jour- Rome, and civil authorities sought to ney to China, his immediate purpose make travel safe by providing protec- was commercial. Yet his later writings tion against highway robbers. This in would give Europeans their first turn led to the strengthening of na- glimpses of the Far East and would es- tional : as in the modern tablish as a science rather United States, maintenance of large

The Thirteenth Century 127 Marco Polo and his brother Nicolo, shown here on horseback behind a caravan of camels, journeyed to China in 1271. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

“interstate highways” was more prac- Guilds had existed in ancient tical at a national than at a local level. times, but had disappeared until the 1000s, and thereafter they became much more organized than their an- Guilds and classes cient counterparts. There were mer- In Germany, which lacked a chant guilds such as those that made national government, cities began up the Hanseatic League, and there banding together in 1160 to form the were craft guilds. The latter represent- Hanseatic (han-see-AT-ik) League, de- ed specific crafts, such as that of signed to help them secure greater stonemason, and protected their eco- trade privileges in international mar- nomic interests while establishing kets. The Hanseatic League was itself standards for their members. A young an outgrowth of another change in man rising through the ranks of the commercial life, the reemergence of guilds went through stages akin to guilds, or associations, to promote a those of a prospective knight, working particular profession or business. first as an apprentice, then as a jour-

128 Middle Ages: Almanac neyman in his teens before finally emerging as a master—and thus as a full member of the guild.

The growth of commerce in general, and the guilds in particular, led to the expansion of the middle class and working class, both of which separated the very rich from the very poor. As for the poor, they had plenty of incentive to move to the cities, where they stood a chance of rising to one of the more fortunate classes; all that awaited them in the country, by contrast, was a lifetime of toil on a feudal lord’s manor. The resulting de- sertion of the countryside, combined with the growth of new classes, sig- naled the end of feudalism as an eco- nomic system—though not yet as a political system. Peasants no longer needed the protection of feudal lords, but the latter retained considerable power and wealth, and would contin- Thomas Aquinas was a philosopher and ue to do so for several centuries. theologian who felt that reason and faith were not incompatible, though he always placed primary importance on faith.

New ideas An increase in learning accom- panied the expansion of trade. The Of course the church itself was first real colleges made their appear- still the home of many intellectuals, ance in France and Italy during the among them Thomas Aquinas (uh- late 1100s; then in 1221, a French KWYN-us; 1226–1274). Thomas, who scholar first used the term “universi- replaced Averroës as the leading inter- ty” to describe a type of college that preter of Aristotle, represents the offered students a broader range of fullest development of Scholasticism. studies and greater freedom in which His contemporary, (c. to pursue them. For the first time, ed- 1220–1292), another priest, was a fore- ucation was open to young men out- runner of modern thought who insist- side the priesthood, and this led to an ed that a scientific approach to the explosion of learning as profound as natural world was not inconsistent the economic boom then taking place. with Christian belief. The church, on

The Thirteenth Century 129 Romantic Love—A Matter of Economics?

Unlike marriage, sex, and procre- upper classes, as the popularity of courtly ation, romantic love has not always been a love illustrates. During the thirteenth cen- part of life; even today, the concept is virtu- tury and later, the concept spread to the ally unknown in traditional societies. In middle class. Marriage prior to that time order for romantic love to take root in a so- had been chiefly a business arrangement, ciety, there has to be a certain amount of with the young man’s family offering some wealth and leisure. There also has to be a advantage to the young woman’s family, period between the first manifestations of and the latter providing a dowry (the sexual desire, which typically happen in wealth that a bride brings to a marriage) in puberty, and their fulfillment. In societies exchange. Perhaps the couple might grow where most people are poor and live off to love one another, but this was only a the land, there is a great incentive to marry happy accident, and not considered a vital at puberty and start having offspring so part of marriage. that children can help on the farm. There is simply no time to fall in love. With the emergence of the middle The idea of romantic love had ex- class, however, it became possible for a isted in ancient Greece and Rome and young man and woman to marry for love, parts of the Middle East—the Bible’s Song and not primarily for money. Ironically, the of Solomon is clear evidence of this—but people who were least free to marry for had largely faded from Western Europe love were the most wealthy and powerful: with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. the motivation behind the vast majority of Then, in the High Middle Ages royal or noble marriages remained political (1100–1300), it took hold among the or economic, not romantic.

the other hand, considered science a gradually gathered strength. Greatest threat to its dominant position in Eu- of Novgorod’s leaders was Alexander ropean intellectual life. Nevsky (c. 1220–1263), a prince who repelled invasions by the in Nations and non-nations 1240 and the Teutonic knights in 1242. Across the European continent, His defeat of the knights, in a battle on nations were coming together and em- a frozen lake, is one of the most cele- pires falling apart. In Eastern Europe, brated events of Russian history. Byzantium—permanently crippled by the Crusades—limped along, while the Alexander did not act so deci- city-states of Russia, led by Novgorod, sively against a new breed of invaders

130 Middle Ages: Almanac Filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein immortalized Russian ruler Alexander Nevsky in his movie of the same name, made in 1938. Reproduced by permission of the Kobal Collection. from the east, the nomadic Mongols tem would become characterized by of Central Asia. By 1241, they had highly centralized authority, with a swarmed over Russia, the Ukraine, prince whose subjects did not dare Poland, and Hungary, and had question his power. reached the gates of Vienna, Austria’s capital. Alexander saw the Mongols Quite the opposite thing was as protection from enemies to the happening in England, where the west, and submitted to their rule. signing of the Magna Carta in 1215 Upon his death, he made his son led to greater power for the nobility Daniel ruler over Moscow, which over the king—and ultimately to thenceforth became known as the greater power for the people over principality of Muscovy. During the both. In other countries, too, the cen- centuries that followed, the Mongols tral authority lost power, but not by would rule Russia until Muscovy be- such orderly means as in England. came powerful enough to overthrow Italy remained a confused collection them; in the process, the Russian sys- of warring states, and Germany began

The Thirteenth Century 131 to fall apart when the 1305–14), placed on the throne. In lost the imperial throne in 1254. In 1309, Clement moved the papal seat 1273, however, the election of Rudolf from Rome to Avignon (AV-in-yawn) I (ruled 1273–91) as emperor estab- in southern France. This in turn lished the powerful Hapsburg dynasty, sparked one of the greatest crises in destined to remain a factor in Euro- the history of the Catholic Church, as pean politics until 1918. Western Europe was divided between supporters of the Avignon papacy and The strongest nation in Western those who submitted to a rival pope in Europe was France, where a series of Rome. The church would recover from powerful kings increased the domi- this rift, but its power would never nance of the royalty over all other forces again be as great. in French life. Philip IV (the Fair; ruled 1285–1314) proved just how strong a French king could be when he went up against Pope Boniface VIII (BAHN-i-fus; For More Information ruled 1294–1303) and won. The conflict began when Philip’s government estab- Books Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient lished a tax to pay for a series of wars and Medieval World, Volume 10: Medieval with England, and a group of Cister- Politics and Life. New York: Marshall cians protested the tax. They appealed Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1303–44. to Boniface for support, and Boniface Jones, Terry, and Alan Ereira. Crusades. New ordered all French bishops to Rome so York: Facts on File, 1995, pp. 181–241. that he could review Philip’s policies. Langley, Andrew. Medieval Life. New York: Philip responded by supporting a group Knopf, 1996. who kidnapped the pope. Severy, Merle, editor. The Age of Chivalry. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Though Boniface was only Society, 1969, pp. 272–89. held prisoner for a few days, the inci- dent marked the end of the papal dominance over kings. Philip later Web Sites The Catholic Encyclopedia. [Online] Available arranged to have a pope who would http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ (last do his bidding, Clement V (ruled accessed July 28, 2000).

132 Middle Ages: Almanac The Mongols 12

he Middle Ages in Europe and the Middle East were Tmarked by three invasions of nomads from Central Asia: first the Huns, then the Turks, and finally the Mongols. The Mongols would conquer the largest empire of all, a vast realm that stretched from the Korean Peninsula to the outskirts of Vienna; but the Mongols’ empire would fall apart almost as quickly as it came together. For a brief time, however, the Mongols—a people with no written language, and thus no real past history—would dominate much of the known world and hold many nations in terror.

Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227) For centuries, the Mongols had lived on the steppes (pronounced “steps”) or plains of Central Asia, herding sheep and occasionally raiding other tribes. There was little to distin- guish them from any number of other nomads—that is, until the appearance of an extraordinary young chieftain. His name was Temujin (TIM-yuh-jin); but in 1187, a group of clans de- clared him their “rightful ruler,” and it was by this title—

133 only of warfare and technology, but also of another mystery: reading and Words to Know: writing. By 1215, Genghis had taken The Mongols the city that is today China’s capital, Beijing (bay-ZHEENG); the Mongols Horde: A division with the Mongol army; named it Khanbalik (kahn-bah-LEEK). the term “hordes” was often used to describe the Mongol armies. Genghis conquered the Steppes: Treeless grasslands and plains in Manchus, a people of northeastern Russia and Central Asia. China related to the Mongols, and in 1218 a Mongol force launched a war Tribute: Forced payments to a conqueror. on the Korean Peninsula. Meanwhile their leader moved westward, and be- tween 1219 and 1225 he conquered a Turkic khanate that controlled a huge Genghis Khan (JING-us)—that his region in Central Asia. Other Mongol name would resound through history. forces moved deep into Russia in 1223, but in 1226 Genghis himself After a series of battles, turned back toward China to deal Genghis united the Mongols for the with a rebellious group there. He died first time in 1206. Soon after he took on August 18, 1227, having con- power, the government of the Sung quered more land than any ruler since Dynasty in China sent an ambassador fifteen hundred to him, demanding an oath of loyalty. years before. Genghis’s response was to sweep into China in 1211 at the head of his army, which like other Central Asian in- vaders before them was filled with ex- traordinary horsemen and skilled Conquests in Eastern archers. They were also quite well or- Europe (1227–41) ganized, being divided into groups of In tribal fashion, Genghis had 10,000, called a horde, which were divided his lands between his three further subdivided all the way down sons, who elected the youngest to groups of ten men, the basic unit in among them, Ogodai, as their leader. the Mongol army. But Ogodai lacked his father’s vision, or perhaps his ruthlessness, and Despite the fact that the Chi- though the Mongol realms would nese had long despised the Mongols grow under his leadership, the driving and other nomadic tribes as “barbar- force was gone. ians,” a number of Chinese generals and government officials were so im- Poor timing, motivated by pressed by Genghis’s power that they concerns over succession, character- changed sides. This gave the Mongols ized Mongol actions in Eastern Eu- the benefit of Chinese knowledge, not rope. Juchi Khan, the son who had led

134 Middle Ages: Almanac N

Kiev Bulgar

B la ck S e a

C

a

s Karakorum

p

i a

Tabriz n MONGOLIA

S e

a Kaanbaligh Bukhara Baghdad

ARABIA

Ormuz TIBET CHINA miles Delhi 0 250 500 SULTANATE Dali 0 250 500 kilometers OF DELHI South Mongol Territory, c. 1206 China Arabian Conquests of Genghis Khan, c 1209–1227 Sea Sea Mongol conquests, c. 1227–1260

A map of the before, during, and after the lifetime of Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), when the Mongols were unified and ruled a massive empire. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group. the attack on Russia in 1223, had re- tened back to Karakorum (kar-uh- turned to the homeland following the KOHR-um), the Mongol capital, to death of Genghis; but in 1235 Ogodai participate in choosing a successor. sent Juchi’s son Batu Khan to resume the attack. Batu’s army was composed If Batu had kept on going west- mainly of Tatars (TAT-arz), another no- ward, it could have changed the whole madic nation of Central Asia, and by course of history, with the Mongols 1236 it had entered the heartland of perhaps leaving an imprint on West- Russia. The army sacked Moscow and ern Europe as they did on Russia. Kiev in 1240, and in 1241 devastated There the Mongol-Tatar force, which Poland and neighboring Silesia (sy- came to be known as the Golden LEE-zhuh). They poured into Hun- Horde, maintained control for several gary, and by July 1241 were prepared centuries. Though Mongol rule in Rus- to take Vienna. Then suddenly they sia was not extraordinarily harsh, and were gone: Batu had received word the conquerors interfered little with that Ogodai was dead, and he has- the affairs of the locals, they did ex-

The Mongols 135 their efforts in the west, they shifted their focus from Europe to the Arab lands. This, combined with the fact that Kuyuk had taken an interest in Nestorian Christianity, convinced many Western Europeans that he was doing God’s work. (Nestorian Chris- tians believed that Jesus Christ had two separate identities, one human and one divine.) Some even suggested that Kuyuk might be linked with Prester John, a fabled Christian king in the East whose existence had been rumored since the 1100s (see box, “Prester John,” chapter 18). But Kuyuk died in 1248, and it took the Mongols three more years to choose another khan, his cousin Mangu. Mangu sent Hulagu, yet an- other cousin, into Persia and Mesopotamia (modern-day Iran and Iraq). Hulagu destroyed the Assassins, a terrorist group associated with the Genghis Khan was a powerful Mongol ruler Ismaili sect of Islam, in 1256 before who united his people and conquered vast sweeping into Baghdad and killing the amounts of land. Reproduced by permission of last Abbasid caliph in 1258. Upon the Corbis Corporation. Mangu’s death, Hulagu gave himself the title Il-khan, and thenceforth all of southwestern Asia would be a sepa- pect hefty payments of tribute. They rate khanate under his rule. also kept Russia isolated from the The Mongols had already de- changes taking place in Europe, and stroyed what was left of the Seljuks in this would have an effect on that land 1243, and when Hulagu invaded for centuries to come. Syria, it appeared they were about to destroy the last remaining Muslim power, the Mamluks. This inspired great hope in Western Europe; but in A shift to Southwest Asia a battle at Goliath Spring in Nazareth (1241–60) on September 3, 1260, it was the The Mongols did not choose Mamluks who defeated the Mongols. the new khan (chieftain), Kuyuk, until Mongol conquests in the west thus 1246, and when they finally renewed came to an end.

136 Middle Ages: Almanac The Mongols in battle in Eastern Europe. Reproduced by permission of Archive Photos, Inc.

Kublai Khan (1215–1294) ures, but in 1260, leadership fell to the In the years after Genghis’s greatest of Genghis’s descendants: death, four separate khanates emerged. Mangu’s and Hulagu’s brother Kublai Aside from the Golden Horde in Russia Khan (KOO-bluh). and the realm of the Il-Khan in south- Kublai and his brothers con- west Asia, the Chagatai (chah-guh-TY) quered southern China, all the way to khanate, named after one of Genghis’s the borders of Tibet, and in 1264 sons, covered the area that today in- Kublai established his capital at Khan- cludes Kazakhstan and other former balik. By 1279 he controlled all of Soviet republics in Central Asia. To the China, and founded the Yüan (yee- east, in an area that comprised the WAHN) Dynasty, the first foreign dy- Mongolian homeland and the Mon- nasty to rule that country. Kublai ex- gols’ most prized possession, China, tended Mongol conquests deep into was the realm of the Great Khan, eastern Asia, subduing Korea in the Genghis’s successor and the leader of north and Burma in the south, but in- the Mongols. Since Genghis’s death, vasion attempts failed in Japan in the Great Khans had been minor fig- 1274 and 1281, and in in 1293.

The Mongols 137 pean explorer Marco Polo, who lived in China from 1275 to 1292.

Tamerlane and the end of the Mongols (1294–c. 1500) The Yüan Dynasty lasted until 1368, but none of its later rulers pos- sessed Kublai’s strength, and the Chi- nese eventually overcame them. Yet the Mongols had one last moment of glory under Lenk (tee-MOOR; 1336–1405), or “Timur the Lame,” who became known to Europeans as Tamerlane. Though he was not related to Genghis Khan, Tamerlane saw him- self as a successor to the great con- queror, and he set out to build an em- pire of his own. First he established his capital at Samarkand (sah-mur-KAHND), an ancient city in what is now , in 1370, and in the years from 1383 to 1385 he conquered Khorasan (kohr-ah- SAHN) on the Iran-Afghanistan border, as well as eastern Persia. Conquests be- tween 1386 and 1394 won him Arme- nia, Mesopotamia, and Georgia (see box, “Georgia and the Mongols”), and in the process he destroyed the power of the Golden Horde in Russia. In 1398 Kublai Khan and soldiers traveling on the he sacked the Indian city of Delhi, but backs of elephants. Kublai Khan conquered by 1401 he was moving westward China, and in 1279 founded the first foreign again, attacking first Damascus and dynasty to rule that country. Reproduced by then Baghdad. A year later, he defeated permission of the Corbis Corporation. the Turks in a major battle, and cap- tured their sultan, Bajazed, who com- He is best remembered for the splen- mitted suicide. Soon he was heading dor of his court in Khanbalik, and for east once more, intent on conquering his interaction with the great Euro- China; but he died on the way.

138 Middle Ages: Almanac Tamerlane would be remem- bered for his cruelty as a conqueror and for his establishment of Samarkand as a great cultural center. His descendant Georgia and the Mongols Babur founded the Mogul dynasty in Like many other countries that India, and Babur’s grandson Akbar made up the former Soviet Union, Georgia would prove to be one of the most en- received its independence in the early lightened rulers in history. 1990s; yet it had a history that went back Such contrasts were typical of to ancient times. Located in the area called the Mongols’ history: from Genghis’s the Caucasus (KAW-kuh-sus), a region be- time onward, they had been feared as tween the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, bloodthirsty conquerors who cooked Georgia’s history was long tied with that of their enemies in pots of hot water, yet the Eastern Roman Empire, and the major- they were also known as patrons of ity of its people were Orthodox Christians. culture who could be fair rulers. Nonetheless, Muslims conquered it in the Genghis had declared that all Mongols , and ruled through the Bagratid were equal, and in administering (bahg-RAH-teed) family, a powerful Geor- many of their conquered lands, the gian dynasty. Yet when the Abbasid Mongols had likewise treated subject caliphate began to fade, Bagrat III peoples as equals. (978–1014) took the opportunity to unite Georgia for the first time. Recognizing their own lack of civilization, the Mongols had adopted In 1122, Bagratid rulers seized the civilizations of the lands they the Georgian capital of (tuh-BLEE- ruled and often the religions as well. see), which the Arabs had held for half a Ironically, this fact aided in their millennium, and Georgian power reached downfall: too small in numbers to its peak under Queen Tamara (tuh-MAR- overwhelm any population for long, uh; ruled 1184–1212). The Mongol inva- the Mongols simply faded into the sion in 1220, however, spelled the end of local landscape, and those who re- independent Georgia, and the country mained in Mongolia went back to the dissolved into a number of competing simple herding lifestyle they had prac- states. During the 1300s, Georgian rulers ticed before Genghis’s time. tried to reassert their authority, and in 1327 they drove out the Mongols. Tamer- lane’s invasion in 1386, however, broke the remaining power of the Georgian monarchs. For More Information Books Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient and Medieval World, Volume 11: Empires of the Ancient World. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1531–42.

The Mongols 139 Roberts, J. M. The Illustrated History of the World, Volume 4: The Age of Diverging Traditions. New York: Oxford, 1998, pp. 104–114.

Web Sites “Genghis Khan: Timeline.” National Geo- graphic. [Online] Available http://www. nationalgeographic.com/features/97/ genghis/timeline/index.html (last ac- cessed July 28, 2000). The Mongols. [Online] Available http://history medren.about.com/education/history/ historymedren/msubmong.htm (last ac- cessed July 28, 2000).

140 Middle Ages: Almanac India 13

he religions of India are as vital a part of that country’s T history as Catholicism was in the story of medieval Eu- rope. First among those religions was Hinduism, which grew out of the beliefs brought by Indo-European invaders. Later, India became home to a second great faith, Buddhism, which became the religion of the Mauryan Empire (324–184 B.C.). However, the other great Indian dynasty of ancient times, the Gupta Empire (c. A.D. 320–c. 540), embraced Hinduism. In the Middle Ages, India became the battleground of a third reli- gion as invaders poured in from the Muslim world.

