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557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 1

River of History

A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 2 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 3

River of History

A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi

National River and Recreation Area

By John O. Anfinson

National Park Service

with contributions by

Thomas Madigan, Drew M. Forsberg

and Patrick Nunnally 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 4

Printed by St.Paul District, Corps of Engineers, 2003. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 5

Table of Contents

List of Figures ...... 6

Acknowledgments ...... 9

Preface ...... 11

Chapter 1 ...... 21 The Geology of the MNRRA Corridor

Chapter 2...... 39 Early Native American Life in the MNRRA Corridor

Chapter 3 ...... 53 Discovery and Dispossession

Chapter 4...... 75 Transforming the River I: Commerce and Navigation Improvements, 1823-1906

Chapter 5...... 95 Transforming the River II: Commerce, Navigation Improvements and Hydroelectric Power, 1907-1963

Chapter 6...... 117 St. Anthony Falls: Timber, and Electricity

Chapter 7...... 139 The Patterns of , Commerce, Industry and Transportation

Chapter 8...... 163 Settlement and Urban Residential Development Along the River, 1841-1950

Epilogue ...... 179 Novel and Familiar Places

Selected Bibliography ...... 182

Endnotes...... 188 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 6

List of Figures

Cover FIGURE 4. Native American petroglyphs from of St. Paul, 1853. Carver’s Cave. FIGURE 5. . Preface FIGURE 6. Stephen Long. FIGURE 7. II, Cetanwakanmani. FIGURE 1. Looking upstream at Daytons Bluff and FIGURE 8. about 1848. St. Paul. FIGURE 9. . FIGURE 2. Map of The Mississippi National River and FIGURE 10. St. Paul, 1848. Recreation Area. FIGURE 11. Red Rock and Fawn’s Leap.

FIGURE 12. Little Crow. Chapter 1 FIGURE 1. River Warren Falls.

FIGURE 2. Map of the MNRRA corridor. Chapter 4 FIGURE 1. St. Paul, 1853. FIGURE 3. Generalized bedrock stratigraphy of the upper FIGURE 2. Map of the MNRRA corridor, 1823-1906. valley. FIGURE 3. Wreck of the Quincy. FIGURE 4. Map of the preglacial bedrock valleys in the FIGURE 4. Major General Gouverneur K. Warren. Twin area. FIGURE 5. , & St. Paul Railroad FIGURES 5a-h. Glacial phases in . , Hastings, Minn., 1885. FIGURE 6. Advance of the Grantsburg Sublobe. FIGURE 6. Oliver Kelley.

FIGURE 7. .

Chapter 2 FIGURE 8. Pigs Eye Island before and after closing FIGURE 1. Native fishing from a canoe construction. FIGURE 2. Clovis Point. FIGURE 9. Wing dam construction. FIGURE 3. Late Paleo-Indian point. FIGURE 10. Channel constriction at Pine Bend, FIGURE 4. Early Woodland ceramic vessel fragment. Minnesota, 1891. FIGURE 5. Reconstructed Middle Woodland vessel. FIGURE 11. Meeker Island Lock and Dam. FIGURE 6. Late Woodland ceramic types. FIGURE 7. Blue Earth Oneota vessel fragments. Chapter 5 FIGURE 8.Generalized distribution of Native American FIGURE 1. Lock and Dam No. 1 under construction. groups during the mid-1600s. FIGURE 2. Map of the MNRRA corridor, 1907-1963.

FIGURE 3. Timber raft and raftboat near Wabasha Street Chapter 3 Bridge in St. Paul, 1900. FIGURE 1. Antoine Auguelle and Father FIGURE 4. C. A. Smith Lumber Mill.

at St. Anthony Falls. FIGURE 5. Theodore Roosevelt.

FIGURE 2. St. Paul, 1853. FIGURE 6. Lower St. Anthony Falls Dam and FIGURE 3. Map of the MNRRA corridor, 1680-1854. Hydroelectric Station.

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FIGURE 7. Lock and Dam No. 1. FIGURE 5. Frank A. Johnson brickyard, 1904.

FIGURE 8. First lockage, Lock and Dam No. 2, Hastings, FIGURE 6. St. Paul Roller Mill Company, St. Paul, June 27, 1930. 1881.

FIGURE 9. Lower St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam under FIGURE 7. Farmers Union Grain Terminal Association, construction. 1955.

FIGURE 10. Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock under FIGURE 8. Cattle pen, South St. Paul Stockyards, 1930.

construction. FIGURE 9. Meuller and Heinrick’s Brewery,

FIGURE 11. Early Coon Rapids Dam. , 1880.

FIGURE 10. Ferry, 1902. Chapter 6 FIGURE 11. Railroads at St. Paul, 1931. FIGURE 12. Mississippi River Bridge at Anoka, 1905. FIGURE 1. Reconstructing St. Anthony Falls.

FIGURE 2. Hermann J. Meyer Lithograph of St. Anthony Falls. Chapter 8 FIGURE 3. engraving of St. Anthony Falls. FIGURE 1. Minneapolis skyline over the Mississippi

FIGURE 4. . River gorge.

FIGURE 5. St. Anthony Falls, 1859. FIGURE 2. Panoramic Map of Anoka.

FIGURE 6. side platform mills at St. Anthony Falls, FIGURE 3. Village of St. Anthony, 1851.

about 1870. FIGURE 4. Hastings, 1850.

FIGURE 7. Eastman Tunnel collapse, Hennepin Island, FIGURE 5. , Minneapolis, 1880.

1870. FIGURE 6. Gathering wood at Bohemian Flats, 1887.

FIGURE 8. Map of Eastman Tunnel disaster and repair FIGURE 7. Little Italy on the Upper Levee, St. Paul.

work. FIGURE 8. East River Road, Fridley, 1945.

FIGURE 9. Flour mills along the west side canal at St. Anthony Falls, 1885. Epilogue FIGURE 10. Great Northern, Stone Arch Bridge, 1884. FIGURE 1. Wingdams below Ninninger, Minn., 1891. FIGURE 11. Diagram of first commercial hydroelectric FIGURE 2. Wingdams below Ninninger, Minn., 1891, central plant in the country, 1882. detail. FIGURE 12. William de la Barre.

FIGURE 13. , Minneapolis.

Chapter 7 FIGURE 1. Downtown St. Paul on the Mississippi River.

FIGURE 2. Mississippi River Commission Map, 1895.

FIGURE 3. Log drivers and log jam above St. Anthony Falls, 1881.

FIGURE 4. Bluff top stone quarry, St. Paul, 1885.

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Acknowledgments

he Mississippi National River and Finally, the trained and experienced archivists at the Recreation Area (MNRRA), National Park Minnesota Historical Society and the National Archives in Service, and the St. Paul District, Corps of Chicago, , and , D.C., guided me through TEngineers, cooperated to make this study possible, sharing endless shelves of historic documents to the manuscript staff and funding for this work. Personnel from both agen- collections I needed. I owe a special debt to the Minnesota cies helped facilitate a seamless research, writing and publi- Historical Society, for most of the images for this report cation process. MNRRA’s superintendent, JoAnn M. Kyral, come from the society’s archives. and St. Paul District Engineers, Colonels J. M. Wonsik and Under contract, Susan and Dennis Feigenbaum, Kenneth S. Kasprisin recognized the value of this study to Feigenbaum Design Group, provided the design and layout both agencies and provided the leadership to see it through. work. Their immense talents have yielded a product that is Bob Post, the of Engineering and Planning for the St. aesthetically appealing and presents the many historical Paul District, in particular, made the partnership work from images with power and clarity. the Corps side.

A number of former and current employees of the St. J OHN O. ANFINSON Paul District, deserve special thanks, including Bob Whiting, David E. Berwick, Jane Carroll, Brad Johnson, and Matt Pearcy. I drew on the expertise and knowledge of Jean Schmidt, librarian, and Al Santo, map collection librarian, many, many times. Both thoroughly know their respective collections at the St. Paul District. employees also contributed to this study. Kate Hanson, manager for MNRRA’s Stewardship Team,not only made the partnership with the Corps work well, she provided substantive comments and edited the entire manuscript. Don Stevens, senior historian for the Midwest Region Office of the National Park Service reviewed early chapters and offered valuable comments. Without the research and work on the graphics for this study by Sharon Woods and Sara Dummer, the production would have taken much longer.

9 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 10

FIGURE 1. Looking upstream at Daytons Bluff and St. Paul. Artist: Ferdinand Uebel. Minnesota Historical Society. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 11

Preface River of History

dled with the current, they came to the great falls of the Mississippi, which Hennepin named for his patron saint, Anthony of Padua. Here they witnessed a Dakota ceremony to Oanktehi, the spirit of the falls. The Dakota pleaded for safe passage and success in their battles and headed down- n about March 19, 1680, one hundred and twen- stream. The Frenchmen and some Dakota continued down- ty Dakota warriors beached their canoes at the river well past the mouth of the St. Croix, but did not find mouth of Phalen Creek, just below downtown St. de la Salle. The party then headed back to Mille Lacs. Just OPaul. Daytons Bluff, with it large, ancient burial mounds, below the St. Croix, they met Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du loomed above them to their right. To their left rose the hills Luth (who later claimed he rescued them). In late and lowlands on which St. Paul rests today. The Dakota had September, the Frenchmen left the Dakota.1 sallied far down the Mississippi River to attack the Miami The encounter between the Dakota and the French Indians of Illinois. They returned not with Indian prisoners marked a new epoch in the history of the upper Mississippi but three Frenchmen: Michael Accault, Antoine Auguelle and and in the history of what is now the Twin Cities metropoli- Father Louis Hennepin. The captives had been traveling up tan area. For 10,000 years Native Americans had had the the Mississippi hoping to be the first Europeans to discover river to themselves. From March 1680 forward, Europeans the river’s source and the fabled , the all- and then Americans would increasingly define human inter- water route to the Far East. They were part of an expedition action and the river’s physical and ecological character. The headed by the explorer Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle. De Dakota and their predecessors left many historically impor- la Salle, however, had been called back from his base camp tant places telling of their presence. Europeans and near Peoria, Illinois, to Montreal, . The Dakota did Americans would begin adding their own places. not give the Frenchmen time to contemplate their landing Transformed though it is, the place below Daytons Bluff site, as they destroyed the Frenchmens’ canoes and hurried where Hennepin, Accault and Auguelle landed is the first of overland to their villages around . these and deeply historic (Figure 1). On July 1, 1680, the Dakota, taking the Frenchmen This historic resources study focuses on the archeologi- along, left their villages to hunt buffalo in southwestern cal and historic resources in that part of the Twin Cities Minnesota. Traveling in small groups, they rendezvoused at the ’s mouth, at what is now Anoka. Hennepin and Auguelle received permission to continue downstream to find de la Salle, who was to have sent supplies and rein- forcements. Accault stayed with the hunters. As they pad-

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FIGURE 2. The 72-mile-long Mississippi National River and Recreation

Area extends from the of the Crow and Mississippi Rivers at

Dayton and Ramsey, south to the Vermillion River bottoms in Ravenna

Township, just below Hastings.

12 Preface • RIVER OF HISTORY plan- than others. others. than ed e managers, ughly examin gned to serv to gned nformation for the MNRRA corridor and synthe- and corridor MNRRA the for nformation e historic resources study is also supposed to “syn- to study is also supposed resources e historic ithin NPS, the for is done study resources a historic ations. Each chapter of this study provides a reference of this study provides chapter ations. Each unit of the National Park system. According to NPS to According system. Park National unit of the W Th Chapter 1,Chapter the figuratively, and establishes literally it will take many years. We have compiled an inventory compiled have We years. many it will take t “a dynamic part of our heritage” part of our “a dynamic t been, it has will lead loc rview of a park or region and identifies and evaluates the evaluates and identifies and region of a park or rview public as a reference for the history of the region and the and region of the history the for public as a reference e significance of historical and cultural resources in the resources cultural and historical of e significance r; there are far too many. The goal is to offer general con- offer general is to goal The r; many. far are too there r as of January 1998,r as of January the from available will be which rk’s cultural resources within historic contexts.” within historic resources cultural rk’s Historic ntext defines a site’s significance. This study cannot pro- study cannot This significance. a site’s defines ntext ch sources within park.” the sources cultural all available gather To xts in which we can place most of the corridor’s sites. corridor’s most of the place can we xts in which ze te rst purpose is clear. Understanding the river better and better river the Understanding is clear. rst purpose isciplines in desi a narrative ng for its resources will follow from knowing the river’s the knowing from will follow its resources aring for Th fi c in played have sites and places various role the and history Likewise, history, knowing river’s the knowing history. that wha it is and a legacy what realize it and for care to people more be. to will continue ea a historical study provides guidance, resource historic “A ove pa co in corri- site the historic every for context specific the vide do te thoro more are Some contexts all information from resources cultural all available thesize d ners, interpreters, specialists, resource cultural interest- and ed re resources i si within corri- the sites historic and archeological of all known do know to Office on a need Preservation Historic Minnesota loca- site specific protects law preservation basis. Historic tions, cultur- and planners to available generally are but they Historical Minnesota The as needed. specialists al resources for repository Office is the Preservation Historic Society’s si for the history of the region and the corridor and offers both and corridor the and region of the history the for resources. corridor’s information on the general and specific Overall, audience. a general for study is written the history, corri- the for corridor’s MNRRA of the foundation 3 cheologi- his study T 2 terpret ar in of such resources. resources. of such . It also extends four miles up the miles four 2). It also extends (Figure ion, and enhancement of these resources for ion, resources of these enhancement and hancement hips with the river as a dynamic part of our heritage, of our part as a dynamic hips with the river our al, ethnographic, resources.” historic and Congress established the Mississippi National River and Mississippi the River National established Congress c understanding of the the public’s “PURPOSE: Improve of its resources.” stewardship public promote and river relation- strengthen people’s and “PURPOSE: Recognize s quality of life, future generations.” for legacy our and Acknowledging the importance of the corridor’s cultur- corridor’s of the importance the Acknowledging “PURPOSE: Preserve, enhance, and w Hastings urce.”And, in preser- the interest is a national There “(2) the Vermillion River bottoms in Ravenna Township, just in Ravenna bottoms River Vermillion the rk Service corridor extends from the confluence of the confluence the from extends corridor rk Service ds the story of the MNRRA corridor’s significance. It significance. corridor’s MNRRA of the pan story ds the valley. The corridor covers some 54,000 covers corridor The valley. River Minnesota of local, stories and with places filled are that region- acres al, national, significance. international even and Park National as a unit of the (MNRRA) Area Recreation 18, (NPS) on November System 100-696). 1988 (Public Law so,In doing stated: Congress Mississippi River The “(1) Metropolitan within Saint the Paul-Minneapolis Corridor significant historical, a nationally represents Area recreation- al, scenic, cultural, natural, economic, scientific and reso vation, protect States.” United of the people of the benefit the metropolitan area now included in Mississippi the National included now area metropolitan This 72-mile-long, Area. and River Recreation National Pa Ramsey, and at Dayton Mississippi south and Rivers Crow to belo ex of local many sites for context the provides and also identifies significance, regional and and processes illustrate that sites development. national our about much tell nts that eve al resources, Commission Coordinating Mississippi the River Public by Law planning commission established (a MNRRA 1998) dedicated in November sunset which 100-696 and identification, the to of its six guiding purposes three preser- vation and en 13 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 13 Page AM 7:57 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:57AMPage14

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area h hpea Dakota and other tribes tothe focus Chippewa, onthe other e followed laterthrough by and the British region, American French furtraders spread quicklyHennepin’s 1680, in visit Europeans and Americans entered the region. After Father te wroteConsulting Chapters 1and 2on contract. present (B.P.)). The Institute for Minnesota Archaeology W and widespread Hopewell Culture (belonging to the Middle mounds contained associated artifacts withthe well-known the corridor. Excavated the nineteenth in the century, Daytons occupy settings Bluff in oneofthe mostdramatic beforeMississippi Europeans arrived. The mounds burial on the MNRRA corridor that provide along the oflife glimpses American history. Important archeological sites exist within we there isenough totheir say earliest they presence remains, theupying MNRRAocc corridor. While evidence little of layer lo fragments surviving ofthe broad floodplain are eco-Here, RiverMississippi Valley below the Minnesota River’s mouth. Warren atthe force hinting created by the glacial Riverapart, a floodplain. Below St.Paul theget bluffs higher and spread allowingthe crowdroom bluffs little for againstthe in river, the entire river. This stretch isknown asthe gorge. Here to plain spreads across the valley floor. Below the fallsdown the riverbanks. line bluffs Nosprawling flood-imposing Ramsey. Here the prairieused to runupto the river. No re dr T do xplorers and fur traders. Traders introduced gunsand his chapter explains why River the Mississippi has three ms in the MNRRAms in corridor would change as dramatically ach runsfrom St. Anthony Falls north to Dayton and gic ood am r’s geologic history has closely defined itshumanhistory. St. Paul, the Mississippi enters the Mississippi itsmostconfined reach on St. Paul, re re ally rich.geologic Insomeplaces along the corridor, ,mlin fyasod lay exposed to see and touch. ofyears millions old, s, Native American andRiver’s the life Mississippi ecosys- stels lcesrtetd NativeAs the last glaciers retreated, Americans began her atically different reaches the corridor. in The upper land land goods that upset the balance ofpower. They induced as itsculpted the Minnesota River Valley and the e. Chapter 2reviews over 12,000years ofNative r,which dated 2,000to 1,500years before theEra, lentv oriras Congress authorizedalternative the 4 to railroads, co merce. Responding to anational movement for railroad rate en from the river’s itwas banks.not While thiswork helped, remo dredging, begin to improvements. this studydevotes two chapters (4and 5)to navigation Riverthe Mississippi more than anyforce since the glaciers, these projects would physically and ecologically transform reg projects the tie Twin Cities and the MNRRA corridor to large r improvements to provide competition and hopefully reduce settlers demanded navigation and throughout the region, Fo tion improvements before success. withlittle the Civil War, to Th pioneersthe swiftly movedTreaties in. of1837and 1851, numbers. As the Dakota and Chippewa lost their lands in co itsignaled anew era. Now tradersIn doing so, and settlers pad and international events and processes. the events ofthisera (1680-1851)represent national3, the Dakota out ofthe MNRRA corridor. Covered Chapter in the Americans forced mostof 1815.Inonly36years, ty in wo the decimation ofmanyspecies. The changes moststriking fundamental ways their traditional economies and spurring ozeo adnhs en ihee on soitcouldnozzle onagarden hosebeingtightened down, focused the like the river’s current channel, into asingle projected into the river from the shoreline. and brush, They made ofrock damsanddams. wing closing The , wing ch beaver, ailroad rates. Their successful effortsto navigation win uld enter the region much more quickly greater and in ntrol and regional effortsto make the river acompetitive annel 1878. the in Corps usedTo achieve thisdepth, lwn h a,asrailroads expandedllowing the war, across the river ou h eto h ol,and they began for calling naviga-the rest ofthe world, e Mississippi was the settlers’ primary highway primary from and wase Mississippi the settlers’ uld come after the Americans established their sovereign- ional and national events. For thisreason and because dle River upthe Mississippi from St.Louis to St.Paul. gh In 1866Congress authorized the Corps ofEngineers In 1823the Virg muskrat and other fur to to make areliable thehighway Mississippi for com- inia ving snagsving and clearing trees back beca be me thesteamboat first to aring nml,changing in animals, 1 / 2 -foot 14 Preface • RIVER OF HISTORY it repre- history of history lers To sett 5 amines the the examines nation’s leading lumber s above St. Anthony Falls (RM Falls Anthony St. s above le mi 2 / 1 Chapter 5 looks briefly history, at this 5 looks as Chapter ng center. Chapter 6 Chapter ng center. 4 houses, were storehouses shops and carpenters make Minneapolis into the the Minneapolis into make ew opment from flour and timber milling making timber brick and flour to from opment St. Anthony Falls anchors the MNRRA corridor’s MNRRA the anchors Anthony Falls St. Chapter 7 outlines the MNRRA corridor’s economic corridor’s MNRRA 7 outlines the Chapter Flour and timber milling were important not only at not important milling timber and were Flour me a “landmark in wilderness.” “landmark the me a s ago through its heyday as a timber and flour milling flour and as a timber its heyday through s ago ,n rview of significant events and developments. developments. and of significant events rview rkers, theater, and a movie hall dance added company the ll. tional significance. The only large cataract on the cataract only large The significance. tional vel ople to the river. Unlike Chapter 6, Unlike Chapter river. the to on eco- ople focused which rridor’s multi-modal transportation system and how that how and system transportation multi-modal rridor’s ar nter to rival any back East. In this role, any back rival to nter Anthony St. es pproximately 16 pproximately sented a different kind of power, a power that when cap- when that kind of power, a different a power sented of a milling foundation economic the become would tured ce would milli flour and 853.9). To build the dam, the build To 853.9). Mississippi Power Northern the a camp,Company established on the “little city,” a out, laid were “Streets bank in1913. east a Mississippi’s store, clubhouse, hospital, office buildings, school, dormito- ri built.” of 1,000 prediction the exceeded and city met As the wo billiard parlor. a na Mississippi of spirituality River, a place Anthony was St. it explorers early To Americans. Native to power and beca we St. Anthony Falls from its birth in St. Paul over 12,000 over its birth in St. Paul from Anthony Falls St. ye 1930. after its abandonment hub to de and beer brewing. It also surveys the development of the of development the It also surveys brewing. beer and co area’s of the relation Mississippi the the and changed system pe Anthony Falls, at St. at nomic 7 looks development Chapter and Dayton industry from of business and growth the histo- economic corridor’s MNRRA The Hastings. to Ramsey in in depth any covered be to varied and broad ry is far too an provide is to purpose of this chapter The one chapter. ove falls;the mills during had in corridor the most communities the not milling timber and were Flour years. earliest their At significant businesses. nationally and only regionally arious rminals where te where movements for the v the for movements e history of these projects. of these e history e the falls, ov ab amines th amines amines the the examines e most dramatic physical and ecological changes in changes ecological and e most dramatic physical not be hemmed in by the bluffs of the gorge. The bluffs gorge. the of the in by hemmed be not Navigation boosters did not stop with these projects. with these stop did not boosters Navigation Th nsely constricted reaches on the upper Mississippi. upper on the reaches constricted nsely cting all available water to the main channel. By 1906 main the channel. to water cting all available r between Hastings and St. Paul became one of the most one of the became Hastings St. Paul and r between ically altered the river’s landscape and ecosystems from ecosystems and landscape river’s the altered ically ange the river’s flow and appearance up to St. Anthony St. up to appearance and flow river’s the ange annel constriction (as the Engineers called this work) had this work) Engineers called (as the constriction annel annel project. Under this project the Corps added more added Corps the project this Under project. annel hile Lock and Dam 1 allowed boats and barges to reach St. reach to barges and boats Dam and 1 allowed Lock hile te re ve alls. Chapter 4 alls. Chapter gain responded to the calls for navigation improvement. In improvement. navigation for calls the to gain responded scour away sandbars. Closing dams blocked side channels, side sandbars. Closing dams blocked away scour di F St. Paul to St. Louis. By 1907, St. Louis. to St. Paul the completed had Corps the on Lock work begun had Dam and and Lock Island Meeker dams,These 1. St. Paul, Damand No. above both would ch rad ch vigation projects and the effect these projects had on had projects these effect the and navigation projects river. the In 1907, 6-foot the authorize to Congress convinced they ch wing closing dams and dams, dams, of old height the raised The channel. the some wing into dams farther extended and ri in Still, railroads drew traffic away from the river. So naviga- Still, river. the from traffic away drew railroads dams. Congress and locks more for pushed tion boosters a 1917, the 1 near Dam and No. Lock completed Corps the border,Minneapolis-St. Paul in and 1930, com- Corps the dams perma- These 2 at Hastings. Dam and No. Lock pleted character. ecological and physical river’s the changed nently W Anthony Falls, long had boosters Minneapolis navigation the boats get to hoped the Mississippi River occurred from St. Anthony Falls down- Anthony Falls St. from occurred Mississippithe River interests, Private stream. however, built one important in 1914, falls. Completed the above structure Coon the segments physically and history Rapids Dam a unique has mile (RM) 866.3, dam lies at river The corridor. upper the would this Under dream. city’s the fulfilled Project Harbor Upper Lock Anthony Falls project, St. Lower the finished Corps the in Lock Anthony Falls St. Dam Upper and in the 1956 and 5 ex 1963. Chapter 15 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 15 Page AM 7:57 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:57AMPage16

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area upon which subsequent developments make more sense. en to necessary. You do not need to read thisstudyfrom beginning most readers. We butsomeis have tried to soften the jargon, present tohistory, manyterms and informationunfamiliar M your upon depending ers, ry draws onallthese stories. how they related to the river. Sothe corridor’s urbanhisto- de improvements and economic activities allplayed arole in e ter in M c whe the aspects ofeconomic history are discussed Chapter in 7. ca do provide analternative to railroads asaway to keep rates Shippers depended uponthe river to haulor theirto grain transportation and power and to carry their wastes away. where the ri yar W f in Minneapolis and St.Paul. Graintradingand the stockyards le na w and to cast the detriment animal ofthe river’s ecosystems, rssc sCri,Pae,Sit ror uay and Cudahy, Armour, Peavey, Swift, irms such asCargil, muiy vr iefotnihoho,along the every riverfrontommunity, neighborhood, xploration xploration ve ast three nationally recognized beers had their start in astes into the Mississippi. And brewers used the valley’s RAsgooy n hpe ,onNativeNRRA’s American pre- geology, and Chapter 2, NRRA corridor. Urbanhistory the in MNRRA corridor is ve timately tied to the history presented preceding in chap- ilson. te n Tesokad,to the chagrinofpeoplewn. downstreamThe stockyards, tur St. Paul alsoattracted or yielded nationally recognized s. Geology the andNative geography, American presence, s rwn,and other industries depended uponthe brewing, ds, MNRRA corridor. It r, rmining wher rmining n and why. Itisnot and cannot be ahistory ofevery rns into theto bluffs store their beer. All ofthese d. However, the early chapters provide afoundation Th Some chapters thisstudyare more in complex than oth- Chapter 8focuses onthe process ofurbangrowth in lu n ubrmlig ri hpig the stock- shipping, grain Flour and lumber milling, al sandstone caves or excavated their own tunnels and at least initially. The river’s geologic history defined eut fti td efimCnrs’decision to e results ofthisstudyreaffirm Congress’ se businesses located. use Millers n al iiayojcie,navigation objectives, and early military on oae,hwfs hyge,and how fastthey grew, e towns located, examines what to akrud Catr1 on background. Chapter 1, wns began where, d theriver for ly cannot forge c t da Area. From the to the latest lock and es and will helpbothm and will im jointlyproducedEngineers thisstudy. The studyfulfills Corps of ParkNational Service and theSt.Paul District, and desires shaped the region and reshaped the river. sinc drea or steel. regional and national trendsThey embody the local, ar ear ant they define whoweant they define ar m rm what and wewhat we have painful- to celebrate, ome from, ta oeta rhooia riat,wo,concrete or wood, e more than archeological artifacts, ,thisarea harbors places with stories sorich and impor- m, portant historic preservation requirements for bothagencies events that gave birthto them. They tell stories about the yErpa n mrcnsts and existing structuresly European and American sites, blish the Mississippi National River the Mississippi blish and Recreation e the region’s and about beginnings how thosedreams ms and desires people the in Midwest have harbored T he Mississippi River National and Recreation Area, t. The remnants ofNati anage theMississippiRiv e asapeople, ve where we have Americ er er better. an villages, 16 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 19

River of History

A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 20

FIGURE 1. What the Glacial River Warren Falls might have looked like in St. Paul 12,000 years ago. Gustav Grunewal, Horseshoe Falls from below High Bank. Fine Arts

Museums of San Francisco. Gift of John Davis Hatch, V,in memory of John Davis Hatch, A.I.A., architect of San Francisco, 1996.52.2. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 21

Chapter 1 The Geology of the MNRRA Corridor

Thomas Madigan • Hemisphere Field Services, Inc.

revealing a geologic history spanning over 500 million years. Spectacular bedrock bluffs are common along the river between St. Anthony Falls and Hastings. The Crow River, which marks the corridor’s northern boundary, occu- pies an ancient glacial river channel that drained into the his chapter is about foundations. As subse- Mississippi. Between Dayton and Minneapolis, the river quent chapters show, landforms created thou- has developed on thick layers of sediment deposited during sands to millions of years ago shaped the cor- the last glacial era. Glacial sediment borders the river south Tridor’s development. Native American villages, early of Dayton and large deposits of sand and gravel form flat- American settlements, milling sites, locks and dams, rail- lying terraces along both sides of the river south to the con- roads, roads and modern urban expansion overlay or fluence of the Minnesota River. Below Minneapolis, the responded to ancient geologic processes. A cursory glance at Mississippi is cut into flat-lying, 570- to 450-million-year- the present-day Mississippi River valley reveals that the geo- old Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. Throughout the stretch logic processes operating during the valley’s formation were from Dayton to the Minnesota River, the valley is relatively much different from those of today. This chapter summa- narrow and floodplain development limited. rizes the current knowledge regarding the physical history Near Fort Snelling, the Minnesota and Mississippi of the Mississippi River valley. It includes a brief introduc- Rivers join, and consequently the Mississippi valley tion to some of the early studies of the valley’s geology, an becomes much wider. Glacial River Warren, predecessor to overview of the valley’s geologic configuration, and a sum- the Minnesota River, carved out the river’s wide valley, as it mary of geologic events responsible for the valley’s appear- carried the meltwater pouring from glacial , ance today. between 11,800 and 9,200 years before the present (B.P.). The Mississippi River winds more than 2,300 miles Since that time, sand, silt, and clay have been filling the val- across the heart of the nation on its course to the Gulf of ley, forming a complex mosaic of landforms across the . In Minnesota, the river flows over 660 miles from floodplain. its source at through bogs and spruce forests in Downstream from the confluence, the Mississippi the glaciated northern region, across fertile agricultural heads northeast toward downtown St. Paul, bordered on fields in the central portion of the state, then southeastward through scenic bluff country. Along this course the river’s character varies dramatically, due to the geologic events. The Mississippi River, within the MNRRA corridor (Figure 2),cuts through a sequence of sedimentary rocks,

21 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:57AMPage22

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area in 2.TheFIGURE Missis d this partofthe river valley filled withsand and gravel l si the valley due to ero- widensCottage dramatically, Grove, the ancient bedrock. As the river windssouthward toward en wide and arc turnssouthward. the At thispoint river typical ofarecently glaciated landscape.and lakes, hummocky topography containing numerous depressions however,the glacial depositsform abelt of south, Going the unlike braided outwash types occurringupstream. face, ments and are thin terraces developed over the bedrock sur- the bedrock subsurface asseverely. glacial sedi- Therefore, ab both sides by glacial terraces more lying than 100 feet ast glacial maximum(the farthest the glaciers advanced), eposits forming abroad forming eposits level surface atanelevation of on that occurred before the the last glaciation. During the Twin metropolitan Cities area. ov te rs h lopan I hsrah glaciers didnot erodee the floodplain. Inthisreach, J ust past downtown St. Paul, the Mississippi makes the Mississippi a ust past downtown St.Paul, its preglacial valley, sippi National River andRecreation Area located where spectacula r bluffs exposer bluffs Minnesota Rivers upstream to itspresent location. its former atthe confluence position and ofthe Mississippi w Riverthe Mississippi were completed atthistime. Winchell in Lake Agassiz, whose outlet stream, glacial River glacial Warren, outletstream, whose Lake Agassiz, es re that ittook approximately 7,800years for the waterfall to the ice final retreat from Minnesota he as abasis estimated we co acomplete understanding covering ofthemaps the area, reg However, because ofthe scarcity ofsubsurface information vided clues to the processes that helped shape them. and their form pro- two years million ( Period), oped response in to continental the glaciationlast during Minnesota. Mostofthe surface features the in area devel- and describingthemapping surface geology central in Survey. began withthe aid of Warren Winchell, Upham, newly formed Minnesota Geological and Natural History be Th InvestigationsEarly a ex and atonetimemay havethe large river lake downstream, the MNRRA corridor. This area was once ofLake part Pepin, re and smallterrace meandering secondary channels, sloughs, stream for the last 9,500years. Backwater lakes and a delta that thehas in Mississippi been down- migrating onthemulating floodplain near the confluence has formed ch alarge forming alluvialfanand diverting the Hastings, bout 120feet above the modern floodplain. as theto first address the retreat ofSt. Anthony Falls from ra,afigure that has proven remarkably close to currenttreat, mnants characterize the floodplain atthe southern end of timates. Upham conducted adetailed studyofglacial ve mp te a nte17sudrNwo .Wnhl,atthe the 1870sundergan in Newton H. Winchell, annel to ofthe the Mississippi northeast. Alluvium accu- e first studiese first into the geologic history ofMinnesota re re ar ed nded stigations into the history ofgeologic development of Although the details ofMinnesota’s geologic history To ding glacial stratigraphy and lack ofadequate base o ul nw,perhaps someofthe mostimportant not fullyknown, le x glacial history was never fullyrealized. day the Vermillion River at the Mississippi joins up to St.Paul. 1 U sing 22 Chapter 1 • THE GEOLOGY OF THE MNRRA CORRIDOR from eraging ally av action constantly reworked action constantly ern Minnesota, wherein the ast ng the river, loc uthe So where wave wave where eology e high bluffs alo nt that the Mississippi River floodplain is a dynamic floodplain Mississippi the River nt that More recently, the Army Corps of Engineers, Corps Army recently, the More St. Paul Th re me compacted and cemented to form sandstone, form to cemented and shale, me compacted from the remains of biologic organisms in coral reefs and reefs in organisms coral of biologic remains the from pa vironment with an ever-changing set of resources. of set ever-changing with an vironment njunction with cultural resource investigations. The investigations. resource with cultural njunction ailability during time of occupation, the geomorphic and ocesses operatingocesses on the floodplain influence the poten- unding region. Sand accumulated along the shoreline inshoreline the along accumulated unding Sand region. NRRA corridor lies, corridor NRRA dipping sedi- of gently is composed on. Limestone and dolomite units are strong and usually and strong units are dolomite and on. Limestone as exposed the bedrock in the valley walls. The rock for- rock The walls. in valley the bedrock the as exposed alls. However, deep incision by the river below the falls the below river the incision by alls. However, deep imestone, dolomite. and ment of the Mississippi River valley. Mississippi of the River ment investigations geomorphological District sponsored has in valley Mississippi of the River portions various along co mapping of surficial land- on detailed focused have studies in an effort to environment within floodplain forms the On the sites. archaeological of buried location the predict studies, these basis from of information become it has ap en distribution site of resource is a function Archaeological av pr preservation. site tial for General G • Geology Bedrock l M Mississippi River The a plateau. form that rocks mentary extensively. this plateau eroded its tributaries have and bedrock, the buried deposits have glacial out- few Because Anthony St. above Mississippi the along River appear crops F h during the and deposited mations were B.P.),when (570-438 million years periods sur- the and Minnesota southeastern covered seas shallow ro and bars, beaches of rela- out settled in mud flats or formed clay it. Silt and accumulat- Calcium carbonate offshore. water quiet tively ed eventually sediments The floor. sea on the layers as large beca 100 to 400 feet in relief, have resisted weathering and ero- in and relief, 400 feet 100 to weathering resisted have si His cal- 6 e work completed during this time completed e work Th 4 Leverett first recognized that multiple gla- multiple that first recognized Leverett 3 7 Sardeson also reevaluated Winchell’s original Winchell’s also reevaluated Sardeson ng. 5 Cooper evaluated the sequence of glaciation in of glaciation sequence the evaluated Cooper 2 S. upies the sand plain. sand the occupies e Minnesota Geological and Natural History Survey History Natural and Geological e Minnesota dati His work detailed the origin of the Anoka Sand Plain Sand Anoka origin the of the detailed His work om the early 1950s to the 1980s, the 1950s to early om the of many studies y, 8 Fr In addition to his work in geology, Sardeson glacial his work to In addition W. Th a profound effect on the Mississippi River valley’s shape valley’s Mississippi on the River effect a profound tion of 8,000 years is even closer than Winchell’s to the to Winchell’s than closer is even tion of 8,000 years nage. ast ,ast central an advancing when formed which iod was a major step forward in recognizing the complexi- the in recognizing forward step a major was iod imate of retreat for St. Anthony Falls by considering the considering by Anthony Falls St. for of retreat imate ht on the complexities of the glacial sequence in sequence glacial of the complexities ht on the ai ometry and thickness of the limestone cap rock. cap limestone of the thickness and ometry idle ntral Minnesota and its relation to the formation of the formation the to its relation and Minnesota ntral istinct landforms. istinct urrent estimate of 10,000 years, estimate urrent radio- on is based which 23 Minnesota and how the glacial sequence relates to develop- to relates sequence glacial the how and Minnesota ice lobe diverted the Mississippi River’s flow southward. A southward. flow Mississippi the River’s diverted lobe ice and Dayton corridor, MNRRA of the portion between Fr Herb conducted. were history geologic glacial Minnesota’s Wright, Jr., his colleagues, of University the at students and new study shed Each most of them. completed Minnesota lig in in e ge est per history. glacial Midwest’s Upper ty of the out- in bedrock the contained described and mapped in southeastern valley Mississippi the along River cropping Minnesota. ce postglacial and during Late Mississippi River time. officially ended in the early 1900s following the retirement the 1900s following in early the officially ended thereafter, Leverett, Shortly Upham. and Frank Winchell of Sardeson, of Frederick aid with the studying gla- the began much used Sardeson and Leverett of Minnesota. cial history Minnesota’s of reevaluation in their work earlier of Upham’s geology. surface had publication of a huge the to led His work configuration. and and development Agassiz’s Lake detailing monograph dr cula c carbon cial advances formed the region’s glacial deposits, glacial region’s the formed each and cial advances deposits, numerous created containing advance subsequent d 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 23 Page AM 7:57 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:57AMPage24

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area units andoccupyare glacial outwash terraces generally occur ontop ofcarbonate area around Cott butitmay be asmuch as80to 90feet the in unknown, sandstone. thickness ofthe is w portion ofthe MNRRA corridor. The unitisagenerally Lakealong near Spring Nininger Township the in southern ariebound is the oldest bedrock unitoutcropping the within park belo formations outcropping the in MNRRA corridor ispresented Group and Galena , , Shale, Glenwood St.Peter Sandstone, Prairie duChien Group, yo ter are floodplain developmentstone. ismoreAlso, extensive in le stream flow has more effectivelyunits occur, eroded the val- the valley isnarrow. Where poorly cemented sandstone W large co and the the location ofglacial terraces, the valley width, deri pe and deeper. After the glacial meltwater slowed and disap- fl d v followed carvingout topographic low area the in bedrock, removed more gentle slopes along the valley sides. Glacial processes and poorly cemented forming sandstone are easily eroded, form steep adjacent cliffs tostream tributary valleys. Shale alleys advance during across the area. Stream erosion and eposition alsoplayedeposition amajor role. Glacial meltwater, owi y, ie asv owl-edd commonly massive cross-bedded to well-bedded, hite, urse of the Mississippi River.urse ofthe Mississippi Valley width iscontrolled ar her net h erc nt r:the Jordan Sandstone, the bedrock unitsare: ungest, istics settingfrom itapart adjacent units.From oldest to as that have greater valley width. re ve . w. ed ly by the sedimentary properties ofthe bedrock. Each bedrock unithasset adistinct ofphysical charac- Bedrock has been animportant factor determining in gfo h eraigiemse,cut the valleysng from the retreatingwider ice masses, e the river intersects more resistant carbonate units, sulting in amuch in sulting greater late width. Consequently, d from the erosion ofupland surfaces. ,t (Figure 3). descriptionA brief ofthe major bedrock Th he v he much ofthe bedrock the in Twin Cities area. Ice e Jordan Sandstoneyears (515-505million B.P.) . xoue r e,however,and occurs. Exposures only are few, alleys withsediment gradually began filling age Grove.age as where er 10 osion cutawosion ay thesand- ihyrssatntr,the limestone serves asacaprock resistanthighly that nature, dolomitic limestone. Because bedded, ofits thinly tan, buff m isthe Platteville Limestone River, the (455-454 Mississippi one that forms relatively flat-topped benches and mesas along Limestone. St.Peterlying Sandstone and overlying Platteville small seam weathered ofhighly bedrock between the under- iseasily identified asa when present, Glenwood Shale, andsomeplaces in isentirely absent. feetThe thickness, in ye sandy shale called the (455 million bedded, River thinly the Mississippi isagreenish gray, al thicknesstot ofthe St.Peter isapproximately 150feet. On theofinformationobtained basis from wells the in area, the sandstone iseasilyits poorly eroded. cemented nature, to M ar years(458-455 million B.P.). Exposures ofthisrock type the upper River Mississippi valley isthe St.Peter Sandstone ap duChienPrairie years Group (505-458million which B.P.), 100 to 300feet throughout the MNRRA corridor. . Total thickness ofthe group ranges from member dolomite isabluishgray nature in similar to the d fine-grained New Richmond gray, member isalight which consists oftwoShakopee members. Formation, The layer thinly- medium-grained, graytoDolomite tan, buff isalight sedimentary the Oneota properties. At the baseofthe group, is divided into two formations ofvariations onthe basis in plateaulying across the upland areas. The PrairieduChien P uoii adtn,and the Willow Riverauconitic gl to sandstone, olomitic aul, and in the bluffs at Hastings, forming anextensive forming flat- andtheatHastings, in bluffs aul, illion yearsillion B.P.). the Platteville to gray isalight Ingeneral, e commonthroughout bluffs in the northern half ofthe NRRA corridor. The St.Peter Sandstone consists ofwhite ar pe ye s B.P.). Onav ar llow, medium-grained, friable quartz sand. quartz Because friable of medium-grained, llow, ed ed P Th One ofthe most extensively exposed bedrock unitsin Overlying the Jordan Sandstone isthe Ordovician ossibly the mostrecognized andossibly bedrock formation, s alongRiver the Mississippi channel near South St. to to e thinnest bedrock unitoutcropping theof in bluffs massive dolomite. Lying above the Oneota isthe erage, the Glenwood the ranges from 3to 5 erage, 11 24 Chapter 1 • THE GEOLOGY OF THE MNRRA CORRIDOR 9 stratigraphy of the valley in southeastern Minnesota. Redrawn from Hobbs. from Redrawn in Minnesota. southeastern valley River Mississippi the upper of stratigraphy FIGURE 3. Generalized bedrock bedrock FIGURE 3. Generalized 25 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 25 Page AM 7:57 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:57AMPage26

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area d and have amucky consistency.saturated, Soils formed from organi and silt clayping brought by in windor activity. fluvial trap- faces. Plant litter continually collects atthe surface, d grai and morphological expression onthe landscape.tial location, spa- Each deposithasenvironment adistinct ofdeposition, and colluvium. river alluvium, organic sediments; types: across Minnesota. we d ph along the river floodplain response in to the present geomor- s to al categories ontheoftheir basis relation to the geologic his- the MNRRAwithin corridor can be separated into two gener- Ge Surficial ex southeastern(in Minnesota the entire Galena Group forms an of theisexposed Cummingsville the within MNRRA corridor Fo s ri Picke in be i m loca is partiallyresponsible for controlling the rate ofretreat and ng thin limestoneng thin interbeds. The lateral extent ofthis sigo he ebr:CmigvleFrain Prosser Formation; Cummingsville ofthreeisting members: ists ofsediments that are accumulatingupland in areas and pstdb tem nrvres lopan,and alluvial floodplains, eposited by streams onriverbeds, or onupland sur- epressions occupying the floodplain, consists ofsediments that relatedeposits to glaciation, do linyasBP) reihga,calcareous yearsillion agreenish B.P.), gray, shale contain- yo h ra Tefrtgop ogaildpst,con- nonglacial deposits, ry ofthe area. The group, first te dr mto,and Stewartville Formation. Onlythe lowerrmation, part ic agents operati bluffs alongRiverbluffs the Mississippi St.Paul in above re d re tion ofwaterfalls the within MNRRA corridor. e eieti luh,lks and poorly drained lakes, ned sediment sloughs, in nsive plateau across the uplands). r isthe Galena years Group (454-450million con- B.P.), oc luimi h cuuaino ad it and clay silt, Alluvium isthe accumulation ofsand, Organic depositsconsist ofplant material and fine- Nonglacial depositsconsist surficial ofthree main Th Lyi rel Lake. rel eposited the advance during and retreat ofglaciers ntars h rai iie,butitdoes outcrop k unitacross the area islimited, e uppermost bedrock unitexposed the in MNRRA cor- ng above the Platteville isthe Decorah Shale (454 ology • ng onthelandscape. The second group, Surficial geologicSurficial depositsoccurring c deposits are da c deposits kclrd water rk colored, reso wh lo on the surface throughout time.Manyofthegeo- surficial M front ofanice sheet. terr across the surface. Manyoutwash depositsconsist ofbroad g of the deposits. Outwash typically consists ofsand and ro d and boulders ofsediment amatrix in cobbles, pebbles, the Great . Glacial tillisthe unsorted mixture of consists ofoutwash and tilldeposited during glaciation, fine-grained sediment. masses ofbedrock slumped the off valley wall of amatrix in and adownslope unitcontaining large from upland areas, co d slopes and cutbanks along the river valley. Colluvial be o and numer- terraces, natural levees, cutbanks, bars, point Individual landforms created by stream processes include er fans. The depositsoften exhibit complex sedimentary prop- advances are known to have to take advances known are from two years million to 10,000years B.P. Four major ice spans knownEpochs. asthe Great The Ice Pleistocene, Age, the Pleistocenetwo and Holocene formal geologic periods: Quaternary Period. The Quaternary Period isdivided into series ofgeological events sinceofthe the beginning Th Glacial History River of the Mississippi rav us backwater features. eposited directly from glacial ice. The compositionsof anupslope unit generallyeposits consist oftwo units: gi ties and displayvariable ahighly internal stratification. NRRA corridor reflects the geologic processes operating ck ck dr nsisting ofsmallbouldersnsisting ofsediment amatrix in eroded e upperRiver Mississippi valley has experienced acomplex ich had adirect onthe impact development ofnatural aces that were once large braided streams the draining c features formed response in to continental glaciation, urces that are partofthe present-day landscape. el el oc types found the in tillprovide clues about the source Th Th Colluvium isthe unsorted mixture ofweathered laid laid namti fsn,sl,and clay the flanking hill silt, ofsand, amatrix k in e complexity ofthelandscape surficial the within eodgopo ufca eois thoserelated to e second deposits, group ofsurficial do wn by glacial meltwater streams flowing n place the Great during Ice 26 Chapter 1 • THE GEOLOGY OF THE MNRRA CORRIDOR 15 The early of the Mississippi the position Presumably each major glacial phase glacial major each Presumably of ice recession has been has recession of ice 16 e prominent St. Croix Moraine, St. Croix e prominent a massive clear where where clear Th 18 . This advance, of This phase . St. Croix as the known ng ice margin. Glacial outwash graded to terrace to graded margin.ng ice outwash Glacial e St. Croix Moraine forms a northeastward trending, a northeastward forms Moraine e St. Croix most of which joined the present course south of St. south course present the joined most of which Little is known about the nature of the advance; of the nature the about is known Little how- During the late Wisconsin maximum,Wisconsin During late the Superior the Th nci r, 17 isconsin Glaciation (35,000-10,000 B.P.) • B.P.) (35,000-10,000 Glaciation isconsin urse of the river north of St. Paul changed repeatedly dur- repeatedly changed Paul of St. north river urse of the ashington County lends support to this hypothesis. to support lends County ashington as followed by the establishment of a new course for the for course of a new establishment the by as followed on by streams also occurred during the early Pleistocene. during early the occurred also streams on by ve as been obscured by late Wisconsin glacial events. The events. glacial Wisconsin late by obscured as been aul. Previously formed bedrock valleys were subsequently were valleys bedrock formed aul. Previously eposits along the Mississippi River in southern Mississippieposits the along River ocumented. illed with glacial sediment derived from the Superior Lobe Superior the from derived sediment with glacial illed ng the Pleistocene. ng the w ri P f the dotting lakes numerous The Sublobe. Grantsburg and from resulted area Cities Twin within the landscape valleys in bedrock the buried blocks ice of glacial meltout 4). (Figure basin Superior Lake axis of the the down advanced Lobe Minneapolis position terminal near its to southeastward and Rainy and Lobes Paul, St. and Wadena the while Minnesota north-central across advanced Sublobe Brainerd 5a) (Figure Lobe, Superior the 15,500 years approximately culminated B.P. Researchers investigating stream valleys of the Driftless of the valleys stream investigating Researchers inci- valley deep suggest Wisconsin in southwestern Area si W St. Paul above Mississippi of the River history Pleistocene h co i ever, a detailed record d River was at this time. The Mississippi River presently Mississippi River The at this time. was River St. Croix the through gap eroded a prominent occupies posi- its current maintained river the Most likely Moraine. the underneath flow continued by St. Paul tion below adva d W hills and numerous containing of landforms belt rugged accumulation of glacial sediment extending from the Twin the from extending sediment of glacial accumulation Falls, Little to of northwestward marks terminus the Cities the lobe. It is un during pre-Wisconsin Near the Mississippi River valley the valley Mississippi the River Near 12 e presence of glacial till in of glacial southeastern e presence Th ep cutting must have occurred during early the occurred must have ep cutting 13 e course of the upper Mississippi River along the along Mississippi upper River of the e course ,de Th c development of the river in the MNRRA corridor. in MNRRA the river of the c development e, begin- Pleistocene of an early theory the supports e. For simplicity,the the discussion ignores e. For following ce gi 14 Most of the present-day landforms developed during developed landforms present-day Most of the It is uncertain when the upper Mississippi River valley Mississippi upper River the when It is uncertain nc nc r eastward from central to its present position. its present to Iowa central from r eastward ation of characteristic glacial deposits associated with the with deposits associated glacial ation of characteristic e-glacial and post-glacial events. However, exposures of However, exposures events. post-glacial and e-glacial iden itic (branch-like) pattern across the region, the across pattern itic (branch-like) drains the isconsin Glaciation. In Minnesota the sequence of glacia- sequence the In Minnesota isconsin Glaciation. rridor. Therefore, an overview of the glacial history of history glacial of the Therefore, an overview rridor. isconsin for glacial geologic events occurring prior to events geologic glacial isconsin for sents the last 10,000 years of geologic time. of geologic 10,000 years last the sents ve rst three named glacial advances and uses the term pre- term the uses and advances glacial named rst three ut 35,000 to 10,000 years B.P.,dramatically altered the B.P.,dramatically altered 10,000 years bout 35,000 to nitially formed. However, on the basis of present geologic basis However, on the of present nitially formed. Minnesota, glacial during a pre-Wisconsin deposited adva adva fi W Glaciation,Wisconsin The spanning from B.P. 35,000 years a landscape of Minnesota. Holocene,The or Recent Epoch, rep- re during the occurred that episodes glacial multiple the W MNRRA of the development the impact on a direct tion had co discussing for a context provide to is necessary Minnesota geolo • In Minnesota, History Glacial Pre-Wisconsin gla- early by obscured been largely have within valley the cial events lat and Washington in drift surface at the occur pre-Wisconsin Counties. Dakota Age, and each has been given a name based on the geographic Age, on the a name based given been has each and loc upland landscape consists of gently rolling hills topped by a by rolling hills topped of gently consists landscape upland residuum. bedrock drift of glacial weathered or thin veneer networks, stream forming a den- of well-integrated A system dr a consid- exposed has valleys stream along Erosion uplands. erable amount of bedrock. i ev Pleistocene. time when a glacial advance from the west displaced the displaced west the from advance a glacial time when ri margin of the of southeastern Minnesota is Minnesota of southeastern Area margin Driftless of the been to have establishedbelieved ning. 27 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 27 Page AM 7:57 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:57 AM Page 28

FIGURE 4. Map of preglacial bedrock valleys (solid lines) in the Twin Cites area, showing the location of present-day lakes developed by meltout of buried

glacial ice. Discharge of glacial meltwater and waterfall retreat are responsible for development of present valleys (dashed lines).

associated depressions. Glacial sediment deposited during for the glacial meltwater. Outwash deposits filled both val- this advance consists of reddish-brown sandy till, outwash leys between an elevation of 870 and 920 feet. Meltwater sand and gravel, and ice-contact sands and gravel. streams subsequently excavated the outwash deposits dur- As the Superior Lobe retreated from the area, the ing a later glacial advance. Mississippi and St. Croix Rivers acted as the major course Numerous readvances, possibly surges, accompanied the retreat of the Superior Lobe from the St. Croix Moraine.19 Numerous features associated with the retreat- ing ice, including moraines and associated meltwater chan- nels, developed behind the moraine (Figure 5b). The Mississippi River, in the central portion of the state, flowed

28 Chapter 1 • THE GEOLOGY OF THE MNRRA CORRIDOR b) development of tunnel valleys of tunnel b) development d) the Automba phase Automba d) the 16 ases of glaciation in Minnesota. Taken from Wright. from Taken in glaciation Minnesota. ases of a) the St. Croix phase St. Croix a) the FIGURE Ph 5. 29 c) deposition of eskers in tunnel valleys in tunnel c) deposition of eskers 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 29 Page AM 7:58 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:58AMPage30

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area in Wisconsin. Th Highland Moraine along the north shore ofLake Superior. e in which bounds the western edge ofMille LacsLakeMoraine, 5d). The extent ofthisadvance ismarked by the Mille Lacs in Aut t lo ther into the Lake resulted Superior basin of deposition in oped underneath the retreating ice lobe. Retreat ofice far- fed by tunnel valleys (discrete meltwater channels) devel- being along the western ofthe St.Croix Moraine, margin clay settled out of the melting ice mass, forming acontinu- forming clay settled out ofthe melting ice mass, higher topography to the southwest. Fine-grainedand silt which sediments were deposited alarge in body ofopen water, glacial lake formationthe in SuperiorGlacial lake basin. gin into th Moraine down to valley the Mississippi below St.Paul. still channeled along the ofthe outer St.Croix margin itismostlikely that however, meltwater wasmovements; River channel the area in was destroyed by subsequent ice plain. Any evidence for the location ofthe Mississippi d lake developedong these al lakes. However,evidence for these Sublobe across the area erased anyshoreline features that weste which presumably drained along the Iand UphamAitkin I, resulting the in formation ofglacial lakes of the ice lobe, meltwater ponded along the northwesternMoraine, margin River River into the Mississippi valley. from the Superior Lobe discharged through the St.Croix unnel valleys ast asthe and CromwellWright Moraines and then asthe eposited by the St.Louis Sublobe after overriding the lake ng, sinuous ridges sinuous ofsand and gravel (eskers) the within ng, to to southeastern Crow extending Wing to the County, north- e Automba phase iscorrelated withthe Tiger Catadvance mapae ismarked by advance ofthe Superior Lobeomba phase, speevdi hn e n ry stone-poor red till and gray, s ispreserved athin, in the Mille Lacsregion ofeast central Minnesota Th Th W rn end ofthe iceThe margin. advance ofthe St.Louis formed between the retreating Superior Lobe and hile the Superior Lobe stood atthe Mille Lacs etmjravneo h ueirLb,the e next major advance ofthe Superior Lobe, e Superior Lobe retreated from the Automba ice mar- e Superior lowland, initiating the stage first initiating of e Superior lowland, 20 (Figure 5c). uigteTgrCtavne meltwater the During Tiger Catadvance, (Figure blocked thesouthward drai 820 feet along the valley. advance ofthe lobe Second, series terraces offlat-lying between elevations of800and wo RiverMississippi valley withsand and gravel. The deposits Fi ment River ofthe Mississippi valley two in important ways. advance was re a P ov advanced from thefrom southwest the Des Moines Lobe, d sand forming and gravel portions ofthe St.Croix Moraine, outwash channels were thisadvance, During cut through of Des Moinesthe marks terminal ofthe position ice lobe. Iowa about 14,000years B.P. An end moraine near the city which reached itsmaximumextent centralCity phase, in of the Des Moines Lobe from the northwest the Pine during 5f). Croix Moraine by the Des Moines Lobe (Figure 5e, Moraine and the overriding ofthe central portion ofthe St. themarks readvance ofthe Superior Lobe to the Cloquet previously formed deposits. The Rock-Pine Split Cityphase layer athin depositing ofreddish clay across Rock phase, Split the overrode lakebed Lobe during the Superior the of o i do meltwater en w south flowed into glacial Lake Grantsburg. A large delta meltwaterMinnesota and west draining central Wisconsin, r dr Grantsburg Sublobe retreated meltwater to the southwest, Wisconsin. RiverMississippi valleyAs the atPrescott, ng in theng in formation ofglacial Lake Grantsburg. eworking eworking bout 13,500years B.P. us blanket ofsediment onthe lake floor. The next advance eposits thateposits reached River the Mississippi near Hastings. u,rahn t emnsna rnsug icni,by Wisconsin, reaching itsterminus near Grantsburg, aul, sfre erSonr icni,assediment-laden Wisconsin, as formed near Spooner, s,outwash the comingoff advancing lobe filled the rst, ained around the outer (northeast) ofthe ice lobe, margin er nteS.CoxRvr eventuallywn the St.Croix reaching River, the uld later be entrenched by glacial meltwater a forming ri Th Retreat ofthe Superior Lobe was followed by advance W ding the St.Croix Moraine between St.Cloud and St. hile the Grantsburg Sublobe occupied east central rnsugSboe anoffshoot ofice developed e Grantsburg Sublobe, the former lake bed andthe forming Anoka Sand tered the head ofthe head lake. the tered The lake drained sponsible for alteringsponsible the geologic develop- (Figure 6). This short-lived nage fteMsispi result- of theMississippi, 30 Chapter 1 • THE GEOLOGY OF THE MNRRA CORRIDOR of glacial nage h.) drai f.) formation of the Anoka Sand Plain Sand Anoka of the f.) formation 16 Phases of glaciation in Minnesota (continued). Taken from Wright. from Taken (continued). in of glaciation Minnesota FIGURE 5. Phases e) Split City phase Rock-Pine g.) Nickerson-Alborn phase g.) Nickerson-Alborn 31 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 31 Page AM 7:58 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:58AMPage32

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area FIGURE 6.FIGURE Advance of lobes. Redrawn from Meyer et al. et Meyer from lobes. Redrawn andforming glacial Lake Grantsburg. Drainage channelsMississippi River, show paths takenby meltwater coming off theGrantsbu of the Des Moines L oftheDesMoines anoffshoot Sublobe, the Grantsburg 21 obe, overriding theSt.Croix overriding Morai obe, ne blocki ng southward dr rg and Des Moines icerg andDesMoines ainage ofthe 32 Chapter 1 • THE GEOLOGY OF THE MNRRA CORRIDOR a- rel ainage affected the affected er the Platteville ov ainage rking the dr acial Lake Agassiz exis- into came acial Lake glacial lake dr River Warren plunged plunged Warren River nages, gl of sediment-free meltwater from glacial Lakes from meltwater of sediment-free from the Nickerson ice margin ice Superior the into Nickerson the from where the where of River Warren was more than adequate to carry the carry to adequate than more was Warren of River Drainage Meltwater from Lake Agassiz drained down the River the Agassiz down drained Lake from Meltwater ice,Glacial continental the again across advancing ge e. In northeastern Minnesota,e. In northeastern Lobe Superior the rren into the Mississippi River valley. River Warren was Warren River valley. Mississippi the into River rren rren, St. Croix, the Mississippi the val- presumably and med after G. K. Warren, St. G. K. of the after first med the commander ar ys approximately 11,700 years B.P. Glacial Lakes Agassiz Lakes Glacial B.P. 11,700 years ys approximately as named River Warren Falls in honor of the mighty in of the honor river Falls Warren River as named ivide, within River the up of sediment a build caused aul District, St. Paul,Above of Engineers. Corps the utwash sediment was rapidly eroded from the preglacial the from eroded rapidly was sediment utwash alley of the Mississippi River that was filled with outwash filled was that Mississippi of the River alley le. neteotahwscridaa,a waterfall away, carried was outwash the Once alley. north of the divide that separates the and Bay Hudson the separates that divide of the north Mississippi drai tenc retreated Lowland, Duluth. Lake initiating of glacial formation the in downcutting multiple Agassiz Duluth resulted and of A number valley. nts within Mississippi the eve River in wo active been have geologists tionships of these lakes and their impact upon the land- impact upon the their and lakes tionships of these the how and works is a summary of these Below scape. with nts associated eve morphology of the upper Mississippi upper system. of the morphology Wa na P Platteville of the on top flowing was Mississippi River Below force. Limestone, erosive river’s the resisted which bedrock a preglacial intercepted St. Paul,Warren River the v dis- The Limestone. Platteville of the elevation the up to ch waterfall The valley. bedrock preglacial the into Limestone w its formation. for responsible was that d Wa le ice as the B.P. 11,500 years after reformed Superior and theagain continental beyond retreated drainage divide. a fairly established lakes of the out of meltwater Discharge until approximate- lasted that of downcutting period active B.P. ly 10,800 years sediment load supplied to it; to supplied load sediment therefore, unconsolidated the o v formed son Moraine sces into a fairly well defined a fairly into well sces (Figure 5g,(Figure Nicker The 5h). the Nickerson-Thomson Moraines in north- Moraines Nickerson-Thomson the to where it coale where back into Minnesota to join the Des Moines Lobe, Moines join Des the to Minnesota into back ed as retreating up the Minnesota River valley. A large valley. River Minnesota up the as retreating e last major glacial advance in Minnesota occurred in Minnesota advance glacial major e last rther south,rther was Lobe Moines Des of the retreat d north central Minnesota, central d north Culver forming the nc d the surface of Minnesota were in full retreat. The in retreat. full were of Minnesota surface d the Th Fa Lake Aitkin II most likely drained into Lake Upham II, Upham Lake into Aitkin drained II most likely Lake By 12,000 years B.P.,all ice lobes that had previously had that B.P.,all lobes ice By 12,000 years re de e to form the Big Stone Moraine in Moraine west-central Big Stone the form e to s Aitkin and Upham II to develop, ponded between the develop, II to between Aitkin Upham and s ponded ich eventually drained down the St. Louis and St. Louis the down drained eventually ich annel along the Kettle River. The Kettle channel drained channel Kettle The River. Kettle the along annel ve va treated further, Mississippi of the Minnesota and treated level the nc adva iscontinuous moraines in northern Iowa and southern and Iowa in northern moraines iscontinuous astern Minnesota astern Rivers was established at an elevation of about 810 feet in 810 feet of about at an elevation established was Rivers area. metropolitan Cities Twin the St. Louis the when phase during Nickerson-Alborn the Sublobe, Lobe, Moines Des of the extension an eastward in Minnesota. By 12,300 years B.P.,the Grantsburg Sublobe B.P.,the Grantsburg years By 12,300 Minnesota. retreated which w retreating the along developed stream meltwater braided margin, ice Grantsburg of blanket forming a continuous Mississippi of the course present the along gravel and sand As ice River. Minnesota with the its confluence above River re (Figure 5f) . (Figure Minnesota Plain in east-central of readvances, a number of by forming a series punctuated d Mississippi Rivers. At the same time,At the Mississippi Rivers. Lobe Superior the re Moraine. Retreat of the St. Louis Sublobe allowed glacial allowed Sublobe St. Louis of the Retreat Moraine. lake moraine. marginice Culver the and wh e is marked by a belt of hummocky topography along the along topography of hummocky a belt by is marked Holyoke. and Lake Moose lineCarlton-Pine County between Moraine off Nickerson the plain extends outwash A broad southward meltwater into the St. Croix River and then down to the to down then and River St. Croix the into meltwater Mississippi. co ch Minnesota about 11,900 years B.P. After the ice retreated ice the After B.P. 11,900 years about Minnesota Des Moines Lobe was retreating rapidly northward up the northward rapidly retreating was Lobe Moines Des dis- a short readvanced then Ice valley. River Minnesota ta 33 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 33 Page AM 7:58 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:58AMPage34

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area utaries began to establish itself by 8,000years B.P. Bythis ex moving downstream. This delta and atHastings begins P feet) deep. upto 50meters possibly (aboutits present-day163 level, (Figure 4).Below St.Paul the valley had been cutbelow far the softSt.Peter Sandstone that underlay limestone caprock be theof alluviationwithin valley. The River Warren Falls water dr indischarge through River the Mississippi following the Early Holocene valley.Mississippi events played the upperRiver Mississippi system north ofIllinois. These the last timethat meltwater from glacial lakes flowed down be c fl altering the physiography ofthe floodplain. de ca fromthe than itstributaries Mississippi the bigriver could fairly active period ofalluviation.More sediment entered resultingsoon a in transported River, into the Mississippi Sedimentsthe Mississippi. stored valleys tributary in were ta Bridge St.Paul. in borings taken the construction during ofthe Robert Street to Zumberge proposed that once extended upstream Lake forming Pepin. tively River, damsthe Mississippi P aused renewed downcutting valley the within Mississippi epin hasepin builtadelta that the isslowly within Mississippi pnCut,Wisconsin. County, epin The formation ofthe delta effec- uenc ry streams cut initially their channels to reach the level of rry away. anumber builtfan oftributaries As aresult, ten ainage ainage tween 9,900and 9,500years B.P. This episode final is gan retreating aswater valley, upthe Mississippi eroded tsit h issip ie,deflecting itscourse and ltas River, into the Mississippi t al based onthe existence ofclay found deposits in St. Paul, Equilibrium betweenEquilibrium River the Mississippi and its trib- One final advanceOne final ofice blocked eastern outlets and A st h edo aePpn south ofRed Wing.ds to the head ofLake Pepin, e of the Mississippi Rivere ofthe Mississippi withthe Chippewa River in through northern and eastern outlets initiated astage good example of a tributary delta occurs at the con- the at occurs delta tributary a of example good of glaciallakes andsubseque 22 nrsos otecag nbs ee,tribu- In response to the change baselevel, in a vital r (9,500-7,000 years B.P.) • 23 Sediment entering the river above Lake ole in theHoloce ole in nt rerouting ofmelt- ne evolution ofthe The decrease The ley v re dominated other parts. As a sequences, cut and fill or o loc the late Holoce fl the present-day surface morphology River ofthe Mississippi Late Holocene si active lateral channel and inci- migration Inresponse, runoff. in Cooler temperatu wo dr in in while lateral channel and migration (built up)ofsediment, Th ab River valley, the River Warrentime, Falls had reached the Minnesota charge charge ri by Holocene. Ve ation alongRiver the Mississippi continued into the middle Middle H (Figure 4). and retreatedSnelling upthe valley ofthe Mississippi oped atthe confluence ofthe Minnesota River near Fort the preglacial died Mississippi out. St. Anthony Falls devel- valley of buried a intersected it where two miles, additional F alls continued to retreat upthe Minnesota River valley an us portions ofthe while valley, lateral channel migration, oodplain isthe result activityoccurringduring offluvial on dominated processes fluvial the in valley. acting ve ut the appearance offloodplain features the within val-sult, t h einlciae which may have increased initially ate the regional climate, cision into previouslycision deposited sediment were occurring iving forceiving for geomorphic processes. The regional cli- le le do e upper reaches were characterized by vertical accretion uld againalter the processes the within valley. acting ation along the valley. Vertical accretion dominated vari- hstm. hrfr,the change upper in midwesternthis time. Therefore, rs was mostlikely related effects to onriver climatic dis- re,dep aries, along the entire stretch ofthe upperRiver. Mississippi As the As During thelate During Geomorphic processes the in valley acting were vari- wnstream reaches. rather than changes in vegetation. changes in than rather olocene olocene mi where getation was well establ endi dd ne. However, fluvial processes fluvial ne. However, varied with (3,500 yearsB.P. - A.D. 1850)• le Holocene progressed, climatic changes climatic progressed, Holocene le re (7,000-3,500 years B.P.) • s andincreased precipitation began to dom- ng onlocation. it split into twoit split parts. The River Warren ooee cl Holocene, imate was amajor still ished onupl 24 Slow alluvi- and areas Much of 34 Chapter 1 • THE GEOLOGY OF THE MNRRA CORRIDOR left their er drainage prominent terraces occur along occur terraces prominent Accumulations of up to two meters of meters two to of up Accumulations 26 nd no-till planting.Some farmers ,a as adjacent to the upper Mississippi valley and the and Mississippi upper valley the to as adjacent ith the increased awareness of soil erosion along the along of soil erosion awareness increased ith the opment of modern agricultural equipment, agricultural of modern opment farmers W Inset below the Richfield Terrace is the Langdon is the Terrace Richfield the below Inset Humans have changed the landscape of the valley and valley of the landscape the changed Humans have are ace, of distribution range through- widest the has which ation from 890 feet above mean sea level (amsl) in the level sea mean above 890 feet ation from the southeast corner. The city of Minneapolis is built The corner. southeast the e Mississippi River valley is a significant natural feature in feature is a significant natural valley e Mississippi River tion. This will become clear in each subsequent chapter. subsequent in each clear will become This tion. vel gan to use improved farming techniques. By the 1930s By the farming techniques. improved use gan to rgely upon this terrace surface. upon this terrace rgely ev on tillage ds fallow to increase the soil’s nutrient capacity. These capacity. nutrient soil’s the increase to elds fallow ut the corridor. Elevation of the Langdon Terrace ranges Terrace Langdon of the Elevation corridor. ut the Th found features of individual right. a number However, its own are corridor MNRRA the through valley river the along below. is presented locality of each A brief description notable. • Three Terraces Glacial corridor. in MNRRA the Mississippi of the River course the glacial meltwat of late as a result formed Each of major tributary streams. Review of Mississippi River Review tributaryof major streams. that changes of the evidence Commission maps provides occurred. have Natural Features Prominent The corridor. in MNRRA the rivers major the along surface, terrace highest is the rangingTerrace in Richfield el post-settlement alluvium may occur on the floodplain in floodplain on the occur may alluvium post-settlement corridor. MNRRA of the reaches southern the land de Terr o corri- MNRRA of the corner 850 amsl in northwest from the northwest corner of the MNRRA corridor to 840 feet amsl 840 feet to corridor MNRRA of the corner northwest in la be plowing, contour practiced farmers increasingly conserva- ti fi erosion, topsoil reduced sediment efforts greatly decreasing Mississippi the River. ds entering loa ways, in other Mississippi of the River flow the some as pro- Overall, glaciers. as the foundly however, humans have aroundadapted to and the developed river’s geologic foun- da rd and cooler temperatures without absolute chronological his realization is important for several for is important his realization ns of the valley near the confluence of confluence the near valley ns of the olocene, T 25 ng and the burial of previously developed surfaces. developed burial the of previously ng and most likely well developed on landforms not subject to subject not on landforms developed well most likely Geomorphic studies conducted in various portions of portions in various conducted studies Geomorphic occurred that changes major the It is difficult assess to rking of previously deposited sediment. Erosional sediment. deposited rking of previously s. Many of the changes occurring within the area were area occurring within the changes s. Many of the oodi ct influence on geomorphic processes. Vertical accretion Vertical processes. on geomorphic ct influence ly subjected to lateral channel migration, channel lateral to ly subjected in resulting re backwater areas on the floodplain. on the areas backwater ated to shifts in regional climatic shifts in regional to patterns,ated a had which fl minated portio minated te creased precipitation. By this time, precipitation. soils and creased vegetation re n. Second, landforms within the floodplain away from n. Second, away floodplain within the landforms source records. Third, topographically records. are that source landforms asons. First, active fluvial processes would be confined to asons. First, confined be would fluvial processes active ke ut and fillut and cycles, valley. of the portions these dominated ewo nundation by floodwaters. Lateral channel migration, channel Lateral floodwaters. or by nundation higher along the valley margin would have been less prone less been have margin would valley the along higher to di i c present- the that indicate valley Mississippi upper River the little during the changed channel day position river of the late Holocene. of accretion vertical to subject be would mainthe channel has This features. of natural preservation and sediment cultural and environmental the implications both for re valley Mississippi upper River of the within floodplain the during H the late da rel in we re As a result, area. erosion for channel a limited potential the mar- channel active the near greatest be would of landforms gi mate continued its trend towa its trend continued mate processes would have been dominant near the active chan- active the near dominant been have would processes active been have nel, would processes constructional while in devel- the efforts for 1850 - Present clearing • Land A.D. during within mid-1800s the began agriculture of opment of topsoil Erosion corridor. MNRRA the to adjacent and into influx the of sediment increased fields exposed from Mississippi confluence the the River, near in areas especially of sediment and forward movement of alluvial fans/deltas movement forward and of sediment do most tributaries were from away Areas tributary streams. li r 35 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 35 Page AM 7:58 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:58AMPage36

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area nhn al,Minnehaha Falls offersthe observer an Anthony Falls, Minnehaha Falls •Fo s Decorah Shale the in Twin Cities. A variety ofinvertebrate fos- and Platteville Limestone, Glenwood Shale, Sandstone, e isoneofthe best St.Paul, in the east bankofthe Mississippi, Shadow valley asmalltributary Falls on •AtShadow Falls, and alock and damsystem. co tion. The natural state ofthe fallshas been modified by the Minnesota Rivers butmigrated upstream to itspresent loca- once located atthe confluence and ofthe Mississippi face. Longrevered for the itsnatural waterfall beauty, was the power processes offluvial operati the Platteville Limestone atSt. Anthony Falls exemplifies St. Anthony Falls •Th al remnant ofthe once higher Langdon Terrace surface. s Chien Group. However, atGrey Cloud Island the terrace con- co it formed partiallyover the terrace bedrock. At Newport, va Cloud Terrace occurs onlysouth ofSt.Paul and ranges ele- in along River the Mississippi the in MNRRA corridor. The Grey Grove are builtlargely uponthisterrace surface. sand and gravel. The cities ofSouth St.Paul and Cottage the terrace consists of100feet orof the more bedrock, of the rest ofthearea, ments are onlyafew feet to tens offeet thick. Throughout t Anthony Falls and Daytons the terrace Bluff developed on sedimentary characteristics along the valley. Between St. Te do op ofthe underlying Platteville Limestone. Terrace sedi- l,icuigcndnsadtioie,can be collected conodonts including here. and trilobites, ils, ists ofathick sequence ofsand and gravel left asanerosion- xposed and easily accessible outcrops ofthe St.Peter nsists ofsedimentsnsists afew feet thick ontop ofthe Prairiedu tion from 750to 700feet Like amsl. the Langdon Terrace, nstruction of milling and hydroelectricnstruction ofmilling power structures rrace exhibits atremendous its in amountofvariability r to 800feet the southeast in amsl corner. The Langdon The The Grey Cloud Terrace isthe lowest terrace present where preglacial erosion removed much rmed to amanner St. in similar e Mississippi Rivere Mississippi cascading over ng uponthelandsur- Sandstone isexposed the within valley ofBattle Creek Park. Battle CreekPark •Th c t on Native lie American inhabitants some2,000years ago, we isanapronbluffs ofcolluvium derived from sediment late-WisconsinLobe during glaciation. At the baseofthe coveris athin ofglacial sediment deposited by the Superior along Warner Road Daytons in Overlying Bluff. the bedrock and Platteville LimestoneGlenwood are exposed Shale, Daytons Park Bluff/Mounds •Th this location for clay used the manufacture in ofbricks. dilige both the Superior and Des Moines Lobes can be found upon to the Twin CityClay Pit/Lilydale Regional Park. Inaddition FormationCummingsville offerexcellent at hunting and lower Decorah Shale, the Platteville Limestone, Tw ural riches contained two in very different river valleys. her v mile downstream. Steep bedrock covered bluffs witha is one tw pe River the confluence Warren, has been place agathering for ch and MinnesotaMississippi rivers converge. Created by the dis- en Mississippi-Minnesota Rivers• Confluence to River.small tributary the Mississippi access to explore the bedrock geology ofthe Twin Cities a in loc opportunity to view awaterfall itsnatural in state. The op ofthe bluff. This location offersanexcellent example of ombined natural and cultural resources. ariab ople throughout several millennia. separates the ar ce, o be teigadeoigo erc.Sxmud,builtby athering and eroding ofbedrock. Sixmounds, ation oftheMinnehaha fallswithin Park provides ready e. The confluence offersthe opportunity to explore the nat- in ri ge dr as theMdewakant nt search. The Decorah Shale was formerly mined at ve City Clay Pit/Lilydale Park Regional • le le of meltwater from glacial Lake downAgassiz glacial oc rs thickness ofglacial sediment characterize the valley elg,exposuresk geology, ofglacial tilldeposited by where the valleys join, and the physical confluence physical the and valleys the join, where on Dakota c e uppermost 50feet ofthe St.Peter l t iswhere the all it, e St.Peter Sandstone, d-e or conflu- Bdo-te, Exposures of 36 Chapter 1 • THE GEOLOGY OF THE MNRRA CORRIDOR a variety of a variety as a haven for as a haven serves ke now e extended to St. Paul during early the St. Paul to e extended hav k that escaped being filled with glacial sediments with glacial filled being escaped k that to oc ed e-Wisconsin time. e-Wisconsin dr glacial trenching of the Mississippi of the River, Grey trenching glacial Lower dplain dwellers. ev ups constructed by the river valley’s early inhabitants. inhabitants. early valley’s river the by ups constructed be lat li te eposits overlain by fine sand. The island has many mound has island The fine by sand. eposits overlain It is one of the best examples of a preglacial valley developed valley of a preglacial examples best It is one of the in in occurring a naturally was Lake Pigs Eye • Pigs Eye Lake Mississippi. of the floodplain within the of water body open Pepin, partof Lake been have At one time it may is which be wildlife, including birds, fox, beaver, raccoon, similar and floo to related remnant • A terrace Island Cloud Grey Lower la gravel and sand of stratified is composed Island Cloud d gro Holocene. The la The Holocene. 37 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 37 Page AM 7:58 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 38

FIGURE 1. As the glaciers retreated some 12,000 years ago, Native Americans began inhabiting the northern Mississippi River Valley. Indians Spearing

Fish 3 Miles below Fort Snelling. Artist: Seth Eastman. Minnesota Historical Society. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 39

Chapter 2 Early Native American Life in the MNRRA Corridor

Drew M. Forsberg, M.S. • Hemisphere Field Services, Inc.

