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home vermeer catalogue glossary technique vermeer events vermeer bookshop The School of Delft THE SCHOOL OF DELFT The School of Delft was loosely composed of a heterogeneous group of artists, most of whom were born outside Delft but worked there at one time or another for varying lengths of time between 1650 and 1670. the school of delft: origins & characteristics According to some art historians, there was, however, no pivotal figure in Delft (least of all Vermeer) around & paulus potter whom the other painters gathered for inspiration although at one time or another Carel Fabritius, Pieter Saenredam, Paulus Potter and even have been cast in the role of catalysts. & gerard houckgeest & emanuel de witte Vermeer news Leonaert Bramer, who would have been acknowledged by Delft citizens as the most Facebook important Delft painter of his generation, What is a "school" of painting? produced eccentric history , murals Vermeer FAQ In reference to painting the word "school" is and moody Italianate nocturnal scenes (see used with various meanings. In its widest Art bookshops image left) which share nothing with the work of sense a school may include the painters of a Vermeer and his pioneering colleagues. The single country, regardless of date such as Vermeer slideshow other important painter in Delft was Christiaen "the Dutch School." In its narrowest sense, it denotes a group of painters who worked van Couwenberg, who, like Bramer, made Digital images under the influence of a single artists as in, primarily history paintings and had studied in the "School of Raphael." In a third sense, it About Italy. His paintings of Biblical subject matter, for applies to the painters of one city or province modern taste, appear theatrical and brittle, who worked under some common local Peasants by a Fire influence, and with some general similarity Leonaert Bramer practically at the antipode of the Delft spirit. c. 1626 of design, color, or technique, such as "the Florentine School. Oil on slate, 22 x 33 cm. Any scenario that might explain how the Delft Private collection spirit was ignited must include the contemporary Painters of a specific geographical area were gathering of Carel Fabritius from (and with him the lessons of ), Pieter de Hooch once bound together more closely than in modern times. In order to sign and sell their from (a painter of amiable low-life scenes), Paulus Potter (noted for his silvery, atmospheric works, they were required to belong to the landscapes) and the pioneering architectural painters, Gerrit Houckgeest and Emmanuel de Witte along with of St. Luke, the corporation of artists Vermeer, native of Delft. and artisans which regulated the local art commerce and assisted painters in illness We know that Italian artists and art writers of the thought the artistic production from each of and old age. Each guild had a clearly defined the major Italian cities (, and ) presented distinct characteristics distinguishing them set of rules, traditions and a system of from the others. There is no documentary evidence showing that painters of Amsterdam, or apprenticeship that compelled young painters to work for a term of four to six had ever viewed the more innovative art production of Delft distinct from the production of other cities— years with a recognized guild master. Thus, nough so to merit an appellative. Nor is it known if the painters of the School of Delft themselves held that an important master might stamp his manner there was a common thread binding them together. Vermeer may have urged the awkward De Hooch to of working on a large number of pupils, draw his figures and organize his compositions with greater care, but if Vermeer's white-washed walls owe some of whom would be more than willing more to the pearl-gray church walls of Houckgeest or De Witte rather than to the stark white background of to acquiesce to the tastes of local collectors who had guaranteed their master's prosperity. Fabritius's tiny Goldfinch is impossible to know. A significant number of the paintings produced in Delft are not dated, frustrating attempts to determine the directions of influence with any degree of accuracy. The "School of Delft," or the "," belongs to the third type of school, although On the other hand, it is almost impossible to believe that in a city as small as Delft, which at that time could its "members" would probably not have been have been be crossed by foot in a few minutes, such exceptionally talented painters belonging to the same aware that they belonged to any school at all. They were, however, bound by their guild would not have talked shop and kept a close eye on their colleagues' progress, if nothing else in order obligatory guild membership and could not not to fall behind in competition. have avoided contact with each other is such a small town as Delft. Characteristics of the School of Delft The School of Delft is known for genre SCHOOL OF DELFT Resources scenes of domestic life, church interiors, Wayne Franits, Pieter de Hooch: A Woman courtyards and its city streets. The principal Preparing Bread and Butter for a Boy, Getty artists of the School of Delft are Johannes Museum Studies on Art, Los Angeles, 2006. Vermeer, Pieter de Hooch, Carel Fabritius, Frederik J. Duparc, Gero Seelig and Ariane Gerard Houckgeest, Paulus Potter and Van Suchtelen, Carel Fabritius 1622–1654, Emmanuel de Witte. Today, Vermeer is : Royal Cabinet of Paintings, universally considered the greatest painter of , 2004. the school although each of painters listed Sergiusz Michalski, "Rembrandt and the above have carved out a prestigious place Church Interiors of the Delft School" Artibus among the most significant painters of the et Historiae, vol. 23, no. 46, 2002, . 183– Golden Age of Dutch painting. Some art 193. historians have also designated a School of Walter A. Liedtke, Michiel Plomp, and Axel Pieter de Hooch. Rüger, Vermeer and the Delft School, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001. Other painters who, to a greater or lesser Gary Schwartz, "With Emanuel de Witte in degree, have been associated with the School the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam," in Geest en are Hendrick van der Burch, Cornelis de Man, gratie: Essays Presented to Ildiko Ember on Anthonie Palamedesz, Egbert van der Poel, Her Seventieth Birthday, ed. Orsolya Adam Pynacker, , Jacob van Velsen, Radványi, 2001, . 84–91. Johannes Verkolje, Hendrick Cornelisz van Walter A. Liedtke, A : Vermeer Vliet, Daniel Vosmaer and Jacob Woutersz and his Contemporaries, Zwolle: Waanders A Woman Peeling Apples Vosmaer. Publications, 2000. Pieter de Hooch c. 1663 Danielle Lokin, Michiel C. Kersten, "The Oil on canvas, 67.1 x 54.7 cm. The principle qualities which distinguish the Delft Church Interior," in Delft Masters,

