Opinion Article published: 23 August 2010 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00042 Grand challenge for movement science and sport psychology: embracing the social-cognitive–affective–motor nature of motor behavior

Rebecca Lewthwaite1 and Gabriele Wulf 2*

1 Rancho Los Amigos National Rehabilitation Center, University of Southern California, Downey, CA, USA 2 University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, USA *Correspondence: [email protected]

Movement is critical to surviving and expressions are not just a sign of emotions, while thinking of the past has the opposite thriving, to expression, to thought. It is a but that they contribute to those emotions: effect (Miles et al., 2010). Furthermore, foundational capability, enabling many “The free expression by outward signs of an invoking stereotypes about older people can other human activities, and sometimes the emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, cause people to walk more slowly (Bargh vehicle for extraordinary human achieve- the repression, as far as this is possible, of et al., 1996). Many of us can imagine moti- ment. Movement is a product of the events all outward signs softens our emotions” vational effects on movement, resulting in and processes of the mind, brain, and body, (pp. 360–361). Likewise, the facilitation of such concepts as hesitant gait, nervous talk, as well as a reflection of diverse influences, movement performance (e.g., Triplett, 1898) and short-armed release of basketballs in from the physical, social, and cultural envi- and the modulation of motor learning by high-stakes situations. Consistent with the ronment to the body’s structure and func- motivation has been recognized (Mogenson embodiment idea – and highlighting some tion. Movement has often been a subject et al., 1980; Brooks, 1986). possible practice implications – engaging of philosophical discourse, part of the tri- Research findings support the idea that the motor system (e.g., touching dental umvirate of mind, brain, and body. Despite facial expressions can induce the mood they floss) while watching health-related videos this history, in many ways, movement may portray (e.g., Duclos et al., 1989). Reading (e.g., on the importance of flossing) can never have been so integral in psychologi- verbs connoting emotions (e.g., laugh, change individuals’ intentions and even cal thought as it is today, as reflected in the smile, cry, frown) has been shown to elicit health behavior (Sherman et al., 2010). burgeoning research related to the concept activation of the muscles used in smiling The basis for many psychological of embodiment, as well as the revelations or frowning (Foroni and Semin, 2009). ­processes – including the imitation of regarding the mirror neuron system. In Moreover, the bodily reactions to emotional movements performed by others, action embodiment, motor actions precede and content affect people’s judgment (i.e., cog- simulation to understand others, and the sometimes influence thought, language, and nition). For example, when body (i.e., lip) experience of empathy – can be seen in the emotions (see Glenberg, 2010, for a review). movements were inhibited by asking par- mirror neuron system (e.g., Grafton, 2009; Embodiment highlights the shared archi- ticipants to hold a pen with their lips, thus Iacoboni, 2009). Distributed mirror neurons tecture and interconnectedness of motor, preventing them from smiling, cartoons in the premotor and posterior parietal cortex emotional, cognitive, and social aspects of were rated as being less funny, compared are activated not only during the execution behavior – a principal theme in this essay. to when facial expression was not inhib- of actions but also when observing some- ited, or facilitated by having them hold a body else performing the same or similar The social-cognitive–affective– pen between their teeth (Strack et al., 1988). actions. Moreover, links between the mir- motor nature of “motor” These findings suggest that emotional ror neuron system, insula, and limbic system behavior experiences are mediated by the activation constitute larger neural networks that allow A major challenge for movement scientists of muscles that are typically used for the people to experience empathy, and thus play is to recognize that the “motor” behavior expressing those emotions. Furthermore, a role in facilitating social behavior (Carr they examine in their studies is actually the inhibition of body movements can et al., 2003). Though excitement about the some amalgam of social-cognitive–affective– impact comprehension. In a recent study action-observation aspects of the mirror motor behavior. The intertwined nature of (Havas et al., 2010), after Botox injections neuron system has been most prominent movement, cognition, emotion, and the into muscles used in frowning, the reading within movement science circles to date, influence of the social and cultural con- of sentences with emotional