Early Native American Contexts within the MNRRA Corridor Paleoindian Tradition • Humans probably began occupy- ing the MNRRA corridor as the last glaciers retreated. As the ice sheet of the Des Moines Lobe melted, a new land- y archaeological accounts, Native American his- scape emerged and communities of plants, animals, and tory in Minnesota spans some 12,000 years humans colonized it. Initially, tundra vegetation covered (Figure 1). During this time, the Mississippi this landscape, but as the climate warmed, a boreal forest RiverB and its valley became important to Native American dominated by spruce moved north to replace the tundra peoples, providing plant and animal resources, shelter, and ecosystems. Humans most likely followed the spread of an important route for transportation and trade. This chap- plants and animals northward.2 ter examines Native American history in the MNRRA corri- Archaeologists generally refer to the earliest Americans dor beginning with the earliest occupants and ending with as Paleoindians. In other parts of , where the coming of European explorers and traders. archaeologists have excavated early sites, they have identi- Written records help document Native American histo- fied patterns in lifeways and material culture over time and ry over the last 350 years. European and American explor- space. However, because few Paleoindian sites have been ers and fur traders left accounts that provide details about identified in Minnesota and even fewer have been excavated, Native American history and lifeways. Archaeological exca- our knowledge of this period is limited. The Paleoindian vations of villages, trading posts, forts, and human burials tradition is usually divided into two periods: Early add to this written record. However, written records extend (12,000-10,000 years before present [B.P.]) and Late back only as far as the mid-1600s. The long history of (10,000-8,000 years B.P.).3 Native Americans that predates contact with Europeans and Americans must be reconstructed from archaeological infor- Early Paleoindian (12,000-10,000 years B.P.) • The Early mation and, when possible, from oral histories preserved by Paleoindian period is poorly known in Minnesota. No modern Native American peoples. Because archaeological intact sites from this period have been identified. Some pro- data pertaining directly to the MNRRA corridor is limited, it jectile points (Clovis and Folsom), resembling types found is necessary to look at a broader region of Minnesota when discussing pre-contact Native American history. Archaeological information for the earliest periods is sparse, making it necessary to draw inferences from far afield.1

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elsewhere in North America, are the only evidence that Early Paleoindian peoples occupied Minnesota. These points, however, were found on the surface and not well documented. Based on these finds, we can make some gen- eralizations about Minnesota’s Early Paleoindian people and their way of life. These people probably lived in small, highly mobile bands, hunting large, now-extinct animals, such as the mammoth, mastodont, or camel. Because there is little diversity in projectile point forms over large areas and because groups were so mobile, we assume that Early Paleoindian peoples had little sense of regional identity. The projectile points attributed to this period are distinc- tive in form, generally being lanceolate (leaf-shaped) and rather large. In addition, their makers removed long flakes (flutes) from each face of the projectile point near the base where they would have attached it to a wooden shaft. A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area and Recreation River National the Mississippi Study of Resources A Historic Paleoindians generally made their projectile points from high quality stone, which they sometimes procured from great distances.4 Fluted points have been found in or near the MNRRA corridor (one in Anoka County and seven in Hennepin County).5 FIGURE 2. A Clovis-like projectile point found eroding from the river RIVER OF HISTORY: However, amateur collectors found most of these arti- bluff in 1941 just south of the Washington Avenue Bridge. Reproduced facts on the surface of cultivated fields, and information on from Steinbring (1974: Figure 1). the exact location and circumstances of discovery is meager. One point reportedly comes from the MNRRA corridor for the western part. In southeastern Minnesota, oak, (Figure 2). In 1941 a collector discovered a Clovis-like fluted maple, elm, and ash dominated the forest, whereas a pine point “eroding from a high bank of the Mississippi River just forest covered central Minnesota. A trend toward a warmer south of the Washington Avenue Bridge” in Minneapolis.6 and drier climate and the northeasterly expansion of prairie While these finds indicate that Native Americans used vegetation characterize the subsequent millennia. By about the MNRRA corridor during Early Paleoindian times, noth- 8,000 years B.P.,the prairie/forest border had advanced ing is known of the extent of their occupation and little of into east central Minnesota. their specific lifeways. In general, lifeways during the Late Paleoindian period initially resembled those of the Early Paleoindian period. Late Paleoindian (10,000-8,000 years B.P.) • Cultural Late Paleoindian peoples moved frequently and depended changes that coincided with climatic and subsequent envi- upon hunting. However, as communities of plants and ani- ronmental shifts mark the Late Paleoindian period. As the mals changed in response to the changing climate, so too did glaciers left, the climate warmed. By about 10,000 years the humans that relied on them for subsistence. As the mam- B.P., forest vegetation covered much of Minnesota, except moth, camel and other megafauna that flourished during gla- cial and immediately postglacial times became extinct, the Late Paleoindian peoples increasingly turned to other quarry. In the prairie regions of North America, bison became the pri- mary food, although Native Americans undoubtedly con- sumed smaller animals and various plants as well.

40 Chapter 2 • EARLY NATIVE AMERICAN LIFE IN THE MNRRA CORRIDOR sissippi River near downtown St. Paul. downtown near sissippi River hree Late Paleoindian projectile points found by T. H. T. projectile points found by Paleoindian hree Late loodplain of the Mis a warmer and drier climate that began about 9,000 about drier and began climate that a warmer rd s B.P. continued, northeasterly the by accompanied s B.P. ansion of prairie vegetation. By about 6,000 years B.P., 6,000 years By about ansion of prairie vegetation. ated just east of the Mississippi River in Anoka County. Anoka in Mississippi of the River just east ated ar NRRA corridor. Lake levels in the region fell, in region the levels Lake substan- and corridor. NRRA wa Reproduced from Florin (1996: Figure 139). (1996: Figure Florin from Reproduced FIGURE 3. T Lewis on the f ye exp of Minnesota, much prairie covered including entire the M Plain region, Sand Anoka in the spread dunes tial sand loc wetter 6,000 B.P.,the about became climate gradually After ongoing changes in climate and vegetation. The trend The in vegetation. climate and changes ongoing to 7 11 During (Figure 3). (Figure piece of charcoal piece where he found these where 8 However, archaeologist 10 whereas a whereas ion(s) the exact locat the exact but lacked the pronounced fluting seen in fluting seen pronounced the but lacked te Most are surface finds, surface Most are col- up by picked often 9 from the Mississippi the River. from lanceola A recent survey of literature and collections indicates collections and of literature survey A recent Recognition of the Late Paleoindian period is most period Paleoindian Late of the Recognition rare, are in Minnesota sites Paleoindian Late few and aeologists have identified many distinct types, identified have aeologists as such ists recovered a Late Paleoindian point during excava- Paleoindian a Late ists recovered s: the Brown’s Valley site (21TR5), site s:Traverse in Valley located Brown’s the d to about 9,000 years B.P., about 9,000 years d to oindian materials. Native Americans clearly lived in lived clearly Americans Native oindian materials. oindian points display greater variation in form, variation oindian greater points display and e been excavated. Only two have yielded radiocarbon yielded have Only two excavated. e been ated south of Mille Lacs Lake in east central Minnesota. central in Lacs Lake east of Mille south ated ds a well-preserved site, said be ds a well-preserved can nothing substantial re ay near the MNRRA corridor, MNRRA the well near uplands from most came rrow flakes from both faces in parallel patterns. Late patterns. in parallel faces both from flakes rrow n dated to about 9,200 years B.P. years 9,200 about to n dated H. Lewis discovered several points in the late 1800s on points in late the several discovered H. Lewis le le te te tifacts, Recently, archae- exists. number site no State and ch ctors, who recorded the locations imprecisely or not at all. not or imprecisely ctors, locations the recorded who ut the people of this period. people bout the le in found been of points have number Although a moderate or aw ar olog Fur Company site House/American Sibley tions at the Late no other Mendota,(21DK31) near discovered but they Pa times, during Paleoindian Late area the but until someone fin a • (8,000-2,500 years B.P.) Tradition Archaic He did not record He did not record from a pit feature at the Bradbury Brook site was radiocar- was site Bradbury Brook at the a pit feature from bo throughout found been points have Paleoindian Late that Minnesota. Human bone from the Brown’s Valley site was radiocarbon was site Valley Brown’s the from Human bone da often based on the presence of distinctive, presence on the based pro- often finely crafted points These high quality from stone. points made jectile we Rather, specimens. removed Early Paleoindian makers their na Pa ar Alberta, Cody,Agate Basin, Scottsbluff. and hav da Minnesota, in County western site, Bradbury Brook the and loc the floodplain across from downtown St. Paul St. Paul downtown from across floodplain the T. Archaic times, to adapt Archaic to continued occupants Minnesota’s 41 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 41 Page AM 7:58 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:58AMPage42

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area g Archaic site to whichstone was procured often from inferior local sources, Archaic peoples relied moreimportant. Inaddition, upon and the craftsmanship declined or became less specimens, fine notched or stemmed atthe base. Archaic lack points the the change from lanceolate to that points points were (how Native Americans attached theirare evident points) in in gr a ofstoneposition projectile provide points information the MNRRA corridor. per per Americans used copper before and after thisperiod. Nocop- However, archaeologists now recognize evidence that Native da the Midwest industry represented partofan “Old Copper” archaeologists thoughtthat copper from artifacts the past, tools, other gouges, projectile glacial points, drift. They fashioned knives, per per develop acopper tool technology, pieces using ofnative cop- by about 7,000years B.P., Archaic peoples begantion, to or and they made toolsprocess from metamorphic plant foods, ch ogy and their tooland animalresources technol- for subsistence, more asthey sedentary, learned to usemore diverse plant Late Paleoindian period. Archaic peoples became somewhat te loc southwest. The forest-prairie border reached itspresent forests and cooler. Inresponse, bout Archaic lifeways. The narrower and distribution ists divide the Archaic tradition chronologically into three rns differentiate the Archaic tradition from the preceding ea crease regionalism.Innovations in haftingtechnology in ting toting later Archaic times (ca. 5,000-3,000years B.P.). materials used preceding during periods. igneous rocks for cuttingand chopping wood. Inaddi- ation by about 3,000years ago. ar min yeeue,parallel seen flaking Late in Paleoindianly executed, te In parts oftheMidwestIn parts the form and com- As withthe Paleoindian tradition, ngnrl changes subsistence in and settlementIn general, pat- tifacts have yet been recovered from sites located in r diversity ofprojectile styles point may indicate an anged and diversified. They stones used to grinding ed ed from the region or found locally in s aae,archaeolo- d ex an cavated, have been identified and decorative items from copper. In where greate pushed thepr 12 r number airie toairie the s of ch itislikely that adaptive strategies back to forest again), dr Because the environment ofthe MNRRA corridor changed i subsistencetive focused pattern onriver- isevident. Here, adifferent adap- tinuously forested during Archaic times, areas in and that plant were foods. Farther con- to the east, focused bisonbutalsoexploited onhunting smaller animals si and the Canning Itasca in County, the Itasca BisonKillsite, the Canadian shield. and the northernof the eastern boreal woodlands, forests of the deciduous forestsof inhabitants ofthe western prairie, during Archaictimes.during yielded evidence for two separate episodes ofoccupation in St. Croix River onthe St.Croix RiverAccess site (21WA49), tion onthe lifeways ofthe site’s Archaic inhabitants. The upper River Mississippi the valley, site lacked info good from theperiod same the in region and the sumed white-tailed deer and beaver. Animal remains present atthe site indicate that they con- too ae contains an Archaic component. Lake, en there are differ- and material culture of Archaic peoples, becauseMoreover, the environment influenced the lifeways thischronologyassign to the region withanyconfidence. and ithas not yetare rare been to in possible Minnesota, periods: Pe ly date to the later portions ofthe Archaic period. The e component. includes aLate Archaic located atLake Pepin, (21WB56), re ersucs(iefs n rswtrcas,nutsand deer.ne resources and freshwater fish (like clams), astern Minnesota. Those few sites that are known general- te co Washington justeast ofthe MNRRA corridor, County, am ta anged aswell. ce ls from stone taken from nearby bedrock outcrops. ,i ve aPitst 2M1) located justsouth ofMille Lacs ga Point site (21ML11), s in the subsistence/settlements in strategies and toolkits Excavations of Archaic sites western in Minnesota at Few Few tclydrn h rhi fo oett rii,and theatically during Archaic (from forest to prairie, omnCut,indicate asubsistencen Norman pattern County, that re d from thiscomponent resemble types seen atsites al,Mdl,Late. known However, Archaic sites Middle, Early, Archaic sites 17 Archaeological evidence from the site indi- 13 15 have been identified and excavatedhave been identified in Th e site’s occupants manufactured 16 14 The The W King CouleeKing site hile the artifacts rma- 42 Chapter 2 • EARLY NATIVE AMERICAN LIFE IN THE MNRRA CORRIDOR Elsewhere Early The nnesota. nnesota. moister conditions occurred conditions moister cooler and is poorly known in Mi known is poorly south from east central Minnesota to create to Minnesota central east from south s built of rock or logs. Projectile points from Projectile logs. or s built of rock e of horticulture and intensification of wild intensification and horticulture e of maize ber panded obably a fishing camp, that vessel a ceramic yielded as the Medieval Warm Period, the to Warm corresponds Medieval as the land period land period am In Minnesota, few Early Woodland sites have been have sites In Minnesota,Woodland Early few e Midwest, the period is marked by an increased focus e Midwest, an increased by is marked period the ex tified, and most of these lack radiocarbon dates. The tified, dates. radiocarbon lack most of these and tion, in conical large dead their bury to began they use among Minnesota’s Native American peoples. At peoples. American Native use among Minnesota’s ,pr ch and moister conditions of the Little Ice Age, Ice Little of the conditions moister and forested the di rthen mounds,rthen structures internal possessed often which ood creased. This warmer period, warmer This of the parts in other known creased. ea ho relied upon horticulture. In any case, upon horticulture. ho relied during cool- the te ce epin, archaeologists recovered similar thick-walled ceram- similar thick-walled epin, recovered archaeologists least two episodes of episodes two least in world emergenc ri other the and as well: B.P. 1,400 years 1,600 to from one Age Ice Little the that 1850. It is likely to 1550 A.D. from Americans, Native those Minnesota’s especially affected w er ar Woods. Big so-called the • B.P.) years (2,500-2,000 Woodland Early W in th in plants. use of domesticated the and resources on riverine use and manufacture to first began peoples Woodland Early In thick-walled. and heavy pottery, initially was which ad ea or this period are often straight-stemmed. often are this period iden La is the in region site the Woodland most famous Early (21WN1), Rockshelter Moille in Mississippi the located This corridor. MNRRA the from downstream valley River si in Ohio, found ceramics Woodland Early resembles strongly Indiana, Illinois, is vessel The Michigan, Kentucky. and (10-15 mm) with a flat lip,thick-walled was its exterior and of rim the with rows below decorated and cord-roughened clay The impressions. fingernail and punctuations circular with crushed tempered was vessel the construct to used (21WB56), site King grit.At the Coulee or stone on Lake P Rockshelter, La Moille be As at the to ics. fishing seemed activity, primarythe of subsistence remains although the d moister Several new Several 19 cooler an s B.P., temperatures ar ye sponse to sponse to re 18 tional sites. tional During the Woodland era, mov- Woodland During climate continued the the At present, it is unknown whether the lifeways prac- At present, lifeways the whether is unknown it itions. Although the climate was relatively stable over stable relatively climate was Although the itions. it is likely that Native American peoples continued to continued peoples American Native that it is likely s that its inhabitants focused on riverine animals, on riverine focused its inhabitants s that d plants in the upper Mississippi River valley. Mississippi River in upper d plants the iod. Initially, few changes in lifeways accompanied the accompanied in lifeways Initially,iod. changes few ause it was located below a Woodland component. Woodland a below located ause it was hnologies and activities characterize the Woodland tradi- Woodland the characterize activities and hnologies nes. No artifacts were associated with the fire pit, fire with the associated No artifacts were nes. its and nd and Tradition (2,500-350 years B.P.) • (2,500-350 years B.P.) Tradition oodland rridor are thought to have Archaic components,Archaic have thought to are rridor including rthen mounds for burial of the dead are hallmarks of this are burial dead the for of mounds rthen te te NRRA corridor must await the identification and excava- and identification the must await corridor NRRA NRRA corridor. Although three sites within MNRRA the sites Although three corridor. NRRA hile forest vegetation (pine and oak) increased, (pine oak) and the vegetation and forest hile ls rose across the region in region the across ls rose ng toward current conditions. Prairie vegetation decreased Prairie vegetation conditions. current ng toward prairie/forest border reached its present location. Lake lev- Lake location. its present reached border prairie/forest e i w tec of construction the and of pottery introduction The tion. ea per transition, more toward Archaic-Woodland but a trend of hor- intensification the and patterns settlement sedentary corri- MNRRA the Within this era. characterizes ticulture dor, subsistence. their for resources rely on riverine tion of addi W affiliation with the Archaic period was determined solely determined was period affiliationArchaic with the bec of the occupation Archaic of the characterization Further M co (21DK2), Mill Cave Lee the Ranelius (21DK4), Sibley and sites, Fur Company (21DK31) House/American little infor- Mill Lee at the component Archaic The mation is available. fish contained pit that only of a fire consisted site Cave bo ticed at the Archaic sites mentioned above extended into the into extended above mentioned sites Archaic at the ticed M ca Most significant- important. were seeds although nuts and a domes- from date a radiocarbon ly, obtained archaeologists at horizon Archaic an from excavated seed squash ticated site,the use of domesti- earliest the for evidence providing ca the long term, long the occurred. fluctuations short-term several about 1,000 and 500 Between co 43 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 43 Page AM 7:58 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:58AMPage44

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Schilling Arch Part4. of FIGURE an Early Woodl Reproduced from Withrow etal. (1987:Figure 3). n otaycnes long-distance trade exotic in raw and mortuary centers, ar River and Mississippi valleys. These cultures Illinois, Ohio, W Middle Woodland (2,000-1,500years B.P.) • si ap despiteInterestingly, the site’s setting and despite the summer. Itsinhabitants ate various and mammals birds. the site was Early Woodland, probably inhabited the during Moille Rockshelter and the Coulee King the site. During (Figure 4) Excavations atthe site yielded thick-walled ceramics W isthe onlyknownof Lower Early Grey Cloud Island, t present. Coulee’s King Moreover, Early Woodland inhabi- other ants ate nutsand seeds. te e best known for the appearance ofsophisticated mound oodland times, complex cult complex times, oodland corridor. MNRRA the in recorded site oodland pa s, fish remains fish are absent from thesite. Schilling s, re Th nml mmas id,rpie,and shellfish) were reptiles, birds, animals (mammals, nt importance atother offishing Early Woodland ciln ie(1A) located site (21WA1), e Schilling onthe eastern tip that are similar tothat are thoserecovered similar from the La aeological aeological District (21WA1)District onGre 20 and ceramic vessel excavated from the ures developed along the y CloudIsland. During MiddleDuring 21 yielded ceramics to stylistically Havana similar Hopewell exemplified bystream. the Sorg site (21DK1), These sites, at severalmatically, habitation sites ashort distance down- this site have disappeared. nearly alltheexcavatedmask. Unfortunately, artifacts from ments hammered and aclay death from sheets ofcopper, orna- such asplatform pipes carved from stone, burials, cists. Grave goodsincluded exotic items typical ofHopewell revealing interred burials tury, log in tombs and limestone were excavated St.Paul, in the in nineteenth cen- (21RA10), co Hopewellian several influences. large, Mostdramatically, River. A number ofsites the in MNRRA corridor show along the Mississippi found south ofthe Anoka Sand Plain, Middle Woodland culture farther south and east. ap hav ar si are and severalpopulation center, large conical mounds burial in th Middle Woodland of number sites The large been identified. als related to the Havana Hopewell complex have ofIllinois ph W Plain. The region contains the mostnortherly Middle W sents amajor florescence. inte nental region. Although archaeologists are debating how to W we e and theuseofcorn first asacultigenpopulation density, in increased and obsidian), shell, marine materials (copper, astern North America. The major MiddleNorthastern The America.major Woodland centers mi iat aeo xtcrwmtras particularly copper,tifacts made ofexotic raw materials, oodland center, which is represented by the Howard Lake Howard the by represented is which center, oodland ood ood nical mounds burial atthe IndianMounds Park pe ase. Numerous sites containing Middle Woodland materi- re re e been found thisarea. in The Howard Lake phase present the area. in Howard Lake ceramics are quite rpret Middle they Woodland agree that itrepre- culture, la ar e Anoka Sand Plainindicate that itwas animportant oeela nlecsaeas en albeitHopewellian less dra- influences are alsoseen, Evidence for aMiddle Woodland presence has alsobeen nMneoa the influence ofeastern Middle In Minnesota, in land land land oteHvn oeelmtraso lios and r to the Havana Hopewell materials ofIllinois, s to parallel and the subsequent rise decline ofthe hoadIlni,althoughevidence ofMiddle Ohio and Illinois, gro infl ups ismostapparent onthe Anoka Sand uenc e occurs atmanysites the in midconti- 44 Chapter 2 • EARLY NATIVE AMERICAN LIFE IN THE MNRRA CORRIDOR e hallmark of this tran- Th 23 • orative styles. Onamia ceramics NNESOTA I M loped. ENTRAL e Onamia series is a second ceramic type associated type ceramic is a second e Onamia series -C opments suggest that Native Americans developed a developed Americans Native that suggest opments ped stickped impressions, and dentate comb whereas No St. Croix/Onamia sites are currently recorded for the for recorded currently are sites No St. Croix/Onamia Th In east central Minnesota, central In east repre- phase St. Croix the St. Croix ceramics. Onamia ceramics are similar are Onamia in ceramics ceramics. St. Croix me smaller and triangular, and me smaller Native that suggesting ly wrapped with cord. with cord. ly wrapped igns made with a dentate stamp, with a dentate igns made stamp, a comb a stick or ion, certain Middle Woodland traits persisted (ceramic persisted traits ion,Woodland Middle certain ys deve ap bitation sites are typically located near lakes good for lakes near located typically are sites bitation te vel ca e distinguished by loosely wound, loosely by e distinguished spaced, widely cord- tional period in east central Minnesota is the growing is the Minnesota central in east period tional AST ntly in east-central and southeastern Minnesota. In each Minnesota. southeastern and ntly in east-central stamping are less common decorative traits. decorative common stamping less are ,wild fishing, points hunting. Projectile waterfowl and isosceles finely are made phase St. Croix with the associated ves- points. Grit-tempered triangular points side-notched or sels, surfaces, St. Croix with cord-roughened characterize of simple geometric consist Decorations pottery. series des fine post- may transition and Woodland Late to Middle with the da However, ceramics. St. Croix to treatment surface and form differ in dec types two the ar wr Middle to Late Woodland Transition (1,600-1,100 years B.P.) • B.P.) years (1,600-1,100 Transition Woodland to Late Middle decline Woodland, the following Middle of the close At the influence, Hopewell phase a transitional Havana of the differ- somewhat expressed was transition This occurred. e reg burial mounds), conical and styles life- distinct but regional wa E transition. St. Croix Woodland Late to Middle the sents ha si points Projectile staple. as a food rice of wild importance be new,This effec- more arrow. and bow the used Americans on a concentrate to Americans Native allowed weapon tive animals, of large species These few bison. or as deer such de more focused subsistence strategy, and perhaps as a result of strategy, as a result perhaps and subsistence focused more in subsistence, popula- changes American these Native the region. the across tion increased 22 onstructed Middle Woodland vessel excavated from the from excavated vessel Woodland Middle onstructed NRRA corridor. NRRA . The decorative traits of the Sorg of the traits decorative The 5). (Figure cs are similar to those seen on Howard Lake ceramics; Lake on Howard similarcs are those seen to suggests that ideas and technology may have traveled have may technology and ideas that suggests and Sorg are not understood. The een Howard Lake understood. not are Sorg and ce isconsin, of other sites showing Havana Hopewell influ- isconsin, Hopewell Havana showing sites of other erami 45 specimens specimens extending sites With Illinoisfrom Mississippi via the River. Spring to Plain Lake, Sand Anoka the from Hastings, near Mississippi the used clearly peoples Woodland Middle the M the through c relationships cultural and chronological however, the betw in western County downriver,Trempealeau in presence W en FIGURE 5.rec A (1959: Johnson from Reproduced Spring Lake. site (21DK1) at Sorg M). Plate 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 45 Page AM 7:58 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:58AMPage46

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area E of thisdifference. di ce sents the early Late Woodland the period. thisphase, During e S tion willbe discovered along the MNRRA corridor. that sites itispossible ofthat affilia- St. Croix/Onamia sites, yielded St.Croix ceramics. Given the proximity ofsomany v theSt.Croixwithin valley an and Washington Counties. sites Moreover, occasionally lie Ramsey, Hennepin, Dakota, at lakes the uplands in of Anoka, ceramicsOnamia are often found near the MNRRA corridor, ce componentsOnamia are located the lake in region ofeast M Late Woodland (1,350-300yearsB.P.) • W te Tr P per Th Hopewell decorative traits (dentate continued. stamping) temper althoughthe useofgrit and Havana ly thinner, began to emerge. Ceramic vesselsknotweed), became slight- and starchy seededsumpweed, plants (goosefoot and ed butincreased their useofdomesticat-the preceding periods, Minnesota continued asin to useriverine food resources, W dor’ e somepotentialtional period the in MNRRA corridor. Still, s eta inst,the Kathio/Clam River phase repre- ast central Minnesota, xists that sites will be identified, particularly in the particularly in corri- xists that sites willbe identified, alley. the St.Croix Access site For (21WA49) example, epin containsepin aMiddle Woodland/Late Woodland OUTHEASTERN AST nc NRRA corridor. The majorityofsites withSt.Croix and/or ntral Minnesota. However, sites withSt.Croix and/or ff ntral and southeastern Minnesota. Environmental ood ood niincmoet oee,itlacked however, detailed subsis- component; ansition e LaCrosse area has well-known sites dating from this plants. focusedA horticultural economy, onsquash, iod. The previously mentioned Coulee King site atLake er s southern reaches. e data. Noonehas discovered asite from thistransi- en land per land land land C ce ENTRAL s between the two areas may account for much rniin inhabitants ofsoutheastern transition, o,lifeways differed east in significantly iod, M M I I NNESOTA NNESOTA 24 d else • • Duri nte“ae itit of In the “lakes district” where in th where in ng the Middle to Late During the LateDuring e Mississippi of ceramictechniques manufacturing and decorative styles. somewhat thinner. These trends indicate agradual evolution te there issomepotential for the exis- St. Croix/Onamia phase, aw and Washington Counties Hennepin, the uplands of Anoka, more frequent north ofthe MNRRA corridor butdo appear in ed b ne these sites lie that their population was Ingeneral, rising. mals. An increase the in sizeand number ofsites indicates of wild rice and theofdeer hunting and other smallmam- ue trend toward the more focused subsistence practices contin- For ex For the ceramics are found occasionally atsites to the south. Sandy Lake sites but are concentrated central in Minnesota, who displaced the earlier WoodlandDakota, population. de inte i although Native Americans developed techniques for roast- bled thoseofthe preceding Kathio/ClamRiver phase, ar rar and are tempered or crushed withgrit shell. Decoration is have cord-roughenedics are thin-walled, or smooth surfaces, c suddenly replaced the Kathio/ClamRiver Sandy Lake, M W and decorativesurface treatment, traits. However, these Late preceding St.Croix andceramics Onamia terms in oftemper, to the are similar River which are closely pottery, related, co reflecting the that points are sometimestriangular notched, ng and storing wild thisperiod. rice during Archaeologists erami een een nc RAcrio,particularlyitsnorthern in reaches.NRRA corridor, ound ound ood ntinued useofthe bow and arrow. The Kathioand Clam nc . nraigy Natived. Increasingly, Americans relied onthe harvesting ar ay ay in . hnpeet itusually consists notching ofsimple e. When present, rpret the sudden advent ofSandy Lake ceramics asevi- e ofsites River withKathio/Clam components the in ftearvlo e epe perhaps the Eastern e ofthe arrival ofanew people, shall No sites River withKathio/Clam components are record- rud100yasBP,anwpteytp,calledAround 1,000years anew B.P., pottery type, plentiful. Projectile from points thisperiod are small, the MNRRA corridor. Kathioand ClamRiver sites are from River the Mississippi valley. As withthe preceding land land ml,a fe ample, c series across central Minnesota. Sandy Lake ceram- the Lifeways rim. the in Sandy Lake phase resem- ow ow ve sl r oegoua,and their walls are ssels are more globular, lakes or streams where wild rice would have rice wild where streams lakes or w shards ofSandy Lake pottery were recov- 46 25 Chapter 2 • EARLY NATIVE AMERICAN LIFE IN THE MNRRA CORRIDOR aeological sota Arch onents are near Spring Nininger near Lake. are onents onent. Similarly,onent. Triangular Bremer ples of Late Woodland ceramic types: A). Bremer types: ceramic Woodland Late ples of mp mp Number 5, Minne (St. Paul: co co ated was first was ated defined at theVillage site Bremer land land ct ills), subsistence data were lacking from the site’s Late ills), site’s the from lacking were data subsistence ood ood iangular Punctate; B). Nininger Cordwrapped Stick Impressed; and C). and Stick Impressed; B). Nininger Punctate; Cordwrapped iangular FIGURE 6. Exam Tr Anfinson, F. Scott from edit., Plain.Madison Reproduced of A Handbook Ceramics, Prehistoric Minnesota in Minnesota Publications Occasional pology Anthro Society,1979), 35). Figure W Cordwrapped Stick Impressed ceramics were first identified were ceramics Impressed Stick Cordwrapped of lithic arti- Although a variety (21DK1). site Sorg at the (triangular points, present facts were scrapers, knives, dr W Pun with similar corridor in MNRRA the sites (21DK6). Other 26 In the riverine environ- riverine In the • . In general, thin- are vessels e sometimes found at Sandy Lake at Sandy found e sometimes NNESOTA ar I M southeastern Minnesota. Although construc- Although Minnesota. southeastern in in (see below) ar in the MNRRA corridor in Dakota and Dakota in corridor MNRRA the in ar land Late Woodland sites of the southeastern Minnesota southeastern of the sites Woodland Late Other distinct cultural traits emerged during Late the emerged traits distinct cultural Other from Late Woodland levels at the St. Croix Access site Access St. Croix at the levels Woodland Late from known in southeastern Minnesota: in southeastern known Nininger s, between trade and/or of contact some level suggesting e did not use wild rice as much. Wild rice was present in present was rice Wild as much. rice use wild e did not wn during the preceding period,wn during preceding the became beans and corn ashington Counties. Several sites possessing Late sites Several Counties. ashington creasingly important. As with wild rice to the north, the to rice As with wild important. creasingly use ood ntral Minnesota. ntral ed as generally limited to southern Minnesota, southern to limited as generally was corn and alled and wide-mouthed with cord-roughened surfaces. with cord-roughened wide-mouthed and alled te OUTHEASTERN si type appe type W er Oneota resemble Interestingly, that ceramics (21WA49). materials the inhabitants of central and southeastern Minnesota. southeastern and of central inhabitants the S some areas along the Mississippi the along River,some areas in but not enough Instead, resource. food as a major inhab- serve to quantities intensive- horticulture practice to began region the of itants (squash, plants domesticated to In addition sumpweed) ly. gro in patterns, subsistence seasonal stabilized have may of corn popula- greater and settlement sedentary more for allowing of climatic factors, Because tion growth. cultivation corn w of east peoples northerly more the to available widely not ce W ment of southeastern Minnesota, the Late Woodland has Minnesota, of southeastern ment Woodland Late the Americans Most notably, characteristics. unique Native her tion of conical burial mounds probably continued, probably burial mounds tion of conical a new built so-called here Americans Native emerged. form mound “effigy” of familiar in shape the mounds animals, as such of this group most famous mound The bears. and snakes Monument, at Effigy National occurs Mounds type on the points Projectile Iowa. in northeastern Mississippi River triangular, small and are this area from notched with both types ceramic Woodland Late Three bases. unnotched and are Impressed, Stick Punctated, Triangular Cordwrapped Bremer 6) Madison Plain (Figure and w 47 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 47 Page AM 7:58 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:58AMPage48

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Th used arich suite ofbone and chipped and ground stone tools. and tempered withcrushed shell (Figure 7) . Oneota peoples vessels are smooth-surfaced general, butin and decoration, Oneotaclan affinities. ceramics display variation form in te in c i inst,evidence for anOneota presenceMinnesota, the in more or copper. bone, fashioned from shell, fl and other domesticated gardens plants in onriversquash, c s portions ofcentral and southeastern Iowa. The Oneota sub- v in spread to the LaCrosse area and the BlueRiver Earth valley 800 years B.P. Subsequently, near Red Wing and Lake Pepin between about 1,000and ue appe it region, the MNRRA corridor. including Inthis tral Minnesota, 1600s. The Oneota presence was more limited east in cen- present untiltheEuro-Americans first arrived the in mid- River. Oneota peoples Insoutheastern were Minnesota, wh by Oneota probably represents Woodland peoples influenced emerged“Oneota,” the in upperRiver Mississippi valley. a Oneota Tradition (1,000-300yearsB.P.) • House/American FurCompany(21DK31)sites. and the Sibley the(21DK3), Hamm (21DK2), Late Woodland materials include the Lee MillCave grc lopan althoughthey established temporary ng rich floodplain, isted on awide variety ofplants and animals.Mostsignifi- amps associated and withhunting gatheringofwild plants nl,they practicedantly, horticult alleys ofsoutheastern and Minnesota (OrrFocus Oneota), t100yasao anew cultural tradition knownbout 1,000years as ago, dplains. oodplains. They lived ctive walls or . Oneota society was segmented by d until first contactd untilfirst withEuro-Americans. upland locations. Oneota v ot eta inst Bu at noa,the river south central Minnesota Oneota), (Blue Earth ey ey the ideas and lifeways tradition, ofthe Mississippian ich arose to the southeast along the middle Mississippi Although OneotaAlthough sites are concentrated southern in the Oneota tradition appear In Minnesota, also made pipes carved from pipestone or ornaments ars that the Late Woodland tradition contin- in village clusters of One illager r,cliaigcr,beans, cultivating corn, ure, s onriver terraces overlook- s sometimes erected pro- ota villages Beginning s to emerge 27 nisn rhsoi eais Figure 17. Prehistoric Ceramics, Anfinson, 7.ExamFIGURE ples of BlueEarth Oneota ceramics. Reproduced from 48 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 7:58 AM Page 49

southerly portions of east central Minnesota has been found at several sites. In addition, the presence of ceramics with Oneota affinities (Ogechie ceramics) at Sandy Lake sites in central Minnesota suggests that there was some contact between the Oneota and more northerly peoples. Within the MNRRA corridor, Oneota components have been identified at the Schilling site (21WA1), the Lee Mill Cave site (21DK2), the Point Douglas Townsite (21WA54), and the Grey Cloud Mounds site (21WA9). Evidence sug- gests that these sites were probably temporary camps occu- pied when Oneota peoples ventured north from their perma- nent village settlements to hunt for food or to trade. The Oneota component at the Lee Mill Cave site contains ceram- ics that resemble those found on Oneota sites in the Blue Earth River valley. The best excavated Oneota site in this region is the Sheffield site (21WA3), on the St. Croix River south of present-day Marine on St. Croix. Oneota peoples FIGURE 8. Generalized distribution of Native American groups during

used this site as a seasonal hunting and fishing camp some the mid-1600s. Reproduced from Guy E. Gibbon, “Cultures of the Upper

700 years ago. No evidence of agriculture was found. As at Mississippi River Valley and Adjacent Prairies in Iowa and Minnesota,”

the Lee Mill Cave site, the ceramics recovered from the in Plains Indians, A.D. 500-1500: The Archaeological Past of Historic

Sheffield site resemble Blue Earth Oneota types. Groups, edited by K. H. Schlesier, (Norman: University of

Interestingly, the site also contained Woodland components Press, 1994), Map 6.5. that predated, postdated, and were contemporaneous with the Oneota occupation. The relationship between the more society, as Europeans introduced new values, lifestyles, southerly Oneota peoples and the Woodland peoples to the ideas, technologies, and diseases. north is not well understood at present.28 Chiwere-Winnebago Language Group • When the French Contact and Post-Contact Periods entered the area that is now Minnesota and Iowa in the late When Europeans first entered the Midwest in the mid- 1600s, speakers of the Chiwere-Winnebago language group, 1600s, several different Native American groups occupied a subdivision of the Central Siouan language, lived there. Minnesota (Figure 8). By that time, European settlement in These peoples were divided into several groups (including the East had forced some tribes west, resulting in a distribu- the Ioway, Oto, and ) that were closely related by tion of tribes different from what it had been a century language, belief, culture, and kinship. Oral histories sug- before. In some cases, archaeologists have been able to link gest that these groups had split apart from a common ances- tribes present in the area in the 1600s to earlier peoples known only through archaeological data. In other cases, the link between historic tribes and cultures known only through archaeology is more tenuous. Contact with Europeans brought sweeping changes to Native American

49 557016_Book_r 8/5/037:58AMPage50

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Earth RiverEarth Minnesota in atthe invitation ofFrench trader the Ioway moved near1702, Fort L’Huillier onthe Blue the Ioway and Oto moved farther to the west. In1701- attacking anddecimating th ap the Mascoutens from their enemies for long. Inthe 1690s, we northeastern Iowa and moved nearer to the Oto north- in a the Iowayoften resulting war. in had Bythe late 1680s, balance ofpower. An intense rivalry intertribal developed, Oto would get which firearms morewould easily, upset the these people feared thattion asmiddlemen, the Ioway and i t exch andto ammunition the Ioway in guns, glass beads, items, be we W the Algonquian-speaking to the tribes east living in “Their lowing manner: Fa Wi t thecon- first Ioway through eastern tribes since the 1650s, ly tribes. and sometimes hunted withthe more wester-and Missouri, in eastern Wisconsin often together. hunting who livedallied, The Winnebago, the Ioway and Oto were Inparticular, tral tribe. closely language buffalo hides and red stone pipes. They speak the her oa where Iowa, Ioway occupied southeastern Minnesota and northeastern e gtie,particularly the Mascouten. their Bylosing posi- ng tribes, act withthe Ioway troubled the easterly Algonquian-speak- act between the two peoples occurred 1676ata in xplorers and traders learning that ventured the to the west, bandoned their homes southeastern in Minnesota and ca isconsin and Illinois. However,asthe furtradeisconsin and Illinois. spread ther Louis Andre described Ioway the visiting the in fol- pa stern Iowa.however,didnot protect them This move, contact betweenstward, the French and the Ioway nnebago near village present- Wisconsin.day Green Bay, svr ag u or since their greateste isvery wealth large butpoor, isin me more frequent and direct. The French traded metal nefrbsnhds n ae,beaver and pelts. later, Direct con- ange for bisonhides, re ntal,the FrenchInitially, had traded withthe Ioway through Although the French had heard reports about the ntly pursued the Ioway into northwestern Iowa, of thepuants[Wi as theOto occupied north central Iowa. ,were cl village wh nbg]”Sbeunl,French Subsequently, nnebago].” eir large villag eir large osely related to the Ioway, Oto, ich is200leagues from e. Subsequently, 29 by by e W Minnesota. The Santee included the , co DakotaEastern (Santee)•Atthe timeofthe European first on their way to other visit regions and peoples. ri and Oto passed through the MNRRA corridor viathe major is likely that the people who came to be known asthe Ioway it Minnesota sharewithOneota affinities materials. Thus, someceramics found atSandy Lake sites central in Also, Oneota ceramicsto BlueOneota similar Earth specimens. Cave (21DK2)and Sheffield (21WA3) sites both yielded the Lee east Mill central Minnesota. Inparticular, southern, southeastern RiverMississippi and valleys ofnorthern, nents have been documented the in St.Croix and enc to co ed no in sites the that have researchers determined data, logical Minnesota. historic Bycomparing documents and archaeo- trade Upper Iowa River northeastern in Iowa contain European ly known OrrFocus Oneota. OrrFocus sites along the the Ioway returned to the southwest.1702, Pierre LeSueur. However,after the fort was abandoned in w weste who the lived Teton in from present-day (Lakota), Mankato; who lived along the Minnesota River upstream(Nakota), dire RiverEarth valley although near present-day Mankato, the Oto may be related to the Oneota Blue Earth ofthe Blue ast of the Mississippi River.ast ofthe Mississippi The Santee were closely related ve ho occupied northwestern Minnesota. Together, these peo- heo,Wheue n istn and lived along and and Sisseton, Wahkepute, ahpeton, tc,the Eastern Dakota or Santee inhabited muchntact, of rridor. ifthese However, historic tribes are indeed related rthe ea by by language . sdsusdaoe several sitese. withOneotaAs discussed above, compo- s perhaps onseasonal andor hunting gatheringtrips rs, ct evidence islacking. le noapols they had atleast alimited Oneotarlier pres- peoples, No Ioway or Oto sites are known the within MNRRA Historic evidence the Ioway links to the archaeological- rn Minnesota and near the Lake Assinboin, Traverse; goods, as do several OrrFocus several sites do southeastern in as goods, Fr ast ench ench ern Iowa Iowayern visit- the corresponded to villages and culture to theYankton fur trader Nicholas Perrot 1685. Similarly, in 30 and Yanktonai 50 Chapter 2 • EARLY NATIVE AMERICAN LIFE IN THE MNRRA CORRIDOR illage, 32 where e Age may amp, a short dis- the Little Ic lage located lage located Internment C Internment nts, detailed furnished ntury lifeways at the v ntury lifeways ta de tions at the probable location probable tions at the planting vil lage’s resi lage’s s village, which the Dakota occupied from g’ and moister conditions of conditions and moister rived, the Dakota had been venturing into the into venturing been had rived, Dakota the up the Minnesota River. Data from the excavations, the from Data River. Minnesota up the Many significant changes occurred in lifeways, the occurred Many significant changes al work has been completed at these sites. In the sites. at these completed been has al work ch ar cially those of its female inhabitants. Archaeologists inhabitants. cially those of its female e prompted this shift by making subsistence more diffi- more making subsistence this shift by e prompted move, to migrated Dakota the e forced Chippewa as the the Eastern Dakota but has never been investigated. been never but has Dakota Eastern the stern prairies to hunt bison with increasing regularity. hunt bison with increasing to prairies stern e cooler e cooler scendants of the vil scendants h. It is likely that for at least 100 years before the before 100 years at least for enc that h. It is likely pe bout 1750 to 1850. The Dako The 1850. bout 1750 to ult in the eastern forest regions. But the Chippewa may Chippewa But the regions. forest ult in eastern the al excavations at the Little Rapids (21SC27) site, Rapids Little the at al excavations a nine- nth century summer eenth century nformation about nineteenth ce nformation about nineteenth Fren we Th logic 1980s, archaeologi- conducted of Minnesota University the c t culture,material distribution Eastern of the geographic and with the initial their contact following in years the Dakota Fr tance with interviews oral and records historic by supplemented de hav c hav to in region response Superior Lake the from west and south the and expansion American and European trade. fur the use of the tribal Dakota migrations intensified associated eons, For Native corridor. in MNRRA the Mississippi River the and changes environmental to adapted had Americans Increasingly, groups. American Native of other movements define Native would expansion American and European lifeways,American as dramatic glaciers, as the in and ways its ecosystems. and river the transform some 1,500 individuals were held following the Dakota the following held were some 1,500 individuals Conflict Fort of 1862, below bottom in river the is located archaeologically. investigated been Snelling never but has of the confluence at the Similarly, (located Island Pike occupied frequently was rivers) Mississippi Minnesota and by i es a conducted more limited excava of Do Black ial mounds s and bur te si le, Lacs Lake. Mille near goods in earthen mounds. amp 31 village r the MNRRA corridor. The corridor. MNRRA r the eplaced Kathio and Clam River ceramics across ceramics Clam River Kathio and eplaced w archaeological sites associated with Eastern Dakota with Eastern associated sites w archaeological s in forest areas,s in forest for ex tools made of stone and bone, cooked in earthen pots, Early accounts indicate that during the late seven- during late that the indicate Early accounts On the basis of written accounts, basis On the of written Dakota Eastern the Fe rfowl, fished, Intermittently, shellfish. gathered and aeologists have not been able to establish a connection establish able to been not have aeologists e and settlement patterns to the environment of the environment the to patterns settlement e and . Wild rice grew plentifully in the shallow lakes of the lakes in shallow the plentifully grew rice Wild . d te er tween the late prehistoric archaeological cultures and the and cultures archaeological prehistoric late the tween ans, climate of east the because (presumably squash or rly historic tribes of northern and eastern Minnesota. eastern and of northern tribes rly historic om this base, mammals and hunted Dakota Eastern the ch ntral Minnesota did not favor horticulture). favor did not Minnesota ntral ntral Minnesota rather abruptly about 1,000 years B.P. abruptly 1,000 years about rather Minnesota ntral nc as derived from the Algonquian term “Nadouessiw” term Algonquian the from mean- as derived his sudden appearance of Sandy Lake ceramics may repre- may ceramics Lake of Sandy appearance his sudden isplaced the indigenous Woodland populations. However, populations. Woodland indigenous the isplaced pproximate locations of early nineteenth century communi- century nineteenth of early locations pproximate nth century, the Eastern Dakota had adapted their subsis- their adapted had eenth century, Dakota Eastern the act with the French. During this period, French. act with the Eastern the ng “snake” (i.e., “enemy”). t te permanent relatively occupied They border. prairie/forest village ple came to be known to the French as the “,” as the which French the to known be to came ple w i they traveled to the western prairies to hunt bison, to prairies western the to elk, traveled they and de Fr wa ce use with grave dead their buried and forest region. The Eastern Dakota also relied on a number also relied Dakota Eastern The region. forest foods, plant of other seeds, including starchy tubers, maple sugar, berries, and fruits the to nuts. Unlike and peoples corn, south, cultivate intensively did not Dakota Eastern the be tenuous are cultures archaeological known earlier Links to at Excavations at present. a known, are as Kaposia Pine or Bend such ties but no archaeo- ea fooccupation are recorded ar be near Mille Lacs Lake suggest that the Eastern Dakota had Dakota Eastern the that suggest Lacs Lake Mille near con- prior to centuries several at least for area the occupied t vari- Lake Sandy of the ceramics produced have may Dakota ety, which r ce T Dakota, Eastern the of in region the arrival the sent who d 51 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 51 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 52

FIGURE 1. Father Louis Hennepin and Antoine Auguelle “discover” St. Anthony Falls in 1680. Artist: J. N. Marchand. Minnesota Historical Society. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 53

Chapter 3 Discovery and Dispossession

The French During the French era, the Mississippi evolved from a rumor into a thoroughfare of exploration and Euro-Indian com- merce. The French period on the upper Mississippi covers approximately 100 years, but the French presence was limit- o French explorers and traders probing westward ed and sporadic. The French began exploring eastern Canada from eastern Canada in the early 1500s, rumors in the early 1500s. In 1534 Jacques Cartier sailed up the of a great river stirred fantasies that only the St. Lawrence to the site that would become Montreal. But Tunknown can evoke. Was it the Northwest Passage, that long the French only established small fishing camps and trading hoped for shortcut to the riches of ? They knew that who- sites. Samuel de Champlain finally founded a settlement at ever found that fabled passage would gain enduring fame and Quebec in 1603-04, and the French began sending traders wealth. To talk of the Mississippi River’s discovery,however, is and explorers into the continent’s depths. In 1623 or an ethnocentric endeavor. To the Dakota and other Native 1624, Etienne Brule became the first to report on rumors of Americans, the great river was as well known as a local freeway a vast lake (Lake Superior) to the far west. Ten years later, in to an urban commuter. It was their daily and seasonal highway. 1634, Jean Nicolet voyaged into Green Bay, contacting the But it was more. It was their front and back yards. It was their Winnebago, or Ho-Chunk. And in 1641, Recollet priests supermarket as well as their superhighway. They fished, hunt- Charles Raymbault and Isaac Jogues became the first to docu- ed,gathered plants, planted crops, swam, and prayed in or near ment the discovery of Lake Superior. They met the the river. The contrast between European discovery and Native Saulteurs, or Chippewa, and reported on news of the Dakota, American familiarity could not have been greater. The stories of who lived on a great river, only 18 days away. These are the European discovery lay bare this contrast. recorded accounts. The coureur de bois (independent, illegal Dakota life changed dramatically as French, British and fur traders, who ranged in advance of the official explorers American explorers and traders found the MNRRA corridor. and legal traders) may have visited the Great Lakes, the Where the Dakota lived, what they hunted and ate, and the Dakota and the Mississippi earlier, but we may never know.1 tools and other material objects they relied upon changed. Medard Chouart, Sieur des Groseilliers, and Pierre They began the era as the region’s dominant people and d’Espirit, Sieur de Radisson, might have been the first ended it, in 1854, with a forced exodus away from the river they had known and used for so long. While the French and British left little evidence of their presence in the MNRRA corridor, the Americans took it over, transforming not only Dakota life but the river valley’s landscape and ecosystems.

53 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage54

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Fo river’s fetched to give Radissonand Groseilliersthe title ofthe Minnesota historian calls ittoo far asPrairieIsland.as far The evidence and issketchy, trade. traveled Groseilliersand Radissonpossibly upriver become hig oneoftheprincipal River. This route–the Fox-Wisconsin waterway–would the and paddled down to the Mississippi its inhabitants. ment to want more detailed informationabout the river and ro and to the find to capture the trade, its claim to America, unexplored. Joliet’s account and France’s desire to expand the reach aboveRiver, the Wisconsin River’s mouth lay Although the French had discovered the upper Mississippi T t Fe de to the hoping find river’s mouth. After amonththey south, tionably discover the river. From here the partydrifted J Fo took the near SaultSte. Marie, they left Michilimackinac, lead Fr d that itwas the Northwest Passage. Jean the inden- Talon, grew and inflamed the hope or “Micissipi” “Mechassipi” Chequamegon in Bay.on MadelineRumors Island, ofthe River.Mississippi They had west postsasfar asLaPointe, voy e 1660 they conducted furtradingexpeditions into the west- Europeans to see the upperBetween Mississippi. 1654 and h is osietefrtaeo h ein assembled a tothe first seize the furtrade ofthe region, n 7 63 becoming theEuropeans first to unques- 1673, une 17, urned around and headed back River. to the Illinois rn Great Lakes and supposedly beyond. Onatleast one ant or head of finance, commerce and justice, in New in commerce and justice, ant or head offinance, rav ne chose Louis Joliet and Fatherance, Jacques Marquette to t oteFrEs,however,spurred the Frenchute to the govern- Far East, gteSaihadNtv mrcntie,they aring the Spanish and Native American tribes, cided that the river flowed into the GulfofMexico. x River. They then crossed over ashort portage and into x-Wisconsin waterway, and glided on into the Mississippi age el nepdto otefrofrvr O a 7 1673, an expedition to river. the far-off OnMay 17, yte17s the French were poisedBy the , to explore the Merchants from Mo in ,t European discoverers. pteIlni,they crossed into Lake Michigan. g upthe Illinois, he y purportedly canoed into Green Bay and upthe 3 ntreal and 2 hways ofexp Quebec, hoping to be hoping loration and loration si gained royal permis- Sieur de la Salle, 1677 Robert Cavelier, Northwest Passage and the fursofthe upper In Mississippi. re te as possible. storied western river made duLuthwant to return assoon the Pacific Ocean. This news and hisdesire to discover the b 20 days to the west. Somespeculate have that thismight saltybody ofwater these men only heard ofagreat, hopes, and about aroute to the western sea. Boosting French e Dakota villages on he reached the 1679, onJuly1678. 2, The next summer, astheir leader. Heleft Montreal onSeptemberdu Luth, 1, pa s,leaving three men behind to learn more about the tribe ast, een een on for anexpedition to discover the river’s mouth and sada rii uCin butthe river between in rs and atPrairieduChien, andamsey and othersmained hoped amystery, to beat duLuthto the t ovstteDkt n hs ailGesln Sieur rty to the visit Dakota and chose Daniel Greysolon, Th h ra atLk,althoughthe French hopedthe Great itwas SaltLake, e French had now been near the Mississippi’s headwa- 4 Mille LacsLake. DuLuththen returned 54 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION 5 after five days. five after . (For Hennepin’s description of description Hennepin’s 1). (For (Figure where they arrived arrived they where e and one-half months later, one-half e and 1, on July 1680, the re ng in small groups, Rum at the rendezvoused they ission to continue down the Mississippi find the la to down continue ission to Th eli ault stayed with the hunters. As they paddled down- paddled As they hunters. with the ault stayed wntown St. Paul. Artist: J. M. Stanley. Minnesota Historical Society. Historical Minnesota M. Stanley. Artist: J. St. Paul. wntown rav aul. When Hennepin,When 19,aul. here on March landed Accault and Auguelle 1680, Mille Lacs Lake, Dakota, along, Frenchmen the taking Lacs and Mille left Minnesota. hunt buffalo in off southwestern to started T received Auguelle and Hennepin Anoka. at mouth River’s perm Salle, reinforcements. and supplies have to was who Acc falls of the stream, great the to came Auguelle and Hennepin Mississippi, saint, his patron for named Hennepin which Anthony of Padua Anthony,St. 6, Chapter see falls.) on the focuses which FIGURE 2. and the beginnings mouth St. of Creek’s on Phalen down Looking P worlds, between stood they burial the ancient Hopewell one represented by become would hills that low the by the other Bluff and mounds on Dayton’s do . So the first recorded . So the e small party headed down the Illinois the on February down e small party headed Th cted to return to Montreal, to Accault, return to Michael cted chose Salle la uld have to wait. Rather than continue upriver, continue than Rather wait. the to have uld r party of 120 men in 33 canoes. After convincing the convincing After in 33 canoes. r party of 120 men re a voyageur, to lead an expedition to the Mississippi, the to an expedition lead a voyageur, to accompa- Louis Hennepin. and Father Auguelle Antoine nied by 29, upstream, paddled As they a Dakota met 1680. they wa enemies, their that Dakota Miami the of Illinois, had west, upriver. gone returned already parties two the beginning journey, their after esti- days Hennepin Nineteen Anthony Falls, St. below 14 miles the near were they mated in), filled (since Creek of Phalen mouth of just upstream 3) 2 and (Figures Park Mounds about occurred corridor MNRRA the visit to European falls of the 19,March discovery European The 1680. wo to overland marched and canoes their abandoned Dakota source. Delays,source. only as far on the him left as a fort however, Illinois River, Peoria,When just below 1680. in January di 55 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 55 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage56

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area i Dakota, 3. FIGURE European 1854, when theMinnesota when Territorial government forced1854, theDakota out. and theFrench when arrived, Recreation Area corridor between 1680, Croix. Together they headed back to Mille Lacs. the Dakota hunters joined e Hennepin and Auguelle continued downstream butappar- ncreasingly morein intense ntly didnot make River. itto the Illinois Soon Accault and enhl,d uh itching to reach the Mississippi duLuth, Meanwhile, the lowe and American interactions became interactions and American them somewherthem r MississippiNat e below theSt. ional 6 River and party. Together they cont and Dakota Hennepin’s paddling upriver and “rescued” he found the French 1680, and pursued them. OnJuly 25, he took expecting acanoe they be French, might Spanish, arri shortly ahead ofhim. rumors ofsomeEuropeans who had passed downriver the St.Croix River. he heard At the St.Croix’s mouth, and canoed crossed over downBay, the continental divide, near Thunder left hispostonLake Superior, and the Dakota, ve nAgs 4 O hsti,the Dakota traveledd on August up 14.Onthistrip, Fe aring they in ued onto Mill co uld or be English e Lacs, where they 56 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION built Fort naged to build to naged hile Le Sueur’s voyage Le Sueur’s hile where he where W 12 the French ma the French the Mankato River, the Mankato ansion into the upper Mississippi River fal- Mississippi upper River ansion the into gan gathering their forces around Montreal under Montreal around forces gan gathering their 13 e impact of French trade on intertribal relations and on intertribal relations trade e impact of French be transferred their claims in Canada and east of the east and in claims Canada their transferred ench exp Fr Th ty of on February 10, on February ty of Paris treaty, the the 1763. Under s later, the French abandoned the fort and, fort the abandoned s later, most French the the for d during the late seventeenth century. By 1696 the century. seventeenth d during late the ups: , the Wahpekutes, Sissetons, and and turned its attention away from Canada and Canada from away its attention turned and Europe the mouth of the mouth rt, on the and efforts among Dakota up their the gave ar ea ahpetons. The Mdewakantons occupied the area around area the occupied Mdewakantons The ahpetons. ance became embroiled in the War of Spanish Succession of Spanish War in the embroiled became ance crease the Dakota’s use of the MNRRA corridor. At the corridor. MNRRA the use of Dakota’s the crease ench ench NRRA corridor, he reached the mouth of the Minnesota of the mouth the corridor,NRRA reached he re ’Huillier for the Dakota trade. Dakota the ’Huillier for pressure from attacks. Then, attacks. Iroquois from 1713, 1702 to from pressure Fr in in ended 1713 that of Utrecht Treaty the Under America. Scotia, war,the Nova to its claims lost France Although Newfoundland, Hudson Bay. around its lands and thereafter, shortly Lakes Great the to returned French the on the Beauharnois) a post (Fort establish did not they again until 1727, river upper downriver well it was and at Frontenac,Ten corridor MNRRA the from Minnesota. ye pa Mississippi Lakes upper River, Great on the focusing instead Still, Valley. and Ohio River in potential 1752. But the on Prairie Island fort another and French with the ended involvement French further for with the War, in concluded 1756 and Indian began which Tr Fr British, the to MississippiAmerica in New for except Orleans. te Fr seemed to portend a surge in French trade, in a surge French did not portend trade that to seemed follow. M 9, on September River 1700, Minnesota up the pushed and to L tribal migrations exceeded the French presence and would and presence French the tribal migrations exceeded in contact, primary four Dakota time of French were there gro W Spirit of the “People as the known were and Lacs Lake Mille Lake” Mystic Lake.” of the “People lived or Wahpekutes The Mdewakantons, the Wahpetons near and Sissetons the and 9 bout ime a st of the river cen- st of the river we the firstt In 1699 Le Sueur returned In 1699 Le Sueur 11 During 1680s, the built Fort Perrot Nicholas account, for learn we 10 7 om Hennepin we learn that to the Dakota the falls the Dakota the to that learn we om Hennepin the extent that we can trust Hennepin’s flawed and flawed Hennepin’s trust can we that extent the al of buffalo meat. Two hours later, hours 16 15 or Two al of buffalo meat. Fr ne ahead and,ne ahead custom,” what to “contrary killed had ast of the Mississippi and 12 gain. After their early expeditions, the French hoped to estab- to expeditions, early their hoped After French the To As Hennepin’s party descended the Mississippi the below party descended As Hennepin’s go r. d around Mille Lacs Lake. Mille d around m of our hosts,m of our grease bear’s and meat all the took and 8 America, and Biloxi to sailing Mississippi up the River isconsin, Pepin, Lake on on Prairie Island, and just above re as a place of energy, Chapter as a place (see spirituality history and an-Baptiste Louis Franquelin draw “the first accurate map first“the accurate draw Franquelin Louis an-Baptiste do ish a series of posts in the interior to hold off and Spanish hold to of posts in interior the ish a series eft in canoes and took the Fox-Wisconsin route, Fox-Wisconsin proba- the they took and eft in canoes to the Entering Minnesota. to way all the canoeing there from St. Antoine on Lake Pepin. From the 1680s to the mid- the 1680s to the From Pepin. on Lake Antoine St. 1690s, Perrot, for worked trading Le Sueur Charles Pierre In 1695 Le Mississippi upper River. on the Dakota with the cartographer French the helped and France to returned Sueur Je Mississippi upper watershed.”of the 10 vil- map shows The e lages the river to St. Anthony, portaged around the falls and con- falls and the around Anthony, St. to portaged river the in Late Mississippi up the Rum Rivers. and tinued they Since east. finally returned September, Frenchmen the l corri- MNRRA Mississippi the the through down bly went dor a Red Wing. Red English expansion. As a result, buildingEnglish expansion. began French the south posts were These Mississippi upper River. posts on the corridor, MNRRA Trempealeau, of the near however, W l Dakota culture and the Mississippi River in the MNRRA cor- in MNRRA the Mississippi the and River culture Dakota ri w 6). aggerated exaggerated St. Anthony Falls,St. of a Dakota some members found they a had They on an island. Issati camped the called he band de great falls, at the Dakota, Frenchmen with the been had who clubs in hand, war with their “came wig- the down pulled wa found.”they meat those with the that learned Hennepin had te they wanted and scared the rest away. Therefore, those away. rest the scared and wanted they meat. the right take the to had coming later hunters 57 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 57 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage58

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area from Mille Lacs. d he after beinggone for five years, the upper river 1700, in toward th tive for the Sissetons and Wahpetons to moving begin 1720s. And the buffaloand horse provided astrong incen- Dakota outHeadwaters ofthe Mississippi region by the atLake Pepinon the Mississippi and below helped draw the Gary Anderson suggests that the presence ofFrench traders pulled the Dakota away from Mille Lacs.Dakota historian contending that certain forces Other scholars disagree, a Chippewa the had better access to gunsand ammunition, thepushing Dakota out oftheir homelands. Since the re through the MNRRA corridor other increased. The Dakota, St. Anthony Falls traffic and onthe Minnesota River, in ancestral homeland. The Mdewakantons had begun living lages around Chippewa River. asserted control over the St.Croix River and lower River from itsheadwaters to well below Lake Pepin and still they remained the strongest onthe tribe upper Mississippi though the Dakota had south begun and west, migrating to they extended theirtrips buffalohunting 1680 and 1727, they began changingtheir lifestyle. Betweenonly moved, place for the eastern Dakota by thistime. The Dakota not that have the fallsmight become gathering the primary but they had gone to St. Anthony Falls. Anderson suggests he hoped to the find Dakotabuild Fort there, Beauharnois, arrived atLake Pepin September in 1727to Boucherville, on the St.Croix. SieurWhen de Pierre Boucher, below on the Mississippi and Minnesota St. River, Anthony, li gmn os they were more powerfulrgument goes, than the Dakota. iscovered the Dakota had west begun migrating and south ke si the plainsfrom afew weeks to afew months.Even semipermanent vil de ly convinced the Dakota to leave their traditional vil- Some scholars arguethat the Chippewa had started As the Dakota settled River along the Mississippi below By the 1750sthe Dakota had largely abandoned their d to the north and west. e plains. Mille LacLake. 15 17 16 vrl,they remained very mobile. Overall, A combination ofthese factors most lages alo 14 ng thelower reaches ofthe When When Le Sueur returned to 18 na butthey unquestionably helped its define warfare, tribal in the MNRRA corridor. The French didnot invent inter- Dakota intensified and became acentral partofDakota life warfare betweenAs aconsequence, the Chippewa and and because itbrought firearms directly to their enemies. bec byp and Fort they St.Charles onLake ofthe Woods 1732, in the French builtFort Beauharnois onLake Pepin 1727 in fare increased greatly asthe French spread westward. When we know oruntarily retreated that war- intertribal from it, her, and go to war. goto and gather, to travelother tributaries between their em pad villages ther thewithin corridor or turned upthe Minnesota to Dakota T Rumand other rivers that fed into thestem. main Croix, head on the Minnesota. The Chippewa came down from the ri and traders often traveled throughIndians, the MNRRA cor- le failed. In1767thegranted British licenses to traders and at the border ofLakes Michigan and Huron. The policy c to they expectedthan sending tradersthe tribes to the tribes, we the furtrade ofthe upperRiver Mississippi valley and the and the Spanish from St.Louis. When thedidenter British the French comingupfromfrequent New the Orleans area, vac created by butnoeconomic their victory over the French, Th Th raders venturedraders to th uptheMississippi do hmrs noteitro,setting rampant competi- off t them rushinto the interior, ueadetn,aswould and the British Americans.ture and extent, e British didnote British immediately the fill political vacuum tr ra ae,they tried adifferent system. Ratherstern Great Lakes, lydteMsispiadteMneoa St.Croix and ployed and the Mississippi Minnesota, ause ittook away their middleman the in trade position uum occurred. French and Spanish traders continued to dled upstream to trade withthe Chippewa. The Dakota m ote tpsslk ihlmcia,which was ome to them Michilimackinac, atpostslike assed the Chippewa. The both Chippewa resented this, rts,1763-1815 e British, r ontheirway to andfrom wa Whet te rs her her to to e. They alsopo the Dakota moved out oftheir homeland vol- takteDkt,uigteMsispi St. the Mississippi, using attack the Dakota, St. Anthony and rtaged St.Anthony around village s on the main stems onthemain or village e Dakota villages ,to hunt, s, 19 58 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 59

Carver expands our knowledge of Dakota social and cultural traditions within the MNRRA corridor. On November 14, he came to “the great stone cave calld by the Naudowessee,” he said, “Waukon Tebee, or in English the house of spirits.” The cave would take Carver’s name. tion. By the 1780s many English traders worked among Carver “discovered” something already old to the Dakota. the Dakota. No evidence exists, however, that the French, He found “many strange hieroglphycks cut in the stone Spanish or English established posts in the MNRRA corridor some of which was very a[n]cient and grown over with during the British era. Prairie du Chien was the primary moss.” (Figure 4) Like a graffiti vandal, he etched the king trading place on the upper Mississippi. Not only did vari- ous tribes meet French, Spanish and British traders there, the traders fanned out from the wilderness entrepot. British and French traders canoed the MNRRA corridor regu- larly to trade with the Dakota and Chippewa.20 Not many British explorers or traders left detailed accounts of their travels on the Mississippi River or of their encounters with Native Americans. Fortunately, , 1766-67, and Peter Pond, 1773-75, did. Carver had asked to go west to help England secure the lands it had won from France. He had fought in the and knew well the French influence in the interior. After securing a commission from Robert Rogers, the com- mandant at , Carver set out for the Mississippi River from the fort on September 3, 1766. Rogers sent Carver west, hoping to discover the Northwest Passage. More pragmatically, he directed Carver to convince the Dakota and other tribes to visit the British posts and abandon the French and Spanish traders. Misinformation, plagiarism, deceit, and exaggeration plague Carver’s account. So his observations, like those of many early explorers, warrant caution.21 On November 8, 1766, somewhere between Lake Pepin and the St. Croix River’s mouth, Carver met the Dakota or “Naudowwessee” as he called them. Stopping for the day, he read them a speech from Major Rogers and offered them rum, tobacco and a wampum belt, hoping to FIGURE 4. These petroglyphs in Carver’s Cave demonstrate the historical persuade them to visit the British posts. To his journal, he and spiritual significance places within the MNRRA corridor held for the confided the Chippewa resented traders who bypassed them. Dakota and other tribes. Theodore H. Lewis, The Northwest Archaeological A band of the Chippewa (possibly the Pillager Band), Carver Survey, 1898. wrote, robbed traders they caught on the Mississippi between the St. Croix and Lake Pepin. The traders, accord- ing to Carver, usually went up and down the river in large groups for security. Carver left the next day and reached the mouth of the St. Croix.22

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area self invited to the council. bands Eight attended. at ornear a 30. The next daypossibly he met the Dakota near the cave, c one British traderone British claimed few Indianscame to the area. from St. Anthony Falls to PrairieduChien sointensely that Dakota and the Chippewa foughtalong River the Mississippi Mississippi to attackMississippi the Dakota. joined aband ofChippewa that had stolen down to the em had he whom Carver had learned that anIroquois man, the council, fur animalsandsuppliesdwindled. game Priorto entering astheand Dakotaas became more wellMinnesota, armed, as the Chippewa expanded farther south and west into Fr addre sibly Wabasha I)presided atthe conference. The chief traveled down to ofthe Dakota onthe Minnesota River and Encampment” he left what he termed the “Grand 1767, 26, April go provide Carver the opportunity to harangue the Dakota to of several bands planned to attend. Such ameeting would co do F Carver headedacters. From theupto cave, St. Anthony of England’s coat the among Native ofarms American char- el cially wanted gunsfor war. tobacco and other powder, goods. The Dakota espe- guns, Carver to return againwithmore traders them to bring the journey to Mic Americans were “great few travelers,” were to make willing the Dakota). Carver comments that while the Native still favored the(although trip French usually came to amp lso h 5h Atrvstn h al,Carver returned alls onthe 15th. After the falls, visiting ed ed ench ench ni”to be held near the cave he haduncil” visited. The chiefs wnstream andcanoed upthe to to to to Intertribal warfare intensified theera, British during Th Th ed ed the and British to stop tradingwiththe French. Soon ssed the advantages and disadvantages ofgoing to the h rnhi oiin,althoughatleast onechief the French , in and Hispeople British. feared disease ifthey trav- e hereditary chief ofthe Mottobauntowha band (pos- Carver heard about “an annual e following April, with the Dakota for the winter. ployed had asaninterpreter the previous fall, village village the Mississippi, hilimackinac. hilimackinac. Thec htwudbcm aoi,andgot him- that would become Kaposia, 25 Minnesota Riv 26 where hearri By the 1790sthe hief enco 23 er where he ve uraged 24 d on April 27 Headwaters. Minnesota River and to get to the Chippewa atthe throughthe the Mississippi corridor to reach bands onthe traders traveled on he shows, Dakota lands. At aminimum, numerous and British French traders had infiltrated the he demonstratesbartered that the MNRRA within corridor, Although Pond does not indicate that traders wintered or w by visited himand noted that he had aFrench competitor near- he tradedOctober. withthe Dakota the winter, who During two that he accompanied upthe Minnesota River in sent he that traders nine had Pond Indans who ware allto Randavese thare Spring.” in c ar found number“a Larg offrench &Indans Makeingout thare Pond Minnesota Rivers. atPrairieduChien, Uponarriving and especially the among Dakota and ofthe Mississippi themselves throughout the upperRiver Mississippi region co Carver. wanted Hesimply out to asmanyfurshe bring had less goals grandiose than account thisera, during how avoiding serious to conflict.Hoping end the intertribal pa [blood] was Scairs Cald the The Wound two was yet fresh.” Ve Po startled Pond’sHeadwaters, party. Given the recent battles, accompanied by traders who had spent the winter near the adelegation from the Chippewa, Minnesota and Mississippi, him for the treaty negotiations. At the confluence ofthe to Pond headed onthe Minnesota River, trading back yearer of c their traders out withwampum belts asmany to bring ene the conflictbetween the Dakota and Chippewa had wors- anues to Differant Parts Like wiseGiveing Creadets to the if oMciiaknca osbe I17,after anoth- hiefs to Michilimackinac In1775, aspossible. angements for the InSewing winter and Sending ofthare l. n17,Pn hw,furtraders had established Pond shows, uld. In1773, tru mn h epeIhdwt e for the Blad thentursum among Peaple Ihad withme, rties then proceeded some- together to Michilimackinac, nd nd the British entrepot bringing eleventhe entrepot British bringing Dakota chiefs with d. Fearing that the trade would collapse, the British sent thed. Fearing British that the trade would collapse, ho had been tradingwiththe Dakota for several years. Pe fe eunn oMciiaknc Pond learned thatAfter returning to Michilimackinac, rec te le,“Iwas Much Surprised to Seaalled, them So od another adventurer British to leaver Pond, an 28 to di to ffere tpae,including nt places, 60 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION where he had where posia, 1805,American tried to assert Pike Lieutenant Zebulon 32 they reached the St. Croix River, St. Croix the 19, September on reached they On September 21,On September Ka Pike reached ppened to Pike many times already, he had laid up to fix up to laid already, had many times he Pike to ppened lson Peale. Independence National Historic Park. Historic Independence National Peale. lson aser and Cameron begged leave to undertake some busi- undertake to leave begged Cameron and aser est of the river through the of 1803. Artist: 1803. Charles of Purchase the Louisiana through the river est of ontrol over the upper Mississippi River. America had acquired the land acquired had America River. Mississippi the upper over ontrol FIGURE 5. In FIGURE In 5. c w Wi breakfast. He counted 11 lodges but the band was out col- out was band but the 11 lodges He counted breakfast. his boat. the Minnesota River. At Lake Pepin, Lake At trader, River. another Minnesota the Cameron, also Cameron Murdoch expedition. Pike’s joined River. Minnesota on the Dakota with the trade to planned When Fr mouth the below miles Three departed. and in area the ness Ferrebault’s” River, Minnesota of the “Mr. upon a came Pike had piroque trader’s The camp. Faribault) Baptiste (Jean damaged,been is no indication There fo stop. rcing him to if, or this camp a trading site made Faribault that as had ha 30 29 31 e only official American effort to establish its pres- establish effort to American e only official tting the Dakota to agree not to cross the Mississippi the cross to not agree to tting Dakota the me after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Purchase Louisiana the me after which by boundary the tribes. two tradersThe between succeed- ge ca Pike left St. Louis on August 9,August on Louis St. left Pike proceeded As he 1805. Th British sovereignty (ignoring Dakota claims) over the over claims) (ignoring Dakota British sovereignty the in the region and with it the politics with it the and and in region the trade fur the r and ensure their profits, their ensure r and convince to British tried the in in the east and the Chippewa not to go to the west. The west. the to go to not Chippewa the and east the rtage, River), St. Louis of the mouth Lac (at the du Fond te ce onomy. British traders, Northwest those of the onomy. especially efore.) General , James eliminate to General efore.) determined astern MNRRA corridor technically ended with the Treaty with the ended technically corridor MNRRA astern up the Mississippiup the River, thriving and fur an active found he Fraser, up James a trad- picked he At Prairie du Chien trade. on bands Dakota with the winter planning to er who was Company (established in 1787),Company (established building posts continued Wisconsin, and nnesota Mi in including at Grand sites Po Prairie du Chien, Lake. Leech and Lake Sandy en ec e of Paris, in 1783, Revolution. American the concluded that east the to land the owned now States treaty,By that United west land the claimed still Spanish The Mississippi.of the domi- to In reality, continued British traders river. of the na wa the Mississippi the River make to Chippewa and Dakota the fixed ed to and Chippewa the a dividing line between create to attempt at statements their Despite failed,Dakota however. of east Michilimackinac, some lands still viewed Dakota the Mississippithe as theirs. the British influence in region, the Britishthe influence Pike Zebulon dispatched headwaters river’s the to MississippiSt. Louis up the from sites best the choose to Pike ordered Wilkinson 5). (Figure the from them for military land for the obtain posts and way the prepare to Pike He also directed Americans. Native trading posts, government for with the alliances make Dakota, and Chippewa intertribal fighting, stop locate and source. Mississippi’s the America gained control over an 825,000,000-square-mile over control gained America $15,000,000. for Mississippi France of the from west tract years Spain three from Louisiana reacquired had (France b 61 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 61 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage62

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area ta for aconsiderable dis- appear blue and clear, (Minnesota), as ink. The waters ofthe St.Croix and St.Peters lecti been remarkably red; wa “The he wrote, cross hisbateau. in Ittook only40. And, em re Pike the St.Croix’s mouth onhisjourney upstream, a Dakota villagewher Later that day Pike went upthe Minnesota River to the Little Crow and about 150ofthe band’s warriors arrived. andpoint waited for the Dakota. be Pike reached the large island atthe Minnesota’s mouth that sep met asmallDakota campoffour lodges. Whether thiswas a wh bec the cession wouldCrow and LeFils de Pinchow or Pinichon, Rivers. Little onlytwoAlthough Dakota leaders signed, Dakota lands atthe mouths ofthe St.Croix and Minnesota withseventiating Dakota chiefs atPike Island. Hewanted Pike began nego-Pike’s arrival. The at noon, following day, th Dakota warriors had left, bo of the day they waded freezing in cold“to force the water, pa that anyone less determined would have turned back. His next day became the Mississippi Pike claimed sodifficult having their to way fight of the day, over three rapids. The the river becameand hispartystruggled shallow, for the rest however,found the river deep enough. Within four miles, Pike initially after portaging around St. Anthony Falls, a bout the river itself the in MNRRA corridor. After passing bout the river above St. Anthony Falls. OnOctober 1, nc marked that the river became narrow. surprisingly To ar rty passed somelarge islands and more rapids. For much t f has n rwte hog ais”The river and draw them through rapids.” shoals, ats off te ph ich the Senate agreed initially to pay only$2,000. ome fact. The Dakota gave upsome100,000acres for ar e below their confluence.” i ae he set upcamponthe island’s northeast s hisname, g“osaon”or wildng rice. “fols avoin,” Two he miles farther up, fteMsispi since we passed Lake Pepin has r ofthe Mississippi, nieCre n od Pike delivers someinsights CarverUnlike and Pond, He didnot wait long. The next day Petit Corbeau or ate village or a temporary camp is not clear. not is When camp temporary a or village ate sz h on,he tested how manystrokes heasize theneed point, to e Cameron and where ey ey 35 had had had 33 it is deep, appears asblack appears it isdeep, Pike offers rare details ret his post. While the urned upon he aring of 34 mouth hailed him. Although they received initially him Dakota from anumber oflodges about three miles above the next day ashe headed back down some the Minnesota River, be the Dakota pipes asagesture ofhisdesire to establish peace placed someChippewa pipes that he had acquired next to Pike ..” set againstpoles; and asmanypipes, 40 chiefs, lo i Pike may have arrived atthe timeofanother annual meet- had 600 people. As thiswas thetimeofyear same that Carver W to to ag the Dakota chiefs. LeFils de Pinchow came soon after and he sent when for he againreached Pike Island, on 11, April co they had killed. the indicating number ofmen and women on the paddles, ke Th Minnesota. Pike found some40Dakota chiefs waiting. in Pike’s untilwe found eight.” see to the wrecks, continued and we saw five more; ashort distance higher up, shore; c “Opposite the mouth ofCrow river we found canoe, abark Pike recordedattack the Chippewa. that OnOctober 4, found onereason why the Dakota had probably set to off River from going to war. Uponreaching he the Crow River, had warfaretribal rampantand hoped to end it.Onlyhisarrival October 4. minable distance. They did not reach the Crow River until Crow River’s mouth. For itseemed Pike’s crew, aninter- winds onlysome25miles from St. Anthony Falls to the g Tecuclhue”Pk eodd “wasng. “The Pike two recorded, council large house,” ut to pieces withtomahawks and the paddles broken on gs capable ofcontaining 300men. Inthe upper were dges, ahpetons. The Dakota numbered about 100lodges or te nv tween the tribes. Pike apparently had effect. little The re n arrows asChippewa. The Chippewa had carved marks Le FilsdePincho ey r ey rpreter recognized the canoes asDakota and somebro- ed ed attended agreat annual Dakota conference 1766, in stopped the Mdewakantons upthe Minnesota living in nhsrtr rpdw h issip,Pike hoped to On hisreturn down trip the Mississippi, ieteBiihtaesadepoes Pike found inter- Like thetraders British and explorers, epresented Sissetons and the Mdewakantons, ce ce to to the Dakota to make peace withthe Chippewa. So otacucl A ust the Dakota calledhost acouncil. Pike At sunset, 36 lage, about about w’s village, nine miles upthe nine 62 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION e–close to the e–close to Mdewakanton vil- Mdewakanton At Kaposia, dis- Pike 44 on the Mississippi above The 42 41 village ier travelers, had affect- and this By the end of the British of the era, end By the over- rl 43 ea by ut 4,000 to 5,000 peopl ut 4,000 to 45 e Mdewakantons living in bark lodges,e Mdewakantons which ill had abo Dakota bands holding regular councils within cor- the councils regular holding bands Dakota d the British period. The Dakota had moved out of out moved had Dakota The British d the period. Assuming Carver’s and Pond’s accounts are somewhat are accounts Pond’s and Assuming Carver’s By the end of the British era in British 1815, of the era end By the much know we settled on the Mississippi in the MNRRA corridor and Mississippi on the corridor in MNRRA the settled n thinking about agriculture. As early as 1775,As early n thinking agriculture. about Pond r had become increasingly important to the Dakota. the to important increasingly become r had Kaposia the And band River. Minnesota just up the r or ze ng an important transition. ng an important tribal unity.” wnstream and up the Minnesota River. The MNRRA cor- MNRRA The River. Minnesota up the and wnstream gi rn to rely more on corn and beans. Anderson also argues Anderson beans. and on corn more rely rn to ri do do bundance of game along the Mississippi the Minnesota of game along and bundance lages st lages changes Important earlier. 20 years held they numbers with the trade his trips to had both On occurred, however. the on River, Minnesota on the commented Dakota Pond a deer, He killed Rivers. buffalo, ducks, ani- other and geese mals with little effort. British made an effort to keep trade open, trade keep to an effort British made sided Dakota the of Treaty Only with the British duringwith the war. the Ghent, in 1815, war, the ended British which did the withdraw. begin to traders true, charac- know we particulars many of the capture they te They Lacs Lake. Mille around homeland traditional their had do ri Carver, and Pond, Mdewakantons the found others and other ri a seasonal had established sea- than more gained had area The mouth. St. Croix’s the Kaposia the band, to importance sonal burial as the of band more about the MNRRA corridor. While some aspects of some aspects While corridor. MNRRA the about more little, changed had under- lifeways were Dakota Dakota the goi covered thcovered pat- in subsistence a change indicated suggests Anderson te up the broken had conditions “changing economic that larger seen villages ed hunting and the depletion of fur and game of fur and animals forced depletion hunting the and to and groups smaller into break to Mdewakantons the be noted, Minnesota the of living mouth the near Dakota the . . .” of Corn. “Plentey raised River On 38 had goods to goods to and hile that hile W 39 een when they b As the Americans limited Americans As the 40 hing the Dakota and as American as and hing Dakota the 37 utlook and condition had condition and utlook d. On September 27,d. On September his wife to a letter penned he Pike’s influence was short-lived, was to influence failed America Pike’s as Pike’s expedition signaled a new era. His was the first the His was era. a new signaled expedition Pike’s ll, the Dakota forcefully let him know they intended to ll, intended they him know let forcefully Dakota the suffer. The led to even greater shortages of shortages greater even to of 1812 led War The suffer. llecting furs from Indians in the western Great Lakes and Lakes Great in western Indians the furs from llecting yon omen and had had children by them, by children had had and the omen because and ut the region. As tensions between the and States United the between As tensions region. ut the assed earlier. They had been tired, been had They cold, earlier. assed sick,“just and aunch into an unknown wilderness; an unknown into aunch . . . ” April 10, trip, on his return again on this commented he confessed, he now,” my sensations different “How feeling. expe- the bleak how about description with a long following o dition’s wilderness may have been unknown to Pike and the and Pike to unknown been have may wilderness Americans, long. for be not it would growing The of 1812. War the up until after follow of trade flow did disrupt the presence American the Native Americans in the MNRRA corridor and through- and corridor in MNRRA the Americans Native the o embargoed Britain mounted, Jefferson Thomas President active- States United The in fall of 1807. the all commerce delivering from British traders stop to ly tried upper Mississippi River valley. This move forced some forced move This valley. Mississippiupper River withdraw. to British traders co we go to war. America’s of missions establish number to of an increasing Mississippi. upper the over control economic and political active remained traders now,But for French British and the activity he much how Demonstrating river. upper on the Anthony Falls, St. below Mississippi on the River found wilderness the to gateway falls as the the regarded Pike be traders failed to make up the difference, up the make to failed traders began Dakota the to goods and,Anderson, to according impover- Dakota the left Dakota married had English the traders Because ished. w the supply of goodsthe reac p men, of civilized haunts the and borders upon the to about l and prepared a package for his commander in St. Louis. his commander for a package prepared and business,“This closing sealing,” and remarked, he world.” civilized the to adieu last like the “appeared 63 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 63 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage64