A land of divisions India is a vast land, with a variety of climatic zones, but its enormous population has long been concentrated in a fertile strip of land created by the Indus River in the west and the Ganges (GAN-geez) in the east. This was the center of both Mauryan and Gupta power, and mountain ranges to the north—the world’s highest—had long protected the land. Only once had India been successfully invaded, when the

141 North and south Though northern India fell into a state of anarchy after 540, the south Words to Know: India remained relatively protected. Geogra- phy made the difference: south of the Anarchy: Breakdown of political order. lush Indus-Ganges region was the Thar Caste system: A means of ranking people Desert, and below that the enormous into very rigid social groups, closely Deccan Plateau, an extremely dry, hot tied to Hindu concepts of reincarna- region. Because of these barriers, south- tion. ern India had developed along different Karma: According to Hinduism and Bud- lines than the north. dhism, the force generated by a person’s In their Sanskrit language and actions, which influences the circum- their Caucasian features, the people of stances of their future reincarnation. the north showed that they were de- Monotheism: Worship of one god. scendants of the Indo-Europeans. The people of the south, by contrast, were Polytheism: Worship of many gods. much darker-skinned, and the domi- Refugee: Someone fleeing political vio- nant language, Tamil (TAH-meel), lence. bore no relation to the languages of Reincarnation: The idea that people are Europe or Iran. After about 300, the born on Earth to live and die, again Pallava (PAH-luh-vuh) dynasty of and again. Hindu kings, who possibly had north- ern origins, ruled the south. The Pallavas reached their peak in the two centuries following 550, a Indo-Europeans, a group with roots in period that saw outstanding achieve- what is now southern Russia, entered ments in art and architecture as well as in about 1500 B.C. settlements in the islands off Southeast Asia. During the Pallava high point, The Indo-Europeans had com- central India remained splintered into pletely transformed Indian society, but a number of small states; but order re- no more invaders came for a full two turned to the north, for a time at least, thousand years. Then in about A.D. under the rule of the Buddhist king 500, the Gupta Empire—which had Harsha (ruled 606–47). brought about a golden age, a time of advancements in learning seldom equaled in the ancient world—faced another invasion from the north. Their Buddhism and Hinduism attackers were the same force that had Harsha’s court was a place of helped bring down the Western Roman great artistic refinement, and he was Empire: the Huns, or Hunas as they himself a poet and playwright. A vivid were called in this part of the world. account of his reign lives in the writ-

142 Middle Ages: Almanac N AFGHANISTAN

Islamabad Lahore CHINA Quetta BHUTAN Delhi PAKISTAN NEPAL Kathmandu New Delhi Lucknow Thimphu Kanpur Karachi Dhaka

INDIA Calcutta

Arabian BANGLADESH Sea Bombay

Hyderabad Bay of Bengal

Madras INDIAN Bangalore OCEAN

miles SRI 0 250 500 LANKA 0 250 500 Colombo kilometers

A map of the present-day Indian sub-continent, including the nations of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group. ings of the Chinese traveler Hsüan- an Indian prince named Siddhartha tsang (shooy-AHND ZAHNG; 602– Gautama (si-DAR-tuh GOW-tuh-muh ; 664). Hsüan-tsang had come as a pil- c. 563–c. 483 B.C.), whose followers grim to visit the many holy sites asso- called him the Buddha or “Enlight- ciated with the founder of Buddhism, ened One.” Yet Buddhism never

India 143 ciety were condemned as “Untouch- ables.” Whereas most modern Ameri- cans would consider this situation as unjust, considered this a com- pletely fair result of karmic forces. Buddhism, by contrast, offered the possibility that one could escape the endless cycles of reincarnation by achieving enlightenment. This gave it great appeal among the lower castes and with descendants of the land’s original inhabitants, many of whom had spread southward into southern India and the island of Ceylon (seh- LAHN; now ) after the Indo- European invasion. Buddhism also re- jected the Hindu gods and the rituals associated with them.

Hinduism and Islam There may have been disagree- ment over religious issues between ad- A statue of Buddha, or Siddhartha Gautama, herents of Hinduism and Buddhism, the founder of Buddhism. Reproduced by but the two had much in common; it permission of Archive Photos, Inc. would be hard, however, to imagine two faiths more different than Hin- gained a lasting hold on the nation of duism and Islam. Hinduism is polythe- its birth, even though it shared many istic, meaning that it has many gods, common roots with Hinduism. with statues of each; Islam, with its pro- hibition of religious images and its dec- laration that “there is no god but Both religions accepted reincar- Allah,” is completely iconoclastic and nation, the idea that human beings are monotheistic. Hinduism places people reborn many times as a way of working in castes; Islam treats all Muslim men (if out their karma, or the results of their not women) as equals. Hindus believe actions. To Hindus, this meant that a that people die many times, whereas person would be reincarnated as a Muslims believe they die only once. member of a higher or lower caste (KAST; social group), depending on The two worlds had been in their actions in a past life. People of the contact since ancient times, with ex- higher castes enjoyed great wealth and tensive trade links between ports in privilege while the bottom rungs of so- India and Yemen. In fact, it was this

144 Middle Ages: Almanac relationship that would bring Indians and Arabs into conflict after a group of Arab sailors were shipwrecked on Cey- lon. Some of the sailors died, and the local ruler put their widows and chil- dren on a boat along with gifts and let- ters of goodwill to Hajjaj (hah-ZHAZH; 661–714), ruler over the eastern lands of the Caliphate (the domain ruled by the Muslim leader). However, pirates near the Sind, in what is now Pakistan, attacked the boat, captured the wives and children, and stole the gifts. Hajjaj demanded that the ruler of the Sind help him obtain the release of the pris- oners and their possessions, and when the nobleman refused, Hajjaj sent an invading force under his son-in-law Qasim (kah-SEEM). Qasim gained control over the entire Sind in 712, then conquered the neighboring Punjab (POON-jahb) region in the following year. The Mus- A Hindu statue. In the Middle Ages, India lims proved themselves able adminis- was divided by three major religions: trators, quickly making peace with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Reproduced local officials, who they placed in ad- by permission of the Corbis Corporation. ministrative positions to help them run the government. With the excep- tion of taxes imposed to pay for their Chapter 6: The Islamic World), the military and government, the Arabs Arabs were unable to retain control interfered little with local affairs, and over the Sind and Punjab, and during as they had done with Christians and the next 250 years, numerous dynas- Jews in other lands, they allowed the ties competed to control parts of Hindus to continue practicing their re- India. In the 800s, a dynasty called ligion in a limited form. the Palas ruled in the east, but in the 900s they were replaced by the Ra- jputs (RAHZH-pootz). The Rajputs’ name means “sons of kings,” and Muslim empires and they claimed descent from the gods. Hindu kingdoms In fact they apparently descended With the overthrow of the from the intermarriage of Indians Umayyads (Muslim rulers) in 750 (see and invaders, particularly Huns and

India 145 A Touch of India

The Arab and Muslim worlds out the world today. Indeed, the numbers would have a great influence on India dur- 0 through 9 are themselves a gift of Indian ing the Middle Ages, but the influence mathematicians, who taught their system went both ways. During the glory days of to the Arabs. Europeans adopted it during the Gupta Empire, Indian medicine had the Crusades, replacing the hopelessly been the most advanced in the world, and cumbersome Roman numeral system, but in the early Middle Ages, numerous doc- they incorrectly called the numerals “Ara- tors from India were invited to work in bic”—a name that stuck. Baghdad. A number of them served as Not all Indian contributions to the chief physicians in hospitals, while others Arab world were quite so serious in nature. translated works of medicine, science, and The game of chess first originated in India, philosophy from Sanskrit into Arabic. then spread to the Arab world, as did a Indians also shared their advances number of stories that went into the Thou- in the realm of mathematics. One of their sand and One Nights. Indian music also in- greatest achievements was the numeral fluenced its Arabic counterpart. Both use zero, and this made possible the decimal five-note scales: for Westerners accustomed system and other benefits of the highly to the eight-note octave scale, this gives In- practical “base-10” system in use through- dian and Arabic music an exotic sound.

Scythians (SITH-ee-unz), a group the first kingdom of southern India to from what is now Ukraine who en- expand so far northward. Though tered India in about A.D. 100. The they maintained power until 1279, local Hindu princes considered them their impact was limited from the barbarians, but submitted to their standpoint of world history. leadership in a mysterious “fire cere- mony” atop Mount Abu in north- western India. The Ghaznavids and Ghurids In the south, the Cholas When the next Muslim inva- (KOH-lahz), a Tamil dynasty, replaced sion of India came in 1001, the driving the Pallavas as the dominant power in force was Turkish rather than Arab. about 850. They conquered the Dec- These were the Ghaznavids (GAHZ- can Plateau and Ceylon, and engaged nuh-vidz), displaced by their cousins in trade with China. In the early the Seljuks. Their leader was Mahmud 1000s, they would even extend their of (mah-MOOD; ruled rule into the Ganges valley, becoming 997–1030), who subdued a large re-

146 Middle Ages: Almanac A mazelike assembly of sandstone buildings survive from medieval times in the Indian city Jaisalmer. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. gion in what is now Afghanistan, Pak- lim control over much of northern istan, and western India. Strong Hindu India. Adopting a practice common resistance, however, prevented him among the Turks, Muhammad Ghuri from establishing Muslim rule in most made use of slave soldiers, and one of of the Indian regions he conquered. these, Qutb-ud-Din Aybak (küt-büd- DEEN eye-BAHK; ruled 1206–10), be- As the Ghaznavids declined, came his successor. Aybak was the first another dynasty called the Ghurids independent Muslim ruler of northern (GÜR-idz) took their place in the re- India, with no ties to an outside realm, gion. The greatest of the Ghurid rulers and is thus acknowledged as the was Muhammad Ghuri, who destroyed founder of the Delhi Sultanate. the power of the Rajput kings in 1192 and built an empire based in the cities of Lahore (now in Pakistan) and Delhi The Delhi Sultanate (DEL-ee). Though he was assassinated The Delhi Sultanate marked a in 1206, he managed to establish Mus- high point for Muslim rule in India up

India 147 to that point, and the Delhi sultans times, he built a vast and efficient spy made their capital city a great cultural network. Ala-ud-din’s conquests in the center. They founded an outstanding li- south became the stuff of legend (see brary, acknowledged as the greatest es- box, “The Face That Launched a tablishment of Islamic learning in the Siege”), and indirectly influenced the East, and Muslim mosques and other founding of Vijayanagar (vi-juh-yah- buildings—often built from the ruins of NAH-gar), the most powerful kingdom Hindu temples—sprouted up through- in southern India. Founded in 1336 by out their realm. Ironically, the sultanate Hindus who had become united by owed some of its success to the Mongol their opposition to Ala-ud-din, Vi- invasions threatening the Muslim lands jayanagar would withstand Muslim to the west, which brought an influx of onslaughts for some two centuries. wealthy and talented refugees. In 1320, four years after the A number of able rulers fol- death of Ala-ud-din, the Tughluq (tug- lowed Aybak, among them his son-in- LUK) family assumed the throne. law Iltutmish (il-TÜT-mush), who con- Muhammad ibn Tughluq (ruled solidated the power of the sultanate 1325–51) made Ala-ud-din seem mild and built a number of impressive by comparison. It was said, for in- structures around Delhi. A power stance, that he punished a rebellious struggle followed his death in 1236, noble by having the man skinned alive and eventually the former slave Balban and cooked with rice, and then he sent took control, even though Iltutmish’s the remains to the wife and children— son actually occupied the throne. Fac- and the noble happened to be his ing a Mongol threat from the west, cousin. His successor, Firuz (fee-ROOZ; Balban built up India’s military. ruled 1351–88), was much more even- handed and became noted for his Yet another scramble followed many building projects. After his death, Balban’s death, with the Khalji (kal- however, the sultanate dissolved into JEE) family assuming control in 1290. civil war, which left it ripe for attack by The most outstanding figure of this Mongol leader Tamerlane in 1398. dynasty was the ruthless Ala-ud-din (uh-LAH-ood-deen; ruled 1296–1316), who seized the throne after having his Later invaders uncle assassinated. He greatly expand- Tamerlane sacked Delhi, but as ed the sultanate’s realms, conquering was his practice, he did not stay long. the Deccan and much of southern The Tughluqs managed to hold on for India, and might have kept going had another fifteen years until 1413; then his advisors not urged him to consoli- other powers rushed into the vacuum. date his power. Instead he contented Afghanistan emerged for the first time himself with the vast wealth he had as an independent nation in 1451, acquired in his conquests of the and Vijayanagar gained strength in south. Like Indian rulers of ancient the south while smaller Muslim king-

148 Middle Ages: Almanac The Face That Launched a Siege

In 1303, the Muslim conqueror only on the superlatively [exceptionally] Ala-ud-din took the city of Chitor (chi- fair.” According to this legend, Ala-ud-din TOOR) in southeastern India, one of promised to spare the city if they would many conquests during his southern cam- give him the princess; but when that offer paign. He besieged the city for the usual was refused, he said he would call off the reason conquerors do such things: as a attack if they only let him see her. This, too, military, political, or even economic ob- seemed too great a request for those who jective. However, a fanciful book called knew of Pudmini’s beauty, so Ala-ud-din— the Annals of Rajasthan (RAH-jus-tahn) according to the legend—asked merely to put a much more romantic spin on it. Ac- look at her reflection in a . The peo- cording to this work of “history,” it was ple of the city again denied his request, because he wanted the lovely princess and instead its women fought alongside Pudmini (POOD-mi-nee). the men to defend the Hindu stronghold. In the end, it was said, all the men died in The name Pudmini, readers of the battle, and the women who were not killed Annals were assured, is “a title bestowed committed suicide rather than surrender.

doms divided northern and central ing faiths were in harmony with one India. By the end of the 1400s, Mus- another. lim life in India had shifted to the city of Agra, and away from Delhi.

It was in Agra that Babur (BAH- For More Information boor, “Lion”; 1483–1530) established his capital when he invaded India in Books 1526. His bloodline included Turkish Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient and Medieval World, Volume 11: Empires and Persian strains, but as a descen- of the Ancient World. New York: Marshall dant of Tamerlane, he was technically Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1489–1500. a Mongol. Hence the name for his dy- Kalman, Bobbie. India: The Culture. New York: nasty was the Persian word for Mon- Crabtree Publishing Company, 1990. gol: Mogul (MOH-gul). The Moguls Kalman, Bobbie. India: The Land. New York: were Muslims, but Babur’s grandson Crabtree Publishing Company, 1990. Akbar (ruled 1556–1605) would be Kalman, Bobbie. India: The People. New York: noted for his open-mindedness regard- Crabtree Publishing Company, 1990. ing religion. For the half-century of Schulberg, Lucille. Historic India. New York: Akbar’s reign, at least, India’s compet- Time-Life Books, 1968.

India 149 Web Sites Discover India. [Online] Available http://www. meadev.gov.in (last accessed July 28, 2000).

150 Middle Ages: Almanac Southeast Asia 14

he mainland of Southeast Asia is tucked between India in Tthe west and China to the north; hence the name “In- dochina,” applied to much of the region. India and China were also Southeast Asia’s primary cultural influences. But with the to the region during the Middle Ages, a third influence made itself known, primarily in the adjoining Malay Archipelago.

Indochina China’s first imperial dynasty in the 200s B.C. claimed three loosely defined provinces along the South China Sea coast in what is now Vietnam. As powerful as the Chinese emperor was, however, he could hardly control such distant lands. Thus it was easy enough for one of his generals to break away and es- tablish his own kingdom, which came to be known as Van Lang (VAHN LAHNG), an early version of Vietnam. China later reclaimed the province, then lost it again until finally another powerful Chinese general subdued the

151 Meanwhile the people of northern Vietnam became culturally and politi- Words to Know: cally tied with China, while southern Southeast Asia Vietnam continued an independent existence as . Archipelago: A string of islands. Indigenous: Local; not from outside. : A type of tower monument in The Khmer Empire the Far East. The Khmers had a close trad- Province: A political unit, like a state, that ing relationship with India, and this is part of a larger country. led to the adoption of Hinduism by their first powerful king, Jayavarman Relief sculpture: A carved picture, distin- II (jah-yah-VAR-mun; ruled c. 790– guished from regular sculpture because 850). Jayavarman founded the Khmer it is primarily two-dimensional but tex- Empire, which also became known as tured. the Angkor Empire after two extraor- dinary creations.

The first of these was Angkor Thom (TOHM), which began to area in about A.D. 40. To the south of emerge as a city after 900. Angkor the conquered lands he set up two Thom covered some five square bronze pillars, marking the edge of the miles, quite impressive for any me- civilized world: below that line, he de- dieval city—but particularly one clared, lived ghosts and demons. carved out of a jungle. With its moat and walls, its temples, palaces, and tower—all carved in detail with im- Funan and Champa ages of Hindu gods—Angkor Thom In fact there were two king- would have put contemporary Lon- doms to the south: Funan, which don or even Paris to shame. Then straddled an area that is now part of there was Angkor Wat (see box), a both Vietnam and Cambodia; and temple almost big enough to be con- Champa along the coast. Funan con- sidered a city in its own right. trolled a lesser state called , yet The builder of Angkor Wat was by the 500s, Chenla had become Suryavarman II (soor-yah-VAR-mun; strong enough to absorb Funan. ruled 1113–50), who went on to ex- A century later a new nation pand his empire into what is now emerged in the region to the west and , Burma, Vietnam, and north of Funan and Champa. These Malaysia. He also established formal were the Khmers (k’MEERZ) of Cam- diplomatic relations with China in bodia, soon to develop one of the 1119. A war with the Vietnamese, most powerful empires in the region. however, did not prove so successful.

152 Middle Ages: Almanac N CHINA

TAIWAN VIETNAM (BURMA) Hong Kong LAOS Rangoon PACIFIC Vientiane South THAILAND OCEAN China Bangkok Manila Sea CAMBODIA Andaman Sea Ho Chi Minh City Phnom Penh

PALAU

BRUNEI MALAYSIA Bandar Seri Begawan miles I A Kuala S 0 250 500 Lumpur Y L A M A 0 250 500 SINGAPORE kilometers Samarinda Padang Borneo Sulawesi (Celebes) I N New Guinea Jakarta D O A N E S I PAPUA NEW GUINEA INDIAN Surabaya OCEAN

Port Moresby

A map of Southeast Asia in the twenty-first century. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group.

