NAFIGATE Corporation, a.s.

BIOPLASTICS GLOSSARY

Bioplastics The term (as defined by European Bioplastics e.V.) used to describe two different types of plastics:

a) Bio-based plastics (made from → renewable feedstock, i.e. used raw materials), which may (or may not) be → biodegradable.

b) Biodegradable and → compostable plastics, as defined under international standard EN13432 or equivalent standards regarding end product degradability. Biodegradable and compostable plastics may be made from renewable feedstock (bio-based) or from non- renewable feedstock (fossil-based).

Bioplastics may be:

- bio-based and biodegradable;

- bio-based and non-biodegradable;

- fossil-based and biodegradable.

Cellulose acetate (CA) → ester Aerobic digestion Aerobic means “in the presence of oxygen”. → composting, which is an aerobic process, involves → accessing the oxygen present in the surrounding atmosphere and breaking down (metabolising) the organic material into CO2, water and cellular , whereby part of the energy in the organic material is released as heat. [bM 03/07, bM 02/09] Anaerobic digestion The process by which organic matter is decomposed by microorganisms in the absence of oxygen to produce methane and CO2 (= → biogas) and a compostable dry residue. Practically no heat is released during digestion. Biogas can be treated in a Combined Heat and Power Plant or upgraded into bio-methane. Amorphous Property: non-crystalline and glassy with an unordered structure.

Amylopectin A polymeric branched with a very high molecular weight (biopolymer, is → glucose). [bM 05/09]. Amylose A polymeric non-branched starch molecule with a high molecular weight (biopolymer, monomer is → glucose). [bM 05/09]. Biodegradable plastics Plastics that are completely assimilated - degraded - by the → microorganisms present in a defined environment as food for their energy. The carbon in the plastic must be entirely converted into CO2 during the microbial process. The process is dependent on the influencing environmental conditions (e.g. location, temperature, humidity) and on the material or application itself. Consequently, the process and its outcome can vary considerably. Biodegradability is linked to the structure of the chain; it is not dependent on the source of the feedstock. There is currently no single, overarching standard that lays down the requirements for biodegradability. Existing standards include the ISO or European standard EN 14995 Plastics - Evaluation of compostability - Test scheme and specifications. [bM 02/06, bM 01/07] Biogas A product of → anaerobic digestion Biomass Material of biological origin, excluding material embedded in geological formations and fossil material. This includes all or part of plants, trees, algae, marine , microorganisms and animals. Biorefinery A co-production process that converts waste biomass into , biochemicals and biofuels while also producing electricity or heat. Blend A mixture of plastics - a polymer alloy of at least two microscopically dispersed and molecularly distributed base . Bisphenol-A (BPA) A monomer used to produce different polymers. BPA is said to cause health problems since it behaves like a hormone. Its use is therefore banned in children’s products in many countries.

BPI Biodegradable Products Institute, a not-for-profit association that uses its innovative compostable labelling program to educate manufacturers, legislators and consumers about the importance of scientifically based standards for compostable materials biodegraded in large composting facilities. Starch butyrate → Starch propionate and starch butyrate CEN Comité Européen de Normalisation (European Organisation for Standardization). Cellophane The thin transparent foil made from chemically treated → cellulose [bM 01/10] Cellulose The principal component of the cell wall - in varying percentages - in all higher forms of plant , making it the most common organic compound and the most common . [1]

Cellulose is a polymeric molecule with a very high molecular weight (it is composed of → glucose ), which is industrially produced from wood or cotton to manufacture paper, plastics and fibres. [bM 01/10] Certification Certification is the process by which materials/products undergo a string of tests to verify that they fulfil certain requirements. Reliable certification systems should be based on (ideally harmonised) European standards or technical specifications (e.g. CEN, USDA, ASTM) and should be performed by independent laboratories. Successful certification guarantees high product safety and allows labels to be awarded that help consumers make informed decisions. DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Organisation for Standardization). DIN-CERTO Independent certifying body for the assessment of the conformity of bioplastics. Dispersing Fine distribution of non-miscible liquids into a homogeneous, stable blend. Home composting → Composting [bM 06/08]