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area th ra the postin area.manent military hurried explo- reachednavigate the upperRiver, theper- Mississippi first resources get to them. natural and they would increasinglytheir existence, deplete their Dakota would look more often to outsiders for the tools of frequent and deadly. the While stillanindependent people, was becoming more asaresult ofthe fur trade, and warfare, factures. Gunshad become essential for successful warfare, the Dakota grew more dependent uponforeignfull, manu- i wh nearmembers the years years which codified the American victory.1815, Onlyeight RiverMississippi valley following the Treaty ofGhent in American explorers an Th uralized or leave. The Americans, however, had to enforceto however, had leave.uralizedor The Americans, which required foreign traders to becomeAct of1816, nat- Astor convinced Congress to pass the Foreign Intercourse the furtrade. Inanattempt to foreign eliminate traders, theposts in United States and began assertingcontrol over under John bought the Jacob Northwest Company’sAstor, ther underminingtheir traditional ways. c the Dakotathe river would and itswatershed, turnto agri- be RiverMississippi and the MNRRA corridor. and As game fur l forcingmore changes their in smaller and smaller area, they wouldof Americans squeeze swelled, the Dakota into a land although itwould be decades before Americans knew the and the era ofsettlement these during begin 25years, ng native goods. Although the supplywas never steady and fsyead eoeln,forcingthem away from the before long, ifestyle and, ulture and annuities fur- from the American government, in rd n eteet and they hurried change tradefor and settlement, tion, e Da e gaiasdsperd upsetting the ecosystems of aring animalsdisappeared, ich European and American products had begun replac- e Americans as well asthe native inhabitants had. As the number One ofthe mostobvious changes was the extent to Fo after the Virg the treaty, ko lwn h a f11,the Americanllowing FurCo., the War of1812, ta ta an d th d e village demonstrated. ri ve d trad r. r. The era of exploration would end exploration The of era ers dispersed through the upper the through dispersed ers inia ,the fir st to the act. he he Longdecidedcrossed the river to see nearby if 40strokes, in the river was only100to 120yards wide. Since Pike had na wide by the pool behind Lock and2–Longsaid Dam was the Fo uncounted traders who had been through itsomanytimes. tion about the MNRRA corridor than had been left by the beyondthe Mississippi provides thispoint more informa- re sitestial military to the map upper and locate Mississippi poten- Engineers), a a TopographicalStephen Engineer(abranch ofthe H.Long, do lea seriously.answered: Little Crow and Wabasha quickly should take the Americans. The commander British to learn how seriously they near Sault Ste. Marie, Island, Wa Americans. In1816Little Crow II(Cetanwakanmani) and they didnot readily accept the traders, married English and Green Bay. and 1816they in began forts building atPrairieduChien the Butthistime Mississippi. Americans had come to stay, traders some British remained onthe upper new act, the out. British e and medals. traders ButBritish continued to reach the east- Crow and uptheirflagsWabasha British giving conceded, re Mdewakanton leaders had first to renounce theand British refused to let them. insisted Smith that the two Smith, BrevetAmerican commander, Brigadier General Thomas A. and campabove the withthe other Dakota already there, Prairie duChien. When they tried to pass the frontier hub nDkt,and the Americans felt agrowing needrn Dakota, to drive rmy that had temporarily from split the Corps of ached the mouth ofthe St.Croix River. Hisdescription of cognize the Americans astheir new sovereigns. Little ur miles above the St.Croix’s mouth–an area now made nteWsosn entering justbelow the Mississippi wn the Wisconsin, rrowest place below St. Anthony Falls. As he measured it, rned what he meant. They returned upthe Fox River and co basha IItraveled to thepostatDrummond British oi 87 Secretary of War John 1817, So in C.Calhounsent steMeaatn a eido,fuh ih and with, fought As the Mdewakantons had relied on, uld beat him. Although Pike’s bateau may have been 46 Despite the American victory andthe ignoring 47 O uy1,11,Long 1817, (Figure 6).OnJuly 15, 64 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION r and all ve 52 d free from everything that everything from d free ommanded the ri ommanded lage c 51 olorless an olorless 54 it impure, a It has sight the taste. or to either er llapsed in many places and was filling with was and in many places llapsed During 1823 voyage, the that reports Keating co 53 Pike was much more impressed with Fountain Cave, with Fountain impressed more much was Pike On July 16,On July 1817, Kaposia, party passed Long’s which but was day that Cave at Carver’s Long also arrived had 14 lodges (three more than Pike had counted 12 years counted had Pike than more (three 14 lodges the sandstone inside. Cass and Schoolcraft had visited had Schoolcraft inside. Cass and sandstone the a most beautiful circular room, circular a most beautiful and above finely arched s below the Minnesota River’s mouth. Long observed mouth. River’s Minnesota the s below s a narrow passage & difficult of entrance which opens which & difficult of entrance passage s a narrow ich lay some three miles above Carver’s Cave and a few a and Cave Carver’s above miles some three lay ich le e water is entirely c is entirely e water me it has acquired,me it has originally implies, which River. Clear to rlier), that Demonstrating burial ground. its nearby and ve g] hall, 8 in & from width 15 feet in length 150 feet about to eenish appearance, bot- the from reflections by occasioned ed ho tried to pass. Little Crow’s people, Crow’s Little pass. to ho tried remarked, he used eld nts a stream dramatically different from the one choked the from dramatically different nts a stream om, but when taken into a vessel is perfectly clear.”om, is perfectly a vessel into taken but when While o16 in height, finely arched over head & walled on both o16 in height, & walled head over finely arched that “The entrance of the Cave is a large windinding is a large [wind- Cave of the entrance “The that in t suc- Next perpendicular. nearly fs of sandstone clif by sides ce w traders. from tolls exact position to strategic their gr t Long pres- river,” “great means accurately Mississippi more e Like century. of the end at the sediment and with pollution the below appearance Pike, reddish water’s the noted Long St. Croix. of the mouth wh mi in Mississippi above the St. Croix emphatically deserves the deserves emphatically St. Croix the Mississippi above na Th would rend h ea St. of the out Mdewakantons the forced not had Chippewa the hunting up yet, were people valley Croix Crow’s of Little most was river the narrow how Given passed. Long when river that here, the vil that Long noted Native contained once had cave the While unimpressed. a small lake, and etchings American the that Long found ca they found the names of Henry R. Schoolcraft and the party the and R. Schoolcraft of Henry names the found they Cass,of Lewis Governor, carved Territorial Michigan the in in 1820. cave the sand. He records no markings by anyone in his 1817 no markings anyone by He records sand. account. Long. Long. Artist: Vincent Peale. Charles It was only nine miles to the to only nine miles It was 49 Shortly after passing this narrow gap, passing this narrow after Shortly 48 50 as slow.” Long provides the first comment on the river’s water river’s on the first the comment Long provides ating, journalist, expedition’s the river the that grumbled at. Delaying him further,at. Delaying twist- the that Long complained alls of St. Anthony.” alls of St. ng river made using their sail nearly impossible. using sail nearly On Long’s made their ng river Independence Hall Collection,Independence Hall Philadelphia. FIGURE 6. Stephen Harriman Harriman FIGURE 6. Stephen up to St. Paul was “crooked and its channel impeded by impeded its channel and “crooked was St. Paul up to sandbars; rapid, current the and of the progress the so that w boat Minnesota River overland, River Minnesota observed, he by days but two bo i Mississippi, up the expedition second in 1823, H. William Ke quality. Long recorded, during his 1817 trip,quality. “The that much more clumsy than Long’s six-oared skiff, six-oared Long’s clumsy than more much Long needed only 16 strokes. Long commented that his party had “Passed the Detour de Detour the “Passed his party had that Long commented Mississippi of the (Pine Bend),Turn Pin Pine or is the which the and St. Louis river, turn of the between most westwardly F 65 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 65 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage66

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Minnesota Historical Society. Cetanwakanmani. HenryInman. Artist: 7.LittleCrowFIGURE II, might inthe region. An growing try to impress the Dakota withthe Americans’ fl rec largest U.S. expedition into Da into U.S. expedition largest up the Minnesota to Shakopee’s village. This was the MdewakantonMississippi village RiverMississippi two in armed keelboats. Hestopped atthe O’Fallon took adetachment of50U.S. soldiers upthe O’Fallon assumed initially thisrole. of1818, Inthe spring bec ofitabout years learned six had earlier. The cave would had been discovered recently,andsays, the Mdewakantons re stream flowed through the cave “& cheers the lonesome dark ro expanding occasionally into small meandering course, a bout 50feet diameter. in The cavern then continues a uenc ra ihiselvnn umr. onanCv,Long Fountain Cave, treat withitsenlivening murmurs.” m facrua om”Longalsorecorded that aclear oms ofacircular form.” ommended that the United States build afort atthe con- ome apopularnineteenth-century attraction. Whil fteMneoaadMsispiRvr,he didnot e ofthe Minnesota Rivers, and Mississippi e Lo e ng examined the sites acquired by Pike and Indian agent na kota territo kota s andcontinued 30miles med Be ry and helped con- njamin 55 Minnesota go at Camp Coldwater. te the fort becamethe fort. atradeAs Forsyth cen- promised, and Winnebago visited , the Chippewa, Dakota, arri States stillneeded to make thispoint. When O’Fallon the fort represented aninvasion oftheir land. they not did think Mdewakantons. he surmises, Therefore, care and concern for the demonstration of the Americans’ co They saw itnot asasymbol of American ..” as anasset, Little Crow and other Mdewakantons “viewed the garrison Anderson asserts that toContrary common assumptions, from traders British and to control the Native Americans. the furtrade we protect to re emphasize, not did he which and itwould be atrade center. objectives, The Americans’ wo wo the three it purposes that the fort would serve for the tribe: probably atalltheMd Thomas Forsyth. and Indian agent, At Wabasha’s village, i en Colonel Henry Leavenworth arrived1819, atthe conflu- a re vince the Dakota to abandon anyhope themight British in agreed. Snelling fort’s namebe changed from Fort St. Anthony to Fort Major General recommended1824, that the co set Snelling the fort’s and onSeptemberLeavenworth, 10, ng anew fort. Joining himonthewas trip the Sacand Fox bout their permanence the following year. In August r, turn. te rnerstone. After the nearly visiting completed fort in to,which ishow butasa the Americans viewedntrol, it, ne to and visit protect traders British western in ce ce uld provide ablacksmith to their fix weapons and tools; uld protect it them from the Chippewa and other Indians; ve as traders located across the river atMendota and nearby rtribal gatheringsand negotiations.rtribal Inaddition to the Th Fo In August 1820Colonel Josiah replaced Snelling of the Minnesota Rivers and Mississippi to build- begin village, the c the d atLittleCrow’s village, 56 59 rt Snelling quicklyrt Snelling became the regional center for e Americans eliminated anydoubts Little Crow had (Figure 8). The the War following year, Department Little Crow’s made actions itclear that the United (Figure 7). 60 57 ew akanton vil hief was abse ae,For lages, 58 syth laidout t having nt, 66 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION 63 ds became abun- goods became rtisan and Medicine Pa ong greater the traders even encouraged raders relied more on alcohol, and alcoholism a few buffalo near the Buffalo River (Beef River Buffalo the near buffalo a few am lage together. Grand lage together. ion ion it As more American traders moved into Dakota lands, Dakota into moved traders American As more et During 1820s, the fur trade the by introduced forces 62 me rampant. At Kaposia factionalismme rampant. intensified. struction of fur and game of fur and resources. struction mp ca ank from or wallowed in Mississippi. the Long had wallowed or ank from ant, replacing ever more native articles. Faced by growing by ant, Faced articles. native more ever replacing ommunity life. More traders and steamboat transportation steamboat and traders ommunity life. More de d competition, t be drinking, Crow, excessive Little to prone himself not could the vil hold co and the growing American presence began to tear at Dakota tear to began presence American growing the and c European and American that meant of the Mississippi River below St. Paul. Buffalo no longer Buffalo St. Paul. below Mississippiof the River dr encountered Slough), Pepin, Lake just below duringexpedi- his 1817 tion. animals east aring and fur-be and ating, of Stephen in his account Ke 61 Snelling about 1848. Artist: Henry Lewis. Minnesota Historical Society. Artist: Historical Minnesota 1848. Henry Lewis. Snelling about lts, many more capture to had Dakota so the e destruction of game e destruction By the 1820s the Dakota participated in an economic participated Dakota 1820s the By the Th isappearing. He found little game a 200-mile reach isappearing. He found along urned to muskrats. Muskrat skins brought far less than far skins less Muskrat brought muskrats. to urned Long’s 1823 expedition,Long’s rapidly game that was reported d system that would undermine their traditional culture. The culture. traditional their undermine would that system trade American then and on European relied they more food,goods and furs to the acquire to hunted they more the scarce, were Dakota 1820s beaver the By the and trade. t pe beaver furs of the three-fourths totaled Muskrats muskrats. during 1820s, the Dakota the by trapped mid- the by and 1830s, some 95 percent. for accounted they of the Mississippi and the focus on the muskrat and other and muskrat on the Mississippi focus of the the and to Mdewakantons the forced furs and food small animals for west. hunt farther 67 FIGURE 8. Fort FIGURE 8. Fort 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 67 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage68

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area we their lands east River. ofthe Mississippi Although settlers suggested that the Dakota agentIndian sell atFort Snelling, Dakota way oflife. undermined the a traditional way for men to status, gain which had been American effortsto stop warfare, intertribal selected the west end ofGrey Cloud Island for his.Even a he he and warfare sapped their population. Thinking epidemic, ber the Mdewakantons w l w Littleits tributaries. Crow and IV, the Taoyateduta, man to huntmuskratsMississippi onthe Minnesota River and began le Dakota families pa Small groups worked more efficiently (suggesting asimilar Mdewakantons broke into smallgroups to huntmuskrats. the up the Minnesota River from Fort Snelling, less andless success each ye they had Saukand Crow Wing Rivers, St.Croix, Chippewa, pa brought changes to the Dakota settlement and economic Pa Bottle l ar ment more withagriculture. The smallnumber living to experi- especially the Mdewakantons, forced the Dakota, c i and before he gets the means ofliv- the extinction ofgame, in ofthe Dakotaplight hunter well. he wrote“‘This period,’” captured the the superintendent for Indian Affairs, Clark, eft for the prairies. g from the produce offlocks and agriculture.’”ng, ult. The demise ofthe region’s furandresources game tegtmlssuho aoi,and Medicine Bottle milesbout eight south ofKaposia, owudasm i rnfte’ aeadrl,evenho would assumehisgrandfather’s nameand role, ound ound ttern for Little Crow’s people). Bythe mid-1830s, tterns. While the Mdewakantons stillhunted along the rtisan establishedrtisan 1826, “‘is that in which from “‘isthat in he ceases to be ahunter, 1826, re re co a alnt bu ,0,a train asmallpox asstarvation, s had fallen to about 1,400, By 1836the Mdewakantons faced acrisis. Their num- survival for By the end ofthe 1820sand early 1830s, Th l tptedwwr prl Lawrenceuld the stop the downward Taliaferro, , o rsigfrteln,Taliaferro thought the not pressing for the land, eft to create theirown e depletion and the ofgame focus onmuskrats also the fort increasingly relied onhandouts. 64 a villageat ho stayed theirvillages beca in aving theirvil aving ar . At Black Do village “Pine Turn” or Pine Bend Pine or Turn” “Pine s after 1825.Grand lages onthe g’s village, 65 66 William me diffi- just o fiilyapoetetet ni ue1,1838. approvenot officially the treaty untilJune 15, sented the interest ona$300,000trustfund. Congress did also to get apermanent $15,000annual annuitythat repre- and goods annually for 20years. tools, farm They were food, the Mdewakantonsthe treaty, were to receive $25,000in b hoped themoney wo Dakota could benefit more far from itssale than itsuse.He h aoa althoughthey had begun experimenting with the Dakota, and pork and flour replaced wild meat and wild rice. And Americans. This dependence deepened disappeared asgame Mdewakantons depended more uponthe annuities and the buy food the and trade goods. Without muskrats, allowing themfurnished to mostofthe Dakota’s income, muskrats traders quittaking them. Outside the annuities, muskrat prices had fallen solow the Eastthat in some Dakota’s and game furresources. Bythe late 1830s, the hunt. by upfor the making success declining of nomadic lifestyle, tr the contends, we members returning from the60-percent surge. (Granted, a at about 1,400. By1850itreached 2,250individuals, the MdewakantonOn the treaty’s population had stood eve, their population began to recover.smallpox vaccinations, another food source and asmore members tribal received Mdewakantons respite. abrief As the annuities provided endorsed endorsed W Tal li Jo in ’sfarming. people planted crops atLake Calhoun Cloud Manhad asked Taliaferro to help their people learn ta een worked o worked een ve ke ke nEtn the Secretary 135Dakota of War.hn Eaton, By1834, isconsin Territory in August 1836, the government the isconsin Territory August1836, in 80 salsigacmuiynmdEtnil,after acommunity establishing named Eatonville, 1830, st boosted the band’s Anderson numbers.) Ironically, iaferro’s treaty proposal. Butwhen Congress created the d atEatonville. The U.S. government balked initially at up agriculture. Already Black Dog Little Crow, and yteedo etme 87 the treaty’s detailsBy the end had ofSeptember 1837, Th Th e annuities could not hide the demise ofthe e payments from the 1837treaty gave the the idea. ut and the Dakota had agreed to them. Under ea ty allowed the Dakota to continue their 67 uld enco urage the Mdewa kantons to 68 68 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION Pressure began mounting for the Dakota to sign anoth- to Dakota the for mounting began Pressure rpower on the west side of St. Anthony Falls (like some Anthony Falls of St. side west on the rpower vitably open to settlement. Some hoped to capture the capture to Some hoped settlement. to open vitably te treaty, one that would bring an end to their residence their to bring an end treaty, would that one moving the Dakota intensified. Within a couple of years a couple Within intensified. Dakota the moving his time the Americans would force the treaty on the treaty the force would Americans his time the ntrepreneurs had already done on the east after the 1837 the after east the on done already had ntrepreneurs American settlers started crossing over by the hundreds to hundreds the by crossing over started settlers American would Government Federal the believed they on lands squat ine wa e treaty). Others simply wanted to stake their claim to farms, to claim their stake to simply Others wanted treaty). as possible. as cheap land the get could they knowing er River. Minnesota lower and Mississippi the along River T in 1848 and state a became Wisconsin After Dakota. in 1849,Territory Minnesota the of talk created Congress re old Eye–the . Pig’s 10) 142 buildings (Figure had St. Paul te. 70 69 old village si old the land at the far from becoming sedentary. becoming far from osia II, Little Crow’s Village. Artist: Seth Eastman. Minnesota Historical Society. Artist:osia II, Historical Minnesota Seth Eastman. Village. Little Crow’s e river was supposed to have been a boundary, but been have to supposed was e river Th As the Mdewakantons and other Dakota relied more relied Dakota other and Mdewakantons As the r steadily increased,r steadily opened Methodist and rrant had built a cabin at Fountain Cave on June 1, on June Cave built a cabin at Fountain had rrant 1838, ve agriculture, were upon Americans,the onto pushed Americans steadily the moved had Crow By 1838 Little lands. Mdewakanton’s the Almost . 9) (Figure MississippiKaposia the River across settlers,immediately Pierre seller including whiskey the “Pigs Eye” Parrant, claimed Pa others and Parrant kicked commandant Snelling’s but Fort set- then Parrant year. that later off military the reservation the Throughout Kaposia village. old the near at or tled 1840s,1830s and of the east population American the ri 1837 treaty. the Kaposia after near shortly a school 69 FIGURE 9. Kap 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 69 Page AM 8:03 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:03AMPage70

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area FIGURE 10. FIGURE Americans made another treaty inevitable. exp houses stood atthe new Kaposia and two frame village–hadKaposia about adozen farms, ansion and theansion Dakota’s growing dependence uponthe St. Paul about 1848.HenryLewis. MinnesotaArtist: Historical Society. (Figure 11).St.Paul’s 71 we the began territorial negotiating governor, withtheRamsey, under headed acommission byUnited States, Alexander were becomingdesperat bands, and MinnesotaMississippi the like other rivers. Butthey, knew they would uptheir homeland be giving onthe Mdewakantons were not soanxious. The Mdewakantons W heos wanted the atreaty sotheyahpetons, could get annuities, tr,o pe ad,ofthe Dakota. Despite someini- or upper bands, stern, W ietewsenbns the Sissetons and hile the western bands, . nJl 8 81 the 1851, e. OnJuly 18, 70 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION 73 and services and 76 goods raverse des Sioux sig- d T of Mendota an of Mendota basha then warned everyone that some that everyone warned then basha Wa 77 74 75 e Senate finally ratified both treaties but eliminated treaties both finally ratified e Senate The Treaties Th Under the Treaty of Mendota, called,Treaty as it became the Under the ateduta) stood up for the Mdewakantons and signed and Mdewakantons the up for stood ateduta) failed to comply with provisions of the 1837 treaty, 1837 of the with provisions comply to failed s, before the Senate ratified it. The Mdewakantons com- s, Mdewakantons The it. ratified Senate the before basha III and the other chiefs balked. The United States United The balked. chiefs other the III and basha Pilot (III) request, to outside basha’s moved council the rth $1.41 million. Of this, into go to $1.16 million was u should pass away from the river and go farther west.’” farther go and river the from away pass u should oy hile the Mdewakantons resented the settlers, the resented relied they Mdewakantons the hile nt ($58,000) of this annually to the bands as food, bands the to nt ($58,000) of this annually accul- te eferred the matter to Washington and nothing came of it. nothing came and Washington to matter the eferred osion of American settlement around the around settlement naled theAmerican explosion of area. metropolitan Cities Twin in the Mississippi River two the celebrated Territory in Minnesota the Settlers of news at the river the across west Many hurried treaties. farms town- and to claims staked and treaty Mendota the si then Dakota The reservations. permanent for provision the the whites along the river in front but all around you, but all around in front river the along whites the . . . Yo Wa had At continuing. before met be these insisted Dakota the and Wa Knob, River, Minnesota the land of the in full view above long so for them to so important been had that rivers and 11). (Figure a 20-mile- receive to were Wahpekutes and Mdewakantons their for in return River Minnesota on the reservation wide also promised government The land. wo 5 per- pay would government The 50 years. for a trust fund ce ($30,000). cash and projects turation Mdewakantons had threatened to kill any chief who signed who kill any chief to threatened had Mdewakantons Nevertheless, 5,August on (IV or treaty. the Crow Little Ta plained. The government had not made any payments made not had government The plained. Snelling at Fort commandant The treaty. the by promised r W handouts, for their from on them returned they when hunt. winter . Thirty-five other leaders followed. With this With followed. leaders other Thirty-five 12). (Figure nt,eve Mdewakantons of the leadership assumed Crow Little their leave to have would his people that acknowledged and homeland. 72 ssed the Dakota frankly: Dakota the ssed only have not would “‘You On July 29 the Mdewakantons and the Wahpekutes the and Mdewakantons 29 the On July dre gan negotiating with Governor Ramsey and the U.S. the and Ramsey with Governor gan negotiating ign a treaty. be commission,treaty Ramsey at Mendota. in a warehouse ad tial troubles, the Sissetons and Wahpetons signed the Treaty the signed tial troubles,Wahpetons and Sissetons the Wahpekutes put the This 23. on July Sioux des Traverse of the to ceded of lands in middle the Mdewakantons and to bands on both pressure the intensified and States United s 71 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 71 Page AM 8:03 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:03AMPage72

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area tance of waterfalls 1881.Minnesota Historical totheDakota. Both images Society. attest of todepth Dakota history thearea. in RudolphArtist: Cronau, Indian face ispaintedthewaterfall into at awaterfall Fawn’s that lay justbelow Leap, St. Anthony. The face may about suggest something thespiritualimpor- This image captures somethingof tothe left. sits whatAn theMdewakantons gave the1851 upin 11. FIGURE Treaty. aDakota sacred object, Red Rock, they wanted. the reservation get onthe upper Minnesota River that would apparently assured theRamsey, Mdewakantons that they am the bandagreed finally to the 1852, On September 4, the Mdewakantonsbands agreed rejected to the change, it. questioned whether they should move. While the western en Th mns HnyM ie aSt.Paul furtrader hired by dments. Henry M.Rice, e task ofconvincing the Dakota to leave their ances- 78 and convinced Gorman to let the Mdewakantons stay onthe his people could not survive the winter without provisions war prepare the reservation by plantingfields and building however.from Gorman, The United States had agreed to the Dakota to leave grew. Little Crow won ashort reprieve and Wakute Wabasha, (Red Wing) and did pressureDog, on re Dakota’s fields. While Little Crow’s people didnot overtly veye speculators and settlers sur- of1853, 1853. Inthe spring asMinnesota’s territorial governor in who succeededtral homes fell to Willis A. Gorman, si tteituin,th st theintrusions, hue,butfailed to do so. Little Crow insistedehouses, that d Kaposia II for town lots and farms, usurping the usurping IIfor townd Kaposia lots and farms, e Dakota atthe village s under Black 72 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION 79 ally. But under the fur trade, the But under began Dakota ally. the gic Removing the Mdewakantons from the Mississippi the from Mdewakantons the Removing used the river without changing it much, without river the used or physically wn the forests,wn the ground, the plowed fully harnessed and olo the falls. As more Americans came and the more they relied they more the and came Americans As more falls. the river the change to want river,on the would they more the of At this point history the fit needs. their to land the and corridor. in MNRRA the story the over takes settlement River and the MNRRA corridor closed an important era in era an important closed corridor MNRRA the and River history, history, of in in history Dakota and the river’s the of years, hundreds For Dakota the settlement. American had ec ecosystem, river’s the altering eliminating nearly some left, Dakota cut the After freely settlers American species. do Minnesota River to the new reservation near Redwood. By Redwood. near reservation new the to River Minnesota June, of reached end had the Mdewakantons of the most home; new their the around remained a few only Mississippi River. In the springIn the of 1854, to Crow Little took Gorman ashington, of D.C., Secretary the him to introduced and Mississippi through the winter of 1853-54. winter Mississippi the through W Crow Little Pierce. Franklin President and Interior the satisfy to reservation the about assurances enough eived rec In May be. him, would resisting futile how learned he and 1854, up the on an exodus his people led Crow Little Little Crow. Prisoner at Ft. Snelling following the 1862 Ft. Snelling following Prisoner at FIGURE Little Crow. 12. Society. Historical Minnesota Whitney. E. J. Conflict. by Dakota Photo 73 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 73 Page AM 8:03 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 74 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 75

Chapter 4 Transforming the River I: Commerce and Navigation Improvements, 1823-1906

response to their lobbying, Congress authorized four broad projects to improve navigation on the upper river and a number of site-specific projects in the Twin Cities metropol- itan area since 1866. The four broad projects are known as

1 the 4-, 4 /2-, 6- and 9-foot channel projects. Key local proj- he Mississippi River gave birth to most cities ects included Locks and Dams 1 (Ford Dam) and 2 along its banks, and those cities did all they (Hastings), Lower and Upper St. Anthony Falls Locks and could to ensure that the river would nurture Dams, and the little known Meeker Island Lock and Dam, theirT growth. From their days on, they insisted that which was the river’s first and shortest-lived lock and dam the federal government should “improve” the river for navi- (Figure 2). In less than 100 years, these projects would rad- gation. St. Paul and Minneapolis pushed especially hard. ically transform the river that nature had created over mil- Lying at the head of navigation, they demanded a river capa- lions of years and that Native Americans had hunted along, ble of delivering the immigrants needed to populate the canoed on, and fished in for thousands of years. land (not considering that they had taken it from Native Americans) and the tools and provisions needed to fully use Navigation on the Natural River: it. They also demanded a navigable river so they could 1823-1866 deliver the bounty of their labor and their new land to the Early Navigation • Paddling upstream from St. Louis to St. country and the world. All this, they believed, was part of Paul in 1823, the Virginia became the first steamboat to their manifest destiny. To fulfill that destiny, they would navigate the upper Mississippi River. It did so twice that help transform the entire upper Mississippi River and make year. Other boats had been plying the upper river–Indian the reach between Hastings and St. Anthony Falls one of the canoes, piroques, flatboats and keelboats–but the Virginia river’s most engineered. (Figure 1) announced a new era. Under steam power, people and goods The Twin Cities had to see that the entire Mississippi could be transported upstream far more quickly and in River was remade. They needed local navigation projects, greater numbers and quantities than on boats with sails or but these did little good without a navigable river down- oars or poles. As steamboats evolved and as the region's stream. So they actively participated in local, regional and population and production grew, the river's limitations as a national campaigns for navigation improvement. In

FIGURE 1. Port of St. Paul, head of navigation, 1853. Steamboats at

the Upper and Lower Landings. Artist: Thompson Ritchie. American

Memory Project, .

75 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 76

recorded 41 steamboat arrivals in 1844, and 95 in 1849. During the 1850s, traffic soared. By 1857, St. Paul had become a bustling port, with over 1,000 steamboat arrivals each year by some 62 to 99 boats.2

Table 5.1 Number of steamboat arrivals at St. Paul, 1844-1862.

1844 ...... 41 1854...... 256 1845 ...... 48 1855...... 560 1846 ...... 24 1856...... 837 1847 ...... 47 1857. . . . 1,026 1848 ...... 63 1858. . . . 1,090 1849 ...... 95 1859...... 802 ESOURCES STUDY • 300 YEARS IN THE IN LIFE OF MISSISSIPPIYEARS RIVER • 300 ESOURCES STUDY 1850 . . . . . 104 1860...... 776 1851 . . . . . 119 1861...... 772 ORIC R 1852 . . . . . 171 1862...... 846 ST

HI FIGURE 2. To the residents of the growing metropolitan area, the 1853 . . . . . 200 Mississippi promised unlimited wealth if they could harness its power (Sources: Frank Haigh Dixon, A Traffic History of the and make it navigable. The early dams, however, served only one purpose. Mississippi River System,Washington: Government Printing Office: 1909, p. 20; Mildred Hartsough, From navigation route would become unacceptable and Canoe to Steel Barge,Minneapolis: University of Midwesterners would repeatedly call for its improvement as Minnesota Press, 1934, p. 100.) a commercial artery. Steamboat traffic grew quickly after 1823. Between As rapidly as the number of steamboats increased, they 1823 and 1847, most boats carried lead and worked could not keep pace with demand. In 1854 the Minnesota around Galena, Illinois. Few boats plied the river above Pioneer,a St. Paul newspaper, reported that passengers and Galena. After 1847, as miners depleted the lead supply, the freight overflowed from every steamboat that arrived and 1 trade quickly declined. Despite the fall of lead shipping, that “the present tonnage on the river is by no means suffi- steamboat traffic on the upper Mississippi boomed. One cient to handle one-half the business of the trade.”3 While measure of this was the number of times steamboats docked two steamboats often left St. Paul each day, they could not at the upper river's port cities. Some steamboats might land carry goods away as quickly as merchants and farmers only once, while others returned many times. St. Paul deposited it, and many upper river cities mirrored St. Paul.4 Each steamboat that docked created new business and a greater backlog, as more immigrants disembarked to estab- lish farms and businesses.5 Spurred by Indian land cessions that opened much of the Midwest between 1820 and 1860, by Iowa's statehood

76 Chapter 4 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER I ep poorly placed cargo or an or cargo placed ep poorly the Quincy, Minnesota lying on the bottom. 10 assenger traffic became so important to the to important so traffic became assenger P 9 illed and enshrouded it. Where steamboat pilots steamboat Where it. enshrouded and illed ees f Natural River r they labeled preachers. Planters were those that were Planters preachers. labeled r they the water to become snags. Snags skewered the careless the skewered Snags snags. become to water the me lodged in the river's bottom, in river's the me lodged hid sleepers and Tr te neath the water's surface. Snags could, Snags surface. water's the neath in an instant, ca to nt they called sawyers. Those that bowed in and out of the in out and bowed that Those sawyers. called nt they r. FIGURE 3. Wreck of of FIGURE 3. Wreck Society. Historical steamboat trade that by 1850 passenger receipts exceeded receipts 1850 passenger by that trade steamboat receipts. freight 1,711,951. The 1866,Before of steamboats, during heyday the upper the charac- its natural most of still possessed Mississippi River te followed the deepest channel, deepest the the or one shore as it hugged followed other, leaning might trees swe fell Many trees deck. a steamboat's from passenger unwary in frequent such were Snags steamboat. cautious the even and them named pilots steamboat that hazards treacherous and cur- with the forth and back swayed that Those 3). (Figure re wa be be 8 More than one million than More 7 Historian Roald Tweet contends Tweet Roald Historian 6 e Missouri ballooned between 1850 and 1860. 1850 and between e Missouri ballooned y of the Great Lakes, Great y of the Iowa, entering many settlers 1846 and Wisconsin's in 1848 and by the creation of creation the in by 1848 and Wisconsin's 1846 and ov assengers arrived at or left from St. Louis in St. Louis 1855 alone. from left at or arrived assengers 77 that, at St. Louis of immigrants boats number boarding “The 1849 gold the dwarfed St. Paul to upriver traveling and .” and rush to p Minnesota's population jumped from 6,077 to 172,023, 6,077 to from jumped population Minnesota's 674,913, 192,000 to from Iowa's from Wisconsin's Illinois' 775,881 and 851,470 to 305,391 to from As a result, states river upper four of the population the ab in in in 1849,Territory traffic Minnesota on the the passenger East; the from came Many passengers boomed. river upper others came Europe, from and famine fleeing in Ireland by some arrived While continent. on the unrest political wa jour- of their part made Wisconsin western and Minnesota river. upper on the ney 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 77 Page AM 8:03 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:03AMPage78

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area hav the river sometimes became soshallow that boats would v w to minimum depth for navigation atlow water. From St.Paul nel. Deep was over anything three feet. shallow could sandbars be scattered across thechan- main tojump the other. Oraseries ofdeeper pools separated by pools run near might onebankfor ashort reach and then nocontinuous low channelDuring water, existed. Deep stage steamboat pilots and Corps engineers called low water. or Mexico and the world. P the river's overall navigability. A badcould bar sever St. stranded even the lightest steamboats. determined Sandbars de lem. They divided the upperinto aseries Mississippi of many islands were temporary. varied as withthe season and the year, ofcourse, islands, ro i ple once waded across istrue. the Mississippi bateau hisskiff. and Longonly16in how few strokes they needed. Pike took 40strokes his in they rowedthe river became itswidth above to see Hastings, Stephen Longboth not onlycommented onhow confined be impale asteamboat or tear itapart. c ch ri i c gtentrlrvr Br nNls ihgn onthe St. Michigan, ng the natural river. Niles, Born in nnumerable side channels and backwaters. the Bydividing urrents. itswaters dispersing ut away, divided into the natural river, aried fr u’ n atns oncinwt t oi,the Gulfof connection withSt.Louis, aul’s and Hastings’ ve as 16inches. From the St.Croix River to the Illinois it ughly 40islandsughly broke the river’s flow. The number of ca ep pools separated by wide shallows that sometimes annel and thereby itsdepth. Islands created dangerous h t ri ie,the controlling depth atlowthe St.Croix water River, ea e toofthe city. stop sight within r, me surprisingly narrowme surprisingly places. in Zebulon Pike and l al the river and began would falling enter the rly fall, Sandbars determinedSandbars the river's controlling depth–the posedSandbars the mostpersistent and frequent prob- George Byron Merrick captures well the perils ofsail- Hundreds of islands, some forming and someforming others being Hundreds ofislands, islands limited the water available to the navigation om 18to 24inches. 13 Fr om justbelow to Hastings St. Anthony Falls 14 Normally, during the late during summer Normally, 15 A few miles below St.Paul, 11 16 12 The na The The The folklore that peo- tur al river T sharing the atticwithhisbrother.sharing ve the levee. “we grew“And Merrick into recalled, the thus,” co i Subsequently he turned to newspaper editing and publish- to he settled NewAfter in he returned the war, York. In1876, he left the river the in Civil to fight War. 1862, But in next years nine he worked hisway upto become acub pilot. after and oneseasonboy became acub engineer. Over the en re fleeing fromfamily the Dakota Minnesota, in Conflict hunted. le and groceries to the steamboats that stoppedstores” atthe storage father bought awarehouse onthe levee from which he ran a June in arriving 1854.Merrick's 30 miles below St.Paul, some they took asteamboat Wisconsin, upriver to Prescott, ly left Michigan Illinois. There and traveled to , in and Pig'sEye–received Grey special Cloud, note at Prescott, first. Three ofthosenightmares–the sandbars “nightmares” na Lake Michigan. be J be ..dodging reefs the and hunting crossings, multitudinous ofaboatdling under the usual conditions–in the making learned “The han- in quality heartistic added, And pilots, wha and woodpile, house, stump, tree, rock, hill, “every bluff, that pilots had to memorize river he said, were sogreat, sp ie,Merrick watchedoseph River, steamboats go back and forth ng. rav ve co Wisconsin to become–fittingly–a railway agent. ry life ofthe riverry life aswe grew years.” in uld see and hear every steamboat that stopped ator passed we ot ed nin,and the town ofSt.Joseph on Indiana, tween South Bend, st water.” ou ua ie. ios erc eone,had to studythe Merrick recounted, tural river. Pilots, Merrick’s history. The dangers ofnavigating the natural 20 . h aiylvdi h pe w tre,Georgee. The lived family the in upper two stories, unts the effect could bars have onasteamboat's hull. te eli gh n16,Nta ay the sonofaMinnesota pioneer Nathan Daly, In 1862, From From ve gdw h issip oIlni,Daly'sfamily ng down to the Illinois, Mississippi ,M and transshipping business. Healsosold business. and transshipping “boat- r else isto be noted along the banksofthe river.” er i xeine,Merrick learned muchhis experiences, about the 22 ri Po ck ck 17 or or be When When hunters often fell prey to the river they gan working onasteamboat asacabin erc a 2yasod hisfami- Merrick was 12years old, 18 Fr om there the boys 19 When old When 21 78 Chapter 4 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER I . With 4). (Figure On July 31,On July 1866, Humphreys,A. A. the 28 n in 1864, drought occurred. a severe when Major General Gouverneur K. Warren. First head of St. Paul head of First Warren. K. General Gouverneur Major create a 4-foot channel and deal with the Rock the with deal and channel a 4-foot create . . .” words, In other to Corps the asked Congress nomizing the water of the stream,the of nomizing water the of insuring pas- the To r. rmine how to establish a continuous, establish to rmine how for channel 4-foot rren's arrival in St. Paul in August, in in St. Paul arrival rren's established Corps the te te FIGURE 4. District, Engineers. of Engineers. of Corps Corps Chief of Engineers, ordered Brevet Major General and Major and Chief of Engineers, General Major Brevet ordered begin the to St. Paul to Warren K. of Engineers Gouverneur Mississippi River upper on the work Corps' Wa Island Rapids,Island means, feasible the ascertain to a view “with by eco sage, seasons, all navigable at of feet four drawing of boats wa de on the based was water Low water. at low river upper the elevatio river’s channel, 4 By a 4-foot at least a channel meant Congress 9- as it did in 1864. (The as low fell river if the deep feet same on the benchmark.) is based today channel foot Rapids, Moines Des and Island its first established Corps the Mississippi upper River: on the offices and Paul at St. one Rock to moved be one at Keokuk, would latter (the Iowa in 1869). Island 26 24 hus, the become had St. Paul T 25 It directed the Corps to survey the survey to Corps the It directed 27 ne of the largest steamers on the upper on the steamers largest ne of the ,o t pilots the natural river was too perilous, too was river natural the and t pilots Some boats ground to a halt on sandbars. To get To on sandbars. a halt to ground Some boats of her bottom on the gravel bar over which she was she which bar over gravel on the bottom of her 23 for a night a few miles below St. Paul. Here, St. Paul. below miles a nightfor a few the e 1866 act provided for the first project to focus on focus to first the project for e 1866 act provided th a few exceptions,th a few President the and/or Congress assed them just after sundown. The young Daly young The sundown. just after them assed nt position on internal improvements. Prior to the Prior to improvements. nt position on internal ed of navigation. Th On June 23,On June 1866, first the postwar passed Congress Rocks and rapids were a greater problem for steamboats for problem a greater were rapids and Rocks opposed a federal role in internal improvements. in internal role a federal opposed r, p ere ion's destiny. That destiny,That believed, they become to was ion's destiny. alled in his memoir that he could “distinctly hear the “distinctly hear could he in that his memoir alled ll as the nation's breadbasket. Before the Civil War, Civil the Before breadbasket. nation's ll as the rrow gorge and limestone boulders left by the retreat of retreat the by left boulders limestone and gorge rrow at; is, that its hull. breaking or warping ff ve al improvements and the beginning of dramatic changes to beginning the of dramatic and changes al improvements assing.” rinding rinding alls to downtown St. Paul, St. downtown alls to miles, some 15 river river the amp 79 head head ole wh upperthe river. A Four-Foot Channel,A Four-Foot 1866-1877 To steamboa might limit river an unreliable their feared Midwesterners reg East, as the as strong industrial power and a commercial as we upper the for minor improvements authorized Congress Hastings. above river the for but no work Mississippi River of inter- era a new act signaled This Act. Harbor and River n that agree generally Historians Mississippi upper River. the a very took government federal the end War's Civil with the di trying to ply the river above St. Paul. From St. Anthony St. From St. Paul. above river ply the trying to F slope, steep This 100 feet. with a than falls more combined na falls,the treacherous too this reach through river the made navigation. steamboat for Northern Light Northern p c ri rec g off, spars, used sometimes on which pilots poles wood long jacked alternately be would boats of the back and front the walk to In this way, hoped pilots forward. pushed up and “hogging” If lucky, avoided they bar. the the over boat their bo Mississippi River between St. Anthony Falls and the Rock the and Anthony Falls St. between Mississippi River war, wi had 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 79 Page AM 8:03 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:03AMPage80

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area understood how itworked. Corps would have to survey the river each year untilthey River's navigation channel frequently changed and that the Wa Island Rapidsto Minneapolishimself. From thiswork, Wa ve improvement on the upper river. an important in part Warren's strategy for navigation inch ch RiverMississippi and he had to complete hissurvey. After ch federal dollars. demanded the federal the federal expertise and presence, the businessinterests and the general public. All farmers, as the river itself. Itcame atthe insistence ofthe states, the Corps' role the in river would become asdeep and broad wo a permanent stake how in the upperRiver Mississippi rs,the channel quickly became deeper.crest, da each wavethe formed river that abar acted fell, asmall like when start atthe headeven ofthe reach and moving begin down, t r confidence.” even the pilot isscarcely ofdeepest ableto the find line water and indecisive which way to go and lost, asitwere, seems, Warrenobstructed. Inthese reaches, found that “the river ca ha downstreamforming this ofit. Without enough current, back side oftheand bar another would bar eventually begin river wo m looking somethingsnowdrifts. like A wave wouldom, eported, sandbars moved sandbars waves in eported, along the channel bot- ei ls ucsin the river could become seriously close succession, me in aso h pe issip ie,at the scale of2 ofthey maps upperRiver, Mississippi ar Warren had to learnannel, more about the upper m. Behindthelay bar adeep pool ofwater. Just past the ppened too slowly for navigation. When aseries ofbars uld bema rren contended itsnatural that in state the Mississippi rren began the uppersurvey Mississippi from the Rock gi es to the mil the to es ewe 86ad16,WarrenBetween completed 1866and 1869, 30sur- Before he could develop aplan for achieving the 4-foot in the current slowed. Another wave soon followed. As ng men under himto undertake surveys, the tributary daylig uld cutting through begin the steep slope onthe 31 naged andch ht, and is unable to proceed andisunable withany atnight ht, Th e. Ten sheets formed acontinuous of map e smallpools behind thewould bars play anged. From forward, thistime 29 nsm ece,WarrenIn somereaches, 30 omly the Normally, observation.” co of thewater actionof running and the means oftemporarily been had usi who ly swept the damsaway. Warren found Overall, that those water high these measures usual- had been onlytemporary; But the low-water channel worthy ofspecial attention.” in nity onthe river’s east bankthat merged withMinneapolis He learned that Minneapolisand St. Anthony (the commu- wha project. Warrenimprovements, began planningthe 4-foot channel andmaps from what he would learn about early navigation the current too fastfor steamboat navigation. w the river aboveigation. Without St.Paul alock and dam, project would allow Minneapolisto become the head ofnav- wh $235,665 to construct alock and damatMeeker Island, he requested and business Minneapolis political interests, annualhis first report 1867.Respondingpartto in butcame to hisown conclusions. sources, es or det or es Croix River. The focused remaining maps onproblem reach- the river from St. Anthony Falls to the mouth ofthe St. b some bars. Warren hadThese dams,” “slight commented, em had unsuccessful. companies Rafting and steamboat interests had toDesiring the keep citizens flowing traffic past their city, of the cityand the other along running the Wisconsin side. front in onepassing island the river split into two channels, steamboats an to travel Iowa, above St.Paul. At Guttenberg, P safe and continuous 4-foot channel for the river between St. een een u n h okIln ais Warrenaul and the asked Rock Island for $96,000 Rapids, stonro,tosalw too tooas too strewn shallow, narrow, withboulders and toln t gained by their constant experience and it, ntrolling 1872) had funded1872) had theremoval of c a ewe inaoi n t al I ul,this ich lay between and Minneapolis St.Paul. Ifbuilt, attempted to close the Wisconsin channel buthad been t work they had done to improve the river's navigability. Wa Wa somewhat successful, “indicating away “indicating ofdeepeningsomewhat successful, ployed damsto wing scour the channel attrouble- rren asked private companies and local interests rren provided in estimates for avariety ofprojects, ailed the river near aspecific town. 33 Warren l Warren ng the river “evince ashrewd knowledge istened to these knowledgeable boulders to encourage 32 34 Fr To crea To om these te a te 80 Chapter 4 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER I 40 38 accelerated (Figure 5). (Figure 41 the Civil War War the Civil Before the Civil War, Civil the only Before 39 following following hile the river had been hauling grain birth the since been had river the hile hile steamboat traffic had remained strong before the before strong remained traffic had steamboat hile ailroad spanned the upper river river upper the spanned bridges ailroad throttling shipping on the river. throttling river. shipping on the W Railroad expansion expansion Railroad W ultural growth. Railroad trackage in the United States in United the trackage Railroad growth. ultural s over the undeveloped waterways. Railroads moved Railroads waterways. undeveloped the s over ansion across the Mississippi. Despite the growing men- growing the Mississippi. the ansion Despite across no navigable rivers. Compatibility between rail lines rail Compatibility between rivers. no navigable re ll. With each new rail connection, rail new made each With steamboats ll. ric ive for navigation improvement at the same time they at the improvement navigation for ive ain to railroads. Early railheads on the upper river's east river's upper on the Early railheads railroads. ain to sponding to market changes. Rail lines were generally Rail lines were changes. market sponding to anic of 1857 and the Civil War ended further railroad further ended War Civil the anic of 1857 and ommodities, and, inflame and yet, provoke would railroads age een r the pace of the Midwest's unprecedented population and population unprecedented Midwest's of the pace the ag in 1860, 30,635 miles from multiplied 52,914 in to 1870, 92,296 in and 1880. or St. Louis to of going Instead ports. trips between shorter Orleans, at La New might unload St. Paul from a steamboat railheads, at other or Island Rock or Crosse increasingly, and local. became commerce most river agriculture, many advan- too of Midwestern held railroads t quicker, freight their flexibility in giving greater users their re shorter, served direct, lands into more deep reach could and by Quincy and Cairo, and Quincy Illinois, in 1856, railheads became and East St. Louis, Illinois, Chien, Prairie du and Wisconsin, in 1857. La Crosse, Wisconsin, cities, these joined becoming At in 1858. La Crosse and Milwaukee of the terminus the in 1856, Island Rock became Island Rock and Chicago the Mississippi. economic the But the cross to firstthe railroad p exp railroads, of the ace strong. traffic remained river ability move to country’s the increased greatly Railroads c a shipping crisis. so, In doing the to contribute would they dr we and losing passengers begun had War,Civil steamboats gr traffic, steamboat as its end bank fostered initiated but they we the Rock Island Railroad had bridged the upper Mississippi upper the bridged had Railroad Island Rock the 1869, 1866 and Between Illinois from Iowa. three to River Iowa, to river the 1877, crossed by and railroads more thir- t Midwest’s need to receive and receive to need Midwest’s Mississippi River pilots had learned had pilots Mississippi River The 36 35 In 1867 the Corps initiated a program of a program initiated Corps In 1867 the where. 37 lse al closing dam for the Wacouta chute near Red near chute Wacouta al closing the dam for d e rren decided to deepen the upper Mississippi upper by the deepen to decided rren e 4-foot project did not greatly alter the river's phys- river's the alter greatly did not project e 4-foot an ng sandbars, snagging, and trees overhanging clearing ng. It was a method that had proven successful in successful proven had that a method ng. It was men, difficulties, the and uncertainty, expense and Th Wa nstruct an experimental closing dam at Prescott Island, closing dam at Prescott an experimental nstruct ce gi rmined to recommend the employment of these dredg- of these employment the recommend to rmined ich attend the use of dams,” Warren concluded,use of dams,” the attend “I have ich Warren ng, Minnesota. acquire and operate two dredge and snag boats, snag and dredge two operate and acquire $5,000 co te periment ed an moving sunken vessels to create the 4-foot channel. 4-foot the create to vessels sunken moving ached the Mississippi the River:ached Island Rock and Chicago the ut 26 miles below St. Paul, below bout 26 miles another $5,000 for and ommercial thoroughfare. ommercial an the dredges,an the on a bar cut limit of the depth the it could ng machines.” 81 re river the improve did not and character ecological or ical navigation, for much of navigation a series but it initiated simply Corps have did not The both. do would that projects funding,the equipment, sig- make authority to or personnel Midwesterners, changes. however, permanent and nificant river, the it a make transform to to hoped if they needed c dredgi Demanding a Deeper Channel a Deeper Demanding • Monopolies Railroad Fr dr to to a ex Wi that by running their paddle wheels over the crest of a bar, crest the over wheels paddle running their by that it, through cut river the from helped flow they the allowing pass. to boat the for just enough cut the deepen to pool the Corps as the As long dredging. As a result, favored Warren r of “In view it. behind pool deeper of the much preserve and minds upon the of taken has this method which hold the river wh de i send out goods grew as rapidly as its population and agricul- and as its population as rapidly grew goods out send Railroads, production. tural river, the than more would need, region’s the meet a price, without but not a price railroads first high some. In 1854 the two for too much re Island, at Rock Railroad Illinois,Alton and Chicago the and Alton,at Galena. entered Illinois. In 1855 a railroad 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 81 Page AM 8:03 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 82 A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area and Recreation River National the Mississippi Study of Resources A Historic RIVER OF HISTORY:

FIGURE 5. Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad Bridge, Hastings, Minn., 1885. By Henry P. Bosse. Rock Island District, Corps of Engineers

made transshipment unnecessary. Trains ran when the river The Granger Movement • As railroads spread throughout was high or low; they ran when the cold of winter froze it; the upper Mississippi River valley and the Midwest, they for the most part, they ran throughout the year.42 Those began monopolizing the shipping of bulk commodities, railroads that ran east to west–most importantly to especially grain. With river traffic failing and railroads Chicago–took advantage of complementary markets. monopolizing the region’s transportation, many farmers Midwestern farmers sent grain to Chicago, and Chicago mer- and business interests believed they were facing a shipping chants and eastern manufacturers sent their goods back on crisis. In response, farmers in the Midwest and throughout the railroads. While railroads could send many cars in both the nation joined the first national farm movement, called directions with full cargoes, barges delivering their com- the Grange or Patrons of Husbandry. Grangers sought to modities at St. Louis or New Orleans or points in between control railroad rates through state and federal regulation too often returned empty.43 and through improved navigation on the nation's rivers. Formed in 1868 by Oliver Hudson Kelley, a Minnesota farmer who had moved to Washington, D.C., to work as a clerk in the Department of Agriculture, the Grange had established nearly 1,400 chapters in 25 states by 1873 (Figure 6).44 The number of chapters multiplied to more than 10,000 by the end of the year. Over the next year, the

82 Chapter 4 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER I Minnesota r traffic, that insisted Kelley To restore rive ticles condemning railroads and the Chicago the and railroads condemning ticles 47 ar uly edition, reso- its to preamble convention's the J he Mississippi River traverses for thousands of miles thousands for traverses River he Mississippi bstructions, device, of human or natural whether are T regions of the earth, agricultural the noblest running to South, North from the most . . . it is destined to become region of the world,popular forever should its waters and to the use of open and untrammelled be kept free and length, citizen withinevery the entire navigable all and o who till of the people impedimentslike to the prosperity valley. the soil of the great 1870,August In steamboat by Minnesota left Kelley As with the drive for railroad legislation, railroad for drive As with the push for the rway improvement was not just a farmers' movement. not was improvement rway alling on Congress to appropriate funding “for every “for fundingalling appropriate to on Congress rfage and people consider it all right.” consider people and rfage railroads While eived huge land grants, land huge eived rec not. had steamboats te y saw the river as an essential route to domestic and for- and domestic to route as an essential river the y saw all.” to ts free al outlets for the west and northwest,” Kelley insisted, northwest,” and Kelley west the for “but al outlets le for concern early Grange's the Demonstrating eign markets. Mississippi the River,improving conven- Grange state the in the Printed river. the featured tion of 1869 Monthly’s lutions declared: between arrangements trade direct secure to Louis St. for Missouri. During and his trip,Minnesota St. Paul the fed he Press Pioneer He improvement. waterway promoting and Trade of Board St. Paul between connection dying the river restore to hoped natu- tributaries are Mississippiher and “The Louis. St. and r improvement.” their to is given little attention how Railroads, town charged, he in every front river the “control river;on the paying without freight land can boats their wha had . . .” present. the for conclud- enough he got have “Railroads ed, c out- natural West” the in the “open navigable stream to and le the Mississippi needed grants like those given to railroads, to grants like those given Mississippithe needed buy in to St. Louis an agent establish to had Grange the and products. Minnesota's sell and wa among Mississippi the River's were merchants St. Louis efer- ,r Tribune elley, founding member, Husbandry or of Patrons hile the Grange refused to form a political party a political form to refused Grange the hile As a result, says, he “the W 45 46 lley and Grangers in the upper Mississippi River val- Mississippi in upper River the Grangers and lley Ke Solon J. Buck, J. Solon classic study of the the wrote who nomenal increase in the membership of the order during order of the in membership the increase nomenal s did not. Farmers created third parties in states parties third created Farmers s did not. actively participate in the established parties, in established the participate actively its mem- 83 ng to the Grange, declared that “‘within a few weeks it has Grange, the ring to weeks “‘within a few that declared equilibrium political the most steadfast of the menaced states.’” or ber during mid-1870s, the country the throughout winning sig- order. established the threatening and elections nificant 1873 and 1874 awakened the liveliest interest, liveliest the some- and 1874 awakened 1873 and apprehension,times the among politicians throughout Union.” Grange founded nearly 12,000 chapters and claimed over claimed and 12,000 chapters nearly founded Grange 858,000 members. Grange, that, nonpolitical, observed although avowedly “the phe FIGURE 6.K Oliver Society. Historical Minnesota the Grange. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:04 AM Page 83 Page AM 8:04 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:04AMPage84

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area be be the Mississippi Riverthe Mississippi southeastern in Minnesota. Wind were party Republican ofparticular concern to Senator River withhis Mississippi dissatisfaction and rising r tion problem and recommend solutions to it. The threat ofa de olize olize we RiverMississippi and Such itstributaries. improvements in d goal was to impress uponthese key the political officials Theconference and Virginia. organizers' Missouri, , from 22states Ohio, and the governors ofMinnesota, Convention. Itdrew national Senators and Representatives another convention St.Louis–the in Western Congressional Se nesses–MinnesotaSenator William Windomasked the pa ment and navigation conventions–partly out offear and T gr ro of western waterways sothat they be used might asreliable mined effort to obtain federal money for the improvement tion before 1873. “The keynote ofthe meeting was adeter- tor co nanc wo a House for adecade. While the Wi di fi ira oooy the commercialailroad decline ofthe monopoly, pitdsmoees ofns otnstr,Windom ppointed someone else Norton's to finish term, pho h hpigcii. h ouin hyisse,lay they insisted, epth ofthecrisis. shipping The solution, he Windom Committee•Spurred by the Granger move- rst became asenator when Daniel Republican S. Norton ed ed ea utes for cheap transportation.” neofnie I 87 hyhl,according to onehis- they held, unteroffensive. In1867, na le rtly out ofagenuine concern to help farmersand busi- mrvn h ainswtras especiallyimproving the nation'sthe waterways, re re undertaken they by declared. the federal government, a,the mostimportant navigation improvement conven-ian, n the seat 1871.Hewould in become one ofthe Senate's nd ae rud would allow the Unitedgates States argued, to “monop- te te te vrtergo' rd,they saw the rivere over astheir best the region's trade, in nMy17,cheap transportation advocatesIn May 1873, held be the markets ofthe world.” om om to the fill seat. Windom had already served the in st advocates. Reeling from Chicago's increasing domi- to to office in 1870andoffice in Minnesota's governor appointed yo Wno' oeon ioa lay on Winona, (Figure 7). Windom's hometown, es nd nd ta the ability ofthe individual statesthe ability and had to blish acommitteeblish to 49 48 examine th Cheap transportation, e transporta- 51 Windom 50 Wi dominance party's Republican the state in and nationally, As Anti-Monopoly parties threatened to undermine the Donnelly joined the movement 1872. in and thecrisis, farm with the failure party's Republican to deal withmonopolies Granger movement's growing strength and itsdiscontent in improvement. strongest advocates for railroad regulation and navigation de advocating and state railroad controls, monopolies, Pe by Wi Wi Na 7. FIGURE ople's Anti-Monopoly party, “with a platform striking at “withaplatformople's striking Anti-Monopoly party, nouncing postwar corruption. ..” Minnesota and the threat ofrailroad monopolies spurred ndom. Photo by Brady. Minnesota Historical Society. gaisDnel,Grange supportersIgnatius had Donnelly, organized the nd nd Th om and other began Republicans working for railroad om to address the transportation issue withzeal. Led e rapidly growing strength ofthe Granger movement iainbotradMneoaSntr William boostervigation andMinnesota Senator, 52 53 Recognizing the 84 Chapter 4 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER I In 1874, when 61 -foot channel became the became channel -foot 2 / . The island divid- island The 8). (Figure 1 -foot channel project. The project. channel -foot 2 / 1 -foot channel project embody project channel -foot 2 / 1 -foot channel project, channel -foot Congress 2 / 1 not dredge due to high water, to due dredge not the -feet deep at low-water, for the entire river low-water, at entire the deep for -feet 2 / 1 could the wide shallows and sandbars thou- and the and shallows wide the ther, Grange, the merchants, and shippers boosters Engineers closed the upper end of the east channel. east of the end upper the Engineers closed e Corps had experimented with channel constriction with channel experimented had e Corps ge r towns and the Windom committee persuaded committee Windom the and r towns he minate minate To Th ve e Four and One-Half Foot Channel, One-Half Foot and e Four cted the Corps to remake the upper Mississippi. The Mississippi. upper the remake to Corps the cted Montana ,t rks built under the 4 the rks built under the river, and the navigation channel sometimes ran on ran river,the sometimes channel navigation the and 1874. As it had learned more about the upper the about more learned As it had 1874. eping the river navigable by dredging. by navigable eping river the tween 1878 and 1906, 1878 and tween 4 the tween St. Paul and the mouth of the Illinois River at Illinois of the mouth River the and St. Paul tween re rst system-wide, intensive navigation improvement project rst system-wide, improvement navigation intensive sands of little pools that Warren had once sought to pre- sought to once had Warren that of littlesands pools sand which by pattern the alter to have would They serve. to have would They bottom. river the along siltand moved block and one main into channel current river's the focus work of Corps focus The channels. side off myriad the be be the this, do change to have To Alton. would they have would They environment. and Mississippi's landscape to eli these national movements and local efforts. local and movements national these the the Pig's Eye to went and driver it with a pile Engineers refitted Island, St. Paul below miles five ed island, the Below west. on the sometimes and side east the prob- eliminate the To water. at low existed channel no deep lem They did apart and nine feet of piles tiers driving so by two placing brush and with willow them fillingthen between Th 1878-1906 By authorizing 4 the fi navigable the alter It would Mississippi upper River. the for dramati- corridor MNRRA the through river of the portion cally. in futility the of Mississippi River, recognized had Corps the ke wo di in in ri Engineers were to create a permanent, create to naviga- were Engineers continuous tion channel, 4 Congress to authorize the 4 the authorize to Congress 54 57 his party. In his party. 60 On March 26,On March 1873, 55 feet for the upper the for to 6 feet 2 authorize an intense programauthorize an intense / 1 e committee suggested that the that suggested e committee Th create a channel of these depths, of these a channel create the 58 To and that it No general plan had sporadic. No general had been 59 perations 56 ievous to be long endured.’” long be to ievous with wing closing dams and dams. Relying on the reports the Corps of Engineers submit- Corps the reports on the Relying On April 24,On 1874, submitted committee Windom’s As chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Committee Select Senate of the As chairman good position to help both farmers and ntrol of the government, of the solu- ntrol certain and obvious as the ansportation to the Seaboard, the in to an especial- ansportation was Windom tions,” concluded, committee the “point the unerringly to sponding to Windom, sponding to transportation the and Grange the tion of our country for cheap and ample water communi- ample and water cheap for country tion of our d, the committee noted that improvements on the d, improvements that noted committee the nt transportation facilities between the interior and the and interior the between facilities nt transportation ommittee acknowledged, would require constricting the acknowledged, require ommittee would eform and began seeking ways to solve the farm the crisis. solve to ways seeking began and eform 85 river river c tion of the problem of cheap transportation.” of cheap problem tion of the Mississippi River or implemented. committeeThe developed been recom- esti- cost get and surveys authorize Congress that mended a mature to “in as possible order as early prepared mates river, of the of all its and improvement radical the for plan navigable tributaries.” of waterway improvements. The “remarkable physical adap- physical “remarkable The improvements. of waterway ta ca water-ways, natural con- their great of our and improvement under canals, by portages nection freight-railway short by or co te its report to the Senate. After reviewing various proposals, various reviewing After Senate. the to its report some regulate Congress that recommended committee the o railroad r Tr ly December 1872, address to December a resolution introduced had he the before in a speech And problem. transportation the fact’‘an admitted Senate, “it was that asserted pres- he that e inadequate.’‘totally were seaboard transportation These ‘powerful by networks,” charged, he controlled “were The people. the to terms own their dictate who monopolies are producer and consumer impose upon both they burdens too gr crisis, the Senate directed Windom’s committee to study the to committee crisis,Windom’s directed Senate the problem. re Corps establish a channel of 4 a channel establish Corps Mississippi River. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:04 AM Page 85 Page AM 8:04 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:04AMPage86

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area comprehensiv ex da sacks ofsand ontop to weigh the brushdown. Overall the FIGURE 8. FIGURE per m was 600feet long andto six ten feet deep. mna a,channel constriction would grow into a imental dam, Pigs Eye IslandPigs Eye before closing andafter damconstruction.Corps of Engineers. e and expansive project that would reconfig- 62 Fr om this we and ofthe creosoted withwhich twine the bundles marline co Fr leadi became the both from Fountain Wisconsin, City, Richtman, along withJacob Albert Kirchner, ment. Her father, with her father's fleet asthey builtthe damsfor the govern- mtebidn ot let icnrrcle,“..I Alberta Kirchner recalled, om the boat, building uld even smell the blended delightfully odor of the willows re held to held re ng contractors for thedamconstruction. Corpswing in Alberta Kirchner Hillspent 19summers (1898-1917) ge ther. Itcame to mestrongly every timethe would would face to alevel that above ers per river.upper the length ofthe navigation channel one uninterrupted Corps hoped to scour ch increasing river By narrowing the experiments.striction upon the channel con- Corps had to expand the foot channel, landscape and ecology. and landscape ure the upper river's co req and shore protection da ro co The and rock.saplings minimum 4 ch To ac To ck ck ntractors placed the mp annel's the velocity, ms, closing dams closing ms, annel uired twomple si until adam rose Engineers or their and lay- brushin and thereby nns willow onents: the water sur- guarantee a hieve the (Figure 9). the main 63 1 / 2 Wing -foot 1 / 2 64 - 86 Chapter 4 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER I ct shores To prote 67 (Figure 10). (Figure hile the river naturally eroded its banks, eroded naturally river the hile closing annels and sloughs. As the experiments with closing experiments the As sloughs. and annels W r down the channel to scour it. Droughts had the same the had it. Droughts scour to channel the r down ch cted water into the main channel, the into water the to cted flow denying r's side channels and backwaters backwaters and channels r's side te ms had shown,ms had greatly channels cutting off side the annel's velocity and volume. Wing dams especially Wing volume. and velocity annel's creased the main channel's flow. The river passed over the over passed river The flow. main the channel's creased re de ve ividing the river disbursed the little water available into available littlewater the disbursed river ividing the aused bank erosion by forcing the river away from one from away river forcing the by bank erosion aused da in high,closing dams when year, the most of but for dams the di moving stream,moving enough direct not wing dams could the wa many islands effect,The season. an entire last but could d si from naturally eroding or from being undercut by the con- the by being undercut from or eroding naturally from dams and wing dams erosion accelerated increasing by the ch c Point,At Dibble’s other. shoreline against the and the shore a wing 15 dam to had to due eroded 20 feet in one year Island,built at Prescott Prescott. near ri 66 ion. Photo by Henry P. Bosse. St. Paul District, St. Paul Bosse. Engineers. of Henry P. Corps by ion. Photo Once the willow mats had been mats had willow the Once 65 ire rage. . . as the mat went down mat went . . as the rage. ire FIGURE 9. Wing dam construct FIGURE 9.dam Wing e wing dams' success depended upon the main chan- upon the depended e wing dams' success her, like a rapid-f the water, the workers would sink with rock. them would water,the workers the Th in in nsity as the mat sank lower and lower in water.” the lower and nsity mat sank lower as the stroyed as the men began the routine of sinking routine . . mat. the the began men as the stroyed te men hoisted a swishing bundle of brush to their gunny-sack- their of brush to a swishing bundle hoisted men . . .” shoulders. protected nel's volume and velocity. During the late summer or early or summer During late the velocity. and volume nel's fall, a shallow, Mississippi slow- the became usually when under the load . . . a splashing began. The sound grew in grew sound The . . . a splashing began. load the under in laid dam,” the up to pulled been a barge of rocks had “No sooner was Hill remembered, load of the symmetry the “than de hitting big rocks the hear could you quarterboats the . From each ot 87 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:04 AM Page 87 Page AM 8:04 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:04AMPage88

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area 340 wing anddamsfrom340 wing closing the Minnesota River to the Engineershad builtabout Minnesota River. By1905, struction began atPike Island atthe mouth ofthe hundreds ofmiles ofriprap. Wing anddamcon- closing rib shoreline withbrush matsand rock. the Corps protectedstricted hundreds channel, ofmiles of be A 1903-1905Corps navigation shows map the river d with wing damsandd withwing closing lined IUE1.Ch 10. FIGURE ne osrcina ieBn,Mneoa 1891.Photo by Corps HenryP. of Engineers. Bosse. Minnesota, St.Paul District, at Bend, annel constriction Pine shoreline asneeded to establish a4 da one area atthetime. same They would build asmanywing tion. The density ofchannel constriction works and the and dams shore closing protec- and add more dams, wing themselves. Where the Engineers would necessary, return na or co they would move to the next troublesome reach. Innewly Th the southern end ofthe MNRRA corridor below Hastings. srce ece,the channel be might nstricted reaches, s ls smn iecanl,and protect asmuch close asmanyside channels, ms, tural tendencies or asaresult ofthe improvement works w n hnbcm ifcl gi,due to the river's two and then become again, difficult ey ey Th had had e Engineersdidnot build allthe works depicted in closed nearly allthe side channels. 1 / 2 -foot channel. Then, good for a season a for good 88 Chapter 4 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER I 70 Recognizing that the river's chal- river's the that Recognizing 69 me a state, a sent legislature new the $200 to journey from St. Paul to the cataract. the to St. Paul from journey $200 to ofiting from the release of water from the from of water release ofiting the from hile Minneapolis navigation boosters focused on focused boosters Minneapolis navigation hile also raised funds during the 1850s to remove boul- remove during funds 1850s to the also raised As early as 1850,As early civic lead- and Minneapolis business W e Meeker Island Lock and Dam and Lock Island e Meeker rks on the upper Mississippi River only benefitted its benefitted only Mississippi River upper rks on the part rebuilt. completed the and redesigned be to have uld e project would permanently reshape the river between river the reshape permanently would e project ey osters began discussing a lock and dam for the river above river the dam for and discussing a lock began osters tition to Congress requesting that the federal government federal the that requesting Congress tition to tween the falls and St. Paul. Bradley B. Meeker and Meeker B. Bradley St. Paul. falls and the tween om Minneapolis' perspective,om Minneapolis' improvement channel the s in Minneapolis, of Minnesota, State the by supported ach the falls. To prove their point, their prove steamer the To paid falls. they the ach nges required more than these futile measures, futile these than more navigation required nges wo about did something Congress Paul–until principal rival–St. Anthony at St. Millers Falls. Anthony St. below rapids the were pr Reservoirs, commer- and but Minneapolis civic Headwaters to yearned milling. than They more wanted cial boosters So, of navigation. head city the their make lead- commercial er in improvements navigation for support sought federal in most mysterious one of the resulted effort Their 1866. be would One dam river. upper on the projects ill-fated and another and of its completion up within 5 years blown wo Th It is Anthony Falls. Dam) St. and Dam Ford (the and 1 Lock significance. national and with local a story ers had tried to convince shippers that steamboats could re Lamartine Th Th Fr shipping, others recognized the river's potential shipping, hydropower river's the recognized others be Mississippi the River Dorilus Morrison formed Manufacturing and Company in 1857,Improvement with a le bo years, five next the Over as 1852. as early the St. Paul city's newspapers,Territorial the and civic leaders booming the carry dams to and locks for called Legislature Minneapolis. In 1855, to trade steamboat Anthony St. the dams. In 1858, and locks building two proposed Express when Minnesota beca pe St. Paul. above navigation for river the improve rs and other obstacles. other ders and 68 ich they physically and ecologically changed ecologically and physically they ich l in the Twin Cities by 12 to 18 inches, 12 to by Cities Twin helping l in the wh his 1869 report. In his next report, In his next had his 1869 report. Warren to ance. In 1880,ance. an however, it finally authorized in in imental dam for Lake Winnibigoshish and authorized and Winnibigoshish Lake dam for imental Millers at St. Anthony Falls especially pushed for reser- for pushed especially Anthony Falls at St. Millers pork-barrel project’s at the initially balked Congress r from the reservoirs had little effect. had reservoirs the r from r from the reservoirs for navigation in the later summer in later the navigation for reservoirs the r from ar s downstream, at Hastings, a rise of about recorded they ee es te te le e desire to improve navigation on the upper river affected river upper on the navigation improve to e desire ats, even half a foot was important. Below Red Wing, Red ats, Below important. was a foot half even pe gr per y of the upper Mississippi River's headwaters and tribu- and headwaters Mississippi upper River's y of the oirs above the falls. William Washburn went so far to as went Washburn William falls. the oirs above urning longer and more consistently. more and urning longer ari the remaining dams shortly afterwards. The Headwaters The afterwards. dams shortly remaining the Winnibigoshish of the construction for provided project of dams at Leech Dam completion in the 1883-1884 and (1884),Lake (1884), Falls Pokegama (1886), Pine River (1895), Lake Sandy 1895 (1912). In their Gull Lake and Report,Annual water releasing that Engineers reported the the raised successfully had reservoirs Headwaters the from water leve river Twenty-seven millers. the and navigation interests mi steam- To foot. one-half about Wing at Red and one foot bo wa suggested a system of 41 reservoirs for the St. Croix, the for of 41 reservoirs a system suggested Chippewa, basins. Mississippi and River Wisconsin six. to this number reduced engineers Subsequent v in of anticipation sites reservoir at one of the land purchase to land the gave later and there project federal or a private of release the that recognized millers The government. the wa mills their keep to of water flow the increase would fall and t ap ex Dams Headwaters at the Th increase Cities, further Twin To the as well. above river the navigation, for available the water the authorized Congress of the six headwaters dams at the construct to Corps Mississippi, Minnesota, in northern 1880 and between a sur- fund Congress that recommended had Warren 1907. ve t de the river increased gradually over the project's history. project's the over gradually increased river the 89 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:04 AM Page 89 Page AM 8:04 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:04AMPage90