The northern Vietnamese had out in 1181. He conquered the Cham- revolted against Chinese rule in 939 pa kingdoms and other neighboring and established an empire of their territories and set about rebuilding own. Burma, too, had established its and improving Angkor Wat. independence under (ahn- ow-RAHT-uh; ruled 1044–77). A Bud- dhist, Anawrahta built many Competing powers (puh-GOH-duhz), or tall shrines, in After Jayavarman, the Khmer his capital of Pagan (puh-GAHN). Empire declined quickly. Indeed, in the densely packed lands of Indochi- The Khmer Empire remained na, it was always difficult for one king- the dominant power in the region, but dom to hold power for very long, and in 1176 Champa invaded. Its forces at the first sign of weakness others even occupied Angkor Wat until were more than willing to step in. Jayavarman VII (ruled 1181–c. 1215), Under the Tran dynasty (1225–1400), the Khmer’s greatest ruler, drove them northern Vietnam annexed the Cham-

Southeast Asia 153 Workers in the rice fields of present-day Vietnam. Photograph by Cory Langley. Reproduced by permission of Cory Langley.

pa lands as Khmer influence faded. than ever under the Le dynasty But an even greater force was pushing (1428–1788), which fully conquered in from the north: the Mongol Yüan the southern part of the land. dynasty of China. Farther west, the Mongols The Mongols forced a group brought an end to the Burmese king- called the Nan-chao (nahn-ZHOW), dom in 1287, and for the next five ancestors of the Thais, into the re- centuries anarchy reigned in that gion in 1253. The Nan-chao swept country. Between Burma, Thailand, into the power vacuum created by Vietnam, and Cambodia, the tiny, the decline of the Khmer, and con- landlocked kingdom of Laos unified quered the Angkor Empire in 1431. under the Buddhist monarch Fa Ngum Thereafter the Nan-chao and the (fahng-OOM; 1316–73). Educated at Vietnamese alternately controlled Angkor, Fa Ngum returned to his Khmer lands. Vietnam itself came homeland with a Khmer army in under Chinese rule in the early 1353, and brought Laotian power to 1400s, but reemerged more powerful the greatest extent it would ever

154 Middle Ages: Almanac reach. Within a few years, however, the Thais had absorbed much of Laos.

The Malay Peninsula and Archipelago Technically the Malay Penin- sula is part of Indochina, but its histo- ry was much more closely linked with that of the Malay Archipelago (ar-ki- PEL-uh-goh). An archipelago is a group of islands, and the Malay com- plex is the world’s largest. It forms a huge triangle, with the northern Philippines at the “top”; the Indone- sian island of Sumatra (soo-MAH-truh) at the southwest corner, where the In- dian Ocean joins the Pacific; and New Guinea on the far southeastern corner. In addition to their shared geography, the people of these islands (and of the Malay Peninsula) speak languages from the same family, Malay. An entrance to the temple of Angkor Thom, During the Middle Ages, this a medieval city carved out of the jungle region would undergo an experience during the Khmer Empire in what is now similar to that of India, where Hindu, Cambodia. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. Buddhist, and Muslim states vied for control. Buddhism and Hinduism came first, and each established strong- (muh-LUK-uz), an island group far to holds in parts of what is now Indone- the east. Another Buddhist dynasty, sia. The Hindu Pallavas of southeastern the Sailendras, controlled eastern Java India had colonized the area from an during the 700s and 800s. There they early time, but by the 600s the domi- built a great temple complex at nant faith had become Buddhism. Borobudur (boh-roh-bü-DOOR), Asia’s largest Buddhist monument, with Buddhism was the religion of hundreds of relief sculptures depicting the (shree-vi-JY-yuh) Empire, scenes from the life of the Buddha. based in Sumatra, which ruled parts of the region from the 600s onward. At Hindus dominated the island its peak in the 1100s, it controlled of Bali (BAH-lee), and Hinduism much of the Philippines, Borneo, spread into eastern Java after the western Java, and even the Moluccas Sailendras lost power in 856. There

Southeast Asia 155 Angkor Wat

Of all the monuments built during purely for the royal house. Furthermore, the Middle Ages, few can equal the great one can only imagine what a European Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat for priest would have made of the many sculp- sheer scope, mysterious beauty, and eery tures showing bare-chested beauties. Yet charm. The surrounding moat alone was a this was an everyday sight in the humid vast engineering feat, 600 feet wide and jungles of Southeast Asia, where Khmer 2.5 miles long. Inside its walls was an enor- women wore wraparound skirts with noth- mous temple complex of towers guarding ing covering their breasts. a central enclosure, an architectural symbol of Hindu beliefs concerning the outer and Despite these and other scenes de- inner worlds. picting ordinary life—planting and harvest- ing rice, trading goods such as spices and Like the Gothic cathedrals in rhinoceros horns with Chinese merchants— France around the same time, Angkor Wat Angkor Wat can justly be described as a was a gigantic “sermon in stone,” with spooky place. Its abandonment after the carvings on virtually every surface showing Thai conquest in the mid-1400s added Hindu gods and other aspects of the greatly to this quality: in the centuries that Khmer culture and religion. But this was a followed, this gargantuan temple city was world utterly foreign to the European forgotten, its towers choked by vines while mind. For one thing, Angkor Wat was not a its inner courts became home to snakes and place where the common people were in- other creatures of the jungle. It was only re- vited to enter and worship, as they were at discovered in the 1860s—by the French, Notre Dame or Chartres; it was set aside who then controlled Indochina.

the powerful Hindu kingdom of Ma- three centuries earlier. In the two cen- japahit (mah-jah-PAH-hit), founded in turies following Marco Polo’s visit, Is- about 1263, began to extend its influ- lamic forces would bring down the ence, taking control of Sumatra as the and convert many peoples Srivijayas declined. In 1292, Marco on neighboring islands. The Balinese, Polo visited the kingdom however, remained predominantly and also noted the existence of a Mus- Hindu. lim community on Sumatra. This was the first proof by an outside observer of the Muslim pres- Muslim sultanates ence in the region, though in fact The most significant area of Islam had probably arrived two or Muslim influence was in Melaka, or

156 Middle Ages: Almanac Angkor Wat is a massive Hindu temple complex built by the Khmer Empire in the Middle Ages. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. what is now Malaysia. That area be- stability for nearly five hundred years. came so heavily Muslim during the Melaka meanwhile adopted Islam, 1400s that people used the expression probably in about 1400, and its rulers “to become a Malay” to mean convert- adapted many trappings of Islamic ing to Islam. Melaka had been under culture, including titles such as shah the control of the Srivijaya through and sultan. the 1300s, when a king from Singa- Trade fueled the spread of pore, a tiny city-state at the tip of the Islam: because the Muslims were suc- Malay Peninsula, founded the inde- cessful merchants, many local busi- pendent state of Melaka. nessmen considered it prudent to ac- The origins of Singapore itself cept the new faith. Even the Turks are less clear, though it appears to established their influence in the re- have been a thriving trade center in gion, and there are reports of gifts the 1200s. It was destroyed by an at- such as banners and cannons sent by tack from Java in 1377, and it would the Ottoman sultan to Melaka and not rise to its former prosperity and other far-off lands.

Southeast Asia 157 Australia and the Pacific

Australia, New Zealand, and the In about 1000, the inhabitants of Pacific islands beyond them did not possess Easter Island, a lonely spot several thou- true civilizations during the Middle Ages— sand miles off the west coast of South that is, their people did not build cities or America, began carving the large, myste- possess a written language—and therefore rious heads for which that place—so information about these regions is scarce. named because it was first discovered by Nonetheless, it is clear that life there was Europeans on Easter Sunday 1722—is far from uneventful. most famous.

The native peoples of Australia, called Aborigines (ab-uh-RIJ-uh-neez), first Another “mystery” of the South migrated to that continent about 50,000 Seas, however, would not remain a mys- years ago, but the many islands of Polyne- tery. While visiting the East Indies (modern sia were inhabited much later. For many Indonesia) in the , Marco Polo heard centuries, shipbuilders from Indonesia had about a faraway southern continent, which been constructing canoes big enough to he assumed to be mythical like Atlantis. By cross wide stretches of ocean, so that by the 1400s, however, Indonesian merchants about 650, all Polynesian lands except New began regularly traveling to this all-too-real Zealand had been settled. A century later, place, but it would be another two cen- people finally began arriving on New turies before Spanish voyagers “discov- Zealand’s North Island. ered” Australia.

Then in 1511 Portugal, by then Brittan, Dolly. The People of Thailand. New the leading power of the high seas along York: PowerKids Press, 1997. with Spain, conquered Melaka and Brittan, Dolly. The People of Vietnam. New closed it off to trade with the Muslim York: PowerKids Press, 1997. world. Nonetheless, the spread of Islam Evans, Charlotte, consulting editor. The King- continued, reaching Brunei (BROO-ny) fisher Illustrated History of the World: on the northern coast of Borneo, as well 40,000 B.C. to Present Day. New York: Kingfisher Books, 1993. as the southern Philippines. Schafer, Edward H. Ancient China. New York: Time-Life Books, 1967. For More Information Books Web Sites Brittan, Dolly. The People of Cambodia. New “Buddhist Empires.” [Online] Available York: PowerKids Press, 1997. http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Flats/

158 Middle Ages: Almanac 3795/hindu.htm (last accessed July 28, 2000). Mulaqah. [Online] Available http://www. mulaqah.com (last accessed July 28, 2000).

Southeast Asia 159 China 15

hina has had an organized political system since the Cfounding of the in 1766 B.C. The nation was first unified, and the empire established, under the Ch’in dynasty in 221 B.C. Over the course of the centuries, China developed one of the world’s most brilliant civilizations, even as nomadic peoples—ancestors of the Huns, Turks, and Mon- gols—threatened its borders. Not surprisingly, the Chinese came to think of themselves as the only civilized people in a world of barbarians. They also viewed history as a series of three- or four-century cycles marked by upheaval, renewal, and eventual decline. Medieval dynasties such as the T’ang (618–907) and Sung (960–1279) would bear out this expecta- tion with eery precision.

New religions, new ideas In A.D. 220, around the time the Western Roman Em- pire first began declining, China entered a three-century peri- od of turmoil. This happened largely because the country lacked a strong government, but as time went on, many be-

161 Words to Know: China

Abacus: The earliest form of calculator, Grid: A network of evenly spaced lines that which used movable beads strung along intersect one another at right angles. parallel wires within a frame. Mandate: Authority or permission. Block printing: An early printing process in which a negative, or reverse, image was Movable-type printing: An advanced carved out of wood. printing process using pre-cast pieces of metal type. Bureaucracy: A network of officials who run a government. Novel: An extended, usually book-length, Calligraphy: The art of lettering, or in China, work of fiction. the art of writing . Prose: Written narrative, as opposed to po- Concubine: A woman whose role toward etry. her husband is like that of a wife, but without the social and legal status of a Sect: A small group within a larger religion. wife. Shaman: A holy man who enters a state of Famine: A food shortage caused by crop trance in which (in the view of believers) failures. he contacts the supernatural world.

came concerned about the destructive followers to concentrate on inner effect a new religion was having. Just peace and enlightenment rather than as Romans feared Christianity’s chal- social concerns. In fact Buddhism was lenge to their ancient religion, the no more nontraditional than Taoism Chinese believed that Buddhism was (DOW-izm), a mystical Chinese belief undermining the old-fashioned Con- system founded on the ideas of Lao-tzu fucian belief system. (low-DZÜ; c. 500s B.C.). Though Taoism emerged from within China rather Based on the teachings of the than outside, it too had once been per- philosopher Confucius (551–479 B.C.), ceived as a threat by Confucianists. perhaps the most important figure in all of Chinese history, Confucianism Taoism had gained acceptance emphasized basic virtues such as loyal- in the mid-second century, and now ty to family, respect for elders, hard gradually the Chinese began to accept work and study, and obedience to Buddhism—particularly a variety rulers. By contrast, Buddhism, which called Mahayana (mah-huh-YAH-nuh) began to take hold in the 300s, urged or “Great Vehicle.” Mahayana held

162 Middle Ages: Almanac that by achieving enlightenment, a later T’ang dynasty would look back person could become a Buddha, with longing to this period, which meaning that there was not just one they immortalized in a novel called Buddha but many. Meanwhile, anoth- The Romance of the . er sect, Chan—better known by its Japanese name, Zen—merged Bud- dhism with a Taoist-like mysticism. The Sui dynasty (589–618) As it turned out, this period be- The Sui dynasty (SWEE) would tween dynasties was a time of great in- in many ways resemble the Ch’in, tellectual as well as spiritual develop- which first unified China and built its ment in China. The era saw progress in Great Wall. Both were shortlived, but the study of medicine, the first use of extremely important; both saw great coal for heat, the first appearance of public works projects; and both were kites, and the writing of the first ency- ruled by fierce tyrants. The Sui founder clopedias. No wonder writers of the was Wen Ti (DEE; also known by his

China 163 based on Confucian principles, which would remain in use up to the twenti- eth century. Furthermore, he intro- duced a new law code and moved ag- gressively against Mongol and Turkic nomads in northern China. Remembered as one of China’s greatest rulers, Wen Ti may have been assassinated by his son, Yang Ti (ruled 604–618). Yang Ti built a huge net- work of canals, most notably the Grand Canal, a thousand-mile water- way that connected the Yangtze (YAHNG-zay) River with the Yellow River to the north. But Yang Ti was ruthless, and his military campaigns proved costly. Though he enjoyed a measure of success in Vietnam and Central Asia, an expedition into Korea (612–14) failed. Yang Ti was assassinat- ed, and thus the Sui dynasty ended, like the Ch’in, after the reign of just two emperors. The teachings of the philosopher Confucius formed the basis of Confucianism, which valued such principles as loyalty, respect, hard work, and obedience to authority figures. Reproduced by permission of Archive Photos, Inc. The T’ang dynasty (618–907) The founders of the T’ang dy- birth name, Yang Chien; ruled nasty (TAHNG) were a father-son 589–604), who seized the throne in one team, Li Yüan (ruled 618–26) and Li of the many small states that controlled Shih-min (ZHUR-min; ruled 626–49). China during the period of upheaval. The son instigated a revolt and placed After eight years spent consolidating his father on the throne. Chinese em- his power, he took the imperial throne. perors usually became known by a It was Wen Ti’s aim to build a “reign title,” assigned at the time of strong central government, so he abol- their death: thus these two became ished inheritance of office, a corrupt Kao Tsu (gow-DZÜ) and T’ai Tsung practice that had spread among civil (dy-DZAWNG) respectively. Father servants. To make sure government and son allied China with a Turkic workers were qualified, he instituted a people called the Uighurs (WEE-gurz) civil-service examination system, against other Turks, extending T’ang

164 Middle Ages: Almanac The ideas of Lao-Tzu, who lived around the 500s B.C., led to the development of Taoism, a mystical Chinese belief system. Reproduced by permission of the Granger Collection Ltd. rule deep into Central Asia and even Tsung—considered by many histori- Tibet, one of the world’s most isolated ans the greatest of China’s imperial lands (see box, “Tibet”). rulers—were particularly sweeping. He put into place a complex but efficient Both rulers issued a series of bureaucracy (byoo-RAHK-ruh-see) di- reforms, and in particular those of T’ai vided into three branches for making,

China 165 Tibet

Situated atop a vast plateau in the Himalayas (him-ah-LAY-uz), the world’s tallest mountain range, Tibet is one of the most isolated lands on Earth. Even the name of Tibet’s first known king, Srong-brt-san- sgam-po (srawng-burt-SAHNG-SKAHM-poh; ruled 629–50), illustrates how unfamiliar its language and culture are to Westerners. Srong (to simplify his name) ordered the cre- ation of a Tibetan written language and ex- tended his rule into neighboring Nepal (neh- PAHL), as well as parts of India and China. But the Tibetans would turn out to be a nation of priests, not warriors: Srong also introduced Buddhism and built huge The Dalai Lama, political leader of Tibet. temples and monasteries in and around his Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation. capital at Lhasa (LAHS-uh). Though influ- enced by the Mahayana school, Tibetan Mongols long after the decline of Mongol Buddhism incorporated elements of a power, and only in the 1700s did China much older native belief system, a religion succeed in taking at least a measure of con- of gods and demons that included ele- trol over the area. ments of spirit worship and In the mid-twentieth century, (SHAH-mun-izm). The religion spread to China’s Communist government annexed neighboring mountain lands, reaching as the country following a brutal campaign far away as Siberia. against the peaceful Buddhist monks of Other distant converts included Tibet. During the 1990s, the Dalai Lama the Mongols, who in the 1200s succeeded (DAHL-ee LAH-muh), political leader of where the Chinese had often failed, bring- Tibet, emerged as a celebrity in the West, ing Tibet under their political influence. where Tibetan political freedom became a The Tibetans remained linked with the popular cause.

reviewing, and implementing policy. ther checks on imperial authority by The review board was allowed to criti- making suggestions as well. In a land cize the emperor’s decisions, and the where strong emperors enjoyed near- policy-making branch exercised fur- absolute power, it was highly unusual

166 Middle Ages: Almanac to see a regime exercise such a great oped around A.D. 100, and block print- degree of openness. ing, a process whereby a printer would carve out a piece of wood and, using In the area of policy imple- ink, press the block onto paper, leav- mentation, or carrying out the work of ing behind an image of the carving. the government, the T’ang system had Ink came from the black substance se- few rivals. Along the highways and creted by burning wood and oil in waterways of the empire, the govern- lamps. Later, when this innovation ment placed monitoring stations to passed to the West, it would be incor- oversee taxation, review local griev- rectly called “India ink.” ances, police commercial activities, and even provide accommodations for travelers. Overseeing this smooth- A vibrant cultural life running machine was one of the most The T’ang capital was Ch’ang- talented and highly trained groups of an, today known as Xian (shee-AHN). civil servants China had ever seen. Located deep in the heart of China, it Even after T’ang power receded, its ad- would serve as capital for a total of ministrative system would prevail for eleven dynasties, but under T’ang rule several centuries. it reached the peak of its splendor. Laid out on a grid, it covered some A thriving economy thirty square miles. With its two mil- lion residents, it may well have been T’ai Tsung also instituted the largest city of its time. badly needed land reforms, redistrib- uting property to reflect changes in The golden age of the T’ang, the size of peasant families. Though which lasted until 751, saw great ad- taxes on farmers were high, peasants vancements in the arts and . now felt a sense of ownership over Aside from block printing, which in- their lands, which could no longer be creased the spread of new ideas, two snapped up by feudal lords. The T’ang other notable Chinese inventions, government also greatly extended the fireworks and the (AB-uh-kus), canal network put in place by the Sui, made their appearance during this era. thus aiding the transport of goods An early form of calculator, the abacus from north to south in a land where had existed in one form or another most major rivers flowed eastward. since ancient times and was known to the Romans; but the Chinese abacus, As the economy of T’ang still used in parts of the Far East today, China thrived, new goods such as became the most well known version. from Southeast Asia made their ap- pearance. China in turn exported a va- The T’ang Chinese were eager riety of items, including and print- to import knowledge of astronomy ed materials. The latter was an and mathematics from India, and outgrowth of two outstanding Chi- their own cultural advances spread to nese innovations: paper, first devel- Korea and Japan, which modeled their

China 167 leading cities on the plan of Ch’ang- Kao Tsung’s empress in 655, and after an. An openness to non-Chinese ways his death in 683 became the only fe- of life characterized the T’ang and dis- male ruler in all of Chinese history. An tinguished them from most dynasties able administrator and military leader, of the past. Not only did they allow she proved herself the equal of any Buddhism to spread, the T’ang emper- male sovereign. ors tolerated faiths of even more dis- Her grandson Hsüan Tsung tant origin: Islam, Zoroastrianism, (shwee-AHND-zoong; ruled 712–56), Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity, who ruled the T’ang dynasty at the and even Judaism. height of its power, was also dominat- In such an environment, it is ed by his concubine, Yang Kuei-fei not surprising that the arts flourished. (gway-FAY). A fascinating character, T’ang sculpture became widely noted Yang was one of the only obese women for its beauty, and the expansion into in Chinese history also considered a Central Asia added new musical styles great beauty. She started out as concu- and dances. The era also produced bine of Hsüan Tsung’s son before the some of China’s greatest writers, in- emperor decided he wanted her for cluding the poets Li Po (lee-BOH; himself—along with her two sisters. 701–762) and Tu Fu (doo-FOO; The soap opera did not end there: later 712–770). Even after T’ang China had she took the general An Lu-shan passed its prime, an outstanding intel- (703–757) under her wing as her stu- lectual figure made his appearance: the dent, adopted son, and (according to writer and philosopher Han Yü (hahn- palace rumors) lover. YOOEE; 768–824). Han Yü helped re- vive Confucianism as a living system of thought and established a new, nat- Decline of the T’ang uralistic, and free-spirited prose style. Of Iranian descent, An Lu- shan rose rapidly at court and became a favorite of Hsüan Tsung. After Arab An imperial soap opera forces defeated Chinese troops at Talas in Central Asia (751), however, it be- T’ai Tsung’s son Kao Tsung came clear that the T’ang had reached (gow-DZÜNG; ruled 649–83) found the limits of their power. In 755 An himself almost constantly at war, par- launched a rebellion against the em- ticularly against the Turks and Ti- peror. Soon afterward, palace guards betans. In 668 he subdued the Kore- killed Yang for her part in the rebel- ans, but he did not prove as forceful a lion, and in 757 An was murdered on ruler as his father. During his later the orders of his own son. The revolt years, the empire was dominated by continued until 763, however, further his concubine, Wu Ze-tian (zeh-CHEE- weakening T’ang power. en; 625–705). By skillful manipulation and a ruthless approach to those who The dynasty would maintain stood in her way, she made herself control for another almost 150 years,

168 Middle Ages: Almanac but its glory days were over, and the Wang An-shih (1021–1086) put in spirit of tolerance that had marked place economic reforms. These freed T’ang rule soon faded as emperors per- the peasantry from many burdens, secuted Buddhists and other adherents but also gave the government huge of “foreign” religions. Famine ravaged power over the economy. The Sung northern China, and in 881 the rebel system, an elaborate Confucian bu- leader Huang Ch’ao (hwahng CHOW) reaucracy in which advancement was sacked Ch’ang-an, forcing the govern- based on merit rather than social ment to Luoyang (lwoh-YAHNG), an standing, proved to be one of the ancient capital. In its last three most efficient governments the world decades, competing forces at court fur- has ever known. ther sapped the dynasty’s strength.

