Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 17(2), April 2018, pp. 314-321

The scope of (Cannabis sativa L.) use in Historical conservation in India

M Singh 1*, Divija Mamania2 & Vasant Shinde3 1National Museum Institute, Janpath, New Delhi-110 011, India; 2IITian’s Pace and Pace Junior Science College, Mumbai-400 028, India; 3Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune-411 006, India E-mail: [email protected]

Received 22 September 2017, revised 11 December 2017

Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) has preserved the ancient artwork in India’s sacred Ellora Caves for 1500 years. The long life of earthen of Ellora, despite damaging environmental parameters, may be attributed to the material properties of hemp which is fibrous and durable as studied through stereo and scanning electron microscope. The properties of Cannabis sativa (hemp) including its ability to repel insects and regulate humidity must have been known to the ancient Indian technicians in 6th CE. Moreover, Cannabis has an excellent carbon dioxide sequestering capacity and is green house negative and these properties were exploited by ancient Indians in cave murals of Ellora. The finding could be applied in future construction technology, as well as conservation of historical structures, where more sustainable materials are being sought. However, it would be illegal in places where Cannabis is banned. The numerous useful properties of hemp can also be exploited for several environmental friendly applications. This paper deliberates upon the utilization of this plant from the ancient period to its present use to regulate green house impact.

Keywords: Cannabis sativa L., Shiv, Greenhouse, Conservation IPC Int. Cl.8: A61K 36/00, D01C, D07B 1/06, A01G 9/00, A01G 9/18, B41N 3/00

Cannabis is one of the oldest domestic plant in the long been used as medicine or mind-altering substance history of mankind, probably been utilized for more and the stem produces long durable fiber for textile, than 10,000 years, i.e., from the stone Age1,2. The rope, papers, etc.2. Among the various products, the Archaeologists of the Taiwanese site have discovered fibers derived from this plant have served as one of pots belonging to this period, made of fibers that are the most important application for human through presumed to be from Cannabis plant. The Cannabis the age4,5. Available data reveals that utilization of sativa, commonly known as marijuana in America is plant fiber for cloth processing may be dated as early as hemp plant distributed throughout the world. Hemp 30,000 years ago6. Hemp cultivation spread to Asian grows easily in most climates and enriches poor countries from China and it was adopted in India, after every crop3. The plant is more commonly where it served a religious purpose. In Atherveda, one identified today as potent psychoactive substance but of the oldest book of Hinduism, Cannabis has been for many years it was harvested primarily for its mentioned as one of the five sacred plants and fibers. Owing to its fast growth in both temperate and accordingly worshipped7. This recognized it as a plant tropical climate, hemp has been used for centuries to with the protection and reverence engendered by make variety of items such as rope, paper, clothing, cultural and religious acceptance. sails, etc. The fibrous strands of hemp are ideal for The use of Cannabis for recreational and fabric due to its increased durability over cotton. intoxicating purpose later spread through Asia to Since pre-historic times, biotypes of Cannabis have Europe. Despite many attractive features of plant, the also been widely exploited for number of other use of this drug did not catch fast in Europe. In fact, purposes. For example, seeds have been eaten and widespread use of Cannabis for its psychoactive crushed to produce oil for lamp or cooking. The properties in Europe did not occur until 1960 when it flowering heads and leaves produce resin that has was re-introduced by people and tourists from United States8. However, after its introduction, the attention —————— *Corresponding author focused on the medicinal value of Cannabis sativa SINGH et al.: THE SCOPE OF HEMP (CANNABIS SATIVA L.) USE IN HISTORICAL CONSERVATION IN INDIA 315