The Wallace Collection, painting of the School of Delft from the painting Vermeer's Contemporaries,: Waanders Publications, 1996, 41–86. http://www.essentialvermeer.com/fakes_thefts_school_of_delft_lost_sp/school_of_delft_one.html#.W_0sxuhKhPY 1/8 27.11.2018 The School of Delft

of other Dutch schools is a pervading calm, careful observation of the activity of light, perspective Amy L. Walsh, Paulus Potter: his works and coherency, measured composition and a relative disinterest for detail for the sake of detail. The last is the their meaning. Ann Arbor: Columbia quality which brought the fijnschilders (fine painters) of the School to the international stage. University, 1989. Walter A. Liedtke, "De Witte and The School of Delft coalesced in the early and continued to produce paintings of elevated quality and Houckgeest: Two New Paintings from Their originality through the 1660s. However, as quickly as the Delft style arose, it disappeared. Many artists Years in Delft," The Burlington Magazine, departed for more promising markets, usually Amsterdam. By the time Vermeer died in 1675, the city had Vol. 128, No. 1004 (Nov., 1986), 802–805. reverted to its status as an artistic backwater. , Architectural Painting in Delft: Gerard Houckgeest, Hendrick Van The character or even the existence itself of the School of Delft—no such appellation existed at the time—is Vliet, Emanuel De Witte, Doornspijk: not, however, set in stone. The art historian Christopher Brown has questioned if the School of Delft ever Davaco, 1982. existed in a meaningful art historical sense. J. Breunesse holds that "with the use of the term 'Delft School,' Christopher Brown, Carel Fabritius with a a problem [is] created rather than solved." Catalogue Raisonné, Oxford: Phaidon, 1981.

On the other hand, in line with previous art historians, John M. Montias, the economist turned Vermeer Peter C. Sutton, Pieter De Hoogh: Complete Edition, Oxford: Phaidon, 1980. biographer, suggests that once Potter, De Witte, Fabritius, De Hooch and Vermeer joined the Delft shortly before or shortly after 1650s, "a genuine school—in the sense of a community with Hans Jantzen, Das niederlandische intersecting interests in subject matter and techniques, with some similarity in aesthetic approaches, and Architekturbild, Leipzig, 1910 (2nd ed. Brunswick 1979). with significant cross influences—had at last come into existence." Ilse Ruth Manke, Emanuel De Witte: 1617– Walter Liedtke, one of the most authoritative scholars of Dutch art, affirms unequivocally that the School of 1622. (Dutch), Amsterdam: Hertzberger, Delft did exist and organized in its honor an imposing exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art which 1963. included 85 paintings, 15 by the hand of Vermeer.1 Briefly, Liedtke posits that "most innovative Delft artists Arthur K. Wheelock, "Gerard Houckgeest of the 1650s and 1660s achieved (unconsciously, to be sure) a synthesis of qualities that were well and Emmanuel de Witte: Architectural established in Delft and the naturalistic mode of description that had been at home in Haarlem, 'Cradle of Painting in Delft around 1650," Simiolus, 8 the New Art.'" (1975/76), 167–185.