Northern and Southern Sung Sung diplomats formed an al- liance with the Juchen (zhur-SHIN), a The Sung dynasty dynasty of nomadic tribesmen in (960–1279) to the northeast, against After the fall of the T’ang, the Liao. The Juchen eliminated the China entered a period of anarchy Liao threat, but then turned against known to historians as “Five Dynasties the Sung. Sweeping southward, in and Ten Kingdoms.” Then in 960, 1127 they destroyed the capital at troops loyal to Chao K’uang-yin Kaifeng (gy-FUNG) in central China, (ZHOW gwahng-YIN; ruled 960–76) forcing the Sung to move south. declared him emperor, thus establish- ing the Sung (SOONG) dynasty. Often dynasties of the past had withstood invasion by moving Like the T’ang before them, their capitals; thus historians would the Sung reformed the government to refer to the Western and Eastern peri- create a stronger, more efficient bu- ods of a dynasty, or in the case of the reaucracy, but they were not expan- Sung, the Northern and Southern. For sionists. Instead, the first two Sung the Sung, however, the latter phase emperors consolidated the empire’s was not a time of weakness: instead, holdings, allowing Tibet, Mongolia, they became stronger and more Vietnam, and other areas to break wealthy than before. away. They tried to defeat the only re- During the Southern Sung era, maining dynasty from the “Five Dy- the population of lands under Chinese nasties” period, the Liao (LYOW) of control reached 100 million, and their Mongolia, but in 1005 gave up and new capital at Hangchow (hahng- agreed to pay them tribute. SHOH) became a mighty city of 1.5 The cost of this tribute, along million. Cities spread throughout with other problems, affected the Sung China, and Chinese culture economy, so the powerful minister flourished.

China 169 Artistic and technological boom. On the high seas, the develop- advances ment of the magnetic made It was a time of great painters, navigation at sea much easier, and noted for subtle landscapes influenced along with improvements in shipbuild- by Zen Buddhism. Among these was ing, enabled the Sung to send ships the emperor Hui Tsung (hwee- called junks on merchant voyages. The DZÜNG; ruled 1100–25), who formed larger Sung junks could hold up to six the alliance with the Juchen; certainly hundred sailors, along with cargo. he was a better artist than an adminis- Tea and cotton emerged as trator. This era also witnessed advances major exports, and a newly developed in distinctively Chinese arts such as rice strain, along with advanced agri- porcelain-making and calligraphy cultural techniques, enhanced the (kuh-LIG-ruh-fee), the art of lettering. yield from China’s farming lands. Sung China produced several China also sold a variety of manufac- notable writers as well, among them tured goods, including books and the philosopher Chu Hsi (jü-SHEE; porcelain, while production and 1130–1200), who like Han Yü helped mining grew dramatically. to reinvigorate Confucian teachings. In this vibrant economy, He became a leader in the movement banks and paper money—one of Sung called Neo-Confucianism (neo means China’s most notable contributions— “new”), and Chu Hsi’s philosophical made their appearance, and the devel- writings became required reading for opment of movable-type printing generations of civil service applicants. aided the spread of information. In- Also during the Sung era, the stead of carving out a whole block of historian Ssu-ma Kuang (sü-mah- wood, a printer assembled pre-cast GWAHNG, 1019–1086) wrote the pieces of clay type (later they used Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Chinese wood), each of which stood for a char- Government, which is one of the most acter in the Chinese language. Ulti- important works of Chinese historical mately, however, the peculiarities of scholarship. Writers of the Sung dy- Chinese would encourage the use of nasty also included a woman, the po- block printing over . It is etess Li Ch’ing-chao (1081–c. 1141). easy enough to store and use pieces of Thus the Sung era produced one of type when a language has a twenty- premodern China’s few notable six-letter alphabet, as English does; women other than imperial wives and but Chinese has some 30,000 charac- concubines; but the Sung also intro- ters or symbols, meaning that printing duced a practice that became a symbol by movable type was extremely slow. of male domination (see box, “Women and Foot-Binding”). End of the Sung An explosion in scientific Great strides in science and knowledge accompanied an economic technology continued right up to the

170 Middle Ages: Almanac end of the Sung dynasty, making its destruction all the more tragic. The Sung created pumps for lifting water, and experimented with water power Women and Foot-Binding as a means of operating silk looms and Men in premodern China be- cotton mills. A scientist in 919, be- lieved that small feet on a woman were tween the T’ang and Sung eras, had beautiful, and during the Sung dynasty developed one of history’s most signif- years they developed a means to ensure icant inventions: . The that women’s feet would remain small. In Sung expanded on this knowledge, childhood, a Chinese girl would have her and even experimented with rocketry. feet bound with strips of cloth, which Rockets made their first ap- constricted their growth. By the time she pearance in about 1240, in a war became a woman, she would have abnor- against the Mongols, who had been mally small feet, so much so that walking on the move against China since became difficult. Genghis Khan first attacked in 1211. Of course foot-binding only ap- Yet the Chinese were thrilled when, in plied to women of the upper classes; 1234, the Mongols defeated the peasant girls had to work in the fields, Juchen and took northern China. The and tiny feet would only slow them Sung probably thought they would let down. Nor did the practice attract many the barbarians destroy each other, admirers outside of China: though Chi- then reoccupy their country; but in- nese men swooned at the sight of tiny stead the Mongols kept going south- feet, Westerners thought them grotesque. ward, and by 1279 Kublai Khan’s In the modern era, foot-binding became armies had overthrown the Sung. a symbol of the hard-line conservatism that prevailed during imperial times, and the end of the monarchy in 1912 also saw Yüan dynasty the end of foot-binding. (1279–1368) When he established his capi- tal at Khanbalik, Kublai Khan named dominated by bandits and competing his imperial house Yüan, meaning warlords. Thus Marco Polo was able to “beginning.” Under the forceful make his celebrated journey to Kublai, lands from Korea to Central Kublai’s court, from which he would Asia to Vietnam bowed to the military bring back to Europe all sorts of inno- power of the Yüan. Kublai did not vations: gunpowder, paper money, the annex all these countries, but made compass, kites, even playing cards. many of them , regions that re- lied on Kublai for military protection. The Yüan were the first foreign The unity of the Mongol realm facili- ruling house in China’s three- tated travel through areas formerly thousand-year history, and the Chi-

China 171 nese resented them deeply. This had in other words, the favor of the gods. an unintended result. Rather than This is a consistent theme in Chinese serve the “barbarians,” many talented history, and such calamities often at- Chinese opted to become artists and tended the change of dynasties. educators rather than civil servants, and this led to a flowering in the arts. Yet the Yüan depended on the Glory days of the Ming Chinese to run the country for them dynasty (1368–c. 1500) and did not return their neighbors’ The founder of China’s last na- contempt toward them. Whereas the tive-ruled dynasty, the Ming Chinese were accustomed to looking (1368–1644), was Chu Yüan-chang down on outsiders, the Mongols were (ruled 1368–98), who led a rebel group some of the most open-minded people that seized control of Khanbalik in of the Middle Ages. Precisely because 1368. He created a network of secret they lacked a sophisticated culture, police and soon consolidated his they admired those of the peoples they power throughout the country. Leader- ruled, and they admired no culture as ship passed to Chu’s grandson, but in much as that of China. Thus they were 1399 Yung-lo (ruled 1403–24), Chu’s eager to absorb the refined ways of the son, led a revolt against his nephew. Chinese, and this produced yet anoth- er unintended effect: in becoming Yung-lo became one of the more sophisticated, the Mongols lost most fascinating emperors of Chinese the brutal toughness that had aided history. He sent a series of naval expedi- them in their conquests and so be- tions, under the command of Admiral come vulnerable to overthrow. Cheng Ho (jung-HOH), to westward lands, including India, Ceylon, Yemen, A series of failed invasions, and even Africa. Though the Ming ruled both against Japan and Java, hastened a wide array of tribute-paying states the decline of Mongol power. Further- from Japan to Tibet, and from Central more, the Mongols lacked the sheer Asia to the Philippines, the purpose of numbers to truly dominate China: not these expeditions was not conquest or only were the Chinese older and wiser, even trade, but simply to display the su- in terms of their civilization, they periority of Ming China. These ships were also more numerous. As with brought with them such luxuries as their distant cousins the Huns before and porcelains, and returned bearing them, the Mongols soon faded into exotic animals, spices, and varieties of the larger population. tropical wood. Centuries later, when ar- chaeologists unearthed the ruins of The last years of Mongol rule in Africa, they found broken were marked by and other nat- pieces of Ming porcelain. ural disasters, which the Chinese took as a sign that their rulers had lost what The naval expeditions were they called the “Mandate of Heaven”— costly, and this helped bring them to

172 Middle Ages: Almanac Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China, with the Forbidden City in the background. The Forbidden City, a palace five miles in circumference, was built to demonstrate the wealth and power of the Ming dynasty. Photograph by Susan D. Rock. Reproduced by permission of Susan D. Rock. an end; also expensive was the estab- power, the Forbidden City became— lishment of a vast palace complex. In aside from the Great Wall—the best- 1421, Yung-lo moved the capital known symbol of China in the eyes from Nanjing (nahn-ZHEENG) in the of the world. interior to Beijing, where he built a palace five miles in circumference. These ventures, along with the Containing some two thousand restoration of the Grand Canal (which rooms where more than ten thou- had fallen into disrepair under the sand servants attended the imperial Mongols), placed heavy burdens on family, it was not so much a palace as the treasury and weakened the power a city: hence its name, “Forbidden of the Ming. So too did attacks by Chi- City,” meaning that only the emper- nese, Korean, and Japanese pirates on or and the people directly around their merchant vessels, not to men- him were allowed to enter. Built to il- tion the appearance of European lustrate the boundless extent of Ming traders who were often pirates them-

China 173 selves. The Ming dynasty would con- Schafer, Edward H. Ancient China. New York: tinue for several centuries, but long Time-Life Books, 1967. before it fell to Manchurian invaders Spencer, Cornelia. The Yangtze: China’s River in 1644, it appeared to have lost the Highway. Illustrations by Kurt Wiese. London: Muller, 1966. “Mandate of Heaven.”

Web Sites “Chinese History: The Main Dynasties.” The For More Information Chinese Odyssey. [Online] Available http://library.thinkquest.org/10622/nor Books mal_dynasty.htm (last accessed July 28, Gross, Susan Hill, and Marjorie Wall Bing- 2000). ham. Women in Traditional China: An- “.” [Online] Available http:// cient Times to Modern Reform. St. Paul, www-chaos.umd.edu/history/toc.html MN: The Upper Midwest Women’s His- (last accessed July 28, 2000). tory Center, 1983. Internet East Asian History Sourcebook. [Online] Levy, Elizabeth. Marco Polo: The Historic Ad- Available http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ venture Based on the Television Spectacular. eastasia/eastasiasbook.html (last ac- New York: Random House, 1982. cessed July 28, 2000).

174 Middle Ages: Almanac Japan 16

hough Japan had been inhabited for thousands of years, Tits history did not truly begin until the adoption of writ- ing in the A.D. 400s. Yet the origins of the Japanese remain a mystery. Linguists are divided as to whether their language is related to those of Central Asia or to no other tongues on Earth. Certainly the Japanese language is not related to Chi- nese, though China would be Japan’s greatest cultural influ- ence in its early years.

From the Kofun to the Nara period (250–794) Japan first emerged as a nation in the (250–552), named for the impressive burial mounds built by the Yamato (yuh-MAH-toh; “imperial”) clan, which united the nation. Given the suddenness with which the Japanese state appeared, it is possible that Japan may have been influenced by visitors from China, whose historical writings of the time

175 The (552–645) Words to Know: A collection of scriptures, sent as a gift from the Paekche kingdom in Japan Korea, helped introduce Buddhism to Japan during the Asuka period. Japan’s Animism: The belief that everything has a native religion, Shinto (“way of the spirit. gods”), was animistic, meaning adher- Anthology: A collection of shorter writ- ents believed that everything—living ings, or excerpts from longer writings. or inanimate, physical or mental—has : A count of the people living in a a spirit. Shinto contrasts sharply with country. Buddhism: whereas Shinto exalts na- ture and its reproductive forces, and Commoner: Someone who is not a mem- looks upon death as unclean, Bud- ber of a royal or noble class. dhism’s focus on enlightenment Constitution: A set of written laws gov- means that death simply breaks the erning a nation. cycle of eternal suffering. Figurehead: A ruler who holds power in At first Buddhism sparked a name only. heated debate among Japan’s ruling Regent: Someone who governs a country elite, but eventually the two religions when the monarch is too young, too became complementary elements in old, or too sick to lead. the Japanese way of life. Leading the movement for the acceptance of Bud- Shogun: A military dictator in premodern dhism was the Soga clan, whose most Japan. powerful member was Prince Shotoku Typhoon: The equivalent of a hurricane, (573–621). In 604, Shotoku issued his occurring along the Asian coast of the “Seventeen-Article Constitution.” The Pacific Ocean. constitution gave the central govern- ment exclusive authority to tax its citi- zens and instructed the ruling classes in Confucian ethics, more evidence of the Chinese influence. Shotoku was refer to it as the “Land of Wa,” a realm truly “the father of his country,” giv- of over a hundred separate “countries.” ing it the name Nippon or Nihon; later During the 300s, the Japanese the Chinese would use a name mean- welcomed a steady influx of Chinese ing “origins of the sun,” and it was and Korean immigrants, whose skills this version—Jihpen—that Marco Polo helped them rise quickly to positions would take back to Europe with him. of power. In 405, the Japanese adopt- ed the Chinese written language, which they would use for half a mil- The Hakuh period (645–710) lennium, until they developed a ver- Soga power weakened after the sion more suited to Japanese. death of Shotoku in 622, and in 645

176 Middle Ages: Almanac RUSSIA CHINA Hokkaido

Sapporo

NORTH KOREA Sinuiju Hachinohe P'yongyang Hamhung Sea of Akita Wonsan Japan Seoul PACIFIC SOUTH OCEAN KOREA Taejon P'ohang Honshu Taegu JAPAN Tokyo N Kyoto Yokohama Hiroshima Osaka Nara

miles Nagasaki Shikoku 0 100 200

0 100 200 Kyushu kilometers

A map of the modern-day nations of Japan and North and South Korea. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group. two men conspired to murder the ruler. nese counterparts, however, most These two were Crown Prince Nakano Japanese emperors were figureheads, Oe (OH-ee; 626–671) and Nakatomi rulers who held power in name only Kamatari (614–669), but after they while others exerted the real influ- gained power, they both took on new ence. In this regard, Tenchi was some- names. The prince became Emperor thing of an exception, though even he Tenchi, and Kamatari’s family became had to rule alongside the Fujiwara known as Fujiwara, a clan that would clan. Other measures adopted by later dominate the imperial family. Tenchi from the Chinese included the , a bureaucracy mod- A particularly strong Chinese eled on the Confucian system, and a influence characterized the Hakuh pe- land-redistribution effort based on the riod, and this was evident in the new reforms of the early T’ang dynasty. idea of the Tenno, or emperor, as a god who descended directly from the Rooted in Confucian princi- Shinto sun-goddess. Unlike their Chi- ples of equality, the Taika land re-

Japan 177 A Shinto temple in Nikko, Japan. The native religion of Japan, Shinto exalts nature, believing that everything has a spirit. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

forms abolished hereditary ownership bolize the “new” Japan, its rulers of lands, created a taxation system, began work on a new capital city at and established a census to provide Heijo, now known as Nara. The city’s the government with a means of designers started out trying to repli- monitoring taxpayers. This did little cate the grid system of Ch’ang-an, to end inequalities, however: the aris- China’s magnificent capital, but as it tocracy found ways to use the reforms took shape, Nara assumed a consider- to their advantage, and within a cen- ably more Japanese character. tury much of the land was back in their hands. The Nara period also saw a much more wide-ranging adoption of the Buddhist religion—including The Nara period (710–794) Buddhist temples and art forms, Tenchi’s successors continued which the Japanese adapted for their his reforms, which were formalized in own culture. Like Roman Catholi- 702 with the Taiho law codes. To sym- cism, Buddhism has a monastic tradi-

178 Middle Ages: Almanac Korea

The history of Korea is actually gols in 1270. For many years thereafter, the longer than that of Japan. In ancient times, Korean aristocracy was split between pro- a powerful state called Choson (choh- Mongol and pro-Chinese factions. Then in SAHN) emerged on the Korean Peninsula, 1388, a general named Yi Song-ye seized but was destroyed by a Chinese invasion in power. In 1392, Yi established Korea’s 108 B.C. China maintained control until A.D. longest-lived dynasty, which held the 220, when Korea split into three kingdoms: throne until the Japanese invasion in 1910. Paekche (pahk-CHAY) in the southwest, Silla in the southeast, and Koguryo (koh- The Yi dynasty, with its capital at GOOR-yoh) in the north. Seoul, adopted Confucianism at the ex- pense of Buddhism. Despite the heavy Chi- Chinese rulers persisted in trying to nese influence in this era, during this time control the country, and in 668 formed an Korea adopted its own phonetic alphabet, alliance with Silla against the other two which replaced Chinese characters. kingdoms. United under the rule of Silla, Korea adopted Buddhism, and a golden Japan invaded in 1592, but with age ensued; but after two centuries the the aid of China, Korea resisted the attack. land was once again divided into the three Part of Korea’s strength came from its im- old kingdoms. Then in 936, a new power- pressive navy, whose “turtle ships” may ful state called Koryo united the country. Its have been the world’s first armored war- new capital at Kaesong near Seoul was ships. The Japanese threat, along with the based on the grid plan of the Chinese capi- eclipse of Ming Chinese power by the tal at Ch’ang-an. Manchus, led the Koreans to increasingly Korea withstood invasion by the shut themselves off from the world. For Liao and Juchen dynasties, which also many centuries, Korea would be known as plagued Sung China, but it fell to the Mon- the “hermit kingdom.”

tion, and the emperor Shomu (ruled port Shomu’s building program, and it 715–749) embarked on an ambitious ended soon after his death. His daugh- program of building temples and ter (and successor) Koken came so convents. heavily under the influence of the monk Dokyo that it provoked hostili- Eventually Buddhist clerics be- ty from the ruling classes. Dokyo tried came too influential at court for their to make himself Koken’s successor, but own good: as it turned out, the nobles after Koken’s death he was banished and people were not prepared to sup- from court.

Japan 179 his power. Also during the Nara peri- od, Japan’s first poetic anthology, con- taining some 4,500 poems, appeared as Collection of a Myriad of Leaves. The book exhibits a distinctly Japanese style, and includes poems by members of various social classes.