where its utility was discovered in the control and by ancient Indians in 6th century Ellora caves lost management of chronic health problems such as almost 1500 yrs ago but now restored through the HIV/AIDS, cancer, cachexia, glaucoma, nausea and recorded research16. Hemp is more durable and long vomiting, asthma, hypertension, etc.9-12. lasting compared to other type of vegetal fibers Hemp is probably one of the plants whose utility identified mixed in earthen plaster and ancient Indians has been underestimated and thus abandoned due to exploited this property of the hemp in the cave social belief attached to it. It is the purported negative paintings of Ellora. Besides, hemp fibers are natural aspect of this commercial crop that has prevailed and insecticides and pesticides, retains heat, is water influenced its utilization. proof, able to regulate moisture, sequester carbon Cannabis has long history of use for medical and dioxide, non-toxic, fire resistance and have insulating health purposes with the earliest documentation properties, able to absorb 90 % of the natural attributed to Shen Nung in 28th century BC. Shen noise17,18. All these properties of hemp were known to Nung strongly recommended the use of Cannabis the builders and inhabitants of Ellora Caves in 6th sativa to people for medical benefits. Shen Nung, a century of our era. By mixing hemp in the earthen mythical Chinese emperor and pharmacist prescribed plaster, the technicians created a very peaceful, use of Cannabis in his period in China for its sedative healthy, comfortable and aesthetically pleasing properties in treating pain and illness, countering the environment for Buddhist monks /Priest at Ellora. effect of evil spirit and for its psychoactive Indians used hempcrete technology (mixing of hemp 13,14 benefits . with binder like , , , etc.) not only in The physical evidence about the use of this plant as ancient cave murals of Ellora dating back from 6th medicine was also uncovered by an Israeli Scientist century CE to 11th century CE but also in the massive who found residue of Cannabis within the body of a Daulatabad fort work19. It seems that the young woman who apparently died in child birth technology of mixing hemp in the earthen/lime plaster 1600 yrs ago. This discovery pointed towards the use passed from Ellora to nearby Daulatabad fort, situated of the plant to speed birth process and to ease the just 15 km South of Ellora caves and dateable to the associated pain during delivery period in ancient time. period 13th century CE to 16th century CE. In India, The intake of Cannabis has also been reported during due to Narcotic and Psychotropic Substance Act, 15 child birth previously in Egyptian papyri . 1985 (NDPS act), the use of Cannabis locally named There is recent resurgence in efforts to legalize as Bhang is banned for all other activities except Cannabis sativa for medical purposes. Much of the scientific research and medicine. The application of efforts are due to increasing use of marijuana by hemp in construction works in European countries AIDS patients who claim that cannabis reduce the started gaining popularity 1990 onwards due to its nausea and vomiting caused by the disease because it unique characteristics of regulating humidity and stimulates appetite thus helping the patients to regain absorbing carbon dioxide, specifically in cold weight loss during their illness. The sympathy for regions20,21. In 2011, the United State of America built these patients led to the establishment of ‘Cannabis first house using hempcrete (http://www.7daysnews.info/ Club’ in several major cities in United States. These archives/124800) but unfortunately media concentration organizations purchase marijuana in bulk and provide was more towards its narcotic properties rather than them in some cases free of charge to the patients its unique features. In Russia, the solitary properties suffering from AIDS, cancer and other diseases. of hemp were known for long time as hemp was the The Ancient Indian Hempcrete technology main item of Russian export. But the most ancient Cannabis has played an important role in example of hemp is reported from a tomb in China preserving the precious artworks within the ancient where it was found stored in a wooden pot22. cave of Ellora16. Probably, ancient Indians technicians Presently, the main producers of Industrial hemp are were first in the world to practice hempcrete France, Canada and China. Many other countries technology, i.e., mixing of Bhang in clay/lime plaster including India continue to fear its criminal for construction. However, a small reference about application and abuse which is traditionally associated finding of hempcrete dating 6th century CE is reported with the cultivation of hemp with damaged reputation. from under a bridge in France without any scientific However, it is the time to stress on increasing its investigative studies. The use of hemp in construction production in all countries under strict control for 316 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL 17, NO. 2, APRIL 2018