content (i.e., evidence that the mirror neuron system is text in which performance takes place, has anger) was slowed. modulated by the motivational context or become increasingly obvious in recent years. Relevant to our focus on human move- social significance of observed action (Kilner Numerous studies point to various link- ment, studies have also demonstrated the et al., 2006; Cheng et al., 2007) should also ages between the motor, social-­cognitive, obverse relationships: the influences of be of relevance to those interested in the and affective components of behavior. thoughts and emotions on movements. For foundations of movement. Certainly, the idea that movements affect instance, thoughts about the future or past Thus, “motor” behavior cannot be seen emotions goes back to Darwin (1872/1998) have observable movement correlates; imag- anymore as being simply a function of a and James (1890). Darwin argued that facial ining future events leads to forward sway, pure “motor system.” This is an important

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insight for both traditional (information movement patterns, but it encompasses the led social-cognitive movement scientists in processing) motor learning and social- self-regulation of cognitive processes and directions away from the study of move- cognitive researchers alike, not to mention affective reactions. Therefore, in addition ment behavior, even as they have enriched scientists who don’t study movement per to measuring performance, scientists need other insights. se. For those who study motor control and to assess the affective and motivational learning, the interconnectedness of social- correlates of the variables under investiga- Re-centering movement science cognitive, affective, and motor influences on tion – using methods that have tradition- and sport psychology in performance (and learning) makes it neces- ally been utilized by (sport) psychologists movement behavior sary to consider and address those influ- such as questionnaire ratings or introspec- Movement scientists collectively are charged ences in their investigations. While motor tive self-reports – to assess the impact of with understanding the manner in which learning researchers have long considered those variables on learning. Further, schol- skilled movement emerges, is acquired and cognitive influences on learning, most have ars must better account for the implicit as produced at will, and can be maintained in largely ignored – or not yet realized – the well as explicit, and non-conscious as well the face of challenges. What are the funda- motivational (e.g., social-cognitive and as conscious processes that affect behavior, mental mechanisms and underpinnings of affective) impact of the practice variables and presumably movement behavior. skilled human movement? And how can under investigation. Some recent studies Recognition of the sociocultural influ- insights regarding these mechanisms be used have shown, for instance, that feedback ences on movement will perhaps be more to optimize the development of fundamen- not only provides the learner with (neutral) difficult than that of the sociocultural influ- tal motor capabilities, as well as specialized information about the task to be learned, but ences on cognition. Partly, this will be due movement skill learning, and motor control that its influence on the learner’s motivation to the more obvious biological and physi- in the many realms in which the application appears to have a direct and powerful impact cal contributors among the multiple deter- of movement expertise is important? on the learning and control of movements minants of movement. Likely, this kind of Baumeister et al. (2007) have argued that as well (e.g., Lewthwaite and Wulf, 2010). insight will also be influenced by the cur- psychology as a whole has lost its calling in Similarly, the effects of other variables, such rent “culture” or state of sub-specialization recent decades as the science of behavior, as contextual interference, observational within the larger field of human movement. substituting self-reports of behavior or lim- practice, or self-controlled-practice, have The fragmentation of movement science ited finger movements for the richness of been examined and interpreted mainly from into its physiological, biomechanical, psy- behavioral expression itself. Recent work in an ­information-processing perspective. Yet, chological, and sociological aspects has led the social psychology of human movement it is very likely that their functioning has to limited integration of perspectives and has likewise tended to investigate interre- motivational underpinnings as well. In fact, levels of analysis in recent years. It certainly lations among inner thoughts and feelings several variables that impact motor learning provides a challenge to further insights surrounding the movement experience, have recently been identified whose effects into the social-cognitive–affective–motor