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area lock boats through free. through lock boats to it required charter ab dent steamboats to Minneapolisand that hydropower was “inci- claimed that the petition’s principalpurposewas to bring the state from theopposition millers atSt. Anthony, St. Anthony.” re m be be ed themselves. cities to aid navigation and to secure the hydropower for er tial. Playing onthe desire ofMinneapolisnavigation boost- gro pe wh Meeker's project would extend navigation above St.Paul, co P Congress to authorize navigation improvements above St. petitioned 1866, in the Minnesota Legislature, tion, gr Mee war, in the island lay somethreeGone now, miles below the falls, Legislature to build their lock and damnear Meeker Island. and obtained permissionfrom the Minnesota Territorial aSt. Anthony Falls sa Morrison, poning theponing project and the intercity conflict. post- Improvement Company'splans, and Manufacturing of 1857and the Civil War stalled River the Mississippi the Economic Panic navigation. As withsomanyprojects, wo asit St.Paul citizens criticized the project, Minneapolis, aul and requested the land onbehalf grant ofMeeker's sult incidentally from our effortto get Boats to the Falls of ,they proposed alock building and dambetweens, the two le' fa, esi,“"isanother waterpoweriller's he “fear,” said, that might ant to fund their project 1865.Focusing in onnaviga- mp iin the state stressed that boats had frequently landedtition, ,b ov Minneapolis. Portending the comingconflictwith li uld steal from them their valuable asthe position head of ich was reason their primary for supportingit.Inits po inaoi uiese,to develop thispoten- up ofMinneapolisbusinessmen, mi al.” ec n ntefls and because the company's state e and onthe falls” Minneapolis navigationMinneapolis boosters clearly saw that Holding to their dream through the depression and the aterritorial judge and local entrepreneur, Meeker, any. the state contend-The company needed the grant, ause the company's income from water power would te 74 d by the “inexhaustible resources thisrespect in Morrison beseeched Morrison and ker Congress for aland ekr isl,emphasized navigation. The himself, Meeker, 71 75 eao,l obbied for operator, wmill 72 73 Anticipating ri The non-intercourse measures the in Lower Mississippi.” c the andsomeinstances in triple and quadruple, and double, o Congress to “recollect withwhat haste the andvari- facility we and the freights among rival carriers ofthe commerce ofthe the re greatmain and be regulator and moderator offares ro importance ofMinneapolisto the region's economy. even F such acontinuous means ofsupplyand exchange from the necessities having in given ofunborn millions usexactly be “isboth natural and the and all- they necessary, pleaded, d pa ed provid- Southwest. the state insisted, The River, Mississippi to u and molasses. Whatever sugar, prod- rice, South's cotton, be Th re proper terminus.” would extendstate contended, navigation “to itsnatural and ri v (Minneapolisand St. Anthony) and the tined to these cities, to St.P some sixteen miles, receded “had claimed, theybrashly navigation, Civil War, anumber ofunprecedented thatning year, and droughts the asaresult ofthe economic panic begin- up until1857.But, twowithin and one-half miles ofdowntown Minneapolis, ost oftransporting the produce ofthe west the late during ast regions north and west .mustbreak bulkand be car- lso t nhn oteGl fMxc. The petition alls ofSt. Anthony to the GulfofMexico.” us railroad combined lines to increase the cost oftravel, ivine purposeoftheirivine project. “Direct communication,” cts the Midwest came to manufacture, like woolen like cts the Midwest and cot- came to manufacture, ve ed us,the state touted the project’squest, interregional benefits. arc,would their find chief market the in South and n fabrics, ad neficent Creator has anticipated graciously the wants and was the South. And the Midwest itclaimed, needed the ef, t ontem Minneapolisboosters pointed to therts downstream, etmre o h iws' on lu,pr,and pork, flour, e best market for the Midwest's corn, t”Rfrigt h ii a,the to state Referring the Civil imploredWar, st.” the natural Echoing the beliefs oftheir link. counter- r would bindthe country together again. ,the state asserted that the river “is now ands, ever will in ly and recognizingally, thepower emerging Fin ofrail- Acknowledging the obvious local appearance ofits cited editorials from the St.Paul papers stressing the wa go st hi etnto. okaddm the Alock and dam, ns to their destination.” 76 u,wher aul, e allthefreight des- 77 90 Chapter 4 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER I But danger of 85 ract was in ract was ta not want a dam obstructing not want 84 83 perators did d the land grant. land d the nitiated a survey of the river and of the dam site. of the and river of the a survey nitiated ne approached, $26,000 during spent company the d the company to selling no more than one section of one section than selling to no more company d the ating into a series of rapids. Sawmill owners also owners Sawmill of rapids. orating a series into en so, the state threatened to rescind the grant issue the and rescind so, to threatened state the ily ended debate over the project, the over debate it refused when orarily ended In 1873, Mississippi with the patience lost Congress Millers feared a competing water power so close to St. to so close power water a competing feared Millers within a township. As this requirement had proven had As this requirement within a township. li rnment. During session, 1873 rnment. its 1872 to Congress uhar, District commander, that St. Paul new the reported 1870 and early 1871. It did not begin building the 1871. It did not early 1870 and te ri secure their objective, from their support secure needed company the do am te ad ve rq illing operations at the falls, the ca mp te mi rgued that it was the federal government's responsibility to government's federal the it was that rgued umbersome, it to modify to Congress asked company the Congress required the state to return the land grant before the grant before land the return to state the required Congress project, begin the to Eager start. could Corps Francis Major Fa he had i plans, year, next the developing began he Over determining dam with a 17- and one lock build could Engineers the that River Improvement and Manufacturing and appro- Company and Improvement River project. begin the to Corps the $25,000 for priated Company. It required the company to spend $25,000 on $25,000 spend to company the It required Company. 1, February before project the failed company 1871. If the to might jeopard- project the that believed and Anthony Falls the to falls. Due at the work funding repair for federal ize m de dumping continue able to be not would they that feared river, the into navigation, obstruct sawdust as it would and o company boom it to another company. Having accomplished nothing as the Having accomplished company. another it to de Some opponents downriver. sent they rafts lumber the a the by river, subsidized the interests improve private not go te to la project, in grant the that on a provision focusing instead li land c within a single township. sections of more sale the for allow To in Minneapolis,businessmen support, that for and At company. the of control back won Minneapolis interests this point, fighting began among Minneapolitans them- project. the over selves Cook's 79 rren engaged Franklin engaged rren St. Paul Daily Dispatch St. Paul Wa 82 78 St. Paul industrial boosters also industrial boosters St. Paul a deal between Meeker and a number and Meeker between a deal 80 Through brought new hope for the project, the for hope new brought when, in his 81 Congress of the importance of their project. of their importance of the Congress d his survey between 1866 and 1867 and, 1866 and between d his survey to te ce clared that the dam had given St. Paul “a water power “a water St. Paul given dam had the that clared le On June 7,On June 1868,Tribune Daily Minneapolis the On March 6,On March 1869,grant to land the awarded state the Navigation boosters in Minneapolis failed, boosters Navigation to however, Warren in mantly opposed locks and dams. As Cook had worked for worked had As Cook dams. and locks mantly opposed undertake the survey. Cadwallader C. Washburn and his and Washburn C. Cadwallader survey. the undertake m, it. build Corps the having than rather nv mp aul to the ‘Magnet.’” the aul to eport and lobbying by Representative Donnelly and Senator and Donnelly Representative by lobbying and eport r the give to Congress finally Ramsey convinced Alexander the finance grant to land a 200,000-acre of Minnesota State da “trans- dam would and lock Island Meeker the that claimed St. from country of this upper prestige commercial the fer P brother William D.,William brother owners Mill Company's Minneapolis the millers, prominent and city's most powerful of the two and ada Cook report. a negative Washburns, the expected Meeker co surprise, con- dam be and Meeker's a lock that recommended Island, at Meeker structed lift. with a 13-foot Cook, Minneapolis Mill Company, of the employee former a to the Mississippi River Improvement and Manufacturing and Improvement Mississippithe River co claimed victory. A day earlier,A day the victory. claimed had de “to power enough provide would and Anthony,” St. to equal manufacturing on the cities largest one of the St. Paul make continent.” of St. Paul businessmen,of St. Paul of control gained had St. Paulites by created waterpower the get would and company Meeker's dam,the thought it over- state the if Minneapolis and even Anthony Falls. St. by shadowed Congress rejected Meeker's request and the Minnesota the and request Meeker's rejected Congress grant in of a lock a land support for petition Legislature's dam indid,and 1866. It of Corps the however, authorize SnellingSt. and Fort between reach the survey Engineers to Anthony Falls, upper of the survey with its general along Mississippi River. report,1867 annual a construct $235,665 to requested he andlock dam at Meeker Island. 91 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:04 AM Page 91 Page AM 8:04 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:04AMPage92

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area roc evaluated its1890survey, during removing boulders and and the Corps focused itseffortsdownstream. 20 more years. however, would delay theof Meeker project Island, for nearly the purchase including overand haggling land for the project, ye Fa ret do which they coulduntil the not Engineerscould take borings, had to wait he declared, foot Further work lift. onthe project, co feet. Lock and2(the Dam Meeker Island Lock and Dam) be W navigationbring to the old steamboat landingbelow the that the Corps would have to build two locks and damsto i bor- including Mackenzie made the surveys, the river ..” and exact estimates for locks and damsfor thisportion of Fe and money. wasted time he charged, anyother efforts, Meeker Island; locks in wh provided $50,000to the Corps to removething, boulders, under pressure from Minneapolisto do some- Congress, re i loc da Corps to remove the boulders locks lieuofbuilding in and in ta the Rock Island commander District who had Mackenzie, ngs, during the low-water during season of1893and concludedngs, gbudr,believing that the steep grade and rapid cur- ng boulders, ke nt required locks and dams. As Mackenzie anticipated, ashington Avenue Bridge. Lock and1would Dam have to ar l hnb lcdaot29mlsusra,belowuld then be placed about 2.9miles upstream, ray1,19,directed Mackenzie “to prepare new 1893, bruary 15, rq s even thoughithad authorized $25,000to plan for a ms, r t the Corps didnot work. begin Nevertheless,urn it, 81 I 82 Mackenzie insisted again that only 1891. In1892, suspected that authorize Congress the might 1888, placed above and have of13.3 alift until the state returned the grant. As the state failed to k and dam in 1873.Hequestionedk and in dam the value ofremov- ks to encourage navigation. ich the thesummer Engineersdidduring of1890 and n over thispartofthe river withthe change funding in uhar optimistically asked for $300,000for the fiscal en Th inln osbebek h he fEgnes on the ChiefofEngineers, break, apossible Signaling and damscould regularly entice steamboats above gJn 0 1876. ding June 30, okaddmpoethplsl ie,the Corps, e lock and damproject hopelessly mired, 89 87 St. Paul remained the head ofnavigation, 86 Disagreement over the grant 88 Major Alexander creetly asmay be to cast light. There alittle isthe cityof this matter isasecret uponwhich Iproceed history, asdis- two instead ofone.Connectedtion oflocks with and dams; J. tried to explain the matter to MinneapolisMayor R. Shunk, unknown. Major FrancisThe St.Paul commander, District is damthathigh could have generated hydropower, Wh had ca de through Lock 2imagined that the new would facility be i navigation to the Washington Avenue Bridge by construct- Congress directed the Corps to extend 1894. Inthisact, the in River and Harbor Navigation,” Act of August 18, Congress authorized the “Five-Foot Project in Aid of pressure by navigation proponents Minneapolis, in other Extending navigation above St. Anthony Falls withthe $568,222 and that Lock and2would Dam cost $598,235. it. Heestimated that Lock and1would Dam cost Anthony Falls and afourth lock navigation to bring above loc Mackenzie added that the Corps would have to build athird and would have of13.8feet. alift Meeker Island, lock. the Engineershad begun constructing the Lock and1, Dam the steamboat first to pass through the lock the Itura 1907, and onMay 19, Lock and2, Dam By the fallof1906 the Engineershad completed mostof 1899. theand 1in River Dam and Harbor Act ofMarch 3, Congress provided for the construction ofLock 1894 act, be Br Avenue the mouth ofthe Minnesota River to the Washington Congress called for improving the river from near 1, Dam ng Lock and2. Dam .Hye nFbur 7 1909. “Now asto the duplica- C. Haynes onFebruary 17, trdttet h edo aiain butthe lowptured dams title to the head ofnavigation, stroyed 5years. within built below Meeker Island. Following through onthe k and damwitha10.1-foot navigation to bring to lift St. ogesatoie w o as instead ofone y Congress authorized two low dams, el 92 St. Paul suffered adouble setback. Minneapolis had Accepting Mackenzie’s arguments and under continual two locks and damswould total $1,538,702. iminated St.Paul’s hope for securing hydropower. Few, idge, indicating that another lock and dam would dam lock and another that indicating idge, fay spectators watchingif any, the 91 W hile itdidnot mention Lock and Itura (Figure 11). At paddle became 90 92 Chapter 4 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER I Meeker Island Lock and Dam under construction in the Lock Island Meeker ly low water. Congress, water. soon ly low however, would of navigation. The river pioneers once forded with forded once pioneers river The of navigation. r’s banks from St. Paul to St. Louis. Hundreds of miles Hundreds St. Louis. to Paul St. banks from r’s uld make this impossible. make uld ve ri dams at the Five with riprap. secured been had of riverbank snow, winter’s the the it for holding stored Headwaters fall, and summer the and Anthony at St. millers the when author- had Congress And it. need would below steamboats ized, year, that Headwaters, a sixth the dam for one at the another dam and and lock completed A newly Gull Lake. Minneapolis the make to promised construction one under head Maybe, existed. longer no at a livestock and wagons their Hastings, and St. Paul places,few between especially set- bar during on some persistent across waded have could tlers extreme that Mississippi upper River the for projects new authorize wo FIGURE 11. Lock by yet not been inundated has in river the foreground The distance. Society. Historical 1. Minnesota and Dam No. Minneapolis 93 somehow won the debate over building one or two building one or over debate the won somehow its of Minneapolis, limits within the of St. entirely or ms. While intense local issues had resulted in two dams, in two resulted had issues local intense While ms. asons, within the must lie dam and entirely a single lock aul. . . . Enough said. There are two locks.” two are There aul. . . . Enough said. ct for one. ct for Summary By 1907, Minneapolis, St. Paul, river Hastings other and cities, the through and lobbying successful their through Corps, dramatical- Mississippi upper River the changed had the of wing closing dams and dams studded Hundreds ly. St. Paul, physical of Minneapolis. For city is the there and re lim P had da proj- a new to lead would debate national intense an equally e 93 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:04 AM Page 93 Page AM 8:04 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:04 AM Page 94

FIGURE 1. Lock and Dam No. 1 under construction, 1916. St. Paul District, Corps of Engineers. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:04 AM Page 95

Chapter 5 Transforming the River II: Commerce, Navigation Improvements and Hydroelectric Power, 1907-1963

Lower St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam. And in 1963 the Corps completed the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock, stretch- ing the 9-foot channel and head of navigation 4.6 miles far- ther upstream. The river still rises to its natural level during floods but y May 19, 1907, when the Itura steamed cannot fall to its normal low water stages. No one can wade through the Meeker Island Lock and Dam, the across the Mississippi River from Minneapolis on down. Mississippi River through the MNRRA corri- Only in two short reaches would this be possible today: doBr had been altered in striking ways. Still, the river fol- somewhere between the head of navigation and the Coon lowed its cycles. As the spring runoff waned, the river fell Rapids Dam and above the Champlin Bridge, where the and the wing dams and closing dams below the Minnesota impounding effects of the Coon Rapids Dam disappear. This River’s mouth directed the flow to the Mississippi’s main chapter looks at who built the dams and why. (Figure 2) channel. As the river continued falling, mud flats extended farther and farther out from the shores. If a drought The 6-Foot Channel

1 occurred, the river dropped so low that channel constric- Despite the Corps’ efforts with the 4 /2-foot channel, river tion became ineffective and people could wade across the traffic declined. By 1880 the heyday of steamboating had river. At St. Anthony, the falls would slow to a trickle, passed. Railroads had taken most of the grain and passenger unless the Corps released water from the Headwaters traffic away, and by 1890 timber rafting remained the only Reservoirs. Then the river might rise by a foot to a foot and significant commerce.1 Timber products dominated the one-half. No navigation structures blocked or constricted upper river’s traffic from the 1870s to the first decade of the river between St. Anthony Falls and the Crow River, and the twentieth century. Timber shipping, however, fell with through this reach the Mississippi’s natural cycles were the white pine forests of western Wisconsin and northern more evident. Minnesota. At its peak, between 1893 and 1894, the lum- Between 1907 and 1963 most semblances of the nat- ber industry employed about 100 raft boats and 100 ural river would disappear. A series of new locks and dams sawmills on the upper Mississippi River (Figures 3 and 4). would reshape the river’s physical and ecological character. The number of sawmills dropped to 80 by 1900, 36 by In 1913 the Coon Rapids Dam created a 600-acre pool, with an eight-foot head against it, for hydroelectric power. In 1917 the Corps completed Lock and Dam 1 (Figure 1) and in 1930 Lock and Dam 2 at Hastings. The Corps replaced the Lower Hydro Station Dam in 1956 with the

95 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:04 AM Page 96

FIGURE 2. (Below) By 1963, locks and dams defined the Mississippi

through most of the MNRRA corridor. In only two small reaches, at the cor-

ridor’s far northern end, could the river fall to its natural low stages.

FIGURE 3. (Top right) Timber raft and raftboat near Wabasha Street

Bridge in St. Paul, 1878. Minnesota Historical Society. 1903, and 1 by 1913. Raftboats followed a similar

FIGURE 4. (Bottom right) Stereoscopic view of C. A. Smith lumber mill decline. Of more than 100 raftboats plying the upper river

above St. Anthony Falls, 1885. Photo by Underwood and Underwood. in 1893, 86 remained in 1900, 20 in 1906, and only four

Minnesota Historical Society. in 1912.2 In 1915, the last lumber raft floated down the St. Croix and Mississippi Rivers from Hudson, Wisconsin, to Fort Madison, Iowa. Timber’s demise revealed a problem that had been developing for nearly 50 years. The Mississippi had become a one-commodity river. As that commodity disappeared, the river’s failure as a transportation route became clear. It became so clear in 1902 to railroad baron James J. Hill that he called for an end to navigation improvement. Hill’s remarks frightened cities and business interests along the river already suffering from the timber industry’s decline and triggered the first sustained effort by Midwesterners for navigation improvement.3 Navigation boosters met in Quincy, Illinois. Acknowledging they had neg- lected the river for 25 years, one boost- er protested Hill’s remarks, saying: “we regard the Mississippi River of such mighty value in our occupations and to our respective communities that we do not propose to have it slan- dered, or permit it to be neglect- ed . . . .”4 To push for the new project, they formed the Chapter 5 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER II 8 business men er a number of years, tional organizations of organizations tional na n averaged ov n averaged the news of the day.” of the news the “powerful time This in in Both movements reflected changes occurring in changes reflected movements Both 9 alleling the new and more rigorous review of review rigorous more and new alleling the o many projects;o many rather, the place did not Congress National Context Par rway legislation,rway reversal”“remarkable a in occurred urces. alled for an annual appropriation of $50 million. an annual for alled o such movements were under way. The first was a first was The way. under were movements o such te re to e UMRIA could not do this on its own. Only a national this on its own. do not e UMRIA could tional waterways movement, on nav- specifically focused waterways tional tween 1895 and 1912. Such projects had been largely been had projects 1912. Such 1895 and tween NRRA corridor. NRRA cts, argued, he major par with other put on a be to needed ng hundreds of millions of dollars,ng hundreds attitude America’s the nation’s attitude toward waterway development and development waterway toward attitude nation’s the in the structures by represented are both movements M The of projects, vie with hundreds to UMRIA hoped If the total- i change. to have toward river would spending harbor and Th make to needed support the generate could movement priorities. their public alter American the and Congress Tw na second,The move- Progressive the igation improvements. of many aspects ment, encompassed and far broader was life,American govern- urban and business practices from natural country’s use of the most efficient the to ment reso we wa projects harbors and rivers toward attitude public’s the be 1895, before press the by being criti-ignored for except 1895,After much barrel. as pork “very cized became they ht priority on waterway development. Navigation proj- Navigation development. ht priority on waterway rig e programs, army, the as such navy, pensions. office and post of $19.5 millio Instead he c -foot 2 / 1 rmers and mer- and rmers Fa 6 Unlike the efforts behind the 4- and 4 4- and the Unlike efforts behind the But the problem,But the insisted, he there that not was had granted the committee an of average 5 7 e UMRIA’s task was daunting. While they tried to tried they While daunting. was task e UMRIA’s ss ng $500 million, had Corps the and re rway boosters had projects before Congress before projects had boosters rway Congress questioned the project. Rivers and Rivers project. the questioned Congress Th li e, there, slaughter to to twist and to te ants away from the river enjoyed moderate rail rates. So, rates. rail moderate enjoyed river the from ants away annel projects, 6-foot channel boosters established a con- projects,annel established boosters channel 6-foot rly on, channel. 6-foot the for pushed group neither rted movement to win approval for their project and pro- and project their for win approval to movement rted xcite merchants and farmers throughout the Midwest to Midwest the farmers throughout and merchants xcite ng too.” ch ea E. Ransdell, Joseph member Committee Harbors of Louisiana, the to Speaking problem. the explained 1906 UMRIA convention, the that reported he Cong decade. last the over $19.25 million year per Wa tota Upper Mississippi River Improvement Association Improvement MississippiUpper River (UMRIA). ch ce annually. meet to posed e of the decades first the two river,use the For failed. they so of prosperity a period century,new farmers enjoyed the decades these call historians some agricultural strong golden age of American agriculture. squirm around the difficulty and to do a little quarrel- difficulty do the to and squirm around i already approved these projects. these approved already Consequently, complained, he work “The of elimination, us is that to offgiven cut to her 97 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:05 AM Page 97 Page AM 8:05 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:05AMPage98

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area ca recogniz politicians Many otism.” ment grew sointense that itbecame anissue of “local patri- in Midwest now demanded “recognition of the ofthe rights McGee arguedmovement that the asectional in context, Placingthe and retail dealers the in interior.” facturers, ch the future growth ofthe community itself depended on wa e manufacturers soon became merged withthe larger inter- “Themovement interests ofmerchants gained and strength, and actively promoted inland navigation projects. As the Commerce Commission’s power to regulate railroad rates shippers to fought strengthen the Interstate ufacturers, re that “the discontent has grown into amovement to akin the problem grew McGee into acrisis. contendedmounted, de c bo two before when unfairrailroad practices drove the packet adecade or McGee said, al navigation movement had begun, vo McGee would becomeIowa, President Roosevelt’s principal V GREAT movement public hasthe arisenin Mississippi create.” loc seemed to catch ofthe for avision unlimited possibilities gable streams. Communities throughout the country nessed anew enthusiasm for the improvement ofitsnavi- ear backed the navigation movement.press” supported by ofthe the fullmight and leading politicians, tu osts increased andfacilitiesfor shipping river traffic t fteetr omnt,aslocalsts ofthe entire and regional community, water- alley,” W. J. McGee proclaimed. BornDubuque in County, vo te pitalized onthisdemand. de w de rae. spouto rmmns factoriescreased. and farms As production from mines, ea ice for multiple resource water development. The nation- ats out ofbusiness. The problem worsened asshipping y publicity groups and newspapery publicity editors warned that al economic growth which cheaper transportation could ly years ofthe twentieth the United century, States “wit- ri to h ato h iloso amr,smallmanu- offarmers, lt onthe partof the millions per per During the latterDuring years ofthe nineteenth century and Th or or as rail rates had begun rising. 11 e new enthusiasm reached River. the Mississippi “A rnprain”Support for waterway improve- transportation.” as againstthoseofthe seaboard.” Strongly supported by urbanmerchants and man- 12 One reason for the new atti- ed ed 13 a windfall an a windfall 10 14 d eagerly spirited individual citizens.” commercial and public firms and kindred associations, waterway manufacturing, members included “commercial, from 33states and amembership ofsome30,000. the Congress gainedOver members the next two years, paying a$100fee. joined the Rivers and Harbors Congress, for waterway improvements. The UMRIAimmediately o adyaon o prpitd ..” gardly amountnow appropriated, m 50 at least, that willinduce Congress to appropriate, ment, a favor in oflarger and more regular sentiment, strong public nificance ofthe country’s waterways “and to create such a was to teach people about1906 UMRIAmeeting, the sig- o W Ransdell asitspresident. UMRIAPresident Thomas and elected Rivers and Harbors Committee member Joseph 1906. The Congress reorganizedon January 15and 16, Harbors Congress hosted aconference D.C., in Washington, co created by boosters from aroundand Harborsthe Congress, Tw to the Mississippi. And boostersRiver, from St.Louis to the de the Lakes-to-the-Gulf Deep Water Association to call for a bo in fromTexas. to the RioGrande River, Navigation the new century. Onesoughtanintercoastal water route wa a “The re-organization ofthe National Rivers and Harbors ta openly pushed for itsrebirth. secre- J.As Captain F. Ellison, members ofCongresspolitical strengthhad and popularity, ppropriations by Congress for river and harbors improve- bsent from the list. gnzto,h elrd could secure needed the funding he declared, rganization, gnzto’ ojc n ups, herganization’s reported “object andto purpose,” the yo h ainlRvr n abr oges reported: ry ofthe National Rivers and Harbors Congress, lindlasanal o htojc,instead of the beg- dollarsillion annually for that object, nr n10,attempted to unifythese efforts. 1901, untry in ilkinson acceptedilkinson aseat onthe board ofdirectors. The pcanlfo aeMcia,through the Illinois ep channel from Lake Michigan, osters Rivers alongand theIllinois Mississippi formed te in rway organizations emerged theyears first during of fe pteigfrsvrlyas the RiversAfter and sputtering for several years, Evidencing anew important interest waterways, in Demonstrating the national waterway movement’s Cities established the UMRIA. The National Rivers 18 Fa rmers remained notably 16 Only anational 15 17 Its 98 Chapter 5 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER II Progressive conservationists Progressive e development of hydroelectric e development 23 Th used for hydroelectric power, con- hydroelectric flood for used be Beginning with the federal development of irrigation, development Beginning federal with the e all, movement, a scientific was was . . . Its essence rmine how the nation used its public resources. They its public resources. used nation the rmine how wth of cities and regions. To Progressive conservation- Progressive To regions. and wth of cities projects on the upper Mississippi River. Hydroelectric Mississippi upper River. on the projects ns of dollars and gain the economic clout to dictate the dictate to clout gain economic and the ns of dollars their fullest. It offered a way to pay for all waterway for pay to a way It offered fullest. their ov te nservationists. untry’s natural resources; they objected to unplanned and resources; unplanned to natural untry’s objected they untry’s rivers and streams could serve and directly affect- directly and serve could streams and rivers untry’s ists and experts from other appropriate disciplines appropriate to other from experts ists and political through consumed resources these want d not tional planning to promote efficient development and use and development efficient promote to planning tional king the nation’s natural resources. Historian Samuel Historian resources. natural king nation’s the anted professionally trained foresters, trained professionally anted geologists, econo- using the big businesses to object did not They asteful. consumption. asteful w m de di inefficient and were that manipulations economic and w co w use of nat- multiple the for campaign a broad initiated they Waterways, they resources. resources,ural water especially insisted, could trol, navigation, navi- dams for build Why irrigation. and gation, asked, they hydroelectric the consider not and preserve to hoped Some conservationists potential? power areas, scenic and wild nation’s parts of the large untainted that realization A growing a small minority. were but they most finite motivated were resources natural America’s co • Power Hydroelectric attempt by activists to stop big businesses from selfishly from businesses big stop to activists by attempt ta Hays, school, another leading “Conservation, that suggests ab ra resources.” of all natural ists, using than waterways more meant power hydroelectric to but, waste the projects unwisely, it represented if developed resource. natural of a valuable power awakened Americans to the multiple uses that the that uses multiple the to Americans awakened power co ed source, power new with a spectacular represented power develop- economic regional and implications national for mil- make to stood sites best the obtained Whoever ment. lio gro nt of More so than More nageme 21 In what would In what 20 alleling the growing alleling the nt of the federal government, nt of the federal Chiefs of Engineers, 19 Conservationists within the Conservationists 22 e manageme produced so deep an impression on the legislative on the an impression so deep produced ome its president and many other Representatives many other and ome its president her in city slums or city halls, in the ma Scholars disagree about the causes and agendas of the agendas and causes the about disagree Scholars Scholars also disagree over the national conservation national the over also disagree Scholars uld attend and speak at the meetings. at the speak and attend uld a clear conflict of interest today, Representative Ransdell today, Representative conflict of interest a clear the use of forests or waterways, or sought to Americans use of forests the annel project effort as directly as the waterway move- waterway as the effort as directly project annel rporations or th he Progressive Movement • Par Movement he Progressive the UMRIA,the bring would Congress Harbors and Rivers the upper on the improvements navigation for need the attention. national to Mississippi River T movement, navigation national of the far strength another America: gaining in momentum was movement the broader 6-foot the affect not it would While movement. Progressive ch ment, effort the in which context the to critical it was of hydroelec- define evolution the It also helped occurred. America, in tric power and, consequently, of the future the Dam, and Lock Island Meeker Dam and 1, Lock the and Rapids Dam. Coon 1890 movement, between that Progressive agree but they American in changed fundamental 1920 something and ways. unique and in new responded society,Americans and Whet co Progressive movement attempted to reshape how reshape to attempted movement Progressive resources. natural their approached Americans it as an seen Some have themes. dominant movement’s had bec and Rivers 1906 Of the on its board. sat Senators and meeting, Congress Harbors proclaimed: McGee “It is safe to of body no other century during quarter that past say the delegates be Government.” of the branches executive and Secretaries of War and Presidents of the United States United of the Presidents and War of Secretaries wo Congress as it now exists, as it now of more Congress request direct the by was of the Committee Harbors and Rivers a majority of the than of Representatives.” House in in scientif- through changing lives rapidly their to bring order rigor. technical ic and 99 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:05 AM Page 99 Page AM 8:05 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:05AMPage100

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area to establ to the country’s hydroelectric power. Conservationists tried va ve co the water power ofasite belonged to the people ofthe in ca the entire multiple-purpose plan.” a a tionists hoped to finance navigation improvements without co li ri nies for the useofgovernment-built navigable damsin that the government had to the charge right power compa- si charged he he va although itdidprovide for Corps review and for “reason- wo hy standard policy for reviewing to grants and distributing in and companies to build navigable damsin streams had that Observing requests Alabama. by individuals Shoals, build ahydroelectric onthe dam Tennessee River atMuscle such sites. authority to establish fees or for setthe useof timelimits had the not the federal government, insisted that the state, power plant and should not have to pay anyfees. They citizens or companies had to the build right adamand ca had ge,“Hydroelectric power providedrgues, the financialkey to Hays ppropriations from Congress. For thisreason, c’s expense, the public had theto public the be right reimbursed by a c’s expense, ve te creased tremendously, he asked Congress to develop a te or me over sites navigable in yfwlrefrshdwnmn ftebs ie,conser-ry few largehad firms won manyofthe best sites, nr,and thosewho developeduntry, itshould pay afee. As a tionists worried would that thosefirms soon monopolize tionists disagreed mp dr ve uld have given without agrant fair competition, s foror little nofee and had been indefinite or granting rs. Since the government had builtthe damatthe pub- ,power companies and the Corps argued that privates, dina not yet built a dam. In these cases, states’ rights advo- rights states’ not yet Inthese builtadam. cases, oelectric power developers. The Muscle Shoals bill ycagn etfrteueo a ie,conserva- rentBy charging for the useofdamsites, Conservationists and their opponents generally agreed n10 osvl etawrigt oges whenIn 1903Roosevelt sent awarning to Congress, to any using the damtoany using generate power. ed ed that Congress had been away giving hydropower ish apolicy to remedy these problems. tely long leases for thosesites. They argued that a bill granting aprivatea billgranting company to the right 27 Th eodore eodore (Figure 5). Roosevelt and other leading conser- ri ve rs 24 where the Conservationists 26 Disagreement go 25 ve rnment FIGURE 5. FIGURE co the Secretary of War and the Corps to accept hisviews. He Roosevelttheir effect onnavigation. Consequently, ordered gr Secretary heldtheonly that Act of War H. WilliamTaft, backedauthority toby require both. Corps leaders, conservationists insisted that the actgave the Corps its, W those receiving adhere grants to alimited set ofconditions. Act required that Congress approve each project and that gr with the increasing volume ofrequests for hydropower able char a 1. Roosevelt and hisconservationists had aroused the ed feuding continued for the next 14years and directly affect- pprove projects withfew requirements. anted them the authorityto evaluate damprojects for Congress passed the General Dam Act of1906. The ants, l o,however,convince Congress to back him. uld not, hile the Act didnot explicitlyrequire fees or set timelim- the development ofhydroelectric power atLock and Dam epnigi att osvl,butmore soto deal Responding partto in Roosevelt, ge President Theodore Roosevelt. Minnesota Historical Society. s. ..” 28 eetees Congress continued toNevertheless, 29 30 The 100 Chapter 5 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER II 34 ive conservation movement and movement conservation ive Residents of the Twin Cities observed Cities Twin of the Residents 35 r came of age. At the beginningAt the of the of age. r came her, the Progress . These projects and successful long dis- long successful and projects These 6). (Figure steamed into the new Meeker Island Lock on May on Lock Island Meeker new the into steamed anted two locks and dams immediately downstream dams immediately and locks two anted er Over the Dam the er Over Toget Combined with the national interest in conservation, interest national with the Combined rway issues into the everyday life of Americans as never Americans life of everyday the into issues rway Itura e power transmission demonstrated the practicality the transmission demonstrated e power uld include all the related branches of science and would and of science branches related all the include uld te the Meeker Island and Lock and Dam No. 1 projects. Dam No. and Lock and Island Meeker the . Between 1894, Meeker . Between the authorized Congress when nc efore. In this context, In this efore. and Rivers the passed Congress alls. Although it had a limited generating capacity and capacity generating a limited it had Although alls. the national navigation improvement campaign brought campaign improvement navigation national the wa b 2,Act of March Harbors 1907, chan- 6-foot authorizing the reconsid- would Cities project,nel Twin of the residents and er as a curiosity, 1890s, hydropower viewed Americans most in plant hydropower Falls Niagara of the opening but the this. 1894 changed wo system. an interdependent as river the treat Wat The 19, 1907, was, lock as the it but as new passed had history by project,Island 1907, and it, completed Corps the when hydroelectric powe the transition firsthand. In 1882 the Minnesota Brush Minnesota In 1882 the firsthand. transition the sta- power first the hydroelectric Company opened Electric Anthony at St. Island on Upton States tion in United the F its power, employ her- to station the ready customers few 1894 and Between of . coming the alded 1895, built its Company Electric Minneapolis General the Anthony, at St. Station in and 1897,Main Street the St. Lower the Company completed Pillsbury-Washburn plant, hydroelectric dam and Anthony Falls providing Railway Minneapolis Street Lowry’s Thomas to power Company ta of the power the allowed and of hydroelectricity value and river. the far beyond reach falls to and residents led power hydroelectric to this awakening they why question to Cities Twin in the business interests had w longstanding their Laying aside Anthony Falls. St. from plan The 33 cognized 32 re ey Th 31 ys and, Hays, to according conserva- the McGee became one of the administration’s most administration’s one of the became McGee ugh efforts, the their recognized conservationists J. ro for navigation, they had to consider urban water sup- navigation,for urban water consider to had they McGee laid out his multiple use program for the for use program his multiple out laid McGee Th W. nsider more than navigation. As a key prerequisite to prerequisite As a key navigation. than more nsider ss about the use and development of water development ene use and the ss about me president of the American Anthropological Society Anthropological American of the me president urces. es rk together to develop a comprehensive plan. a comprehensive develop to rk together ar e individual states and the federal government had to had government federal the and states e individual 1911. McGee left the Bureau of Ethnology, in Bureau the left 1911. McGee co tion’s rivers,tion’s Mississippi, the especially in a 1907 article tional waterways movement, conservationists hoped to movement, hoped conservationists waterways tional titled “Our Great River.”“Our Great titled endorsement a resounding After ca nservationists began an effort to broaden those interests. broaden an effort to began nservationists pture the support of navigation boosters to make multi- make to boosters of navigation support the pture ashington, D.C., anthropological up the head in 1903 to efore they began developing the Mississippi the its tribu- and developing began they efore xhibits for the St. Louis Exposition and became director of director Exposition became St. Louis and xhibits the for ari ply, power, hydroelectric irrigation, reclamation. and canals Th wo tion movement’s chief theorist. McGee helped found the found helped McGee theorist. chief tion movement’s Geographic National the and America of Society Geological 1905. He 1904 to from Society, its president becoming be in W e in St. Louis, was he While Public Louis St. the Museum. his attention. caught navigation improvement active proponents of a multiple use program for the for use program of a multiple proponents active nation’s waterwa en with readers improvements,of navigation pleaded McGee to the navigation improvements, reduce to had country the Mississippi the into flowing amounts of sediment massive load, sediment the reduce states To its tributaries. and forests, their preserve to had and within watershed the And begin practicing soil conservation. to farmers had b t na American public to the issues surrounding the hydroelec- the surrounding issues public the to American American stirred further and development tric power aw reso that most boosters cared only for their own projects, own their only for cared boosters and most that co ple-purpose water planning a reality. planning water ple-purpose ca need to maximize the benefits of the nation’s waterways for waterways nation’s of the benefits maximize the to need popularity of the growing the public. Given American the na 101 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:09 AM Page 101 Page AM 8:09 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:09 AM Page 102

feud, they began working together to convince the Corps and Congress that the project should be reviewed and revamped. Congress, going through a similar awakening, and the Roosevelt administration, with its strident emphasis on con- servation, readily supported the change.36 In the River and Harbor Act of June 25, 1906, lated, higher energy costs and demand from the Twin Cities’ Congress created a commission to examine the river’s growing population would make the power gained from hydropower potential between Minneapolis and St. Paul. low-head dams more valuable. Then, the hydropower capac- The commissioners held a preliminary meeting in the capi- ity of the two sites would be worth capturing. Twenty to tal city on March 28, 1907, to study data in the Corps’ St. 25 years in the future, they suggested, the cities could even Paul District office and visit the sites. They did not meet consider building a single high dam downstream of Lock again until September 26, when they completed their report and Dam No. 1.39 The Board’s report reassured Minneapolis and forwarded it to Alexander Mackenzie, now a brigadier that it would remain the head of navigation and that St. general and the Chief of Engineers.37 Paul would not get hydropower. Disappointing hydroelectric power boosters, the com- The commission’s report did not quash interest in missioners determined that the low head, or short fall, at developing water power at the locks and dams. The river’s Locks and Dams 1 and 2 would not permit the economic steep slope and narrow gorge at Lock and Dam 1, and the development of hydroelectric power.38 Someday, they specu- fact that the site lay within the major metropolis on the

FIGURE 6. De la Barre’s “folly.” Lower St. Anthony Falls Dam and upper Mississippi River above St. Louis, made it the ideal Hydroelectric Station, completed in 1897. St. Paul District, Corps of undeveloped hydroelectric site on the river. And, just Engineers. The Twin City Rapid Transit Company steam powerhouse is at before the commission’s first meeting, Congress changed a the far left. Steamplant is at the far left. major premise that the commissioners failed to consider; it authorized the 6-foot channel project. Locks and Dams 1 and 2 had been designed for a 5-foot channel, so the Engineers had to reassess the design of each. Whatever they decided, the project’s cost would increase. Now the expense of starting over could be compared to the

102 Chapter 5 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER II 48 of the d, manager Interest by private by Interest ion, companies private 47 If the Engineers built the If the 45 A. W. Leonar A. W. 49 46 d backed the high the dam. d backed sts to pay all extra cost necessary to raise the raise to necessary cost all extra pay sts to e Corps fueled worry over private development. private over worry fueled e Corps that the Corps could not build a high dam alone, build not could Corps the that if tere anies frightened the cities and became a key issue at issue a key became and cities the frightened anies Th Encouraged by the Corps’ by Encouraged posit After extolling the advantages of a high of dam to advantages the extolling After 9, morning of June On the 1909, a held board the opower. opower. r-power, and must confine its attention strictly to fea- r-power, strictly to its attention must confine and in ply, city and state representatives worried that the gov- the that worried ply, representatives state city and ed s affecting navigation. . . .” navigation. s affecting te the project. To their dismay, private companies also dismay, their companies private To project. the ea nounced” the “attitude of the government in permitting nounced” government of the “attitude the mp re de rnment would start a bidding war, a bidding start “bitterly would they rnment and ulty. The United States has no business to meddle with meddle no business to has States United The ulty. ng a high dam. attended the public meeting. attended co power.” desired produce dam would a height as to such the meeting. the the from representatives Shunk told Major member Board out- from proposals to listen “would board the that cities si project alone, navigation. justify it for to project have would they 2 already, Dam No. and Lock completed not Corps the Had one, declared, recommended board the have govern- it could dams would low two the dam. Since and lock ment-built navigation, for needed depth the that secure it concluded of build- cost extra the pay to have would party some other i Minneapolis General Electric Company, reported that his Company, that Electric Minneapolis General reported Hoping to get the hydropower generated by a high dam by generated hydropower the get Hoping to ch e de . . .” a prospect. such power. But holding to standard policy,deter- standard board to But holding the power. min the capture only to building it was for reason the hydr C. Haynes, James Minneapolis Mayor Districtcom- St. Paul diffi- the comes “Now that Shunk explained Major mander c wa tu might support who determine to St. Paul in public hearing and St. Paul from dam. Representatives the finance and To change. the favored strongly and Minneapolis attended surprise, their interest also showed of Minnesota State the in an appeared 41 new facility,new and 42 operate the operate By redesigning Dam No. 1 for a 30-foot 1 for Dam No. By redesigning 43 44 Because of these changes and continued public continued and changes of these Because nstruct the new dam, new the nstruct two considered board the 40 at a single and lock operating dam save would and co undertake the new study, a new the appointed Corps the undertake ng the outcome of this study, outcome ng the suspended Corps the To Developing hydroelectric power raised more difficult more raised power hydroelectric Developing To two issues. First, issues. Corps the two whether analyzed they d considered the navigation issue first and quickly con- first quickly issue and navigation the d considered d of engineers that included Majors Charles S. Riche, S. Charles Majors included that d of engineers d th e to be one foot higher, their hydropower potential would higher, potential one foot be e to hydropower their acity of the river between Minneapolis and St. Paul. The St. Paul. Minneapolis and between river acity of the rk on Lock and Dam No. 1. As of June 30, of June As 1. Dam and No. rk on Lock had Corps the te ar ar rty. Recognizing the merits of a high the dam, Recognizing rty. board the annel project). Only a high dam would make hydroelec- make Only a high dam would project). annel rns. The board concurred with the first the with the study that concurred board The rns. nce uld easily and cheaply adapt the 5-foot project to the 6- the to project 5-foot the adapt cheaply and easily uld ancis R. Shunk and Charles Bromwell. The board consid- board The Bromwell. Charles R. Shunk and ancis crease. ed w dams could not generate power economically (even economically power generate not w dams could ost of modifying the structures. And as the dams would as the And structures. ost of modifying the aise, the Engineers estimated they could generate 15,000 aise, generate could they Engineers estimated the r horsepower. the federal government would have an endless surplus of an endless have would government federal the options. The Corps could build the dam alone or it could or dam alone the build could Corps The options. municipal or dam in with a private the partnership build pa no costs,maintenance only one lockage, require would in and modified be to have not would depth a 9-foot providing that also recognized They projects. navigation future under of hydropower the from gained rent use the could Corps the and a high dam construct to lo 6-foot the by of height created foot additional with the ch economical,tric power and a high Lock dam built at the 1 site. Dam No. cluded that,cluded with minor changes, would project existing the channel. 6-foot an adequate provide co Fr er co hydropower the Second, project. foot reevaluated they cap bo in bo hav c pressure for a high for dam,pressure Congress, Harbor and in River the 3,Act of March 1909, the examine to Corps the authorized projects’ spring again. In the of 1909, potential hydropower pendi wo dams. and locks two on the $1,149,453 spent 103 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:09 AM Page 103 Page AM 8:09 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:09AMPage104

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Proposing toProposing work the withaprivate board con- company, would not itto relinquish aprivate company.the site, dam which owned much ofthethat land the two above cities, the state legislature.” islative actionmodifyingthe charters atthe next session of the hearing that there leg- obtaining in willbe nodifficulty co ofrepresentativesthe mayors ofthe two ofthe city cities, to to to to de si m ex of Minneapolisand St.Paul barred them from making the and bonds the citycharters needed to build the project, ye nite proposal untilafter the next legislative sessiontwo in re posal to dam.Constitutional shareahigh building in si hy session to astrategy discuss for developing the river’s St.Paul and the state met after the morning Minneapolis, much more than 60days. gr belongede cities th to and the state. They asked the board to bec insisted that the federal government should favor them, representatives frommunicipalities. the Inresponse, cities couldprise develop the water power better than the state or P es the government the extra cost ofconstructing dam, ahigh f i ng the project. irm could aproposal 60days submit within and would pay u a ih opn,contended Company, aul GasLight that aprivate enter- on the reaction and ofMinneapolis St.Paul to private withthree members to from prepare each apro- party, on, urmns however,prevented them adefi- quirements, from offering issed working withaprivate company. Itbased thisdeci- timated representing at$230,000.Paul the Doty, St. n hmtm opeaeapooa,which would takeant them timeto prepare aproposal, ar nis and ofallthe representative citizens who spokeuncils, at pend vel dr h he fEgnes noted that “it istheof opinion the ChiefofEngineers, re am ause the water power was anatural resource that s. The state’s constitution prohibited itfrom issuing vise their charters. The board, in submitting itsreport submitting in vise their charters. The board, opower potential. They formed anine-person commis- fe vlaigisotos h op’board dis- the Corps’ After evaluating itsoptions, Demonstrating their interest and their worry, opment. The board believed it “abundantly evident” en itures for such purposes. t osiuinwsi ob,both cities planned d itsconstitution was doubt, in 53 52 Both cities passed resolutions favor- 50 51 W hile the state’s ability r mended that Congress modify the navigation project to the board recom-the ofthisoverwhelming basis interest, Minneapolis even agreed to advance St.Paul’s share. On the new structure and to share the hydropower. Minneapolis and St.Paul agreed the to cost split ofbuilding go bec da el ment alone concert or in the board withaprivate company, dam..”high “would be equivalent tocluded, recommending a against p could runitor lease itto aprivate he proposed, com- ment, the govern-Once the Engineersbuiltthe power station, supply power to other federal offices the in Twin Cities. power generated atthe new damwould pay this cost and c orfeet. eight nine While the newof seven, structure would future. The damwould high easily accommodate aproject that authorize Congress adeeper might project the in near he speculatedNo. 2and had finished much ofLock No. 1, Even thoughthe Engineershad completed Lock and Dam plete control ofthe waterpower. then itcould keep com- he argued, ment paid the fullcost, Ifthe govern- often attended serious complications ..” proven and “conducive to and friction misunderstanding, had he warned, the costsSharing withanonfederal partner, ca such practi- alock and damby the Government isfeasible, Congress to fund the entire project. The “construction of ch the board’s recommendations butmade animportant develop it. w to go aise Dam No.aise Dam 1to 30feet. s oe$3,0,he contended that the hydroelectric ost some$230,000, any or municipality. ec l,and legal he asserted. under existing conditions,” ble, ve ne Cnrr otesadr op oiin he urged ange. Contrary to the standard Corps position, m. Itbelieved that the cities would change their charters ause ofthe strong support displayed by the citizens and te rnments ofthe two cities.turnabout, Inadramatic Having eliminated construction by the federal govern- Marshall bolstered withother hisposition arguments. W. d to work withthe Twin Cities to build the new high se h or eotd than let aprivate firm the board reported, aste, .Mrhl,tenwCifo nier,endorsed the new Chief ofEngineers, L. Marshall, 55 54 The The 59 two cities would rather see the power 56 58 57 104 Chapter 5 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER II 65 66 ys, President Roosevelt established the ys, established Roosevelt President epare a comprehensive plan for developing the developing for plan a comprehensive epare d both to support him. support to d both National Debate Over Over National Debate oping and managing waterways. Newlands’oping managing and waterways. agency opment was, hydroelectric opment to as it related especially rways Commission called for a multiple-purpose for Commission called rways Not surprisingly,Not opposed Corps the and Congress also rejected representatives and Many senators To pr r resource projects. In December 1907, In December projects. Francis r resource Senator te uld undermine much of the Corps’ of the much undermine uld in select- autonomy te vel hile Minneapolis and St. Paul tried to get hydroelectric get to tried St. Paul Minneapolis and hile vel dere it the government to develop the water power. Before the Before power. water the develop to government it the source problems,source projects, authorize construc- supervise bill. the endorsed strongly Roosevelt agencies. source pproach and suggested that a single agency coordinate all coordinate a single that agency suggested and pproach ng and building projects. To get the Corps and the War the and Corps the get To building projects. ng and Newlands’ bill. The Corps generally resisted the multiple- the Newlands’ resisted generally Corps The bill. in role purpose approach, agency’s the as it threatened de to projects Newlands’ waterway which bill. Determining for role rewarding and an important was fund and build m Dam 1, and Lock District completed St. Paul in 1917, a in hydroelectric role government’s federal the over debate Consequently, project. the entangled development power more for unused remain base would station’s power the sixthan years. The Power Hydroelectric W Damand 1, at Lock the power with what wrestled Congress resource water in overseeing role government’s federal de wo i bill, on the favorably report to again Department Roosevelt or power. It was an issue that deeply divided the country. the divided deeply that an issue It was power. built eventually station power Dam the and 1 and Lock this debate. upon it embody nation’s waterwa Commission 12, on March Waterways 1907. Inland McGee, J. Inland the W. by headed of and Conceived Wa a wa This an agency. such create to a bill introduced G. Newlands to had investigate the have agency would power water re tion, water of all federal activities the coordinate and re 61 itself. He itself. It did not per- It did not 64 d pay for hus, District began St. Paul the T ime, and coul 63 In a February 17,In a February 1909, Mayor to letter 62 Cities could no longer gain direct control of control gain direct no longer could Cities 60 On January 31,On January 1910, its report submitted board the Although the board’s report did not show it, show did not report board’s Although the at least The Twin r power a reasonable compensation shall be secured to secured be shall compensation a reasonable r power r’s hydropower. Shunk even tried to convince business- convince to tried Shunk even hydropower. r’s te the Chief of Engineers. Following Marshall’s recommen- Marshall’s of Engineers. Following Chief the operate, t save would ms or plants. ms or tions, a high1910 River for dam in the called Congress ve ut partial measures and technically restricted vision.” restricted technically and bout partial measures nsure safe navigation above the new lock and dam, and lock new the above safe navigation nsure the Haynes, wrong is something “There that Shunk complained a to da Act, Harbor and for “Provided, in making the of leases That wa . . . .” States United the Officially, position the that the however, Shunk supported navi- regulate authority only to the had government federal power hydroelectric regulate or build to not gation and da one of its members agreed with the Chief of Engineers. with the agreed one of its members the authorize should Congress that Shunk believed Major the capture to and a high navigation dam for build to Corps ri other Like project. the support to Cities Twin in the men high dam proponents, easier be it would that Shunk argued to modifying Lock and Dam No. 1 with federal funding. To funding. 1 with federal Dam and No. modifying Lock e Island Meeker of the feet five top the Engineers demolished Dam in 1912. the leasing vie for still could but they waterpower, the only the build to Corps the allowed had Congress power. station, a hydropower base for itself. station the not the Act granted Harbor and 1912 River 12 of the Section in perma- the “provide to authority the War of Secretary Congress at any time by of any dam authorized parts nent foundations, such of navigation improvement the for sluices, works, for other and desirable considered be may as power.” of its water development future the hoped that if the Twin Cities demonstrated enough demand enough demonstrated Cities Twin if the that hoped it. fund and authorize would Congress project the for mentality, Shunk Progressive a deep-seated Displaying concern, a legal not was issue whole “the a but isted ins matter.” moral 105 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:09 AM Page 105 Page AM 8:09 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:09AMPage106

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area plant at Dam No.plant atDam 1. be de 1920 diditestablish apolicy for national hydropower .” hiatus to hydroelectric. development navigable in rivers, “brought a Scarpinocontends, historian Philip impasse,” the government becameAs aresult, deadlocked. “This co th over itfailed the in Senate. 1908, 16, billon May with it. Although the House passed Newlands’ the becameAdministration disenchantedmodified the bill, approvedAdministration Burton’s. When Congress further the Roosevelt version, rt for Newlands’ suppo enough er agency opposedInland the separateWaterways Commission, House Rivers and Harbors Committee and amember ofthe Congress. Representative chair ofthe Theodore E.Burton, b butthe Federal which had Powerat the site, Commission, Minnesota submitted proposals for apower building plant the Northern States Power and the University of Company, es hydr blocked aproposal by the Taft administrationto develop re because itdidnot provide for a projectDam in Alabama, be T William H. His successor and old adversary onthisissue, r ve er co and Rooseveltpurpose approach had thwarted the program, ole ole een een f,questioned who thispolicy. ButHenryaft, L.Stimson, 70 ntal fee. In response, Alabama Senator Alabama Johnntal Bankhead fee. Inresponse, ta toi nstruct multiple-purpose river works.” ca nservationists had blocked unlimited leases athydropow- gi vel si blished astandard policy for hydropower development. Not Congress until passed the Water Power Act of n considering propositions to build ahydroelectric te me Taft’s “was Secretary enthusiastic of War 1911, in in opower onthe Connecticut River that would have ng hydropower projects that didnot carry such terms. Fo In 1912Stimsonconvinced Taft to veto the Coosa By 1913Congress had stalled over the government’s pet and not untilthen could the St.Paul District opment, created by the Federal rejected Power them. Act, o iteo orn. n10,Roosevelt had begun s foror little norent. In1908, e possibilities of using revenue ofusing e possibilities from water power to de lwn h c’ asg,Minneapolisand St.Paul, llowing the Act’s passage, and introduced adifferent proposal. Unable to gath- vel oping waterways.oping Opponents ofthe multiple- 71 67 69 72 In 68 pe riv re “weighed heavily ontheof minds engineers she says, This “blunder,” called some it.” ment–a ‘shockingblunder’ Meeker Island proved to be anembarrassment to the govern- Lucile Kanecontends that “The lock and dambuiltnear re to da da or scope ofthe project–waterway improvement.” “on the grounds that power development was beyond the 1894, in that Congress rejected thebillfordam, first ahigh George W.JevneNo. 1, andD. William Timperleycharged In a1910University ofMinnesota thesis onLock and Dam than oneand tried to place or ononeparty blame another. questioned why Congress had authorized two rather dams new lock and damseemed unconscionable. Manypeople and damand St.Paul itshydropower. Minneapolishad itslock 60 years after proposed, beingfirst (Figure 7).Finally, others to and to the dam, lockand above, power supplying to itsnew truck plant onthe bluff 1924, Company. Ford completed the hydroelectric station in the CityofSt.Paul and submitted by the Ford Motor 1923 theaccepted commissionfinally aproposal backed by Cities by "such saying things e be and the Corps made rigorous scientific decisions about how after along explanation ofhow Congress Shunk, Haynes, ed however.port thiscontention, re three University ofMinnesota engineeringstudents thesis, xplain the oftwo building locks andthe damsin Twin cognize the broad national trends that enveloped them. sponsible for thesponsible decision.” pe st to select and could build water only resource projects, ople have votes." ms musthave held sway for along time. the control ofthosewho wanted onlylow 1868, m in ul w tutrs the players thishistory in didnot build two structures, more damssince G.K. Warren recommended asecond alry between Minneapolisand St.Paul. h op. nhsFbur 7 99 letter to Mayor 1909, the Corps. InhisFebruary 17, ated thischarge and blamed the two-dam project onthe W na r hncnevto eaeafd destroyingIn anera when a conservation became afad, Major Shunkalso faulted intercity and politics defend- iea“erthsoy may lurkbehind the decision hile a “secret history” 76 As the Corps had been two proposing 75 happen in in happen T here is no evidencesup- to no is here co 74 untries Historian 73 In asimilar where 106 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:10 AM Page 107

FIGURE 7. Lock and Dam No. 1 with Ford Hydroelectric Power Plant.

Federal law only allowed the Corps to build the base. Ford completed the

hydroelectric plant in 1924. St. Paul District, Corps of Engineers.

The rivalry between Minneapolis and St. Paul and between Meeker Island Lock and Dam, symbolize these important the navigation boosters and the millers cannot be overem- local and national debates. phasized, but it must be placed in a national context. The feuding had delayed the project long enough for hydroelec- Lock and Dam No. 2, Hastings tric power to come of age and for the conservation move- As of 1925 the Mississippi River between St. Paul and ment to gain momentum in America. The desire of local Hastings remained the most troublesome reach for naviga- hydropower boosters to capture the river’s power so it tion. Responding to boosters, Congress authorized a survey would not go to waste–a desire reflected in American socie- of the river from St. Paul to the head of Lake Pepin, in the ty of the early twentieth century–led Congress to revamp the project, even though it had spent more than a million dollars on it. Building the hydroelectric plant also became entwined in a national debate. Thus, the plant and the lock and dam, as well as the sometimes visible remains of the

107 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:10AMPage108

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area ch we “mustcome from competition with Engineers determined, a long time. “An increase the river in transportation,” adequately served the Corps stated, flatly the Twin Cities. Railroads, four to the Pacific Coast andto six the South, Duluth, four to five to including lines Chicago, systems, nine irregular service. Itprovided only organizedthe River 1922.” in Transit Co., ontheating upperRiver Mississippi to the Twin Cities is “the onlycommercialoper- line steamer,” the report noted, 1925. “With the exception ofanoccasional excursion presents pict asobering ri the river navigable above the lake and review the status of make to were necessary dams and locks whether determine do do foot channel and recognized that itwould to be impossible to dr da r wo nearly allthe constriction andHastings St.Paul. Infact, the Corps had undertaken work little between1907, es of Lake Pepin. Here the Corps decided that itcould easily re fiv Th Th r and No. Dam the Engineers 1to downtown St.Paul. Here, broke the river into three reaches. The ran first from Lock 1925. River and Harbor Act ofMarch 3, pre,the reach contained aboutandeported, 300wing closing eported that they had nearly completed the 6-foot channel. ve ach. A second reach extended from to Hastings the head ta ed ea ms. The estimate Engineers atns the were Engineers from far completing the 6- Hastings, e-foot depth butdidnot need to sinceused notraffic this e Corps maintained itcould have dredged the river to a however,was only3.7feet. e controlling depth1925, in ll-organized railway service or from new which business k a enbitbfr 86 Sil the Engineers rks had been builtbefore 1896.Still, so with wing dams, closing dams and dams dredging. closing dams, so withwing r commerce. blish the 6-footblish channel by channel constriction and per per gi Th Since Congress had authorized the 6-foot project in In itspreliminary ex g Bti h iderah from downtown theng. Butin middle St.Paul reach, op’rpr,known asHouse Document 583, report, e Corps’ transportation to the willbring territory.” served the Twin Cities and would continue to for 78 Twe t-he alod,grouped into nty-three railroads, ure ofwhere amination d thatther n uvy theand Corps survey, shipping stoodshipping in 77 e was Th e Corps was to “an av 79 80 erage this was two feet below the required 6-foot channel. they still, could increase the depth toinsisted, four feet; d the low water 1925. during At the end ofthe season, ri Considering thisproblem the using andtraffic withlittle they would lose a6-foot channel atSt.Paul.Hastings, the river enough to a6-foot maintain channel down to wa the channel below St.Paul somuch that itlowered the the Corps had to dredgeLock and1.Inother Dam words, would make matters worsethey warned, atSt.Paul and and 1below Dam the design depth. Any further dredging, re h co at St.Paul and Lock “As 1. and Dam They a reported that, ch e the river remained Still, stretch ofriver the in country.” wasand Hastings “probably the mostcompletely regulated and declared that the river betweenof 10per mile” St.Paul atnsi h ie n abrAto aur 7 1927. the in RiverHastings and Harbor Act ofJanuary 27, bo en wo allthe Cities provided the justification for the whole effort; the metropolisTwin onthe upper river above St. Louis, that alock and damwas necessary. As the only large do and too dredging much lowerednel, the water surface from ch new structure partofthe 6-foot channel project. Since should consider the the Engineersmaintained, Congress, da the Corps recommendeda navigable alock channel, and xtremely shallow. phwsol he et B rdig the Engineers epth was onlythree feet. Bydredging, as been lowered about 1.5feet.” ve duced the amountofwater over theor sill entry to Lock nsequence the [ofdredging] low-water surface atSt.Paul annel open onlytemporarily butatacost to navigation annel constriction alone could not create a6-foot chan- ses Congress authorized Lock No. and Dam 2at osters, de nonS.Pu pt okadDm1 itbecame clear wntown St.Paul upto Lock 1, and Dam m at Hastings. m atHastings. They estimated the cost at$3,780,310. te rk below the cities meant ifthe little navigable channel r, d 30miles downstream. r level atSt.Paul. They realized that ifthey dredged rdig h nier cnwegd could keep the Engineersacknowledged, the Dredging, cetn h op’arguments and lobbying by local Accepting the Corps’ On theofitsexperience basis and growing demand for the Corps had conducted thissection in nodredging 81 84 82 Th e lower water surface 83 108 Chapter 5 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER II ng a se trans- reati had wn, its ship- diver portation sys- portation need for a for need tem As the region’s As the gro Louis by 1918. by Louis ping options had St. Paul and St. and St. Paul declined, c traffic moved between traffic moved transportation crisis. transportation cts, no through virtually e Railroad car shortages, car Railroad the - and 6-foot channel proj- channel 6-foot - and ma Canal’s opening in 1914 opening ma Canal’s 2 / 1 na 4 and Dam No. 2,and Dam No. Hastings. 27, June Pa Despite all the Corps’ all the Despite on the work and several Interstate Commerce Interstate several and vigation channel. All too frequently, All too le navigation channel. hts and floods made the channel impassable. Rail car channel the made floods hts and r’s side channels, they had been unable to create a channels, side create r’s to unable been had they r’s landscape in the southernmost end of the MNRRA of the end southernmost in the landscape r’s ng (completed in 1938) creates a reservoir that extends that a reservoir in 1938) creates ng (completed ks and dams from just above Red Wing, Red just above dams from ks and Minnesota, to ab pend oug ve ve dr Commission decisions combined with channel constric- with channel combined Commission decisions erect, to failure declared,tion’s “economic Midwesterners an barrier” Engineers had the Although region. their around many of the closed of wing had dams and built thousands ri de nel project. Under this project,Under 23 project. nel constructed Corps the loc Alton, Illinois, dams and locks All the during 1930s. the part of this project. now are Mississippi River upper on the in system the joined Anthony Falls St. Lower and Upper 3 at Red Dam No. and Lock 1963,1956 and respectively. Wi dam and, and Hastings lock the up to therefore, the defines ri reasons, these corrid briefly the to For examine or. need we project. channel 9-foot of the history FIGURE 8. First lockage at Lock Lock at FIGURE 8. lockage First District,1930. St. Paul Engineers. of Corps 85 , e reservoir created by created e reservoir 9-Foot Channel 9-Foot Th s these simple dams had increasingly defined the river’s the defined increasingly simple dams had s these d only by telltale ripples on the water’s surface. For 52 For surface. water’s on the ripples telltale d only by rk on October 16, rk on October e river may look more natural without the wing the dams, without natural more look may e river ysical and ecological character. They still funnel water still funnel They character. ecological and ysical ms that once studded the river now lie submerged, now river the studded once ms that indi- wn the mainwn the channel, once sandbars had that vast the but ar te rganization that had formed to restore commerce to the to commerce restore to formed had rganization that . 8) une 27 (Figure The through passed barges and first the towboat after Six days 2, Dam and No. Lock chan- 9-foot the authorized Congress ye ph do them trapped arebeen gone between or no longer visible. Th artificial,but it is equally a human artifact. equally Dam No. 2,Dam No. Pool called commonly 2, landscape the changed permanently has Lock Hastings to from Mississippi of the River ecology and high its historic rise to can river the While 1. Damand No. wing The stages, levels. low its natural fall to it cannot da ca Congress did not immediately fund the project, the fund immediately did not Congress however. Consequently, Mississippi Barge Line Upper Company, the an o the undertake river, to upper Corps the $30,000 to loaned preliminary surveys, borings. Finally, and on work design 22,May the 1928, ordered and funds provided Congress St. Paul The begin construction. to Corps begin act to a contr District let wo the Although 1928. District did not complete Lock 2 Damand No. until 30, November 1930, first the barges, pushed by the towboat Thorpe S. S. throughlocked on J 109 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:10 AM Page 109 Page AM 8:10 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:10AMPage110

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area they foughtto restore commerce and to persuade Congress to p er Midwestern businessand navigation boosters initiated anoth- 1925. until June 1, wa Midwestern rates. shipping leading to a100per cent or greatertheir some rates, in rise the ICCordere de Midwesterners could shipgoods to either coast by rail. Fr coasts. Businesses could shipgoods from New York to San ot each the Panama Canal moved the Eastand West coasts closer to lem that promised to become steadily worse. Economically, e Panama th Canal created aprob- beenages had infrequent, Midwest’s transportation problems. While railroad car short- pointed out the Midwest’s dependence onrailroads. in during World and War 1906-07, occurringin I, shortages, tutr. o narraos th structure. For unfairreasons, Indiana and others challenged the Midwest's railroad rate Service of the Public Commission 1921, On October 22, Case of1922and the subsequent decisions that upheld it. Commerce (ICC) decision Commission's the Indiana in Rate l Louis isnolonger recognized asacontrolling force butis "Water competition River onthe Mississippi north ofSt. the ICC reversed itstated, thisdecision. Now, Rate Case, tial and reality ofwaterway competition. Inthe Indiana by along the river charged lower rates because a1909decision than railroads out running ofIndiana. Railroads running RiverMississippi Missouriand in Iowa charged lower rates i ng out of Illinois and citiesng out ofIllinois along the west bankofthe ittle more than potential." assed allprevious movements. Between 1925and 1930, ancisco through the Panama Canal cheaper than clared the Midwest 1922, landlocked. OnFebruary 14, movement amovement to that sur- revive navigation, 91 asdaue hr-emsipn rss and short-term crises, shipping caused acute, 1921, te the ICC had upheld the lower rates based upon the poten- rway advocates delayed the decision's implementation In response to the growing transportation crisis, Th Th her whileher moving the Midwest farther away from both e Panama Canal’s opening 1914redefined in the e transportation climaxed crisis withthe Interstate d railroads o perating alo perating 89 88 Appeals by the defendants and nefc,the commission In effect, ey a ey ge,railroa rgued, ng theriver to raise ds operat- 86 87 region’ Press,ent and from the major political parties. tions, from the Midwest’s organiza- principalfarm most ofitscities, from the largest and smallest businesses the in valley, from ri authorize anew onethat would project allow for the river, the with two more locks and damsthey could make their city ch watching theNavigation 9-foot advocates Minneapolis, in Upper Harbor Project St. Anthony Falls the Dream: Fulfilling foot channel project the in 1930River and Harbor Act. na of thispartthe corridor requires anunderstanding ofthe ariebound ec ari bound Places. Although Lock andNo. Dam 3isoutside MNRRA’s b Great Locks Depression and3through Dams history, 26have and the Corps would the whole finish project by 1940. 3, 1938 the St.Paul had District completed Lock andNo. Dam providing labor for thousands ofunemployed workers. By Corps builtthe locks the andGreat damsduring Depression, een een ve osystems that in partofthe pool the within corridor’s annel project under construction recognized below, that tional significance ofthe 9-foot channel project. r to trulycompete withrailroads. Itwould draw support akt,thesea. markets, toand from thecommon highway totheworld’scarriage, shutby in thebarriersmarooned ofcostly overland interior, ti re this for commercial possibilities its unlimited growth, and itsrich resources, sea. With ofpopulation, itsmillions expression demand for in find ready accesspower, tothe for for prosperity, Northwest’s aspirationsfor growth, the peoples, In commonofallambitious withtheimpulses 1928, An editorial the in May 12, epnigt hsmvmn,Congress included the 9- Responding to thismovement, On theoftheir basis representation ofNew Era and de ny, gi s sentiment best: te on on es, rmined eligible for the Nationalrmined Register eligible ofHistoric itled “An Inland captures Empire’s Need,” the straining athischains. straining We a are landlocked, s. To interpret landscape the and history, ecology is like a giant, tied justbeyond reach tied ofanobler des- is like agiant, its reservoir defines the river’s landscape and 90 St. Paul Pioneer 91 110 The Chapter 5 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER II the University of at the University boratory St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam under construction, Lock Falls Anthony St. rk began on the lower lock and dam during and the lock lower on the rk began Because of the area’s fragile geology–made evident by evident geology–made fragile area’s of the Because Wo 12,On November 1949, for ground broke Corps the ause of foundation problems and large floods in 1951 floods large and problems ause of foundation 1948, channel. a 9-foot dredging for began Corps the when density the 6)–and Chapter (see fiasco Tunnel Eastman the of urban development, an innova- devise to had Corps the In 1939 the methods. construction unique and design tive from site project of the model 50 scale built a 1 to Corps Bridge at the Avenue to the Washington Avenue Hennepin Hydraulic La Anthony Falls St. Minnesota. Anthony Falls St. Lower the build To of 1950. summer by project, dam completed existing the removed Corps the dam new The Company in 1897. Pillsbury-Washburn the The 9). (Figure station hydropower old the into tied in years, four project the build to Engineers planned but bec 1952,and years, seven it took in 1956. opening FIGURE 9. Lower District,1956. St. Paul Engineers. of Corps the 1850s,the support- Minneapolis navigation ce sin e project called for building the Lower St. Anthony St. Lower building the for called e project ng, project The utilities. and bridges modifying and Th gi s. World War II,War engineering and economic complex World s. uld extend the head of navigation–the farthest upriver farthest of navigation–the head the extend uld ed anted their wish by enacting the Upper Minneapolis Upper the enacting wish by their anted s and their Congressional delegation pushed hard to have to hard pushed delegation Congressional their s and alls Lock and Dam, and alls Lock Lock, Anthony Falls St. Upper the the head of navigation. Anxious to fulfill the dream they fulfill dream the to Anxious navigation. of head the had held wo 4.6 channel–by of a 9-foot sure be could tows and barges mile until construction acquisition delayed land and studies er 26,August On extended. 1937, project the Congress, with Shipstead, Henrik Senator Minnesota by lobbying istent ins gr con- to Minneapolis agreed Project. Development Harbor utility and bridge for project the tribute $1,744,000 to land. purchasing and modifications F dr 111 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:10 AM Page 111 Page AM 8:10 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:10 AM Page 112

112 Chapter 5 • TRANSFORMING THE RIVER II 92 pushing a barge loaded with pushing a barge loaded , age 93 St. Anthony Falls Lock under construction, Lock Falls Anthony St. 1961. xcitedly reported that engineers and “a crew and engineers that reported xcitedly e illiam Barre, la de of mastermind eminent the places” to build the dam. The paper expected 1,000 places” expected paper The dam. the build to As construction became imminent, became As construction County Anoka the W opower development at St. Anthony Falls, the at St. development reviewed opower the Coon Rapids Dam redefined the river’s upstream river’s the Rapids Dam redefined Coon the s passed, project the approved Congress however, before cluded that there was no reason why “this water power water “this why no reason was there that cluded rt of Minneapolis to the . Minneapolis had Gulf of Mexico. the rt of Minneapolis to rkers. When they began arriving, began they When rkers. Northern the rk on the upper lock. This lock,This lock. upper the rk on at 49.2 feet,high- the has dr r, rt of the country.” rt of the ar onomic contexts in which it was conceived of and of conceived it was in which onomic contexts st lift of any lock on the Mississippi River. On September Mississippi on the River. st lift of any lock ast-iron pipe,ast-iron lock the through pass first the to became ished a camp,ished bank east Mississippi’s on the “little city,” a FIGURE 10. Upper District,St. Paul Engineers of Corps 21, 1963, Sav towboat the Union Herald and York New coming from are laborers hundred of several other wo subsidiary) estab- Company (a Byllesby Mississippi Power l wo e Rapids Dam Coon Mississippi corri- dams on the MNRRA in the other the Like do political, Its history–the and social ecology. and landscape ec local, important built–tells stories. national and regional a dam considering began developers power Hydroelectric Coon Rapids (or at Coon station generating electric and August as as early originally known) Rapids as it was Creek that hoped advocates and way under was A survey 1898. Thirteen year. next the begin by would project new the ye began. construction before two another and hy & Company. H. M. Byllesby for Rapids Dam design Coon Overall, He location. site and plans the liked Barre la de con completion, a successful to carried be not should project this for of power sources permanent one of the become and pa c the from move now could tows and 10). Barges (Figure hea earlier. 110 years over imagined a dream fulfilled 113 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:10 AM Page 113 Page AM 8:10 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:10AMPage114

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area steel industriesthe in Twin Cities. or more damsupriver would extend navigation to Brainerd. The that Hethought the addition ofoneor two Minneapolis.” ly to transport barges in from the range to e claimed that “This water passage would tap much ofthe rich- pool that extends seven miles upstream to the Champlin T Rapids would not be navigable for atleast two to five years. commander.District Potter declared the river above Coon d those ofthe commercial clubspromoting navigation were power was the facility ready to generate Bylate 1914, tricity.” with the mostmodern machinery for development ofelec- built abrick powerhouse onthe east side “and fitted [it] ov and night. They poured 42,000cubic yards ofconcrete and W. c anestimatedpower $150,000. company’s expense, wa had mandated thatnavigable damsbuiltin gable waters, al government hydroelectric in power development navi- in aspartofitseffortto the define role ofthe feder- Congress, upstream. While the damwas already under construction, loc Clubs ofSt.Cloud and Anoka alsobacked the lock idea. The pressing Congress for alock the in dam. The Commercial announced that the St. Anthony Falls Commercial Clubwas ad and exceeded the company the prediction of1,000workers, pe t in l fiebidns col omtre,nwhue,car- new houses, dormitories, school, officebuildings, al, ase for the lock to the Secretary ofthe Interior and Congress. st territory the state in and would eventual- make itpossible ashed by Lieutenant Colonel the St.Paul Charles Potter, her ,h rdce,would lead he predicted, to the growth ofsmelting and e, tr hp n trhue eebit”Asthe citymet nters shopsand storehouses were built.” de er er 93 “tet eeli u,asoe lbos,hospi- clubhouse, astore, 1913. “Streets were laid out, te ,ptnily would potentially, extend navigation 70miles k, B. B. fr,the power company didnot needefore, to build alock. oi hae,dance halld amovieandparlor. billiard theater, rs have locks. A lock would have to be builtatthe 800 carloads ofcrushed rock into the project. They Th Minnesota Representative George presented R.Smith the Th ormn ofthe Real Minneapolis Estate Board, Boardman, (Figure 11). a la,the company pressede way the large crew clear, day en nNvme 6 93 the 1913, on November 26, 98 Th e fixed-crest damcreated a600-acre 96 Boardman’s hopes and Union Herald 95 94 97 lise,debates and movements. al issues, relate to nation- and theDam Meeker Island Lock and Dam, stories such too. asthe Coon Rapids And local projects, yet they haveof national and their regional local stories, li whe hav Th phys river’s the have defined co political history ofhydroelectric development Minnesota. in try. The site provides look afascinating into the social and hy with itmeritinterpretation aspartof the early history of re NSP removed which has not been the replaced. powerhouse, was 1997, in completed dam, new a good, w the dam the structure. After aseriesmeetings, ofpublic Minnesota Department ofNatural Resources condemned water water Pa an Hennepin County Regional Park Now District. Hennepin 1969 NSPdonated the damand land around itto the Company (NSP)decided to 1966.In closein the facility ed flood waters and evenspite ofstrikes, ariot.” Fa in to wo tion upstream Bridge. from the Champlin at the dambutgraduallyto thins the river’s natural eleva- TheBridge Champlin. in pool provides ahead feet ofeight ke ke as torn out. As the dam’s foundation original was still an the damarea and the construction site associated main, rn down. The project had not been completed without cident. A local “The account ofthe project relates that, rdr from the mid-nineteenth centuryrridor, to the present, ther of Waters in was harnessed to do the work ofman, rk ontheir respective sides ofthe river. By1995high d dr ey ey profit generated Northern States by Power the facility, kr et and the citythat had grown uparound itwas rkers left, e determined how cities the in corridor usethe river, ther for the intended purposes or not. Someprojects, AnokaCo ch oelectric power development Minnesota in and the coun- Navigation and hydropower projects the in MNRRA W Because ofincreasing maintenance costs and the limit- mostoftheOnce the company completed the project, hav and ice had severely dam ne osrcinadtelcsaddm,are part annel constriction and the locks and dams, hile nostructures associated withthe old dam e shaped the corridor’s and they economic history, unt ie nage the Coon Rapids Dam Regional Dam Rapids Coon the manage s ical and ecological character. d the an dam, old aged the built ontop ofit. 99 114 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:10 AM Page 115

FIGURE 11. Coon Rapids Dam and Power Plant, 1928. Photo by Paul . Minnesota Historical Society.