The Heian period (794–1185) Wishing to sever all ties with the strong Buddhist influence at the Nara court, the emperor Kammu in 794 moved to a new capital at Heian (hay-YAHN; now Kyoto), a city also based on the plan of Ch’ang-an. This move set the tone for the Heian peri- od, in which the Japanese aristocracy sought to cut off all ties with China. As time went on, in fact, the nobility began to scorn not only for- A Japanese samurai on horseback. Like the knights of medieval Western Europe, the eigners, but even Japanese who lived samurai were warriors who were governed outside Heian. This contempt for rural by their own code of honor in the defense of Japan had several consequences, their feudal lords. Reproduced by permission of among them the rise of the Fujiwara the Corbis Corporation. clan. Yoshifusa Fujiwara (804–872) married into the , and in 858 became the first commoner to The Nara period, a time of rule the country, serving as regent for great cultural flowering, saw the writ- his underage son. This became more ing of the two oldest Japanese books common, and eventually it was typi- now in existence. Translated as the cal for an emperor to retire early so Records of Ancient Times (712) and that his son could “rule”—with one of Chronicles of Japan (720), these “histo- the Fujiwaras as regent. ries” rely heavily on myth, though the second book is more reliable. Both books mention the emperor’s descent Feudalism and the samurai from the sun-goddess, an idea that Heian rulers ignored the coun- probably appeared at the time of tryside, so that by the 900s the Tenchi’s reforms as a way of justifying provinces had become almost com-

180 Middle Ages: Almanac pletely separated from the capital. At An age of courtly refinement the same time, changes in the Taika As in Europe, an emphasis on and Taiho laws made it possible for courtly refinement attended the rise of feudal lords to build large country es- knighthood in Japan. Despite the offi- tates, and these factors helped give cial ban on Chinese influences, mem- rise to feudalism in Japan. bers of the court read Chinese books, enjoyed Chinese music and dance, Without a central government, and studied Chinese etiquette in order provinces became like tiny nations, set- to carry themselves with greater ele- tling their disputes with the aid of gance. But they were not mere cultur- small fighting bands. This led to the al slaves of the Chinese: the era pro- rise of a new warrior class called the duced a distinctly Japanese style of samurai—Japan’s knights. Like knights, painting called yamatoe, noted for its samurai were not soldiers, but individ- simple and delicate lines, which often ual warriors sworn to defend their feu- appeared on screens and sliding doors. dal lord. They also wore armor, though Japanese poetry also became markedly it was made of bamboo and not metal, distinct from that of China. and they placed a somewhat greater emphasis on the sword than European New developments in writing knights did. In Europe, and spurred the creation of Japanese writ- made it possible to fight at a ten characters, called kana, to replace greater remove, but combat in Japan Chinese characters, which had proven was face-to-face, and were so cumbersome for writing in Japanese. sharp they could slice a man’s body in Kana in turn brought on a literary ex- half with a single stroke. plosion. Europeans would later claim credit for developing the novel as a lit- In the Heian and the later Ka- erary form, but in fact the world’s first makura period, the samurai developed novel appeared in Japan—and its au- their own code of honor, called bushi- thor was a woman. by do (“way of the warrior”), but this was (c. 978–1026) tells quite different from chivalry. For all its the story of a character named Prince flaws, chivalry was based in Christian Genji, his life and loves, with astound- notions of gentleness and compassion, ing subtlety and complexity of plot. and as such helped curb knights’ pen- chant for brutality; bushido, on the other hand, defined a samurai’s virtue in terms of his ability to strike quickly and decisively against an enemy. Nor The Kamakura and was there any European equivalent for Muromachi periods ritual suicide, a central aspect of life (1185–1573) not only among the samurai, but the In the countryside, two clans Japanese upper classes as a whole (see had long battled for power. The victory box, “Ritual Suicide”). of one family, the Minamoto, marked

Japan 181 Ritual Suicide

Though Americans use the terms the one hand, a samurai whose master hara-kiri (HAH-duh KEE-dee) and the less died might commit seppuku so that he well known seppuku interchangeably, in fact could protect his lord in the afterlife; on they are different. Seppuku refers to the prac- the other hand, a warrior offended by tice of ritual suicide, whereas hara-kiri, an in- something his lord had done might slice delicate term seldom used by the Japanese himself open at the master’s gates as a themselves, identifies the method—literally, means of protest. “belly-cutting.” Women and members of the lower Any number of occasions would re- classes were denied the “honor” of sep- quire a samurai to slice open his stomach, puku; on the other hand, noble ladies using a knife that he carried for that pur- could, as a form of protest, commit jigaki, pose. Dishonor or the need to prevent dis- suicide by piercing the throat. As part of honor was a principal motivation: a samu- her training, a woman of the aristocracy rai would kill himself rather than surrender learned how to slice her throat properly in battle, and a condemned nobleman had and—before she did the deed—to bind her the right to do himself in rather than con- legs together so that her body would not front the disgrace of an executioner. On be found in an immodest position.

the beginning of the Kamakura period continually threatened, but the adop- (1185–1333), named after the new cap- tion of the fully developed bushido ital city. There a shogun, or military code helped give a measure of stability. dictator, named Yoritomo Minamoto Bushido demanded that both (ruled 1192–99) established his power, men and women adhere to its high but his sons did not prove successful in standards of loyalty and discipline. It holding on to it. In their place came is interesting to note that unlike feu- the Hojo family, relatives of Yoritomo’s dal societies in Europe, the shogunate widow, who took power in 1219. permitted women—at least, women of Government by the shogunate the upper classes—a great degree of was exceedingly complex, with the freedom, allowing them to own land Hojo family ruling lesser shoguns—the and hold positions of esteem. equivalent of feudal lords—who in turn controlled a series of figurehead emperors. This, plus the maintenance Invasion and overthrow of two capitals at Kamakura and Kyoto, Some Koreans who feared created a confused situation. Anarchy Japanese power convinced Mongol

182 Middle Ages: Almanac leader Kublai Khan that Japan con- warlords called daimyo (dy-EEM-yoh). tained great wealth. In 1274, Kublai This created an unstable situation, but Khan launched an unsuccessful naval the shogun Yoshimitsu (ruled invasion of Japan. When he tried again 1368–94) managed to successfully bal- in 1281, he sent a fleet of some 3,500 ance the shoguns and the daimyo. ships containing an estimated 100,000 With the death of his grandson in men; but nature was on the side of the 1428, however, the uneasy peace came Japanese. A huge wind, probably a ty- to an end, and the shogunate began to phoon, rose up and smashed the Mon- weaken. Clan disputes led to all-out gols’ vessels to shreds. The grateful conflict in 1467. Japanese dubbed this a “divine wind,” or kamikaze, a title adopted centuries The Onin War raged for ten later by Japanese suicide bombers in years, destroying the power of the World War II (1939–45). Ashikagas and devastating Kyoto. Warlords controlled the land until Though it withstood the Mon- 1568, during which time the balance gols, the Hojo Shogunate weakened of power on the battlefield shifted over the years that followed, and by from samurai to mass foot-soldiers. 1333 it was ripe for overthrow by a fac- The arrival of Portuguese traders in tion that placed Emperor Daigo II 1543 created an external threat that (1287–1339) in power. The men dri- aided the daimyo in consolidating ving the Temmu Restoration, as it was their power, and the Europeans’ intro- called, were Ashikaga Takauji (tah-kah- duction of firearms gave them a par- OO-jee; 1305–1358) and Kusunoki ticularly effective means for doing so. Masashige (mah-sah-SHEE-gay; 1294– The Portuguese gradually gained a de- 1336). Both were military leaders, but gree of acceptance, and introduced their motivations could not have been castles to Japan, where they appeared more different. Kusunoki acted out of in military towns around the country. loyalty to his emperor, whereas Ashik- aga, after selling out his allies in the Despite the unrest of the Hojo family, turned against Daigo in times, a number of vital social changes 1336 and made himself shogun. Daigo took place. The feudal system actually went on to rule a rival government gave more power to the people, be- outside Kyoto, while Ashikaga estab- cause the daimyo were closer to the lished himself as leader of a new populace than the faraway imperial regime in the city of Muromachi. court had been. Zen Buddhism, which emphasized meditation and disci- pline, took hold in Japan during this The Muromachi period period, as did a number of distinctly The Ashikaga Shogunate dom- Japanese arts such as flower arranging, inated Japan during much of the gardening, landscape painting, No¯ Muromachi period (1333–1573), but it theatre, and the tea ceremony. At the had to share power with a new class of same time, new forces were at work in

Japan 183 the upper levels of the Japanese mili- Wolfe, Bob. Lessons from the Samurai: Ancient tary, and these would end the era of Self-Defense Strategies and Techniques. Photographs by Bob Wolfe. Minneapolis: unrest with the unification of the Lerner Publications, 1987. country in 1573.

Web Sites For More Information Castles of Japan. [Online] Available http://www.magi.com/~ttoyooka/oshi- Books ro/ (last accessed July 28, 2000). Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient and Medieval World, Volume 11: Empires Internet East Asian History Sourcebook. [Online] of the Ancient World. New York: Marshall Available http://www.fordham.edu/ Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1519–30. halsall/eastasia/eastasiasbook.html (last Farley, Carol. Korea, A Land Divided. Min- accessed July 28, 2000). neapolis: Dillon Press, 1983. “Japan.” World Art Treasures. [Online] Avail- Pilbeam, Mavis. Japan: 5000 B.C.–Today. New able http://sgwww.epfl.ch/wat1/japon. York: Franklin Watts, 1988. pl (last accessed July 28, 2000).

184 Middle Ages: Almanac The Americas 17

he most notable civilizations in the New World during T ancient times were the Olmec and other groups in Mesoamerica, or Central America, as well as the Chavín cul- ture of the Andes Mountains in South America. Both began developing in about 3500 B.C., and in time a number of other civilizations developed around them. In Mesoamerica, these included the Maya and the people of the Teotihuacán city- state. The Maya would continue to flourish through medieval times, and the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural centers provided a foundation for the brilliant Aztec and Inca civi- lizations that appeared later.

The Maya The Maya first emerged in the jungle lowlands of what is now northern Guatemala in about 2500 B.C. By 800 B.C., they had settled the area around them, and in the years that fol- lowed, Mayan cities sprang up in what is now southern Mexi- co, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. No doubt they came under the influence of southern Mexico’s Olmec,

185 Words to Know: The Americas

Aqueduct: A long pipe, usually mounted Hieroglyphics: A system of written sym- on a high stone wall that slopes gently, bols, often consisting of pictograms, used to carry water from the mountains which look like the things they repre- to the lowlands. sent, and phonograms, which represent a specific syllable. Archaeology: The scientific study of past civilizations. Jade: A greenish gemstone that acquires a Causeway: A raised highway over water. high shine when polished. Conquistador: A leader in the Spanish con- Maize: Corn. quest of the Americas during the 1500s. New World: The Americas, or the Western Conscription: Compulsory, or required, Hemisphere. enrollment of persons in public service, particularly the military. Observatory: A building set aside for the purpose of studying natural phenomena : The study of physical materi- such as the movement of bodies in the al—for example, tea leaves or a person’s heavens. palms—in order to discover what the fu- ture holds. Plaza: A large open area or public square, usually but not always in the center of a Extended family: A household comprising town. not just immediate family (parents and siblings), but also grandparents, aunts Staple: A commodity with widespread or and uncles, cousins, and other relatives. constant appeal.

who flourished between 1200 and 100 KAHN) in Mexico built enormous B.C. The Olmec were noted for their so- stone pyramids, the most well known phisticated 365-day calendar, their sys- of which was the Pyramid of the Sun tem of mathematical notation, and the in Teotihuacán. These structures are creation of some sixteen giant stone particularly impressive in light of the heads, weighing as much as 30,000 fact that no premodern American cul- pounds, which archaeologists in the ture had use of the wheel or—with the 1800s began finding throughout the exception of the Incas’ llamas—do- jungles of Central America. mesticated beasts of burden. Teoti- huacán, which flourished from A.D. Both the Olmec and the peo- 100 to 750, was at one point the sixth- ple of Teotihuacán (tay-oh-tee-hwah- largest city in the world.

186 Middle Ages: Almanac NORTH AMERICA N

Gulf of Mexico Tenochtitlán MAYA Chichén Itzá AZTEC ATLANTIC r i b b e a n S e a C a OCEAN

SOUTH PACIFIC AMERICA OCEAN INCA Machu Picchu

Cuzco miles 0 500 1000

0 500 1000 kilometers

Maya, c. 250–900 Aztec, c. 1300–1521 Inca, c. 1200–1532

A map of the Americas showing the three major Mesoamerican civilizations of the Middle Ages: the Maya, the Aztecs, and the Incas. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group.

Agriculture and cities Mayan city dates back to about 2000 Like the Olmec before them, B.C., and later became the site of Méri- the early Maya practiced the slash- da (MAY-ree-thah), established by the and-burn method of clearing land, Spanish in 1542. cutting down larger vegetation with stone tools and burning away under- One of the most notable brush. They grew a variety of crops: Mayan cities was Tikal (tee-KAHL) in maize (corn), beans, squash, avocados, northern Guatemala. Probably found- tomatoes, and chili peppers. ed in the third century A.D., Tikal thrived from 600 to 900, and became Agriculture made possible the home to some 50,000 people—huge creation of urban areas, which origi- by the standards of premodern Ameri- nated as ceremonial centers—that is, ca. The city included a school where places for worship—but also became scholars studied astronomy and other home to large populations. The oldest disciplines. Among the structures of

The Americas 187 interest found at Tikal were agricultur- roof combs, which made the building al earthworks and canals, fortifications seem to touch the sky. These were per- against invasion, and—sixteen miles forated in such a way as to catch the to the northwest—an impressive pyra- wind, making eery sounds that the mid with four staircases. Maya equated with the voices of the gods. Typically a pyramid included The city of Uxmal (üz-MAHL) long series of steps on each side, and near Mérida, which flourished at the on the days of religious festivals—with same time as Tikal, may have been a some 160 gods, there were plenty of center for priestesses who led the peo- these—priests would ascend the stairs ple in fertility rites associated with the in view of the populace below. rain god Chac. Palenque (pah-LING- kay), where archaeologists in 1952 What the spectators witnessed found the tomb of a Mayan ruler from was not always pretty: the Maya prac- the 600s, was said to be the most ticed human sacrifice, and often pre- beautiful of Mayan ceremonial cen- sented captured enemy warriors to ap- ters, as well as a center of scientific pease the gods. The victim would be study that included a seven-story held down on an altar, and a priest tower for astronomical observations. would slit his chest under the rib cage and tear out the heart. The Maya also practiced ritual torture, and some- The Mayan religion times drowned victims in cenotes to Perhaps the greatest of the plead with the rain god for water. Mayan cities was Chichén Itzá (chee- The Maya also used a ball CHEN eet-SAH), built around a num- game, which they called pok-a-tok, as a ber of cenotes (si-NO-tees), or deep nat- form of worship. Sharing aspects with ural water holes. Chichén Itzá had the modern games of tennis, volleyball, impressive pyramids, an advanced ob- and even basketball, the ball game had servatory, a school for the training of taken different forms and names at var- male and female priests, and a 545- ious places and times in Mesoamerica’s foot long ceremonial ball court—the history. In its Mayan incarnation, it in- largest in the Americas. Each of these volved a set of rings through which the structures served a religious purpose. ball had to pass. These rings were said The pyramids, huge flat- to represent the movement of the plan- topped structures, were in many cases ets through the heavens. Just as sports as impressive as their counterparts in were inseparable from religion, so was , and in some regards astronomy—hence the religious signifi- even more remarkable. Archaeologists cance of the observatory. have discovered that Mayan pyramids were designed so as to transmit voices perfectly from the summit to the plaza Science and mathematics below. Atop other types of temple The Maya became extraordi- structures, Mayan builders attached nary astronomers, carefully observing

188 Middle Ages: Almanac the movements of the Sun, , and stars, and predicting eclipses and the orbit of Venus. Like many other premodern peoples, they treated as- Mayan Ideas of Beauty trology with just as much seriousness The Maya had ideas about beauty as astronomy and performed detailed that modern people would consider per- calculations regarding the birth date plexing. Because they considered an elon- of a young man and young woman gated skull highly attractive, they prac- when it came time for matchmaking. ticed ritual skull deformation, binding the Along with their multitude of heads of infants between two boards. gods, the Maya appear to have wor- People who wanted to look truly spectac- shiped time itself. They adapted the ular, in the Mayan view, would file their ancient calendar of the Olmec and an- teeth down to sharp points and inlay other group, the Zapotec, who used them with jade. both the 365-day cycle and a 260-day On the other hand, modern peo- religious calendar. Once every fifty- ple who practice body-piercing might be two years, the first days of both would surprised to learn that the idea is nothing match up, and that was a day of cele- new: the Maya pierced various parts of bration for the renewal of the Earth. their bodies and attached ornaments to The Maya used mathematical them. Also, priests sometimes bled them- notation and systems created by the selves or pierced specific parts of the Olmec, who used the number 20 as a body—the penis included—in order to base rather than 10 as in the decimal achieve higher spiritual consciousness. system. Independent of the mathe- maticians of India, they developed the number zero, and used it centuries be- fore Europeans became aware of the concept. The Maya and other Meso- american civilizations were exception- al among New World peoples, few of The arts, writing, and fashion whom possessed a written language. Like science, art served a reli- By contrast, the Maya even produced gious—not to mention a patriotic— books, though most of these were later purpose. Most examples of Mayan art- destroyed by Spanish priests intent on work can be found in the carvings removing all record of the Mayan reli- that appeared in their temples. These gion. Made of fig-tree bark, the books showed scenes of leaders torturing and contained astronomical tables, calen- defeating their enemies, and priests dars of planting days, and information and priestesses preparing for sacrificial about religious ceremonies and other as- bloodletting. Alongside these were hi- pects of Mayan life. There are also a few eroglyphic writings explaining the surviving works of history (laced with a events depicted. great deal of myth) and even a play.

The Americas 189 The end of the Maya gap. The Toltecs worshiped the god Mayan culture flourished dur- Quetzalcóatl (kwet-zuhl-KWAH-tuhl), ing the era called the Classic period (c. a feathered serpent-god that would 300–925), which saw the majority of later be adopted by the Aztecs. From their building projects; then the Maya the destruction of Teotihuacán in went into rapid decline. Most likely an about 900, the Toltecs controlled cen- attack by the Toltecs in 950 was more a tral Mexico, but after they moved into symptom than a cause of this decline. Mayan lands, their departure opened Other possibilities include an epidemic the way for other groups. of some kind, or even discontent with Among the new arrivals were the government. One of the most plau- the Aztecs, who came from a place sible suggestions is that slash-and-burn they called Aztlan (AHZ’t-lahn) to the agriculture, which is highly detrimental northwest. They reached central Mexi- to the soil, simply depleted the land. co in about 1250, and established the Whatever the reasons, the city that would become their capital, Maya began to abandon their old Tenochtitlán (tay-nawch-teet-LAHN), homeland in the 900s and move around 1325. According to legend, the northward into Mexico’s Yucatán gods had told them to settle in a place Peninsula. Invasion and subsequent where they saw a cactus growing from domination by the Toltecs in about a rock, and an eagle perched on the 1000 further sapped their strength, but cactus eating a snake. The Aztec by about 1200, the Maya had absorbed priests claimed to have seen just such the less numerous Toltecs. Despite the a sight on a tiny island along the fact that many of their splendid cities marshy western edge of Lake Texcoco had disappeared into the jungle, not to (tays-KOH-koh). be found until the 1700s, the Maya Today it is easy to find both continued to survive as a civilization the place they picked and an image of throughout the Post-Classic period (c. the strange scene. The area around 1000–1540). They endured the on- Tenochtitlán became Mexico City, slaught of the Spanish conquerors, and Mexico’s capital, and the scene itself today some 4 million Maya live in appears on the Mexican flag. Even the Mexico and surrounding areas. name “Mexico” is an inheritance from the Aztecs, who also called themselves Mexica. The Aztecs The Aztecs replaced the Maya Tenochtitlán as the dominant power in the region, The industrious Aztecs set but the warlike Toltecs, who began about turning the marshes into a city coming down from what is now so gorgeous that later Spanish con- northern Mexico in the period from querors would dub Tenochtitlán “the about 600 to 800, helped bridge the Venice of the New World.” Like its Ital-

190 Middle Ages: Almanac The temple at the Aztec capital city, Tenochtitlán. The Aztecs offered human sacrifices to their gods, sometimes eating the flesh of the sacrificed victim afterward. Reproduced by permission of the New York Public Library Picture Collection.

ian counterpart, Tenochtitlán was built chinampas, the Aztecs piled lake-bot- on a number of islands, though in this tom soil onto floating rafts made of in- case the islands—“floating gardens,” or terlaced twigs, then planted trees and chinampas—were artificial. To create the bushes in the soil. Eventually, as the

The Americas 191 roots of the plants kept growing deeper, an Aztec priest to cut the heart out of they anchored the rafts in place, and a living person. Nor were victims only what had been the surface of the lake drawn from enemy armies: Aztec war- became a meadow laced with canals. riors considered it an honor to be cho- sen as a sacrifice to the gods, and in Aside from their beauty, the one year alone, more than 20,000 peo- canals served a purely practical pur- ple met their end on the altars of pose, aiding the transport of goods and Huitzilopochtli. The Aztecs often ate people. The Aztecs also built causeways the flesh of the sacrificed victim, and and bridges to connect the city to the sometimes priests would flay (skin) a mainland, and constructed aqueducts body and dance in the skin. for bringing in fresh water. The city, de- signed to conform to precise astronom- A prominent feature of Teno- ical principles, was well planned, with chtitlán was its skull racks, on which wide plazas and streets, as well as some the priests displayed the skulls of sacri- twenty-five large, flat-topped pyramids ficed victims as a sign of the peoples’ de- regularly spaced throughout. The votion to the gods. Like the Maya, the growth of the empire in later times Aztecs used two , and the first made the Aztecs’ capital an extraordi- day of the fifty-third year, when the two narily wealthy city, with tribute pour- came into alignment, required a special ing in from subject territories in the sacrifice called the New Fire Ceremony. form of gold, copper, rubber, chocolate, After cutting out the victim’s heart, the gemstones, jaguar skins, and jade. priest would build a fire in the open chest cavity to symbolize the continu- ance of life for the Aztec people. Aztec religion and society Chief among the Aztec gods was Huitzilopochtli (hwit-zil-oh- The Aztec Empire POHCH-t’lee), though they also wor- When they first arrived in the shiped a number of others, including Valley of Mexico, the Aztecs came Quetzalcóatl. In fact, the world’s under the dominance of Azcapotzalco largest monument is a temple to Quet- (as-kuh-puht-SAL-koh), the leading zalcóatl (see box, “The Quetzalcóatl city-state in the area. Eventually, how- Pyramid”). All of these deities required ever, they gathered support from human sacrifice, which the Aztecs other tribes and conquered the great practiced with more frequency —and city. Then in 1431 they formed a triple more cruelty—than any other alliance with two other city-states, Mesoamerican peoples. Texcoco and Tlatelóco (t’laht-eh-LOH- koh), and soon the three controlled Of course the accusation of the Valley of Mexico. cruelty would have meant nothing to the Aztecs; theirs was not a society Quickly it became clear that the that put a premium on mercy or kind- triple alliance was not a gathering of ness to the weak. It was common for equals: the other two were mere city-

192 Middle Ages: Almanac The Quetzalcóatl Pyramid

The world’s largest pyramid is lo- cated not in Egypt, but some sixty-three miles southeast of Mexico City. Though the Great Pyramid of Egypt is three times as tall as the 177-foot Quetzalcóatl Pyramid, the latter is much larger. The pyramid’s base covers nearly forty-five acres—that is, more than one-sixth of a square mile—making it the largest monument (as opposed to a functional structure such as an office build- ing) in the world. Its total volume has been estimated at 4.3 million cubic yards, equiv- alent to a 200-story building as long and wide as a football field.