industrial applications due to hosts of environmentally of drawing and marking on the rock before starting friendly reasons. Furthermore, hemp is a fast-growing the excavation required sizes and shapes by the plant and when compared with other available crops, craftsmen with the help of variety of tools and it is less dependent on the regional variations of training of the technicians25. Rock cutting architecture climate change, quality, nutrients and specifically has also been studied by several other scholars irrigation. The availability of water, the relative in India26,27. high level of sun light and heat provide The addition of vegetal fibers as an additive in adequate environmental conditions for the seasonal Indian / lime plaster varied from site to site and growth of Cannabis. depends on the availability in its vicinity. Jute fibers are observed as additive in the lime plaster works of Materials and methods Indian monuments of Hampi, Bidar fort, etc. Rice The Ellora caves are located at 20°1’25.61”N, husk has been detected as organic additives in the 75010’45.86”E near a village locally named as Verul, famous cave murals of Ajanta28, Pithalkhora29, Karle and situated at a distance of 30 km to the North-west Caves30, and Bhaja caves31, all situated in western of Aurangabad city (Fig. 1). They were originally India. The favored method of executing murals known as Elur and Elapura due to their location near of Ellora was to level the basaltic rock surface with the Elaganga river which originates from the nearby mud/lime plaster and paint them. Two layers of hills. The Ellora caves were declared a world heritage earthen to basaltic rock , each with its site in 1983. There are 34 caves at Ellora spread in an own function and characteristics have been applied area of about 2 km North to South and represent three (Fig. 3). The first is a leveling layer with thickness religions of India i.e. Buddhism, Hinduism and that solely depends on the topography of the wall. For Jainism. The caves at Ellora are splendid example of this layer soil from water fall point usually rock cut architecture that also contains some very comprising mixture of coarse to fine basaltic beautiful mural arts executed on the mud/ lime plaster ground on basaltic rock support (Fig. 2). The designs of mural art at Ellora represent floral and creeper pattern, other geometrical shapes, fine jewelers design and human and animal figures. The color of the paintings is dull and insipid due to burning of fire in the past inside the caves and deposition of soot and charring of paintings. The paintings have been located on the chiseled out basaltic rock walls. The preparation of ground within the living body of the rock at Ellora, leveling away the irregularity in the rock, preparation and mounting of earthen plaster have very well been researched Fig. 2 — Showing beautiful murals of Ellora caves now1. Only a handful of work describes the technique of rock cutting in the ancient buildings and caves. An attempt has been made to explain the process of rock cutting in the caves of northern India23,24. The method

Fig. 1 — The general view of Ellora caves Fig. 3 — Showing two layers of earthen plasters SINGH et al.: THE SCOPE OF HEMP (CANNABIS SATIVA L.) USE IN HISTORICAL CONSERVATION IN INDIA 317

aggregates and low content of clay was sourced and Light Microscope Examination: The pounded mixed with lime, proteinaceous adhesive and vegetal piece of shoots were examined and measured with a additives. calibrated ocular micrometer and photographed under Complete Cannabis plant was found added in this a LABOMED vision 2000 Madstar light microscope. layer to improve its properties and stop cracking Stereo Microscope Examination: the flower and during drying (Fig. 4). The upper plaster layer above leaves were examined and photographed under an the inner layer is also from the same source of soil but Olympus Magnus MSZ and LABOMED CSM2 appears to have slightly more addition of finer stereo microscope. particles and hemp. This modification has allowed For comparative studies fresh specimen of thinner application (2-5 mm) and smoother finish. But Cannabis sativa collected from Jalana (Pardeshi 3732) this stratigraphy of plaster is not consistent throughout and Delhi city (Sardesai 1500) was used in this study. the caves of Ellora and at many places only a single layer of more refined light grey color clay plaster is Results and discussion present with thickness that depends on the topography Hemp is mentioned in Roman literature from of the surface. around 11 BC indicating the plant was grown in what The sample for investigation was collected from is now known as southern Europe. Research on the past history of the hemp revealed that it was probably cave No. 12 which is remarkably a three storied 2, 32 structure. The sample was observed in the laboratory utilized more than 10000 years ago . In India, Hemp domestication dates back to 5000- under the magnifying lens, stereo zoom microscope, 33 compound microscope and under scanning electron 4000 BC . It was cultivated for various purposes microscope. After investigation, it was confirmed that including use of its fibers from its stem, edible the sample collected from cave No.12 contains food/oil from its achene, medicine, psychoactive abundant pounded pieces of shoots, fragmented leaves substance from its resin glands. The medicinal use of and single male flower. Cannabis was first recorded in India in the medical 1,34 From the laboratory investigation and through work “Sushrita” complied around 1000 BC . Also literature survey it was concluded that the plant the mention of Cannabis in the Indian literature such specimen utilized in ancient plaster was tentatively as “Tajnighuntu” and “Rajbulubha” states that it is Cannabis sativa. For the confirmation of this used in the treatment of clearing phlegm, expelling conclusion, the vegetal fibers were also compared flatulence, inducing costiveness, sharpening memory, with the modern day specimen of Cannabis sativa increasing eloquence, as an appetite stimulant, for 1,34 stored in the herbarium of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar treatment of gonorrhea and also as a general tonic . Marathwada University, Aurangabad. Moreover, for Hindu’s Cannabis is a holy plant The following instrumental techniques were used associated with the Lord Shiva and widely for the identification and characterization of the plant worshipped in the form of Shiva- Lingam in India by species. millions of devotees. Scanning Electron Microscope: The dried The hemp hurds, the basic of Cannabis consists of specimen was directly placed on the stubs and putter cellulose polymeric chain aligned by micro fibrils. coated with gold using a SPI-MODULE sputter They are linked to each other by lignin, pectin and coater. The samples were examined and photographed hemicelluloses. The strength of the fibers is mostly under EDAX model-JEOI-SEM 6360. provided by hydrogen bond between different chemical compounds (http:/hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ ncnu02/v5-284.html). The stalk of the hemp plant consists of fibers (soft and flexible) and hurds (rigid and hard). The processing of the Cannabis sativa results in three basic components namely shives or hurds (62 %), plant fibers (35 %) and seed and dust with particle size less than 0.5µ (4 %) by weight. Hemp is an environmental friendly plant and does not require pesticides/ herbicides to grow. Moreover, it