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FIGURE 1. Reconstructing St. Anthony Falls. Artist: Peter Gui Clausen, 1869. Minnesota Historical Society. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:11 AM Page 117

Chapter 6 St. Anthony Falls: Timber, Flour and Electricity

hard Platteville limestone. The limestone covers a veneer of shale and mixed sandstone. Beneath these lies a deep deposit of soft St. Peter sandstone. Millers drove shafts through the limestone and shale and then easily excavated their tailraces to the toe of the falls. What they considered o place anchors the MNRRA corridor’s signif- a blessing, however, they almost destroyed. icance like St. Anthony Falls. No place in The same geology admired by the millers allowed the the corridor can match its regional, national, falls to retreat upriver. Imagine standing on the bluffs over- Neven international significance. Geologically, it is unique. looking the Mississippi valley near downtown St. Paul about St. Anthony Falls is the only major falls on the upper 12,000 years ago. You would be drenched by the spray and Mississippi River. Historically, its visitors and commenta- deafened by the roar of an immense waterfall. It measured tors comprise a who’s who of European and American some 2,700 feet across and stood 175 feet high. The melt- exploration: Father Louis Hennepin, Jonathan Carver, and waters from the colossal glacial Lake Agassiz, lying in north- Zebulon Pike, to name a few. Economically, it created a city western Minnesota and in southern Canada, thundered over with no peer west of Chicago to the Rock Mountains and it. As the water boiled back at the soft sandstone, it under- south to St. Louis. It gave birth to the saw milling and flour mined the limestone riverbed. Soon, the unsupported lime- milling industries that became the leading producers of stone broke off, and the falls receded upstream, and the their commodities in the United States and the world. process began again. By 1680, when Father Hennepin Minneapolis would be the nation’s flour capital for 50 became the first European to see the falls, it lay roughly years. Technologically, the falls produced the first commer- 1,500 feet downstream from its present location. cial hydroelectric central plant in the country. The St. Anthony Falls area boasts two National Historic Landmarks Native American History – the Pillsbury A Mill and the Washburn A Mill – and, the We know little about the Native Americans’ relationship to Great Northern Railway Bridge, a National Engineering the falls over the last 12,000 years. (Figure 2.) Few arti- Landmark. For these reasons, St. Anthony Falls merits a facts telling of their presence have been found. Some fluted special look. (Figure 1.) points (Clovis and Folsom) and unfluted lanceolate spear

Geology Millers at St. Anthony Falls thought themselves blessed by the Mississippi River’s geology. As detailed in Chapter 1, the riverbed above the falls is made of a thick mantle of

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Dakota 2. OwahmenahFIGURE oneof at leastseveral (“fallingwater”), Engineers. St. Anthony. and warfare. While the Chippewa occupied the Headwaters know the Dakota used asaroute the Mississippi for hunting to ar of itsmigration. exists along the entire route therefore, ciated withthe falls, the fallsretreated. The potential for archeological sites asso- from as year to year, at times, and, from decade to decade, havewhere they portage might era Americans visited the corridor asearly asthe Paleo-Indian (Plano) foundpoints along the river demonstrate that Native ea, attack we the Dakota. From Hennepin’s 1680account, (see Chapter 2). Where they viewed the falls from or When When although the Chippewa ventured down the Mississippi na mes given tothefallsmes given that Father would rename LouisHennepin ihgah emn .Myr t alDsrc,Corps ofLithograph. Hermann J. Meyer. St.Paul District, uoen rie,the Dakota commandedEuropeans the arrived, 1 d around itprobably changed w w ashisparty and historytuality for the Dakota. In1680, we know the fallspossessed spiri- account energy, issuspect, (big waterfall). and HaHa Tanka Owahmenah water), (falling (whirlpool), c blocks that littered the area below the falls. The Dakota (the greatKakabika severed rock) for the fractured limestone Chippewa used (the Kakabikah severed rock) and Kichi- names describingitscharacter. Wefalls, know the Fo Chippewa portaging around it. The Chippewa had visited depicts the who visited the cataract 1835, in , the Dakota remainedtury, dominant around the falls. ar le h al iiaa(uln ae) O-Wa-Mnialled water), the falls Minirara(curling spraigaon h al,Hennepin saw aDakota man as portaging around the falls, ho had climbed anoak tree near the falls and was “weep- ea ea rt Snelling. rt Snelling. by by Although the details are sketchy and Hennepin’s Native Americans probably had manynames for the the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth cen- 3 2 118 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:11 AM Page 119

away when the early explorers and settlers arrived. Cloud Chapter 6 Man had a village (Eatonville) at Lake Calhoun and occa- sionally camped at the falls in the summer. Good Road’s

band of about 10 tipis sometimes stayed near what is now • ST

downtown Minneapolis. We also know that the Dakota ELECTRICITY FLOUR AND TIMBER, . ANTHONYFALLS: ing bitterly. . . .” The man was praying to Oanktehi, who tapped the sugar maples on .7 Kaposia, both resided below the falls and was, according to Hennepin, the the old and the new (1830s-1854), lay downriver near spirit of waters and evil. Hennepin writes that the man Daytons Bluff. “had a beaver robe dressed neatly, whitened inside, and dec- orated with porcupine quills, and was offering it in sacrifice Chaotic Majesty to this cataract, which is terrifying and admirable.” During Seeing St. Anthony Falls today, it is hard to imagine what it his prayer, the man pleaded: “‘You, who are a spirit, grant looked like in its natural state. The locks and dams, the con- that our tribe pass by here tranquilly without mishap. crete spillway, the two overflow spillways, the bridges, the Grant that we may kill many buffaloes, destroy our ene- buildings, the power lines and poles, and the miscellaneous mies,and bring here captives, some of whom we will sacri- clutter obscure what the falls was like, challenging our abil- fice to you.’”4 ity to imagine its pristine character. Water sliding over the In the 1817 account of his expedition, Major Stephen spillway or slipping through turbines bears no resemblance Long tells the story of Dark Day or Ampato Sapa, a Dakota to the way water broke raucously over the fractured lime- woman who killed herself and her two children after her stone long ago. Fortunately, European and American explor- husband took a second wife. Her husband watching, she ers, government officials and early tourists left descriptions plunged over the falls in a canoe with their children. Her of the natural falls. To them, it was a geologic marvel and a spirit was said to haunt the falls and Spirit Island.5 We can- geographic anchor. The accounts they penned are important not know what aspects of these accounts are fact, what the not just for what they tell about the falls. The people them- Dakota really told early explorers, or why they told it to selves were important figures participating in the process of them. But the legends indicate that the falls undoubtedly exploration, trade, and settlement. (Figure 3.) possessed many stories and traditions for the Dakota. Most early visitors felt a need to compare St. Anthony The falls also served as a source of a special clay. to Niagara and other falls, weighing St. Anthony’s quality During his 1820 expedition, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft and importance by standards that did not fit. In 1680 observed that the Dakota collected a “brownish red” clay Hennepin estimated the falls plunged 40 to 60 feet. Twenty from “close under the sheet of the principal column of years later, Jean Penicaut, the second explorer to leave a water, . . .” They used the clay to paint their baskets and description, agreed with the higher figure. Both exaggerat- canoes. Schoolcraft described the clay as being “an alumi- ed. In 1766 Carver judged the height to be about 29 feet. nous substance very much mixed with iron pyrites in a state Cutting its stature even more, Zebulon Pike calculated that 1 of decomposition, and penetrated with vegetable juices.” the falls dropped only 16 /2 feet. While the cataract had From Schoolcraft’s account, it is not clear whether the migrated upstream between visits, this cannot account for Dakota mixed vegetable juices with the clay or if the clay the gap between Hennepin’s and Pike’s numbers. appeared this way naturally. The Dakota, he judgementally More than likely Hennepin and Penicaut exaggerated wrote, “pretend that it is renewed when taken away.”6 The and miscalculated. Carver and others suggest a reason. Dakota, of course, were not pretending; they believed that Carver explained that the rapids below the falls “‘render the some spirit at the falls supplied the clay. How many stories, legends, traditions, ceremonies and spirits the Dakota, Chippewa or other Native American Indians had for the falls, we cannot begin to guess. Some Dakota bands lived around the falls or not too far

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area pa near that ofNiagara.’” re to b ed ve In 1817Longexpanded onthisobservation. Hefigured the ta de whe tions and seeingwas the fallsatlow unimpressed water, ched 75 feet. ds approa 75 ched rapi est to from ofthe the rapids beginning to about 4,030feet down mileseight below. he noted that Relying onPike’s estimate, several hundred yards above the fallsand continued for far off. off. far so een nc marking that themarking heightofSt. Anthony “‘doth not come rtical fallat16 cn osdrbygetr sothat whenscent viewed considerably greater, atadis- in other other h praera”the river fell about 58feet.the “portage With road” this pa mt,the total from drop to the beginning the end ofthe imate, n he passed going upstream. ,they appear much higher than they really are. ..’”e, te St. Anthony Falls disappointed thosewho compared it to h aisi hi siae,they may not have rt ofthe rapids their in estimates, r and explorer George derided Catlin the fallsas ca tar acts. Hennepin began the comparisongame, 1 / 2 et u,h eotd the rapids began he reported, but, feet, 10 ie having read earlier descrip- Pike, 9 If Hennepin and others includ- 11 Even more critical, 8 Seth Eastman. Engraving courtesy of David Wiggins. fromtheearlysoldiers in Ft.Snelling 1820sare visibleat theleft. Artist: side damwould be completed 1857. in The by saw built mills andgrist 1848thatSteele in ranfrom theeastbanktoNicollet Island. The west e 3.FIGURE addi and Cataract–divided the river, Upton, Spirit, Hennepin, wa l the water sometimes dropped clear in sheets. The jumble of d ca ov it impressive. Itsunique geology provided the rough canvas admiration and praise. most departed withrespect, “‘pygmy in sizeto“‘pygmy in Niagra.’” ngraving by SethEastman does not show by thedambuilt Franklin imestone that slabs had toppled from the fallskicked the ispersed into amyriad the offallsover Mississippi which tvtn. hr n agd St. Anthony’s leading edgeptivating. Sharpand jagged, er wh er te gt h ope lwo ae n rud over and around, ng to the complex flow ofwater in, r in alldirections.r in The forested islands–Nicollet, St. Anthony Falls not did need agreat plunge to make ich the water flowed to create animage mostfound St. Anthony Falls’ this last days. Although dated 1853, 12 W hile someleft disappointed, 120 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:11 AM Page 121 Chapter 6 before entering the valley through which it coursed for hun- dreds of miles. Picturesque landscapes exuded a rough and irregular

character. By their scale, sublime landscapes evoked a sense • ST 17

of danger or astonishment. St. Anthony provided both. Lt. ELECTRICITY FLOUR AND TIMBER, . ANTHONYFALLS: down from the falls. All these features combined to offer a James E. Colhoun captured the sense of astonishment, scale, spectacle that overwhelmed most, if not all, visitors. Even if and roughness presented by the falls. A member of Stephen Hennepin thought St. Anthony small compared to Niagara, Long’s second expedition, he visited the falls in July 1823. he found that the water pouring over the falls was “‘terrible, “. . . I confess,” Colhoun admitted, “I was at first disappoint- and hath something in it very astonishing.’” And Carver, ed from the difficulty of embracing the whole at once. I despite estimating the falls to be 20 to 30 feet shorter than thought the islands and the piles of rocks in front rather Hennepin, remarked that “. . . I was greatly pleased and sur- caused unpleasant obstruction of the view than lent savage prised, when I approached this astonishing work of nature. . grandeur to the scene. But they possess a peculiarity; the . .” He raved that “‘a more pleasing and picturesque view sheet of water, furnishing every variety of cataract in shape cannot, I believe, be found throughout the universe.’”13 and shade, continues unrent, though alternately salient and Carver further expands our image of the falls. Two retiring, sometimes many feet.” Revealing how shallow the small islands, he wrote, lay below the falls. One was Spirit river could be, Colhoun waded across it a few yards above Island. About an acre in size, it possessed “several oak the falls. While the river was never above his thigh, he [cedar] trees on which are a vast many eagles’ nests.” The admitted the current would have carried him over the falls reason for the eagles’ nests, he explained, was “the great had he slipped.18 numbers of fish that is killd [sic] in attempting to get up and Giacomo Beltrami, an Italian romantic and traveler down the falls.” Eagles swooping through the mists of St. who accompanied Long’s 1823 expedition, waxed more elo- Anthony to clutch fish trying to migrate above the falls may quent. Writing to his wife, he gushed, “What a new scene be hard for people to imagine since migrating fish can no presents itself to my eyes, my dear Madam! How shall I longer get above Lock and Dam No. 1 and some of the other bring it before you without the aid of either painting or dams below. Even Pike changed his mind about the falls. poetry?”19 Resting on a knoll about one-half mile from the When he returned down the Mississippi River at high water, falls he, nevertheless, tried. he wrote, “‘the appearance is much more sublime, as the . . . I see, . . . two great masses of water unite at the foot great quantity of spray which in clear weather reflects from of an island which they encircle, and whose majestic some positions the colors of the rainbow, and when the sky trees deck them with the loveliest hues, in which all the is overcast, covers the falls in gloom and chaotic majesty.’”14 magic play of light and shade are reflected on their bril- Visiting the falls in 1820, Henry R. Schoolcraft also liant surface. From this point they rush down a rapid thought St. Anthony less awesome than Niagara. Still, he descent about two hundred feet long, and, breaking found it possessed a unique beauty. It had, he observed, “a against the scattered rocks which obstruct their passage, simplicity of character which is very pleasing.” Employing they spray up and dash together in a thousand varied the language of his day to characterize a landscape, he com- forms. They then fall into a traverse basin, in the form of mented: “We see nothing in the view which may not be con- a cradle, and are urged upwards by the force of gravita- sidered either rude or picturesque, and perhaps there are tion against the side of a precipice, which seems to stop few scenes in the natural topography of our country, where them a moment only to encrease their violence with these features are blended with more harmony and effect.”15 The landscape’s transition around the falls also struck Schoolcraft. Above the falls, he observed, the prairie came up to the river.16 Below the falls the river fell into the gorge that would characterize its path down to Fort Snelling,

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area from aprojecting precipice about onehundred feet high.” “was down pouring abeautiful cascade water, spring offine er rose about 100feet and high were he cov- estimated, bluffs, The ishments to render itromantic the in highest degree.” “needed noembell-place he wewrote, camped last night,” J have been de he force water ofthe falling that would have allowed anyone to ha from away. far With alltheour noisein world itis today, people clearly heardsuch the accounts falls seem absurd, said the fallsroared like “‘thunder the in air.’” rolling through the jumbled limestone boulders. In1700Penicaut created by water breaking over the fallsand bursting Th he insisted he born geologist who visited the1835, fallsin George W. aBritish- More astonishing, Featherstonhaugh, Carver claimed he could hear the fallsfrom 15miles away. Anthony Falls. they told himitcame from St. hismen Asking about it, . .” . throbbing sound comingatintervals from agreat distance, her mouth ofthe St.Croix River, while campnotabove making far the of September 10, throbbing sound ofthe cataract untilIfell asleep.” Feat l 7 87 Longstayed justbelow the cataract. 1817, “The uly 17, ed ed ar ar rd rd e river rushed by and St. Anthony was upstream. visible herstonhaug d the fallsfrom almost30miles away. with vegetation. “A few yards he continued, below us,” h al rmsc itne U ls,the noise must the fallsfrom such adistance. Upclose, Sound came not onlyfrom the falls. On the evening of Adding to the aura ofSt. Anthony Falls was the sound a waves, theyrush forth tumultuous again in hollowed, thecavitieswhich into thismightyfallas plunging then, throw themback whitefoam spray; and in glittering roc themselves downwhich oftwenty fling adepth feet. The two thick maplesspread theirshady branches. on which forming alittleisland themidstoftheirbed, in to to nd once more break against agreat mass ofsandstone imagine the quietimagine ofthe surrounding area or the ks against whichks against thesegreat volumes ofwater dash, afening. 24 ofddt i ora,“listening to the h confided to hisjournal, “. .Iretired to mytent rather late,” eported heari 23 On the evening ng a “deep 20 25 While 21 26 22 imposing spectacleimposing ..” stands front in altogether,” the fallscreated “a grandand two portions ofthe fallswiththe rocky solitary island that va itsascending from the accumulated debris atitsfoot, ro char legacy and physical wouldpower, largely the define falls’ and flour. along withhydroelectric These commodities, much would ofitsfame come oftimber from the milling 1823. The presaged mills for the future ofSt. Anthony, m builtthe Anthony. Colonel , Hissuccessor, Leavenworth suggested sawatSt. building mills and grist t Henry Leavenworth hydropower recognized poten- the falls’ Lt.Colonel promise itoffered.nomic As early as1819, but they anxiously waited to capture the energy and the eco- Fo ce tributed to make the scene the mostinteresting and magnifi- wa andtions ontheMissouriRivers Mississippi to their map grande ad neyed to the fallsand left their visual and written accounts, ri “fashionable aswealthy tour,” easterners ventured to see the on the upper River Mississippi 1823gave in to rise the er ex “with the noisy boiling ofitswa“with thenoisyboiling 1838 and putmanyofthe elements together. To him, To The in The Wo ial. To supportthe ve s. Their and the writings advent ofsteamboat navigation ills and two barracks onthe west bankbetween 1821and nt ofanyIever before witnessed.” go h ie,adtetudro h aaat allcon- and the thunder ofthe cataract, aring ofthe river, ed ed pand os and the long and verdant island that separates thepors, gt n melsiguo t nhn’ rner a ding to and embellishing uponSt. Anthony’s grandeur, rt Snelling may havert Snelling appreciated St. Anthony’s beauty, ge te n h al. rtr,atss and tourists alsojour- artists, r and the falls. Writers, acter. hr eecamd Temruigo h acd,the “The ofthe cascade, murmuring he exclaimed, ther, rking therking Falls ses Nicollet had seen plenty ofrivers.rsheds, Th Fr creasing numbers ofsettler ur that would soon disappear. ench ench e descriptions ofSt. Anthony’s natural character following theofthese visits explorers and travel- cets,Joseph N. Nicollet visitedscientist, the fallsin fort’s construction 28 Having led government expedi- te s and squatt rs 27 ,r ebounding ebounding and operati ers around ers in on, jets 122 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:11 AM Page 123

ing, Steele was already entrenched (Figure 4). Chapter 6 Born in , the 25-year old Steele was a storekeeper at Fort Snelling and part owner of the St. Croix

Falls Lumber Company. He would become the founder of • ST the milling industry at St. Anthony. Since the east side (the . ANTHONY FALLS: TIMBER, FLOUR AND ELECTRICITY FLOUR AND TIMBER, . ANTHONYFALLS: Other than Fort Snelling’s mills and associated build- town of St. Anthony) would become part of Minneapolis, he ings, the falls remained largely natural until 1847. Small changes had taken place around the mills. By 1833 soldiers had built a farmhouse and stables and grazed some 200 head of cattle nearby. But private development at St. Anthony was not yet possible, since the land around the falls lay inside Fort Snelling’s military reservation. The Pike cession extended for nine miles along both sides of the Mississippi River above the fort. Nevertheless, 157 squat- ters had settled on the reservation by October 1837. Based on the frontier tradition of preemption, the squatters hoped to get first choice to lands within the reservation. Under preemption, settlers who had established a claim on the land prior to its official sale had the first opportunity to purchase the land they occupied. Living on land next to the falls could give a squatter the rights to the hydropower based on another tradition, that of riparian rights, which held that the person occupying the land next to a body of water had the right to the water passing by their land.29 In 1837 the territorial governor negotiated treaties with the Dakota and Chippewa that excited the squatters. FIGURE 4. Franklin Steele, the founder of commercial timber milling Ratified in 1838, the treaties gave the U.S. government title at St. Anthony Falls. Kane, The Falls of St. Anthony. to the land between the St. Croix and Mississippi Rivers. This should have excluded the land within the Pike cession, can be considered a contributing founder of that city as but just prior to the treaties, Joseph Plympton, Fort well. Other squatters quickly established their claims to the Snelling’s commandant, had undertaken the first detailed lands east of the river. The west side, however, would not survey of the fort’s boundary. Hoping to establish his pre- become available officially until 1856.31 emption rights over all others, Plympton deliberately excluded the falls’ eastern shore from the military reserva- Timber • As of 1838, Steele had most of what he needed to tion (although the Pike cession had clearly included it). put St. Anthony Falls’ tremendous power to work. In timber This opened the eastern shore to settlement, once the United he had a natural resource sufficient to ensure the falls’ ener- States had acquired title to it from the Dakota. The 1837 gy would be fully employed, at least for as long as he could treaty provided the title.30 imagine. From St. Anthony to the Mississippi’s headwaters News that treaties had been ratified arrived on July 15, and beyond, conifers and hardwoods shaded 70 percent of 1838, with the steamboat Palmyra. Commandant Plympton only had to stake his claim next to St. Anthony to complete his plan. But, during the middle of the night, a young entrepreneur named Franklin Steele beat him to the site. When the commandant’s men arrived the next morn-

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area in President James K.Polk declared finally theland first sales 1848, however, didSteele receive the funds. OnMay 8, te osecpd Steele’s worker escaped, logs mouth. Although the boom broke onNovember 1and the Rum River and floating them to a boom atthe Rum’s cuttinglogs ontheOctober hiscrews began work onadam, pe car- of the natural falls.InJuly 1847he builtamess hall, the demiseSteele initiating had begun developing hisland, ye butthe Unitedgave States the had United not States title, ty ofSteele’s preemption claim. The 1837Dakota treaty e When hav land land ofhis 1848.Onpart acquired hisclaim onSeptember 8, ag Steele got finally an timber was “‘almost inexhaustible.’” reporting that the surveyor fears, dispelled the investors’ and forof theitstributaries floating Mississippi logs. The much timber the pineries held and to assess the navigability ber however,the investors sent alum- ture July in 1847.First, in Th r a before he could to begin realize his until1847, years, nine to But Steele title stillneededofficial two important elements: regional and national markets.finished products to local, de providedtributaries the transportation routes needed to wha ejected Steele’s claims and let someone else buy the land? senfnnir,the representative questionedastern financiers, the securi- mbitions. nths interest the in property. Not untilMarch 1848, ve t putthe land sale. upfor public What ifthe government re tyadbakmt hp,sals and abunkhouse. In stables, ntry and blacksmith shops, li h adadcptl Frtee Steelethe land would and capital. For have these, to wait wha e investors would loose their money. Despite the on h oe,butthe moneye found was the money, tied to the title. surveyor into Minnesota’s pineries to determine how ve eme t would become Minnesota. The and its Mississippi tr’wris Steele persuaded them worries, to hisven- join stors’ Steele platted the town site ofSt. Anthony. T Steele have might sooner begun ifhe milling could r the raw material to the power source and to shipthe rusting that therusting money and title would come soon, Steele met withthe representative oftwo potential ol eoeMneoa and Steelet would officially become Minnesota, nt. The financiers committed $12,000for anine- 32 s cut hardwoo ds onNicollet 33 he sa he 1848.Steele sold the lumber asfast until September 1, T the booming need for houses and commercial buildings. lo bo Steele’s men had sawedtree. ByMarch, some1.5million the timber. for the price of50cents per The chief agreed, Chief Hole-in-the-Day ofthe Chippewa for permissionto cut fell logs for theHisrepresentatives mill. negotiated with to mouth ofthe Crow 1847, Wing River onDecember 1, and the ofcountless planting fields. wouldas flour milling soon fuel the plowing ofthe prairies m asthethe timber new territory’s forests and prairies, a te d After 1847the site and sounds ofthe natural fallsrapidly and the rate and path ofitsretreat. the sounds itmade, ance, physical appear- natural forces defined the falls’ until 1847, which had lasted from the retreatthe epoch, ofthe glaciers ofanewthe beginning era for St. Anthony Falls. During stored lumber. the cut re on the new dam. The upstream millpond held the logs until to Fo ex the dam Secured to the limestone riverbed, Nicollet Island.” ab ch two channels justabove the falls. The damblocked the east sid plete the damand sawmill 1848. in Island and brought timber from the St.Croix to mills com- pproaching thefalls. The a dam sperd and humanactionsdefined itsphysical charac- isappeared, i is esn however,thedidnot cutting mill begin season, his first r and the rate ofitsretreat. New sounds reached visitors ad gs bobbed downriver to theatSt. mills Anthony to feed illing spurredilling the clear-cutting ofMinnesota’s forests and p. p. te annel, “running from “running the shore to twenty apoint feet annel, ov ne nabs 0fe ie ittapered to 12feetunded atthe onabase40feet wide, ar e. Nicollet and Hennepin Islands divided the river into ed nded y, d feet oftimber. That after, and manysprings spring e the head ofHennepin Island and then to the foot of yteedo 88 two up-an By theend of1848, wed wed Steele sent loggingcrews into the north woods near the Steele’s and m dam Th and a50-foot-wide platform front in ofthe mill e damlay ashort distance above the fallsonthe east for some700feet and stood 16feet high. it. 36 35 ill hera ld lso hera ed ed d-down saws operated the end ofan 34 ld ed ed a new erafor epoch and 124 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:11 AM Page 125

ceded nearly all their lands in Minnesota.40 In 1852 Chapter 6 Congress passed a bill removing 26,023 acres from the 34,000-acre military reserve, including the area around St.

Anthony Falls. While these actions did not officially open • ST the west side to settlement, they were enough to encourage a . ANTHONY FALLS: TIMBER, FLOUR AND ELECTRICITY FLOUR AND TIMBER, . ANTHONYFALLS: From 1849 to 1852 the number of sawmills increased rush by squatters. By 1854 some 300 squatters inhabited from one to four, and daily production grew from 15,000 the west side. Finally in 1855, Congress amended the board feet to 50,000. By 1855 the daily output had 1852 Act that removed land from the military reserve and jumped to 100,000 board feet and the yearly output to recognized the squatters’ preemption rights. Squatters liv- 12,000,000. Much of the lumber floated downstream to ing on the west side could now buy the land they claimed. St. Louis, although the burgeoning communities at the falls New settlers hurried across the river, and beginning in and at St. Paul demanded more and more.37 1855, the government started selling the land. By 1856 41 Steele’s success intensified interest in the falls’ west the west side’s population had jumped to 1,555. side. Would-be lumber barons gazed over the river, knowing In 1856 the west and east side interests formed consol- that whoever grabbed the land on the west would control idated companies to manage their power and obtained per- half the power. The federal government, however, had petual charters from the Minnesota territorial legislature. refused to lease or sell the old Fort Snelling mills or any Smith, joined by 11 others who had staked claims to the land on the west side to private citizens. While Plympton’s west side waterpower, formed the Minneapolis Mill cartographic license and the 1837 treaties had opened the Company. The following year, Dorilus Morrison, one of the east to settlement, the west side remained squarely within most important partners, convinced his cousin Cadwallader the Fort Snelling military reservation. C. (or C. C.) Washburn, from Maine, to join the company, Nevertheless, in 1849, two individuals gained a and C. C. then persuaded his brother William D. Washburn foothold on the western shore. Robert Smith, an Alton, to join the firm in 1857. By 1865 the Washburns, Illinois, businessman, and a representative in Congress, Morrison and Smith owned the company outright. requested a five-year lease on the Fort Snelling mills and on Morrison and the two Washburns would build St. Anthony a house built near them. His plan, he claimed, was to live in into the nation’s leading milling center, but their interests the house and grind flour for local use. Fort Snelling’s com- went beyond milling. Morrison would serve as Mayor of mandant complained that Smith was conniving to gain con- Minneapolis in 1867 and become a state senator. C. C. trol of milling on the west side. Although the War Washburn (who left Maine in 1839, moved to Iowa, Department had denied others, Smith secured the lease. Illinois, and finally Wisconsin) made La Crosse his perma- Smith was not a complete outsider. He had purchased land nent home after 1861. Wisconsin elected him to Congress in St. Paul, and some thought he should be Minnesota’s first and as their governor. William Washburn served in the 42 territorial governor.38 Minnesota legislature and in Congress. (Figure 5.) Later in 1849 Franklin Steele suggested to John H. Across the river, Steele and his partners created the St. Stevens, a friend, that Stevens request 160 acres above Anthony Falls Water Power Company in 1856. Steele’s Smith. Steele’s idea was that Stevens propose to ferry troops partners included three New York financiers: John F. A. and supplies for the newly built Fort Ripley in northern Sanford, Frederick C. Gebhard, and Thomas E. Davis. In Minnesota in exchange. The ploy worked, and during the 1868, after years of financial problems, the St. Anthony winter of 1849 to 1850, Stevens built the first permanent firm reorganized. The new board and officers included men home in what would become Minneapolis.39 Then,in the summer of 1851, the government negoti- ated the Treaties of Traverse des Sioux with the Sissetons and Wahpetons and the Treaty of Mendota with the Mdewakantons and Wahpekutes, under which the Dakota

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whose names would become well known in the and the state: John Pillsbury, Richard and Samuel Chute, Sumner Farnham, and Frederick Butterfield.43 In 1856, with the Minneapolis Mill Company ready to develop the west side, the two companies had to divide the river) completed the transformation of the falls, especially water. Consequently, the Minneapolis Mill Company built a once the Minneapolis Mill Company began erecting mills on dam out into the river and then angled it to a point their new dam.44 upstream to meet the dam constructed by the St. Anthony The dam created the infrastructure needed to capture Company. Together the dams created an inverted V in the the falls’ power. But Steele’s St. Anthony Falls Water Power river that directed water to the mills on either side. This Company struggled to expand its milling operations. Poor left the center of the falls dry and exposed during low water management, difficult relations with its eastern financiers, and contributed to the deterioration of the central falls. and bad timing thwarted the company’s efforts. The same Finished in 1857, the new dam established the basic shape year the two companies completed the dam, America fell of the falls upstream of the spillway (nearly the shape it has into a depression. In 1861, before the St. Anthony firm today). While Steele’s dam and mills had begun transform- could recover, the Civil War began, arresting the company’s ing the east side, the new structure (the first full dam on the plans. For years, the company did little to expand its milling capacity. The St. Anthony Company did sup- port the development of mills on Hennepin Island and along the east bank, but it had to use ropes and wheels to transfer power at the falls to these mills and to operations on Nicollet Island. The rope system, however, worked best near the falls.45 On the west side, the Minneapolis Mill Company’s unified management and financial stability allowed it to invest its property, despite the depression. The compa- ny modeled its operating system after renowned milling cen- ters such as Lowell, Holyoke,

FIGURE 5. St. Anthony Falls, 1859. Minnesota Historical Society. and Lawrence. They hired Charles Bigelow, an engineer from Lawrence, to design their system. The plan would expand the company’s direct power capability away from the falls. It called for building a central canal to divert water from above the falls to the multiple head races of mills built

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falls caused the first industrial calamity. Eastman and Merriam bought Nicollet Island in 1865, including its waterpower rights. They then accused the millers at the falls of taking their water. To avoid a protracted legal battle, the millers compromised. They agreed to let Eastman and along the canal. Construction began on the new system in 1857 and continued despite the economic depression. Workers broke through the limestone cap and removed the soft sandstone for a canal that was 14 feet deep, 50 feet wide, and 215 feet long. The company extended and deep- ened it in later years. The canal system included turbine or wheel pits, a labyrinth of underground tunnels, head races and tail races, and an open canal. Together the system ran for three miles. By 1869 the west side produced twice as much lumber as the east.46 With its canal system, the west side’s production and population expanded dramatically before the Civil War. The east side mills, limited to ropes and pulleys, had stagnated. In 1866 or 1867, the St. Anthony Company tried to build a canal system of its own into the east bank. But after digging several hundred feet, workers ran into a large cave. Since constructing a canal through the cave would have cost too much, the St. Anthony Falls Mill Company gave up. The geology that had given birth to the milling industry was

47 holding it back now on the east side. FIGURE 6. West side platform mills, about 1868. Photo by Jocoby.

Based on the Minneapolis Mill Company’s success and Minnesota Historical Society. on the sputtering output from the St. Anthony Company, lumber milling became vital to Minneapolis (which joined Merriam build a mill on Nicollet Island and run a tailrace to with St. Anthony in 1872). Beginning with Steele’s 1848 it from the toe of the falls. On September 7, 1868, the two lumber mill, timber commanded production at the falls. entrepreneurs began excavating their tailrace. By October The annual output grew from about 12 million board feet 4, 1869, their workers had tunneled through 2,000 feet of in 1856 to about 90 million in 1869. The mills on the sandstone, under the limestone riverbed. The tunnel ran east and west rows (the side-by-side mills built on platforms from the edge of the falls, under Hennepin Island, to the toe out over the falls) accounted for much of this. Six mills of Nicollet Island. That morning, the workers discovered stood on the east side (five on the row and one on Hennepin water leaking and then pouring into the tunnel’s upper end. Island). Between 1858 and 1869, Joel Bassett, Morrison, The water quickly ate away the soft sandstone. Within William D. Washburn and others built eight mills on the hours, the six-foot-square tunnel grew into a cavern up to

1 west side row, patterned after those in the eastern United 90 feet wide and 16 /2 feet deep. The next morning, the States. In all, 18 lumber mills operated at St. Anthony by limestone riverbed collapsed. A large whirlpool formed, 1869, with 18 different owners (Figure 6). But in 1869 and 1870, disasters threatened production.48

Saving St. Anthony • A scheme developed by William W. Eastman and John L. Merriam to expand milling above the

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Minnesota Historical Society. FIGURE 7. EastmanFIGURE Tu skill and brainpower over the dumbforce ofnature.” i sank them over they the new break. Bythe afternoon, w butanother and debris untilitsankand plugged the hole, and floated itover rocks the whirlpool. They piled ondirt, Responding to the volunteers emergency, builtalarge raft physicians abandoned their offices.”the courts; too ber lumbermen bar- were orderedtheir ovens, from the mills, bakers deserted taking their clerks withthem; the falls, One witness recalled that “proprietors ofstores hastened to (Figure 7.) sucking everything in nearby anditout spitting the tunnel. nspected their work and celebrated “the ofhuman triumph hirlpool appeared. The volunteers builtmore rafts and ettercsoesuson mechanics dropped their s left their customers unshorn; s lawyers shutuptheir books or stoppedls; pleading in Immediately word spread that the fallswas going out. nlclas,Hnei sad 1869. Island, Hennepin nnel collapse, 49 pr”and swallowed them.sport” they standing them were onend “as ifin mere whitlings,” ex ap ce 1)direct somewatermade three recommendations: to the 1874. The boardneers atSt. Anthony Falls on 14, April gi one manand destroying large partsofthe repair work. 150feetgap wide. Water drowning poured into the tunnel, we aflood swept through acofferdam onthe of their efforts, 12,000-year journey would end. the Emphasizing futility wo wa ca that the limestone cap ended less than 1,000feet above the the Engineerslearnedsurvey ofthe river above the falls, ca scouring newnew tunnels and ways under the limestone, li and local citizens. They triedthe to millers, plugholes and 1870. Corps began working atSt. Anthony on August 9, ra ab the river local citizens had argued, falls. Without the falls, Congress gave the Corps $50,000to preserve the 1870, money on and July noclear to authority help. 11, Then, Corps ex l which had estab- they turned to the Corps ofEngineers, m de theNature river took exception. As people scrambled off, the river to the other. Ev 3) build amassive wall under the limestone from oneside of ished aregional St.Paul officein in August of1866. The ne the tunnel withconcrete. Butthe water kept finding gtelas the Corps convened aspecialng the leaks, board ofengi- illers knew they could not stop the fallsfrom eroding. So pids. theTo save navigation above the falls(and milling), tro h al oke tfo rigot 2)build anew nter ofthe fallsto keep out; itfrom drying iis and the fallscontinued to erode. Aftervities, adetailed tar claimed that the whirlpool “tossed huge logs asthough vo ov ro tsd fNcle sado pi 5 83 opening a 1873, st side ofNicollet Island on 15, April hog h adtn. neste tpe hs watery through the sandstone. Unless they stopped this, l necttermiiglmsoe and the falls’ uld undercut the remaining limestone, opoetteeg ftefls n,mostimportantly, and, n to protect the edge ofthe falls; ured the feeble structures. Onelocal newspaper e Minneapoliswould become unnavigable ashallow, act. Water was seeping under the cap and eating its Recognizing that they could not save the fallsby plug- Fo Residents ofMinneapolisand St. Anthony and the r three years the river foiled the effortsofthe Corps, amined the falls inNovember 1869buthad no eryone agreed. agreed. eryone 50 128 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:11 AM Page 129

the St. Anthony Company’s east side mills tried to fill a lit Chapter 6 kerosene lantern. It exploded and set fire to the entire row of mills, burning them down and crippling the dam.

Uninsured, the St. Anthony Falls Water Power Company • ST

could not afford to rebuild and sold the dam’s five water- ELECTRICITY FLOUR AND TIMBER, . ANTHONYFALLS: On July 9, 1874, the Corps began building the wall. power sites.52 First they excavated a 75-foot-deep vertical shaft on Hennepin Island. Next they dug a horizontal tunnel four The Lumber Mills Leave • Despite the disasters, lumber feet wide and six feet high just below the limestone. Then milling remained central to the city’s economy. By the end workers began digging out a space for the concrete wall. In of 1878, the new owners had rebuilt the east side mills on a places, the wall would extend 39 feet below the limestone, new dam midway down Hennepin Island. And by 1880 the which varied from 11 to 25 feet thick. Above the limestone mills on the east side row and Farnham and Lovejoy’s mill lay the sand and the muck and the river. (Figure 8.) on Hennepin Island surpassed the west side. East side mills Building the wall was not easy. Quicksand, flooding, accounted for 94,977,595 board feet of the city’s total tim- and continuing collapses threatened the workers. Despite ber output of 179,585,182. In 1870 the annual value of these problems, the Corps completed the wall by November timber products milled in Minneapolis equaled $1.73 mil- 1876. It extended 1,850 feet and contained nearly 15,000 lion and led the city in product value. By 1880 the annual cubic yards of concrete. When the Engineers finished the value of the city’s lumber products had swelled to $2.74 mil- wall, the Minneapolis Tribune reported that “This artificial lion, but had fallen to second in the value of output behind fortress is to stand guard for ages and defy the floods,” and flour. Still, lumber remained the city’s largest employer.53 that the wall would “. . . Eclipse Nature and Hold Up the Timber milling, however, was on its way out, not as an Mississippi River.”51 The great wall stabilized the falls and industry important to Minneapolis, but as an industry ensured that both Minneapolis and its milling industry based upon waterpower at the falls. A number of factors would continue to expand. The wall is still in place, under contributed. Most importantly, steam offered an economic, the limestone cap at St. Anthony Falls, still helping to pre- alternative power source. Some sawmills had converted to vent the falls from eroding. steam power as early as the 1850s and 1860s. Since they After completing the wall, the Corps secured the rest of could burn their scraps for fuel, timber millers stood to ben- the falls. Between 1876 and 1880, the Corps completed the efit from the shift to steam more than most industries. apron over the falls. They built the two low dams above the falls to maintain a safe water level over the limestone. They constructed a sluiceway to carry logs over the falls. And, finally, the Corps filled all the tunnels and cavities under the limestone, with some 22,329 cubic yards of gravel. The second calamity struck one year after the Eastman tunnel collapsed. During the evening of October 20, 1870, an employee of

FIGURE 8. Eastman Tunnel disaster

and repair work. St. Paul District.

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area can sawmill row. atthe head ofthe By1890Bassett’s sawmill, m ber removed the last two lum- 1887, butin lumber for awhile, boug de power. In1876the MinneapolisMillCompany of the falls’ Minneapolis and founded anewcenter. milling they movedfrom Minnesota’s to northern north forests, where boom comp the millers stillneeded to be near River, the Mississippi r acquiremo er however, Bassett’s burned mill and withitwent waterpow- m tem tem ev where to m steamUsing gave the industrygreater to flexibility choose si Richard Rogers and flouronthe mill east builtasmallgrist w he specifically arguing that a lease onthe Fort mills, Snelling bec W Flour loggi thereafter. ended the decade a and later log drives The great next years. six Butlumber production quickly declined make the citythe nation’s leading center sawmilling for the the steam-powered ofnorth mills Minneapoliswould1899, itsupported years elevenNine later, sawmills. And in Minneapolis produced 32,608,000board feet oflumber. gr brought to 1853yielded thein mill the “‘largest ever grist ailroads onwhich to shiptheir finished products. Since de de ed ed illing had lastedilling for almost50years. ound ound er cided not to renew the sawmill leases and by 1880had ielme il ntal oe h al,flour would hile lumber yoked initially mills the falls, ome itsmaster. In1849Robert had Smith been granted l was the onlysawmill onthe west side. In1895, al, ,g had to develop. to had in anted to make flour. Sowhen didlittle. ButSmith ubrpouto ttefls Bgni 88 timber lumber production atthe falls.Begun 1848, in ht out the sawmill owners. The company produced ng era Minnesota in closed. ttesm ie flour millers began for pushing more At thetime, same By 1880the new center sawmilling north in ls As htya,fire againdestroyedills. Also that year, the east side ra 81 itwas animportant event. The1851, 32bushels at the falls.’” in production and the region’s transportation sys- re re ill theirtim land for lumber storage and better access to access better and storage lumber for land anies captured theirlogs floating down 56 For flo For ber. Itgave t ur production to expa 55 hem the 54 opportunity to d how- nd, had had white flour. Minnesota’s wheat spring pure, yielded afine, i was while healthy, produced considered atSt. Anthony Falls, to to Minnesota’s flour production from 30,000barrels 1860 in ha operated ontheeast side. along the west side canal 1866.Four in more flour mills w Company’s canal 12years later. the Chiefamong new mills stood along the MinneapolisMill the old Fort mill, Snelling plus mercial flour onthe mill west side. Seven new mills, the falls.In1859 the Cataract Millbecame thecom- first means to transport their crops to the millers. brought needed the immigrants to tillthe soiland the tremendous railroad expansion following the Civil War rel e ha transportation system uponwhich loggers funneled their soared by to 1870. 18.9million 1,400 bushels 1850to1860and in 2.2million War, Anthony. Despite the economic Panic of1857and the Civil provided needed the grain atSt. to spurflour milling Dakotas wheat and represented they soon aquick cash crop, Anthony. To the settlers into Minnesota rushing and the and get the productplant to crops St. and harvest them, and other cereals required that someone break the land, i de na Lumber millers had aready-to-harvest crop the in region’s as their power source. Buttheended similarities here. nferior. Millsfrom other areas used softwinter wheat that g otetme aostogt to be harvested. Wheat sothe timber barons thought, ng, rn Minnesota and the Dakotas needed adifferent and more sC .Wsbr’ i-tr il builtoflimestone as C. Washburn’s six-story mill, li iefrss and they could rely onstreamstive and forests, rivers to vssadrira ewr,theservests helped mills and railroadboost network, rvest western in farmers to St. andAnthony, southwest- 256,100 in 1869. 256,100 in iable method to deliver to their the grain falls. The ve a harder layer near the huskthan winter wheat and ept hsrpdgot fformlig the flour Despite thisrapid growth offlour milling, Flour milling grewFlour even milling faster at than timber milling W Like the lumber m wheat production in Minne in wheat production r their raw material. Trees wait- were anancient crop, hile and provided the itstributaries Mississippi the 58 les flour produc illers, (Figure 9.) Drawing onthegrowing wheat sota climbed from about 57 ers had the river the had ers 130 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:12 AM Page 131

then process the middlings to remove the bran. The result- Chapter 6 ing flour was fine and white and considered the best in the world for bread making. During the 1870s, the

Minneapolis millers began using the new method and soon • ST

perfected it using porcelain and steel rollers, which did not ELECTRICITY FLOUR AND TIMBER, . ANTHONYFALLS: leave specks in the flour. By 1870 flour milling was ready to take off at the falls. Between 1870 and 1880, Minnesota’s wheat pro- duction nearly doubled, from 18.9 million bushels to 34.6 million, and the millers moved quickly to use it.60 As of 1869 the west side canal had only eight mills along it, but between 1870 and 1876, millers crowded in ten new ones. Minneapolis was poised to surpass St. Louis as the nation’s leading milling center. But on May 2, 1878, the Washburn A

FIGURE 9. Flour mills along the west side canal, 1885. Minnesota Mill exploded, killing 18 men. The explosion and ensuing

Historical Society. fire destroyed “one-third of the city’s milling capacity, as well as lumberyards, planing mills, a machine shop, a required faster grinding. The high grinding speed produced wheat-storage elevator, a railroad roundhouse, and a num- so much heat that it browned the flour. Together, the hard ber of nearby residences.”61 Undaunted, the millers quickly inner layer and the bran formed a by-product the millers rebuilt the district. By the end of 1878, 17 mills produced called the middlings. Millers often ground the middlings to flour on the west side, led by a new Washburn A Mill. In make a second grade of flour, which, while nutritious, most 1880, 22 flour mills stood on the west side.62 bakers shunned.59 On the east side, the growth of flour milling was limit- During the 1860s, however, millers in southern ed by fires, the Eastman tunnel collapse and the lack of a Minnesota developed a new process that, when combined waterpower canal. Millers had lost three mills on Hennepin with the other factors favoring St. Anthony, would catapult Island. The Summit mill crumbled during a second cave-in its millers and its flour to national and international fame. of the tunnel, in 1870, and two years later the Island and The new technique relied on finer millstones that ran at a slower speed. This process generated less heat and did not discolor the flour. Also, the new method did not crush the husk and hard inner layer (or middlings ) as much, so they could be separated more easily from the flour. Millers could

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area co the twoCompany owned three. With theirmills, eight o Anthony. By1874Charles A. Pillsburyand Company gr tive onthe Mississippi’s east St.Paul. bankin coopera- elevator farmers’ by a terminal built first nation’s tures.” entire value manufac- in “almost two-thirds ofMinneapolis’ by contributing 1880 $1,125,215 to $20,502,305, products rose from the value ofthe flour millers’ wo atitle it Minneapolis the nation’s 1880, cityin top milling state’s wheat surging production combined to make and the thepurifier, middlings the new mills, Association, But the east side stilllagged behind far the west. the Phoenix and North Star.new the decade: during mills in Fa to to farmers saw asthe association’s abuses eventually gave rise W Granger movement and led Ignatius Donnelly to challenge angered farmers. it That anger flared the during wheat, i age the pool sent Association. their Copying competitors, formed the MinneapolisMillers 1876, in and then, land si ments from farmersfor their grain. To counter thisintru- m in throughout the country. r go ha,and distributed the wheat the mills. among ng ofwheat, ise to afarmers’ ndfv il n n17,Wsbr,Crosby and Washburn, wned five and1879, mills in on into what the Minneapolismillers saw astheir hinter- ills sent agents throughout the Midwest to secure commit- i,they alsobegan consolidating their holdings atSt. ain, ldn iwue,St.Louis and Chicago. Milwaukee, Competingcluding mp illiam Washburnilliam for the U.S. Senate 1878. in What rmers (River) burned. mills The St. burnedAnthony mill the EquityCoo 81 Cmestn o hs oss millers builttwo 1871. Compensating for these losses, uld not yield for 50years. Between 1870and 1880, t notecutyie oversaw and thepric- grading nts into the countryside, ,t As the flour millers organized to capture the region’s The co The To W anies could produce over half ofthe city’s flour. he 66 ietepo nrae h ilr’control overhile the pool increased the millers’ ge y initially formedy initially aloosely organized buying pool uigtedcd,flour production grew from the decade, During ha,millers had to viewithother cities, t wheat, sldtos the MinneapolisMillers nsolidations, coo perative Exch perative mo 64 Th e Equityestablished the ne and ange, ve ment thatspread the Equitygave 63 65 Mill and builta450-foot-long canal under Street Main to PillsburyerectedBetween hisPillsbury A 1880and 1881, which James J. Hillwas astoc P Nicollet Island and nearly destroyed the falls. ov new onthe mill east side. the companyTo had to power it, the C. A. PillsburyCompanydecided to build ahuge 1880 , boug can ca ber r much ofthe city’s population. As of1880Minneapolis the fallsgave workand indirectly from to the two staples, 1,722 people. Adding the industries that emerged directly of goods. Together, lumber and flour directly employed er waterpow-ure had jumped Overall, to almost$30million. St. 1870wasAnthony in By1880thisfig- $6.8million. di the east side had been bridled by their failure to expand the fin f leavi the opportunities offered bythe sawmills steam were power, from the booming flour industryand taking advantage of times the world’s leading flour producer. Under pressure F Fr only KansasCityand San Mountains. Inthe West, equal north ofSt.Louis and west ofChicago to the Rocky and had surpassed St.Paul by more than 4,000. Ithad no population had grown from 1870to 18,079in 46,887 he 193,000 barrels annually to 2,051,840.Flour production rmls Adn otefls lu upt the east side flour output, lour mills. Adding to the falls’ ne is ntento nforpouto,third lum- in anked the in nation flour first in production, alls held and extended itslead asthe nation’s and some- u,Mnepls and Railway of Company, Minneapolis, aul, ed m ed re ve ancisco were bigger. erc lp ally provided somecompetition for the west. Millers on ,a lsse ieta ntews ie buthad runinto a al system that onthe like west side, ct useofwaterpower. They had attempted to build a rn. Eastmanhad tried direct to bring waterpower to ed ed ng the falls by the decade’s end, making more making roomng the fallsby for the decade’s end, ht the St. Anthony Companyfor $425,000. Also in ucs ial aei 81 Teya eoe theSuccess St. came1881. finally in The year before, The tot The Events the 1880sensured during that St. Anthony ome the geology that had prevented earlier attempts. nd nd ills contributed somethree-quarters ofthe total value bo twentieth value in ofmanufactured output. Its ost the overall output from the fallsto new levels. al value ofgoods produced by and Minneapolis 67 kholder andge neral manager, 132 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:12 AM Page 133

from it. Since millers along the eastern Great Lakes received Chapter 6 Canadian grain by huge ships, they prospered more than those at St. Anthony. Increasing freight rates and outdated

mill operations also hampered the millers at St. Anthony. • ST

By 1930 production at the falls dropped to10,797,194, ELECTRICITY FLOUR AND TIMBER, . ANTHONYFALLS: feed water to it. The limestone structure reached seven sto- and Buffalo, New York, became the nation’s leading produc- ries high and, for a short time, became the world’s largest er, with just over 11 million bushels. By 1960 flour pro- flour mill. The new mill produced almost twice as much duction at St. Anthony fell to 5,471,456 barrels.71 flour as the Washburn A Mill and about one-third the maxi- mum flour output of the entire west side. While the Hydroelectric Power Pillsbury A Mill’s initial production equaled some 4,000 St. Anthony Falls gained national attention in 1880 as the barrels per day, the complex grew to cover two blocks and country’s leading flour producer, and two years later it again its daily production reached 17,000 barrels per day, enough achieved national recognition. In 1882, as steam power to yield a 56-mile long row of 25-pound flour sacks.68 allowed the lumber mills to move away from St. Anthony, While Hill hoped to make milling on the east side suc- and more and more flour mills switched to steam, the falls cessful, his primary interest in acquiring the mill company gave birth to a new power source, a source that would was to connect the east and west sides with a railroad. To replace direct drive waterpower and steam. Electricity accomplish this, Hill built the Great Northern stone arch would allow the falls’ power to flow well beyond the bridge, completing it in 1883. Two years later, he finished cataract. Even before businesses at the falls had access to a depot to go with it. With his new bridge and railroad con- hydroelectric power, they began using electricity. In 1881 nection, Hill was able to deliver even more wheat to the milling district, and he left a monument that is a National Historic Engineering Landmark (Figure 10).69 The trend in consolidation begun in the 1870s contin- ued. In 1876, 17 companies had operated 20 mills in Minneapolis, but only four companies had produced 87 per- cent of the city’s flour. In 1889, following a national trend to milling consolidation, the Pillsbury-Washburn Company, the nation’s first large milling corporation, bought out the Minneapolis Mill and St. Anthony companies. For the first time, the mills on the east and west sides came under uni- fied ownership. By the early 1900s, three companies accounted for 97 percent of the city’s flour output.70 Flour production at the falls continued to surge after Minneapolis became the nation’s top flour producer. Flour production rose from about two million barrels in 1880 to just over six million in 1889, even though the number of mills declined from 25 to 22. But the millers increasingly FIGURE 10. James J. Hill’s Great Northern, Stone Arch Bridge, 1884. turned to steam power and, soon, to hydroelectric power. Photo by Charles A. Tenney. Minnesota Historical Society. Milling production grew from 13,694,895 barrels in 1908 to 18,541,650 in 1916. After 1916, however, pro- duction began to decline. “Milling-in-bond,” made possible by the 1897 Dingley Tariff, allowed millers to important Canadian grain duty free, if they exported the flour made

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area ftecuty thiswasof the country, anationally event. significant powertric central stations onthe economy and environment the United States. Given the spread and impactofhydroelec- hydroe generated first by the them lit withelectricity 1882, the evening ofSeptember 5, li generatorswith five Brusharc-light and Morrison Dorilus builtasmallcentral power station Electric Company. They acquired land onUpton Island from which they soonCompany, renamed the Minnesota Brush form the Minnesota Electric and Light Electric Motive Power nessmen andto C.M.Loring) Loren (Otis Fletcher, A. Pray, Fa plants. tion from the fallswould quickly replace the individual in becoming possibly themill first plant and installed lights, electric powerthe Pillsbury A Millpurchased anindividual, cou 11.FIGURE The first c nes to and businesses bars on Washington Avenue and on na,and James Lovejoy joined other Minneapolisbusi- rnham, the world to do so. Butlarge-scale hydroelectric genera- ty 82 S.Pu itit Corps of Engineers. 1882.St.Paul District, ntry, n18 ila ahun olBset Sumner JoelBassett, 1881 William Washburn, In ommercial hydroelectric central plantthe in le ctric powerctric central station in (Figure 11) . They ran 72 85 232electric street glowed lamps Minneapolis. 1885, in many that electricity would replace gas.Bythe end of demonstration and another afew days later convinced the company turned on. the lamps Thisple watched, l c the company erected a257-foot tower,of electric lighting, to stepnot willing aside. To demonstrate the effectiveness c and theyprove had to over- that electricworked, lighting theystreet had for to Minneapolis. lighting To do this, users. Oneofthe company’s goals first was to provide ittried to expand power, electric the numbererating of w we when the hydroelectric power1894, plant demonstrated the potential ofhydroelectricity. And in their ability to transmit electricitytheir ability over long distances, hydroelectricof the century, power companies perfected sfo t O eray2,18,ashundreds ofpeo- 1883, amps from it.OnFebruary 28, le h at atBridge Square and suspended arc eight alled the mast, who were providers, ome theof opposition gaslight smr hnacroiy ithad come ofage. as more than acuriosity; to ie itshowed Americans that hydroelectricity nt online, As the Minnesota BrushElectric Companybegan gen- Locally the Minnesota BrushElectric Company 74 By the turn 73 134 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:12 AM Page 135

Other Industries Chapter 6 Many other industries grew up at the falls, either feeding off the mills or trying to employ the waterpower towards

ends other than timber and flour milling or hydroelectric • ST

power. Foundries and machine shops repaired and con- ELECTRICITY FLOUR AND TIMBER, . ANTHONYFALLS: spurring the spread of hydroelectric plants. structed railroad cars and engines, made steam engines, St. Anthony Falls stayed at the forefront of hydroelec- ornamental iron, farm implements, and milling equipment. tric power generation. In 1894 the Pillsbury-Washburn Others hoped to produce paper at the falls. A paper mill Company leased 20 mill powers to the Minneapolis General was among the earliest industries to tap the falls’ power. Electric Company, and over the next two years, the company Built on Nicollet Island in 1859, the mill initially produced built its Main Street Station. And in1895, William de la much of Minnesota’s printing paper. Another paper mill Barre, the genius behind the development of waterpower at St. Anthony Falls, began building the Lower Dam and Hydropower Station, about 2,200 feet below the falls. As the project took shape, some chided it as “De la Barre’s Folly.” But once it was completed, Charles Pillsbury claimed it was one of the “‘greatest engineering feats of the present century.’” The Electrical Engineer suggested that “‘in scope and character;” only the Niagra facility surpassed it. The new power station provided electricity to the streetcars of the Twin City Rapid Transit Company. De la Barre also con- vinced the Pillsbury-Washburn Company to let him build the Hennepin Island Plant near the Main Street Station, between 1906 and 1908.75 De la Barre had come to Minneapolis in 1878 and was hired by the Minneapolis Mill Company in 1883 (Figure 12). Until he died in 1936, he made extracting the falls’ maxi- mum power potential his passion. At Franklin Steele’s orig- inal dam, the head–the distance the water fell from above the dam to below it–totaled only eight feet. By 1889 de la Barre had elevated the average head to 36 feet and later raised it to 45 feet. Under de la Barre’s direction, the working capacity of turbines at the falls increased from 13,000 horsepower in the 1880s to 55,068 horsepower by 1908. Overall, the hydroelectric plants accounted for about 25,000 horsepow- er,the flour mills another 24,000 and the City of Minneapolis, North Star Woolen Mills Company, and others FIGURE 12. William de la Barre, the mastermind of hydropower devel- the remainder.76 In 1923 Northern States Power bought the opment at St. Anthony Falls. Kane, The Falls of St. Anthony. hydroelectric power company firms from Pillsbury Flour Mills. By 1960, when construction on the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam cut off the west side water- power canal, all the mills at St. Anthony Falls had shifted from direct hydropower to hydroelectricity.

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area the highest for prize product quality. the company won Centennial Philadelphia, in Exposition ya and scarves, flannel, 1940s. The produced mill cassimere, boug we Eastman and Paris founded Gibson 1864. in Although it which W.Star WoolenNorth the W.Mill, Falls: St. Anthony ucs,had success, paper w pa al and international attractio of years. The beauty same and power made the fallsanation- for Native Americans ofmanydifferent tribes for thousands na wa the majesty ofitsnatural and the energy beauty, ofitsfalling It has attracted thosewho soughtthe blessing ofitsspirits, falls has been ageologic marvel and ageographic landmark. the toAnthony Falls today, for reasons we can onlyguess, Fr Summary te seamless flour bags butmoved duck into wagonfor covers, Cotton Company. Manufacturing itproducedAt first only joined other businessinterests to build the Minneapolis oneoneach side. Morrison In1870Dorilus time, same scarves and yarn. Two cardingopened mills the during cassimere, 1860s two textile manufactured mills flannel, their finished products would move down it.Bythe mid- Southern cotton should move River upthe Mississippi and bo they expectedduce. Likethe Newfallsto support a England, production system butfor the commodities they should pro- m as established onthe west side1866-1867.Iron in and t,adanns I 81 however,theclosed. mill and awnings. In1881, nts, ligcnesa hi oe,not onlyfor the west centersside’silling astheir model, om ancient times when Native Americans frequented St. n butbecame renowned for itsblankets. rn, At the 1876 in oming textileoming industry. They thoughtitonlynatural that tur tbnrp n17,the MinneapolisMillCompany 1876, nt bankruptin te te s I h itrcacut rvd n niain its rs. Ifthe historic accounts provide anyindication, ti,and itsubsequently produced textiles uptoht it, the ept xettos onlyonetextile prospered mill Despite at expectations, Some entrepreneurs, hoping to hoping recreateSome entrepreneurs, ’s al beauty and power made itaplace ofdeep spirituality in rs and tourists. That energy gave St. Anthony national utis however,failed to grow atthe falls. dustries, looked northeastern Lowell to other and ,the destination ofwriters, n, 78 77 came do came had ca falls died and opened the fallsto new uses. times. This has onlybecome atthe since milling possible waysits power more to akin much other earlier in ways, more andfor more itsenergy, people are returning to admire hy re nto n nentoa aefristme,flour and cognition and international for fame itstimber, ia n13,itbegan removing manyofthethat mills pital 1930, in dr aei aos I 91aoe atleast seven mills made itfamous.In1931alone, oelectric production. While the fallsisstillimportant Minneapolis not onlylost itstitle asthe nation’s flour n followed by severalwn, more the decade. during 136 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:12 AM Page 137

the Corps filled the west side canal, and the gatehouse at its head was taken down. In 1965 the Washburn A Mill pro- duced its last flour and ended flour production on the west side. As part of its construction of the upper lock, the Corps filled over the old tailraces that had run from the mills By 1956 only the Pillsbury A Mill remained on the east along the canal to the river. (With the city’s development of side,and the company blocked off the headrace, which had Mill Ruins Park, the mill races have again been exposed.) As been so hard to get, and shifted the mill to hydroelectric “” took hold in the 1950s and 1960s, more power. of the west side mills were torn down. The sixties also As the Corps completed work on the Lower and Upper brought the birth and growth of historic preservation. St. Anthony Falls Locks and Dams (fulfilling Minneapolis’ Without an active milling industry and with a new interest vision of becoming the head of navigation), more of the mill in the falls, the opportunities to get near the cataract and district’s historic fabric disappeared. To build the lower interpret its history are now being realized.79 (Figure 13.) lock and dam, the Corps had to remove the 1897 dam built

for the lower hydropower station by de la Barre. In 1960 FIGURE 13. Rediscovering the roots. Mill Ruins Park, Minneapolis.

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FIGURE 1. Commerce and transportation on the modern Mississippi River in St. Paul. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:12 AM Page 139

Chapter 7 The Patterns of Agriculture, Commerce, Industry and Transportation

Business Development Sites representing commerce and industry in the MNRRA corridor are of at least three distinct types: those directly tied to the Mississippi River, those related to businesses rom canoes carrying furs to steel barges bear- with direct ties, and those unrelated to the river. Sites in ing the grain of multinational corporations, the first two categories characterized the river during the economic activities and transportation sys- nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During the late teFms have shaped the MNRRA corridor. They have defined nineteenth century and especially during the early twenti- the pace and scope of change to the valley’s landscape and eth century, sites located along the river had less and less ecosystems. They have defined how people see and relate to direct or indirect relation to it. the river. They have done so, however, within the frame- Economic development sometimes linked the MNRRA work of ancient landforms. Geology dictated that St. Paul corridor’s cities and at other times separated them. For began as the head of navigation and that St. Anthony Falls example, fur trading gave cities from Hastings to Dayton a give rise to the mills of Minneapolis. The floodplain valley common river heritage. As cities relied less on the river, from the Minnesota River’s mouth to Ravenna Township, however, their economic histories diverged. Changes in the the confining gorge between the Minnesota River and St. transportation systems were in part responsible, for trans- Anthony, and the prairie river above St. Anthony encour- portation often determined the nature of commercial devel- aged or restricted business and transportation. The MNRRA opment and the relation of that development to the river. corridor’s history and the significance of historic sites tied Railroads used the river valley’s flat grade at St. Paul and to business and transportation must be understood, then, as below for their tracks and in doing so enticed businesses to the integration of human and nonhuman factors. (Figure 1) the valley. Those businesses, however, focused on railroads, This chapter provides an overview of the MNRRA corri- not the river. The river did retain one important economic dor’s economic and transportation history–other than navi- function. It offered a way to dispose of wastes quickly and gation improvements–from the end of the fur trade to the cheaply, which drew some industries to its banks. 1950s. Roads, railroads, bridges and highways and the cor- ridor’s economic development are inseparably tied. Transportation systems have often determined the relation- ship of communities to the river. As canoes and steamboats drew people to the river, roads and railroads pulled them away. This chapter illustrates processes critical to the birth and growth of the corridor’s communities.

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area co or and the manwho couldfor lumber get to dry, green boards “Nobody waited says Albert Goodrich, In 1854in Anoka, ties. Lumber had immediate and demanding local markets. and construction booms manyof the in corridor’s communi- shadowed atSt. byAnthony Falls. milling their role the building river’s in communities isoften over- had context created timber milling ashared historicalLike the furtrade, corenomic around which manycommunities developed. replaced Lumber milling • the furtrade asakey eco- Timber er, w years,” ment to the male population of Anoka and Ramsey for many other and shingles, sawinglogs and finishing into boards, sorting, ry. The employed mills hundreds ofpeople gathering, in i t they were soimpor- most ofthese succumbed mills to fire, (1855) allboasted sawmillstheir early during years. While 1856and 1857)and Hastings Nininger(1854, 1850), St.Paul (1845, Brooklyn (1859-60), (1867), Champlin i allhadHastings Mostacquired mills. dur- theirmills first and the Vermillion River in Shingle Creek Minneapolis, in Rice Creek ElmCreek Fridley, in Champlin, in Anoka, tobuilt dams capture the hydropower. The RumRiver at nearfacilities themouthof ies to deliver logs and to power Somelocated their mills. the Mississippi andthe itstributaries. Mississippi o ti steam sawmill in Anoka that employed 125men. Inaddi- . Ramsey ng along the river the midto during late nineteenth centu- Anoka (1854), ng the 1850sand 1860s.Dayton (1856), ant that they were quickly rebuilt. ut the corridor witnessed the annual herding oflogs down on to o theirown milling unted himself lucky.” slabs enough to build ashanty before cold weather set in at least onelumber mill. The story ofthese and mills Th T tributar- its and river depended the Lumber on lers mil products. and gave“Logging river driving employ- imber milling wasimber milling vital to mostcommunities emerg- e lumber cut atthese spurred mills other businesses for cities the in MNRRA corridor. Mostsettlements 3 rites Je n17,W. D.In 1872, Washburn &Co. built alarge an James booklet, her in 5 eain,c perations, small tributaries, 4 2 (Figure 2) ommunities through- T he history of 1 where they li J sort timber becomes continuous down to St. Anthony Falls. the number ofbooms used and cribs toCenter, direct and justabove the head ofDurnhamIsland Brooklyn in 864, Casey Island (now Island). partofBanfill Byriver mile do island (Island 215ontheNot map). quite two river miles showsmap alumber boom projecting upstream from an below where the or immediately atriver Beginning Minneapolis. 866, mile ta the river the nineteenth in illustrate the impor- century, the mostdetailed made maps of (MRC)maps, Commission leadi closed and north Minneapoliswas growing into the nation’s ust above Minneapolis, multiple crib and multipleboom crib systems ust above Minneapolis, etervr four or five next to eachne the river, other attimes. nc ntem another boom upstream points from Little wnstream, e oftimber from St. Anthony Falls to north ng lumber producer. The River Mississippi ytelt 80,manysmalllumber had mills By the late 1800s, onRpd a snw an1898MRC isnow, Coon Dam Rapids 6 140 Chapter 7 • THE PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION St. Paul’s lower landing. lower perating at St. Paul’s 9 8 any, the holdings included the Rotary Mill. Prince ran any, Mill. Prince Rotary the included holdings the ult time getting logs. For these reasons his mill his failed reasons these For logs. ult time getting illion River, which provided hydropower for milling. for illion hydropower River, provided which Further downriver, on the Further Hastings Nininger and drew s. By providing the lumber for construction and other and construction for lumber the s. By providing the properties of Pierre Chouteau, of Pierre fur trading properties & Co. the Jr. e valley’s limestone bluffs, limestone e valley’s beds, gravel deposits clay and e first lumber mill at Hastings was built in built 1855. Like mill e first at Hastings lumber was mp nerally served the local market and were gone by the turn the by gone were and market local the served nerally dustries, Hastings’ sawmills, like those in St. Paul, ffic age st known as the Big Woods. Hastings also had the Hastings also had Woods. Big as the st known in above,Minneapolis and economic an important established city. the base for Quarries, only the not and Lime was Bricks Kilns • Lumber Mississippi. the by supplied or supported building material Th millers,attracted of Corps the and companies construction limestone Anthony quarried Engineers. Early at St. millers build falls to at the islands other and Spirit Island from the bluffs the around it from also mined They mills. their di 14, On November 1850,year. within the first state’s the o began sawmill steam man- in 1854 to St. Paul to came Prince S. John when And age co for- maple-basswood the and Minnesota of northern pineries e Verm Th end, northern millsthe at the mills the at Hastings pro- make to lumber with the companies other supplied or duced shingles, sashes, doors, blinds, furniture, car- and wagons ri the mill until it burned on May 22, on May millthe until it burned mills 1868. St. Paul’s ge century. of the until 1845, years three (Figure 3) (Figure 7 perating out a log jam above St. Anthony Falls, Anthony St. jam above out a log lumber industry in Minneapolis. Mississippi River River Mississippi industrylumber in Minneapolis. Cities below Minneapolis also supported sawmills. Minneapolis also supported below Cities cially, west banks from St. Anthony Falls north to near to north Anthony Falls cially, St. banks from west illiam Dugas built the first sawmill in St. Paul inilliam 1844, in first St. Paul Dugas built the sawmill pe FIGURE 3. Log drivers sort sort drivers FIGURE Log 3. Society. Historical Minnesota Nowack. Michael by 1881. Photo W although it did not begin o Dugas, Anthony Falls. mill at St. Steele’s of Franklin ahead some reason,for a had and customers find not enough could Lumber mills and yards dominate the Mississippi’s east and, east Mississippi’s the dominate mills yards and Lumber es show MRC maps clearly Minneapolis city limits.The the king in north become had lumber which to extent the mid-1890s. the Minneapolis by 141 FIGURE 2. The The FIGURE 2. Map,Commission St. above booms and log yards lumber 1895. Note District, St. Paul Falls. Anthony Engineers. of Corps 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:13 AM Page 141 Page AM 8:13 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:13 AM Page 142

falls. The Corps quarried the bluffs for rock to build wing dams and to armor the river’s banks. Corps draftsman and photographer Henry Bosse photographed one such quarry near Cherokee Heights, across from downtown St. Paul (Figure 4),and another at Riverside Park in Minneapolis. The 1895 MRC chart for Minneapolis shows at least 13 ing town. Several brick companies had opened around Coon quarries between St. Anthony Falls and the Lake Street Rapids before the fire, and at least three brickyards eventu- Bridge. Construction companies mined the bluffs, islands ally located on Coon Creek in Coon Rapids. All three lay and floodplain from above St. Anthony to Hastings for rock just outside the corridor, but as with many brickyards, they and gravel. Although the quarried bluffs may appear natu- influenced construction within the corridor. Many build- ral today, they represent an important way in which ings in the northern corridor are or were undoubtedly made humans have sculpted the landscape of the Mississippi of bricks produced at these yards. One brick plant, the River valley through the Twin Cities.10 Minnesota Clay Company, had 72 acres of clay deposits and Throughout the river valley, clay deposits presented a pit more than 130 feet deep. “This brick plant,” claims the opportunity for brick making. Fires, which nearly all local historian Leslie Gillund, “was one of the most modern the MNRRA corridor’s communities experienced during the and well-equipped in the country, . . . .”11 (Figure 5) A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area and Recreation River National the Mississippi Study of Resources A Historic late nineteenth century, spurred the creation of brick com- Other cities in the corridor had brickyards as well. panies. When a fire destroyed a large part of Anoka in Edward Neill, in his history of Hennepin County, noted that 1884, brick, as a fireproof material, “brick clay” lay along the river in north became popular. Just down- Minneapolis. In 1876 stream, Coon Rapids Morrison’s brickyard

RIVER OF HISTORY: became a busy began using this brick- clay, mak-

FIGURE 4. Bluff top stone quarry, Cherokee Heights, looking toward down- town St. Paul, 1885. Photo by Henry P. Bosse. Rock Island District, Corps of Engineers.

142 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:13 AM Page 143

FIGURE 5. Baking bricks. Frank A. Johnson brickyard, Chapter 7

Fiftieth and Lyndale, Minneapolis, near the Mississippi River,

1904. Minnesota Historical Society. • H ATRSO GIUTR,CMEC,INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION COMMERCE, PATTERNS THE OF AGRICULTURE,

employing about 20 men and four mills to grind it. The culture. Located on the Grey Cloud Channel, in a company produced 1.8 million bricks in 1880, most of Mississippi backwater, this National Register site is, accord- which went to Minneapolis. Another brickyard, run by ing to Cottage Grove historian Robert Vogel, “a kind of Johnson and Berg, also employed about 20 men and had industrial fossil that provides us with important clues as to four mills for grinding the clay. This yard and the others early settlement and development in the Grey Cloud area, made a light-colored brick which, Neill reports, was typical where limestone quarrying has played a small but impor- of the area. Weithoff’s brickyard, the third in north tant part in the local economy since the middle of the 19th Minneapolis, had only two machines and eight men and century.”13 Used from about 1873 to 1902, the kiln turned out about 600,000 bricks annually. In St. Paul, the burned limestone to yield quicklime, which builders used Twin City Brick company used clay from Pickerel Lake, in as mortar and farmers used for fertilizer. Vogel believes the Mississippi River’s floodplain, during the first half of that most of the kiln’s output went for fertilizer. the 20th century. Hastings also possessed clay deposits and Measuring some 20 feet square at its base, the kiln stood brickyards. You can still see evidence of these operations in the old brick homes and businesses in the corridor’s communities.12 The Grey Cloud Lime Kiln represents a rare type of industrial site associated with building materials and agri-

143 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:13AMPage144

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area a Demand for fertilizer from the kilntells ussomething andbluffs taking trees from the bottomlands and bluffs. to such kilnscontributed As the Grey Cloud LimeKilnshows, M the kiln.More limestone kilnsprobably existed the in market.” typically small breweries, such asflour and sorghummills processing facilities, “Many ofthe towns became centers for agricultural product c althoughwheat was becoming a for subsistence, marily statement says thisperiod that agriculture during was pri- Act of1862spurred both. The Historical Society context Te ment and agriculture. The creation ofthe Minnesota Dakota and Ojibwa opened officially Minnesota to settle- to “Early Agriculture and River lasted Settlement,” from 1840 in and processing ofagricultural products characterized tion, transporta- The production, Development (1870-1940).” per munities the in corridor were ahead ofthe rest ofthe state. com- manyways, butin erally true for the MNRRA corridor, ca serve for asabasis evaluating the National Register signifi- two periods. (The Historical Society’s context statements Society divides itscontext statement for agriculture into gro asthejoined foundation lumber milling ofeconomic and •Agriculture relatedAgriculture activities quickly fl thatthinks the reservoir created by Lock andNo. Dam 2has and uplands. The supplied bluffs the limestone. Vogel the kiln’s furnace came from the surrounding river bottoms a ash crop. Mostcommunities atthistimelay along rivers. ultural methods. agric early bout bout 35feet and high had walls four feet thick. Wood for ood RAcrio,butwe knowNRRA almostnothingabout corridor, them. nc rtr n14,saeodi 88 and the Homestead statehood 1858, in rritory 1849, in ch 1870. The 1851and 1855withthe Treaties of1837, wth in the MNRRAwth in corridor. The Minnesota Historical iod ofagriculture as “Railroads and Agricultural fptnilyhsoi ie. Tefrtpro,callede ofpotentially historic sites.) The period, first ne nteMsispislnsae by the quarrying anges the Mississippi’s in landscape, Th ed ed e Minnesota Historical Society defines the second oeo h l uris butothers could near lie some ofthe old quarries, 15 Th e Historical Society’s context statement isgen- ns thatcatereoperatio 14 d to alocal do we supported businesses dependent uponagriculture. Some c duction and dairy farming. The new crops and other agri- led however, wheat in 34.6 million. Adrop prices after 1877, whe m bushels1850 to1860and in jumped 2.2million to 18.9 ve Economic Panic the wheat of1857and the Civil War, har- la en when he planted itonanisland atthe conflu- Minnesota, became theto first grow wheat in St. Paul by 1805, d livestockmented production and withavariety ofcrops, reg quickly from subsistence to producing farming for local, theMNRRA corridor,so in s suggests that pioneer Minnesota in farmers focused onsub- in someofwhich blossomed fostered manysmallcompanies, from the focus and onagriculture.brewing Flour milling and brewing grew flour milling, exchange, the grain houses, c and supplyand service centers for surrounding agricultural tion. Towns that lay along railroads became points shipping this period. Family were farms the typical unitofproduc- Captain FolsomCaptain bought the RumRiver fur trade postand co mi in li sec amn rm14 o17,thiswas not alwaysistence from 1840to farming 1870, muiis Ganeeaos rcsigfclte,ware- processing facilities, ommunities. Grainelevators, ultural activities spurred more new businesses. airy farming. ve te te linb 80 Bten17 n 80 Minnesota’s byillion 1870.Between 1870 and 1880, to to st in Minnesotast in climbed from about 1,400bushels in nadbaso h sad Aottesm ie a rn and beans onthe island. About thetime, same ce ce r and others were unique to oneor two communities. nk ony ete utblwKnsIln,about a settledAnoka just below County, Island, Kings le le re re oa n ainlmres A hydd they experi- ional and national markets. As they did, farmers to diversify. livestock They pro- tried new crops, tc. n14,WlimNo,one ofthepioneers first William Noot, stock. In1847, at crop nearly doubled, from 18.9 million bushels from to 18.9million at crop nearly doubled, 80,however,would wheat take Despite off. the 1850s, na Je theAlthough Historical Society’s context statement Early farmersexperimentedEarly withavariety ofcrops and of the Minnesota Rivers. and Mississippi Not untilthe ab pa nBpit aral,atrader who had locatedan Baptiste Fairbault, above tional giants. tional giants. All the corridor’s early communities ov rt ofindustries that occurred throughout the corri- h u ie’ ot. hrl fe,hee theplanted RumRiver’s mouth. Shortly after, where many farmers movedmany farmers 17 16 144 Chapter 7 • THE PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION e post built by Alexis e post built by gun tilling the land, Th 22 andling, of and processing 20 orage, h 19 21 wherever settlers had be settlers wherever rming also began around Hastings early in the around rming also began Cities, in the products dairy for market largest the Fa Cottage Grove and Hastings prospered from their agri- their from Hastings and prospered Grove Cottage an impor- makes Vogel Robert historian Grove Cottage me wheat. From the 1840s to the 1870s, the 1840s to the From me wheat. domi- wheat d. When wheat prices fell after 1877, after fell prices wheat When d. farmers around some 20 to 30 farms. The primary crop,The 30 farms. some 20 to Anoka as in ehouse to store goods, store to ehouse grain, including sacked ship- for ion. So, grew, population nonagricultural as the the in in Hastings built many more warehouses to accommodate to warehouses Hastings built many more specialize. te ca ain has been “a constant activity along Hastings’ activity along “a constant ain been has river ss, contends, Goodrich building some 20 of the to led ultural activities also. As early as 1855,As early also. activities ultural Grove Cottage ant point about dairy farming. It grew after 1880, after farming.ant point dairy about grew It he reg farm for products,demand could that products especially area, dramatically in immediate spoil quickly, the increased within St. Paul Minneapolis and and farmers near allowing to to important grains became other and Wheat 1850s. Hastings’ reasons: two at least for economy milling flour st The and shipping. gr 1850s,” the since Zellie,frontage Carole says study in her Hastings. for contexts of historic and 717,000 in 1899. Hall went on to build plants in plants build to on in 717,000 went 1899. Hall and , Harris, and Branch North His suc- Minnesota. ce early the Mississippi of the by west plants potato factories, One of these Diamond the century. twentieth Company, in Hastings warehouse Starch in a former opened 1889 to from starch produced and waterfront the near became potatoes County Anoka that notes 1898. Goodrich every to shipped quality were and eating their for known in union. the state c had County and be na t the near were observes, Grove in farmers Cottage because Tw Cottage Grove turned to corn, to turned Grove Cottage soybeans, and raising cattle horses, farming. dairy and and Henry Bailly in 1853 began this history, a Bailly in 1853 began Henry and as it became war decade, During next the ping on steamboats. entrepreneurs in By 1859 Hastings grain booming production. region’s the 18 beetle or beetle Colorado huge factory, which d from the d from for the gh gh production received a boost in mid-1880s the a boost received production rst potato crop. Showing that a farmer could a that Showing crop. rst potato t became the dominant crop in Anoka County Anoka in crop dominant the t became ea tato where near enou near where s and the pesticide, the county’s potato harvest had pesticide, the s and harvest potato county’s the Po Wh a great profit on the frontier, Folsom cut enough hay in frontier, on the hay profit enough cut a great Folsom n Reuel L. Hall opened a potato starch factory on the factory starch a potato L. Hall opened n Reuel at harvested in the county. As the depression that had that depression As the in county. the at harvested le stock. In 1859 potatoes and corn became most impor- became corn and In 1859 potatoes stock. wn to 68,000 bushels. While high,While 68,000 bushels. wn to well this was nnebago, whom the U.S. government had relocated to relocated had nnebago, government U.S. the whom gun in wheat. 1877 receded, to farmers returned ost, milked the first cow in Anoka. Since milk was such a ost, such milk was Since Anoka. in firstcow the milked mained largely unused for two years. After the third year, third the After years. two for unused largely mained ap ap as no ve eet ehind the 121,000 bushels of corn and 94,000 bushels of 94,000 bushels and of corn 121,000 bushels ehind the efore the Economic , Panic Economic the efore wheat which after pplied a substance called “Paris Green.”“Paris called a substance pplied it worked, While arity, it with his neighbors. shared he ant, and, Goodrich,Albert to according of in his history potato bug in 1866 and for the next couple of years, couple next the bug in for 1866 and potato the In response, declined. crop potato was what farmers began They in county. the first the use of pesticides probably a By 1879, potatoes. the it poisoned the many feared despite b whe In 1886,Anoka. in Rum River eastern failing get after to in his venture, interested makers with a starch Hall joined Leland, friend,”“monied potato largest C. F. the build to of the first the west and States in United the factory starch crop, potato large county’s the it Despite Mississippi River. w re increased, output into however, potato went plant the and leaped County Anoka in harvest potato The full production. 421,000 in in 1889 1879 to 68,000 bushels the from 1848 to make about $6,000. He sold it to the owners of owners the it to $6,000. He sold about make 1848 to the to supplies brought that teams oxcart or horse Wi 1854,Long Prairie. In about settler, early C. another James Fr r grew the fi the grew re gro b whe be t many convinced County,Anoka wool for high the prices and production Wool year. next the sheep raise farmers to 1860 and between grew County Anoka in harvests potato suffere potatoes When 1870. b plummeted,prices and crops other raise to forcing farmers li 145 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:13 AM Page 145 Page AM 8:13 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:13AMPage146

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area re edg andtended farms to be farther back from the bluff rural, (the upriver edge ofSt.Paul’s urbangrowth) was more but the context provided above someclues. offers wha Grey like Cloud. Wethe larger do islands, not know exactly including and farmerstilled patches ofthe floodplain itself, againapproached farms theedge bluff places in widened, ov to of Minneapolis.From the north Minneapolis lumberyards ed ture ofagricultural the products. shipping en loc bytheir grain oxcart to the river town to for distribution mi whe war r marks indicatemarks where agricultur hatch Although noonehas found the key to the MRCmaps, in for(MRC) maps the corridor provide asnapshot offarming r the and account in of atSt. Anthony Falls, on flour milling ex ri processingimportant grain andcenters. handling The sto- cheese and ice cream.make butter, er bec the 1870sand 1880scattle had and raising dairy farming had anked second onlyto Winona wheat in In1863 shipping. ailroad expansion later thischapter. in es es ach Below smallfarms. had St.Paul, e,lk h odnSa raeyna atns ee,to levee, the like Golden Star Creamery near Hastings’ ies, te er tere h aeSre rde urbandevelopment hadthe Lake taken Street Bridge, the corridor atthe end ofthe nineteenth century. le up to the river from Dayton down to the northern limits l regional and national markets. When railroads al, ome important. Local entrepreneurs soon builtcream- e. Pike Island and someofthe floodplain lands this in ehouses stored Hastings in some500,000bushels of nsively in Chapters 4 and 5 on navigation, in Chapter in 6 nsively Chapters in 4 and 5onnavigation, . Land below the Lake Street Bridge down to Lilydale at. Hastings drewat. Hastings onahinterland that extended 60 of these businesses the in two cities are discussed to to t farmersgrew ontheir lands the in MNRRA corridor, otews,and early thisregion farmersin brought s to the west, Th alsobecame ofcourse, St. Paul and Minneapolis, Fa atnsi 88 they elevators builtgrain to cap- 1868, in d Hastings di rmers around Hastings, as in other asin communities, rmers around Hastings, e 1895 and 1898 Mississippi Rivere 1895and 1898 Mississippi Commission ve rsify due torsify cyclical economic depressions. By al fields lay where thefl 23 . Farmers plant- 24 oodplain none.” withareputation second to Merchant and Custom mill, er W had his machinery. Crystal Lake (northwestern Minneapolis) 1857 by cuttingaway 50feet to ofabluff make room for 1858.EatonNininger in began constructing thein mill 1850s and Samuel S. Eaton completed aflourin mill development.nomic acquired Hastings the flourin mills belo re the owners quickly fireAlthough soon destroyed the mill, er had in es falls aswell. Flour were mills the among earliest business- m in •St. Flour Milling Anthony Falls dominated flour milling ln ihtefrtaeadlme iln,flour milling Along withthe furtrade and lumber milling, e put had grown to 1,600barrels per day. immediately itsout- rebuilt it.Bythe turnofthe century, in with acapacity of600barrels per day. Although itburned built the Lincoln FlouringMillonthe RumRiver in Anoka, sitesof mill upriver. In1880the Washburn Mill Company ad Str le m Creek Fridley in (Manomin), Ve anative of opened by1867. Champlin in And John Banfil, ssential to understanding how itscommunities developed. ast one in Phalenast onein Creek and another near the Wabasha ec built it. s imported 6,000bushels from Iowa and Wisconsin. illing wasilling important to communities above and below the ill. By 1881 St. Paul had seven flour mills, including at including ill. By1881St.Paul had seven flour mills, eitzel Dayton builtaflourin mill and fourteen years later di rmont, first came first to St.Paul and1849moved in to Rice rmont, in nk opee to eray1 85 local pioneers 1855, Anoka completed itonFebruary 1, h NR ordr u,lk ibrmlig flour timber like milling, but, the MNRRA corridor, ra ofarto nAgs 6 84 the company 1884, a great conflagration on August 16, eet Br eet te w St. Anthony Falls and became important to their eco- a flourby mill 1859onShingleCreek. In1860Frank not yet grown enough wheat to supplyit.Sothe own- in n,b 95 ithad become “a first-class by 1905, and, tion, Flour milling grewFlour rapidlycommunities milling in above and Th Th many MNRRA communities. When owners ofamill d anew mill. A later owner putona20-by 50-foot 26 e history of flour milling in the in MNRRAe history corridor offlour milling is e millers atSt. Anthony Falls recognized the value idge Twe 25 nty-six mennty-six worked atthe mill. A flour mill (Figure 6). 27 where he built ahotel and 28 146 Chapter 7 • THE PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION St. Paul Roller Mill Company near Wabasha Street Bridge, Wabasha near MillRoller Company St. Paul FIGURE 6. FIGURE 6. Society. Historical 1881. Minnesota 147 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:13 AM Page 147 Page AM 8:13 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:13AMPage148