often without the more difficult measure- on performance and learning are clearly nature of “motor” behavior. It might even ment of movement quality or quantity per motivational, not informational, in nature. be argued that some researchers of human se. Like Baumeister and colleagues, as the This includes social-comparative informa- movement would not want or hope to see previous discussion exemplifies, we would tion, fear, performance pressure, learners’ such a broad-ranging notion as social- not argue against the value of studying the conceptions of ability, and self-efficacy, cognitive–affective influences become per- influence of cognitions and affective expe- among others. All of these variables appear tinent to the machine-like processes they riences, but suggest that their relation to to have ties to the self, that is, they affect purport to study. dimensions of movement control and per- the extent to which individuals become self- Our mental frameworks determine what formance deserves particular attention. evaluative or self-conscious (see Wulf and is recognized from all the events that are It can be suggested that motor behavior Lewthwaite, 2010). The result of a focus on present, so we must “know” to look in order provides a particularly rich opportunity the self is often the use of more conscious to see. In the case of movement, we must to study behavior as a dependent variable. control processes, widespread, inefficient, know to look for the influence of culture, of Episodes of motor behavior are often pub- activation of the muscular system, and other social factors, of various cognitions, lic, extend over considerable time (e.g., a disruption of automaticity. In addition, a of affect, and of biological and physical cricket match), involve ballistic displays self-evaluative focus presumably increases constraints. In some sense, the study of coupled with fine motor control within the learners’ need to control self-related movement is mired in the metaphor of the same game (e.g., golf), constitute tests of thoughts and affective responses. Worries computer and its neutral, machine-like, physical endurance (e.g., marathon racing), about task performance, for example, could processing operations – a metaphor with demand exquisite motor control (e.g., musi- direct attention to attempts at negative little room for “hot” (non-neutral) social- cal performance, biathlon shooting), and thought and emotion suppression. Efforts to cognitive and affective influences. Likewise, generate speed-accuracy tradeoffs galore. manage self-related thoughts and emotions, research paradigm shifts from experimen- This behavior can be captured in multiple in turn, can tax the available self-control­ tal to quasi-experimental to qualitative ways, from energy expenditure, accelerom- or attentional capacity to a degree that methods, consistent both with a concern etry, electromyography, and many metrics performance suffers. Thus, motor learn- for ecological validity and a focus on the of time, distance, accuracy, and control, as ing is not merely the acquisition of specific pathways linking thoughts and feelings have well as competitive outcome.

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Psychological movement science, as it Conclusions Havas, D., Glenberg, A., Gutowski, K., and Lucarelli, M. moves to take fuller advantage of insights into Conceptualizations regarding the integra- (2010). Cosmetic use of botulinum toxin-A affects the neural underpinnings of human move- processing of emotional language. Psychol. Sci. 21, tive cultural, social, cognitive, and motor 895–900. ment, including those on motor learning and nature of human movement promise to Iacoboni, M. (2009). Imitation, empathy, and mirror control, as well as the contributions of social- broaden and advance movement science, neurons. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60, 653–670. cognitive–affective neuroscience, must not providing new opportunities to explain and James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology, Vol. 2. lose sight of its primary dependent variable, influence movement behavior. The ability to New York: Dover Publications. overt movement behavior. Current neural Kilner, J. M., Marchant, J. L., and Frith, C. D. (2006). develop and take advantage of an integra- Modulation of the mirror neuron system by social imaging methods often constrain the types tive perspective will demand collaboration relevance. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 1, 143–148. of movements that can be studied to those across sub-fields of movement science, not Lewthwaite, R., and Wulf, G. (2010). Social-comparative which can be performed in the small space of to mention full-brain neuroscience. feedback affects motor skill learning. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. scanners or that involve limited extraneous 63, 738–749. Miles, L. K., Nind, L. K., and Macrea, C. N. (2010). Moving movements. As brain imaging technologies References through time. Psychol. Sci. 21, 222–223. continue to evolve, the kinds of movement Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., and Burrows, L. (1996). Mogenson, G. J., Jones, D. L., and Yim, C. Y. (1980). From behavior that can be observed from the neu- Automaticity of social behavior: direct effects of trait motivation to action: functional interface between the ral perspective will be expanded as well. In construct and stereotype-activation on action. J. Pers. limbic system and the motor system. Prog. Neurobiol. the meantime, scientists must be circum- Soc. Psychol. 71, 230–244. 14, 69–97. Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., and Funder, D. C. (2007). Sherman, D. K., Gangi, C., and White, M. L. (2010). spect in basing assumptions about the neural Psychology as the science of self-reports and finger Embodied cognition and health persuasion: facili- processing subsuming available movements movements: whatever happened to actual behavior? tating intention–behavior consistency via motor into those pertaining to other forms. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2, 396–403. manipulations. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 46, 461–464. The use of relatively simple laboratory Brooks, V. B. (1986). How does the limbic system assist Strack, F., Martin, L. L., and Stepper, S. (1988). Inhibiting motor learning? A limbic comparator hypothesis. tasks has already been predominant in and facilitating conditions of the human smile: a non- Brain Behav. Evol. 29, 29–53. obtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis. J. Pers. motor learning research, sans neuroscience, Carr, L., Iacoboni, M., Dubeau, M. C., Mazziotta, J. C., and Soc. Psychol. 54, 768–777. for some time. There are presumably dif- Lenzi, G. L. (2003). Neural mechanisms of empathy Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemak- ferent reasons for the utilization of sim- in humans: a relay from neural systems for imita- ing and competition. Am. J. Psychol. 9, 507–533. ple skills, both theoretical and pragmatic. tion to limbic areas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, Wulf, G., and Lewthwaite, R. (2010). “Effortless motor 5497–5502. Fundamental research using simple skills has learning? An external focus of attention enhances Cheng, Y., Meltzoff, A. N., and Decety, J. (2007). Motivation movement effectiveness and efficiency,” in Effortless without doubt contributed to our under- modulates the activity of the human mirror-neuron Attention: A New Perspective in Attention and Action, ed. standing of the learning process and the system. Cereb. Cortex 17, 1979–1986. B. Bruya (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), 75–101. discovery of learning principles. However, Darwin, C. R. (1872/1998). The Expression of Emotions there are also reasons to believe that the in Man and Animals. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Received: 07 July 2010; accepted: 13 July 2010; published inclusion of more complex and ecologically Duclos, S. E., Laird, J. D., Schneider, E., Sexter, M., Stern, online: 23 August 2010. valid skills in motor learning research would L., and Van Lighten, O. (1989). Emotion-specific Citation: Lewthwaite R and Wulf G (2010) Grand challenge be more effective in determining meaning- effects of facial expressions and postures on emotional for movement science and sport psychology: embracing the ful principles that have application to more experiences. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 57, 100–108. social-cognitive–affective–motor nature of motor behavior. complex and real-life skills. For instance, Foroni, F., and Semin, G. (2009). Language that puts you Front. Psychology 1:42. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00042 in touch with your bodily feelings: the multimodal This article was submitted to Frontiers in Movement principles developed on the basis of simple responsiveness of affective expressions. Psychol. Sci. Science and Sport Psychology, a specialty of Frontiers in skills do not always generalize to more com- 20, 974–980. Psychology. plex skills, and vice versa. Finally, tasks of Glenberg, A. M. (2010). Embodiment as a unifying per- Copyright © 2010 Lewthwaite and Wulf. This is an open- increased difficulty and complexity – that spective for psychology. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Cogn. ­access article subject to an exclusive license agreement Sci. 1, 586–596. between the authors and the Frontiers Research Foundation, pose a true challenge to the performer – may Grafton, S. T. (2009). Embodied cognition and the simu- which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduc- reveal changes in coordination as a function lation of action to understand others. Ann. N. Y. Acad. tion in any medium, provided the original authors and of different self-regulation strategies. Sci. 1156, 97–117. source are credited.

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