Drop-in bioplastics Plastics that are chemically identical to conventional petroleum- based plastics but are made from renewable feedstock, such as bio-PE made from bio- (e.g. from cane) or partly bio- based PET, and monoethylene glycol made from bio-ethanol (e.g. from sugar cane) Developments are underway to produce terephthalic acid from renewable feedstock. Other examples include polyamides (partly bio-based plastics such as PA 4.10 or PA 6.10 and fully bio-based plastics such as PA 5.10 or PA10.10). Resource efficiency The use of limited natural resources in a sustainable way while minimising the impacts on the environment. A resource-efficient economy creates more output or value with the same or less input. EN 13432 European standard for evaluating the → compostability of plastic packaging. Environmental labelling Generally, all graphic or written markings (e.g. labels, logos, patterns, statements, captions, etc.) indicating one or more environmental aspect(s) of a product, component, packaging or service. [16] -mediated plastics Enzyme-mediated plastics are not → bioplastics, but rather are conventional non-biodegradable plastics (e.g. fossil-based PE) enriched with small amounts of an organic additive. Microorganisms should consume these additives and then extend the degradation process to the non-biodegradable PE. In time, the material should be degraded in its entirely, should visually disappear and should be converted entirely into CO2 and water. This is a theoretical concept that has yet to be backed up by any verifiable evidence. Producers endorse enzyme-mediated plastics as a solution to the negligent dropping and accumulation of packaging waste (→ littering). Yet, as no evidence has been provided to support this degradation process, its environmentally beneficial effects are highly questionable.

Cellulose ester Formed by the esterification of cellulose with organic acids. From a technical point of view, the most important cellulose-esters are cellulose acetate (CA with acetic acid), cellulose propionate (CA with propionic acid) and cellulose butyrate (CB with butane acid). Mixed polymerizates, such as cellulose acetate propionate (CAP) and cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) - which is most notably used to produce the moulded handle on Swiss army knives - can also be formed. [11] Starch-ester → Starch ester Ethene (Ethylene) An odourless, colourless gas typically made from petroleum through the process of cracking or bioethanol dehydration. This monomer is used to produce (PE). European Bioplastics e.V. The industry association representing the interests of Europe’s thriving bioplastics industry. Founded in 1993 in Germany as the IBAW, European Bioplastics today protects the interests of approximately 50 member companies throughout the EU and the world. With members from the feedstock, chemical and plastics industries, as well as other industrial users and companies, European Bioplastics serves as both a contact platform and a catalyst for advancing the aims of the growing bioplastics industry. Extrusion The heating and high-pressure process used to create plastic profiles (or sheets), which consists of mixing, melting, homogenising and shaping plastic. FDCA 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid, an intermediate compound produced from → 5-HMF (5-Hydroxymethylfurfural), which can be used to produce → PEF = polyethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate (polyester), which in turn could be a mild alternative to PET as a 100% → biomass derivative. Fermentation Biochemical reactions controlled by → microorganisms or → (e.g. transforming sugar into ). FSC Forest Stewardship Council, a non-governmental not-for-profit organisation established to promote responsible and sustainable forest management.

Genetically modified Plants or animals whose genetic material (DNA) has been altered. Food and feed that contain or consist of such GMOs or are organisms (GMOs) produced from GMOs are called genetically modified (GM) food or feed [1].