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area center.” that itwould become the world’s leading exchange grain in the twentieth century to challenge traders. the grain Started several organizations farm created the early during years of protest. The Equity gr Th William Wallace and Frank Hutchinsonry: Peavey. do to entrepreneursally and internationally, saw the opportunity l in •AsMinnesota’s Marketing Grain production grain and their history can be interpreted. to employment to underlay the economic growth ofmostthe corridor’s including the rigging ofprices and against commissions accusedcritics the Chamber practices, of monopolistic Minneapolis Chamber ofCommerce. The Equity and other and challenged the tion to wheat, the marketing ofspring directed the Equityfirst itsatten- North Dakota 1911, in mi Jer storage cap o and by ofthe the twentieth beginning Peavey century, the Midwest. owned By1890Cargill elevators, 71grain MinneapolisChamber the controlhelped trading in grain m Minneapolis Chamber ofCommerce. Joined by the flour be afterMinneapolis the Millers Minneapolis Association and Peavey movedMinneapolis, hisheadquarters to ished the means to market huge quantities nation- ofgrain wned bushels 18terminal of facilitieswith26million wns and cities. These businesses provided the first lesadohrganmrhns Peaveyillers and and Cargill other merchants, grain rae,a t lu iln rw and asrailroads grew, estab- asitsflour milling creased, po h aktn ftergo’ ri,farmersbegan to ip onthe marketing ofthe region’s grain, ca min co gr m etn “revolutionizedome Tewton, the role ofthe grain Minneapolis in 1908andMinneapolis in incorporated under the laws of ey ey dd me hislargest buyer. Both became members ofthe ow ntrol grain buying, selling and shipping. selling Two men ntrol buying, grain As grain merchantsAs grain Minneapolisstrengthened in their leman.” both located 1884and in Minneapolis in “ensured ated the industryby the start ofthe twentieth centu- Wiemn fteerymlsaegn,the sites . While manyofthe early are gone, mills 29 Cargill establishedCargill awarehouse and offices in acity in Minneapolis. Minneapolis. “Peavey,”acity in historian says 30 and capital first that allowed other businesses Cooperative Exchange became oneof wo tized that hoping the river the withriver building water, bap- J. M. Anderson, Equity’sication President, ceremony, 1915 and completed the new 1917. in building At the ded- r to Chestnut and Sherman Streets. The location provided access itsnewbuilding elevator between onthe upper levee, l upper levee and estab- elevator, for aterminal building grain to to unfairly criticized the organization. members to trade withgroups or individuals itbelieved the Chamber refused to allow its back. InOctober 1912, the Chamber fought prices. As the Equitygained strength, buildand aterminal possibly elevator to guarantee fair needed to organize analternative terminal marketing firm 1917 funneled through the city. The Equitybelieved it per farmers. The Federal Trade estimated Commission that 70 ished itsown exchange. grain The Equityquickly began St. Paul, uld againbecome shipping. afactor grain in ce ail lines andail lines to the river. The Equity broke ground in Th In 1914the Equitymoved itsoffices from Minneapolis nt of the grain grownnt ofthe grain the in region between 1912and e Chamber rejected the idea that St.Paul could estab- where the city had promisedcity had free landalongthe 148 Chapter 7 • THE PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION Although 36 ommon. “The ommon. from Minnesota,from the ly-owned terminal elevator terminal ly-owned peratives were c were peratives peratives peratives ve st cooperati 32 ust as some entrepreneurs saw an opportunity saw ust as some entrepreneurs ht the same could be done for livestock. A. B. livestock. for done be sameht the could 33 34 movement of grain was increasing as well, increasing of grain was movement prompt- x during 1950s. In 1951, the Farmers’ the Union le In 1938, 121 coo elevator St. Paul at the occurred Many improvements By the 1950s, farm coo icalism of 1916,” Morlan, Robert historian said “is in 1940 aided this expansion. By the end of the 1940s, of the end By the this expansion. 1940 aided the country. St. Paul’s 1931 addition to the elevator, the to 1931 addition St. Paul’s country. the barge traffic. Second, it represented St. Paul’s determina- barge traffic. Second, St. Paul’s it represented rmers’ Union to expand its market. The Federal govern- rmers’ Federal The its market. expand to Union mp d become the fir d become rge measure the accepted practice of today.” practice accepted the measure rge al center. ignificant roles. First, roles. ignificant campaign, regional part of the it was ng terminal elevators to upgrade their truck-handling facil- truck-handling their upgrade to elevators ng terminal the Municipal Grain Terminal, Grain Municipal the historically two fulfilled s businessmen, by supported politicians, farmers, and to Mississippi Upper as an impetus on the facilities improve to grain a regional termi- with Minneapolis as compete tion to n • J Stockyards to consolidate Cities, Twin of grain marketing the in the others thoug Northwestern and Minnesota of the Stickney, President the Western), recognized Chicago-Great the (later Railroad Minnesota area. Cities Twin in the stockyards for potential Dakotas, Montana, and including Farmers’ the Union, Association (GTA), the formed Grain Terminal the allowing Fa Mississippi in the channel 9-foot of the completion ment’s in roadway i noted,As one historian expendi- huge ities. meant “This on facility their at St. Paul improving for GTA the by tures river.” the in in and river shipping in the MNRRA corridor, shipping MNRRA in the river and in Minnesota in nation. and the co dump, and scale a truck added Association Terminal Grain a car dump added and truck the expanded inand 1955 they dump, original of the bins, on top a headhouse an office and building. rad la it could not replace Minneapolis as a grain trading center, replace not it could it di 31 urage the ion complex, 1955. fort to enco fort to As the navigation history told in Chapter 5 shows, in Chapter told history navigation As the farmers, repre- in St. Paul elevator own however, their urn of river traffic,urn of river of the an expansion approved St. Paul osters began the movement that led to the 9-foot channel 9-foot the to led that movement the began osters e St. Paul Municipal and Sack House lie in the forefront and Sack Grain Municipal Elevator e St. Paul dustry, can be transported to St. Paul by the establishment the by St. Paul to dustry, transported be can the complex at the right. Minnesota Historical Society. Society. the right. Historical Minnesota at the complex illing industry, elevator terminal oil industry and linseed d Equity elevator. The new addition included a 22,000- included addition new The d Equity elevator. ommerce did not come back to the river, the to back come did not navigation ommerce and ish a grain exchange and terminal facilities. In 1917 the terminal and ish a grain exchange 149 bushel, dock elevator, a loading and house a sack concrete of only remains buildings the are these Today, 7). (Figure originalthe complex, Equity valuable and rare are but they of grain trading, history the telling for assets farm protest ret ol bo In 1927,project. as part of its ef Chamber asserted that it was “utterly ridiculous”“utterly it was that asserted “this Chamber that m in . . .” selling or agency. grain exchange of a small pretended To independence. sented c l FIGURE 7. Farmers’ Union Grain Terminal Associat Terminal Grain Union FIGURE Farmers’ 7. 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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area fourth leading by industry value ofproduct. however, meat-packing ranked asMinnesota’s By 1900, plant opened. For their ten first years the yards struggled. andJanuary1888 in stock thepacking first theyear, first produc their task was to strikethe best price for possible the fee; li animal veterinarians, pens, co in in Stickney began marketing cattle by the end ofthe year. from St.Paul. Convinced he had secured what he needed, stoc the could take which r South St.Paul. Hechose the site for itslocation near his te e then invited the investors and arepresentative ofthe west- ed hosted ameeting ofbusinessinterests St.Paul in and invit- Stickney 1886, sume much ofMontana’s cattle. OnMay 3, Tw ofthe livestock. Stickney believed that“shrinkage” the shorter would trip cost less and reduce injuriesto and wo Montan in convention i Heengagedvision. includ- anumber ofpotential investors, had thepastu Tw we stockyards estimated that railroads carried some75,000 es than watch western Stickney cattlewanted go to Chicago, to but these mostlyfed cattle ontheir way to Chicago. Rather tle each year. The Twin Cities had several smallstockyards, gJmsJ il Neigctl,he wentng James to J. acattlemen’s Hill.Needing cattle, ailroad and because ofitsproximity to the Mississippi, rn cattle ranchers North to in Oaks.Now hisfarm commit- ve oteetrrs,Stickney acquired onland options in d to the enterprise, ta dustries to South St.Paul. According to Jerome Tewton, mp his article his article “The“The stockyard of Business Agriculture,” stern and cattle through St.Paul to Chicago each fall, a representative from the western cattle ranchers. Hill uld be 400miles shorter to St.Paul than to Chicago. The in in stock. merchants Commission handled sales for aset blish alarge stockyardblish and slaughterhouse St.Paul. in Th In 1886StickneyApril acted quickly to realize his n rvddtefclte n evcs(od water,any provided the facilities and services (food, Cities and the region to the west and north could con- Cities residents ate the beef from about thismanycat- er.” e stockyards drew meat-packing plants and related 39 Th rage andgr e stockyards received 5,831rail cars oflive- a to sell hisidea. Heargued that it ain toain feed cattle. Proponents of yrs waste away downriver, kyards’ manager s) for selling andbuying s) forselling 40 38 37 m the businessdecentralized. Bythe 1980sonlyseven com- the as stockyards and associated operations began declining, itsheydayduring following World War II.Bythe 1960s, closed 1952. in Thirty-six worked firms atthe stockyards ca state,” but Minneapolis and Hastings alsohad and butMinneapolis Hastings breweries.state,” ch hav creating thousands ofjobs.Both companies may 1919, Company opened plantSouth in St.Paul a$14million in in establishedof the nation’s plants five leading meat packers, li that centered onithelped South St.Paul become aregional we tion butonlytwentieth population. in A dozen breweries 112 breweries and ranked nationally fifth beer in produc- know-how needed for brewing. In1887Minnesota had whoGerman enjoyed immigrants beer and who had the the Twin Cities alsoprovided aheavy concentration of under theto bluffs cool and age their beer. Minnesota and along thisreach allowed brewers to excavate tunnels deep provided forstorag F and fresh water was abundant. Fromand hops, St. Anthony product. Minnesota’s lands could produce malt the barley, le br the river valley’s geology aunique in way. To make beer, breweriesproducts. employed the Unlike other industries, It isalsoanindustrythat gave to rise nationally recognized co •BrewingBrewing isanother river the industryin MNRRA cent major Minnesota thetwo industryin first decades ofthe Kirk Jeffrey, “enjoyed more rapid growth than didanyother alls downstream, the Mississippi River the Mississippi valley’salls downstream, geology ve y, ission firms remained. firms ission ewe me in 1925andme in remained alarge employer untilitsplant rridor that can be traced to Minnesota’s territorial days. ea South St.Paul. according to“Meat-packing,” historian re re e chosen site due the to Mississippi the availability of tc etr Sit ror uay n isn four and Wilson, Cudahy, Armour, stock center. Swift, atadhp,and they needed aplace to storemalt and hops, their ury.” p, Th in rs la c. uay amajorclean Chicago ice. meat Cudahy, packer, e stockyards and the Twin Cities railroad network t al “the number onebrewing center the in St. Paul, ne 41 eded eded Swift and Companystarted 1897. in Armour & kno e. The softSt.Peter Sandstone bluffs wl ed ge ge 42 (Figure 8) of th of e pr e oc s,go ae,bar- water, good ess, 43 150 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:23 AM Page 151

In Minnesota, brewing began in St. Paul, and St. Paul would dominate the state’s beer production. Most St. Paul brewers were German immigrants who started their busi- nesses soon after arriving. One of these immigrants, Anthony Yoerg, opened the first brewery in St. Paul in Nationally,Americans had been making beer since the 1848 (a year before Minnesota became a territory). era, but production took off in the mid-1800s, and Although he initially located on the east side of downtown, the number of breweries increased around the country. in 1871, Yoerg moved his brewery to the west side bluffs at After pasteurization was perfected in 1875, bottled beer Ohio Street, two blocks south of what is Water Street today. became popular and beer bottling a common industry. By Here he built a large stone brewery and excavated nearly a 1900 refrigerated railcars allowed brewers to distribute mile of caves for cooling his beer. their beer widely.44 Determined to become a major brewer, he designed a

FIGURE 8. Cattle pen, South St. Paul Stockyards, 1930. Photo by Peter

Schawang. Minnesota Historical Society. By this time, four of the nation’s

five leading meat-packing companies had lcoated at the stockyards.

151 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:23AMPage152

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area old breweryold storage. for in in 1889 and left the businessto hissons. They had different used anearby sandstone hillfo brewery capable ofproducing 6,000barrels per year. He however,Emmert builtitinto awell-known By the 1880s, Exchange Streets Upperto in Fr and to nationally recognized beers. Untilpurchased by of which would give birthto the state’s largest breweries hemovedbrewery to SixthandPle burned, W mi the 1880s. The Banholzers dugcaves that extended ahalf- it into oneofthe more successful breweries St.Paul in by Fr itwasSeventh destroyed Street neighborhood, by fire. present-day Shepard Road and Drake Street the in West opened 1853. Builtontop in ofthenearCompany, bluffs si he moved to the west 1872, in built astone building. Then, in ahouseprobably in near the second the brewery St.Paul, in brewery’s cave and foundation atthe bottom ofOhioStreet. the brewery close. The onlyremains asof1981were the through (1919to 1933).Not until1952did k the labelUsing “Yoerg’s Cave Aged Beer,” Yoerg’s successors by He was 20,000barrels selling per year by 1881and 35,000 steam-powered plant capable ofproducing 50barrels per day. principal remnants ofBruggermann’s plant are the caves. brewery, and1905itclosed. in As with Yoerg’s brewery, the cavesit in excavated into theIn1900he bluff. sold the For ept the businessgoing through allthe depressions and de de ed ed tere te limde,i 87 the closed. business 1897, in died, illiam 1901. Happy to be rid of a competitor, Hamm used Hamm the to1901. Happy be rid of acompetitor, le de le 1891, making himoneofthe state’s making largest brewers. 1891, more than 25years he made beer atthissite and stored rsection and ofSmith Kellogg Boulevard. After the er er lfsna aah tet just150yards nearbluffs Wabasha from Yoerg. Street, Th Another brewery, called the North Mississippi BruggermannIn 1853Martin established what was t,however,and sold the brewery to Theodorests, Hamm c meti 86 the CityBrewery, near Eagle and ick Emmert1866, in ick and andmade William Banholzer reconstructed it, ep and had manychambers. ayear Butwithin after re e more two breweries opened St.Paul in 1855, in 48 n remained asmalloperation. wn, r storag e. Emmertdied in asant, 47 where he 46 45 Star Brewery–bought 1900. itin and then the Jacob Schmidt Company–formerly the North 1897. bankrupt in Another owned firm itfor three years, the succumbed brewery to itaswell. went As aresult, ness, who had taken overand by the busi- 1894allthree sons, andHamm others. Stahlman died oftuberculosis 1883, in producing 40,000barrels per year buthad fallen behind the largest brewery the in state. Bythe mid-1880she was created from atleast what1876to 1879, would become, he Havingcomebluffs. to St.Paul withonlyafew dollars, ed he excavat- at thewest far end ofthe cityatthat time, Road, age nJl ,15,excavated one 1855, on July 5, W r William Hamm after hisfather’s death, barrels. In1903, 5,000. By1882the plant’s output had jumped to 26,000 bo had in Fo e Brewery, started 1860by in Andrew wasT. onthe Keller, to became andwith itssandstone once cliffs fresh home water, ly renovated and expanded. The new brewery could produce Schmidt moved which he complete- to the Stahlman facility, Brewing Company. When the plant burned 1900, in late years 1884Schmidt butin bought out Koch. Fifteen 1880s, into th 1879 Reinhold Koch took control and builtthe company two and smallbuildings used acave atDaytons In Bluff. named opened1855. DreweryTwo itin and Scotten, men, North Star Brewery was the third company to in begin wo an the brewery untilhisown death 1931.Under in s ak atthe intersection ofGreenbrier and Minnehaha. ast bank, to to limHm,the brewery became anational leader. Hamm, illiam ryasltrKle odi oHm,who wouldur years latermake it Keller sold itto Hamm, at least four the breweries. Pittsburgh Oneofthe four, three levels ofcaves amiledeep into the sandstone uld make itinto anationally recognized company. The systems onthe river. Locating hisbrewery onFort the largest brewery west ofChicago. By1878Hamm hitpe thmn who opened hisCave BreweryChristopher Stahlman, beganHamm hiscareer atPhalen Creek. The creek, Schmidt didnot found the North Star Brewery but osted production from 500barrels per year to e second largest brewery west ofChicago by the r Schmidt changed the nameto the Jacob Schmidt of themostela 50 borate stor- 49 152 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:24 AM Page 153

Brewery were the other two breweries in Minneapolis. In Chapter 7 1891 the four companies merged to form the Minneapolis Brewing and Malting Company, which the next year built

52

the Brewery. (Figure 9) • H ATRSO GIUTR,CMEC,INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION COMMERCE, PATTERNS THE OF AGRICULTURE, Prohibition and consolidation led to a dramatic 200,000 barrels per year. Jacob Schmidt died in 1911 and decline in the number of breweries in Minnesota. In 1900 left the business to his daughter, Maria, and his son-in-law, the state had 50 fewer breweries than it did 20 years earli- Adolph Bremer. Bremer’s brother, Otto, an executive with er,and by the start of Prohibition in 1919, only 51 brew- the National German American Bank of St. Paul, joined the eries remained (down from the 112 in 1887). The Steffan- company shortly after. When Adolf died in 1939, Otto ran Kuenzel Brewery in Hastings became a casualty of the company until 1951 and then sold it to the Pfeiffer Prohibition. Founded in 1885 on Ramsey Street on the Brewing Company. Other breweries existed in St. Paul at levee, it operated up to 1919. The brewers who survived various times, but those discussed above were among the Prohibition did so by bottling pop and other drinks.53 most important.51 Brewing sites are important for the local and national Minneapolis had a dozen breweries near the riverfront stories they represent. The history of brewing involves the by the late nineteenth century. Built in 1850, John Orth’s stories of early immigrants, particularly Germans, and how brewery was the first and was located where the old Grain their ethnic origins influenced the development of beer Belt Brewery now stands. By 1880 Minneapolis counted making. This history leads into the political and social four breweries. Two operated on the west side river flats, or aspects of Prohibition nationally and locally. Many German Bohemian Flats, near the University of Minnesota’s West immigrants chose the Democratic Party for its stance Bank. “These two breweries,” says archaeologist Scott against Prohibition. Caves that once stored beer became Anfinson, “dominated the landscape of the river flats into hideouts for illicit clubs, defying Prohibition. the early twentieth century.” Both employed people living in Bohemian Flats. Orth’s Brewery and the Germania FIGURE 9. Meuller and

Heinrick’s Brewery, at

lower levee at foot of

Fourth Street,

Minneapolis, 1880.

Minnesota Historical

Society. 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:24AMPage154

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area to to the steamer carriedRapids. Possibly settlers onthisvoyage, taba,the steamboat, ca deliveringtrips flour to the company’s postupriver butalso Company steamboat worked above falls.Itmade several an American Fur the falls.Bythe summer of1849, steamboats plied the riverAlthough few number, above in tral to their lives. and fewer and fewer people considered cen- the Mississippi te cities the in area grew and asthe area’s transportation sys- t for church services. boat steamboat landing.In1855low water stranded the steam- hav stea than Minneapolis, received navigation little improvement work. And other bec at best.falls had becomeThis was irregular, undoubtedly falls than below. By1881steamboat navigation above the lim belo craft traveled almostaseasily above the St. Anthony Falls as ke River. piroquesMississippi and Furtraders used canoes, the relationship ofthe river’s communities to the ex Tr Development Tra aswell asbeer.both ofthese products, gr human-made caves alsohave been used to store cheese and ari vle,new transportationm evolved, systems replaced the river ow ow re asnesadsple. nMyo 80 another rried passengers and supplies.InMay of1850, ansportation modes often determined the nature and te el Itasca Village (later Ra ause the river above the fallswas often shallow and it how they far had to carry their e access to large ports from which to acquire and deliver es es bo nt ofbusinessdevelopment the in MNRRA corridor and w it.Furtraders located to their postsnear the river, H. M.Rice nsportation and Economic Steamboats maintained the corridor’s tieto the river. Railroads replaced steamboats more quickly above the natural and hasAlthough little been written about it, uhom. h ol darkcavemushrooms. was climate idealThe for cool, to receive theirto trade ats and depended and upontheitstribu- Mississippi Governor,c Ramsey tAoa and the town temporarily used it at Anoka, 55 mers operating ab operating mers sy,which would establish a msey), goods and take fursout. The ompleted avoyage to Sauk goods goods 54 ov e the falls did not e thefallsdid and furs. As began operati RiverMississippi untilbridges were built.Entrepreneurs co Fe not manydidsoand they didnot last long. 1881, may have paddled onthe river above St. Anthony after hoped to compete withrailroads. While somesteamboats p acquired the RumRiver postand began aswing running later ferry at LouisAnoka. Robert, Antoine’s brother, established arowboatpost atthe mouth ofthe RumRiver, who owned the furtrade Antoine Robert, of1849, spring Brown’s grog shop across the river. Inthe fallof1848or shows Brown’s Ferry Coldwater from running Camp to Smith’s area ofthe map Ft.Snelling 1837and in 1838 segr n rih,which were essential ifsteamboatsassengers and freight, rdr ferries provided wayrridor, the primary across the rries •Evenrries after railroads expanded through the MNRRA ng ferries at theearl iest settleme nts. Lt.E.K. 56 154 Chapter 7 • THE PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION 58 59 rts quickly employed it employed rts quickly Hastings. Started in 1854 Hastings. Started and shipping facilities at 57 orage perated at perated ferries o ferries e U.S. government built the first wagon road first the wagon built government e U.S. opographical Engineers,opographical temporari- that a branch ies at both ends of the MNRRA corridor lasted up to lasted corridor MNRRA of the ends at both ies (Ramsey). The Red River Oxca River Red The (Ramsey). illiam Felton, their farmers and Wisconsin it brought The T Ferr d on the Mississippi River Commission map Mississippi that d on the River basha Street Bridge opened. John Goodspeed started a started Goodspeed John opened. Bridge Street basha their journey between the Twin Cities and the Red River Red the and Cities Twin the between journey their ng the ferry’s service. ferry’s ding the rridor may have been at Dayton. It is the only ferry indi- ferry only It is the at Dayton. been have may rridor te cludes Dayton, which dates to 1898. Ferries helped pro- Dayton, helped cludes 1898. Ferries to dates which ng direct contact with the river, with the contact number ng direct increasing but the as built in 1895. One of the last ferries in MNRRA the ferries last as built in One of the 1895. Simpson conducted James corridor. MNRRA ngth of the illage alley. In 1855 some 300 oxcarts passed over the road on road the over passed some 300 oxcarts In 1855 alley. bout 1850. One road, Douglas, Point from ran which at an from 1883 to 1887 at St. Paul Park. In the latter year, latter In the Park. St. Paul 1887 at 1883 to an from in in V in constructed military Other roads St. Paul. to way their to (St. Paul Road Mendota–Wabasha the 1850s included the Ellis the Hastings and and Road. Road) La Crosse of Engineers in 1831, Corps ly split the from and surveyed rivers, and streams cross To they militarybuilt the roads. Wa 1854, ferry by Anderson and at Fridley ferry Truax the and r railroad Company built a combined Railway Island Rock the Park, Mississippi the at St. Paul over bridge pedestrian and en and earliest One of the century. of nineteenth end the lastinglongest by W st the growing to produce Bridge Spiral until the active remained ferry The Hastings. w co ca 10) (Figure • Th Roads corridor, MNRRA the approved through Congress after in Territory in Minnesota the military$40,000 for roads a mouth, River’s Croix St. the Fort bank to east the along entire the traveled road The $10,000. Ripley, received le Military Road,The it, for survey called the as most people in the construction 1851, started government federal the and Itasca to road the pushed builders In 1852 the year. next V in lo away. people begin drawing would railroads and of roads st St. Paul in st St. Paul We r to operate one from operate r to te per levee to to per levee ferry from the up ferry from On September 11,On September 1855,Anoka and Elm Creek the Several well-known Minnesota pioneers received grants received pioneers Minnesota well-known Several r. run ferries in St. Paul in 1850. James M. and Isaac N. Isaac M. and in 1850. James in St. Paul run ferries operate a operate rry Company made its first trip. its first trip. rry Company made ho sent their Red River Oxcart supply trains across the trains across supply Oxcart River Red their ho sent ve ng, a char R. Irvine won and John ongest running ferries in the MNRRA corridor. runningongest ferries in the MNRRA corridor. to land- lower at the run a ferry to charters acquired Goodhue i ri Fe a charter also received Brawley F. landing. Daniel upper the to ferry big enough to carry a team of horses or oxen across the across oxen or of horses a team carry to big enough ferry & Oakes, Borup was customers Rum. One of his largest w 1852. The ferries plied the river until 1859, river the plied ferries The 1852. the when 155 FIGURE 10. Point Douglas Ferry, Hastings, four miles of south about FIGURE Point 10. and the earliest one of was This Society. Historical 1902. Minnesota l 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:24 AM Page 155 Page AM 8:24 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:24AMPage156

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area 1888 and was replaced 1898. in through PrairieduChien and southern Minnesota to the Milwaukee and St.Paul completed from Chicago aline important connections withChicago. In1868the another outlet to the Atlantic Ocean. Railroads made two 1870 connected providing the Twin Cities and Duluth, to 65 miles northwest to St.Cloud and more than 125miles extended lines outwardnext decade, from Minneapolissome mi railroadsCivil War, had laid tracks from Minneapolis50 re the St.Paul and Pacific onDecember 6, and one-half later, the railroad first from St.Paul to St. Anthony. Onlyayear loc ex examp ically. Railroad development Minnesota in provides a relationship to mostdramat- the Mississippi its inhabitants’ Railroads • it sothey could touch and smell it. pe be sights and sounds ofthe river faded. Hotels and stores theyalleled were theoften river, enough far back that the co ment erected bridge the across first the a Vermillion River, aw plans for the town began. the site crossing known, Street Bridge in Anoka. As soon asthe government made ov 1852 they builtbridges over Coon and Rice Creeks and one er leading leading opment ofthetown. “Old Cott road the military alsoinfluencedCottage the devel- Grove, Vo ached Fridley anddays six later Anoka. Bythe end ofthe ec ve ed ed pand a oaigaogteras not the river.gan locating Bridges along thecarried roads, peoe h ie;nolonger didthey haveople over to get the river; down by er er e,“grew up gel, we le ay ay ldgiais Minnesota’s thetrainsteamed first along al dignitaries, te re s southward toward Fairbault. ofthe Bythe beginning the RumRiver atthe current location ofthe Main Roads and bridges began the process oftaking people st Benson. begun 1868and in completedA line in from River. the Mississippi While the early roads par- d someofthebridges first the in MNRRA corridor. In d bridge, in 1856. in The bridge remained useuntil in d bridge, le ofthespeed from Grey Cloud Island to Stillwater.” in Railroads transformed the MNRRA corridor and h iws. nJn 8 82 crowded with 1862, the Midwest. OnJune 28, where the and coverage withwhich railroads Military RoadMilitary crossed thetrail age Grov 62 e Village 61 The go The ,” states 60 At good ve rn- Th however, railroads began to converge district. onthe milling roa norail- Shingle Creek north in Minneapolisupto Dayton, the MNRRA corridor. from the mouth of Onthe west side, e Great Northern Railroads ran parallel to each other along the the NorthernMinneapolis north Pacific to Ramsey, and the ov clearlymaps reveal the extent to which railroads had taken and other cities. Grand Forks, Great Falls, new railroad connected Minneapolisand St.Paul to , Manitoba opened the second transcontinental railroad. The the MinneapolisandTwin Cities. InJune 1893the St.Paul, t the Northern Pacific finished thetranscontinen- first 1888, li Minnesota and mostofthe nation. Two transcontinental li Minnesota connecting the Twin Cities withChicago viaa Company opened through alsorunning southern aline Tw river to th si over and theran Mississippi belowStreet the west Bridge, Chicago Great Western Railroad crossed under the Robert ya ahuge railroad Omaha. Near the mouth ofPhalen Creek, & Minneapolis St.Paul, Chicago Great and Chicago, Western; Milwaukee Chicago, &St. Paul; &Northern; Burlington Th per across from the Lower Lock and Dam. The railroad dis- lines yar and St.Paul Largerailroad (short line). Milwaukee, Chicago, and Northern Pacific; Great Northern; and SaultSte. Marie; al railroad, running through running Minnesota from Moorhead toal railroad, s ie Terira rcsly o h otpr,outside ast side. The railroad for the tracks mostpart, lay, nes crossed Minnesota before 1900.OnSeptember 8, ne through Iowa. de de rd rd ds nearlan the river er St.Paul in and Minneapolis.From ey ey e railroads crowding into St.Paul included the Chicago, in ds lay onthe west side justabove Nicollet Island and ds ran near the river. north in Minneapolis, Beginning sed below St. Anthony butconverged St.Paul. againin lfsps ot t al untilcoursing away from the pastbluffs South St.Paul, upiedocc the creek’s former valley. Th By 1900railroads linked the Twin Cities to much of onie rmS.Pu,the railroads fannedDownriver out. The from St.Paul, in iis and1870the in Minnesota Central Railway Cities, lddteS.Pu n uuh inaoi,St.Paul Minneapolis, cluded the St.Paul and Duluth; e 1895 and 1898 Mississippi Rivere 1895and 1898 Mississippi Commission e west above Milwaukee, Bend. Pine The Chicago, 63 64 156 Chapter 7 • THE PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION The ly 200 68 ar where ne where 1860s, ly as the rying degrees, many for said be same the can (Figure 11) (Figure anions. Railroads steadily filled in wetland the filled steadily anions. Railroads va 70 mp To the river. Other railroads built up and down the val- the down built up and railroads Other river. the ome the back alley of rail depots and rail-oriented and depots of rail alley back ome the rminal, in rebuilt built and was Union Depot the and 69 ng, river, the separating toward out bluff the bulged oping Holman Field on Lamprey Lake, on Lamprey oping Field Holman been had which Overall, changes most dramatic some of the landscape Between 1875 and 1920, and 1875 “Rail Between a became St. Paul Railroads took over the floodplain in St. Paul, floodplain the over took because Railroads te rd illing more of the floodplain and further shaving back shaving further and floodplain illing of the more more to do with the railroads than the river.” the than railroads with the do to more s earlier the Dakota had landed with Hennepin and his and with Hennepin landed had Dakota the s earlier rfront that once had been the vibrant heart of the city of the vibrant heart the been had once that rfront e. Pollution made the river itself offensive to the eye and eye the to offensive itself river the made e. Pollution the MNRRA corridor have occurred at St. Paul. By the at St. Paul. occurred have corridor MNRRA the vel gan building around it. Between the upper and lower and upper the it. Between gan building around rly 1900s, railroads had already altered the old riverbed, old rly 1900s, the altered already had railroads ar dustries, trackage, by undesir- and crowded inaccessible ench co ad wa wns in corridor. the y, f ve ant to St. Paul than at any time before or since. . . . the since. or before at any time than Paul St. ant to ng much of Carver’s Cave. The lower landing became a rail- became landing lower The Cave. of Carver’s ng much ng into the wetland created by the mouths of Phalen Creek of Phalen mouths the by created wetland the ng into le bluffs.the ye Fr cut They outward. Mississippi the riverbank pushed and tracks, for room more make Bluff to Daytons back destroy- i ro laid Railroad 1880,Valley Minnesota The 1915. 1884 and businesses landing and upper at the in floodplain the tracks be landi in filled and bluff the back cut railroads So the two. the to in in ea bluffs,the the into flowed that original the and streams Mississippi. During 1930s, 1920s and the city began the de City.” to built businesses facilities and the and Railroads development. riverfront dominated them accommodate “Rails,” asserts, Hesterman industrial location, “dictated often valley within river the industrial development and had same held for commercial development. “By 1920,” development. commercial for same held impor- concludes, less Hesterman was probably river “the t ri had bec in abl nose.” of the floodplain’s low, even grade. Railroads began build- began Railroads grade. low, even floodplain’s of the i as ear Brook Trout and to d rail- 65 te and promo uraged uraged co effect of railroads on the on of railroads effect amines the the examines 67 or. opment, as a demise river’s the hastened which 66 rrid vel aul Hesterman, Mississippi St. Paul,” and “The in pro- St. Paul, like most cities, en P Railroads quickly undermined the river’s importance river’s the undermined quickly Railroads Chicago, Burlington & Northern continued down the Chicago, down continued Burlington & Northern ds left the railyard in downtown St. Paul, in downtown side, railyard by the side ds left Hastings.But above miles again several ds converged st as well. From the Minnesota River into St. Paul and then and St. Paul into River Minnesota the From st as well. wnriver to Hastings, to wnriver in floodplain ran the that railroads rridor. He also He rridor. ad de ntral element in the city’s success and identity. St. Paul identity. and success in city’s the element ntral on and its impact on the economy of a city in MNRRA the economy its impact on the on and acilities built by James J. Hill and steamboat magnate steamboat Hill and J. James acilities built by ail connections rather than their tie to the river. Symbolic river. the tie to their than rather ail connections illed in the floodplain and located their tracks and stations and tracks their located and in floodplain the illed ngs and other businesses located along the railroads had lit- had railroads the along located businesses other ngs and ro co Overall, river. the to its relationship and landscape city’s cities other for used be could that offers a model Hesterman co the in vides the most comprehensive description of railroad expan- of railroad description most comprehensive the vides si for transportation. Towns began growing up around their up around growing began Towns transportation. for r on the Station of this change, Park Fridley is named Fridley immedi- Commission map was 1898 Mississippi and River Pacific Northern and Northern Great the to adjacent ately Railroad. do corridor. MNRRA the is now in what bluffs were the near and lit- character physical Overall, corridor’s the altered railroads St. Paul. milling the outside tle district downtown and and St. Paul and the Chicago, the and St. Paul and rail- Burlington & Northern roa Chicago,The Burlington & at Newport. until diverging rail- two The bluff. side east the along continued Northern roa Hastings,opposite Chicago, the Milwaukee, St. Paul and side. west on the downriver headed city and the into crossed The we ce As railroads development. rail early subsidize to bonds sold f there, followed. quickly businesses transfer and warehouse F traffic, on steamboat relied Davidson William Commodore commodities and passengers the captured but as railroads on steamboats, carried once warehouses, the build- transfer i river. with the do to tle 157 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:24 AM Page 157 Page AM 8:24 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:24AMPage158

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area h iysbgnig,and not justdowntown. for Thethe city’s city, beginnings, city government asatool to transform the riverfront since ri are responsible for the development ofthe St.Paulasserts, Hesterman asmuch aseconomic demand, subsidies, Public ly supported businessdevelopment the in floodplain. be Wa across from downtown St.Paul. The citybuiltShepard and system has barred the river from the rest ofitsfloodplain ec are one ofthe river’s largest backwaters the metropolitan in ve osystem qualities have largely disappeared. leveeA high gun by early railroads and settlers. And St.Paul constant- a. the Although the field stillfloods water, high during nrRasotit h iebd continuingthe processrner Roads out into the riverbed, fot Eooi neet,h tess had used the he stresses, rfront. Economic interests, o scape. While railroads had kicked river-related activities belo followed by the opening ofthe entire nine-foot channel examp ele ab this photograph captures theriver i as acommercial navigation route before locks anddams. Taken 1931, in 11. RailroFIGURE P ool ool to h t alrvrrn,the 9-foot channel brought ut ofthe St.Paul riverfront, ov ctric powerctric to the company. 2. Photo by St.Paul Daily News. Minnesota Historical Society. t ali 90 alsotransformed the city’s land- w St.Paul 1940, in e Lock No. and Dam 1by yielding itsclaim to hydro- Th e per le, e completion ofLock andNo. Dam 2atHastings, suaded the Ford Motor to Company locate ads andlow water theMississippi undermined River mmediately prior 71 to thef looding of looding 158 Chapter 7 • THE PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION 76 75 ut 50 square miles. The miles. square bout 50 atically. Freeway construction began inthe began construction Freeway atically. the transportation patterns, transportation the and demography am ed th Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis and the Ferry in the Bridge Minneapolis and Avenue th mile 855.5, river is near Bridge avail- was no bridge dr e Mississippi River Commission maps show the Commission mapse Mississippi show River ue Th the Mississippi the below crossed bridges Only three No bridges spanned the Mississippi River between the between Mississippi the River spanned No bridges for a distance of some 16 miles. Above Anoka, Above of some 16 miles. a distance only for more and more of the land within the MNRRA corridor. within MNRRA the land of the more and more w Newport. This bridge also served pedestrians. The pedestrians. also served bridge This w Newport. uenc ng bridge crossed from near Inver Grove Heights to just Heights to Grove Inver near from crossed ng bridge ome lost in a landscape it gave birth to. As the metropol- As the birth to. it gave inome lost a landscape iance on cars and trucks meant the road system had to had system road the meant trucks and on cars iance en ture and extent of bridges across the Mississippi the the by across of bridges extent and ture d of the nineteenth century. Bridges followed the settle- the followed Bridges century. nineteenth d of the le pand to onomy of the area. onomy of the maining two bridges jumped the river at Hastings. One was river the jumped bridges maining two ivided between railroad and wagon bridges. From north to north From bridges. wagon and railroad between ivided aul, together, riverbanks the equally stitched 20 bridges ec na en St. to Minneapolis city limits the down From pattern. ment P d south,Twentieth, those at included bridges wagon the Plymouth, Hennepin, Tenth, Washington, Franklin, Lake, bridges Smith railroad (High),The Robert. and Wabasha lines. of different a number served An 1887 railroad Hastings. to down Bridge Street Robert swi belo re bridge. famous spiral the other the and bridge a railroad Twentie Street Ferry As the 12). (Figure Anoka in Bridge Street Twentieth the mile 871.5 and river is at about Bridge Av metropolis, a covered had which surging and population growing area’s metropolitan rel ex expanded corridor in MNRRA the • As communities Bridges lines pushed as railroads and military early roads on the spanned of bridges number valley, a growing the through of traffic flow the changed Bridges Mississippithe River. and connected they communities the for commerce and infl 1950s. Once the focus of the area’s residents, area’s of the had focus the river 1950s. Once the bec grew, population itan houses, crept roads and businesses in ab peared natural. ap or peared remained land less and Less 74 Lower 72 The e downtown 73 their streetcars. urban and suburban expan- ons along th Commuter trains,Commuter streetcars operated operated lerated lerated pair operati re promoted urban and suburban expansion away suburban expansion urban and promoted ey this happen, streetcars the to electricity providing by Th any converted to electricity and pushed the line the to pushed and electricity to any converted from about 840,000 to nearly two million. By 1980 two nearly 840,000 to about from Cars acce and trucks By the early 1900s, the Twin Cities possessed “One of 1900s, early By the possessed Cities Twin the ed rbanks clearly characterize St. Paul as a river town in town as a river St. Paul characterize rbanks clearly r. istrations grew from some 2,500 in 1905 to about in some 2,500 1905 to from grew istrations ys that harken back to the steamboat days. steamboat the to back harken ys that 1914, completed Railway Electric Southern St. Paul the lp gan in 1946,Automobile cars. acquired most households mp rs, horses, II started, War buggies,World As wagons. and r company completed tracks up to the Coon Rapids Dam, Rapids Coon the up to tracks completed r company ew on away from the river. The delayed the delayed Depression Great The river. the from on away ve ve 159 ri wa impact of automobiles, boom economic a new but when be reg 1950 747,000 in 2.4 millionAfter 1940 and in 1983. to began city center the outside businesses suburbs and the urban population 1970 the 1920 and Between mature. gr si pre-1920 the city surrounded outer an 800-square-mile and trolleys began running through the MNRRA corridor in corridor MNRRA the running through began trolleys and relation- century, spatial the redefining twentieth early the the and people between home and and work ship between ri Streetcars to Cars and Trucks • Trucks and to Cars Streetcars them back. Large terminals, back. them 1, No. Terminal like Rock Red heritage. navigation Southport,and St. Paul’s restored have and Barge fleeting tracks to Hastings. The train ran from Hastings, from train ran The Hastings. to tracks through Grove, By Inver and in an hour. Pine about Bend St. Paul to 1920s,the street- replacing began trucks and however, cars ca still Cities Twin only the Anoka. The streetcars ran regularly until about 1939. Also 1939. until about regularly ran streetcars The Anoka. in supplying workers and materials for the dam’s construction. dam’s the for materials and supplying workers initially on gas engines, cars ran Although the 1914 the by co of the Twin City Rapid Transit Company. In 1913 a street- In 1913 Company. Transit City Rapid Twin of the ca Hydro Station below St. Anthony Falls, St. in 1897, below Hydro Station completed he from central cities and away from the river. Businesses and Businesses river. the from away and cities central from lines. the along locating began neighborhoods nations’the . . . ” systems streetcar model 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:24 AM Page 159 Page AM 8:24 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:25AMPage160

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area ge w Bridge or The the historic bridges are gone. County. Fortunately, not all from St.Paul to Dakota fi Wa manual. In1859 the li n Company delivered the origi- KeystoneCarnegie Bridge w Bridge opened 1888and in 1854. Anthony in The High Mi by ed the suspension bridge erect- ov bridge first the and Bridge High the original Bridge, li or are individual and discussion the next spring. Nininger and stack italong the bankto sell to steamboats bridge allowed loggers to cut wood onanisland near si one- half acre sizeand in floated itdown to their crossing men from the town cut out aslabofice nearly 1858, 10, bridges. Accordi the few bridges these in reaches. they unless had alongthey journey, lived near oneof Cities, not soquick astoday. was Abovewagon or below the Twin to Pe the ferry atRamsey provided away across the Mississippi. al High Bridgeonemil- al High in on pieces, ke rst to cross the Mississippi te, as replaced 1987. in The ople Minneapolisand in St.Paul didnot have to travel far er er rs h ie,atog on nfo,by horse ora in althoughgoing onfoot, cross the river, el basha Bridge became the National Register listed the Spiral Hastings igible. Manyare gone,igible. where they lodged it the Mississippi River,the Mississippi Many bridges merit Residents ofNiningerdevised oneofthe mostcreative iginal Robertiginal Street nneapolis and St. as completed in with a388-page 78 ng toJournal the Emigrant Aid against opposing banks. opposing Theagainst of February 77 hc uiessdvlpdi h NR ordr rather corridor, developed MNRRA the in businesses which One goal ofthischapter was to provide the context in Summary the longest concrete world. the archin bridge bridge–the at4,119feet, –opened. Itwas, Robert Street Bridge. That sa arched,1885 and replaced 1926by in the now historic, me year another concrete arch 79 160 Chapter 7 • THE PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, INDUSTRY AND TRANSPORTATION sippi River Bridge at Anoka, at Bridge sippi River Minnesota, 1905. e looking for transportation routes that take them to them take that routes transportation for e looking e and more people recognize the many amenities the amenities many the recognize people more e and ar ntage of the metropolitan area’s inhabitants thought inhabitants area’s metropolitan of the ntage or ce ey e interested in the river’s history, develop- in the its role river’s in the e interested ,m NRRA corridor’s southern and northern ends, and northern southern corridor’s NRRA existed. where few bridges ttervrdrn hi al ciiis Tdy howev- Today, activities. during daily their river bout the FIGURE Missis 12. the at remained important longer Ferries Society. Historical Minnesota M per a er Mississippi offers and are coming back to the river. They river. the to Mississippi back coming are offers and ar area, metropolitan of the ment and businesses the and evolution. area’s the underlay that systems transportation Th the river, rather than away from it. from river,the away than rather Each new transportation method redefined that rela- that redefined method transportation new Each r. ationship of businesses and the area’s residents to the to residents area’s the and ationship of businesses ds. Urban population growth,ds. Urban population evolving these to tied ve tionship. Navigation interests, Navigation builders tionship. road and railroads their accommodate to its valley or river the all transformed en systems,transportation smaller and a smaller that meant ri than to produce a list of all the different businesses. a list different of all the produce to than the affected transportation how show to was goal Another rel 161 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 161 Page AM 8:25 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 162

FIGURE 1. Urban river. Minneapolis skyline over the Mississippi River gorge. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 163

Chapter 8 Settlement and Urban Residential Development Along the River, 1841-1950

Patrick Nunnally • University of Minnesota

time and then grew up as suburbs in the expanding metro- politan area (such as Mendota, Fridley, Champlin, and Cottage Grove); and urban areas that formed in the subur- ban expansion following World War II (for example, Coon Rapids and St. Paul Park). his chapter focuses on the process of urban The present municipalities in the MNRRA corridor are growth in the MNRRA corridor, examining listed in Table 8.1, according to the pattern in which they what towns began where, when and why. It formed. The first column includes cities that established a dTiscusses residential settlement patterns but does not detail central economic and population presence in the nineteenth the commercial and industrial patterns that formed the eco- century (all but one, South St. Paul, pre-date the railroad 1 nomic basis for population expansion and contraction. era) and have maintained a distinct downtown commercial This is not a history of every community, every riverfront district and sense of “municipal place” throughout the neighborhood, along the MNRRA corridor, and it is not an twentieth century. The second column includes population academic urban history. Urban history in the MNRRA corri- centers that reached a peak of regional importance in the dor is intimately tied to the history presented in foregoing nineteenth century, went through a period of stagnation but chapters. Geology and geography, the Native American pres- retain a distinctive “municipal place” in the greater metro- ence,exploration and early military objectives, navigation politan region today. Despite their spatial and political improvements and economic activities all played a role in independence today, these communities exist largely as sub- determining where towns located, how fast they grew, how urbs within the larger region. The third column is the most they related to the river and how that relation changed over heterogeneous collection. Generally, it includes places that time. The information presented here draws on those sto- achieved a substantial population and regional presence ries. (Figure 1.) only after World War II and the subsequent suburban trans- Town formation in the MNRRA corridor began soon formation of much of the MNRRA corridor. Most were after settlers came to the upper Mississippi valley in the farming areas, organized as townships. However, this early 1800s. Between 1820 and 1945 dozens of settle- grouping also includes the township of Nininger, which had ments grew up in the MNRRA corridor. Today, these com- a brief but memorable life as a distinct community.2 munities can be understood as having evolved in one of three patterns: towns and cities that formed in the nine- teenth century and have endured as distinct urban areas (for example,Minneapolis, St. Paul, Hastings, Anoka, and South St. Paul); nineteenth century settlements that stagnated for a

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Enduring Urban Centers Urban Enduring P c iefly beenbriefly population U c entury (some may (some entury have opulation Centers that nes then declined) enters, e Grey Cloud Township merged the in 20th metropolitan area RBAN Inver Grove Heights Denmark Township Nininger Township Ravenna Township Centers that are Not in MNRRAnow.*Not in Mendota Heights Brooklyn Center 19th Century 19th Century now suburbs Brooklyn Park South St.Paul Cottage Grove St. Paul Park P Coon Rapids Minneapolis within thewithin Mapl Rosemount Ta Ch Richfi opulation Hastings Mend Newport Lilydale Crystal* Ramsey St. Paul Dayton Frid Anoka ble 8.1 amplin C ewood ley eld* ota ENTERS de ro the MNRRA corridor fits expa ye bo as early asthe 1920s, which had begun bile use, pe had Wo center be asthey ulation leaps, witnessed spectacular pop- St. Paul and Minneapolis nineteenth both century, the last four decades ofthe byp whe hubs and others withered blossomed into railroad ex other na there were probably more P the railroad connected St. l whe ri places throughout the cor- to of river transportation, settlement. the era During co automobile—and the con- railroadmodes—river, and de se,ad16,when and 1862, ished, aul and Minneapolis, do wns developed atmany ughly into threeughly periods, ar ca ed, pand mit vel fin omed the in post-war med towns than atany The The l a I railroads rld WarII, assed them. During r. r. n the railroads n St.Paul was estab- s. This gave to rise me regional railroad nded metr opment oftowns in ed ed ant patterns ofurban time. As railroads s. Bythe end of kd and automo- aked, Between 1841, formation and by by some towns transportation opolitan de Groveland/Highl such asthe Macalester- thewithin studycorridor, co picturesque streets suburbsfullofcurving and witharail werenotably thedesigned Highwood as section ofSt.Paul, de gi neighborhoods ofsquatters and onthe others mar- living P such asthe Upper Levee and the these, West Side FlatsSt. in ple lived smallcommunities in along the river. Some of peo-until they merged into amodern metropolitan region, their riverfronts. Even asthe cities grew sizeand in area, P wa and St.Paul. A parallel development isthe creation ofpost- melding them to the suburbannetwork around Minneapolis are the river could do for it.” Everything. enterprise depended for onwhat itsvitality rec to hav Isaac Atwater 1893about in St. Writing Anthony, could to whether however,dependedEach community, onthe river, the midtoMinneapolis during late nineteenth century. although smallsteamboats plied the river above the river was not widely used for commercial navigation, tion. Above St.Paul and especially above St. Anthony Falls, to co follows account withabrief ofsettlement patterns the in i T River(1820-1862) TransportationEra ng the period that the river dominated transportation and aul andtheB aul and Minneapolishave long had communities along his section describes the principalpopulation centers dur- so oit,i h ors,ms lo rn,and least mostflood prone, the in poorest, ns ofsociety, wns to the river varied depending ontheir loca- markedly, rridor outside the population centers. The relation of nnection to the city. there are residential Finally, areas vel si h i-80 hnh ttd “it isinteresting nowthe mid-1860swhen to he stated, transport people, r suburbsonland that had previously been agricultural. all how the river then dominated the town. Itwas every- as that engulfed previous smalltowns such as Anoka, e been speaking for anycommunity the in region prior ra iisaemd po ueoscmuiis and St. Cities are made upofnumerous communities, opment has seemingly had to little do withthe river. ble areas ofthe riverfront. Other neighborhoods, sae fMnepls were Flatsareaohemian ofMinneapolis, and Park neighborhoo goods, or raw mater raw or goods, 3 ds in St.P ds in as such aslumber. ials, u,where aul, 164 Chapter 8 • SETTLEMENT AND URBAN RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT spread settlement throughout the corridor. The corridor. the throughout settlement spread Settlement concentrated around Fort Snelling St. and Fort around concentrated Settlement ties at Mendota and Traverse des Sioux in1851 opened Sioux des Traverse and at Mendota ties wth received a burst of energy with the founding of St. of founding with the a burst of energy wth received uld be understood as cities. The Treaty of 1837 opened of 1837 Treaty The cities. as understood be uld ea oning steamboat trade brought thousands of settlers thousands brought trade oning steamboat d towns that lasted for only a short while (Nininger and while only a short for lasted that d towns aul in 1841. 1850s, early aul until the of factors a combination when P P to wideled Tr Mississippi settlement, the bank of to west the bur- the and ge a result,As up at Minnesota. grew to annually towns new (1852),Anoka Minneapolis (1854), Hastings (1852) and as di Pine Bend, 2.) (Figure example). for co Mississippi, of the bank east the com- years within and five Urban Grove. Cottage and at St. Paul up grew munities gro mic Map of Anoka, of mic Map Project, Memory American 1869. Congress. of Library e river transportation era in urban development era transportation e river Th gan with the start of construction on Fort Snelling in on Fort of construction start gan with the 165 be Fur American founding of the subsequent the 1820 and erected Traders in 1820s. the Company post at Mendota in corridor, the locations posts at other but it was seasonal root. took settlement permanent any mid-1830s before the 1835,Prior to were river the along clustered settlements post at fur (the Snelling) commercial or militaryeither (Fort military and Commercial establishments Mendota). space, confined a relatively into people but neither brought FIGURE 2. Panora 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 165 Page AM 8:25 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:25AMPage166

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area high bluffs facing theriver. facing bluffs high either was marshyand unsuitable for settlement or featured ame established period, li even as Anoka and the cluster around Banfil’s Tavern that would Minneapolis and St. Anthony from upriver settlements such with stretches ofsparsely settled land separating ed St. Paul riverfront was either unsettled or claimed by isolat- butthe rest ofthe presentthe Upper and Lower Landings, P focusedtightly atparticularalong points the river. St. settlement concentrations in that could be called urbanwas 1830s onsites across from the fort andnorth asfar the the 1837treaty. Somepioneers settled asearly asthe after the Dakota ceded their lands east in ofthe Mississippi M and the drive and initiative ofthe town’s proprietors. le lumbermen and traders. The settlements developed more or the new farmerscominginto the territory aswell asto the Concentrations ofsettlement thisperiod during catered to the fallsatSt. Anthony. ofcourse, asdid, spots, creeks joined provided the Mississippi natural settlement the 1860s. died out by the end of asaconsequence, the railroad and, Nininger andBendwere Pine Dakota in County, bypassed by co and steady growth throughout the portions ofthe corridor la reg the population boomed and railroads spread across the butfollowing the war,new settlement the in early 1860s, aul’s town center ranged for several blocks oneither side of ke ke ss according to the natural features ofaparticular location r growth Minneapolisand short within St.Paul in bursts NRRA corridor. Legitimate settlement could only begin nnected such asthe towns by railroad. of Other places, farmers. The pattern same essentially held true upriver, ion. The balance ofthe nineteenth century saw spectacu- nity. atns remained relatively smallcenters this during Hastings, tually become Fridley. aswell asplaces These towns, uho h hrln,according to early accounts, Much ofthe shoreline, Th St. Paul can justlybe called theurbancenter first the in Th e Civil War and the Dakota of1862stalled Conflict ro gottervrtasotto eid residential ughout the river transportation period, where the Places where shore provided somenatural small rivers or St. Anthony and Minneapolis. and St. Anthony Stillwater and waterpower and the milling concentration at w te l Mississippi. When the Territory ofMinnesota was estab- as well asthe head ofsteamboat navigation onthe region na l estab- and growing community theofMendota, in vicinity from the Diocese ofDubuque to minister to the furtraders Fa be and the community had movedsettlements, to the bluff w w be or Great or for Marsh) its for itstopography (“Grand Marais” P settled near amarshyarea justdownstream from present St. nel 1837.In1837and in 1838manyofthese refugees had charge whenment justdownstream officers in from Fort Snelling, present Lake Street Bridge area. St.Paul started asasettle- th tion. The so-called Lower grew Landing upjustupstream of are the separating bluff Upper and Lower Landings. This ity. The third area concentrated along the road that ran over ri other Jo below the current Park Irvine neighborhood.upstream, reservat i Mississippi. This area was the best natural steamboat land- ng in the settlementng in that was located outside the military se n14,St.Paul was oneofthree population cen- ished 1849, in ished achapel ontheand bluff named itforPaul. Saint The aul. This collection ofdomiciles was alternatively named ve as chosen asthe capital over the center lumbering at hiskey sellers and refugees from Fort and other Snelling hiskey seller. rs. Bythe time Minnesota it achieved statehood 1858, in nIvn ea utn ibrfrsemot,ashe and beganhn Irvine cutting timber for steamboats, e mar e tween the upper and lower landing. That year, same apopular Parrant, Pierre “Pig’s Eye” st known inhabitant, ther Lucien Galtier, a Catholic priest aCatholic who had beenther sent Lucien Galtier, esuk and the community grew quickly and assumed me stuck, s each withitsown character and economic founda-as, rfront order in to create alevee andthisvicin- landingin By 1841more intentional settlers had joined the sS.Pu rw settlementAs St.Paul centered grew, three in distinct settlers engaged somesmall-scale in ofthe shaping al importance asthe closest to landing Fort Snelling, of that installation cleared person- itofnon-military sh ion. The Upper developed Landing less than amile where enteredwhere Creek the Trout Phalen and Creek 4 166 Chapter 8 • SETTLEMENT AND URBAN RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT 7 y County in 1849 and a St. Anthony, 1851, from downstream. “Cheeverstown,” or “Cheever’s Landing,” “Cheever’s or “Cheeverstown,” of St. Anthony started on the east side of side on the east Anthony started of St. 8 it and made the already scarce hard currency hard scarce already the made it and ed e village (platted as partof Ramse (platted Th St. Anthony was incorporated as a city on March 3, as a city on March incorporated Anthony was St. mained in its infancy. No railroads or associated facili- associated or No railroads in its infancy. mained rpower to attract industry, as at St. Anthony Falls. industry, attract to Anthony Falls. as at St. rpower re te 1855, Minneapolis. became that settlement the to satisfy local needs. The economic contraction of 1857 contraction economic The needs. satisfy local minated cr minated rt of that county until March 4, until March county rt of that 1856),Anthony St. and rritory in 1849 and the opening of a suspension bridge, of a suspension opening in the 1849 and rritory dustrial potential, as soon as the land was opened to set- dustrial to potential, opened was land as the as soon rritory on May 11, on May rritory of a number saw location The 1858. as named for William Cheever, a New York native gifted native York Cheever, William for a New as named illage FIGURE 3. Village of of FIGURE 3. Village Society. Historical Minnesota more difficult to find. Industry in St. Paul during this peri- in difficult find. Industry St. Paul to more od during this period, the developed lacked ties St. Paul and wa pa as popularly known City, in more 1848-1849 and platted “Cheevertown.” w Stillwater, six sawmills grew up along the St. Paul riverfront St. Paul the along up Stillwater, grew six sawmills to growth, of tremendous a period as it practically stopped eli their for Steele Franklin river, by the claimed sites the near in on constructed were sawmill and A store in 1838. tlement in 1847-1848, river bank of the east the Anthony St. and “boomed” Minnesota of the establishment with the Te in 3.) (Figure 1855, surrounding the for organized was a township and te names, and plats Anthony Falls however, including St. V As a 6 5 on November 1, on November village me known as Third Street when the town the when Street Third as me known beca e were, of course, houses, isolated farms, trading and bottom lands were filled, were lands bottom and hills leveled, lakes her s, city, growing the for noted, has room make “To es St. Paul was organized as a organized was St. Paul T ned, diverted, streams away.” bluffs and shaved in rned to bring to camping supplies,rned a house or as a room ek that arrived from downriver. Would-be settlers were settlers Would-be downriver. from arrived ek that as not to be had for any price in the city. Although St. in city. any price the for had be to as not as platted in 1847,as platted of center first the commercial became aul never became a sawmilling center like Minneapolis or a sawmilling center became aul never ng region, St. Paul’s growth was explosive. Contemporary ng region, explosive. was growth St. Paul’s a steamboats several the from unloaded ng with people frontier town at the head of navigation in expand- a rapidly of navigation head at the town frontier i swarm- streets 1850s document middle the from accounts i we wa w P 1849, 4, as a city on March incorporated and 1854. w Street, bluff, the Bench down St. Paul. snaked which a and Landing. Lower the to Street Third connected of stairs set road, which posts, valley. the throughout shops located whiskey and bluff up on the downstream grew development Residential as well, lowlands Creek with Lyman Phalen/Trout of the bluff still bears on the that plats establishing early Dayton visible impact on the had settlement All this his name. landscape, Larry Millett, historian as architectural among other rav drai 167 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 167 Page AM 8:25 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:25AMPage168

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area publicized it. who editor ofthe St. GeorgeAnthony Express, D. Bowman, took itto the reputed originator ofthe name, Charles Hoag, “city,” apparently appeared first November in print in 1852. for and the Greek wordthe Dakota for “water” “polis” from combining“minne” The1872. name “Minneapolis,” and snow.” trackless was ofice adreary, barrier with the outside world, its[St. Anthony’s] onlymedium ofconnection Mississippi, as Atwater “the later remembered when, it, aspect winter, in i to that atleast someofthese travelers onthe “fashionable re the South came to the Windsor HouseSt. in Anthony for a from the earliest decades particularly from ofdevelopment, very may little remain Unless buried by later activities, University ofMinneso According to Atwater with frontier entrepreneurship and awrysense ofhumor. particularly undesi particularly in asriverfront la In later periods, appearedHousing onNicollet Island asearly as the 1840s. m 1927)wasuntil the tions to the city(itdidnot achieve itspresent spatial extent ra 1858. The city wasment inaugurated incorpo- onJuly 20, withthe town govern-Platting for the town began 1854, in the house first west thisarea in ofthe 1849. Mississippi in who operate Cheever’s Landing. although somedidmake itupthe gorge onsteamboats to and climb.’” the entrance ‘Pay ofwhich your he placed dime the legend, over and builtanobservatory bank, onthe high farmhouse, ng by stage from St.Paul. The place took onadifferent spite from the sultrysouthern summers. Itisprobable te ixture of residential, industrial and industrial commercial land use. ixture ofresidential, r disembarked atCheever’s rather Landing than arriv- ur” dustrial usesdustrial except crowded in out allresidential use, nMrh6 1866. Among the mostnotable addi- d onMarch 6, Th Minneapolis was founded by Colonel John H.Stevens, e riverfront St. in Anthony and was Minneapolis a 11 9 d aferryabove St. Anthony Falls. Stevens built 12 Some settlers reached the fallsby stagecoach, 10 rable areasrable such asBohem village village ,Ch Th ta ro ,“ eever acq eever ughout the 1850stourists from where he of St. Anthony onFebruary 28, nd became more valuable, more became nd uired labelownd the subsequently erected a ian Flats. Mississippi. both sides ofthe RumRiver atitsjunction withthe and refers to the settlement’s location“on both sides” on na near the junctionand oftheRumRivers. Mississippi The other es 1854 population ofabout 100. from 650the year before and atwentyfold increase over the up 1855-1856 census counted 1,918people Hastings, in ce along with100temporary structures. Therestructed, was 73stone and framehouses were con-navigation and July 1, thisperiod in point ofrapid growth. Between the opening of Ve m leadi from the one ofthe middle nameofHenry Sibley, Hastings u and established awharf onthe levee prod- forfarm shipping i fi area license and set upapost. The Bailly obtained afurtraders’ the Vermillion River and itsjuncture withthe Mississippi, fur traders. Knowing the potential ofthissite atthe fallsof there could be nolegal occupancy except1852), by licensed ified by the U.S. Senate (which would not take place until to though there had been notreaty Indiantitle relinquishing roa the residential that linedthe districts river untilthe rail- ascended the river the in fallof1819. Oliver had stopped here when ice forced himashore ashe neously shortenedbecause Lt. toWilliam G. “Olive Grove”), in th gya nrpeer tre oe,bakmt hp ferry,ng year blacksmith entrepreneurs shop, started ahotel, t. fe t onesde os the towncts. receivedAfter itsfounders drew lots, itsname rst year and the follow- ofpermanent settlement was 1853, illing of flour and lumber began, using the power using from the offlour and lumberilling began, ta til h ouaint ilteebidns the winter rtainly the population to these fill buildings; mlinRvr Acrigt el,1856marked River. the high rmillion According to Neill, e“nk”apparently derives from aDakota termme for“anoka” land land ds and expanding pushed mills them out. blished atradi had beenhad kno ng citizens ofterritorial Minnesota. In1855-1856, e Rumnecessitated aportage onearly routes. trading In 1851settlers established permanent and housing On even In 1850Henry Baillyestablished Hastings, mrvmnsa nk,aformer furtradingpost improvements at Anoka, we ce ce st of the Mississippi. Until the Until treatyst ofthe Mississippi. could be rat- se 16 lement started, the village grew rapidly. grew village the The started, ttlement Brothers named Peter and Francis Patoille wn as “Oliver’s Grove (sometimes erro- ng post at the point ng postatthepoint 15 (Figure 4.) 14 where a 13 15-foot drop 168 Chapter 8 • SETTLEMENT AND URBAN RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT 18 As distinctive as Mendota’s As distinctive 19 e town of Mendota is thought of by some as “the some as is thought of by of Mendota e town Th tists, as began settlement scientists,The adventurers. and rgely agricultural throughout this period. throughout agricultural rgely ng an alternative transportation mode between the between mode transportation ng an alternative la here, house stone of Minnesota.”birthplace Sibley’s Henry built in 1835, politicians, for a gathering place became ar Fur Company’s American the by venture a commercial Campbell,Duncan trading post for central the became and Bailly,Alexis Sr., region. the post until of the charge had 1834, arrived. Sibley when history to about 1850 is, about to history well is less story its subsequent town, through came railroad In 1866 the known. establish- i and, St. Paul and pur- Valley all practical for River Minnesota poses, center. trade as a regional role eliminating Mendota’s 17 Hastings, Society. Historical 1850. Minnesota FIGURE 4. y has one of the more unusual political histories political unusual more one of the y has idle Fr d, built a bridge government in mid-1850s the and the gan farming nearby. The area was originally designated was area The gan farming nearby. ashburn, 1870. around complex the bought who r and the first postmaster in state, this part of the first the postmaster r and estab- wnship, Manomin, name the retaining the from derived we ished a tavern near the mouth of Rice Creek around 1848. around Creek of Rice mouth the near a tavern ished l and in site the later, interested A year became M. Rice Henry be in 1857. In legislature territorial the Manomin by County as a County Anoka to added be to petitioned 1870 residents to rice.”“wild for term Ojibwa name its present It received It remained only in 1879, Fridley. Abram McCormick for of any town in the corridor. John Banfil, John in corridor. audi- the first the state of any town to In 1851 Henry M. Rice and his brother Orrin made perma- Orrin made his brother and M. Rice In 1851 Henry and improvements,nent a store 1853 included by which fol- soon sawmill A dam and side. east river’s on the houses lo across the Rum. A flour mill was built at Anoka in 1854, Anoka built at mill A flour was Rum. the across 1860s the throughout mill development growing and D. W. of Minneapolis miller attention the attracted W 169 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 169 Page AM 8:25 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:25AMPage170

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area ment and planned cities. andit for atime, ha other the railroad bypassed the town and took regional growth to de loehruiu,story.”altogether unique, butnot of Nininger’s founding and growth isaninteresting, “The period asonewriter putit, or, Minnesota’s early years, cities in only the mostspectacular ofthe “boom and bust” ad Hazen Mooe band, s island named fora Mahkpia-hoto-win (Grey Cloud Woman), justsouth ofCottage Grove. Grey Cloud isan Mississippi, for Denmark Township settled 1839 in was Point Douglas, la up withregional transportation patterns—but the particu- tially the same—failure to and attractthuskeep arail line failed early cities. The causes oftheir demise are substan- in resembles that ofNininger and St.CroixMississippi Rivers, loc named and . The citywas platted 1856and in consid nineteenth century towns Minnesota. in Niningerattracted isoneoftheday Nininger mostcelebratedTownship, mid- es cian and anunusually large assortment oflawyers and real door a sashand aplow factory, blacksmiths and wagon shops, three tomunity claimed four seven to merchants, eight re the cityto thethat point ithad nearly 1,000 “talked up” ora and author, Alexander Ramsey and friend ofthe politician, ignificant Dakota woman from the furtrade era. Her hus- rs are different important in ways. The settlement center si ta lndt ut29 aloss attributed to part in the factthat toclined just239, rd c rd some important respects, in that in both are the locations of some important respects, ated in Washington County atthe juncture ofthe to de te te Grey Cloud Township liesonthe east side ofthe Th Th atr,sxslos he oes rgtr,aphysi- adrugstore, three hotels, saloons, six factory, r Ignatius Donnelly. Niningerand hisassociates nts when incorporated 1858. in The booming com- cities (such and asHastings) partlyto the scarcity of urrency onthe frontier. These causes made Nininger de e attentionerabl from investors away asfar asChicago o onNnne,brother-in-lawfor to John Governor Nininger, e historic settlement pattern Denmark in Township, the site ofwhich was present- in e cityofNininger, lr. y18,however,itspopulation had alers. By1880, has been thesi rs ,o perated atradi 20 21 te te of sporadic na of sporadic ng postonth ti ve ve e island settle- c butthe town didnot develop the diversebushels ofgrain, Poi and ahotel. As lateacross River, the as1881, Mississippi be Point Douglas Like itsdownstream neighbor Hastings, d reg Fortoutside Snelling. The l formally platted until10years later. The postofficeestab- butnotand named Senator for Illinois Stephen A. Douglas, the city’s development and transportation network. Cattle loc seen asamicrocosm ofthisperiod’s developments. Although the story ofSouth St.Paulstockyard may be town. Infact, to theslowly rail transportation died asapopulation off center, afford trainsaneasier ascent upthe slope north ofthe river. Phalen Creeks to raise the rail bed out ofthe floodplain and railroads filled the valleyprairies. Likewise, of Trout and a transfer for point asthe Lower entered Landing house area, period itsprime as from awealthy residential neighborhood to the city’s ware- transformed spaces. for St.Paul’s example, Lowertown, overstate ment. The impactofthe railroad’s comingcan hardly be the region’s economy and defined itsgeographic develop- new transportation mode quickly expanded and took over the Minnesota connected St.Paul and1862, Minneapolisin served the Twin Cities area. After therailroad first in line nanc Th Railroad Era(1862-1940s) if aportionthe lies within boundary. ar Poi ished atthat July site in 1840was the oldest Minnesota in ommercial basethat sustained Hastings. epot wher olo che ca Chicago spurred the 1886creation ofSouth St.Paul asa e railroad era comes withthe emergence and then domi- tdo h issip,the river was asecondary factorated in onthe Mississippi, ional center “at that timeand for anumber ofyears the nt Douglas warehouses stillheld excess in of100,000 nt Douglas site liesoutside MNRRA’s but boundary, etelcto fbt amlsadgitil,aferry me the location ofboth sawmills and , e ofthe railroad asthe transportation system that sNnne,bpse yterira,withered bypassed and by the railroad, As Nininger, gic d. Itchanged both form and function ofparticular e all supplies weree allsupplies purchase al and historic research is necessary to determine goods onto rail cars headed for the village village wa s animportant early d fortheinterior.” 23 Much ofthe 170 22 Chapter 8 • SETTLEMENT AND URBAN RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT 27 good year. It was moved out moved It was 26 . The flats . The communi- ian,” in fact, of many people mian Flats, 1887. Minnesota “bohem is was “Bohemian Flats,” is was on the located (Figure 6,(Figure page) following . According to Millett, to According 5). (Figure gatherer a skilled e of Minneapolis in 1850s. e of Minneapolis the e most romanticized community along the river- the along community e most romanticized d along the river in Minneapolis, north river the d along as workers Th Although termed Although termed r bottom flats below the University of Minnesota West of Minnesota University the flats below r bottom the 1880s,the uses industrial land other and as railroads st end of the Bridge grew up with the up with grew Bridge Avenue Hennepin of the st end northeast Minneapolis and that residential districts residential that Minneapolis and northeast tionalities lived in the small collection of wooden houses of wooden in small collection the lived tionalities uld pull in as much as 300 cords of wood in a of wood as 300 cords pull in as much uld me to dominate the riverfront at the falls. Joseph falls. at the riverfront the dominate me to ies, logs and gathering lumber by liberallysupplemented ve we emergenc infront Minneapol ri Bank city cleared until the existed in 1880s and the ty emerged Many in 1930s. this in early the of residences land the brew- at nearby earned on wages subsisted neighborhood er of sawmills dozens the falls from the over washed had that upstream co ca riverfront the along lived Poles that written has Stipanovich in emerge in sawmills. the of employment places their to close moved by na FIGURE 5. Gathering wood at Bohe at wood FIGURE 5. Gathering Society. Historical 25 e railroad era saw era e railroad Th 24 ith the establishment of railroads, establishment ith the along uses land ithin city of Minneapolis, the residen- river-oriented nt times. The “Gateway Residential Complex” Residential “Gateway the at The nt times. opments for all but the very poorest inhabitants. And, inhabitants. poorest very but the all for opments rt, central- growing of the a measure transition was the W At the beginning of the railroad era, beginning railroad At the of the dis- population the W In addition to altering land use patterns in existing use patterns land altering to In addition for housing.for In part, of aesthetics: a matter it was river- d by periods of relative stability. Between 1865 and Between stability. of relative periods d by pproximately 4,700 people,pproximately population St. Paul’s while ere s and freight from Minneapolis and St. Paul to destina- to St. Paul Minneapolis and from freight s and pa le vel me in and meat went out by rail. Meat processors did, processors Meat rail. by out went me in meat and onomic development. The result was the elimination the of was result The onomic development. ff we as a matter of economics: as a matter valu- too became land riverfront aul’s population tripled to more than 41,000. By 1900, than more to tripled population aul’s ommercial uses replaced residential land uses. In part, uses. land residential replaced uses this ommercial w ab dirty and industrial dangerous to close too was land front de urban riverfronts changed dramatically, changed as industrial and urban riverfronts c ca animal wastes. away carry to river the employ however, of in cities the centered was tribution corridor within the home Minneapolis in 1865 was St. Paul. Minneapolis and to a 13,000. at approximately stood these two cities grow explosively, in a series of “booms” of explosively, in a series grow cities two these fol- lo tial development concentrated in three areas and emerged at emerged and areas in three concentrated tial development di numerous small hamlets along the river and the concentra- the and river the along small hamlets numerous places. in fewer resources economic and tion of population in in railroad. on the patterns transportation ization of regional tim- than (other century, navigation turn of the By the river carrying passen- all but ceased,ber) had were railroads and ger region. the tions all over throughout urban areas, networks of rail development the off Hamlets population. the centralize to served Minnesota more to withered, alignment rail the moved or disappeared lines. Moreover, develop- new the on the locations favorable in functions some cities ancillary other and of shops ment and of employment level a certain guaranteed towns and ec 1880, 47,000, 4,700 to from Minneapolis grew St. while P 163,000, again to quadrupled had St. Paul while 202,000. to faster even grown Minneapolis had 171 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 171 Page AM 8:25 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 172

172 Chapter 8 • SETTLEMENT AND URBAN RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT 31 n it began 28 ian Flats and inian Flats and e investors felt the felt e investors 29 ohemian Flats probably 1930s, whe at Bohem ding (wher 1880. Minnesota Historical Society. Historical 1880. Minnesota k apartment buil k apartment ilroad period saw a mixed pattern of residential pattern a mixed saw period ilroad Rising land prices pushed out even prosperous even out pushed Rising prices land ly replaced the large houses along the bluffs the on the along houses large the ly replaced houses, fences, board cows, some stores, saloons, 30 ith 1,200 people by 1900, by ith 1,200 people B immigrant populations, small featured typically they nonresidential buildings. St. Anthony Water The nonresidential Latin American residents on St. Paul’s West Side. All Side. West on St. Paul’s residents American Latin r Company owned the land r Company owned opment away from the downtown center in center downtown the from away opment The ra W use conversion was total. Nicollet Island became the became Island Nicollet total. was use conversion of fashionable homes beginning in 1870s, homes the of fashionable but grad- r flats settlements grew most rapidly during most rapidly region- the grew r flats settlements r’s west side, west r’s falls, the just below 1880s. the by r, angement. Home to the poorest and most recent of the most recent and poorest the Home to angement. we vel rridor, Upper the on including Italian neighborhood the ea’s newal schemes after World War II. Minneapolis cleared War World after schemes newal rge, urban with various disappeared settlements these te ooden te ve ve ds would not harm them) and quite often a church. The a church. often quite and harm them) not oods would ally the island became separated into distinct into industrial, separated became island ally the wners with large houses. Immediately around the falls, the around Immediately houses. with large wners the ommercial, Industrial development zones. residential and anked as the largest river flats settlement in the MNRRA in the flats settlement river largest as the anked FIGURE 6. Bohemian Flats, FIGURE 6. Bohemian de most part, the Minneapolis. For riverfront the however, the by industrialized was Anthony Falls St. from upstream 1890s. along dirt streets running parallel to the river. Regular river. the to running parallel dirt streets along a mini- buildings to in larger investment kept spring floods mum, church, a still boasted flats the although and a store other Po r co of, community the and in St. Paul Levee first, and, Jewish la si o land the 1880s rented house lots for $12 per year. $12 per for lots house 1880s rented the spatial and history a common shared communities these arr ar w perhaps a bric u c complete ri fl ri 1880s. By and of the boom economic and al population la re most of Bohemian Flats during the plans for a municipal barge docking facility Not site. on the barge docking a municipal for plans until 1963, flats, the vacate resident last however, did the terminal. a coal become it to allowing 173 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 173 Page AM 8:25 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:25AMPage174

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Daytons neighborhood. Bluff from thesouth bluffs ofdowntown St.Paul and from the ame Wa (Figure 7). te asearlier scat- solidified and expanded thisperiod, during e St.Paulwithin the late during nineteenth and early twenti- precise historical development. si and Cedar-RiversideLongfellow, neighborhoods onthe west the present comprising Seward,neighborhood. This area, helped createthe bottom anattractive ofa100-foot gorge, co W Minnehaha Park to the south. the present University ofMinnesota West Bankcampus)and tracts ofland along the river between Riverside Park (near H.W.S. the MinneapolisPark Board began buying Cleveland, at the suggestion ofthe renowned landscape architect ment assumed amiddle class look. the in 1880s, Beginning de afford to live e te la was organized 1858butremained in and Highland Park, re mately to itscurrent spatial extent. Reserve cur- Township, w Reserve ParkTownship Merriam immediately to the south, Pa in in with curvingstreets indicating either asteep or bluff an 1892 shows platted the in Highwood subdivisions area, th centuries. The Upper Levee and West Side Flats both de de as annexed by the city in 1887, bringing St.Paul approxi- bringing as annexed by the1887, cityin rgely farmland untilthe 1950s. re r settlements onland unattractive to anyone who could ntly the St.Paul neighborhoods ofMacalester-Groveland te upled withthe topographical pattern that putthe river at illiams summarized St.Paul’silliams evolving relation to the vel rk neighborhood became established. Like Highwood and t al ertebre ihMnepls the Merriam near the border withMinneapolis, St. Paul, r II, its origins asasettlement itsorigins began asarailroad-era r II, d settlement saw the alarge in 1880s population influx nt for apicturesque suburbanenclave. full Although nity suburbthat took advantage ofthe views offered ftervr remains poorly understoodof the river, terms in ofits A number river ofdistinct communities alsodeveloped ute ontemfo h al,residentialFurther develop- downstream from the falls, rtn n17,St.Paul historian J. Fletcher 1875, in Writing opment ofHighwood would onlycome after World 33 Both ofthese communities originated assquat- lsewher . ncnrs,theDo e. Incontrast, 34 32 Fa The The rther north along the river 35 presence ofparkland, nnelley atlasof Historical Society. 7. FIGURE ti Dakotas. opening wheat fields ofthe and the tion to the Minnesota River valley and from there to the ch be ri Clarence W. Wigington. designed by St.Paul’s cityarchitectof the existing pavilion, Depression-era relief crews public included the construction Pa the island and were itsfacilities transferred to the St.Paul and abathhouse. In1929 two pavilions, island had paths, the 40-acre 1900, Harriet Island’s opening onJune 9, veye Island (government lot 6)from 20landowners and con- on to theriver aswell. Dr. J ve ne l ht”St.Paul early established arail connec- anged allthat.” k eatet and subsequent work onthe island by rks Department, of anyimportance or interest. Ourrailroads have :“flt er,the opening ofnavigation has ceased “oflate to years, r: d itto recreation. the1900 for cityin public At 36 iteIayo h pe ee,S.Pu,1908.Minnesota St.Paul, Little Italy ontheUpper Levee, T his period saw other changes St.Paul’s in rela- 37 ustus O hage purchased Harriet 174 Chapter 8 • SETTLEMENT AND URBAN RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT 40 39 the city by barriers of language,the city by barriers cul- claves were often identified were these enclaves class community flour- an upper middle class community where re tucked away (out of sight and mind) of sight and in (out deep holes away re tucked re, geography, and solated from Isolated from luffs. nd Lowry Hill innd Lowry Citians Minneapolis,Twin the poorest Outside the major cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis, and St. Paul of cities major the Outside and County of Dakota History Neill’s Duffield Edward rich resided in their mansions on Summit Hill Summit in on Paul St. in their mansions resided rich a we the river the floodplains below on or Hollow Swede like b tu ethnic group,with a particular actu- although most were in diverse quite makeup. their ally Paul and Lanegran David geographers Historical acter to area residents during this period. For the For during this period. residents area to acter r grew unattractive and became the home of the city’s home of the the became and unattractive r grew ations did not adapt to the new transportation system transportation new the to adapt ations did not althy, who could afford to move uphill away from the from away uphill move to althy, afford could who the central cities, often as vacation spots. Yet other cities, other cities,Yet central the spots. as vacation often ar gan to be overshadowed by Minneapolis and St. Paul. Minneapolis and by overshadowed be gan to ntributed to its anomalous position. its anomalous to ntributed ime and danger, the river became an aesthetic amenity, danger,ime and an aesthetic became river the dustrial area, seemed the exception to the rule. The rela- dustrialThe area, rule. the to exception the seemed ve ng this period as a direct response to the new railroad trans- railroad new the to response as a direct ng this period several fairly distinctive patterns began to emerge. Some emerge. to began patterns fairly distinctive several loc early had that Some places during this period. declined and but some importance retained prominence regional assumed be Other of this pattern. as a prime example Hastings serves river) on the places, bordered once (which as Richfield such Newport,and in relation importance a distinctive assumed to St. Paul, of South industrial as the town such dur- emerged i pattern. portation of sketch a vivid City of Hastingsthe (1881) provides Donald Hesterman argue that the river assumed a double assumed river the argue that Hesterman Donald ch we gr places of attractiveness part of the a large views with river the to close areas Yet Avenue. Summit as St. Paul’s such ri in Island as Nicollet such Enclaves residents. poorest Minneapolis, Anthony Falls St. of the chaos in midst of the the ished in island, of the isolation out tive shelf on a limestone perched floodwaters, highest of all but the have may reach of the co 38 Cities in the late nineteenth century. While the While Cities in nineteenth the late century. in in he hierarchy of altitude was especially strong in the strong of altitude especially was he hierarchy T Tw During the railroad era,During railroad the pat- residential use and land Atlases of Minneapolis and St. Paul, and of Minneapolis Atlases be to began which fact housing was not built until much later. For example, For later. built until much not fact housing was little century, very farm although the had twentieth the wntowns of St. Paul and Minneapolis. With industry With Minneapolis. and of St. Paul wntowns scribes the resulting class separation: class resulting the scribes me noise, smells, disagreeable danger, and the to add to rns became more economically and socially stratified. socially and economically more rns became seasonal threat from floods. Historian Larry Millett Historian floods. from threat seasonal de te riverfront, much over the took near particularly Industry do ca , located on the floodplain below present-day Farm,Crosby below floodplain on the located in St. Paul, Park Highland early lots in 10-acre platted was in part of the made time it was at the non-farm development in 1950s. the park system city’s published more systematically in 1880s, the systematically more published a some- give during this growth of residential picture times-misleading as platted, shown are areas period. riverfront when Often in 175 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:25 AM Page 175 Page AM 8:25 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:26AMPage176

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area achievement.” e railway vil a to the sitethe ofamission DakotaOriginally (1837-42), gro gr i c crea were newtlement transportation the in MNRRA systems corridor, T en “Itappears to the eye asifhavingthe been writer noted, l population three ofsome4,000within decades ofitsestab- on research impressed Neill(or whoever was actually conducting the itshistory. atthatin point Hastings certainly Hastings na ar the Minnehaha Creek. Now partofthe cityofMinneapolis, li r anew landscaped gardens, attraction the in 1880s.Hotels, the rest ofthe corridor became west atourist ofthe river, townshipa farming that had been established 1858with in had had that thatwould city(Hastings) haveis scarcely doubtful, “It couldhave been it greater: that felt writer the have been, the railroad station. it was moved the in early twentieth century to near apoint in stripes and venerated by the Dakota their residence during deri ofthe Methodistaffiliate Episcopal Church. Red Rock re In 1869thevil ng the last third ofthe nineteenth century achieved their smn. h iyhda i fedrn emnne as ishment. The cityhad anairofenduring permanence; ailroad depot (the “Princess Depot”) and pleasure drives all ommunities asthey vied for prominence. xisted theform in same astoday .itisatype ofwestern hus, within 50years within ofthepermanent first American set- hus, ned theof vicinity river near itsjunction with vivals an held by the Red Rock Meeting Camp Association, ea ea ea do te the area. The rock was formerly onthe bankofthe river; wth in whatwth in isnow the community ofNewport. ve te a much greater growth without them (railroads).” d park in 1885. d parkin surrounding Minnehaha Falls became aformally desig- we alod,by allowing the rapid transport offreshly- Railroads, Some places the in MNRRA corridor that grew updur- st visibility assatellitesst visibility ofthe larger cities. Richfield, t aefo iefo-ogrdrc,paintedd itsnamefrom afive-foot-longwith red rock, d withperpetual prosperity and asifhaving always ting “winners” and “losers” among the region’sthe among and “losers” “winners” ting lage called Red Rock grew up h on e nnt ) asithad attained a see endnote 2), the town; 41 lage became Impressive thoughthat achievement may 44 43 T here washere adifferent impetus for the siteof summer religious there in the1860s. there in 42 aernadMri al“uubni iy filled the in callLanegran and Martin city” “suburban in de placestry in such asCoon Rapidsinto acres ofsuburban was responsible“sprawl,” for the conversion coun- offarm ce highway systems pushed population rapidly away from the bination ofgrowing population and developing regional the river asthe corridorcom- underwent significantchange, are in order. (Figure 8.) Pa St. Paul were animportant partofthe marketing of “South Th St. Paul and Chicago 30minutes. was reduced to 13hours, thebetweenChicago. trip When opened the line 1885, in which would thenand Iowa, connect to to running lines Northwestern Railroad between to establish aline St.Paul Beede Stickney ofSt.Paul formed the Minnesota and c 1950s are not yet eligible. T must be older than 50years to be listed onthe Register. Register. they Unless sites are ofexceptional significance, context Th thisera this study isabout 1950, dscapelan after World War II.Since the general end date for Aut The expa per To struction could take place. Separatingfrom West St.Paul swam Ju er shops for the railroad. With James J. Hillasoneofhisback- Dakota County particularly car gave land for industry, tma,made South St.Paul oneofthe winners. Alpheus ut meat, his means that mostproperties constructed after the early ,Stickney incorporated the St.Paul UnionStockyardss, on ntral cities. This development, popularly characterizedntral popularly cities. This as development, e3,18,withthe stockyards to be builton260 1886, ne 30, vel nhp South St.Paul was formed 1887and in saw a wnship, k”asthe residential developmentrk,” was called. initially e railroad and the river location justdownstream from e central purposeofthisstudyhas been to provide the o frpdgot nte19s asitsstockyards iod ofrapid growth the in 1890s, omobiles increasingly defined the urbanand suburban nded to meat include pr After World ofurbansettlement the fabric in War II, pet A h aetm,the residential pattern that opment. At the time, same py riverfront acres that needed to be filled before con- Modern River for sites that could the National in inclusion merit 46 ocessi eetees afew commentsNevertheless, ng and slaughterhouses. is not ex amined in d epth. 176 45 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:26 AM Page 177

FIGURE 8. East River Road, Fridley, 1945. The Northern Pump Paul become the effective head of navigation until the Company is the large building complex. Minneapolis Star Journal 1960s. Native American occupation of lands east and west Tribune Photograph, Minnesota Historical Society. of the river determined where and how fast settlers moved into the area. Zebulon Pike’s 1805 decision to acquire the Highwood and Highland Park sections of St. Paul, complet- Fort Snelling reservation determined urban development in ing the residential urban growth within the city limits of and around the reserve for decades, and the federal govern- the area’s largest cities.47 ment still occupies lands acquired by Pike. Early settlement Urban development in the MNRRA corridor represents along the river and the river’s nearly level, floodplain grade many processes. Where cities began, how quickly and fully drew railroads. The railroads then began altering the they developed, and their relation to the river varied in processes of urban development, as the streetcar and auto- important ways. Some cities began as river towns, some as mobile would do subsequently. railroad towns and others as suburban communities. Some The Twin Cities metropolitan area is the largest urban feature all three types of development. The MNRRA corri- center between Chicago and Denver. Urban development in dor’s communities possess sites and structures that repre- the metropolitan river corridor is significant not only sent each era, each type of growth. These sites offer an regionally but nationally. The history of industrialization, opportunity to educate residents and visitors about the transportation, settlement and evolving economies is area’s urban development. indicative of the Area’s uniqueness and illustrative of broad- Geology, geography, Native American history, the deci- er regional and national processes. sions of explorers and traders, and the focus on a variety of economic activities all played a role in how the MNRRA cor- ridor’s cities formed and grew. St. Anthony Falls and the gorge downstream helped make Minneapolis the nation’s leading flour and timber milling center and dictated that St.