A close-up view of sculptures on the Quetzalcóatl Pyramid. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

states, whereas the Aztecs were empire- ward the emperor Montezuma II builders. Using the other two cities’ (ruled 1502–1520) began hearing help, they established dominance over strange omens from his priests. By the region, and the Aztec Empire even- 1519, when he had come to believe tually covered an area from central that Quetzalcóatl would soon return Mexico to the Guatemalan border. to Earth, he began hearing rumors of a strange, godlike figure roaming Perhaps not surprisingly, given the jungles. This creature had their religious practices, the Aztecs strangely white skin and a beard, proved to be cruel rulers. Fear and re- something hardly ever seen among sentment by the conquered peoples the Aztecs. He carried amazing around them would later aid the deadly weapons, including a stick Spaniards in rallying local support that shot fire, and he rode a fantas- against the Aztecs. tic four-legged monster.

The Aztecs’ downfall With his horse—a creature In 1507, the Aztecs celebrat- unknown before the arrival of the ed a New Fire Ceremony, and after- Europeans—and his gun, the Spanish

The Americas 193 Montezuma and Hernán Cortés greet each other. Montezuma initially thought Cortés was a savior for the Aztecs, but in fact he was there to conquer and destroy them. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

conquistador Hernán Cortés (1485– The Incas 1547) probably did seem like a crea- The term Inca, though used to ture from another world. Meanwhile describe an entire people, was actually Montezuma, believing Cortés must the name for a line of fourteen rulers surely be the hoped-for savior, sent who controlled the vast Inca Empire representatives bearing gold and before the arrival of the Spanish in other treasures, gifts that only excit- 1533. Their native language was ed the conquistador’s greed for Quechua (KECH-oo-ah), still spoken more. Their superior military tech- by thousands of people in the Andean nology and tactics—not to mention highlands of Peru, where the Inca had the surrounding peoples’ resent- their origins. ment of the Aztecs—gave the Spaniards an enormous advantage. Influenced by the ancient They conquered and destroyed the Chavín (shah-VEEN) culture, as well Aztecs in 1521. as that of the Huari (HWAH-ree), who

194 Middle Ages: Almanac flourished between 300 and 750, the people. Controlling it all was one of Incas emerged as a civilization in the most efficient, well-organized gov- about 1100. Around that time, they ernments anywhere in the world dur- moved into a nearby valley and estab- ing medieval times. For this, Pacha- lished a capital named Cuzco (KOOZ- cutec—considered one of the greatest koh), meaning “navel of the world.” rulers of all time by some historians— Today Cuzco is the oldest continually deserves much of the credit. inhabited city in the Americas.

Roads and other structures Building an empire Under the reign of this extra- Over the next three centuries ordinary empire-builder, the Incas the Incas, like the Aztecs, began to constructed some 2,500 miles of stone dominate and receive tribute from sur- roads, many of them across high rounding villages. But unlike the mountain passes. These included way Aztecs, they were slow to build an em- stations placed at intervals equal to a pire—and when they did, it became day’s travel, so that the traveler could much bigger than that of the Aztecs. rest and obtain supplies. Trained run- Only in the mid-1400s, during the ners, the Pony Express of their day, reign of Viracocha (veer-ah-KOH-kah), traversed the road system, keeping did they begin to expand, and then the emperor abreast of events only to an area about twenty-five throughout his empire. Like the roads miles around Cuzco. Viracocha, built by the Romans, those of the named after the Incas’ principal deity, Incas (along with many of their other had a son named Pachacutec (pah-cha- structures) proved more enduring KOO-tek; ruled 1438–71), who lived than those built by later peoples—in up to the meaning of his own name: this case, the Spanish. “he who transforms the Earth.” Pacha- The stones on Inca roads and cutec and his son Topa built an empire buildings were cut to fit together so that reached its peak during the reign precisely that mortar was not neces- of Topa’s son Huayna Capac (WY-nuh sary. Inca cities were marvels of urban KAH-pahk; ruled 1493–1525). planning, with broad avenues inter- By then the Incas controlled sected by smaller streets, all converg- an area equal to the U.S. Eastern ing on an open central square. At Seaboard (the coastal states from Cuzco this center was occupied by the Maine to Florida), and called their Temple of the Sun, and later archaeol- realm “Land of the Four Quarters”—in ogists discovered an impressive fort other words, the four directional near the city. Other feats of Inca engi- points of the compass. Its population neering include the construction of became as large as 16 million, an ex- aqueducts and irrigation canals, as well traordinary statistic at a time when as rope suspension bridges. The latter, England had only about 5 million many of them more than 300 feet

The Americas 195 An aerial view of Machu Picchu, the mysterious Inca city built high in the Andes. Photograph by John M. Barth. Reproduced by permission of John M. Barth.

long, spanned cliffs high above turbu- stone structures. Even more perplex- lent rivers; and many are still in use. ing is the purpose behind this isolated city in the clouds. Machu Picchu (MAH-choo PEEK-choo), tucked high in the Andes, shows much about the Incas’ skills as builders. Yet it raises far more ques- A sophisticated bureaucratic tions than it answers. Accessible only state by means of a dangerous climb up a A central mystery of the Incas 2,000-foot cliff, it had never been seen is their administrative system, which by a white man until the American ex- they managed to maintain in the face plorer Hiram Bingham found it with of extraordinary limitations. Not only the aid on a Peruvian guide in 1911. did they, like other American peoples, Given the difficulty in even reaching lack the use of the wheel and iron it, archaeologists are unsure how the tools, but unlike the Maya and Aztecs, Incas built Machu Picchu’s massive they lacked even a system of writing.

196 Middle Ages: Almanac It boggles the mind to imagine how weight of adults but could carry they created a sophisticated bureau- lighter loads, they domesticated the cratic state—a place where civil ser- alpaca, another relative of the camel vants kept detailed records of popula- that is prized for its wool. Other do- tion, food stores, supplies, and other mesticated animals included dogs, information—under such limitations. guinea pigs, and ducks. Yet they managed to do so, To identify themselves as mem- using the abacus for counting and the bers of the Inca Empire, the people quipu, knotted strings of varying sported bowler hats of a type still worn lengths and colors, for recording nu- by the Indians of Peru and Bolivia. merical information and keeping track They lived in extended families, as in- of inventories. They also possessed deed most people outside the West do something unknown to the peoples of today: instead of just a husband, wife, Mesoamerica: a domesticated beast of and children, households included burden in the form of the llama (YAH- aunts and uncles, cousins, grandpar- muh), a relative of the camel that lives ents, and other relatives. Nobles could in the high Andes. have more than one wife, and beautiful and intelligent women were chosen The rulers demanded a tribute from villages around the empire to go of grain from each village. A portion of to Cuzco and become concubines for this they set aside in case of famine, at the nobility. Emperors might have con- which time they would distribute it to cubines, but the empress was usually the hungry. They also taxed the the emperor’s sister, and their firstborn women for a certain amount of woven son became his successor. cloth, and the men for a certain amount of labor over a given period of time. This form of conscription, simi- Religion and science lar in concept to the military draft, per- The Incas worshiped a variety mitted them to build roads and other of gods, though Viracocha was structures throughout their empire. supreme as creator and ruler of all liv- ing things. The Incas also practiced The life of the Incas human sacrifice, though they were not nearly so enthusiastic about it as the Using foot plows, Inca farmers Aztecs, and abandoned the method of cultivated land and grew a number of tearing out a living heart. crops, most notably potatoes and corn. (Just as the people of the New Many things were regarded as World had never seen horses, the Eu- sacred, or huaca, including mummies, ropeans had never tasted these foods temples and historical places, springs, and many others that were destined to certain stones, and mountain peaks. become staple crops in Europe, Asia, (Inca shrines and ceremonial sites and Africa.) In addition to the llama, have been found at elevations as high which was too small to support the as 22,000 feet—more than four miles

The Americas 197 evil spirits believed to be the source of the headache. Perhaps most remark- able was the work of priestly “den- tists,” who replaced broken or decayed teeth with metal crowns similar to the ones used by modern dentists.

Fall of the empire Though the Incas were much kinder rulers of subject peoples than the Aztecs, their end was much the same. Like Montezuma, the emperor Atahualpa (ah-tuh-HWAHL-puh; c. 1502–1533) believed that the conquer- ing Spaniards were gods; and like Cortés, Francisco Pizarro (c. 1475– 1541) came not to save them, but to rob them. Pizarro imprisoned Atahual- pa and allowed him to rule his empire from prison for eight months, but this was only in order to gain ransom from the Incas. Francisco Pizarro journeyed from Spain to Atahualpa ordered his people the Inca lands, and in 1533, he led a force to fill a room of almost 375 square feet that toppled the Inca ruler and destroyed with treasures, whose value has been the empire. Reproduced by permission of the estimated at $25 million in today’s Corbis Corporation. money. Assembled by July 1533, the treasure included precious art objects, in the sky.) The priests practiced div- most of which were melted down and ination (DIV-i-nay-shun) to learn the made into gold coins. Instead of keep- will of the gods, but some of their ef- ing his word, however, Pizarro had forts at curing peoples’ ailments verged Atahualpa killed, then marched on on genuine science and medicine. Cuzco and destroyed the empire. In addition to dispensing As with the Maya, however, herbal remedies, priests actually per- Inca culture survives today, carried on formed a type of surgery on people by millions of Indians in the Andean who suffered chronic headaches, cut- highlands. Peruvian schoolchildren ting away part of the skull to relieve are still taught to recite the names of pressure on the brain. Sometimes, the fourteen Inca rulers, and the however, the purpose was less scientif- memory of this great American empire ic in nature—in other words, releasing remains alive.

198 Middle Ages: Almanac For More Information Web Sites The Aztec. [Online] Available http://north- Books coast.com/~spdtom/aztec.html (last ac- Defrates, Joanna. What Do We Know about the cessed July 28, 2000). Aztecs? New York: P. Bedrick Books, The Empire of the Incas. [Online] Available 1993. http://www.sscf.ucsb.edu/~ogburn/inca/ Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient inca.htm (last accessed July 28, 2000). and Medieval World, Volume 11: Empires of the Ancient World. New York: Marshall The Maya Ruins Page. [Online] Available Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1447–88. http://mayaruins.com/ (last accessed July 28, 2000). Leonard, Jonathan Norton. Ancient America. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1967. “Rollout Photography: The Maya Vase Data- base.” [Online] Available http://www. Newman, Shirlee Petkin. The Incas. New York: famsi.org/rollout_photography.htm (last Franklin Watts, 1992. accessed July 28, 2000).

The Americas 199 Africa 18

he African continent is divided by one of the most im- Tpenetrable natural boundaries in the world: the Desert. Covering an area larger than the continental United States, this greatest of all deserts ensured that northern Africa—Egypt and the Mediterranean coast—would develop along dramatically different lines than the southern part. Aside from Egypt itself, the two principal African civilizations of ancient times formed on the Red Sea coast, below Egypt and east of the Sahara. Southward lay various lands con- trolled by the Bantu peoples, tribal groups who would later develop a number of civilizations.

Ethiopia The name “Ethiopia” comes from a Greek expression meaning “burned skin” and suggesting a dark complexion. Ancient peoples used the term to describe the entire region south of Egypt, but in fact these were two distinct civiliza- tions there: Kush, or , and Aksum. Founded along the southern Nile River, where the nation of Sudan is today, Kush

201 Eager to gain control of the “incense states,” Ethiopia formed an alliance with Byzantium against the Sassanid Words to Know: Africa Persians and their allies in Yemen. Be- tween the 300s and 500s, Ethiopia Arid: Dry. gradually assumed control over the Inflation: An economic situation in which “incense states,” though much of the an oversupply of money causes a drop area later fell under Persian authority. in the value of currency. Lingua franca: A common language. Isolated by Islam Matrilineal: Through the mother’s line In the 600s, the spread of Islam rather than the father’s. wiped the Sassanids off the map, but Patron: A supporter, particularly of arts, this was no cause for rejoicing in education, or sciences. The term is Ethiopia. The Muslims dealt a severe often used to refer to a ruler or wealthy blow to Ethiopia’s Byzantine allies when person who provides economic as well they took control over most of the Mid- as personal support. dle East. Many Greek manuscripts were Racism: The belief that race is the primary destroyed during this time, and some factor determining peoples’ abilities, only survived through Ethiopian trans- and that one race is superior to another. lations. Meanwhile, Muslim power ended Ethiopians’ dominance over Red Sea trade and cut Ethiopia off from the rest of the Christian world.

controlled Egypt for a time (712–667 Gradually the nation’s focus B.C.) and developed its own form of shifted away from the Red Sea and to- writing. To the east was Aksum, based ward the Nubian interior. In the cen- in the Red Sea port of Adulis (ah- turies that followed, large Muslim DOO-lis), in modern-day Eritrea. populations formed along the Red Sea coast and in southern Ethiopia, and Aksum began evolving into a Jewish communities appeared in other larger Ethiopian state when its King areas of the country. Yet Christianity Ezana (AY-zah-nah; ruled A.D. 325– remained dominant, and a line of 360) subdued Kush in 325. Around this kings who claimed descent from the time, a young Syrian missionary con- biblical King Solomon and Queen of verted Ezana to Christianity, which be- Sheba maintained control. Christians came the religion of Ethiopia from that in southern Muslim lands such as time forward. Meanwhile, across the Egypt looked to Ethiopia for leader- Red Sea in an area known as the “in- ship, and this in turn may have influ- cense states,” a lush region known for enced Europeans’ association of the its spices, the Himyarite kingdom of country with the Prester John legend Yemen had made Judaism its religion. (see box, “Prester John”).

202 Middle Ages: Almanac

N

SAHARA e l

Songhai i Red Sea N Ghana N ig e r AFRICA Mali Ethiopia

C

o

n o INDIAN g g n o ATLANTIC Co OCEAN OCEAN Kongo

Mutapa miles 0 500 1000

0 500 1000 Zimbabwe kilometers

Kingdoms, 1400 Kingdoms, 1500

A map of Africa showing the locations of the African kingdoms in 1400 and in 1500. Illustration by XNR Productions. Reproduced by permission of the Gale Group.

Contacts with Europe . This period also saw ex- During the latter part of the changes of missionaries between Europe Crusades, leaders in Ethiopia and Eu- and Ethiopia, and in fact Ethiopian rope entertained the idea of an al- monks attended the Council of Florence liance against the Muslims. In 1317, a in 1441. As an outgrowth of this visit, Dominican monk called for a joint the papacy set up a house for Ethiopian crusade, with Ethiopia blocking the pilgrims behind St. Peter’s. Later Ethiopi- Red Sea while the Europeans attacked an visitors to Rome helped increase Eu- the Holy Land. Though the Muslim ropeans’ interest in, and knowledge of, world feared such a two-pronged at- their exotic Christian homeland. tack, nothing ever came of it.

European interest in Ethiopia re- mained strong during the 1400s, as the The Sudan Portuguese tried to establish trade links Though in modern times there and gain an edge over Venice in the is a nation called Sudan, geographers

Africa 203 Prester John

During the Middle Ages, people all the letter-writer claimed, was a perfect so- over Europe came to believe in the exis- ciety in which everyone was wealthy, a tence of Prester John, or John the Priest, a place where peace and contentment pre- Christian king in a faraway land who they vailed. Some Europeans believed that this believed would come to their aid against land must be Ethiopia, known to have a the Muslims. This legend first took form in Christian king; therefore in 1177, Pope the writings of Otto of Freising (FRY-sing; c. Alexander III sent a letter to Ethiopia’s king, 1111–1158), a German bishop and histori- asking for his aid against Muslim enemies. an, who claimed that Prester John was a de- The messenger never returned. scendant of the Magi (MAY-zhy), the wise men who had attended the birth of Jesus. According to Otto, Prester John’s armies Europeans also identified the had conquered the Persians and forced the homeland of Prester John with India, and Muslims to submit to Christianity. the king himself with the Mongols. The myth persisted into the 1500s and 1600s, In 1165, a letter supposedly writ- spurring on the voyages of European ex- ten by Prester John to several European plorers eager to find the mythical Christian monarchs turned up in Europe. His land, kingdom.

use the term “the Sudan” to describe a what is now southern . De- region of some two million square spite the climate, its people were orig- miles south of the Sahara. About the inally farmers, but over time Ghana’s size of the United States west of the wealth came from a number of Mississippi River, the Sudan runs from sources. One of these was conquest: the Atlantic coast in the west almost by the 1000s Ghana had an army of to the Red Sea coast in the east. Its cli- some 200,000 men. A principal source mate is arid, or dry, and farming is dif- of Ghana’s wealth was gold, so plenti- ficult, but during the Middle Ages the ful that the king’s advisors carried region became home to a number of swords made of it. His horses bore wealthy empires. blankets of spun gold, and even the royal dogs had gold collars. The king, whose people considered him divine, Ghana held absolute control over the gold The first of these was Ghana supply, and further increased his (GAH-nuh), a kingdom that came wealth by taxing trade caravans that into existence during the 400s in passed through the area.