In any case, as Liedtke points out, the most recent art historical research has concentrated more on the individualities of the painters working in Delft and their relationship to the broader context of South Holland rather than with the School of Delft. Some critics maintain that the "regional" differences in the arts are less marked in the , united as it was by strong bonds of commerce and a highly efficient system of transportation.

Domestic Genre Scenes from 1600 to 1650 While busy kitchen scenes, chocked with food and kitchenware to show off the painter's ability to render textures, abounded in the sixteenth century, domestic scenes were more generally executed in drawings and etchings. Only in the new century did the domestic setting come into its own as a distinct motif. A Party at Table (detail) Dirck Hals In the first half of the 1600s artists such as 1626

Willem Buytewech, Dirck Hals, Pieter Codde, Oil on oak, 28 x 38.8 cm. National Gallery, London Jacob Duck, Willem Duyster and Anthonie Palamedesz painted numerous interior scenes,

A Wedding Breakfast crowded with figures of the jeunesse dorée, Anthonie Palamedesz (see image right) but with minimally defined Oil on panel, 48.4 x 73 c m. Private collection interiors (see image left).

The interior environment—generally, only the background wall and floor are represented—contain no more than two or three simple pieces of furniture placed at the extreme left- or right-hand side of the composition. Perhaps, a table is placed in the middle of the composition around which the animated figures gather. The background walls are generally nude or adorned with quickly sketched wall maps or framed paintings while the floors are bare or covered with prosaic wooden planks. The windows, if visible, are roughly defined. Raking light streams over the background wall from left to right, gradually diminishing as it distances itself from the source of light. In some of the later interiors, a shadow descends diagonally from the left-hand side of the composition, suggesting the window's bottom. One has the impression that furniture and architectural features are rendered free-hand without the aid of geometrical perspective.

While the figures and their fancy costumes, the raison d'être of the painting, are defined with brilliant tints and meticulous detail, the interiors themselves are summarily painted in dull earth colors. The figures often span the entire width of the composition creating a frieze-like procession. Perhaps, it is only the interiors of Anthonie Palamedesz, born in Delft, in which we might anticipate something of the cool, blond light characteristic of the School of Delft.

"Occasionally, architectural painters like Dirck van Delen executed secular interiors with companies of merry makers with pronounced perspective effects, but these tended to be large Renaissance-styled banqueting halls which, like their church interiors and outdoor colonnades, reveal their ancestry in perspective recipes. A handful even anticipate the Delft painters' focus on the corner of an orderly interior, but make little attempt to depict natural light or a sense of atmosphere (see image left)."2

An Interior with Women Dirck van Delen 1652 Oil on panel, 94.1 x 141.8 cm. , Amsterdam http://www.essentialvermeer.com/fakes_thefts_school_of_delft_lost_sp/school_of_delft_one.html#.W_0sxuhKhPY 2/8 27.11.2018 The School of Delft Domestic Genre Scenes of the School of Delft

A Woman Drinking with Two Men Pieter de Hooch 1658 Oil on canvas, 73. 7 x 64.6 cm. National Gallery, London

Although modeled on the consolidated left-hand-corner-of-the-room formula that had originated in the broader South Holland, Delft domestic genre interiors display figures that are set further back in the pictorial space. Delft interiors are typically higher than they are wider allowing the painter to concentrate his attention on a few, tightly knit figures (see image above). Rather than spirited actors upon an empty stage of earlier interiors who cavort, drink wine and gesticulate for the divertimento of the painter and his audience, the figures of the interior scenes produced in Delft strike the spectator as real people, going about their real lives in a real environment. The figures and their actions in Delft painting are sometimes rendered with such discretion that the storyline, to say nothing of the scene's ancillary iconographic meaning, has proved vexing to interpret. Nonetheless, although generally motionless, the figures give the impression of being in harmony with their environment and themselves, absorbed in their momentary activity, unaware of the spectator.

Although scholars have discovered that these interior scenes are a contrived combination of fact and fiction, most spectators feel as if they are able to witness real events that took place in a Dutch home more than three hundred years ago. Vermeer brought the Delft interior painters' proclivity for understatement and reserve to what has been described by the authoritative Vermeer critic Lawrence Gowing and accepted by the majority of Vermeer experts, as reticence.