Fig. 4 — Cannabis found mixed in the earthen plaster of can easily grow in most weather conditions of Ellora cave No. 12 the world, is acid free and unlikely to deteriorate 318 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL 17, NO. 2, APRIL 2018

over time. Hemp is also resistant to rodents, fungus warty surface inclined towards the leaf apex at any many other weeds. Further, the dead plant various angles. The sensible trichomes are globular, residue acts as manure for soil and enhances light brown in color with smooth surface. These its fertility. trichomes are sparsely and uniformly distributed The composition and properties of each of its along the abaxial epidermis. components is responsible for its thermal stability, Cannabis sativa is erroneously being believed in resistance to ultra violet radiation and biodegradation. the present time as a plant that causes deleterious Hemp hurds are also low density, light weight health problems including host of other controversies. materials which also exhibit mechanical strength However, subsequent studies have indicated that this parameters. plant, apart from being recognized as one of the five The significant advantage of the hemp is that it is sacred crops, has a lot of medicinal, recreational, green house negative as it absorbs more carbon commercial and social applications. Medical dioxide from the atmosphere than it produces in its evidences have shown that it is very useful in life cycle- thereby reversing the impact of global controlling several chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS, warming primarily owing to its high cellulose content cancer, asthma, glucoma, cachexia, hypertension, of almost 85 %. It has experimentally been observed depression, etc. However, further in-depth research is that 1000 kg of hemp can sequester approximately required to utilize this wonderful plant for other 1500 kg of carbon dioxide. benefits to the humanities (http://www.hemphasis.net/ Cannabis sativa was found mixed in the mud/ lime History/history.htm). plaster of Ellora caves during the course of Cannabis has lot of uses commercially, observation of the painted plaster with the help of agriculturally, medically and socially. All parts of the hand held magnifying lens. In the earthen plaster, the plant including leaves, stem and outer covering whole plant was found mixed along with its roots, are very useful. While the leaves are smoked stem, leaves and fruits. In the lime plaster works at recreationally, the stem is known for its use in Ellora caves, it was found added after beating the producing the strongest rope and pot35. Ship builders stem and collecting the inner whitish hurd for mixing prefer to use Cannabis rope in ship sails. Evidences in plaster works. Cannabis sativa in the mud plaster have shown that hemp fiber was extensively utilized of Ellora caves was identified due to the presence in the production of cloth and pots. The hemp fibers of parenchymatous tissue under stereo- microscope were also used for house building in South Africa but (Fig. 5). no detailed investigation has been presented about it35. The structure of the ancient plant was compared The Cannabis sativa in India is also sometimes with a fresh specimen of Cannabis sativa collected consumed for recreational purposes as it is associated from Jalna, about 60 km East of Aurangabad city and fresh plant collected from the outskirt of the Delhi city. The fresh specimens are now kept in botany department herbarium of Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad. The similar looking non-granular as well as sessile trichomes in the ancient Cannabis plant confirmed its presence in the plaster of Ellora caves (Fig. 6). The parenchymatous tissue is conical, curved, simple with