177 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:26 AM Page 178

FIGURE 1. Contemplating the river. Wingdams below Nininger, Minn., 1891. Photo by Henry P. Bosse. Nininger lies just above Hastings, on the west

side of the Mississippi River. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:26 AM Page 179

Epilogue Novel and Familiar Places

Mis-Placed People care most about places they can relate to. Unfortunately, too many people have forgotten what their connection to historic sites within the corridor is, or have not had the opportunity to learn about them. Some people he Dakota warriors who beached their may be new residents, from some other city, state or country. canoes at the mouth of Phalen Creek, Or, the people who had the direct connection may have below Daytons Bluff, in 1680, added passed away long ago. The more historically distant a place anotherT story to a deeply storied place. They landed in the or event is, the harder people may find it to connect to that shadow of ancient Native American burials on the bluff place. They cannot feel the sense of place people who once above and just upstream of the future village site of lived there felt. In many cases direct connection is no longer Kaposia, which their descendants would inhabit over a possible. No jobs for log drivers remain. The water-powered century later. Their French captives heralded the coming flour and timber mills are gone, as are the Dakota villages, of Europeans, the impending transformation of the river the natural river and the natural falls. People today cannot and the addition of many more stories. Neither the imagine the anticipation and excitement generated by the Dakota nor the French could have imagined the fill, build- arrival of the first steamboat at Hastings or St. Paul or ings, mills, railroad yards, and roads that would obliterate Anoka in the 1850s. (Granted, the more ancient a place is, Phalen Creek. the more romantic or mysterious many people find it.) The Hundreds of places that harbor stories as rich and challenge today is to recover a sense of place, a sense of con- deep lie throughout the MNRRA corridor. When identified, tinuity. The evaluation, preservation and interpretation of preserved and interpreted, they possess the power to evoke historic sites and places offer a way to meet this challenge. a sense of romance and adventure, disgust and regret, amazement and community pride. They are places with Recovering a Sense of Place the ability to teach children and adults about how the envi- For residents of the Twin Cities metropolitan area, the ronment, landscape and economy of the place in which MNRRA corridor is like a big, old house. It has many famil- they live or are just visiting came to be, about what has iar rooms that they visit often and know intimately. Other been lost and what has been gained. They are places that define the identity of many communities within the MNRRA corridor. This study has identified many such places, but many others remain to be discovered and have their stories told.

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area si loc for novelty alandscape, in Study ofMemory,” suggests that “By and large tourists look History hisarticle in “Public and the David Glassberg, holds aricher and deeper meaning than they had thought. doing and sodiscover in that aplacesomeone long ago, asStephensight or taste,” Longdescribed 1817. itin from everything either to the that would render itimpure, River cleaner and healthier. Try the to river imagine “free they may commit themselves to the making Mississippi her the smellimagine ofariver sorancid aperson would bury stone and allowed the fallsto retreat. They may not want to ds thehan fragile St.Peter Sandstone that underlies the lime- Th t stone strewn along the valley floor atthe bluff or hanging in glacial River Warren asitplummeted over itslimestone bed evok they are more than they thoughtthey were. more. Bytheir association withthe contents ofeach trunk, and they valueplace ismore it than they knew itto be, alive theit) bring voices and culture ofanother time. Their Th gi yo of tattered pictures much ofpeoplethough they know, the sight the texture ofold clothes, smells each oneemits, more about the people who have lived the in house. The that they have yeture to chests, open. Each onereveals that they have treas- never explored. Somehide old trunks, ro in gr to ops through much ofthe valley below St. Anthony Falls. te ve ve urists forurists leaving their armchairs and the continuity to ound ound oms they do not know aswell. Somecontain deep closets ne,and people whose names and facesunger, are amystery St. Paul some12,000years ago. People can see that lime- ey can walk upand touchey it. They can crumbletheir in the MNRRA corridor possess the novelty to reward e sounds ofanold record (ifthey can aplace find to play al residents look atthe landscape asaweb ofmemory s and social interactions.” nose in hernose in coat when by. passing Yet by remembering, e allthe senses. and thesounds sights Imagine ofthe them adeeper appreciation ofthe place they call home. Pe Th ople can learn to appreciate what aplace meant to e MNRRA corridor holds places withstories that can re si de nts new and old. what 2 Historic sites and landscapes is notback home, whereas 1 present environment.” w Tr not justatSt. Anthony Falls butthroughout the corridor. transportation route and for the waterpower and offered, transformed. Lumber and flour millers valued the river asa they believed ifadequately had superhighway potential, to for example) possessed they spirits prayedSt. Anthony Falls, for granted. The river and places along it(the Red Rock and which theyand didnot asource take ofnatural resources, treated itchanged. the river wasTo ahighway the Dakota, pe be ri si e ient gutter for their mountingquantities ofpersonal and be ri st co gained. Understanding historic sites and their historical may not understand what has been lost and what has been tion boosters pressed sohard to change the river. And they na not comprehend how the damskeep to itfromits falling fetched. butthey do They see the river floods, during rise October river above St. Anthony Falls seemsfrigid, far- P ofonly24inchesonagravela draft near grinding bar St. low during Mississippi water. The idea ofasteamboat with prised to learn that their predecessors could wade across the hundred years ago (Figure 1).Residents and visitors are sur- ment they see different isfar from that which existed one on theriverbank e toeefi h niomn. Different types ofhistoric nt oneself the environment.” in tsne meaning one’s surroundings. For people sitting st sense, aul or Zebulon Pike walking hisboats upthe shallow, ve ve te as unquestionably an . Steamboat pilots offered their own prayers to ariver ansforming the river’sansforming physical and ecological character txsi o utaotna lcs itisabout under- ntexts isnot justabout neat places; tween River the Mississippi and itsinhabitants evolved, gan turning theirgan turning backs to the river. Itbecame aconven- ople treated and their concern itdifferently, for how they tur ,h as “connect stories ofpast events to he aparticular says, s, r has changed over the centuries. As the relationship r valley offered alevel grademore. butlittle People ng howding Place stories reveal how the area’s relationship to the Glassberg contends that “History ways offers .to ori- al low-water stage. People have forgotten why naviga- we we anywher go t good to them. To them. r to good to to 3 where we are today. wewhere are He uses environment the in broad- e along the corridor, the environ- the e alongthecorridor, ira ules the ailroad builders, 180 Epilogue • NOVEL AND FAMILIAR PLACES 5 nt and protection of historic nt and protection al and even international audiences. international even al and Detail, Nininger, below Wingdams Minn., 1891. By Henry ugh research, manageme ro sources for the benefit of the people of the United States.” United the of people of the benefit the for sources sources, with interpretation, and Park National the Bosse. St. Paul District, St. Paul Bosse. Engineers. of Corps Congress declared that “There is a national interest in the interest a national is “There that declared Congress preservation, protection, of these enhancement and re Th re their celebrate better communities MNRRA help can Service with heritage that share and heritage common and unique regional, nation FIGURE 2. P. oodplain communi- lage siteAs the of Kaposia). the vil ian Flats and other fl Here Glassberg is referring to the historic context historic the to is referring Glassberg Here 4 his historic resources study reveals the great variety great the reveals study resources his historic ng new stories. When Locks and Dams 2 and 1 and Locks When stories. ng new Glassberg believes that the river’s history can help “res- help can history river’s the that believes Glassberg T r has improved, people have turned to face the river the face to improved, r has turned have people r from their taps) is defined by past social and econom- and social past by is defined taps) their r from al and cultural resources. Because of their significance, of their Because resources. cultural al and nning. Communicating the stories of those places to of those places stories the nning. Communicating rpret them is equally important and challenging. As challenging. and important is equally them rpret ich many places in the MNRRA corridor gain histor- their corridor in MNRRA the many places ich st Side, Bohem ail the individual history of each historically important historically of each history individual ail the nts and visitors alike to see what ordinarily cannot be cannot ordinarily what see alike visitors to nts and te te ult to drive near it. To the residents of Little Italy, of Little the residents the To it. near drive ult to gi t even farther away. The beaches and bathhouses at bathhouses and beaches The away. farther t even te dustrial wastes. As people fouled the river, the to fouled tried As people they dustrial wastes. NRRA corridor holds many “nationally significant”“nationally many holds corridor NRRA his- ric sk. Identifying and preserving important historic sites historic important preserving and sk. Identifying his is true of the land along the river as well. as well. river the along land of the his is true gain. A new view of the river is evolving, river of the view river’s A new the and gain. 181 history is playing an important role. an important is playing history ide social larger the and seen:places to attached memories both were places the how shaped that processes economic and made.” in ge assaulting stench the stand could Few closed. Harriet Island river, on the boat to it dif- tried some found and if they them fic We it, by stayed They land. ties, cheap meant river polluted the weavi became St. Paul away, flowing from pollution the stopped a sewage build to Mississippi firstthe city on the River plant (on treatment a wa ic processes and by the people caught up in caught those processes. people the by and ic processes T It is just a within corridor. the places of historic depth and be ical significance. The Mississippi River we see, we Mississippi River The significance. ical hear, touch, drink river residents Cities Twin (many taste and smell wa of a place. Because it would be impossible be this study to for it would Because of a place. det place, within contexts historic on the been has focus the wh and places so that the National Park Service and others can others and Service Park National the so that places and in the corridor’s visitors and residents in a way that helps that in a way residents and visitors corridor’s the challenging and is an important river the to connect them ta to Congress found and as this study has reinforced, as this study has and found Congress the M 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:26 AM Page 181 Page AM 8:26 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:26AMPage182

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area U. p. 704. 1913), Government Office, Printing D.C.: (Washington, Doc. No. 1491, 3dsess., 62nd Cong., v. 2, of Rivers and Harbors, U. Ask Jean Schmidt. 1913).How manyvolumes? Government Office, Printing D.C.: (Washington, vol. 1 Doc. No. 1491, 3dsess., Rivers and Harbors . 62nd Cong., Comprehensive Ma RiverMississippi Coordinating and National Park Commission Service, Sheets.”Nine Eighty- in Minnesota, River from the Mouth ofthe OhioRiver to Minneapolis, “Detail ofthe Map Upper Mississippi RiverMississippi (MRC), Commission from Surveys 1898-1904.” Seventy-Eight in Sheets, to Lake Itasca, Minnesota, River from Minneapolis, RiverMississippi (MRC). Commission “Detail ofthe Map Upper Mississippi Title National RiverVII -Mississippi and RecreationStat 4599, Area. 102 1988, November 18, Law Public 100-696, Section 701.(a)Findings, the ConstructionofLocks and Dams witha ViewMississippi toImprovement River from Minneapolis by toLake Pepin, and Survey onfrom Examination Preliminary of theChiefofEngineers U. Chapter 12. sess., 3rd 61stCong., Hennepin Minnesota.” County to in apoint Anoka County, Company to construct adamacross River the Mississippi from in apoint U. H.Doc. 741. 2dsess., Cong., U. Doc. No. 218.. sess., Minn. Mississippi River between St.Paul and Minneapolis, U. Minn. U. Exec. Doc. No. 247. U. sess. Ex.Doc. No. 58. U. (1903). pt.3, vol. 36, F58362, Box 1408, Entry 103, 1905. National RecordArchives Group 77, and Records Administration, Wa W U. Upper Mississippi River Bulletin St. Paul Pioneer Press Minneapolis Tribune Anoka Herald Union County Newspapers U. City ofSt.Paul Records. Permit Applications. St.Paul CityHall. Government Documents Selected Bibliography sigo,DC:Gvrmn rnigOfc,1876-1940. Government Office, Printing D.C.: ashington, S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. Corps ofEngineers. Army, S. S. S. r Department, Office of the Chief of Engineers. Circular No. 14, April 4, April Officeofthe ChiefofEngineers.Circular No. 14, r Department, oges House. Congress, oges os,Laws ofthe United States Relating to the Improvement House, Congress, oges House. Congress, House. “An Act ToCongress, authorize the Great Northern Development oges House. Congress, oges House. Congress, Congress. House. oges House. Congress, oges House. Congress, oges os. ogesoa eod Vl 6 t ,1903. House. Congressional Record. pt.3, Vol.Congress, 36, 9hCn. n es,H.Doc. 341. 2nd sess., 59th Cong., nageme Mississippi River from Minneapolis toLake Pepin. Report Laws of the United States Relating totheImprovementLaws StatesRelating oftheUnited of issip ie,S.Pu oMnepls Minn. St.Paul toMinneapolis, Mississippi River, Use ofSurplus Water Flowing over Government in Dam Survey oftheUpper Mississippi Survey ofUpper Mississippi River Mississippi River between and St.Paul, tPa,(May1995). nt Plan, Annual Reports oftheChiefEngineers 6t og dss. Document No. 583. . 69thCong.2dsess., . 40thCong.2dsess. 3t oges 2d . 39thCongress, 0hCn. 1st 60th Cong., . 61st Mississippi HeadwatersMississippi Reservoirs.” and the The the United Ojibway, States, Jane. and“Dams Damages: Carroll, Minnesota Historical Society Collections John H. “Historical Notes ofGrey CloudCase, Island and Its Vicinity.” Carver’s Cave?” Charles Burnley, T. “Case ofthe Vanishing Historic Site or What Happened to 1933. Press, a Economic J. Solon AStudyof andAgricultural ItsPolitical, Organization Buck, Br J. Gary “Beer Capital ofthe State --St.Paul’sBrueggermann, Historic Family Birthplace ofSt.Paul?” Greg. “St. Paul Underground–What HappenedBrick, to Fountain Cave–the Real 1968. University Press, OhioState Twentiethin Century America: Continuity The1920’s . Columbus: Eds. and David Brody, Robert H.Bremner, John, Braemen, Voyageur, 1983. Minnesota: Bloomington, John et. al.Legacy ofMinneapolis: Preservation Borchert, Amid Change 1963. 1975, of Minnesota Press, lgn Th Blegen, 1969. Society, Minnesota Minnesota Prehistoric Historical Archaeology Series. St. Paul: le,Peter.Bleed, Ar ik oga . Ge lu:AnArchaeological Approach.”“GreyCloud: Douglas A. Birk, pp. 365-67. 1961, Cooperation E. J. In “WaterBarry, Transportation and Marketing.” Grain Reappraisal." William D. A "Oliver HudsonKelley and the GenesisBarns, of the Grange: 1990. Survey, Minnesota Geological University ofMinnesota, Minnesota.St.Paul: County, Eds. Nancy H.and Howard C.Hobbs, Balaban, Ar Minnesota Willoughby M.Jr. “Sioux V Babcock, 1893. Co., Ed. Isaac, Atwater, Minnesota 1997. Historical Society, St.Paul: 1984; Press, the Upper Mississippi Valley Clayton. Gary Anderson, Ar Minnesota Scott F. “ArchaeologyAnfinson, ofthe Central MinneapolisRiverfront.” March 1996.28pp. Corps ofEngineer, St.Paul District, Minnesota: _____. Henry Bosse's Views oftheUpper Mississippi River Dams." John O. "The Secret History LocksAnfinson, Earliest ofthe and Mississippi's 1993. Press, and Public Life Place, John S. andJ. Barbara VanDrasek.Adams, Minneapolis-St. Paul: People, Articles &Manuscripts Books, Cmrde Harvard University 1870-1880.Cambridge: nd Social Manifestations, eweries.” chaeologist Minnesota History inst,AHistory oftheState Minnesota, eodore. Ramsey County History County Ramsey , 91Wsigo C American Inst 1961 Washington DC: ch ch T 2(93:1-2. 32 (1973): Agricultural History he Archaeology ofPetaga Point: The Preceramic Component aeolog aeolog Ramsey County History County Ramsey History oftheCityMinneapolis Mnepls inst:University ofMinnesota Minnesota: . Minneapolis, ist ist, Ramsey County History County Ramsey 2(coe,14) 126-46. 1945): 12 (October, 48:1-2 and 49:1-2(1989and 1990). ise fAohrKn,Dakota-White in Relations of Kinsmen Another Kind, 54:6 (Summer 1995):254-67. ,1 5-82 Lnon University ofNebraska 650-1862. Lincoln: 1(uy16) 229-42. 41 (July 1967): 62(91:3-15. 16:2 (1981): Minnesota History illages in Minnesotaillages to in prior 1837.” .v. : Fl,16) 8-12. 1967): 4:2 (Fall, 5(95:371-378. 15 (1915): 94(itr 95:4-15 1995): 29:4 (Winter, ologic Atlas of Dakota of Geologic Atlas itute forCo inaoi:University . Minneapolis: . New Munsell & York: Srn,19) 2-15. 1990): (Spring, . St.Paul, Chan and ge American T operation, he Minnesota . . The 182 Selected Bibliography Over The Historical . Minneapolis: 21:1 (1986): 3- e a-Brewin’: The . New York: Farrar, . New pers inology: Pa 73:1-2 (March-June, . St. Paul: Minnesota . No. 49 (1937). . No. . Minneapolis: of University “There’s Troubl “There’s onsin Archeologist Great Lakes Anthrop Lakes Great . Cambridge, Mass.: University Harvard Ramsey County History er isc ey Chose Minnesota: A Survey of the State’s A Survey ey Chose Minnesota: W 135 (January 1928):15-24. 135 (January Spring Lake Archeology:Spring Lake Mill Cave. Lee The Th (September, 1961): 283-97. aylor. aylor. . Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series. No. 11 No. Series. Archaeology Prehistoric . Minnesota om Canoe to Steel Barge to Steel om Canoe A. and Frank Walski. Walski. A. and Frank he History of Nininger . . . More Than Just a Dream.” Just Than of Nininger . . . More he History Upper Mississippi,Upper Saga Wilderness A ther Louis Hennepin’s Description of Louisiana, Louis Hennepin’s ther Newly Aspects of Upp T Engineers on the Twin Rivers: A History of the Nashville A History Rivers: Twin Engineers the on A River of Grain: the Evolution of Commercial Navigation on of Grain: of Commercial the Evolution A River Snelling: Colossus of the Wilderness of the Snelling: Colossus rt rt (1994): 106-21. 31:1 (Dakota County Historical Society, 1991):1-25. Historical County September 31:1 (Dakota Minnesota History e University of Minnesota Press,Minnesota of e University 1938. chaeology ansportation on the Northern Mississippi River and the Potential for Potential the and Mississippi River Northern on the ansportation hnson, Elden, Ed. hnson, Leland. hnson, Elden and P. S. T hnson, S. and P. Elden vised third edition. edition. third vised nsen, John O. “Gently Down the Stream: the nsen, Down “Gently of History the O. An Inquiry into John nks, A. E. “Minnesota’s Brown’s Valley Man and Associated Burial Artifacts.” Burial Associated Man and Valley nks, Brown’s “Minnesota’s A. E. Science Bulletin No. 3, No. Bulletin Science part 2. St. Paul, Minnesota: of Museum Science The Institute, St. Paul the 1956. 3, No. Bulletin Archeology: Science _____. Spring Site. Lake Sorg The part 3 St. Paul, Institute, Minnesota: St. Paul of the Museum Science The 1959. Prehistoric Minnesota of Minnesota. Peoples Prehistoric The _____. 3. St. Paul: No. Series Society, Historical Archaeology 1988; Minnesota re Jo Honor of Lloyd A. Wilford A. of Lloyd Honor St. Paul: Society, Historical 1974. Minnesota Jo Je Association Memoirs Anthropological of the American Je Tr Resources,” Cultural Submerged 1992): 61-110. Jo District. Nashville: Engineer District,Army U.S. Nashville, 1978. Brewing and Bottling Industries at Harpers Ferry,West Virginia.” Ferry,West Bottling at Harpers and Industries Brewing Ar & Rinehart; New York: J. J. Little and Ives Company,& Rinehart; Ives and 1944. Little York: J. J. New Hennepin, Fa Louis. of the King Order by France of New to the Southwest Discovered Th Hesterman, Mississippi St. Paul: and “The Donald. Paul is a Constant Change It.” Shaped City that the and River for 22. Mississippi, Upper on the Fleet the Hill,With “Out 1898- Kirchner. Alberta 1917.” Holmquist, Drenning, June Ed. . St. Paul,Ethnic Groups Minnesota: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1981. Hoops, Richard. . Madison: River Mississippi the Upper Wisconsin-Madison, of University Report, Research Life Sciences Agricultural and of R3584. College Waterways.” Mid-West of Our Improvement Hoover,“The Herbert. Academy American of the Annals Hull-Walski, Deborah Historical Society Press, Society Historical 1987. Haller, Lisa, Brasch, Ivelise Gary Phelps,“Crossings.” Wolston. Bill and Guelcher, Leslie A. the Years Hartsough, Fr Mildred. Press,Minnesota 1934. Hays, of Efficiency: the Gospel the Progressive and Conservation Samuel. Movement,Conservation 1890-1920 Press, 1959. Havighurst, Walter. Stillwater, Minnesota: Press, Croixside 1982. Hall, Fo Steve. . New The . . New York: . New he Public T . St. Paul, American 5:1 (1980):57-72. Upper Mississippi Upper . Minnesota Historical . Minnesota 26 (1935). 116 pp. . Wisconsin, . aeology ch . 4 vols. 1. Rev. Ed. St. Paul: 1. Rev. . 4 vols. . Minneapolis: Publishing Hennepin urnal of Ar urnal of al Survey Bulletin of the Superior Region of the Superior acks and Trails: Incidents in the Life of a Trails: and acks ologic Tr Fur Traders of the Northwest Traders Fur ve A A History Pivotal Decades: The United States,The Decades: Pivotal 1900-1920 Geology Fi Donnelley’s Atlas of the City of St. Paul, of Atlas Donnelley’s Minnesota. 2 (March 6,(March 1952):36-41. A Traffic History of the Mississippi River System River of the Mississippi History Traffic A River Engineers of the Middle Mississippi: A History of the A History Engineers Mississippi: of the Middle River Midcontinental Jo St. Paul Park’s Heritage: A History of Saint Paul Park on The on Park of Saint Paul A History Heritage: Park’s St. Paul Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West Great the and Chicago Metropolis: Nature’s Curtice’s Revised Atlas of the City of St. Paul Atlas Revised Curtice’s 89 (February 1984):89 (February 67-88. Minnesota Ge . River the St. Croix An Oneota Site on he Sheffield Site: T . St. Paul, Minnesota: Society,1986; Historical Minnesota 3:3 (March 1934):3:3 (March 1. 18:2 (Spring 1996): 7-23. ll, Watts. William al Writers’eral Administration, Project, Progress Works Minnesota. W. Norton & Company, Norton 1991. W. rk: W.W. Norton & Company, & Norton 1990. rk: W.W. lwe ls. Chicago: Corporation, The 1892. anks, C. L. “Inland Waterways Advocate, C. Lambert,anks, George Col. Waterways Dies: “Inland C. L. rst published Minneapolis:rst published Press, of Minnesota University 1941. eople Since 1900. St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1989. 183 Historian of Champlin and Towns Goodrich, County the and Anoka of M. History Albert in HennepinDayton County, Minnesota Commission,Co., Bicentennial Anoka by 1905. Reprinted 1976. Goth, Ed., Dorothy Gates, M., Charles Ed. Mississippi, Grove,. Cottage 1887-1895 Minnesota: Press, Inky Fingers 1985. Fo Society, Historical 1956-69;Minnesota printing, third 1979. Fr Mississippi.” in Upper Channel Back to Among Pioneers BulletinRiver Press,Society 1965. Gibbon, E. Guy 11 St. Paul: No. Series Archaeology Minnesota Prehistoric Minnesota Society,Historical 1973. in Transition Gibbon,Woodland Late to Middle “The Guy,andA. H. Caine. C. Minnesota.” Eastern Glassberg, Study of Memory.” the and “Public History David. “Flooding and Untimely Thaws Test Contractors’ Test “Flooding and Thaws Untimely Mettle on Job,” River BulletinConstruction Bohemian Flats Bohemian fi . Walker,. Minnesota:Minnesota Pioneer Pioneer, Cass County the 1931. Dixon, Haigh. Frank Yo and Wisconsin in late Mississippi upper River of the history “The S. Cooper, W. time.” postglacial Cronon, William. W. Curtice, L. David Minnesota: H.M. Smyth Printing Co., 1908. Daly, Capt. “Nate” [Nathan]. 11 (Washington: No. Commission. Document Waterways National Printing Office,Government 1909). J. Dobney, Frederick St. Louis District, of EngineersWashington, Corps Army . D.C.: U.S. U.S. Printing Office,Government 1978. Dodd, Dodd, Statistics and B. Historical S. Donald of the United Wynelle Alabama Press, of University States,The . Midwest 1973. The 1790-1970. H. Donnelley, Reuben vo Fed Cooper, John Milton Jr. Cooper, Jr. Milton John Information Circular No. 46 (Madison: No. Circular Information Natural and Geological Wisconsin Survey, 1984). History Conservation,” and Clements, Hoover “Herbert A. Kendrick Review Historical Clayton, L. Pleistocene Clark, Jr., Clifford E. Its State and The Ed. Minnesota in a Century of Change: P 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:26 AM Page 183 Page AM 8:26 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:26AMPage184