Favorite themes in Delft interior painting (all of which had evolved elsewhere) were bourgeois courtship, music making, domestic chores, discreet merry making and family life. Drawing on the work of Gerrit ter Borch and/or Frans van Mieris, two of the most successful artists in the Netherlands, Vermeer extended the Delft repertoire to include letter reading and letter writing.

The domestic interior scenes painted in Delft are generally illuminated from a carefully defined window located on the left-hand extreme of the canvas, although Pieter de Hooch also employed an innovative scheme of back-lighting to silhouette the figures against light backgrounds. Light almost invariably enters from the left hand side of the picture following convention. However, rather than serving as a vehicle for dramatizing the actions of the figures as the painters of the School of Rembrandt, the Utrecht Carravagists and a virtual army of the Dutch low-life painters had done, the Delft painters (especially De Hooch and Vermeer) seemed to have studied light for its own sake. This prompted some critics to state that the real subject of Vermeer's painting is light itself. Popular artificial lighting schemes in Dutch painting, such as moonlight, candlelight or torchlight, were of little interest to painters of the School of Delft. Some art historians, including Kees Kaldenbach, have hypothesized that painters in Delft had employed optical devices fitted with lenses, such as the camera obscura, to improve the mimetic quality of their images although thus far, the instrument has only been linked securely to Vermeer.

The overall tone of Delft domestic interior painting is generally lighter than comparable works painted elsewhere. The background walls of many interiors are light gray, the shadows are relatively luminous and cool in tone (see image left). The perspectival construction of the architectural features, including floor tiles, windows, ceiling beams and furniture, are far more coherent than those of the bourgeoisies interiors painted previously.

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One of the principal achievements of the Delft SCHOOL OF DELFT School was to enhance geometrical perspective —used to create a sense of three-dimensional depth—with the painterly qualities used to suggest light and atmosphere. The over- reliance on geometrical perspective leads to a uniform sharpness of contour creating dryness of atmosphere and brittleness of form. Architectural painters, who constructed their interiors from ground up via strict, one-point perspective, made use of precise line drawings which were subsequently transferred from the paper to the canvas through one or another mechanical procedures, without observing an extant reality. With no visual model to rely on, color, light and shade of the final image were created by following traditional painting recipes which prescribed precise combinations of pigments for anything the painter could expect to encounter.

Young Woman with a Water Pitcher Instead, Delft painters did not rely exclusively Johannes Vermeer c. 1662–1665 on geometric perspective to achieve the illusion Oil on canvas, 45.7 x 4 0.6 cm. of spatial depth in their pictures. They became Metropolitan Museum of Art, New Y ork aware, most likely through intensive observation SCHOOL OF DELFT of nature, that light, color and contour may be used to further intensify the sensation of depth, with the advantage of contemporarily creating the sensation that natural light and air fill the room and flow around the figures and environment. Delft painters understood that warm colors and lights are perceived as advancing away from the surface of the canvas while cool colors and darks are perceived as receding, near at hand. Out of focus, or summarily painted objects, appear more distant than meticulously painted objects with sharp contours. If an object is rendered with a saturated primary color (a technique adopted by both De Hooch and Vermeer), it will tend to stand out from surrounding objects and appear to advance is space. If the same object is rendered with weak colors, it tends to be A Woman with a Child in a Pantry (detail) overlooked and perceived as being more Pieter de Hooch c. 1658 distant. Even the texture of paint may be

Oil on canvas, 65 x 60.5 cm. employed to define spatial depth. By rendering Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam objects with thick impasto, the eye is provided a sort of visual anchor making it seem tangible and "within reach." On the other hand, objects depicted with thin, diluted paint, often reserved for the secondary figures in the background, are perceived as relatively immaterial and therefore distant.

To increase the sensation of aerated space, the Delft painters rendered their shadows with lighter tones, sometimes with their own color, and equipped with reflections caused not only by the predominating lighting conditions but the colors and reflectivity of nearby objects as well (see image left).