If GM crops are used in the production of bioplastics, the multiple-stage processing and the high heat used to create the polymer safely removes all traces of genetic material. This means that the final bioplastics product contains no genetic traces and is therefore well suited to be used for food packaging as it contains no genetically modified material. Global warming The rise in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation [8]. Global warming is accelerated by the emission of → greenhouse gases. Glucose Monosaccharide (or simple sugar). Glucose is the most important sugar in biology and is formed by photosynthesis or the hydrolysis of several (e.g. starch). Granulate, granules Small plastic particles (3-4 millimetres), which represent a manageable form for selling and feeding plastics into machines for further processing. Greenwashing Misleading claims (misinformation) made by companies to consumers regarding their environmental practices or the environmental benefits of their products or services. [1, 10] HMF (5-HMF) An organic compound formed by the dehydration of . HMF is a platform chemical that serves as a building block for 20 polymers and over 175 different chemicals substances. The molecule consists of a furan ring that contains both aldehyde and alcohol functional groups. 5-HMF has applications in many different industries such as bioplastics, packaging, pharmaceuticals, adhesives and chemicals. One of its most promising applications is its conversion into 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (→ FDCA), the intermediate compound produced from the oxidation of 5-HMF, which is used to produce → PEF = polyethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate. In turn, PEF can be used as a substitute for terephthalic acid in polyester, in particular polyethylene terephthalate (→ PET). [bM 03/14, 02/16]

Mass balance The relationship between the input and output of a specific substance within a system, whereby the system output must not exceed its input.

Producers of plastic products have attempted to exploit mass balance to claim that their plastic products are renewable by dividing the input of a certain biomass into a huge, complex chemical plant among all of the plastics it produces. This practice has been labelled controversial in the least. [bM 04/14, 05/14, 01/15] Bio-based mass content The quantity of biomass contained in a material or product. This method is complementary to the 14C method and also takes into account other non-carbon elements present in bio-based products, such as oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. It has been developed and tested by the Association Chimie du Végétal (ACDV). [1] Humus Often used in agriculture to treat soil in the form of mature → or natural compost extracted from a forest or other spontaneous source. Density Quotient of the mass and volume of a material, also referred to as specific mass. Hydrophilic Property: water-friendly, soluble in water or other polar solvents. These materials are used, for instance, in conjunction with non- water-resistant, non-weather-proof and water-absorbing plastics such as Polyamide (PA). Hydrophobic Property: water-resistant, insoluble in water. Materials include water-resistant, weather-proof and non-water-absorbing plastics such as polyethylene (→ PE) and polypropylene (→ PP). ISO International Organization for Standardization. JBPA Japan Bioplastics Association. Carbohydrates → Saccharides

Cascade use Cascade use of → renewable feedstock refers to where materials are first used to make products with a higher added-value and subsequently re-used as feedstock for other product categories. For instance, → biomass can be first used to produce bio-based industrial products and subsequently used – due to its favourable energy balance – for energy generation (e.g. bio-based compostable plastic products in biogas production). This way, the feedstock is used efficiently and the added value is increased considerably.

Catalyst Substance that enables and accelerates a chemical reaction. Compound Plastic blend made from several raw materials (polymer and additives). [bM 04/10] Compost A soil conditioning material from decomposing organic matter which provides nutrients and enhances soil structure. Composting Controlled → aerobic (oxygen-requiring) decomposition of organic materials by → microorganisms in controlled conditions. Composting reduces the volume and mass of raw materials while converting them into CO2, water and a valuable soil conditioner – → compost. When we talk about the composting of bioplastics, we usually mean → industrial composting in a managed composting facility (the criteria for which are defined in EN 13432).

The main difference between industrial and home composting is that temperatures in industrial composting facilities are much higher and stable, whereas the temperature of home composting is usually lower and variable in connection with external climactic factors such as weather conditions. Home composting is a much slower process than industrial composting and involves a comparatively smaller volume of waste. [bM 03/07]

Compostable plastics Plastics that are → biodegradable under → composting conditions - under a certain humidity, temperature, → microorganisms and time frame. The location - home or → industrial composting facilities - and timeframe of compostability must be specified. [1] A more precise definition can be found in several national and international standards, such as EN 14995 Plastics - Evaluation of compostability - Test scheme and specifications. [bM 02/06, bM 01/07] Copolymer Polymer with a consisting of more than one species of monomer.