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area W published as originally 1987; Minnesota Historical Society Press, _____. T Minnesota History the Lucile M. Twin“Rivalry for aRiver, Cities and the Mississippi.”Kane, tpe .Ln,U.S.T.E. Stephen H.Long, Secretary of War, under theCommand of the Order oftheHon. J. C.Calhoun, Performed the in Year &c, Lake ofthe Woods, 1823by Lake Winnepeek, River, Keati P Lucile M.and Alan Ominsky. Tw Kane, 1978. Minnesota Historical Society Press, Documents. St.Paul: theJournals of1817and 1823and Related H.Long, ofStephen Expeditions Eds. and Carolyn Gilman, June D. Holmquist, Lucile M., Kane, tur Frank and FrederickLeverett, W. Sardeson. “Surface formations and agricul- United States Geological Survey Professional Paper (1929).72pp. Frank. “Moraines andLeverett, Shorelines ofthe Lake Superior Basin.” 1st edition 1977. AHistory. New W. York: William E.Minnesota, W. 1998; Lass, Norton &Co., 1987. County Historical Society, city’s 150-year love affairwithitsriver K W Eds. James C.and D. M.Mickelson, Knox, 1926. University Press, Ke Geologic Activity and Vegetation East-Central Minnesota.” Change atLake Ann, K 1987. University, Southern Illinois Carbondale: W Kee W _____. T 1979. Office, Printing P Raymond H. Merritt, 1987. Society Press, of aSteamboat from Pilot 1854to1863 George Byron. Old Times on theUpper Mississippi: Merrick, The Recollections D.C. 1993. Heath and Company, Massachusetts: Lexington, Ed.Major Problems in American Environmental Carolyn, History. Merchant, 361-379. 1911): Iowa, Rapids, Mississippi Valle W. J.McGee, “The Conservation ofNatural Resources,” second edition. 1932; Wisconsin, Natural History Survey Bulletin 36Madison, L.T Martin, 1983. University ofMinnesota, and Regional Affairs, by ofMinneapolisDistricts Paul and Saint Judith A. and David Lanegran. Martin, Bulletin aul and Minneapolis u itit U.S. U.S. GovernmentArmy. CorpsWashington: ofEngineers aul District, n,VirginiaBrainard. T unz, een, aterfall that aCity: Built The Falls ofSt. Anthony Minneapolis in ood sigo:US oenetPitn fie 1984. U.S. Government Office, Printing ashington: Mdsn Wisconsin Geological and Natural History 1974. Survey, isconsin. Madison: wn Jerome G.Feder rwin, the University ofMinnesota Press association in withthe Center for Urban al conditions ofthe south half onMinnesota.” a,W. F.gan, Ed.Emergent Horticultural Economies ofthe Eastern g William ofantotheSource H. Narrative Expedition oftheSt.Peter’s ng, ds. Centerlan forOccasional PaperArchaeological No. 7 Investigations, K. L.andC.Shane. al Societyof America Bulletin 4 Mnepls nvriyo inst,1919. University ofMinnesota, 14. Minneapolis: he Falls ofSt. Anthony: The Waterfall that Minneapolis Built eCrs h niomn,and theUpper Mississippi River Basin theEnvironment, he Corps, he physical geography of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geological and y Historical fo Association 78(eebr 91:309-23. 1961): 37:8 (December, S.Pu:MneoaHsoia oit rs,1983. Minnesota Historical Society Press, . St.Paul: Creativity, Conflict &Controversy: Conflict A History of theSt. Creativity, al Water-PowerLegislation ,2 eMsispiadS.Pu,Ashort history ofthe he Mississippi and St.Paul, vo s Mnepls osadHie,1959. Rossand Haines, ls. Minneapolis: “A “A Continuous RecordContinuous 102 (1990):1646-1657. S.Pu,Mneoa The Ramsey Minnesota: . St.Paul, Mnepls inst:Published Minnesota: . Minneapolis, in Wh S.Pu:Minnesota Historical . St.Paul: Late Quaternary Environments of Cities: Cities: A Pictorial History ofSaint r the Year 1909-1910, er e We Live: The Residential . New Columbia York: Minnesota Ge Minnesota of Holoce Proceedings ofthe T ne Eolian ologic he Northern , 3 (Cedar 1966. The . St.Paul: al Survey . Manifestations Iowa.” in Mildred. “The Relationship ofHistoric Indian TribesMott, to Archaeological 1955. University ofMinnesota Press, Minneapolis: ee,Roy W.Meyer, oln Robert L. Morlan, Reorganization Events. Heinrich during (Inpress). H.D. and J. D.Mooers, Lehr. A Terrestrial Record ofLaurentide Ice Sheet 1987. University ofMinnesota, V Minnesota Geological Survey. pa P “A History ofthe St. Inc., Barbara A. Hemisphere Field Services, Mitchell, 1992. Society Press, Larry. Millett, Archaeologist Michael G. “The ArchaeologyMichlovic, oftheSite.” Canning reprinted 1980. 1967; University ofNebraska Press, Lincoln: Pa Minnesota Engineer Martin. “Nine-Foot Channel Extension AboveNelson, St. Anthony Falls.” _____. “St. Paul and ItsEnvirons.” 1881. Star Publishing, _____. History oftheUpper Mississippi Valley 1881. North Star Publishing, Minnesota: _____. History ofDakotaand County theCityofHastings 1881. North Star Publishing, Minnesota: _____. History and County theCityofSt.Paul ofRamsey . Minneapolis, 1881. Company, Publishing North Star Minnesota: by J. Fletcher Williams . Minneapolis, Minnesota, andoftheHistory Outlines of Including Explorers and Pioneers ofMinnesota, Edward D. Rev.Neill, 1934. Hoover. 2vols. inc., N. Doubleday, Doran Garden &company, City, Y.: William Starr Ed.T Myers, American SocietyEngineers ofCivil Francis. “The St. Anthony Falls Navigation Project.”Mullin, (1938):227-314. Steamboats.” Pe 243-74. Tra P 1976. Minnesota Historical Society Press, Minnesota: 1766-1770. St.Paul, Pike Zebulon. 1968. Historical Society ofIowa, on theUpper_____. Steamboating Mississippi W Gifford. T Pinchot, Pe An Account totheSources ofExpeditions oftheMississippi from Zebulon Pike, Inc.1966; University Microfilms, Michigan: Ann Arbor, aul Municipal GrainElevator Prepared and Sack for the MNRRA House.” as xo,Frederic before the L. Civil “RailroadsWar.” ofthe Old Northwest, axson, le:Mneoa oa and Wisconsin. Guidebook Iowa, Series No. 15.St.Paul: alley: Minnesota, sigo rs 97 New 1910. 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Seattle, 3(993) 224-40. 13 (1929-30): inaoi,Mneoa North Minnesota: . Minneapolis, Iw iy oa The State . IowaIowa: City, , Arts and Letters 17(1914): 30 (1940):204-219. . Minneapolis, , Philadelphia, 36:3 Proceedings ofthe Minnesota , 184 The . . . Selected Bibliography . ist . . aeolog ch . St. Paul: . Presented at . Presented 33 (1986):1- . Geological and . Geological ical Society ical ological Perspective he Minnesota Ar he Minnesota T ugust 12, 1919), 2, Sec. p. An Ec ,(A . New Haven,. New Connecticut: Yale . Geological Society of America of Society . Geological Archaeolog 35. Minneapolis: of University Heritage, . Minnesota Geological Survey. St. Paul: Survey. Geological . Minnesota . Ames:. Press, University State Iowa 1991. St. Paul Pioneer Press Pioneer St. Paul urnal of the Iowa urnal of the Iowa : Minnesota of Minnesota: Geology A History of the City of Saint Paul to 1875 of the City of Saint Paul A History Jo Knights of the Plow: Oliver Kelly and the Origins and of the Kelly Oliver Knights Plow: of the he Search for Order,York: for Hill and he Search 1877-1920. New Late Cenozoic glacial ages Late Cenozoic al Survey Bulletin he Glacial Lake Agassiz Lake he Glacial ologic d. “A History of Navigation Improvements on the Rock Island Rock on the Improvements of Navigation History “A d. Minnesota’s Natural hn R. Minnesota’s oal ll, H. Newton ological Finds.” ,R s, A. Thomas l, Mildred M. “Peering at the Ioway Indians Through the Mist of Time: Mist of the Through Indians l, Ioway at the “Peering M. Mildred he kian, K. K. Ed. of the Upper Mississippi Valley Mississippi of the Upper pses into the history of the Board of Park Commissioners of Minneapolis, Commissioners of Park of the Board pses into the history . nziak,Valley River Mississippi Lifestyles in the Upper Ed. Historic S. John de ebe, Robert H. T eet re ange in Republican Ideology ilford, Shelter.” Rock La Moille “The A. Lloyd illiams, Fletcher. J. Minneapolis park system,irth, park Minneapolis Theodore. retrospective 1883-1944: ashington: Printing Office, Government U.S. 1983. ang, 1967. ood hnson, Smith & Harrison, printers, state 1884-1901. im on Minneapolis: Press, of Minnesota University 1995. Tu Beckjord, Walter C.,Beckjord, Study of Walter “A M. Davies, Ralph H. Gatsby. Lester and 1, Dam and No. Lock S. at U. Mississippi Development Power Water Proposed Minneapolis.”Thesis, and St. Paul between of Minnesota, River University Minneapolis, 1909. Unpublished Materials Unpublished Tester, Jo Press,University 1971. Tw Rapids: Dam and 15.” of Locks Background The Island, Rock Illinois: U.S. Army, of Engineers, Corps District, Island Rock April 1980. 15pp. & Illinois Rivers Mississippi the Upper on Transportation of _____. History W District, Island of the Rock _____. A History Army, U.S. of Engineers, Corps Printing Office,Washington:1866-1983. Government U.S. 1984. Upham, T Warren. Washington: Printing 25 Monograph Office, Government 1895. “Kaposia,_____. Depot, of St. Paul’s on Site Town; Indian Stood Once Archae 12. We 1700.” 1630 - circa 74. Wi W W 19:2 (1954):17-24. W Minnesota Historical Society Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1983; the in first 1876 by published Minnesota of the Collections 4 of the as volume Society Historical Minnesota Society. Historical Winc Minnesota, park, system the city’s and playground and parkway Commissioners, of Park Board of the meeting annual the 16, July 1945. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Minneapolis, Commissioners, of Park Board 1945. Wo America, of York: Press University New 1983. W Gr Wright, E. Jr., Herbert of the United States Environments Ed. Late Quaternary Minneapolis:2 vols. Press, of Minnesota University 1983. St. Paul.” below Mississippi of the River “History _____ evolu- In Pleistocene ti Natural History Survey, Report, Final History Natural Minneapolis, 6 vols. Minnesota: Jo W gl Minnesota Press,Minnesota 1952. University of Minnesota,University 1985. Zumberge, of Minnesota: lakes “The H. origin classification.” and Their J. Minnesota Ge . . . New The 227 (May al of Political hange.” Minnesota 6:4 (March . St. Paul: Journ . 1902-1917. Proceedings of the Upper Proceedings . Westport,. Connecticut: XIX (Aug. 1895):XIX (Aug. 746- perative Exc perative al Analysis ic Atlas of Washington ic Atlas of Washington Forum North American Review American North . Minneapolis, Minnesota: Dillon Geolog . Los Angeles:. Los of University Ecologic Apostle of Positive Government Apostle of Positive Equity Coo 3 (1892). . Minneapolis: of Minnesota University 32:1 (June 1945):32:1 (June 31-62. . Geological Atlas of the United States, United of the Atlas . Geological Folio Geology of Minnesota: A Centennial Volume A Centennial of Minnesota: Geology ssociation Convention ll Site: An ll Site: nsportation to the Seaboard: The Communication The nsportation to the Seaboard: . Columbia: of Missouri Press, University 1985. Mississippi Valley Historical Review Historical Valley Mississippi . Austin: of , University 1994. Tra at this awl means: feminist archaeology at a Wahpeton at a feminist archaeology means: at this awl rm Crisis, 1919-23 . Berkeley and Los and Policy, Conservation deral 1921-1933. Berkeley Rails Star North to the Great River: An Environmental History of the Upper History An Environmental River: Great he Late Pleistocene Fe Wh Improvement A Improvement American Inland Waterways, Their Relation to Railway Their Waterways, Inland American . Norman: Press, of Oklahoma University 1994. er Structures in the Stream,Structures Science, Water, the Rise of the U.S. and . St. Paul :. St. Paul Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1993. . New York: C. P. Putnam's Sons,York: C. P. . New 1909. he Itasca Bison Ki he Itasca T Hills, California: Publications, Windsor 1982. 21 (November 1914):21 (November 872-895. village nance os, Rise of the “The Theodore. land nsportation and to the National Welfare; Their Creation,Their and Restoration Welfare; to the Nationalnsportation and rk:America, of Press University 1993. rter, C., S. Ed. T ood 752. as Highways.” Snow,“Waterways Franklin. Dakota Dakota 1929): 592-98. Spector, D. Janet Tra Mainte Refsell, I..” Farmers’“The Movement N. Oscar Elevator Press, 1966. Quick, Herbert. Po Prosser, S. Richard Economy Salisbury,Windom, William S. Robert Yo Salout Review Historical Valley Mississippi St. Paul: of Minnesota, University Survey. Geological Minnesota 1972. Problem.” Waterways Deep “The Smalley,E.V. W Press, 1983. Association. Improvement Mississippi Upper River Sandstone.” in St. Peter the “Fossils Sardeson,W. Frederick Folio Paul _____. Minneapolis-St. of Minneapolis Stipanovich, History An Illustrated City of Lakes: Joseph. Mississippi Riv Bulletin Sciences of Natural Academy Washington,201 D.C.: Survey, 1916. Geological U.S. Scarpino, Philip V. Mississippi, 1890-1950 Schlesier, K. H., Ed. Plains Indians,Past of Archaeological 500-1500: The A.D. Groups Historic Shideler, H. Fa James Shay, C. T. Swain, C. Donald Greenwood Publishing Corporation,Greenwood 1971. Shallat, Todd. of Engineers Corps Army Revolution and American Foreign Policy, 1860-1900 Foreign American and Revolution California Press, 1957. Schonberger, B. Harold Society, Historical 1971. Minnesota War: Civil the Mississippi Upper after on the Shippee,“Steamboating Lester. A Mississippi Magnate.” 1920): 470-502. Sims, Morey, G. B. Eds. K. and P. 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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area 96 Peae o h .S ryCrso nier,St. Paul 1996. Prepared District. for the U. S. Army Corps ofEngineers, Great Lakes Archaeological Inc., Wisconsin: ResearchMilwaukee, Center, W Inventory St. Anthony Falls to ofthe UpperRiver, Pool Mississippi 10, J ments prepared for the CityofSt.Paul. December 1989. Unpublished docu- Equity Cooperative Exchange GrainElevator Complex.” Robert and Jeffrey Hess. “Historic Hybben, American Record, Engineering 1993. Historical Society, Minnesota ArchaeologyHabitation Site. Department, 2vols. St.Paul: AMulticomponent Woodland 21WA49: River andAccess Site, Archaic B. W. andHoffman, J. E.Myster. Data Recovery Investigation ofthe St.Croix 1996. Iowa, City, Apaper presented Iowa atthe 54th Annual PlainsConference, Minnesota.” D. K. “An InventoryHigginbottom, ofFluted Projectile Points from Minneapolis,1985. University ofMinnesota, Minnesota. Ph.D. dissertation, River: A History ofDevelopment Along theMississippi Paul, River Saint in Paul Donald. Hesterman, nd. Minnesota, Cottage Grove and Newport, Heritage Education Project. “The Heritage GreySite File. Cloud LimeKiln.” 1990. 1990. CityofInver Grove Heights, _____. A Minnesota’sThe 1858- History ofInverTreasure, Grove Heights, Dakota 1987. County Historical Society, 1887-1987 Lois.SouthSt.Paul Centennial, Glewwe, September 1983. Engineers, Corps of St.Paul District, Minnesota: Unpublished Report. St.Paul, River onthe Mississippi Dams and Two Structures atSt. Anthony Falls.” Jon. St.Paul Locks District and“Historical ResourcesGjerde, Evaluation, Minnesota Historical Society 1849-1984.” Collections. Minnesota, Rapids, history ofCoon cityby site: adam afine Randels. Leslie “Coon Rapids, Gillund, 1996. Minneapolis, University10,500-8,000 BP.” ofMinnesota, 2vols. Master’s thesis, Frank. “Late Paleo-Indians ofMinnesota and Florin, Vegetation Changes from 1991. Engineers, Investigations U.S. No.Army Corps 44.Preparedof for the St.Paul District, Institute for Minnesota Archaeology.Upper River, Mississippi Reports of B. ofHistoric_____. Contexts“Outline for the Prehistoric Period (Ca. 12,000 1984. Minneapolis, University ofMinnesota, Ph.D. dissertation, Clark A. “Oneota Settlement PatternsDobbs, the in BlueRiver Earth Valley.” Iowa 1991. State Historic Preservation Office, National Register ofHistoric Places Multiple Property Documentation Form, Rebecca. “The Conservation 1857-1942.” MovementConard, Iowa, in 1977. University Austin, of Texas, Masters thesis, on the Channel ofthe UpperRiver Mississippi to 1939.” Patrick James. “The Corps ofEngineersandBrunet, Navigation Improvement lo Dobbs Clark A. and H.D. Mooers. A phase Iarchaeological and geomorpho- Institute for Minnesota Archaeology, 1988. St.Paul.for the Minneapolis: Minnesota State Historic Preservation Office, Comprehensive PlanningSeries. Reports ofInvestigation No. 37.Prepared A.D. A -1820MinnesotaA.D.),” History Sites in and Structures: The Contact Period Contexts_____. “Historic (Ca.1630 Context Outlines: Institute for Minnesota Archaeology, 1988. St.Paul.for the Minneapolis: Minnesota State Historic Preservation Office, Comprehensive PlanningSeries. Reports ofInvestigation No. 37.Prepared let . David F. and John D. Overstreet, Richards. A., Cultural Resources albert, gic .P. sosn oa and Minnesota. Reports ofInvestigations Iowa, No. 384. isconsin, ..10)”MneoaHsoyi ie n tutrs A Minnesota History Sites in and Structures: - A.D. 1700).” al studyofLake Pepin and the upper reaches ofNavigation Pool 4. neet,Vle,and Public Policy Values, for an Urban Interests, . South St.Paul (?): oit n h ainlEdwetfrteHmnte,1988. Society and the National Endowment for the Humanities, Po Carole. T Zellie, 1987. Minnesota, Cottage Grove, Historic Preservation, Minnesota. Prepared Cottage for the Grove, Advisory(21WA1), Committee on W Minnesota St.Paul. Historical Society, of Archives and Manuscripts, W 1997. CityofCottage Grove, Advisory Committee on Historic Preservation, Project, Continuati National Register ofHistoric Places Inventory Form, -Nomination St. Anthony Falls Historic National Register District. ofHistoric Places, Register ofHistoric Places Approved Inventory Form, 1971. -Nomination National St. Anthony Falls Historic National Register District. ofHistoric Places, June 1979. (Draft).” SusanPommering. “Dakota County Multiple ResourceReynolds, Nomination d Ph.D. Edward 1866-1933,” L. “A HistoryPross, ofRivers and Harbors Bills, 1996. Minneapolis, Minnesota, University of Master’s thesis, Wabasha Minnesota.” County, Lake Pepin, Pe 1988. Minneapolis, of Minnesota, University Ph.D. central Minnesota.” dissertation, Late Wisconsin glaciation, H.D. “Quaternary history and iceMooers, dynamics ofthe St.Croix phase of DevelopmentAgricultural (nd). (1870-1940).” Railroads and “Historic Context: Minnesota State Historic Preservation Office, Agriculture and River (nd). Settlement (1840-1870).” Early “Historic Context: Minnesota State Historic Preservation Office, 1962. Minneapolis, University ofMinnesota, M.S. thesis, gles.” C.L. “Pleistocene geology ofthe St.PaulMatsch, Park and Prescott quadran- Iowa 1976. Officeofthe State City, Archaeologist, Report No. 9, R.C. AnInterpretativeThe Iowa Model. Mound Effigy Manifestation: Mallam, St.Paul. Department of Transportation, Minnesota 1993.Prepared Historical Society, for the Minnesota Department, Archaeology Minnesota. St.Paul: Mille LacsCounty, 21ML42, Site, and K.Bakken. Archaeological Data Recovery R., atthe Brook Bradbury Malik, 1910. Minneapolis, University ofMinnesota, Thesis, and Minneapolis.” Development River Mississippi Between atU.S. St.Paul Lock andNo. Dam 1, Je 1959. Minneapolis, of UniversityAnthropology, ofMinnesota, Je Minnesota Historical Society Collections. (1976)]. Minnesota, Bicentennial [CityofRamsey, project 1976.” in Ja Vo (1991). al reportFin to the Minnesota Historical Society for contract 90-C2443 O. C. “Radiocarbon Assays ofBonefrom the BrownsShane, Valley Skeleton.” Historical Society Collections (1986). Centennial “St. PaulYear UnionStockyards, Minnesota 1886-1986.” setto,Oi tt nvriy 1938. OhioState University, issertation, n,George W.andD. William vne, Timperley.Proposedof “Study Water Power sn P. S. “The Bremnson, e,Jean. written“The and published history asa ofRamsey /researched, mes, les on “ itr fHritIln. nulse yecit Division Unpublished typescript, John. “A Historyalters, ofHarrietIsland.” trw ad . le ono,and Mary Whelan. EldenThe Site Johnson, Schilling Randy E., ithrow, . Unpublished reporttentials prepared for the Ramsey County Historical k,B . Kn ole(1B6:ASrtfe,Multi-Component Site on AStratified, B. E. Coulee“King (21WB56): rkl, ge ,Rbr . CtaeGoeHsoy aipet”Heritage Education Robert APalimpsest.” C. “Cottage Grove History: l, on Sh he Mississippi and St.Paul: A PlanningStudyofInterpretive eet. er Village and Moun ie”Msestei,Department Masters thesis, d Site.” 186 Selected Bibliography ersonal Communication ersonal iggins, Communication, Personal Zone, David. Heritage Anthony Falls St. 187 P Society Historical Minnesota Communication. Personal F. Anfinson Scott (April 2000). McGuire, communication, Personal Charles. and Mississippi River National Area, Recreation (Spring 2000). W (April 2000). Society Historical Minnesota Archival Collections and Sources and Collections Archival Rapids Dam,Coon Center, Visitor files. historical Collections. Society Historical Minnesota Office files. Preservation Historic State Minnesota Administration, Records and 77. Group Archives Record National District,St. Paul of Engineers, Corps files. historical _____. “Hastings’_____. Contexts, Historic Report.” Final the to Submitted City of Hastings. Commission the and Preservation Hastings Heritage Research,Landscape 31, July 1993. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:26 AM Page 187 Page AM 8:26 8/5/03 557016_Book_r RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Endnotes Minnesota Geological Societyof Minnesota America Bulletin 12 R. V. “Glacial geology ofthe Dakota RuheCounty and area,” L.M.Gould, 1990). University ofMinnesota, Geological (St.Paul: Survey, eds., “Bedrock11 J. geology,” H.Mossler, Plate N. 2in H.Balabanand H.C.Hobbs, 1962). Minneapolis, University ofMinnesota, (M.S. thesis, rangles,” “Pleistocene geology ofthe St.Paul10 C.L.Matsch, Park and Prescott quad- p. 161. 1987), of Minnesota, University Minnesota (St.Paul: Geological Guidebook Survey, Series No. 15, and Wisconsin guidebook for Iowa, theUpper Mississippi Valley: Minnesota, “Quaternary geology ofsoutheastern in Minnesota,” 9 H.C.Hobbs, and postglacial time,” 8 W. “The history S. ofthe Cooper, upperRiver Mississippi late in Wisconsin pp. 57-70. 1971), YaleConnecticut: University Press, ed., Quaternary,” K. in Turekian, “Evidence for variation ofatmospheric7 M.Stuvier, C-14content the late in Folio 201, Atlas, W. Sardeson, Frederick 6 Academy ofNatural Sciences Bulletin 5 Frederick W. “Fossils the St.Peter in Sandstone,” Sardeson, 72pp. United States Geological (1929), Survey Professional Paper, “Moraines and Shorelines4 Frank ofthe Lake Leverett, Superior Basin,” Bulletin tural conditions ofthe south half ofMinnesota,” 3 Frank Leverett and Frederick W. “Surface formations and agricul- Sardeson, 1896). Government Office, Printing 658(Washington: Monograph 25, 2 WarrenUpham, 1888). state printers, &Harrison, Smith Final Report HistoryNatural Survey, 1 Newton H. Winchell, Chapter 1 see p. 1. uses thisas her title for Chapter 1, 1966), Minneapolis, published asThe Waterfall that aCity: Built The Falls ofSt. Anthony in originally 1987; Minnesota Historical Society Press, (St.Paul: Minneapolis, 5 Lucile M.Kane, files, toric Centennial Union Power Figure Dam Coon4 in History,” RapidsEarly “Railroads, ManagementPlan Comprehensive River3 Mississippi Coordinating and National Commission Park Service, Title National RiverVII -Mississippi and RecreationStat 4599, Area. 102 1988, November 18, Law Public 100-696, 2 Section 701.(a)Findings, William Lass, pp. 27-30; 1979), third printing Minnesota 1956, Historical Society, (St.Paul: vol. 1, William WattsMinnesota, Folwell, 117; 114, 104, 94, pp. 90, 1938), Press, TheMinnesota University Society ofMinnesota ofColonial Dames of America, withanintroduction by Grace Lee Nute. (Published for the E.Cross, Marion Southwest ofNewFrance by Order oftheKing 1 Preface ahrLusHnei’ ecito fLusaa Newly DiscoveredFather tothe LouisHennepin’s ofLouisiana, Description Geologic Geologic 4 Mnepls nvriyo inst,1919). University ofMinnesota, (Minneapolis: 14, Anoka UnionHerald County Atlas ofDakota County (1916). etme,16,Hnei ak,Co aisDm his- Coon RapidsDam, Hennepin Parks, 1965, September, , The Falls ofSt. Anthony: The Waterfall that Built The Glacial Lake Agassiz Minnesota Geological SurveyBulletin Minnesota Geology of Minnesota: Minnesota Geological and Minnesota ofMinnesota: Geology Minneapolis-St. Paul Folio: U. S.Geological Survey p 59-60. pp. AHistory, Minnesota, My19) pp. 7-9. (May 1995), , .2 Mnepls inst:Johnson, Minnesota: (Minneapolis, v. 2, , Late Cenozoic ages glacial .3 19) pp. 318-19. (1892), v. 3, , onyAlsSre -,Minnesota County Atlas Series C-6, , etme,1965. September, , Geological Society of America , Translated from by the original , .6,(1954)pp. 769-92. v. 65, , Minnesota Geological Survey Minnesota 6 13) 116pp. (1935), 26, (New Haven, Minnesota Anoka County A History of Field trip , Minnesota, in Eighty-Nine Sheets.” Eighty-Nine in Minnesota, RiverMississippi from the Mouth ofthe OhioRiver to Minneapolis, “Detail ofthe Map Upper River26 Mississippi (MRC), Commission U.S. PreparedArmy Corps ofEngineers(1991). for the St.Paul District, No. 44, for Minnesota Institute ArchaeologyMississippi River, Upperical ofLake study Pepin and theupper reaches Pool ofNavigation 4, 25 Clark A. Dobbsand H.D. Mooers, pp. 26-41. 1983), University ofMinnesota Press, (Minneapolis: 24 J. C. Knox, “Response of river systems to Holocene climates,” in Herbert E. Herbert in climates,” Holocene to systems ed., Jr., river Wright, of “Response Knox, C. J. 24 23 Ibid. 1952). Minnesota Press, Geological Survey Minnesota 35, Bulletin 22 J. H.Zumberge, 1990). Minnesota, University Minnesota of Geological Survey (St.Paul: C-5, Series AtlasCounty tts”i .C otr ed., S. C.Porter, in States,” Late Wisconsin glacial record ofthe the in United “The Jr., and H. W. D. S. Fullerton, Borns, Lee Clayton, 17 D. M.Mickelson, pp. 515-47. 1972), University ofMinnesota, Geological (St.Paul: Survey, and G.B.eds., Morey, P. “Quaternary in History ofMinnesota,” Jr., K.Sims, 16 Herbert E. Wright, pp. 134-62. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History 1974), Survey, iklo,eds., Mickelson, Driftless Area ofsouthwestern James in Wisconsin,” C.Knox and D. M. 15 James C.Knox and W. “Late Quaternary the alluviationin C.Johnson, St.Paul (1985). UniversitySurvey, ofMinnesota, Pleistocene evolution oftheUpper Mississippi Valley “History River ofthe Mississippi below in Jr., St.Paul,” 14 Herbert E. Wright, 608pp. second edition), 1932, (Madison, Natural History Survey Bulletin 36, 13 L.Martin, 7 prepared St.Paul for the Minnesota State Historic Preservation37, Office, Reports of Investigation No. and Structures: A ComprehensivePlanningSeries, 1630 A.D. -1820adocumentA.D.),” the in series MinnesotaHistory Sites in The Contact Period Contexts “Historic (Ca. Context Outlines: Clark A. Dobbs, Institute for Minnesota Archaeology, 1988); St.Paul (Minneapolis: Office, prepared for the MinnesotaInvestigation State Historic Preservation No. 37, History Sitesand in Structures: A ComprehensivePlanningSeries . Reports of (Ca.12,000B.P.Period -adocumentA.D. the in series 1700),” ofHistoric Contexts “Outline history. for the Prehistoric Clark A. Dobbs, from these contexts and other important sources onregional Native American informationpresentedOffice. Unless here otherwise has noted, been drawn early contact periods developed for the Minnesota State Historic Preservation 1 This isstructured discussion historic contexts using for the precontact and Chapter 2 .Sasn n .N ee,eds., and G.N. Meyer, L. Swanson, geology,” “Surficial R. W. and21 G.N. C.J. Plate Meyer, 3in Patterson, Baker, History 1984). Survey, Wisconsin Geological and Natural (Madison: Information Circular No. 46, 20 L.Clayton, (Inpress). during Heinrich events, ganization and J. D.19 H.D. Lehr, Mooers, 1988). Minneapolis, University ofMinnesota, (Ph.D. central Minnesota,” dissertation, of Late Wisconsin glaciation, “Quaternary history and ice dynamics ofthe18 H.D. St.Croix phase Mooers, 1983). University ofMinnesota Press, (Minneapolis: The physical Wisconsin geography Geological of and Wisconsin, litcn elg fteSpro ein Wisconsin Geologyof Pleistocene the Superior Region, Late Quaternary Environments States oftheUnited Late Quaternary Environments of Wisconsin The lakes ofMinnesota: Their originand classification. Geology ofMinnesota: A Centennial Volume The LatePleistocene A terrestrial record Ice Sheetreor- ofLaurentide Geologic Atlas Geologic A phase Iarchaeological andgeomorpholog- Mnepls University of (Minneapolis: , o.2 pp. 3-37, vol. 2, , of WashingtonCounty, Reports ofInvestigations , Minnesota Geological , (Madison: Minnesota Minnesota , Vol. 1 , , 188 Endnotes , Minnesota,p. 33 (1986):1-74. 36:3 (1938):227- The Schilling Site The 5:1 (1980):57-72. , No. Bulletin Science The Minnesota The , 1, vol. (St. Paul: Minnesota Emergent Horticultural Emergent . Minnesota,, A History pp. 58-59. (prepared for the Advisory Committee on Committee Advisory the for (prepared , Investigations, Archaeological for Center Minnesota,, A History pp. 56-57. A History of Minnesota A History ; P. S. Jenson,Village Bremer “The and Mound Site,” Iowa Journal of History and Politics and of History Journal Iowa Spring Lake Archeology , pp. 22-23; Lass, Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology of Midcontinental Journal Journal of the Iowa Archaeological Society Archaeological of the Iowa Journal What this awl means: feminist archaeology at a Wahpeton at a feminist means: this awl archaeology What The Sheffield Site: An Oneota Site on the St. Croix River the St. Croix An Oneota Site on Sheffield Site: The Spring Lake Archeology: The Spring The Sorg Site Archeology: Lake History of the Santee Sioux: United States Indian Policy on Policy Sioux: United States Indian of the Santee History The Iowa Effigy MoundAn Interpretative Iowa Manifestation: The (St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1993). 19:2 (1954):17-24. The Sorg Site Sorg The Minnesota, 13; p. Lass, Minnesota, France, of New pp. governor-general new The 16-18. Minnesota Minnesota,, A History 58. p. (Lincoln: Press, of University 1967). 3 Folwell, Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series No. 11, No. Series Archaeology (St. Paul: Prehistoric Minnesota Minnesota Society,Historical 1973). Time: Mist of the Through Indians Ioway at the Wedel, “Peering M. 29 Mildred 1700,” 1630 - circa (Master’s thesis,(Master’s of Minnesota, University Minneapolis, 1959). E. Gibbon, 28 Guy 30 Mildred Mott, “The Relationship of Historic Indian Tribes to Archaeological to Mott,30 Mildred Tribes Indian of Historic Relationship “The in Iowa,” Manifestations 314; EarthA. Dobbs, in Blue River the Clark Patterns Settlement “Oneota dissertation, (Ph.D. of Minnesota, University Valley,” Minneapolis, 1984). Meyer, W. 31 Roy Trial D.32 Janet Spector, villageDakota 3 Chapter Folwell, Watts 1 William Society,Historical 1956, printing third 1979), 1, pp. 4-7; Lass, William & Co., Norton Minnesota, 1998;W. , A History York: W. 1st edition (New 1977), 56. p. 2 Folwell, Baude, de Louis Frontenac, de in history,” figure Canadian comte greatest “the Folwell, off journey. on their Joliet and Marquette send would 19; Lass, 4 Folwell, 17 B. E. Perkl,17 B. (21WB56): “King Coulee A Stratified, Site Multi-Component Pepin,on Lake County, thesis, Minnesota,” Wabasha (Master’s of University Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1996). Taylor, and 18 Johnson of dating means with a new archaeologists provides of pottery advent The 19 points, As with projectile cultures. archaeological distinguishingand between form,the space. time and composition, over vary pottery of decoration and Wilford,A. Shelter,” Rock Moille 20 Lloyd La “The Archaeologist Johnson,Withrow, Elden E. 21 Randy Whelan, Mary and (21WA1), Grove, Cottage Minnesota Preservation,Historic Grove, Cottage Minnesota, 1987). Johnson, 22 Elden 3, part 3, (St. Paul, Institute, Minnesota: St. Paul of the Museum Science The 1959). in Gibbon,23 Guy Transition A. H. Caine, C. and Woodland Late to Middle “The Minnesota,” Eastern Arzigian,24 C. M. in Economies of Horticultural Emergence “The Keegan, F. ed., Wisconsin,” in W. Southwestern Woodlands Eastern of the Economies 7, No. Paper Occasional (Carbondale: Illinois Southern University, 1987), pp. 217-42, Caine,25 Gibbon and Woodland.” Late to Middle “The 26 R. C. Mallam, ,Model 9, No. Report Archaeologist, City (1976). State Office of the Iowa 27 Johnson, , The , Minnesota No. 49 (1937); No. (St. Paul: (Minneapolis: Late Quaternary 45:1 (1986): 3-36. 102 (1990):1646-1657. Data Recovery Investigation Croix of the St. Data Recovery Spring Lake Archeology: The Spring The Lee Archeology: MillLake Cave chaeologist , Minnesota Prehistoric Archaeology Series No. , Series Archaeology Prehistoric Minnesota ane, Continuous Record “A Eolian of Holocene Minnesota Ar The Mississippi and St. Paul: A Planning Study of Interpretive St. Paul: and Mississippi The , Series,Archaeology 11 (St. Paul: Prehistoric No. Minnesota , 2 (St. Paul: Department, vols. Archaeology Minnesota The Itasca Bison Kill Site: An Ecological Analysis An Ecological Bison Kill Site: Itasca The Aspects of Upper Great Lakes Anthropology: Papers in Honor of in Honor Papers Anthropology: Lakes Great Upper of Aspects The Archaeology of Petaga Point: The Preceramic Component Preceramic The Point: of Petaga Archaeology The Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association Anthropological American Memoirs of the 189 (Minneapolis: 1988);Archaeology, Minnesota for Institute Johnson, Elden Prehistoric Peoples of Minnesota Peoples Prehistoric 3 (St. Paul: Society, Historical 1988; Minnesota edition); 3rd revised A. Jalbert , David F. Richards, of Overstreet, D. Inventory John and Resources Cultural 10, Mississippi River, Pool Upper the to Anthony Falls St. Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota,and 384 (Milwaukee, No. Wisconsin: of Investigations Reports Center, Research Inc.,Archaeological Lakes Great 1996), S. U. the for prepared Engineers, of Army Corps District. St. Paul Webb, III,T. 2 Cushing, J. E. Wright, and Herb E. Jr., in the Changes “Holocene Midwest,” in of the H.Vegetation Wright, E. Jr., ed., Holocene The of the United States,Environments 2: Volume Press, of Minnesota University 1983), 142-65. pp. rather (B.P.) present before in years measured is generally history 3 Precontact In this system, years. inthan calendar “present” at 1950. is set point”“Projectile 4 arrowheads, classify to used is a term darts, spearheads or of stone, out fashioned generally of wood, out but sometimes bone, copper. or space, time and over point differed can forms projectile archaeologists Because Often, cultures. archaeological espe- distinguish and between date to use them history, points American projectile of Native periods cially during earliest the aims. accomplish these to have archaeologists means the are from Points Projectile K. Higginbottom,of Fluted 5 D. Inventory “An Plains Conference,Annual 54th at the Minnesota,” Iowa presented a paper City, Iowa, 1996. Minnesota,” of Northern Steinbring, in Elden 6 J. Archaeology Preceramic “The Johnson, ed., Lloyd A. Wilford Lloyd Minnesota Historical Society, Historical 1974),Minnesota 64-73. pp. Burial Associated Man and Valley A. E. Jenks,7 Brown’s “Minnesota’s Artifacts,” Bradbury Brook at the Recovery Data R. Malik K. Bakken, and “Archaeological Site, 21ML42, Lacs County, Mille Minnesota,” (St. Paul: Archaeology Department, Society, Historical 1993), Minnesota Minnesota the for prepared Transportation, of Department St. Paul. Skeleton,” Valley C. Shane, 8 O. Browns the of Bone from Assays “Radiocarbon 90-C2443 contract for Society Historical Minnesota the to final report (1991); Malik Bakken, and Site.” “Bradbury Brook from Changes Florin,Vegetation 9 Frank and of Minnesota Paleo-Indians “Late thesis, (Master’s 2 vols. of Minnesota, 10,500-8,000 BP,” University Minneapolis, 1996). 10 Ibid, 191. p. Zellie, 11 Carole Society, Historical (1971);Minnesota G. Michlovic, Michael Archaeology “The Canningof the Site,” ,Potentials (1988). Society Historical County Ramsey the for prepared 12 K. L. Keen, L. C. K. Sh Shay, T. 13 C. Activity and Vegetation Change at Lake Ann, at Lake Change Minnesota,” East-Central Vegetation Activity and BulletinAmerica Society of Geological Bleed, 14 P. Prehistoric Archaeology Series (St. Paul: Series Society,1969). Archaeology Historical Minnesota Prehistoric E. Myster, Hoffman J. and W. 15 B. River Access Access Site,River Archaic and A Multicomponent 21WA49: Woodland Habitation Site Society,Historical 1993). Taylor, S. P. and Johnson 16 Elden Science Bulletin No. 3, No. Bulletin Science part 2, (St. Paul, Minnesota: of the Museum Science The Institute,St. Paul 1956). RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area 7 Folwell, 6 Hennepin, Folwell, 104; pp. 94, 1938), University ofMinnesota Press, Discovered tothe Southwest ofNewFrance by Order oftheKing 5 Louis Hennepin, 12 Folwell, p. 23. 1984), Press, theUpper Mississippi 1650-1862 Valley, in Clayton11 Gary Anderson, 10 Folwell, p. 118. 9 Ibid., 8 Hennepin, enyvna .&A ord o,11) p ,1,22-24. 14, pp. 1, 1810), &Co., C.& A. Conrad, Pennsylvania: An Account totheSources ofExpeditions oftheMississippi from Zebulon Pike, 1966; Inc., University Microfilms, Michigan: (Ann Arbor, 32 Zebulon Pike, p. 24. reprinted 1980), 1967; University ofNebraska Press, History oftheSantee StatesIndian Sioux:United Policy (Lincoln: on Trial, 31 Lass, 13 Folwell, 30 Folwell, Anderson, pp. 47-50; “Narrative,” 29 Pond, see Parker,on Carver’s goals, Traders oftheNorthwest ed., “The Narrative28 Peter ofPeter Charles in Pond, M.Gates, Pond,” 27 Anderson, p. 116. blanket seeking peace. Ibid., the Chippewa had sent abelt and hebeaver says, 26 Onlyashort timebefore, pp. 117-18. 25 Ibid., 120. pp. 115-17, 24 Ibid., pp. 92-94. 23 Ibid., 22 Parker, 21 Lass, pp. 8-9. 1976), Minnesota Historical Society Press, Minnesota: (St.Paul, The Journals ofJonathan 1766-1770, Carver and Related Documents, 20 Anderson, 19 Lass, pp. 25-26. 18 Ibid., p. 53. 17 Ibid., see p. 48. defeat, onthe mythofthe Sioux awaying pp. the woodlands 47-48; from the Dakota, 16 Anderson, 15 Anderson, 14 Lass, .8;Anderson, p. 82; AHistory, Minnesota, itr,p. History, 71. A Minnesota, p. 43. AHistory, Minnesota, p. History, 41. A Minnesota, .3;Lass, p. 30; Minnesota, p 90-91. pp. Carver, p 64;Lass, 36-41; pp. Minnesota, 37-39. pp. Minnesota, p 67-68. pp. Minnesota, Lass, 44-52; pp. Minnesota, Description ofLouisianaDescription Description ofLouisianaDescription p. 73. Kinsmen, Folwell, 66-67; pp. Kinsmen, problems withthe Chippewa stories oftak- 26-27; pp. Kinsmen, 23-25. pp. Kinsmen, Sources oftheMississippi and the Western Louisiana Territory ahrLusHnei’ ecito fLusaa Newly Father LouisHennepin’s ofLouisiana, Description MneoaHsoia oit rs,16) pp. 44-46; 1965), (Minnesota Historical Society Press, ise fAohrKn,Dakota-White Relations of Kinsmen Another Kind, p 7-15. pp. Carver, p 59-60. pp. AHistory, Minnesota, p 0 1,17 Folwell, 117; 114, 90, pp. , p. 117. , p. 60. AHistory, Minnesota, p 3 65. pp. 63, AHistory, Minnesota, .5;Jh akr ed., John Parker, p. 53; Minnesota, Lnon University ofNebraska (Lincoln: , p 63-64. pp. Kinsmen, .7;Roy W. p. Meyer, 79; Kinsmen, Philadelphia, , p 27-29. pp. Minnesota, Mnepls The (Minneapolis: , p. 30. Minnesota, Five Fur , ertr fWr ne h omn fSehnH og U.S.T.E.Secretary of War, under theCommand ofStephenH.Long, Performed the in Year &c, Woods, 1823by theOrder oftheHon. J. C.Calhoun, Lake ofthe totheSourceExpedition oftheSt.Peter’s Lake Winnepeek, River, narrative ofLong’s 1823expedition. See William H.Keating, 48 The account ofLong’s effortto beat Pike comes from William H.Keating’s pp.92-95. Kinsmen, 47 Anderson, 46 Lass, 45 Anderson, Anderson, p. 56; “Narrative,” 44 Pond, 56. pp. 44, “Narrative,” 43 Pond, stayedlife the same. important partsofthe Native American way and yet, of American expansion, acknowledge that important changes occurred asaresult ofEuropean and tures the dilemma manyNative American historians faced. They had to essentially thebetween same the timeofPond and andAinse Pike. This cap- says that overall the eastern Sioux population and lifestylehe remained 81, onpage Then, thetwo decades since Ainse’s visit.” changesiderable over 7Ii. pp. 96-98. 57 Ibid., 56 Anderson, History Happened to Fountain Cave–the Real Birthplace ofSt.Paul?” “St.Paul Underground–What see Greg Brick, tory ofFountain Cave, p. 68.For anin-depthhis- quote, pp. 68-69, Northern Expeditions, 55 Kane, 54 Keating, 1967):8-12. 4:2 (Fall, Historic Site or What Ramsey County History Happened to Carver’s Cave?” seepened Charles toT. Carver’s “Caseofthe Cave, Burnley, Vanishing 53 Kane, p. 67. 52 Ibid., 51 Kane, 50 Keating, Related Documents theJournals of1817and 1823and Northern ofStephenH.Long, Expeditions edited, and Carolyn Gilman, June D. Holmquist, 49 Lucile M.Kane, 2O ae7,Anderson, 79, page On 42 41 Anderson, 40 Anderson, see pp. 92-93for fullstatement. p. 93; 39 Ibid., p. 28. 38 Ibid., quote p. 93. 93-94; pp. 30, 37 Ibid., quote p. 30. pp. 29-30; 36 Ibid., 35 Pike, go to the Mississippi River. the Mississippi Meyer, to go Wabasha.River thathadonce beenWabasha headed by hadleft thisvillage to Fils dePinchow orPinichon was th Meyer, pp. 24-26; 34 Ibid., pp. 23-24. 33 Ibid., 94(itr 1995):4-15. 29:4 (Winter, p. 84. AHistory, Minnesota, Sources oftheMississippi Northern Expeditions Northern Expeditions Narrative Narrative ut .8,see pp. 80-81. quote p. 81, Kinsmen, p 59,see footnote 68onO’Fallon’s account. 95-96, pp. Kinsmen, p 79;Lass, 87-91; pp. Kinsmen, 84-85. pp. Kinsmen, S.Pu:MneoaHsoia oit rs,17) p. 66. 1978), Minnesota Historical Society Press, (St.Paul: , p. 300. , 297-98. pp. , says that the tribe “had undergone con- Kinsmen, Santee p 76,69.For anaccount ofwhat hap- 67-68, pp. , quote p. 66. 65-67; pp. , p. 24. , p 52;Anderson, 25-26; pp. , Santee e leader ofavil p. 79. Kinsmen, p. 83. AHistory, Minnesota, p. 25. , lage uptheMi p. 80.Le Kinsmen, Ramsey County Ramsey Narrative ofanNarrative p. 297. , nnesota The 190 Endnotes , ,Canoe 74-75. Wisconsin Narrative of an ExpeditionNarrative of an , (Washington, D.C.: U.S. , (Minneapolis: University Upper Mississippi,Upper Wilderness A , B, Appendix of Navigation Opening Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers, Annual Report , 24; p. Keating, , 249; p. Merrick,Times, Old 232. p. before 1847. Military supplies and furs would ,Canoe pp. 106-7. Old Times on the Upper Mississippi: The Recollections The Mississippi: the Upper on Times Old From Canoe to Steel Barge Canoe From River Engineers of the Middle Mississippi: A History of A History Engineers Mississippi: of the Middle River Structures in the Stream,Structures Science, Water, the Rise of the and A Wilderness Saga A Wilderness History of Transportation on the Upper Mississippi & Illinois Mississippi the Upper on Transportation of History ,Canoe 103. p. 73:1-2 (March-June, 1992):71, 20 boats only about that says ,Old Times 15. p. ,Old Times not 162, p. were 1857 there 1852 to “From that says Sources of the Mississippi Sources ,York: Company, Rinehart; & Farrar Ives (New and Little York: J. J. New Annual Report, 1877, 528. p. Annual Report,Annual 1881, 2746. p. p. 297. 13 Havighurst, Army, of Engineers, Corps 14 U.S. 1872, (Washington, D.C.: Printing Office, Government 1876-1940), 309. p. 15 16 Merrick, 17 Ibid., 18-19, pp. 29-30. 18 Ibid., 35. p. 19 Ibid., xii-xiii, pp. 35, 80, 83, 240. dominate the much smaller steamboat trade above Galena. above trade steamboat smaller much the dominate Merrick, Byron 2 George 1854 to 1863 Pilot from of a Steamboat at St. Paul, 1844-1862, (St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1987), p. at St. of boats number the and arrivals or lists number 295. Merrick the differ slightly arrivals those for from His figures years. of these each for Paul in 1857 965 arrivals for counting 2.1. He lists 99 boats Table of Dixon in in 1858. 1,090 arrivals the for as accounting 62 boats and 3 Hartsough, 4 Ibid., 101-2. pp. 5 Merrick, newly-opened the into flocking were who people the carry to enough boats paradise.” lumbermans' farmers' and Tweet, 6 Roald ,Rivers Printing Office, (Washington: Government U.S. 1983), 21-22; Petersen, Cargoes,” “Captains and 228, 234-38; Hartsough, tour.”“fashionable the take to came Some easterners Arriving or in St. Louis bank, east river's on the railheads traveled at other excursionists these upstream,Anthony Falls, St. to sometimes (see beauty imbibing river's the Havighurst, Walter references). above the Saga 1944), 166; p. Hartsough, Mississippi Illinois Upper and on the Transportation of Tweet, “History 7 Rivers,” 22. p. Dobney, J. 8 Frederick the St. Louis District, of Engineers Corps Army U.S. Printing Office,Government 1978), 33. p. Dodd, S. Wynelle United of the and Statistics Historical Dodd B. 9 Donald Midwest,Alabama Press, The of States, II University (The Vol. 1790-1970. 1973), 2, pp. 10, 22, 46. 10 Petersen, “Captains,” 235; on the p. Transportation of Tweet, “History Mississippi IllinoisUpper and Rivers,” 21-22. pp. Shallat, 11 Todd of Engineers Corps ,Army U.S. (Austin:Texas, of University 1994), 141. p. 12 Pike, 32; Hartsough, Mildred Press,of Minnesota 1934), 65-66; of Navigation pp. History Tweet, “A Roald Rapids,” Island District, Rock on the Island (Rock Improvements Army U.S. of Engineers,Corps April 1980):2; Jensen, Stream: the O. Down “Gently John Mississippi Northern on the Transportation of History the An Inquiry into Resources,” Cultural Submerged for Potential the and River Archeologist were Galena operating above , pp. 60-61. 12 (October, , 29. p. 13 (1929_30):227- Little Crow, Spokesman Little Crow Historic Lifestyles in the Historic chaeologist Little Crow Minnesota,, A History 84; p. Kinsmen, pp. 187-89. Kinsmen, pp. 189-90. , (St. Paul: Historical Minnesota Kinsmen, pp. 192-94. Steamboating the Upper on Minnesota,, A History 86; p. Steve ,Little Crow 64. p. Minnesota Ar , pp. 30, 32, III Crow Little that suggests ,America, of York: Press University (New A History of the Rock Island District, Island of the Rock A History Army, U.S. Wisconsin Magazine of History Magazine Wisconsin , 61. p. , 65, pp. 66; Idem., , pp. 66-67; Idem., , 56. p. , pp. 69-75. Kinsmen, 128. p. , pp. 302-03. Little Crow Kinsmen, Chapter 7; Babcock,Villages,” 137. “Sioux p. Kinsmen, pp. 155, 158. Little Crow ,Little Crow pp. 61-63 ; Idem., Kinsmen, 189; p. Idem., Little Crow Little Crow Kinsmen, 101. p. Little Crow Kinsmen, pp. 180-82; 184-87; Idem., ,Little Crow pp. 25-26; M. Babcock, Willoughby Jr., “Sioux Kinsmen, pp. 107-10, 130; Idem., Little Crow Kinsmen, pp. 99, 101-02; Lass, Kinsmen, 106 ; p. Anderson, Gary Clayton Narrative Minnesota, pp. 138-40; Lass, Minnesota, 140. p. FortWilderness of the Snelling: Colossus 73 Anderson, 68 Anderson, 69 Ibid., 159-60, pp. 162, 165-66, 174-76. 70 Babcock,Villages,” 137, “Sioux p. that those who say Kaposia argues list of 1834,” he “Taliaferro’s wrong. are 1837 treaty the after moved Kaposia of the band, insists, as head [Wakinyantanka] this chief “shows Snelling.’” Fort below Mississippiof the 9 miles and ‘West Furthermore, he list of 1834,contends,Taliaferro his similar “The by however, reinforced on his manuscript band map of the of 1835,locating conclusively prove 1834.” prior to place took removal the that after writes Although he Babcock, Anderson, 74 Ibid., 62. p. 75 Anderson, 77 Anderson, 66 Quoted in Anderson, in 66 Quoted 67 Anderson, 76 Anderson, 78 Anderson, Society Press,Society 1987). 60 Anderson, 61 Ibid., 103-04. pp. 62 Keating, in 1838 as a river Kaposia the across moved Thunder) Big or (Wakinyantanka 1837 treaty. of the result 71 Anderson, 72 Anderson, Hall, 63 Anderson, the Sioux,for (St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1986), 27. p. 64 Anderson, Villages in Minnesota prior to 1837,” prior to in Minnesota Villages 1945):136. 65 Anderson, 1983), 23-25; pp. Tweet, of Engineers,Corps 1866-1983, Printing (Washington: Government U.S. Office, 1984), 39; p. Petersen, J. William ,Mississippi City: of Iowa, Society (Iowa Historical State 1968), The 206- pp. 09, 209, 246; Petersen, of Early Upper J. William Cargoes “Captains and Mississippi Steamboats,” Upper Mississippi River Valley River Mississippi Upper Chapter 4 Chapter Anne Mosher-Sheridan, Settlement and A. Lanegran European 1 David “The Valley: Mississippi Cairo, Upper River of the Illinois, Itasca, Lake to ed., 1860,”Wozniak to S. Minnesota–1540 in John 79 Anderson, Folwell, 59 Folwell, 58 Anderson, 191 RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Wisconsin and Arts Letters Academy ofSciences, before the Civil “RailroadsWar, ofthe Old Northwest, Frederic L.Paxson, pp. 29-30; 1909), Government Office, Printing (Washington: DocumentNational No.Waterways 11, Commission, U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers Paul District, 26 Raymond Merritt, pp. 152-53. 1913), Government Office, Printing D.C.: (Washington, 1491, Doc. No. 3dsess., 62nd Cong., vol.Improvement 1, ofRivers and Harbors, Laws ofthe United States Relating to the House, 25 U.S. Congress, p. 44. 1938, OhioState University, Ph.D. dissertation, 1866-1933,” “A History24 Edward ofRivers and Harbors L.Pross, Appropriation Bills, and the fallsreceded. limestone broke large in slabs, off the sandstone out from underneath the limestone atthe edge ofthe falls, below thismantle lay asoftsandstone layer. As water and ice eroded the downtown St.Paul. A thick limestone mantle formed the riverbed. Just St. Anthony Falls10,000 yearsstretched ago, across the river valley near 23 Shortly after the glaciers withdrew from southern Minnesota some p.161. A WildernessSaga, Havighurst, p. 18. 1931), CassCounty Pioneer, Minnesota: (Walker, Minnesota Pioneer, [Nathan] Daly, 22 Capt. “Nate” that “piloting was not somuch atrade asamiracle.”159, p.that early steamboating was and, ofmen“a triumph more than machines,” 21 Merrick, 95. pp. 93, 20 Ibid., William Cronon, hcg,vaarudbu ot,in viaaroundabout route, Chicago, and then from Springfieldto 1852, in Illinois, from Alton to Springfield, shows that the railroad completed whom he cites, tracks However, Paxson, Riverthe Mississippi Alton and wasSt.Louis1852-53. in the Chicago, says that therailroad first toW. reach p. 296, W. 1991), Norton &Company, 36 Frank Dixon, Haigh p. 27. 35 Ibid., “Survey ofUpperRiver,” p. Mississippi 34 House25. Ex.Doc. No. 58, 33 and Dams,” “The Secret32 John History Locks Earliest O. ofthe Mississippi's Anfinson, p. 5. Ex.Doc. No. 58, 2dSession, Congress, report ofthe surveys 39th ofthe Upperriver Mississippi and itstributaries,” withGeneral Warren’s report transmitting ofthe Chief ofEngineers, 1866, Secretary of War ofDecember answer 20, in to aresolution ofthe House, Letter “Survey from the ofUpperRiver, Mississippi House, 31 U.S. Congress, Transportation Routes p. to the Seaboard,” 455. 30 p. 18. 29 Ibid., pp. 17-18. House Ex.Doc. No. 58, 2d sess., “Survey ofUpperRiver,” Mississippi 39th Congress, House, 28 U.S. Congress, 27 see Dobney,river; when St.Louis became the new officefor the middleCincinnati until1873, the middle stayed Mississippi withthe Officeof Western Improvements in Duties for pp. 67-68; 1984), U.S. Government(Washington: Office, Printing Roald Tweet, 1979); Office, Printing mrc,18) .8,says therailroad first reached p. River the Mississippi 84, at 1983), America, theUpper in Lifestyles Mississippi River Valley Points the in Upper Mississippi Valley,” John (in S. Wozniak ed., Terminals and Nexus F.“Thetion until1854.Gary Railroads: Browne, 87 p. 260. 1867, Annual Report , “Reports on Appendix CC, Vol. 2, Part 2, 1875, Annual Report , p. 262. 1867, Annual Report , Minnesota History .10 Havighurst, p. 100; Old Times, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and theGreat West p 44-45. pp. River, Engineers Creativity, Conflict &Controversy: Conflict A History oftheSt. Creativity, A Traffic History ofthe Mississippi River System 54:6 (Summer 1995):254-67. Tracks and Trails: ofa theLife Incidentsin 1853, but did notha butdid 1853, A History ofRock Island District Wsigo:U.S. Government (Washington: , A WildernessSaga (New University PressYork: of , 7(94:5-0 269-71. 17 (1914):257-60, Transactions ofthe eteln nopera- in theline ve .18 says p. 158, , Historic (New York: , , , okIln nFbur 2 1854.Petersen,Rock Island onFebruary 22, Seaboard 52 Woods, Alexander and failed leader, Republican to Ramsey, get reelected. he quarreled withMinnesota's senior 6 years 1868, Butin asaRepublican. lieutenant governor. Hemoved onto represent Minnesota the in U.S. House for Donnelly had p. become 293. Minnesota'sWhile histwenties, stillin 51 Ibid., p. 290. 1963), 1975, Minnesota Press, 50 Blegen, 49 Woods, 48 p. 22. 47 Ibid., p. 21. 1971), Greenwood Corporation, Publishing Revolution and American Foreign 1860-1900 Policy, 46 Harold B. Schonberger, 45 Woods, pp. 108-9. 44 Ibid., 43 Buck, itly approved while others didso. ment that Kelley actively pushed economic and political solutions and/or tac- supports and greatly expands argu- onBarns' Chapters 7and 8, 1991), Press, ofthe Grange Origins historians admit. Thomas A. Woods, amore radical from mind organization the in outset than Buck and other had came away and that Kelley from hissouthern withthe trip idea for the Grange, Kelley's niece. alsoargues Barns that Kelley Hall, particularly ofMissCarrie recognizing creditstheBarns role Kelley ofothers, withfoundingthe Grange, or didevents force the Grange thatit became way? the early during 1870s, Kelley did want to make the Grange into thely his? radicalAnd, organization was the ideaGrange throughofthe onhistrip Grange the South? real- Second, addresses three issues concerning Kelley.did Kelley get the idea for the First, History AReappraisal,”Hudson Kelley and the Genesis ofthe Grange: “Oliver William D. Barns, pp. 40-42; 1933), Harvard University Press, 1870-1880 Economic and Social Manifestations, Its Political, 42 Solon J. Buck, 41 Hartsough, 40 Hartsough, Dixon, 1920):496; Magnate,”A Mississippi “Steamboating onthe Upperafter Mississippi the39 Lester Civil War: Shippee, andthem. he lists the river by 1877, says that there were fourteen p. bridges 46, across 1977), University of Texas, (Austin, Master’sChannel ofUpperRiver Mississippi toThesis, 1939,” “The Corps ofEngineers and Navigation ImprovementsPatrick Brunet, onthe saying that there were thirteen bridges across River the Mississippi by 1880, to38 Contrary mosthistories that follow Dixon, p. 517. 1924), Press, 37 Frederic Paxson, ognizes the railroad atRock Island astheto first reach the river. Grant. Well “this he had warned aware the Senate that, unrest, ofthe agrarian 54 The Senate alsoconsidered awarning from RepublicanPresident Ulysses 53 Salisbury, pp. 123-24. 1993), (New University PressYork: of America, Government, St. LouisDemocrat 1(uy16)293. hogothsatce(p 2-2,Barns 41 (July 1967):229-30. Throughout hisarticle(pp. 229-42), p xxx -0 Robert S. Salisbury, 3-30; ix-xix, pp. , p. 108. Granger Movement, inst,AHistory ofthe State Minnesota, p 4,115,15 Schonberger, 155; 151-52, 148, pp. , Knights p. 141. , Knights 138-39. pp. , Knights William Windom p 9-7 9;Tweet, 199; 196-97, pp. Canoe, p 9,203. 197, pp. Canoe, Granger Movement, A Study of AStudy andAgricultural Organization Granger Movement, A TrafficHistory Ciao The Riverside (Chicago: 1763-1893, , nRpbia Ideology Republican in a 4ad1,1873. 14and 15, May , Mississippi Valley Historical Review Transportation totheSeaboard: The Communication p. 113. , .4;Hartsough, p. 49; , Knights ofthePlow:Knights Oliver Kelley and the Ae:Iowa State University (Ames: , Mnepls University of (Minneapolis: , ila idm ApostleofPositive William Windom, Steamboating History of Transportation .4,in p. 48, A TrafficHistory, Wspr,Connecticut: (Westport, , p 48,91. 84-85, pp. Canoe, Transportation tothe 6:4 (March .28 alsorec- p. 298, , (Cambridge: , Agricultural 38-39. , 192 Endnotes St. , pp., 155-56; Survey of the of Survey , 58, Doc. Exec. ,St. Anthony 94. p. illiam W. Eastman,illiam W. John 54:6 (Summer 1995):254-67. 54:6 (Summer Annual Report, 1890, 2034, p. , pp. 92-93; Kane, 312. p. “Rivalry,” Laws of the United States Laws ,St. Anthony 96. In 1869, p. a tunnel operators W operators Annual Report, 1892, pp. 1780-81. In Annual Report, 1874, 287. p. St. Anthony Minnesota History ,St. Anthony 96, p. never state the points that out , 141, the p. that it appeared “When that says Laws of the United States RelatingLaws to the Improvement , pp. 259, 262; Survey of the Upper Mississippi River Mississippi of the Upper Survey , 141. p. Creativity Creativity ,St. Anthony 93. p. Annual Report, 1891, 2154. p. Annual Report, 1873, 411; p. Annual Report, 1891, 2154; p. Mackenzie, Annual Report, 1890, 2034; p. Annual Report, 1894, pp. 1682-83; Congress, U.S. Senate, “Construction Annual Reports, 1867 71 U.S. Congress,71 U.S. House, 39th Cong., 2d sess., 46; p. Kane, 72 H. Exec. Doc. 58, Doc. 72 H. Exec. 45-46. pp. 73 Kane, 58, Ex. Doc. 74 House 45. p. 75 Ibid., 47. p. 76 Anfinson, History,” “Secret 77 58, Doc. H. Exec. 30, pp. Chief of Engineers, the to report 50-52. In his next a sec- build to have would Corps the that showed surveys new that stated Warren dam, and lock ond Creek, of Minnehaha mouth the it near locating one- about 1; Dam and No. Lock Congress, mile below half U.S. see House, , River Mississippi Upper 247, Doc. Exec. 40th Cong., 2d sess., 9. p. 78 Kane, 312-15, pp. 315; “Rivalry,” p. from quote Kane, 79 Kane, 316. p. “Rivalry,” E. McNair,William included businessmen M. St. Paul Eugene The 80 Ibid. Wilson, King, S. William Meeker, Kane Murphy,Atwater. Isaac and Edward says, himself, for company of the some shares retained as did his friends. 81 Ibid., waterpower included amendment the to 318-19. Opponents pp. were with them Allied Chute. Richard and Washburn D. William magnates company and boom operators sawmill Support Martin, Bassett. Farnham, B. Joel A. Lovejoy, and W. James Sumner stockholders, company's the and from came boosters project the for navigation Kane, city business leaders. company. the grant the to transferred 82 Kane, 319-320; pp. “Rivalry,” Kane, Due island. the just below collapsed Island Nicollet falls to of the toe the from to of this tunnel, away. collapse the of eroding in danger was Anthony Falls St. falls. the save to on a project working of Engineers was Corps The its 83 Kane, recognized 322, p. government “Rivalry,” federal the that suggests authorizing the in $25,000 for 1873 by navigation obligation improving for Merritt, project. be not Manufacturing and Company would Improvement Mississippi River able to conflicts, over its internal project the give to resolve decided Congress to of Engineers.” Corps the to Congress pushed who discusses author Neither project. the authorize 84 85 Merritt, 86 over area of the examinations several completed had Corps the that reported river of the year, last the Minneapolis representatives with the “in company interests.” 87 surveys”“accurate of 1891, more July and of June even out carried Mackenzie Line Short the to warehouse Minneapolis steamboat the from river most of the River; Minnesota the to down areas of select and Island Meeker below bridge see 88 Dams and in Mississippi 53d Cong., the River,” of Locks 2d sess., Doc. Exec. 109,No. 7-8. pp. Congress,89 U.S. House, , Harbors and of Rivers 2, vol. Cong., 62nd 3d sess., 1491, No. Doc. (Washington, D.C.: Printing Office, Government 1913), 704. Kane, p. ,Anthony 175, p. coveted, facilities they navigation per- of the “Deprived says Annual Letter from Letter Select , Annual Report , 29. p. , Minnesota History may have done some work with some work done have may The Corps,The the Environment, and The Falls of St. Anthony: The Anthony: of St. Falls The 1872, 310. p. Annual Report, 1869, 237; p. , pp. 68-74; Carroll, Jane “Dams and work had included 1,600 feet of wing 1,600 feet included had work , 59th Cong., sess., 2nd 341, No. H. Doc. Transportation to the Seaboard Transportation Creativity Caffrey’s , 140; M. Kane, Lucile 37:8 (December 1961):309-23. 310-11. 37:8 (December Select Committee,Select 243. p. ,Minnesota History (Spring, 1990):4-5. Creativity the rule has been to place them, been to place the rule has in straight reaches, five-sevenths of the reaches, in curved width apart; channel the concave on proposed one-half W.A. Engineer Assistant sides. convex the the full width on sides and (the present project to the adapted is better gives a rule which Thompson 6-foot channel), the dams the full in in he places straightwhich reaches width apart, side channel the convex on cent 25 per increasing the space side, the concave on diminishing cent and it 25 per the depending on at the following be pointed upstream should Wings of curvature. degree angles: 105N to 110N, in straight reaches, 100N to 102N in concave, 90N to 100N in convex, practicable, where located be so they should and prolonged their axes that in meet the center would of the channel. Annual Report, 1875,Caffrey The 302. p. Annual Report, 1880, 1495. p. Annual Report, 1895, pp. 2103-04; 193 68 Ibid., 310-12. pp. 69 Ibid., 311. p. 70 Merritt, , Built Minneapolis that Waterfall (St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1987), 92-93; pp. Kane, 311-12; pp. “Rivalry,” during that these Kane adds This required the get sought to had extended. Meeker date completion years some delay. also caused Committee, 7; p. Schonberger, 1871 season, the for In his report closing dams earlier. Wm. Captain the that Hillhouse reported of is no mention there and this work for a location provide not dams. He does Annual Report reports,it in later however. 1906, to left 61 Before largely was arrangement the of problem important the Congress, S. in U. As cited engineers. local of House, judgment the Report, 1901, 2309; p. H. Merritt, Raymond Basin, River Mississippi the Upper Printing (Washington: Government U.S. Office, 1984), 1; p. Merritt, Damages: States, Ojibway, United the The Mississippi the and Headwaters Reservoirs,” M. Kane,67 Lucile Mississippi,” a River: the for and Cities “Rivalry Twin the Minnesota History issue would inevitably be forced on the Exec. branch, Exec. on the that forced be inevitably suggested . . . [and] would issue find and a solution.” problem study the Congress the Windom, 14-15: pp. 55 Windom, 56 Ibid., 213. p. 57 Ibid., at low of 5 feet a depth 243; p. recommended Committee Select The 213. p. Louis. St. to St. Paul for water 58 Ibid., 211. p. wing dams would while that 59 In 1872, argued Throckmorton Captain J. river, upper the for work not probably closing would. dams 1872, 309-10. pp. 60 Transmitting,War, of the Chief of Engineers, from the Secretary with a Letter the between River in the Mississippi Channel of EstimateReport Six-Foot for St. Paul, and River Missouri Minn. 62 For wing dams, the suggested proportion of brush to rock was two to one, to two wing dams, was 62 For rock of brush to proportion suggested the strong, was current the of a ratio to although where might ratio increase the 341, No. H. Doc. one of rock. 14; every of brush for portions four or p. three Annual Report, 1879, 111, p. 1, figures see 2, 3. Plate 3 and and Hill, Kirchner Alberta 63 Fleet,” the With “Out (1961):286. 64 Hill, 291. Fleet,” the p. With “Out 65 66 RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Forum rates see aspossible asfar E. V. “The Smalley, Deep Waterways Problem,” p. “Appropriation 139.Onrailroads Bills,” having reduced10 Pross, their 89 (February 1984):85-86. “Herbert Hoover and Conservation,”Clements, History ed., Carolyn Merchant, 1910); Company, New Page Doubleday, & York: 1967; University of Washington Press, (Seattle: Gifford Pinchot, pp. 361-79; 1911), Iowa, Rapids, Mississippi ValleyHistorical Associat “The Conservation ofNatural Resources,” McGee, J. W. Iowa E-2-6; StateDocumentation Historic Preservation Form, (1991), Office National Register ofHistoric Places1942,” Multiple Property “The Conservation 1857- Movement Rebecca Conard, Iowa, in 1959); Press, 1890-1920 Conservation Movement, 9 Samuel Hays, pp. 66-68. 8 Ibid., p. 69. Company), Printing McMein Illinois: 1906(Quincy, October 10and 11, Minn., Upper River Mississippi Improvement Association held Minneapolis, in Proceedings7 UpperRiver Mississippi Improvement ofthe Association, p. 4. 1957), Press, California James H.Shideler,p. 67; Century America: The1920’s ed., and David Brody, Robert H.Bremner, John in Braemen, 1919-1929,” “The Farmer’s Dilemma, 6 Gilbert C.Fite, p. 73. 5 Ibid., 1902 November 12-13, Illinois, Improvement HeldatQuincy, Convention Association Mississippi River 4 UpperRiver Mississippi Improvement Association, hoped that by reviving the river they could revive economies. their sinking Improvement Association due to the loss oftimber-related businesses. They says that towns along the river formed the UpperRiver Mississippi 37, 1890-1950 Mississippi, 3 Philip V. Scarpino, 2 p. 51. 1909), Office, Government Printing D.C.: Document No. 11(Washington, Commission, Traffic History oftheMississippi River System and less than 56,000bushels after 1895.See Frankdecade H.Dixon, butitonlyregistered 400,000bushels atthe end ofthethrough the canal, upper river. In1879and 1880over two bushels passed ofgrain million the late nineteenth century illustrates the decline ofthe freight trade onthe through1 Graintraffic the Des Moines RapidsCanal and atSt.Louis during Chapter 5 Minnesota. St.Paul, 1909. St.Paul records, District 91 Major Francis February R.Shunkto MinneapolisMayor 17, J. C.Haynes, 1578-79. 90 push for the project. who without made discussing the final construction ofLock and2, Dam Mackenzie repeatedlyGranted, called for locks to and dams.Kanejumps the which she does not demonstrateproponent they were. ofthe project, project withthe Corps instead ofCongress and makes the Corps aproactive This misplaces the authorityforthe authorizing two locks and dams..” United States engineers army responded 1894by in announcing plans for suasive Minneapolitans continued to urge the federal government to act. 1892-1909. Annual Reports , p 3,1649-50; 530, pp. 1908, Annual Report, I (u. 1895):746-52. XIX(Aug., , Lxntn ascuet,19) hp.91;Kendrick A. Chaps.9-11; 1993), Massachusetts, (Lexington, Conservation and theProgressive the Gospel ofEfficiency: Great River: An Environmental History oftheUpper Qic,Ilni,nd) p ,8-9. pp. 6, n.d.), Illinois, (Quincy, Farm Crisis Clmi:Uiest fMsor rs,18) p. 1985), University ofMissouriPress, (Columbia: Clmu:Oi tt nvriyPes 1968), OhioState University Press, (Columbus: 992 LsAgls University of 1919-23(Los Angeles: , ion for the Year 1909-1910 Cmrde as:Harvard University Mass.: (Cambridge, Change in and Continuity Twentieth Major Problems Environmental in National Waterways , nulRpr,1907,pp.Annual Report, American Historical Review The Fight for Conservation Proceedings oftheUpper Proceedings ofthe 3(Cedar , A 23 Hays, 1900-1920 Jr., John Milton Cooper, 1967); Wang, tions to be approved either by the War Department, or, as I think would asIthink tions to be approved be or, either by the War Department, the United States which should be protected through conditions and stipula- and achargelimit to be paid to the Government the are among interests of every such actgranting apermit ofwords adequate to showin that atime “should be removed he contended, such doubts,” henceforth by the insertion ers the War Department to acharge fix and set atimelimit. Allgrounds for “There isasharpconflictofjudgement asto whether thisgeneral actempow- admitted that his 1908veto Minnesota, in ofaproject ontheRiver, Rainy 30 Kerwin, No. 1to avoid problems that arose over agreements atsites these. like may have recommended thatEngineers, the Corps build allofLock and Dam Scarpino, 163-64; pp. 1978), Nashville, U.S.District, Engineer Army Tennessee: (Nashville, UnitedStates Army A History oftheNashvilleDistrictCorps ofEngineers, and lock atitsown expense. Leland Johnson, Rapids canal served navigation needs and the company had to build the dam the Corps determined that the Iowa.Des Moines Here, River atKeokuk, Company obtained to agrant build apower damonthe upper Mississippi the Keokukwon and Hamilton Water a99-year lease. In1905, Power Company pay for the dam. The company received the power atnocharge and Corps to build the lock butmade the Chattanooga Tennessee River Power atHales onthe Bar Tennessee Congress required the River, 29 In1904, received See grants. p. 3072. Congress would appear to engage favoritismcautioned, in to thosewho small group ofindividuals for their exclusive use. Without he aset policy, that itgavethe arguing President’s anextremely valuable veto, resource to a Theodore Burton ofOhioargued that they were Burton defended minimal. arguedAlabama while that the Representative charges were reasonable, 28 Kerwin, p. 3; Circular No. 14, 27 War Department, Kerwin, p. 3072; pt.3, 36, pp. 2-3; F58362, Box 1408, Entry 103, National RecordArchives Group 77, and Records 1905, Administration, 4, April Circular No. 14, Officeofthe ChiefofEngineers, 26 War Department, 111-25. 82-83, pp. 8-11, 1926), University Press, 25 Jerome G.Kerwin, 24 Hays, 11 Hays, 22 Robert H. Wiebe, “OurGreat River,”21 McGee, pp. “Appropriation 131-32. Bills,” 20 Pross, secretary ofthe National Rivers and Harbors Congress. letter read to the convention p. 77; from J. Captain F.19 Ibid., Ellison, p. 79. 18 Ibid., 80. pp. 16, 17 Ibid., 16 15 Hays, “OurGreat River,” p. 8576. 14 McGee, p. 92. 13 Ibid., pp. 91-92. 12 Ibid., 93 pp. 3071-72. A Representative from 1903, Congressional Record , UMRIA Proceedings Conservation Conservation Conservation Conservation Water-Power (New W. York: W. 1990). Norton &Company, Great River The 1877-1920 Search for Order, Federal Water-PowerLegislation p. 2. , p. 114. , p. 91. , p 92-94. pp. , 97 p. 16. 1907, , p 1-4 ewn .17 asta osvl,in says that Roosevelt, p. 117, Kerwin, 111-14; pp. , Water-Power p 32. .L asal the Chiefof 23-24. W. pp. L.Marshall, , World’s Work Pivotal Decades: The States, United p. 79. , Congressional Record Fbur 3 97,p. 8577. 1907), (February 13, Engineers on the Engineers Twin Rivers: Water-Power NwYr:Columbia (New York: (New York: Hill and Hill (New York: 93 Vol. 1903, , p 82-84. pp. , 194 Endnotes Laws of Laws , 10, June , 2, v. , 2, v. Minneapolis nflicts in operation Annual Report, St. Paul Pioneer Press Pioneer St. Paul give co rise to , 10, June 1909, 4; p. Kane, Laws of the United States Laws Laws of the United States Laws , 114, p. information that presents Federal Conservation Policy, Conservation 1921-1933 Federal Conservation , 10, June 1909, 2; p. , pp. 102-10. , 119. p. St. Paul Pioneer Press Pioneer St. Paul , 144; p. Merritt, 145, p. Shunk recog- while that adds , pp. 144-45. , 2, v. 1419-20, compensation” pp. “reasonable for provided Annual Report, 1910, pp. 1799-1800. Creativity Creativity Conservation Conservation , 10, June 1909, 4, 9 public p. June at the those present that reported pp. 1799-1800. pp. Minneapolis Tribune Minneapolis pp. 1564-65. pp. 64 Hays, 65 Ibid., 108-12. pp. 66 Ibid., Newlands’ approved 109-14. In 1917 Congress bill, pp. but many made, been already in bill had for the its signifi- undermining called changes C. Swain, also Donald See cance. Angeles: Los and (Berkeley of California Press, University 1963), 98. p. earlier,As noted 67 Congress,Act of 1910, Harbor and in River the the United States 1; Dam and No. at Lock lease power a hydroelectric from 1910, 68 Hays, pp. 1419-20; pp. Act, Harbor and 63 River 25, July 1912, and administration . . . .”and As a result, says, Hays that commission decided the power. the lease and costs construction the pay would government federal the government the simply not whether 1 was Dam and No. at Lock question The The possible. power hydroelectric make to cost part of the all or pay would navigation authorized of the much completed had Engineers the fact that to specifically project the in position Corps the of redoing put the project Hays, See 215, development. 109 and pp. hydropower accommodate for position on this issue. Mackenzie’s General 741,58 H. Doc. 3. p. 59 Merritt, nized that the Corps had no authority to develop hydropower, he believed that hydropower, believed he develop no authority to had Corps the that nized . . . .” oversight of legislative just a case the “was this over debate the Given development, simply not a power it was in hydroelectric role government’s federal over disagreement but of national oversight of legislative matter development. hydropower Haynes,60 Shunk to 17, February 1909. 61 Merritt, Act, Harbor and 62 River 25, June 1910, 49 1909, 4; p. 741, H. Doc. 5. p. 50 741, H. Doc. 8; p. 321. p. “Rivalry,” 51 H. Doc., 741, 8. p. 52 Ibid., 8-9. pp. 53 Ibid., 7. p. 54 Ibid., board, the this position by to 8. In contrast p. the Tribune high building of the dam, the as favoring on record go to voted meeting state, the by accomplished interest. whether a private or cities the 741,55 H. Doc. 8-9, of Minnesota pp. State the eliminated board The 12-13. not was constitution state’s the that it believed because consideration from Minneapolis The a project. in such engage it to allow to amended be to likely of Minnesota. University the for hydropower included resolution 56 Ibid., 3. p. 57 Ibid., 3-4. Hays, pp. of some members when that relates Hays decision. Marshall’s explain would cost the pay parties private that Commission suggested Waterways Inland the dam, of a navigation portion hydropower of the of Engineers and Corps “the that this would objected many in Congress , , pp. 117-19. , 60th Cong., 1st , 90-91, p. 100. Conservation Annual Report, 1909, 561. p. Conservation , 2, v. 1343; Mississippi River,Mississippi to Minneapolis, St. Paul Minn. Use of Surplus Water Flowing over Government Dam Government over Flowing Water Use of Surplus , 10, June 1909, 4. p. , 22. p. , 62; p. Hays, , pp. 90, 102-03. , St. Paul Minneapolis and that 142. Merritt argues p. Great River Great Great River Great Creativity , St. Anthony Falls pp. 134, 151, Cities Twin the Why 154. Conservation , Tribune Minneapolis 9, June 1909, 1. p. Press Pioneer St. Paul Laws of the United States Laws , Tribune Minneapolis 9, June 1909, 1; p. 741, H. Doc. 5. Representatives p. 41 U.S. Congress,41 U.S. House, 61st Cong., 2d sess., using 741, H. Doc. flash- proposed board The 5. p. height of the raise surface–to dam’s the to attached boards boards–wooden 1, Dam No. and At Lock channel. pro- a 6-foot for they provide 2 to Dam No. an auxiliary adding and lock one foot dam by height of the raising the posed of Board The situations. low-water extreme 1 for Dam and No. Lock below first with the recommendation concurred Harbors and Rivers Engineers for lock, building another than Rather second. with the it suggest- but disagreed depth; necessary the by floor ed completed already the lower Corps the that 5, pp. see 14. a required 42 Ibid., have would upstream dam farther 5-6. Placing the pp. and station hydroelectric Pillsbury-Washburn new the of dam because lower against building it farther decided They Anthony Falls. St. dam at Lower gorge, Creek Minnehaha the flooded have it would because downstream which, noted, city of board of the the attractions natural “one of the was Minneapolis.” 43 Ibid., 6. p. C. Haynes, J. 17, Minneapolis Mayor R. Shunk to February Francis 44 Major 1909, District records, St. Paul St. Paul, Minnesota. 45 Ibid. 46 and St. Paul from a party met had of Minnesota University the from encounter,At this the before. day 1 the Dam and No. Minneapolis at Lock of power in hydroelectric the interest University’s of the learned cities two highthe dam. 47 48 sess., 218, No. Doc. 2, pp. 6. Mackenzie, Island Rock serving as the after 1895, 1879 to District Engineer from of Engineers on Chief the became the from Judson V. 23,W. January Major were commissioners The 1904. Department,Treasury the from Major and of Engineers,Corps Woodwell E. J. Corps. Quartermaster the Kimball from W. Amos water at low 10.2 feet from 37 Ibid., varied at this site head the While 3. p. usual, at high than stages, 4.0 feet longer to lasted high the stages the to due downstream miles Mississippi the two about River,Minnesota entered which 1. Dam and No. Lock up to water backed and 38 Ibid., 218, pp. 4-6. 39 Merritt, high that 1 and Dam and No. Lock of placement the over officials haggled St. Paul,” in Minneapolis and “Business interests its start. hampered water he generate would dam that a larger for contends, press to delay the “used power.” were. electrical interests these who say not He does 40 in Minneapolis, and St. Paul between River Mississippi Minn. 36 Kane, research. more much deserves position project their on the changed Congress,36 U.S. House, 32 Hays, 33 McGee, 8580-83. pp. River,” “Our Great 34 Ibid., 8579. p. 35 Scarpino, preferable, Department.” Interior the by Hays, 31 Scarpino, 195 RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area 69 Scarpino, Maintenance Transportation and Restorationand totheNational Welfare; Their Creation, 85 Herbert Quick, pp. 56-57. n.d.), R3584, Report, College of andAgricultural LifeSciencesof ResearchWisconsin-Madison, of Commercial Navigationon theUpper Mississippi River Richard Hoops, p. 195; Creativity, 84 Merritt, 48. pp. 23, 83 Ibid., pp. 14-15. 82 Ibid., 81 Ibid. p. 14. 80 Ibid., pp. 14-15. 79 Ibid., p. 17. 78 Ibid., p. 19. 77 Ibid., p. 19. Doc. No. 583, Improvement by theConstructionofLocks and Dams witha andView Survey ofMississippi to River from Minneapolis toLake Pepin, to Lake Pepin. on Report fromExamination Preliminary theChiefofEngineers House, effect U.S. in1925. Congress, take This may refer to the factthat the decision the in Indiana Rate Casewas to Cities the in past few monthsareal interest the in revival ofriver traffic.” there has developedfreight rates, the amongst businessmen ofthe Twin roads had begun to raise their rates. “Under the spurofincreasing railroad 76 Twin Cities businesses had taken agreater interest freight rates in asrail- p. 9. 2dsess., 40thCong., the UpperRiver,” Exec. Mississippi Doc. 247, “Survey of House, U.S. Congress, 1909; February 17, 75 Shunkto Haynes, “Rivalry,” p. 322. 74 Kane, hydroelectric power generated dam. atahigh written asthe University ofMinnesota was considering how usethe itmight pp. 1-2. This thesis and the previous oneby1909), Jevne and Timperley were University ofMinnesota,River between (Thesis, St.Paul and Minneapolis,” Proposed Water Power Development Mississippi atU. S. Lock andNo. Dam 1, Lester “A H.Gatsby, Studyof 73 RalphWalter M.Davies, C.Beckjord, p. 84. (September 1983), Corps ofEngineers,” for St.Paul District, Riverthe Mississippi and Two unpublished, Structures atSt. Anthony Falls, St.Paul Locks District on and Dams “Historical Resources Evaluation, Gjerde, Jon p. 1; 1910), University ofMinnesota, (Thesis, St. Paul and Minneapolis,” Power Development River Mississippi Between atU.S. Lock andNo. Dam 1, George72 W.Jevne andD. William Proposed of Timperley, “Study Water No.Dam 1became the Federal Power Commission’s Project No. 362. 71 Merritt, however,for beingineffective. criticizes the commission, Swain ofwater-power and ofother beneficial uses ..’” development, tion, hensive scheme ofimprovement for andthe utilization purposes ofnaviga- authority to require that projects be planned accordance in witha ‘compre- “the commissionreceived argues, p. 113, Swain, es. “Most important,” toauthority 50-year grant licenses and to regulate electrical rates and servic- overthe FPCjurisdiction allwater the power sites onnavigable streams, malized federal regulation ofhydroelectric power development. The actgave notes that the actalsocreated aFederal21, Power (FPC)and for- Commission pose approach for over adecade. Swain, water-related development. This essentially ended hopes for the multiple-pur- mitted hydroelectric itseparated power water development, power from other a compromise between conservationists and their opponents. While itper- 70 Hays, Conservation Creativity NwYr,10) p. 77. The made crisis farm 1920s farm (New 1909), York, Great River American Inland Waterways, Their toRailway Relation p. 146.Hydroelectric power development, atLock and p 115-21.Hays says that the 1920actrepresented pp. , p. 65. , Federal Conservation Policy Mississippi River from Minneapolis A River theEvolution ofGrain: 9hCn. 2dsess., 69thCong., , Mdsn University (Madison: p 111- pp. , 86 Roald Tweet, porters ofnavigation improvements thisdecade. during organizations equipment and farm manufacturers someofthe strongest sup- Archaeologist Historical Overview and ArchaeologicalPart 1: Potentials,” “Archaeology1 Scott F. ofthe CentralAnfinson, Minneapolis Waterfront, Chapter 6 98 Ibid. historic files, Dam, Centennial Union County Power Figure Dam Coon97 in History,” RapidsEarly “Railroads, 1913. 17, December Herald, historic files, Coon Dam, Rapids 96 Hennepin Parks, 1913. 26, November Herald, historic files, Coon Dam, Rapids 95 Hennepin Parks, 1910. accordance and June 23, withthe Water 1906, Power actsofJune 21, specifically stated that the company had to build the and dam power plant in p. 893. The act Chapter 12, 3rd sess., 61stCong., Minnesota,.” County, RiverMississippi Hennepin from in County apoint to in apoint Anoka Great Northern Development Companyto construct adamacross the “An Act To authorize the House, Minneapolis Tribune . See U.S. Congress, 1913. The been had article originally printed the in 26, November Herald, historic files, Coon Dam, Rapids 94 Hennepin Parks, historic files, Dam, Centennial Union County Power Figure Dam Coon93 in History,” RapidsEarly “Railroads, historic files. Coon Dam, Rapids Hennepin Parks, Electric Office, Genl. written atthe Minneapolis, from William de la Barre, Illinois, Chicago, 92 Letter fromInsurance H.M.Byllesby Exchange &Company, Building, 1952):36-41. (March 6, Untimely Thaws Mettle onRiver Job,”Test Contractors’ Anthony Falls,” “Nine-Foot Channel Extension Above Nelson, Martin St. 1963):1-18; Proceedings ofthe American SocietyEngineers ofCivil “The St. Anthony Falls Navigation Project,” Francis Mullin, 1962); Records: Construction ofthe St. (St.PaulAnthony Falls District, Project,” 91 Kane, ittranscended pork simple barrel projects.support for thisproject, depth and expanse ofthe movement. Given the great interest and popular must consider buthe underestimates hisargument carefully, the power, 9-foot channel project through and that itwas apork barrel project. One “A argues ofmen that asmallclique pushed River the ofGrain,” 90 Hoops, 89 p. 522. no. 11388, v. 66, 88 Ibid., 728-42. no. 13671, v. 88, ibid., 709-24; 1924), April, (Februaryto no. 11388, v. 88, ibid., 512-22; 520, 1922), (January to March, Commercethe Interstate Commission States oftheUnited Railway Company,Fe Service ofIndiana Et 87 Public Commission Al. v. Topeka &Santa Atchison, “Waterways asHighways,” Franklin Snow, pp. 116-22; 1934), Inc., DoranDoubleday, &Company, and Other ofHerbert Public HooverWritings Papers ed., foot Channel ofthe OhioRiver. William Starr Myers, ..”, celebration in ofthe Completion ofthe Nine- 1929, OctoberKentucky, 23, Academy Improvement ofOurMid-West Waterways,” St. Paul Pioneer Press 3 Jnay12) p 52;Ie. “Address atLouisville, Idem., pp. 15-24; 135 (January 1928), St. Anthony 812 (1989):17-20. 48:1-2, The Minnesota Engineer History of Transportation Anoka UnionHerald County Anoka UnionHerald County p 5,147;Caec udig “A Review Clarence ofthe Buedning, 174-76; 154, pp. , nesaeCmec omsinRprs Decisions of CommerceInterstate Commission Reports, A nadEpr’ ed”(a 2 1928). “An Inland (May Empire’s 12, Need,” , etme,16,Hnei ak,Coon Rapids Hennepin Parks, 1965, September, , Coon Rapids Hennepin Parks, 1965, September, , North AmericanReview Jn,16)69 “Flooding and 1960):6-9; (June, .7;Herbert“The Hoover, p. 77; , The Annals ofthe American . 1965. September, , vol. N. 1(GardenY.: City, , 227 (May 1929):592. 89:CO1 (March, Anoka Union County Anoka Union County Anoka Union County .6,no. 11388, v. 66, , Construction Bulletin The Minnesota The State Anoka Anoka 196 Endnotes ,St. Anthony pp. 107-08, 122. ,St. Anthony 86. p. , 20, November 1876. , Voyage Canoe 254. p. , 34. p. Kinsmen, pp. 184-89. ,St. Anthony pp. 9, 12. ,St. Anthony pp. 34-38. ,St. Anthony 53; p. Wiggins, (April 27, communication personal ,St. Anthony pp. 57, 58, 106. ,St. Anthony 81. p. ,St. Anthony pp. 108, 115, 125. Voyage Minneapolis Tribune Minneapolis 27 Ibid., 35. p. 28 Zellie, of Nature,” 11. p. “Voice 29 Kane, 30 Ibid., 13. p. 31 Ibid., 13-14. pp. 32 Ibid., 15-16. pp. 33 Ibid., 16-19, pp. 17. p. quote 34 Ibid., 18. p. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid., 26-27. pp. 38 Ibid., 31-32. pp. 39 Ibid., 32. p. 40 Anderson, 41 Kane, 42 Ibid., 37, pp. 42, 50-51. 43 Ibid., 42, pp. 44, magnate of fur trade son-in-law the was 49. Sanford importer, and a banker a was was Gebhard Davis and Chouteau. Pierre 25. p. See merchant. 44 Ibid., 43, pp. 44. 45 Ibid., 44-49, pp. 52-53. 46 Ibid., in 600 feet to 49-54, canal the pp. lengthened company The 57. of about a head in mid-1890s. It created the 950 feet to mid-1860s and the river- a six-block distribution turned 35 feet, system “. . .this waterpower and industrialized, most densely country’s strip the into front water- direct-drive district.”power Continuation Sheet, Register National See 8-4. p. 47 Kane, 2000), was tunnel side east on the began construction date the that suggests 1883, 1875 to 1867, some purpose. From did serve cave The 1866. not bring in to tourists cave and tunnel part of the used Pettingill P. Mannesseh Kane, See on flatboats. 48 Kane, 49 Ibid., 71. p. 50 Ibid., 72. p. 51 52 Kane, 53 Ibid., 106, pp. 107;Anfinson, Scott (April communication personal 2000), dam. new the regarding information the provided 26, pp. 54 Anfinson, 28; “Archaeology,” Kane, 55 Kane, 26 Long, 25 Featherstonaugh, , The Northern The (Albany, York: New E. & (St. Paul: Minnesota ,St. Anthony 2; p. Wiggins, Dave St. , 117. p. (Chicago: Books, Quadrangle Inc., 1962; , pp. 92-93. A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor, up the Minnay with an Voyage A Canoe Travels through the Northwestern Regions of the Regions the Northwestern through Travels Narrative Journal of Travels through the Northwestern through Travels of Narrative Journal , 205. p. , 3. p. , 2. p. , 9. p. Voyage in in Anthony of Saint Skiff to the Falls a Six-Oared A Pilgrimage in America, inA Pilgrimage of the to the Discovery Leading ,Travels 289; p. Zellie, of Nature,” 9. p. “Voice ,Travels 290. p. , an pp. have did not he that 35-36. Long acknowledged (Ann Arbor,(Ann Michigan: Microfilms, University Inc., 291, p. from Pilgrimage Description of Louisiana St. Anthony St. Anthony St. Anthony Sources of the Mississippi Sources ,St. Anthony 3. p. Voyage ,St. Anthony pp. 2-3; 5, in footnote 197, p. many ver- are there says she first edition published in London, published first edition England, 1828), 204-05. pp. 20 Beltrami, Expeditions of Stephen H. Long, Related 1823 and of 1817 and Journals The ,Documents M. Kane, Lucile by ed. Holmquist, D. June Gilman, Carolyn and (St. Paul: Press, Society Historical Minnesota 1978), 284. p. 19 G. C. Beltrami, with a DescriptionWhole Rivers; of the Bloody and of the Mississippi Sources Course of the Ohio of the Former, and 22 Ibid., 3. p. 23 Zellie, of Nature,” 10. p. “Voice Featherstonaugh, W. 24 George Region in of the Gold the DepositsWisconsin; in Copper and of the Lead Account Manners of Popular Country; Sketches and Cherokee Society,Historical 1970; in London, Bentley Richard by first published England, 1847), 253-54. pp. 21 Kane, 11 Pike, 13 Ibid., 2, pp. quotes 3, 4 respectively. and Zellie, of Nature,14 Carole Landscape and Voice Features “The Geographic Anthony Falls Saint the for prepared Anthony Falls,”A report at St. Change Board,Heritage Research, Landscape by St. Paul, Minnesota, 1989, October 8; p. on Spirit trees the that Zone) suggests Heritage Anthony Falls (St. Wiggins Dave (April 27, communication Personal oak. than rather cedar 2000). were Island 15 Schoolcraft, 16 Schoolcraft, 17 Zellie, of Nature,” 8-9. pp. “Voice E. Colhoun, of James Journal “The 18 1823,” in published instrument to measure the fall exactly. the measure to instrument 10 Kane, 12 Kane, Anthony Falls Heritage Zone, Heritage Anthony Falls (April 27, communication personal 2000). 4 Hennepin, H. Long, 5 Stephen II (St. Paul, Society, Historical vol. Minnesota of the Collections Minnesota: Society, 1997)), printed Historical 1889 (facsimile copy Minnesota 37-40; pp. Kane, lists and some. sions of this story Schoolcraft, Rowe 6 Henry United States Schoolcraft, Rowe Henry Chain of the Great through Regions of the United States Extending from Lakes,American of a Member as River, of the Mississippi to the Sources Performed 1820 Cass,the Expedition Governor under Year in the E. Hosford, 1821). 19-20; pp. Anfinson,7 5, Figure see “Archaeology,” 21. p. 8 Kane, 9 Long, 2 Ibid., 19. p. 19; p. 3 Anfinson, Kane, “Archaeology,” Engineer, Stephen H. Long, Major 1817 by Army United States Topographical 197 RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1983; first published first 1876by in the 1983; Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2 J. Fletcher Williams, Vermillion River Hastings. in early economy was sotied toThe milling. is true same foronthe mills Anoka’s since deserve they consideration, corridor, MNRRA the of boundaries ashort distance upstream fromthe itsmouth RumRiver, and justoutside the toon the receive Mississippi logs. theAlthough sawmills at Anoka were on developmentnomic ofthosecommunities. Even not mills onthe river relied Their activities helped the define eco-still critical to the corridor’s history. butthey lay1 Somemills justoutside are the MNRRA corridor’s boundaries, Chapter 7 Kane, 8-9; 8-7, pp. 7-3, Continuation Form, 79 Anfinson, see alsopp. 59-60. pp. 110-11; 78 Ibid., pp. 108-10. 77 Ibid., after the pool behind the lock and damdrained due to the station’s collapse. undermined itsfoundation. The ofthe old outline damwas clearly visible after the river and the station collapsed 1987, in theand in early Dam 1950s, Engineers removed quotes p. the lower 154. The Corps of damwhen 171-72; itbuiltthe Lower St. Anthony Lock 165, 152-57, 149, pp. 117, 76 Ibid., 75 Kane, 74 Scarpino, pp. 140-41. 73 Ibid., 72 Kane, 8-7. p. Form, Continuation Nomination 71 Kane, pp. 8-6to 8-7. National Register Form, Continuation Nomination SAF, pp. 98-99; 70 Ibid., 69 Kane, 123. 104, 86, pp. Anthony, Kane, p. 8-8; National Register Form, Continuation Nomination Places, National Register ofHistoric 68 St. Anthony Falls Historic (SAF), District 113. pp. 98-99, 67 Ibid., p. 99. 66 Ibid., 65 Kane, cussion ofChicago’s marketing system. grain see Cronon, p. 101; 64 Ibid., p. 104. 63 Ibid., pp. 101-03. 62 Ibid., 61 Kane, 60 Dodd and Dodd, 59 Kane, “Archaeology,” Kane, 58 Anfinson, p.24; 1880. in lion Minnesota wheat harvest was bushels 1869and in 39.4mil- 17.7million 28-34.Kane, pp. Movement, 57 Dodd and Dodd, 32. pp. 27, 56 Ibid., p. 154. St. Anthony, 134-37. pp. St. Anthony, National Register SAF, 172-73; 150-51, 115, pp. St. Anthony, 147. 123, 116, 87, 86, pp. St. Anthony, p. 105. St. Anthony, p. 102. St. Anthony, 104-05. pp. St. Anthony, Great River Archaeology p 24-25. pp. , Historical Statistics Solon J. Buck, 24-25; pp. , Historical Statistics A History Paul oftheCitySaint to1875 p. 22. , .2;SF National Register Nomination SAF, p. 29; , .10 uses the following figures: p. 100, St. Anthony, Nature’s Metropolis p 9 99-101. 59, pp. St. Anthony, p. 173. St. Anthony, chapter 3for adetailed dis- , (St.Paul: , Granger St. rs Minnesota wheat harvest wasures: bushels 1869and in 39.4mil- 17.7million 28-34.Kane, pp. Granger Movement, the river 1805.Dodd in and Dodd, ed notes that Fairbault had apostoneto two miles above St.Paul when Pike ascend- plant wheat butdoes not say when. Williams, says that Fairbault was theto first p. Historic Contexts,” 11, “Hastings’ 17 Zellie, and DevelopmentAgricultural (nd). (1870-1940),” Railroads “Historic Context: 16 Minnesota State Historic Preservation Office, the in MNRRA corridor.sorghum milling Agriculture and River (nd). Ifound Settlement nothingon (1840-1870),” Early “Historic Context: 15 Minnesota State Historic Preservation Office, pp. 1-2. 14 Ibid., p. 1. nd., Minnesota, Cottage Grove and Newport, “The Heritage GreySite File,13 Heritage Cloud LimeKiln,” Education Project, p. 16. Historic Contexts,” “Hastings’ Zellie, p. “The and St.Paul,” 13; Mississippi yards Neillmentions. Hesterman, onthe eastjust south ofthe citylimits side. These could be related to the brick- shows abrickyard onthe east side and near aclay the pit citylimits Minneapolis 1895, ontheinformation location ofthese brickyards. No. MRCChart 189, Neillprovides pp. nofurther 278-79.Other than reference, hisinitial 1881), by J. Fletcher Williams Minnesota, andoftheHistory Outlines of Including Explorers and Pioneers ofMinnesota, 12 Rev. Edward D. Neill, see pp. 7-8. quote p. 7, Collections, 1849-1984,” Minnesota, Coon Rapids, history of cityby afine damsite: “Coon Rapids, 11 LeslieRandels Gillund, 1895. MRCChartNo. 189, p. “The and St.Paul,” 14; Mississippi 10 Hesterman, Woods once covered sometwo acres million south and west ofthe Twin says that the Cities. Big p. 70, 1995), University ofMinnesota Press, (Minneapolis: John R. Tester, for ashort description ofvarious see mills pp. 12-13; pp. 15-16; 1993), 31, Landscape Research (JulyPreservation and the Commission CityofHastings, submitted Historic to Contexts,” theHeritage Hastings “Hastings’ 9 Zellie, powered mill. 433. See quote from the Williams, River and the Citythat Shaped It,” Change isaConstant for “The and St.Paul: Mississippi 8 Paul Hesterman, 7 MRCChartNo.189 (1895). Numbers 189and 201adjoineach other. ChartNo. 189(1895). There are nochart Sheets, Nine numbers 190-200. Eighty- in Minnesota, River from the Mouth ofthe OhioRiver to Minneapolis, “Detail ofthe Map Upper Mississippi RiverMississippi (MRC), Commission 201(1898); ChartNumbers 202(1898), from Surveys 1898-1904, Seventy-Eight in Sheets, to Lake Itasca, Minnesota, River from Minneapolis, “Detail ofthe Map Upper Mississippi River6 Mississippi (MRC), Commission Goodrich, 5 see p. 124for aphoto ofthe mill. pp. 123-25; 1976), reprinted by Anoka Bicentennial Commission, 1905; Co., Minnesota Dayton County, Hennepin in 4 Albert M.Goodrich, p. 54. Minnesota Historical Society Collections, (1976)], Minnesota, Bicentennial [CityofRamsey, project 1976,” in written “The and published3 Jeanhistory asa ofRamsey/researched, James, 1860. 85-88. Brooklyn township into Brooklyn split Center and Crystal Lake in . More Than Just aDream,” Leslie A. Guelcher, 281; pp. 144, Historical Society), Minnesota Historical Society as Volume 4ofthe Collections ofthe Minnesota A History Paul ofSaint p. 60. History of Anoka, County inst’ aua eiae AnEcological Perspective Minnesota’s Heritage, Natural History of Anoka and County the Towns and ofChamplin History of Hennepin County andHistory County theCityofMinneapolis, ofHennepin oebr2,o .21 about the steam- onp. 281, 28, November Pioneer, Silae,Mneoa risd rs,18) pp. 1982), Croixside Press, Minnesota: (Stillwater, , (Minneapolis: North Star Publishing Company, North Star Publishing (Minneapolis: , p 4,21 otoep.358,and p. footnote pp. 385-86, 281, 144, pp. , Ramsey County History County Ramsey .10 uses the following fig- p. 100, St. Anthony, Historical Statistics Mnepls Hennepin Publishing (Minneapolis: , Minnesota Historical Society A History Paul ofSaint The History . ofNininger p 42;Buck, pp. 24-25; , 21:1 (1986):13; p. 38, , , 198 Endnotes

lion in 1880. Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” pp. 11-12; Reynolds, 38 ”St. Paul Union Stockyards, Centennial Year 1886-1986,” Minnesota “Dakota County Multiple Resource Nomination (Draft, June 1979),” p. 3H. Historical Society Collections; Reynolds, “Dakota County Multiple Resource Nomination (Draft),” p. 5H. 18 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, pp. 29-30, 35, 58, 107-08. 39 Tewton, “The Business of Agriculture,” p. 275. 19 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, pp. 108-10; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 14. 40 “St. Paul Union Stockyards, Centennial Year 1886-1986,” Minnesota Historical Society Collections. 20 Robert C. Vogel, “Cottage Grove History: A Palimpsest,” Heritage Education Project, Advisory Committee on Historic Preservation, City of 41 Kirk Jeffrey,“The Major Manufacturers: From Food and Forest Products to Cottage Grove, 1997. pp. 2-3. High Technology,” in Clark, ed., Minnesota in a Century of Change, p. 225. , located in Austin, Minnesota, was the largest producer in the state by 21 Vogel, “Cottage Grove History,” p. 3. 1920.

22 Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 11. 42 Tewton, “The Business of Agriculture,” pp. 275-76; Charles McGuire, per- sonal communication, Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, 23 Ibid., pp. 11, 13. (Spring 2000).

24 MRC Chart Nos. 185-89, 201-05 (1895 and 1898). 43 Gary J. Brueggermann, “Beer Capital of the State – St. Paul’s Historic Family Breweries,” Ramsey County History 16:2 (1981):3; Scott F. Anfinson, 25 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, pp. 65, 68, 73. “Archaeology of the Central Minneapolis Riverfront,” The Minnesota Archaeologist, vol. 49:1-2 (1990):41; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 26 Neill, Hennepin County, p. 304; Lucile M. Kane and Alan Ominsky, Twin 13. Cities: A Pictorial History of Saint Paul and Minneapolis, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1983), p. 56. 44 Deborah A. Hull-Walski and Frank Walski, “There’s Trouble a-Brewin’: The Brewing and Bottling Industries at Harpers Ferry,West Virginia,” 27 Neill, Hennepin County, pp. 279, 301, 304; Goodrich, History of Anoka Historical Archaeology (1994):106; Jeffrey,“The Major Manufacturers,” p. County, pp. 172-73; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” pp. 12-13; 226. Guelcher, Nininger, p. 89. On Banfil, see Williams, A History of Saint Paul,p. 160. The mill on Rice Creek appears on MRC Chart No. 201 (1898). 45 Brueggermann, “Beer Capital of the State,” pp. 4-5.

28 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, p. 126. 46 Ibid., pp. 6-7.

29 D. Jerome Tewton, “The Business of Agriculture,” in Clifford E. Clark, Jr., 47 Ibid., pp. 7-9. ed., Minnesota in a Century of Change: The State and Its People Since 1900, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989), p. 267. 48 Ibid., p. 9.

30 Ibid., p. 268. 49 Ibid., pp. 12-13.

31 Robert Hybben and Jeffrey Hess, “Historic American Engineering Record, 50 Ibid., p. 10, has a good description of the caves. The caves still exist under Equity Cooperative Exchange Grain Elevator Complex,” unpublished docu- West Seventh Street. ments prepared for the City of St. Paul, (December 1989), pp. 4-5. This docu- ment was prepared at the direction of the City of St. Paul but never officially 51 Ibid., pp. 10-11. submitted to the Historic American Engineering Record. 52 Scott F. Anfinson, “Archaeology,” p. 41. 32 Theodore Saloutos, “The Rise of the Equity Cooperative Exchange,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 32:1 (June 1945):31-62; C. L. Franks, 53 Jeffrey,“The Major Manufacturers,” pp. 226, 239; Zellie, “Hastings’ “Inland Waterways Advocate, Col. George C. Lambert, Dies: Among Pioneers Historic Contexts,” p. 14; Brueggermann, “Beer Capital of the State,” p. 11; to Back Channel in Upper Mississippi,” Upper Mississippi River Bulletin 3:3 John E. Haynes, “Reformers, Radicals, and Conservatives,” in Clark, ed., (March 1934):1; David L. Nass, "The Rural Experience," in Clark, ed., Minnesota in a Century of Change, p. 367. Minnesota in a Century of Change, p. 143. 54 Virginia Brainard Kunz, The Mississippi and St. Paul, A short history of the 33 E. J. Barry,“Water Transportation and Grain Marketing,” in American city’s 150-year love affair with its river, (St. Paul, Minnesota: The Ramsey Cooperation, 1961 (Washington DC: American Institute for Cooperation, County Historical Society, 1987), p. 40. 1961), pp. 365-366. See also “How the Nine Foot Channel was Built,” Upper Mississippi River Bulletin 8 (November 1939): 4. Barbara A. Mitchell, 55 Because the falls was the head of navigation, pioneers settling above the Hemisphere Field Services, Inc., “A History of the St. Paul Municipal Grain falls had a difficult time getting supplies. Initially, they had to buy their Elevator and Sack House,” prepared for the MNRRA as part of the Historic goods in the town of St. Anthony. To get there, they sometimes tied some logs Resources Study. together and floated down. They followed Indian trails on their return trip. Neill, Hennepin, p. 298. Goodrich, History of Anoka County, p. 42; James, 34 Application for Permit, City of St. Paul. August 14, 1951, number “The history of Ramsey,” p. 9. James says the settlers arrived in June of 31833; February 18, 1955, 10802; May 13, 1955, 12891; December 22, 1850. She shows a photo of some type of working boat with the following 1955, 32805, 32806, 32807, 31808; June 1, 1956, 32804; October 24, caption: “A steamboat coming into the harbor at Itasca Village.” Goodrich, 1956, 421824, at St. Paul City Hall. History of Anoka County, p. 68.

35 Application for Permit, City of St. Paul. May 15, 1958, number 76407. 56 Neill provides contradictory reports on steamboat traffic above St. Anthony. When talking about the history of “Brooklyn,” he claims that the 36 Robert L. Morlan, Political Prairie Fire – The Nonpartisan League, 1915- Mississippi was navigable there and that “small steamers ply up and down.” 1922, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955), p. 361. See also Yet when discussing Champlin, he writes that “At one time, steamboats plied Oscar N. Refsell, “The Farmers’ Elevator Movement I,” Journal of Political on the river, landing at Champlin . . . ” but, he adds, “the river is not navigat- Economy 21(November 1914): 872-873. ed regularly at the present time.” Neill, Hennepin, pp. 285, 300.

37 “St. Paul Union Stockyards, Centennial Year 1886-1986,” Minnesota 57 Nancy and Robert Goodman, “Joseph R. Brown, Adventurer on the Historical Society Collections (1986), no page numbers. Minnesota Frontier, 1820-1849,” (Rochester, Minnesota: Lone Oak Press, Ltd., 1996), p. 159. Goodrich, History of Anoka County, pp. 38, 43, 46-47, 49, 63,

199 71. The present-day Robert Street Bridge in St. Paul is named for Louis Robert. Chapter 8 Neill, Hennepin, p. 299, says that a began operating a ferry at Champlin in 1855. Either this is a second ferry that began operating between 1 The literature on the history of the Twin Cities is voluminous and much of Anoka and Champlin or Holt owned the Elm Creek and Anoka Ferry Company. it addresses, however indirectly, the physical growth of the cities. Not all, Williams, A History of St. Paul, pp. 237, 322. He says the bridge opened in however, directly address residential growth, particularly the ordinary devel- 1858, whereas Lisa Haller, Ivelise Brasch, Gary Phelps, and Bill Wolston, opment of neighborhoods, developers’ plats, and other staples of land use “Crossings,” Over the Years, 31:1 (Dakota County Historical Society, change. The following texts have been most useful to the present study, and September 1991):5, say the bridge opened in 1859. Dorothy Goth, ed., St. should be considered the source of specific information, unless otherwise Paul Park’s Heritage: A History of Saint Paul Park on The Mississippi, 1887- noted. John Borchert, et al., Legacy of Minneapolis: Preservation Amid Change 1895, (Cottage Grove, Minnesota: Inky Fingers Press, 1985), p. 56. (Bloomington, Minnesota: Voyageur, 1983); Paul Donald Hesterman, Interests, Values, and Public Policy for an Urban River: A History of Development Along the 58 Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 21. Mississippi River in Saint Paul, Minnesota (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1985); Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul: 59 Gillund, “Coon Rapids,” p. 3; James, “The history of Ramsey,” p. 10; Goodrich, Change is a Constant for River and the City that Shaped It,” Ramsey County History of Anoka County, p. 51; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” p. 22. History 21:1 (1986): 3-22; June Drenning Holmquist, ed., They Chose 60 Goodrich, History of Anoka County, p. 51. Minnesota: A Survey of the State’s Ethnic Groups (St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1981); David Lanegran, “The 61 Vogel, “Cottage Grove History,” p. 3. The Henry House, built in 1854 on a Neighborhood River,” in Carole Zellie, The Mississippi and St. Paul: A Planning military road, is still standing and is listed on the National Register. See Vogel, Study of Interpretive Potentials (unpublished report submitted to the Ramsey

A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area and Recreation River National the Mississippi Study of Resources A Historic “Cottage Grove History,” p. 2. County Historical Society and the National Endowment for the Humanities, 1988), pp. 37-102; Judith A. Martin and David Lanegran, Where We Live: The 62 Zellie, Hastings’ Historic Contexts, p. 23. Lois A Glewwe, The History of Inver Residential Districts of Minneapolis and Saint Paul (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Grove Heights, Minnesota’s Treasure, 1858-1990, (City of Inver Grove Heights, Published by the University of Minnesota Press in association with the Center 1990), p. 204, mentions that a military road was built from Hastings to St. Paul for Urban and Regional Affairs, University of Minnesota, 1983); Larry, was “graded through as early as 1855 by the military crews of Captain William Millett, Lost Twin Cities (St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Dodd.” She says it became known as the St. Paul to Hastings Road. Press, 1992); Edward Duffield Neill, “St. Paul and Its Environs,” Minnesota History v. 30 (1940):204-19; Warren Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, 63 Richard S. Prosser, Rails to the North Star, (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Dillon Their Origin and Historic Significance (St. Paul, 1969; reprint edition); J. Press, 1966), pp. 8-12, 17; Gillund, “Coon Rapids,” p. 4. The St. Paul and Fletcher Williams, A History of the City of St. Paul to 1875 (St. Paul, 1876; Pacific succeeded the Minnesota and Pacific, which had built the first line reprint, Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1983). RIVER OF HISTORY: from St. Paul to St. Anthony in 1862. See Gillund, “Coon Rapids,” p. 4. A special notation must be made of the work of the Presbyterian minister Edward Duffield Neill. Neill was surely the most prolific early historian of 64 Prosser, Rails, pp.17, 35. the state, being listed as a principal author of dozens of books on a variety of subjects. Four of these have been basic to the research undertaken for this 65 MRC Chart Nos. 185-89, 201-05 (1895 and 1898). study: History of Hennepin County and the City of Minneapolis (Minneapolis, Minnesota: North Star Publishing, 1881), History of the Upper Mississippi 66 MRC Chart No. 201, 1898. Valley (North Star Publishing, 1881), History of Dakota County and the City of Hastings (Minneapolis, Minnesota: North Star Publishing, 1881), and History 67 Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul.” of Ramsey County and the City of St. Paul (Minneapolis, Minnesota: North Star 68 Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul,” pp. 9, 14; MRC Chart Nos. 186- Publishing, 1881). The similarities between these volumes extend beyond 89. On Hastings, see Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” pp. 21, 22. Other their titles and publication dates. Each volume, compiled by George E. Warner than railyards at the city’s center, she says, p. 24, “the Milwaukee Railroad and Charles M. Foote, has a nearly identical Table of Contents. Neill con- Depot (1884) is among the best evidence of the early transportation context.” tributed the first essay “Explorers and Pioneers of Minnesota,” and J. Fletcher Williams followed with a year-by-year compilation of significant facts in the 69 Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul,” p. 10. state’s history between 1858 and 1881. The following chapters varied slight- ly from volume to volume but typically included an account of the Civil War 70 Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul,” pp. 4-5, 10. record of men from that county, a brief summary of the county’s leading lawyers, its chief events, and other notations. The bulk of each volume, 71 Ibid., pp. 6, 9, 12, 14. though, and the sections most directly important for this study, are the detailed descriptions of the establishment and early settlement of the cities 72 Ibid., pp. 6, 10. and townships (“towns” in the late nineteenth century usage) of each county. A great deal of the settlement story for this area, at least until around 1880, is 73 John R. Borchert, “The Network of Urban Centers,” in Minnesota in a contained in these chapters. Century of Change, p. 69. The limitations of these books as analytical history or the “full story” are obvious. For example, women hardly appear at all; there is an implicitly 74 Borchert, “The Network of Urban Centers,” pp. 69-70; Baerwald, “Forces at “Manifest Destiny” ideology to the books that treats Native Americans as obsta- Work on the Landscape,” in Minnesota in a Century of Change, pp. 23-24; cles to “civilization,” and, once conquered, as objects of nostalgia. Town settle- Gillund, “Coon Rapids,” p. 12; Zellie, “Hastings’ Historic Contexts,” pp. 21-22. ments are treated as heroic narratives of commercial enterprises and progres- sions of industrial development. This is not the place to discuss the reasons for 75 Borchert, “The Network of Urban Centers,” pp. 71, 84, 86-87; Baerwald, these patterns and biases, nor has there been time to conduct investigations “Forces at Work on the Landscape,” p. 20. that would correct and enhance the pictures they depict. Their use in the pres- 76 Goth, ed., St. Paul Park’s Heritage, p. 56. ent study should be understood as sources of important detail on one version of the past and the Euro-American settlement of the MNRRA corridor 77 Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Metro Area River Guide: A guide to boating the Mississippi, St. Croix and Minnesota rivers,” 1994, pro- 2 Some explanation of this typology is in order. The historical and geographi- vides the river miles for the river above St. Anthony Falls as well as below. cal literature defining towns, cities, population centers, etc., is large and com- plex. For the purposes of this study, a population center is considered as a 78 Guelcher, Nininger, p. 85. group of dwellings clustered more tightly than the surrounding agricultural residence pattern and usually focusing on some non-residential establishment, 79 Kane, St. Anthony, p. 40; Haller, et al., “Crossings,” pp. 4-9, 20-21; the perhaps a school, church, or post office, but often a commercial establishment entire issue is about bridges. such as a store or tavern. “Urban Centers” are understood as those places with

200 Endnotes

a sufficient concentration of commercial enterprises to result in a degree of 28 Millett, Lost Twin Cities; see also Federal Writers’ Project, Works Progress specialization and perhaps spatial ordering into a “commercial district” or Administration, The Bohemian Flats (St. Paul, 1986; originally published 1941). “downtown.” Research for this study clearly indicates that the relative importance of a 29 Millett, Lost Twin Cities, p. 83. particular population center changed dramatically over time and in relation to other centers. For example, Nininger, now a semi-urban enclave between St. Paul 30 Borchert, Legacy. and Hastings, was once a substantial center with a population of over 1,000. By contrast, the present municipality of Coon Rapids did not exist until 1952, 31 Anfinson, “Archaeology.” when the Village of Coon Rapids was formed from Anoka Township. The present 32 , Minneapolis Park System, 1883-1944: retrospective study is intended to be more descriptive than analytical; therefore, the categories glimpses into the history of the Board of Park Commissioners of Minneapolis, have been developed as a rudimentary attempt to sort out the dominant popula- Minnesota, and the city’s park, parkway and playground system, presented at the tion threads throughout the region during the study period. annual meeting of the Board of Park Commissioners, July 16, 1945, 3 Isaac, Atwater, ed., History of the City of Minneapolis (New York: Munsell & (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Minneapolis, Board of Park Commissioners, 1945). Co., 1893), p. 69. 33 Lanegran, “The Neighborhood River,” pp. 37-102. 4 Neill, History of Ramsey County, p. 296. 34 Martin and Lanegran, Where We Live; Rueben H. Donnelley, Donnelley’s 5 Millett, Lost Twin Cities, p. 10. Atlas of the City of St. Paul, Minnesota (Chicago: The Corporation, 1892); Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 437. 6 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 439. 35 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, pp. 437-39. 7 Borchert, Legacy, pp. 8-9. 36 Williams, City of St. Paul, pp. 260, 414. 8 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 226. 37 John Walters, “A History of Harriet Island,” unpublished typescript, 9 Atwater, City of Minneapolis, p. 29. Division of Archives and Manuscripts, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.

10 Joseph Stipanovich, City of Lakes: An Illustrated History of Minneapolis 38 David L. Curtice, Curtice’s Revised Atlas of the City of St. Paul, (St. Paul, (Woodland Hills, California: Windsor Publications, 1982), p. 8. Minnesota: H. M. Smyth Printing Co., 1908).

11 Atwater, City of Minneapolis, p. 29. 39 Millett, Lost Twin Cities, p. 82.

12 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 223. 40 Lanegran, “Neighborhood River,” and Hesterman, “The Mississippi and St. Paul.” 13 Scott F. Anfinson, “Archaeology of the Central Minneapolis Riverfront, vol. 1: Historical Overview and Archaeological Potentials,” The Minnesota 41 Neill, History of Dakota County, p. 296. Archaeologist 48:1-2 (1989). 42 Ibid., p. 214. 14 Neill, History of Dakota County, pp. 209, 265; Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 165. 43 Wirth, Minneapolis Park System.

15 Neill, History of Dakota County, pp. 265-77. 44 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 568.

16 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 22, cites the authority of 45 Lois Glewwe, South St. Paul Centennial, 1887-1987, (South St. Paul (?): Professor A. W. Williamson for this derivation. Dakota County Historical Society, 1987).

17 Neill, History of the Upper Mississippi Valley, pp. 222-30. 46 See, for discussions of more recent historical and geographical trends, Hesterman, Interests, Values, and Public Policy; Borchert, “The Network of 18 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 23; Neill, History of the Upper Urban Centers,” pp. 55-99; John S. Adams and Barbara J. VanDrasek, Mississippi Valley, p. 275. Minneapolis-St. Paul: People, Place, and Public Life, (Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1993). 19 Accounts of Mendota are well known. See standard histories of the state: Folwell, A History of Minnesota,and Blegen,Minnesota; also, Anderson, Kinsmen. 47 Martin and Lanegran, Where We Live.

20 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 572; John H. Case, “Historical Notes of Grey Cloud Island and Its Vicinity,” Minnesota Historical Society Collections vol. 15, pp. 371-78. Epilogue

21 Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, p. 166; Neill, History of Dakota 1 Lucile M. Kane, June D. Holmquist, and Carolyn Gilman, edited, The Northern County, pp. 440-43; Leslie A. Guelcher, The History of Nininger . . . More Than Expeditions of Stephen H. Long, the Journals of 1817 and 1823 and Related Just a Dream (Stillwater, Minnesota: Croixside Press, 1982), p. 57. Documents, (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1978), p. 66.

22 Neill, History of Washington County, pp. 355-56; Upham, Minnesota 2 David Glassberg, “Public History and the Study of Memory,” The Public Geographic Names, p. 568. Historian, 18:2 (Spring 1996):19-20.

23 Neill, History of Washington County, pp. 353-57. 3 Ibid., p. 17.

24 Millett, Lost Twin Cities, p. 49. 4 Ibid., p. 21.

25 Ibid., pp. 49, 107. 5 Section 701.(a) Findings, Public Law 100-696, November 18, 1988, 102 Stat 4599, Title VII - Mississippi National River and Recreation Area. 26 Anfinson, “Archaeology,” p. 50.

27 Stipanovich, City of Lakes, pp. 232, 243.

201