Fig. 5 — Showing tissue structures of (a) old and (b) fresh Fig. 6 — Stereo microscopic image of ancient and fresh specimen specimen of Cannabis of Cannabis SINGH et al.: THE SCOPE OF HEMP (CANNABIS SATIVA L.) USE IN HISTORICAL CONSERVATION IN INDIA 319

with the divine power, the Lord Shiva, according to Cannabis mixed in the plaster is able to provide Hindu mythology. Besides, it is also being used for required benefit for the comfortable stay of the shampoo and other cosmetic preparations now. In occupants. Moreover, mixing 10 % Cannabis in the addition, its cultivation is a lucrative business for the plaster also serves in term of saving our natural farmers as it yields substantial revenue to producers resources besides improving the properties of the and marketers both locally and internationally. plaster. The mixing of hemp in the plaster also helps Despite its widespread uses, the Indian hemp is in keeping the house warm in the winter and cool in probably most maligned, misunderstood and hated the summer. This gives the house occupants a plant in the present time due to mindset of the public comfortable and pleasing stay. Besides, Cannabis is a about its mind-altering properties. The hatred is so strong insect repellant and termites may not enter the much spread all over the world that millions and room and damage wooden fixtures and furniture’s millions of dollars are being expended in used in the construction if cannabis is mixed in the exterminating the production of this valuable crop. plaster. The mixing of 10 % Cannabis also saves the Thousands of hectares of Indian crop of hemp farms cost of construction with enormous benefit as stated were destroyed; producers, marketers, distributors and above. Here, it is worth mentioning that 1990 users of the Cannabis were prosecuted, persecuted onwards in the colder European regions Cannabis has and jailed. Even the ordinary citizens who have no gained popularity in construction in the form of knowledge about the utility of this plant were forced mixing in cement/lime plasters. It is estimated that the to hate it by the society. Unfortunately, tobacco with hempcrete has the potential to sequester all its hazardous properties and being a major cause of approximately 249 kg of carbon dioxide per ton of cancer and respiratory problems to the takers and hemp used. Hempcrete being thermally stable, make others who inhales its smoke is permitted for the houses fire resistant to a certain level. It will also utilization by the government and not considered reduce the cost of energy required to either heat or dangerous even today. The Government of India is cool the room. Besides, hemp fiber insulation has taking all possible steps to discourage the exceptional sound absorbing property that can reduce consumption of tobacco still it is not regarded as noise pollution for peaceful stay indoors. Even dangerous compared to Cannabis. hempcrete bricks which are fired and designed for use Hemp hurds can be combined with lime, clay, in construction work impart greater benefits. For all cement and water in various proportions to form a such application only stem or hurd of the plant are concrete like substance called hempcrete. The required and that can be put in use without violating significant advantage of hempcrete is that it can the NDPS act. For country like India where use of sequester carbon dioxide from the living room areas Cannabis is banned in any form, it will be advisable providing a healthy green house negative atmosphere to permit industrial and constructional use of the to live in. In the cold region in many countries where hemp hurd for the betterment and good health of our temperature drops below zero degrees centigrade, the countrymen and also to save precious and limited people generally like to stay inside their home for a natural resources used in construction industries. longer duration. They also sometime burn firewood or Further, the Indians were probably the first having use room heater, etc. that facilitate increase in the knowledge about the useful properties of the concentration of carbon dioxide inside the room. Cannabis and its other benefits as reported from the Besides, cooking also contribute in increasing carbon 6th century CE Ellora caves, a World Heritage site. dioxide concentration inside the living area where The Cannabis sativa fibers are also found mixed in windows and doors are hardly opened due to severe 13-16th century CE Daulatabad Fort, a nearby site cold outside. This makes the room atmosphere quite about 15 km from Ellora caves. This is specifically to unhealthy and uncomfortable for longer stay. be mentioned that the cave murals of Ajanta (2nd However, if Cannabis sativa is mixed in clay/ lime/ century BC to 5th century CE), another World cement plaster at the time of plastering the room, it Heritage site about 100 km from Ellora caves is will absorb carbon dioxide and moisture and make the devoid of any inclusion of Cannabis sativa in room atmosphere pure, healthy and comfortable to the earthen plaster36. The plaster has damaged stay. The carbon dioxide and moisture absorbed by considerably due to insect activity mainly silver fishes the plant will be driven out when atmospheric that thrive on the organic inclusion mostly rice husk temperature increase in the surroundings. A 10 % as they make hole in the soft plaster causing it to 320 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL 17, NO. 2, APRIL 2018