Crystalline Plastic with regularly arranged in a lattice structure. LCA Life Cycle Analysis, a system for analysing the compilation and evaluation of inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product (or service) throughout its life cycle. [17] It is sometimes also referred to as eco-balance or → cradle-to-grave analysis. [bM 01/09]. Littering The negligent (illegal) act of dropping waste, such as cigarette butts, paper, tins, bottles, cups, plates and cutlery in open or public spaces. 14C method Chemical-physical radiocarbon dating method designed to determine the age of biomatter. Age is calculated based on the decrease in the number of atoms in the 14C radioactive carbon isotopes present in originally living objects. Microorganisms Living organisms of microscopic size, such as , fungi or yeast. Molecule Group of at least two atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds. Monomer Low-molecular substance used to produce macromolecular substances - polymers. Molecules that are linked by polymerisation form chains of molecules and then plastics.

Mulch film Foil used to cover and protect farmland against weeding, etc.

Renewable feedstock Agricultural raw materials not used as food or feed but as raw material for industrial products or to generate energy. Industrial use of renewable feedstock reduces the dependency on fossil resources and reduces → greenhouse gas emissions. Bio-based plastics are predominantly made from annual crops such as corn, cereals, and sugar beet or perennial cultures such as cassava and sugar cane.

Green waste Grass clippings, leaves, trimmings, garden residue. Cradle-to-gate The system boundaries of an environmental → Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), covering all activities from the cradle (i.e. mining of raw materials, farming and forestry) to the factory gate. Cradle-to-grave The system boundaries of a full → Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), from manufacture (cradle) through to the use and disposal phases (grave). Cradle-to-cradle Term used to convey the concept of a circular (closed-cycle) economy, in which waste is used as feedstock. Cradle-to-cradle is not a term that is typically used in → LCAs. Oxo-degradable / Oxo- Materials and products with this property are not biodegradable. The technology underlying oxo-degradability and oxo- fragmentable fragmentation is founded on special additives, which, if incorporated into standard plastic blends, are purported to accelerate the fragmentation of products produced therefrom. However, oxo-degradable or oxo-fragmentable materials do not meet accepted industry standards on compostability such as EN 13432. [bM 01/09, 05/09] PBAT Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) is an aliphatic-aromatic copolyester that has the properties of conventional polyethylene but is fully biodegradable under industrial composting conditions. PBAT is made from fossil fuels, with attempts currently underway to partly produce it from renewables [bM 06/09]. PBS Polybutylene succinate is a 100% biodegradable polymer made from succinic acid (which can also be bio-based) and, for instance, bio-BDO [bM 03/12].

PC Polycarbonate is a non-degradable petroleum-based thermoplastic polyester used, for instance, in baby bottles and CDs. It is criticised for its BPA (→ Bisphenol-A) content. PCL Polycaprolactone is a biodegradable synthetic (fossil-based) used, for instance, as a → blend component. PE Polyethylene is a thermoplastic polymerised from ethylene. It can also be made from renewables (e.g. sugar cane via bio-ethanol). [bM 05/10] PEF Polyethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate, or polyethylene furanoate, is a polyester made from monoethylene glycol (MEG) and → FDCA (2,5-furandicarboxylic acid, an intermediate compound produced from 5-HMF). It can serve as a fully bio-based alternative to PET. PEF also has improved product characteristics, such as better structural strength and better barrier behaviour, allowing for greater use of PEF bottles. [bM 03/11, 04/12] PET Polyethylene terephthalate is the transparent polyester used to produce bottles and film. The polyester is made from monoethylene glycol (MEG), which can be renewably sourced from bio-ethanol (sugar cane) and (hitherto fossil-based) terephthalic acid. [bM 04/14] PGA Polyglycolic acid (or ) is a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer and the simplest linear aliphatic polyester in existence. Besides its use in the biomedical field, PGA is also used in the packaging industry as a barrier material. [bM 03/09]