204 Middle Ages: Almanac Ghana’s capital was Kumbi- began in about 1235. He greatly broad- Saleh, formed from two towns about ened the realm controlled by Mali and six miles apart. One town became a established a new capital at Niana. By local center for Islam, which mer- the 1300s, his dynasty ruled some 40 chants brought with them from across million people—a population two- the desert, and eventually it had fifths the size of Europe at the time— twelve mosques. This created an un- in a region from the upper River usual religious situation: officially the (NY-jur) to the Atlantic Ocean. king still consulted the wisdom of his Mansa Musa (ruled 1307–c. traditional priests, but in private he 1332) reigned at the height of Mali’s held council with Muslim and power, and became the first African theologians. ruler to become widely known The other town remained a throughout Europe and the Middle stronghold of the native religion, and East. His fame resulted in part from a there Islamic practices were not per- pilgrimage to Mecca, on which he was mitted in public because they might attended by thousands of advisors and challenge the spiritual authority of the servants dressed in splendid garments, king. Perhaps the influence of Islam riding animals adorned with gold or- helped make Ghana vulnerable to at- naments. Along the way, he gave his tack by the Almoravids from Morocco, hosts generous gifts, and in Egypt who arrived in 1080. The people of spent so much gold that he caused Ghana did not unite to resist the con- massive inflation in the country’s querors, and their kingdom came to economy. an end. But Mansa Musa was far more than just a showman: an effective ad- Mali ministrator who ruled a highly orga- Many nations created in the nized state, he was also a patron of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries arts and education. He brought Mus- share names with regions from pre- lim scholars and architects to Mali, modern times, but in many cases the where they built mosques, promoted borders are not the same. Such is the learning, and assisted his advisors in case with Mali (MAH-lee), a kingdom ruling the vast realm. that included nations to the south- As with many other great west of modern-day Mali, along with a rulers, however, Mansa Musa’s power corner of the present nation. resided mostly in his strong personali- Mali formed as an Islamic ty and talents; therefore his successors kingdom in the 1000s, but took shape found the vast empire difficult to gov- as an empire under the leadership of ern. They were plagued by the break- Sundiata Keita (sun-JAH-tah; died down of administrative systems and 1255), who established his power by the competition of rising states on through a series of conquests that their borders. One of these was Song-

Africa 205 The Glory of Timbuktu

Today the name of “Timbuktu” is a Written by Leo Africanus (c. 1485– synonym for a faraway, almost mythical c.1554), an Arab captured and brought to place, and in modern times the city of some Rome, the book remained for many cen- 30,000 inhabitants—now known as Tom- turies Europeans’ principal source of knowl- bouctou (tohn-buk-TOO) in Mali—is cer- edge regarding the Sudan. Leo reported tainly well off the beaten path. But under that, of the many products sold in the rich the Mali and Songhai empires, it was one of markets of Timbuktu, none was more the most extraordinary cultural centers of prized and profitable than books—a fact premodern Africa, and indeed of the world. that says a great deal about the rich intel- lectual life there. Starting in the 1400s, Europeans became fascinated by tales of a great city on the edge of the desert, which housed Unfortunately, a series of wars and both wealthy merchants and scholars invasions by neighboring peoples during wealthy in knowledge. In 1470, an Italian the early modern era robbed Timbuktu of journeyer became one of the first Euro- its glory. In 1828, a French explorer went peans to visit, and more information sur- to find the legendary Timbuktu, and in its faced with the publication of a book called place he found a “mass of ill-looking hous- Description of Africa in 1550. es built of earth.”

hai (SAWNG-hy), which Mansa Musa military strategist and empire-builder had conquered; in the mid-1400s, as who in 1468 captured the city of Tim- his dynasty fell into decline, Songhai buktu. One of Mali’s greatest cultural won its independence. centers, Timbuktu was destined to reach its peak under Songhai rule (see box, “The Glory of Timbuktu”). Songhai Established by Muslims in Sonni Ali conquered many about 1000 on the bend of the Niger, more cities, ending Mali dominance at a spot in the center of present-day and replacing it with his military dicta- Mali, Songhai would eventually ex- torship. His successor, Mohammed I tend along much of the river’s length Askia (as-KEE-uh; ruled 1493–1528), set and far inland. For a long time it had about reorganizing the entire empire, existed under the shadow of Mali, but creating a central administration con- it came into its own under Sonni Ali trolled from the capital in (GOW). (SAW-nee; ruled c. 1464–92), a brilliant He developed a professional army and

206 Middle Ages: Almanac even a navy of sorts—a fleet of canoes Both Kanem-Bornu and the that regularly patrolled the Niger. Hausa lands had a matrilineal (mat-ri- LIN-ee-ul) system, meaning that in- Mohammed also reformed the heritance was passed down through tax system, established a set of weights the mother’s line rather than the fa- and measures, and reformed judicial ther’s. This gave women an exception- procedures. Over the course of his ally high social status, and they were reign, he made the even allowed to hold positions in re- one of the most respected nations in gional and national government. The the Islamic world. In 1528, however, adoption of Islam in the 1000s and af- his son Musa overthrew him and ex- terward ended this arrangement. iled him to an island. Nine years later, another son brought him back to Gao, The Hausa states never formed where he died in 1538. His tomb is a unified political entity, which made one of the most revered mosques in them vulnerable to attack by neigh- West Africa. boring states and ultimately led to their downfall. Kanem-Bornu, on the As with Mali, the death of a other hand, did form an empire, strong ruler brought on disorder; and which reached the height of its power as with Ghana, the conquerors came in the late 1500s. By then, however, from Morocco. They arrived in 1590, the Sudan was not the only location and this time they had firearms, giv- of trade routes across the African con- ing them an overwhelming advan- tinent: the interest of European and tage. Songhai fell in 1591. Arab traders had shifted to the south- west and the south.

Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa city-states Far to the east of the area Bantu kingdoms and cities Starting in about 1200 B.C., the where Ghana, Mali, and Songhai had Bantu peoples began migrating from thrived was an area called Bornu, a the region of modern-day , vast plain in what is now northeastern spreading westward and southward. Nigeria. With the downfall of the ear- The Bantu constituted a loose collec- lier states, trade routes—dependent as tion of tribes and nations united by they were on strong kingdoms to pro- language. In each of the Bantu vide them protection—began shifting tongues, of which there were eventu- toward the central Sudan, which was ally sixteen, the word for “people” is dominated by two centers of power. the same: bantu. To the east was Kanem-Bornu (kah- NEM), a state that first developed in Though Westerners are accus- about 800, and to the west a group of tomed to speaking of “Africa” as city-states controlled by the Hausa though it were one country, in fact (HOW-suh) people. modern Africa consists of more than

Africa 207 The Great Enclosure in the modern nation of Zimbabwe; these ruins were originally the royal palace. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

fifty official nations—and hundreds Europeans of the Middle Ages. No upon hundreds of national groups doubt Swahili’s broad base has its with their own language and way of roots in medieval times, specifically in life. In such an ethnically splintered a group of east African city-states with environment, the average African lan- trade contacts as far away as China. guage has only a half-million speakers. By contrast, Swahili (swah-HEEL-ee), the most well known of the Bantu lan- Coastal city-states guages, is today spoken by 49 million The east African coast had people in , Tanzania, the Congo, been a center of trade since ancient and . times, and during the 1100s a wave of Arab and Persian merchants arrived. Swahili is the lingua franca of Over the period from 1200 to 1500, , a common language when trade there was at its height, the much as Arabic became in the Middle native peoples and the Muslims to- East and as Latin was among educated gether established some thirty-seven

208 Middle Ages: Almanac city-states in what is now Kenya, Tan- zania, and Mozambique. Most notable among these were Malindi, Mombasa, Kilwa, and later, Zanzibar. The Zanj Typically, city-states lay on is- Though Europeans and their de- lands just off the coast, a situation that scendants in America are most identified protected them from land invasion. with the slave trade, in fact slavery existed Indeed, the mainland represented a in Africa for centuries before the first Euro- different world: in the interior were peans arrived in the 1400s. Not only did tribal peoples with little exposure to Africans buy and sell members of other the outside, whereas the offshore is- tribes, but Arab and Persian merchants lands became thriving centers of inter- were enthusiastic slave-traders. national trade. Kilwa was the major The first Mideastern reference to port for gold, which went through sub-Saharan Africans, whom the Muslims Egypt to Europe, and iron ore from called Zanj (ZAHNJ), occurred in about Malindi supplied the furnaces of India. 680. These writings prove that racism is The coastal city-states also nothing new: frequently Islamic writers de- served as ports of call for Admiral scribed the Zanj as their social inferiors, a Cheng Ho’s expeditions from China. lazy and dishonest people, and they often A Ming dynasty scroll commemorates commented negatively on the black skin of a most unusual event: the arrival of a the Zanj. Yet the Muslims also believed giraffe from Malindi at the Chinese that the Zanj possessed magical powers. emperor’s court in 1415. After about Because the Africans on the conti- 1500, however, merchant activity in nent’s east coast admired the Arabs, this began to die out, primarily made them easy targets for capture. Many because of the Europeans’ rising domi- of the Zanj were brought to serve as slaves nance of sea trade. in the Abbasid caliphate, and in 868 a re- volt broke out among them. For nearly fif- Zimbabwe and Mutapa teen years, the rebels controlled much of In the early 1500s the Por- southern Iraq, but by 883 the Muslim tuguese began penetrating East government had suppressed the revolt. Africa’s interior, laying the founda- tions of the colony called Mozam- bique (moh-zum-BEEK), which they would retain until 1975. In so doing, an extension of an even older realm they established control over a king- controlled from Zimbabwe (zim- dom called Mutapa, which ruled the BAHB-way). entire southern half of Mozambique between the (zam-BEE-zee) The latter reached its peak be- and Limpopo rivers. As it turned out, tween 1250 and 1450, when it thrived the eastern kingdom of Mutapa was on a flourishing gold trade. Its ruins

Africa 209 ruins: , older and larg- er, and Little Zimbabwe some eight miles distant. The most impressive set of stone buildings in premodern southern Africa, Great Zimbabwe ex- tended over more than sixty acres, and included a palace capable of hous- ing a thousand servants. Its circular temple complex, modeled on a tribal chief’s enclosure, had walls ten feet thick and twenty feet high, compris- ing some 15,000 tons of cut stone—all laid without use of mortar. Though the people of Zimbab- we left behind no written records and the city had long been abandoned when the Portuguese arrived, the royal court of Mutapa in the east provided visitors with an idea of Zimbabwe’s glory. The king was attended by a royal pharmacist, a head musician, young pages who had been sent as hostages from subject peoples, and many other aides—including a coun- cil of ministers composed primarily of women. Apparently at some earlier stage in Mutapa, women had been in control. There was even a female mili- tary contingent, which played a deci- sive role in the choosing of kings.

Kongo Kinshasa, in the Democratic Republic of the Far to the northwest of Zim- Congo, became a battleground in the late babwe, along the mouth of the Congo twentieth century as civil war gripped the River near the Atlantic coast, was the nation. Reproduced by permission of AP/Wide . The area is today World Photos. part of Angola, which like Mozam- bique became a Portuguese colony lie in the southeastern corner of the that only received its independence in modern nation called Zimbabwe, 1975. Today, to the north and east, in though in fact there are two sets of areas also controlled by Kongo at dif-

210 Middle Ages: Almanac ferent times, are the Republic of the , the Mossi and Yoruba Congo and the Democratic Republic peoples (who later formed a state of the Congo (formerly Zaire). called Oyo) settled along the upper headwaters of the Volta River. This Established in the 1300s by a placed them in close proximity with prince from the north, Kongo spread Mali and Songhai, but the peoples of over a large area in the years that fol- the Volta were worlds apart from their lowed. By the time the Portuguese ar- neighbors to the north. In contrast to rived in the 1400s, the nation had de- the Muslim kingdoms of the Sudan, veloped an extensive bureaucracy. Its which maintained strong links with economy depended on trade between the outside world, the peoples of the the coast and the interior, and copper coast retained their traditional African and cloth served as its currency. Per- religion and way of life. haps its greatest king was Afonso I (ruled c. 1506–c. 1550), who in 1512 signed a treaty with the king of Portu- gal. Kongo continued to flourish into For More Information the 1600s. Books Davidson, Basil. African Kingdoms. Alexan- dria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1978. Benin and the Yoruba Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient As with many another African and Medieval World, Volume 11: Empires nation, the modern state of Benin of the Ancient World. New York: Marshall (bay-NEEN) shares a name with an Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1543–54. empire of medieval times, but it is not McKissack, Pat. The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, the same country. What is today Mali, and Songhay: Life in Medieval Africa. New York: Henry Holt, 1994. southern Nigeria was once Benin, which established one of the most highly organized states of West Africa Web Sites in the two centuries preceding the ar- “African Empires Timeline.” [Online] Avail- rival of the Portuguese in 1485. As able http://www.cocc.edu/cagatucci/ with most other African kingdoms, classes/hum211/timelines/htimeline2. htm (last accessed July 28, 2000). Benin built its wealth on trade, in this case between the Atlantic coast and Internet African History Sourcebook. [Online] Available http://www.fordham.edu/ the Sudan. halsall/africa/africasbook.html (last ac- cessed July 28, 2000). The people of Benin were not the only ones who profited from the Medieval Africa. [Online] Available http:// historymedren.about.com/education/ trade routes between the ocean and history/historymedren/msubafr.htm the desert. To the west, in what is now (last accessed July 28, 2000).

Africa 211 The Late Middle Ages 19

he period known as the Late Middle Ages (1300–1500) T can also be considered the beginning of the Renaissance, which had its roots in the changes that began to gather speed during those two centuries. Yet there was plenty about this time that was truly medieval, and whereas some events point- ed to the future, other occurrences signaled the end of an era. Among these were the upheaval created by the Black Death and Hundred Years’ War, and the decline of the two institu- tions that had long dominated European life: feudalism and the papacy.

Pestilence and war In 1300, Europe had about 100 million people; then a series of calamities struck. First Germany and other northern countries experienced crop failures from 1315 to 1317, and these resulted in widespread starvation and death. Then, in 1347, Europe was hit by one of the worst disasters in human history, an epidemic called the Black Death. Sometimes called simply “the Plague,” the Black Death killed between twenty-

213 of trade that had followed the Cru- sades aided its spread, as Italian mer- Words to Know: chants unknowingly brought the dis- The Late Middle Ages ease home in their ships. The first outbreak in Western Europe occurred Dauphin: The crown prince in prerevolu- in October 1347, in the city of Messi- tionary France. na at the northeastern corner of Sicily. Flagellants: Religious enthusiasts of the From there it was an easy jump to the Middle Ages who beat themselves with Italian mainland, and by the follow- lashes as a way of doing penance. ing April all of Italy was infected. Joust: Personal combat, particularly on Meanwhile, it had reached Paris in horseback and involving a lance. January 1348, and within a year, 800 people a day were dying in that city Mercenary: A professional soldier who alone. Quickly it penetrated the entire will fight for anyone who pays him. European continent and beyond, from Nationalism: A sense of loyalty and devo- Palestine to Greenland. tion to one’s nation. The only merciful thing about Perspective: An artistic technique of rep- the Black Death was its quickness. Vic- resenting faraway objects so that they tims typically died within four days—a appear smaller than objects close by. hundred hours of agony. If they caught Pogrom: An organized massacre of un- a strain of bubonic (byoo-BAHN-ik) armed people, in particular groups of plague, their lymph glands swelled; or if Jews. it was pneumonic (nyoo-MAHN-ik) plague, the lungs succumbed first. Either Tournament: A contest in which knights way, as the end approached, the victim fought, usually with blunted lances, for turned purplish-black from respiratory a prize or a favor given by a lady. failure; hence the name. The ironic thing was that the force at the center of all this devastation was too small to see with the naked eye: a bacteria that lived five and forty-five percent of the Euro- on fleas, who in turn fed on rats. pean population. The people of the time had no idea of this scientific explanation for The Black Death (1347–51) the Plague and instead looked for spir- The outbreak began in Asia. itual causes and cures. Some believed Thanks to the Mongols’ conquests, that the world was coming to an end, which had made travel between East and some joined sects such as the fla- and West safer and easier than ever be- gellants (FLAJ-uh-luntz), religious en- fore, it quickly made its way to the thusiasts who wandered the country- Black Sea shore, where it erupted in side, beating themselves with whips as September 1346. Likewise the opening a way of doing penance.

214 Middle Ages: Almanac The flagellants were closely tied with a rising anti-Semitic trend. Searching for someone to blame, Euro- peans found a convenient scapegoat in the Jews, who they claimed had started the Plague by poisoning the wells of Europe. This absurd explana- tion provided justification for many a pogrom (poh-GRAHM), or organized massacre.

Peasant uprisings of the late 1300s By the end of 1351, the Plague had run its course, but it left behind a population change equivalent to that which would occur in the modern United States if everyone in the six most populous states—California, New York, Texas, Florida, Pennsylvania, and Illinois—died over a four-year period. Not until 1500, about 150 years after the Black Death, would the European population return to the levels of 1300. All over the continent, farms were empty and villages abandoned, leading to scarcity and higher prices— conditions that sparked a number of peasant revolts. First came the French Jacquerie (zhah-keh-RHEE) in the spring of 1358. The latter took its name from Jacques Bonhomme (ZHAHK bun- People gather around the bed of a victim AWM), a traditional nickname for a dying from the Black Death. The Plague, peasant meaning “John the Good which struck in the mid-1300s, reduced the Man,” and the rebels collectively population of Europe by at least one quarter. called themselves Jacques. In the space Reproduced by permission of the Library of of a few weeks, the Jacques gathered Congress. support from a range of discontented persons, including even minor royal officials. Their targets were the wealthy

The Late Middle Ages 215 Wat Tyler, leader of a peasants’ revolt in England in 1381, is dragged to his death. Reproduced by permission of the Corbis Corporation.

and powerful, and in their furious on- leaders was Wat Tyler from , who slaught, which consumed much of the captured the sheriff there and de- region around Paris, they did not spare stroyed property records. The Essex even the children of their enemies. force did much the same, then joined Then, just as suddenly as it began, the the faction from Kent and marched on Jacquerie was brutally suppressed by London to meet with fourteen-year- the French royalty and nobility, who old Richard II (ruled 1377–99). ordered wholesale executions of peas- ants—many of whom had not even Though Richard agreed to participated in the revolt. meet with the rebels against his advi- sors’ counsel, the government’s failure Across the English Channel in to keep the promises he made them 1381, revolts against royal taxation only further enraged the peasants. The broke out in several English counties, rebels destroyed a home belonging to including Essex, Kent, and several oth- John of Gaunt (1340–1399), Richard’s ers. The most well known of the rebel uncle, and killed several of John’s ad-

216 Middle Ages: Almanac visors. The violence associated with ebrated in several plays by William the English revolt, however, did not Shakespeare (1564–1616), solidified equal that of the Jacquerie. his power by marrying Catherine of Valois (val-WAH), daughter of the French king, in 1420. One hundred fifty years of war English victory appeared cer- (1337–1485) tain, yet the French were about to un- The Black Death and peasant leash a secret weapon. This was a uprisings occurred against the back- teenaged girl named Joan, just three drop of the Hundred Years’ War years old at the time of Agincourt, who (1337–1453), which actually lasted at the age of twelve believed she had 116 years, making it by far the longest heard the voice of God telling her to fol- armed conflict in history. Fought be- low the path of holiness. When she was tween France and England, the “war” sixteen, this voice commanded her to was really a series of wars broken by come to the aid of the crown prince or long periods of truce, and the com- dauphin (doh-FAN), Charles VII (ruled bined duration of all major battles was 1422–61), and so Joan of Arc less than a month. The real devasta- (1412–1431) embarked on one of histo- tion of the war came from the long ry’s shortest and most brilliant careers. sieges against towns, as well as period- Once she had the dauphin’s attention, ic raids during times of official cease- she laid out a plan to force an English fire. In both cases, it was France that withdrawal from the French city of Or- sustained the injury. léans (ohr-lay-AWn). Clad in the armor of a boy, she and the tiny army Charles The first phase of the war saw a gave her broke the English siege on May series of English victories, most no- 8, 1429, turning the tide of the war. tably at (pwah-tee-AY) in 1356. A year later, in May 1430, Joan The hero of the latter was Edward the was captured by a force from Bur- Black Prince (1330–1376) of England, gundy, which had temporarily sided whose military leadership gave Eng- with England, and was sold to the land power over northern France. Dis- English six months later. The English content over Poitiers in turn spawned did not simply execute her, but sought the Jacquerie, but by 1360 the war had to destroy French morale by trying her entered a second phase, when little for heresy. A highly biased court com- happened except for occasional French posed of pro-English French priests raids against the English. found her guilty of witchcraft and Then after more than fifty burned her at the stake. Yet the French years, the English returned to the of- initiative in the war did not die with fensive under Henry V (ruled Joan, and France enjoyed victory 1413–22), who led them to victory at under Charles. By 1453, the English Agincourt (AH-zhin-kohr) in 1415. had lost all their gains in France, and Henry, whose deeds would later be cel- they returned to England in dejection.