loosen and subsequently fall in course of time. A carbon dioxide and save our cultural property. rough estimate says that at least 25 % of the Ajanta Therefore it can play an important role in restoration painting has lost due to insect activity36. However, in works of our cultural heritage. the cave murals of Ellora no insect activity was Besides, old manuscripts and old writing on the noticed owing to inclusion of Cannabis sativa in palm leaf, birch bark, handmade papers, etc., are kept mud/lime mortar and the precious cave murals has wrapped with a red cloth to save it from disintegration been saved from insect destruction. and decay by fungal attack, moisture, etc. In India, The purpose of the present communication is to recently clothes impregnated in better quality turmeric make public aware about the ancient Indian paste have been researched to wrap the ancient construction technology that has lost in the past. This documents. This will save the documents from insect ancient Indian construction technology is now banned activity. However, in storage places humidity is under the fear of misuse of Cannabis for its narcotic another important factor that causes decay to the property. However, by the use of stem or hurd of records. In high humid condition, the turmeric is Cannabis that is not banned under NDPS act, the likely to give coloration. For storage of the precious hempcrete technology may be revived for its much ancient documents the hemp cloth is the best solution environmental friendly application. as it will not only act as insect repellant but also save Moreover, growing hemp around industrial and the documents from the impact of moisture. polluting areas to sequester maximum carbon dioxide will help to purify the surrounding environment. Conclusion Hemp can also be grown on large dividers of highway Research is being conducted on various medicinal and traffic congested areas in order to improve the air use of Bhang but no research seems to have been so quality of the surroundings. far conducted in India for hemp carbon negative A combination of carbon dioxide sequestration and property and its several eco-friendly applications that sound absorption (acoustic) property of the hemp can be put in use. admixed with the lime and other materials can give a Focusing on the carbon negative aspects of superb product that can be used as sound barrier plus Cannabis sativa L., there is a huge potential for India carbon dioxide absorbent on the side of bridges and to bring down the country carbon footprint to a low congested road. level. Even the primary research if initiated on this Our vast numbers of heritage structures have aspect of the hemp where the application of “hemp beautiful decorative works executed with lime/ mud stem hurd filter” and other low cost as well as plasters prepared as per ancient technology. Many of effective industrial hemp can be put in various these plaster works are showing signs of distress and friendly applications, it can bring mind boggling loss due to environmental conditions and human change in India’s environment by bringing down activity. For better view of the monuments, carbon dioxide level. Moreover, by mixing 10 % sometimes the visitors stand at particular points Cannabis in cement/clay/lime plaster in construction within the ancient structure. Such point in a particular activity, we cannot only revive our ancient Indian ancient structure is thus always crowded compared to technology but also save our precious non-renewable other areas in the same structure. For many of the resources with enormous benefits painted monuments, the visitors have to stand in the middle due to restriction on movement all around due Acknowledgement to delicate mural arts around. At the crowded points MS is specifically grateful to the Vice Chancellor, within the monument, there is accumulation of high National Museum Institute for his keen interest and concentration of moisture and carbon dioxide due to support. The authors are thankful to Dr. Vinod Kumar visitor’s exhale. In the long run, this climatic and Nilesh Mahajan for all the help extended during condition cause loosening and fall of plasters of that technical studies. particular location. Now conservators of heritage structures are mixing Cannabis sativa in the References compatible materials prepared for the re-plastering 1 Schultes RE, Random thoughts and queries on the botany of work at such locations in the monuments. It is to be Cannabis. [Hemp], Bot Chem Cannibis, 1970. 2 Merlin MD, Archaeological Evidence for the Tradition of mentioned that owing to properties of Cannabis Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World, Econ Bot, 57 (3) sativa, it is able to undo the impact of moisture and (2003) 295–323. SINGH et al.: THE SCOPE OF HEMP (CANNABIS SATIVA L.) USE IN HISTORICAL CONSERVATION IN INDIA 321

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