PHA (PHA), or polyhydroxy fatty acids, are a family of biodegradable polyesters. As with many mammals that hold energy reserves in the form of body fat, including humans, some bacteria also build up intracellular reserves of polyhydroxyalkanoates. These microorganisms hold particularly large energy reserves (up to 80% of their own body weight) for when their sources of nutrition become scarce. By farming this type of bacteria and feeding them on sugar or starch (mostly from maize), or at times on plant oils or other nutrients rich in carbonates, PHA can be obtained on an industrial scale. The most common types of PHA are → PHB (), → PHBH and PHBV. Depending on the bacteria and their food, PHAs can be produced with different mechanical properties, from soft rubbery material to hard stiff substances such as ABS. Some PHSs are even biodegradable in soil or in marine environments. PHB Polyhydroxybutyrate is a polyester-class PHA polymer and is therefore also metabolised by microorganisms. It has similar properties to → PP, but is stiffer and more brittle. PHBH Like other PHA polymers, poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3- hydroxyhexanoate is metabolized by microorganisms. Its main features include excellent biodegradability via hydrolysis. PLA Polylactide, or , (PLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic linear aliphatic polyester derived from lactic acid, a natural acid that is predominantly produced by the fermentation of sugar or starch by microorganisms. Lactic acid comes in two isomer forms: laevorotatory D(-)lactic acid and dextrorotary L(+)lactic acid. The right additives or certain combinations of L- and D- lactides (stereocomplexing) can be used to produce modified PLA types, which then have rigidity suitable for use at higher temperatures. [13] [bM 01/09, 01/12] Plastics Materials with large molecular chains of natural or fossil-based feedstock produced by chemical or biochemical reactions. Bio-based plastic A plastic whose constitutional units are wholly or partially made from → biomass [3]. When a plastic is claimed to be bio-based, the → bio-based content (percentage) of the product or material must always be indicated. [1] [bM 01/07, bM 03/10]

Semi-finished products Plastic in sheet, film, rod or other form that will be further processed into finished products. PP Polypropylene is a thermoplastic polymer with physical-chemical similar properties to polyethylene. One of the most common plastics, it is used in the food and textile industries and in laboratory equipment. PPC Polypropylene carbonate is a bioplastic made by copolymerizing CO2 with propylene oxide (PO). PTT Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) is partially bio-based polyester, which, like PET, is produced using terephthalic acid or dimethyl terephthalate and a diol. In this case, PTT is a bio-based 1,3 propanediol, also known as bio-PDO. [bM 01/13] Industrial composting A controlled process, usually under established conditions (e.g. temperature, timeframe), to convert biodegradable waste into stable, sanitised products to be used in agriculture. The criteria for industrial composting of packaging are defined in European standard EN 13432. Materials that comply with this standard can be certified and subsequently labelled as compliant. [1,7] [bM 06/08, 02/09] Starch propionate → Starch propionate and starch butyrate Organic recycling The treatment of separately collected organic waste by anaerobic digestion and/or composting. Saccharides The name used to define the sugar family. These can be monomeric or polymeric sugar units: for instance, monosaccharides, disaccharides and . → Glucose is a monosaccharide. They are important for food and are produced by plants and autotrophic organisms through photosynthesis. Seedling (logo) The compostability label and Seedling logo are connected with European standard EN 13432/EN 14995 and the certification process controlled by independent institutions → DIN CERTCO and →Vinçotte. Bioplastics products carrying the Seedling logo fulfilled the criteria laid down in EN 13432 regarding industrial composting.