The Late Middle Ages 217 More war awaited them in their origins in Spain but came to England as the houses of York and power in Rome. Two of them became Lancaster launched the Wars of the popes, Calixtus III and Alexander VI Roses (1455–85), so named because of (ruled 1492–1503), and the latter fa- the flowers that symbolized the com- thered a number of children, the most peting dynasties. The Lancaster line notorious being the cruel Cesare emerged victorious when Henry VII (CHAY-zur-ay, c. 1476–1507) and his assumed the throne. Henry’s son lustful sister Lucrezia (loo-KREET-zee- Henry VIII (ruled 1509–1547) would uh; 1480–1519). become one of England’s greatest kings, and would father its greatest queen, (ruled 1558–1603). The destruction of Byzantium One of the most significant events in the history of Eastern Europe Wars and warlords in Italy was the Battle of Kosovo Field, on June The Black Death hit Italy par- 28, 1389. Byzantium, well on its way ticularly hard, and much of the coun- to final ruin, had long before recog- try remained in a state of anarchy nized Serbia as an independent nation, through the 1400s. This led to the rise and at Kosovo the Serbs led a failed ef- of mercenary military commanders, fort to protect Orthodox lands from warlords, and a new class of ruthless invasion by the Ottoman Turks. As a local leadership. In Rome, Cola di result, Serbia and Bulgaria fell to the Rienzo (RYENT-soh; 1313–1354) led a Turks, leaving a permanent Muslim in- revolt in 1347, whereby he attempted fluence on the Balkan Peninsula. to restore the glories of ancient Rome; Half a century later, in 1448, but instead he simply provoked the Turkish forces defeated a Hungarian Roman people and the papacy to army under János Hunyadi (YAH-nos anger with his reckless policies. HOON-yahd-ee; c. 1407–1456), again Much more successful were the at Kosovo Field. By the early 1500s, Medici (MED-uh-chee), a family of the Ottomans had gained control over bankers who controlled Florence from much of Hungary, and like the Mon- 1421 to 1737. The most famous mem- gols before them, threatened Austria. ber of the family was Lorenzo di Medici By then, the Turks had ab- (1449–1492), sometimes known as sorbed what remained of the Byzantine “Lorenzo the Magnificent.” As a ruler Empire. On the last night of Byzan- he could be a tyrant, but he also be- tium’s history, May 28–29, 1453—just came a highly influential patron of the before troops under Mehmed the Con- arts who assisted greatly in ushering in queror entered Constantinople—Or- the Renaissance. thodox priests held the last Christian Whatever Lorenzo’s sins, they services in the Hagia Sophia. Four days paled in comparison to those of the later, the church reopened, but now it Borgia (BOR-zhuh) family, who had was a mosque, as it is today.

218 Middle Ages: Almanac The Iberian Peninsula

Following the Islamic conquest of named because of its many castles. In Spain in 711, the history of the Iberian 1469, by which time the Christians had Peninsula followed a course separate from conquered all of Spain except for Granada that of Europe as a whole. At that point in the southeast, Ferdinand II of Aragon there was no such thing as “Spain,” except married Isabella I of Castile, thus uniting as a geographical designation: there were the country. the Moorish in the south and the Spain’s few remaining Muslims, Christian region of Asturias in the north. along with Jews, became early victims of Gradually a number of power cen- the Spanish Inquisition. The latter, ters evolved in Asturias, and over time these launched in 1478, was Spain’s separate— developed into separate kingdoms. Portu- and much more cruel—version of the gal had been calling itself a separate coun- Catholic Inquisition. Many people were im- try in the 800s, and under the reign of prisoned, tortured, or killed under the Afonso I (ruled 1128–85), this became a re- Spanish Inquisition, which officially ended ality. Christian Spain remained a collection only in 1834. of various principalities, but as the leaders In 1492, the same year they con- of various states began reconquering lands quered Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella from the Muslims, a distinctive Spanish expelled all Jews from Spain. Of course the Catholic culture began to unite the country. most famous event of 1492 was the discov- The destruction of Muslim power ery of the New World by Christopher in Spain was called the Reconquista (ray- Columbus, sent by Ferdinand and Isabella kawn-KEES-tah), and its most famous to find a westward sea route to China. leader was the warrior Rodrigo Díaz de Meanwhile Portuguese sailors had greatly Vivar (c. 1043–1099), better known as El extended the influence of their own king- Cid. As the Reconquista gained force, two dom, and over the next century, explo- kingdoms emerged to dominate the rest of ration and conquest would make Spain Spain: Aragon and Castile (kas-TEEL), so and Portugal world powers.

Greece soon became part of third Roman Empire after Rome itself the Ottoman Empire, and would not and Byzantium. That new nation was win its independence until the early Russia. The imperial transformation of 1800s. Meanwhile a new nation was Muscovy began when Ivan III (the born, one that proclaimed itself the Great; 1440–1505) began conquering “Third Rome”—in other words, the city-states, starting with Novgorod in

The Late Middle Ages 219 1471 to 1478. In 1472, he married unnecessarily multiplied”—in other Sophia, or Zoë, niece of the last Byzan- words, one should always seek the tine emperor, thus establishing his most simple, logical, and straightfor- claims as preserver of Orthodox Chris- ward explanation for something, tianity. At that time, he also added the avoiding conclusions not warranted two-headed eagle, long a symbol of by the known facts. Ockham’s razor Byzantium, to Muscovy’s coat of arms. was a hallmark of the emerging revo- lution in science and thought, and it In 1480, Ivan established Russ- represented the complete opposite of ian independence by cutting off all medieval beliefs. tribute to the Tatar-Mongol overlords, who had never recovered from Tamer- Ockham also supported the lane’s attacks almost a century before. German emperor in a struggle with His grandson Ivan IV (1530–1584), bet- the pope. By contrast, ter known as Ivan the Terrible, in 1547 and his followers, the Scotists, held took the old Slavic form of “caesar,” firmly to the old ways, including be- and was crowned czar. As his name lief in the church and all its teachings. suggests, Ivan was a cruel emperor, es- In the 1300s, aspects of the Scotists’ tablishing a pattern for most Russian ideas seemed forward-looking; but as rulers through the twentieth century. the Renaissance gained momentum and they resisted all new ways of thought, the term duns or dunce be- came a hallmark of ignorance. The people and the powers New ways of seeing the world The Crusades and the Mongol The transition from medieval conquests had greatly increased con- to Renaissance could be seen in a vari- tact between Europe and the rest of ety of arts. Giotto (JAHT-oh; 1276– the world, and in about 1300, the con- 1337), the last great pre-Renaissance tinent began to experience a sudden painter, showed the stirrings of new explosion of curiosity and creativity. ideas in his use of highly expressive This in turn would spawn the Renais- gestures, which turned a painting into sance in the arts and literature; the Re- a sort of story. Filippo Brunelleschi formation in religion; and the Age of (fu-LIP-oh broo-nuh-LES-kee; 1337– in exploration and science. 1446) applied science to architecture, establishing the concept of perspec- Symbolic of old and new, re- tive, whereby faraway objects appear spectively, were the Scholastic smaller than objects close by. philosophers John Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308) and Perspective greatly increased (AH-kum; c. 1285–c. 1349). The latter the sense of depth in the paintings of is most famous for “Ockham’s razor,” Masaccio (muh-ZAHT-choh; 1401– which holds that “entities must not be 1428), who also took a scientific ap-

220 Middle Ages: Almanac proach to lighting. No longer were all tion during his lifetime for his work in figures equally lit, as in ; Latin. ’s purpose in using in Masaccio’s paintings, it was clear Latin, however, was very un-medieval. that light came from a definite source He was one of the first writers to take such as the Sun or a candle. note of the growing Renaissance move- ment, and he used ancient Rome’s lan- Donatello (c. 1386–1466), a guage as a way of harkening back to student of Brunelleschi, helped usher the last great flowering of civilization. in Renaissance sculpture by turning from purely biblical subjects—the Medieval events and trends in- only subjects permitted for medieval fluenced the writings of Giovanni artists—to scenes from ancient Greece Boccaccio (boh-KAHT-choh; 1313– and Rome. In Flanders, the painter Jan 1375) and Geoffrey Chaucer (c. van Eyck (YAHN vahn IKE; c. 1395– 1342–1400), yet their work was far 1441) made equally important strides, from medieval in character. In Boccac- becoming the first major artist to de- cio’s Decameron (dee-KAM-uh-rahn; pict ordinary, if wealthy, people—mer- 1353), a group of young men and chants who had paid for portraits of women escape the Plague by going to themselves and their families. the countryside, and there they amuse themselves by telling tales. What sets the Decameron apart from most earlier A change in the language literature is its natural, everyday tone, A number of Italian writers, which influenced Chaucer in writing most notably the poet Dante Alighieri The Canterbury Tales. The latter is a (DAHN-tay al-ig-YEER-ee; 1265–1321), collection of stories—some moral and helped bridge the medieval and Re- uplifting, some bawdy and off-color— naissance periods. In his masterpiece, told by a group of pilgrims on their the Divine Comedy (1308–21), Dante way to Canterbury. described an allegorical journey through Hell (the Inferno), Purgatory, and Paradise. The book, a “comedy,” A change of systems in the ancient sense, meaning that it The changes in the life of the ends on a happy note, is a veritable mind at the end of the Middle Ages re- encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Prac- flected larger economic and social tically every important person from changes as feudalism declined and the premodern Europe is mentioned middle class gained power. It is ironic, somewhere on its pages. then, that the style of armor most Like the troubadours before commonly associated with the me- him, Dante wrote in the vernacular, dieval period only appeared during the language of everyday people—in this era (see box, “Plate Armor”), this case Italian instead of Latin. Petrar- when a number of factors combined ch (PEE-trark; 1304–1374) also wrote in to render medieval knighthood and its Italian, but gained his greatest recogni- trappings irrelevant.

The Late Middle Ages 221 Most important among these Old Testament when the people of Is- factors was the development of gunpow- rael were carried off to slavery in Baby- der and cannons, which together with lon. Worse was to follow, however, as the pike, or spear, and the longbow (a the church became embroiled in the weapon six to eight feet in length used Great Schism (SKIZ-um; 1378–1417). for shooting arrows rapidly) completely In 1378, just before he died, changed the face of battle. As in Japan Gregory XI (the first non-French pope around the same time, massed forma- in years), moved the papacy back to tions became more important than indi- Rome. Upon his death, the cardinals vidual warriors. By the time Miguel de chose Urban VI (ruled 1378–89), but Cervantes (sur-VAHN-tays; 1547–1616) Urban became so unpopular that they wrote his hilarious novel Don Quixote elected Clement VII (ruled 1378–94) in (1605–15), knighthood had become his place. When Urban refused to give something of a joke. Thus Don Quixote up his throne, Clement fled to Avi- (kee-YOH-tay) rides around the Spanish gnon and there set up a rival papacy. countryside in a tattered suit of armor, France, Scotland, Sicily, and parts of fighting battles with . Spain supported the Avignon popes, As knighthood and feudalism while England and most of Western became a thing of the past, a new mid- Europe continued to back Rome. dle class was on the rise. From the time In 1409, the Council of Pisa at- of the Crusades, Europe’s economy tempted to rectify the situation by re- had been on the upsurge, and chang- moving both popes and replacing ing views on usury and money-lend- them with a new one. Not surprisingly, ing helped an economic explo- the Avignon and Rome popes refused sion. No longer did the charging of to step down, so now there were three interest—essential if an economy is popes, including the new one at Pisa. going to grow—seem ungodly. The lat- Only in 1417 did the Council of Con- ter change was in turn tied with a rev- stance end the Schism by removing all olution sweeping the world of religion, three popes and choosing Martin V a revolution that would forever change (ruled 1417–31) to lead the church. All the way Christians approached God. non-Roman popes of the Great Schism were declared antipopes. The Council of Constance also declared that the de- The decline of the papacy cisions of an ecumenical council had Due to the inability of Pope more authority than those of an indi- Boniface VIII to control the French vidual pope, which further signaled king, the papal court had been moved the decline of the papacy. to Avignon in 1309, signaling the be- ginning of the end of the powerful medieval papacy. Petrarch called the Winds of reformation Avignon papacy the “Babylonian Cap- The downfall of the papacy tivity,” referring to the period in the had come not because of external ene-

222 Middle Ages: Almanac Plate Armor

The type of armor most often asso- ed and they were therefore most likely to ciated with the medieval period is plate, or take blows on the left side. full-body armor; but ironically, it did not Yet as armor changed in these make its appearance until the Middle Ages ways, even more significant changes—par- were almost over. Improvements in the ticularly the development of firearms— crossbow in the early 1300s made it neces- were occurring on the field of battle. sary to develop a more protective style of Therefore armor began disappearing from armor, though in fact the concept behind the battlefield. the “new” armor was old: the barbarians who helped bring down the Roman Empire Knights still wore armor for tourna- had worn plates of armor held together ments, however: in the joust, in which two with animal skins. knights rode at one another and each tried to unhorse the other with his lance, armor With the advent of plate armor, made for valuable protection. It could also helmets became more protective, and usu- be worn for purely decorative purposes, as ally covered the entire face, with eye slits in was the case through the 1600s. This cere- the metal. Knights typically wore a particu- monial armor typically included detailed larly heavy piece of armor on their left decorations, and gleaming, polished metal shoulder, since most men were right-hand- plates.

mies, but because of problems within the movement’s leaders was John the church itself—particularly its ef- Wycliffe (WIK-lif; 1330–1384), who forts to control politics. From the rose to prominence in England just as church’s viewpoint, this could not the Great Schism was beginning. have come at a worse time, because Rome now faced a threat more formi- Wycliffe challenged virtually dable than all the armies of Islam: a every doctrine of medieval Christiani- new group of religious leaders who ty, and in fact questioned the idea that questioned the authority of the church the Catholic Church was the Church. to stand between God and Christians. He declared that the church of Rome These leaders led a movement that was not the “real church,” which he came to be known as the Reformation. said existed wherever two or more be- It arose from attempts to change lievers in Jesus Christ were gathered Roman Catholicism and resulted in the together. Transubstantiation (see box, founding of Protestantism. First among page 101), he said, was an empty be-

The Late Middle Ages 223 Jan Hus was a religious reformer who was burned at the stake for heresy. Reproduced by permission of the Hulton-Getty Picture Library.

lief, since there is nothing in the Bible of Constance in 1414, he was tried for to support it; and he condemned the heresy, and on July 6, 1415, was monastic way of life because its idea of burned at the stake. separation from the world went against the Bible as well. These were the kind of teach- New nations ings that could get a man killed, but Hus was a hero not only of the Wycliffe survived in large part because Reformation, but of Bohemian or he had powerful friends. Less fortu- Czech nationalism because he sup- nate was Jan Hus (HOOS; 1373–1415), ported greater Czech authority over a Bohemian reformer. Influenced by the German-dominated University of Wycliffe, Hus challenged a practice , Bohemia’s capital. Later, when whereby the church peddled forgive- the Reformation reached its height, ness by granting indulgences in ex- German nationalism would in turn be change for monetary contributions. tied with the movement led by Martin Ordered to appear before the Council Luther (1483–1546). Similarly, Henry

224 Middle Ages: Almanac VIII’s establishment of the Church of the Middle Ages, nor did Ockham or England (known as the Anglican, or in Dante or Hus or any number of other the United States, Episcopal Church) great figures. The man who deserves strengthened the formation of a dis- credit, perhaps more than any other tinctly English identity. person, for launching the modern era was a German printer by the name of As the Middle Ages ended, me- Johannes Gutenberg (yoh-HAH-nes; c. dieval lands became incorporated in 1395–1468). Improving on ideas pio- larger nations. Such was the fate of neered by the Chinese several cen- Burgundy, which briefly created a turies before, Gutenberg developed a court noted as a center of music in the process of movable-type printing that 1400s. By 1477 it had ceased to exist, would change the world as no one divided among a number of growing had ever done. nations, most notably France. To the south, Spain and Portugal (see box, A fast and economical process “The Iberian Peninsula”) had emerged of printing meant that books could be as nations, as did Holland and a num- widely distributed, and this in turn led ber of other countries to the north. to an explosive growth in literacy. It also strengthened vernacular tongues. Newly literate merchants and others New horizons did not want to read dry old docu- Spain’s unification coincided ments in Latin; they wanted to read the with the opening stages of the Age of latest novel or a report on explorations Discovery. Already Portugal had be- in the East Indies in their native lan- come a powerful force on the high guage, whether that be German, Italian, seas, primarily through the efforts of or English. This of course meant that Prince Henry the Navigator (1394– the church would no longer be able to 1460), who made no voyages himself maintain the wall it had set up between but directed a number of expeditions believers and their God. In fact the first around the coast of Africa. While the book Gutenberg printed in 1455 was a rest of Europe was embroiled in politi- book constantly mentioned in the Mid- cal struggles, tiny Portugal began build- dle Ages, yet rarely seen and almost ing a many times larg- never read: the Bible. er than Portugal itself. Spain asserted itself as a nation by sending three ships under the command of Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) to find a sea route to China. For More Information What Columbus found was Books not China, of course; but that is an- Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient other story, since by Columbus’s time and Medieval World, Volume 10: Medieval Politics and Life. New York: Marshall the Middle Ages were clearly over. Yet Cavendish, 1996, pp. 1345–68, 1375– Columbus did not bring on the end of 1422.

The Late Middle Ages 225 Severy, Merle, editor. The Age of Chivalry. “Avignon Papacy: Historical Summary.” [On- Washington, D.C.: National Geographic line] Available http://www.humnet.ucla. Society, 1969, pp. 299–368. edu/humnet/cmrs/faculty/geary/instr/ students/history.htm (last accessed July 28, 2000). Web Sites “The Hundred Years’ War.” [Online] Available “The Black Death.” Discovery Online. [Online] http://www.bnf.fr/enluminures/texte/ Available http://www.discovery.com/ atx2_02.htm (last accessed July 28, 2000). stories/history/blackdeath/blackdeath. html (last accessed July 28, 2000).

226 Middle Ages: Almanac Where to Learn More

he following list focuses on works written for readers of Tmiddle school or high school age. Books aimed at adult readers have been included when they are especially impor- tant in providing information or analysis that would other- wise be unavailable, or because they have become classics.

Books World, Volume 9: The Middle Asimov, Isaac. The Dark Ages. Ages. New York: Marshall : Houghton Mifflin, Cavendish, 1996. 1968. Davidson, Basil. African Kingdoms. Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of Alexandria, VA: Time-Life the Ancient and Medieval Books, 1978. World, Volume 10: Medieval Politics and Life. New York: Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of Marshall Cavendish, 1996. the Ancient and Medieval World, Volume 8: Christianity Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of and Islam. New York: Mar- the Ancient and Medieval shall Cavendish, 1996. World, Volume 11: Empires of Dijkstra, Henk, editor. History of the Ancient World. New York: the Ancient and Medieval Marshall Cavendish, 1996.

xlvii Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. Stewart, Desmond, and The Edi- New York: Simon and Schus- tors of Time-Life Books. Early ter, 1950. Islam. New York: Time-Life Books, 1967. Durant, Will. Our Oriental Her- itage. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1954. Encyclopedia of World Biography, Web Sites The Catholic Encyclopedia. [On- second edition. Detroit: Gale, line] Available http://www. 1998. newadvent.org/cathen/ (last Hale, John R. Age of Exploration. accessed August 14, 2000). New York: Time-Life Books, Catholic Online Saints and Angels. 1974. [Online] Available http:// Hanawalt, Barbara A. The Middle www.catholic.org/saints/ Ages: An Illustrated History. index.shtml (last accessed New York: Oxford University August 14, 2000). Press, 1998. Imperium. [Online] Available http:// Historic World Leaders. Detroit: www.ghgcorp.com/shetler/ Gale, 1994. oldimp/ (last accessed August 14, 2000). Jones, Terry, and Alan Ereira. Cru- sades. New York: Facts on Internet Medieval Sourcebook. [On- File, 1995. line] Available http://www. fordham.edu/halsall/sbook. Jordan, William Chester, editor in html (last accessed August chief. The Middle Ages: An En- 14, 2000). cyclopedia for Students. New York: Macmillan Library Ref- Lives of the Saints. [Online] Avail- erence, 1996. able http://www.pitt.edu/ ~eflst4/saint_bios.html (last Langley, Andrew. Medieval Life. accessed August 14, 2000). New York: Knopf, 1996. Medieval History. [Online] Avail- Leonard, Jonathan Norton. An- able http://historymedren. cient America. Alexandria, VA: about.com/education/history Time-Life Books, 1967. medren/mbody.htm (last ac- Roberts, J. M. The Illustrated Histo- cessed August 14, 2000). ry of the World, Volume 4: The ORB: The Online Reference Book for Age of Diverging Traditions. . [Online] New York: Oxford, 1998. Available http://orb.rhodes. Schafer, Edward H. Ancient China. edu/ (last accessed August 14, New York: Time-Life Books, 2000). 1967. World Civilizations. [Online] Avail- Schulberg, Lucille. Historic India. able http://www.wsu.edu: New York: Time-Life Books, 8080/~dee/TITLE.HTM (last 1968. accessed August 14, 2000). Severy, Merle, editor. The Age of The WorldRoots Royal Pages. [On- Chivalry. Washington, D.C.: line] Available http://www. National Geographic Society, worldroots.com (last accessed 1969. August 14, 2000).

xlviii Middle Ages: Almanac