Greenhouse gas A natural, anthropogenic gaseous constituent of the atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of infrared radiation emitted by the earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds. Sorbitol A sugar alcohol obtained via → glucose reduction, in which the aldehyde group is converted into another hydroxyl group. Sorbitol is used as a plasticiser for starch-based bioplastics. 1st generation feedstock Plants rich in carbohydrates, such as maize and sugar cane, can be used as food and animal feed, and are known as “food crops” or 1st generation feedstock. Cultivated over centuries for their high energy efficiency, they are currently the most efficient feedstock for the production of bioplastics, as they require low quantities of soil to grow and produce high yields. [bM 04/09] 2nd generation feedstock Feedstock that is not suitable for food or feed. This can be either non-food crops (e.g. cellulose) or waste materials from 1st generation feedstock (e.g. waste vegetable oil). 3rd generation feedstock Biomass derived from algae, which has a higher growth yield than both 1st and 2nd generation feedstock, and therefore has been allocated its own category. Starch A natural polymer () consisting of → amylose and → amylopectin, obtained from maize, potatoes, wheat, tapioca, etc. When glucose is connected to polymer chains in a certain way, the result (product) is starch. Each molecule consists of 300 to 12,000 glucose units. We can identify two types of polysaccharides depending on how they are connected: → amylose and → amylopectin. [bM 05/09] Starch derivatives Derivatives formed based on the chemical structure of → starch, which can be modified by introducing new functional groups without modifying the → starch polymer. The chemical properties of starch products (e.g. their hydrophilic nature) may vary. Starch ester The property shared by all starch chains is that they are all free hydroxy groups. When a hydroxy group connects to an acid, one (Starch-ester) of its products is starch-ester, with varying chemical properties.

Starch propionate and Can be synthesised by treating starch with propane or butanoic acid. The structure of the product is still → starch based. Each → starch butyrate glucose fragment is linked to a propionate or butyrate ester (Starch propionate, Starch group. The product is more hydrophobic than → starch. butyrate) Bio-based labels A → bio-based product or material should be identified as such (together with the percentage of the bio-based content) by its label. Labels should ideally be based on harmonised standards and a certification process carried out by an independent institution.

The properties of biocomponents are certified by labels issued by → DIN CERTCO and →Vinçotte, whose certification is based on technical specifications. [4, 5] Thermoplastics Plastics that soften or melt when heated and solidify when cooled (solid at room temperature). Thermoplastic starch (TPS) A → starch that has been modified (at high temperature and high pressure) to make a plastic blend. Thermosets Plastics (plastic blends) which do not soften or melt when heated. Examples include epoxy resins or unsaturated polyester resins. Sustainable The pursuit of the best outcome for people and the environment both now and in the future. One well-known definition of is that penned by the Brundtland Commission led by Norwegian Prime Minister G. Brundtland. The Brundtland Commission has defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Sustainability refers to the continuity of economic, social and environmental aspects of human society and the natural environment.

Sustainable sourcing Sustainable sourcing of renewable feedstock for bio-based plastics is a pre-requisite for more sustainable products. Impacts such as the deforestation of protected habitats or social and environmental damage arising from poor agricultural practices must be avoided. Corresponding certification schemes, such as ISCC PLUS, WLC and BonSucro, are an appropriate tool for ensuring the sustainable sourcing of biomass for all applications around the globe. Sustainability According to the definition of → European Bioplastics sustainability has three dimensions: economic, social and environmental. These are often referred to as the three pillars of sustainability, or the triple bottom of line of sustainability. It means that sustainable development requires concurrent efforts to achieve economic prosperity, environmental protection and social justice. In other words, businesses must extend their responsibilities to include the environment and society. Sustainability is about creating market-friendly products that also carry social benefits and have a lower environmental impact than commonly available alternatives. Sustainability also concerns a commitment to continuous improvement, which should lead to a further reduction in the environmental footprint of the products, processes and raw materials currently used. Bio-based carbon The carbon contained in → biomass or derived from → biomass. Materials and products made from fossil or → renewable feedstock contain either fossil-based or bio-based carbon. Bio- based carbon content is measured using the 14C method (radio carbon dating method), which adheres to the relevant technical specification. [1, 4, 5, 6] Vinçotte Independent certifying organisation for the assessment of the conformity of bioplastics. Land use The area required to grow sufficient feedstock (land use) for today’s bioplastic production accounts for less than 0.01 percent of the global agricultural area of 5 billion hectares. The extent to which the increased use of food residues, non-food crops and cellulosic biomass (see also → 1st/2nd/3rd generation feedstock) in bioplastics production might lead to an even greater reduction in land use in the future is as yet unforeseeable [bM 04/09, 01/14]

WPC Wood Plastic Composite. Composite materials made of wood fibre/flour and plastics (mostly polypropylene). Marine litter Following the European Commission’s definition, marine litter consists of items that have been deliberately discarded, unintentionally lost or transported by winds and rivers into the sea and onto beaches. It mainly consists of plastics, wood, metals, glass, rubber, clothing and paper. Marine debris originates from a variety of sources. Shipping and fishing activities are the predominant sea-based sources, whereas public → littering is the main land-based source. Marine litter can pose a threat to living organisms, especially due to potential ingestion or entanglement. Currently, there is no international standard available to appropriately describe the biodegradation of plastics in the marine environment. However, a number of standardisation projects are currently being developed at → ISO and ASTM level. Furthermore, the European OPEN BIO project addresses the marine biodegradation of bio-based products. Gelatine A translucent, brittle and solid substance extracted from the inside animals connective tissue that is practically tasteless and odourless and is colourless or pale yellow.

Describes a product or process that has a negligible effect on Carbon neutral, CO2 neutral overall CO2 levels in the atmosphere. One example of carbon neutrality is where the amount of CO2 released when a plant decomposes or burns does not exceed the amount of CO2 absorbed by the plant through photosynthesis while growing. Carbon neutrality can also be achieved by purchasing sufficient carbon credits to make up the carbon balance. However, this option (carbon credits) is not permissible when carrying out → LCAs or calculating the carbon footprint of a material or product. [1, 2]

It is relatively difficult to claim carbon neutrality as most products do not attain carbon neutrality when their complete life cycle is taken into account (including end-of-life).

However, if a material is assessed → cradle-to-gate, it is permissible to claim carbon neutrality in a business-to-business context. Yet, in this case the unit determined in the full life cycle must be clarified. [1]

Carbon footprint The sum of → greenhouse gas emissions released during a product’s life cycle, expressed as CO2 equivalent. The CO2 equivalent of a specific amount of a → greenhouse gas is calculated as the mass of a given greenhouse gas multiplied by its → global warming potential. Bio-based The term used to describe a material or product that is (at least in part) derived from → biomass. To indicate that a product is bio- based, we should list the unit (→ bio-based carbon content, bio- based mass content), the percentage content and the method of measurement used. [1] Energy recovery Exploitation of the energy potential in (plastic) waste to produce electricity or heat in waste incineration plants (waste-to-energy).

REFERENCES: [1] Environmental Communication Guide, European Bioplastics, Berlin, Germany, 2012 [2] ISO 14067. Carbon footprint of products - Requirements and guidelines for quantification and communication [3] CEN TR 15932, Plastics – Recommendation for terminology and characterisation of biopolymers and bioplastics, 2010 [4] CEN/TS 16137, Plastics – Determination of bio-based carbon content, 2011 [5] ASTM D6866, Standard Test Methods for Determining the Bio-based Content of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Samples Using Radiocarbon Analysis [6] SPI: Understanding Bio-based Carbon Content, 2012 [7] EN 13432, Requirements for packaging recoverable through composting and biodegradation. Test scheme and evaluation criteria for the final acceptance of packaging, 2000 [8] Wikipedia [9] ISO 14064 Greenhouse gases -- Part 1: Specification with guidance..., 2006 [10] Terrachoice, 2010, www.terrachoice.com [11] Thielen, M.: Bioplastics: Basics. Applications. Markets, Polymedia Publisher, 2012 [12] Lörcks, J.: Biokunststoffe, Broschüre der FNR, 2005 [13] de Vos, S.: Improving heat-resistance of PLA using poly(D-lactide), bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 3, Issue 02/2008 [14] de Wilde, B.: Anaerobic Digestion, bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol 4., Issue 06/2009 [15] ISO 14067 on Carbon Footprint of Products [16] ISO 14021 on Self-declared Environmental claims [17] ISO 14044 on Life Cycle Assessment