Vermeer's Girl with a Wine Glass is a virtual SCHOOL OF DELFT compendium of the space-defining techniques typically employed by the most advanced Delft painters. The lightest passages of the girl's luxurious satin gown are depicted with unadulterated vermilion, the strongest red pigment available to painters of the time. The gown's shadows are not rendered with anonymous deep browns, conventionally used to depict shadows, but "positive" reds. Each fold is clearly delineated and the gown's outer contours are uniformly sharp. The figure virtually pops out of the picture onto the viewer's lap. In direct opposition, the dejected background figure who slouches behind the table, is painted with drab earth tones. The inner contours of his clothes and anatomical features are defined by subtle shifts in tone rather than sharp chiaroscural contrasts. Here and there, the outer contour blends subtly into the gray background. Thus, painted so The Girl with a Wine Glass differently, the two figures break away from Johannes Vermeer c. 1659–1662 each dynamically in space: one, as it were, Oil on canvas, 78 x 6 7 cm. charging to the forefront, the other, sinking into Herzog Anton Ulrich-Museum, Bru nswick the ill-lit background. The outstanding impact of http://www.essentialvermeer.com/fakes_thefts_school_of_delft_lost_sp/school_of_delft_one.html#.W_0sxuhKhPY 4/8 27.11.2018 The School of Delft

spatial depth in this work can only be appreciated when it is viewed directly, where the painting's refined surface qualities, variations in contour and nuances of color can be fully appreciated.

Once the domestic motif had been popularized, a number of painters who specialized in other subject matter, like Jacob van Loo and Jan Baptist Weenix, occasionally tried their hand at the domestic interior.

Although the Delft School is universally renowned for its intimate interior settings, art historians agree that it was Delft church painting, which unexpectedly appeared from 1650 and 1651, that laid the ground for innovation rather than interior painting.

Early Church Interiors From the 1580s, the church painters of the so- called " School" (Hendrick van Steenwyck I and II, Pieter Neefs the Elder and others) had tightly adhered to a rigid one-point perspective presenting a view directly down the main nave of imaginary churches. The uncountable orthogonals, produced by the churches' complex architectural features, race towards the vanishing point—always located within the picture—plunging the viewer's gaze headlong to the back of the painting. This device, which creates an irresistible but somewhat disquieting sense of spatial depth,

Interior of an Imaginary Church was continued with some modifications in the Bartholomeus van Bassen 1630s and 1640s by Dirck van Delen and 1639 Oil on panel,38 x 50 cm. Bartholomeus van Bassen (see image above). Private collection The latter had worked in Delft from 1613 to 1622. Such works were called "perspectives," a term which later came to describe not only churches or monumental structures, but any painting with a pronounced effect of linear perspective, including domestic interiors, such as Vermeer's Art of Painting.

Pieter Saenredam was the first to break with tradition and record existing buildings. But more than just faithful topographical records, Saenredam's churches may be seen as portraits: an eccentric blend of fact and fiction characterized by nuanced pastel colors, natural light and extreme simplicity of drawing and layout. Saenredam often omitted people and church furniture from his work, focusing more attention on the buildings and their architectural forms. An aura of quiet dignity and mystery, hitherto extraneous to architectural painting, pervades Saenredam's church interiors.

Church Interiors of the School of Delft During the first years of the 1650s, a small group of Delft SCHOOL OF DELFT church painters began to emphasize visual experience over fantasy. In a few years, they brought the art of church painting to its apogee. Although Saenredam had no pupils or close followers, some art historians believe his works may have been a common source of inspiration for Houckgeest and De Witte, Delft's most accomplished practitioners of the specialization. Their close-up portrayals of Delft's two venerable churches, the Nieuwe and Oude Kerk, are flooded with a cool, crystal clear daylight suggested by delicately modeled patches of diaphanous grays. Huge columns are placed off-center in the very forefront of the painting, partially obscuring the viewer's access to the rest of the church. The spectator is no longer overwhelmed by the vacuous space of the earlier church scenes, but feels as if he were able to move comfortably in and around these monumental, man-made constructions, the vaunt of Delft's citizenry. Interior of the Oude Kerk Delft, with the Pulpit of 1548 For the first time, figures, which had been previously Gerard Houckgees t employed as decorative filler (staffage), become an c. 1651 National Gallery of Scot land, Edinburgh integral part of the composition. The Dutch men, women and children who inhabit the churches appear dignified and self-possessed, not stylized dolls. The reduced dimensions of the Delft church views—the architectural paintings of the nearby Hague were generally much larger to suit the exigencies of the princely patronage— may have been determined by the desire to create more intimate scenery, by specific demands of the art- buying public in Delft or by both.

De Witte and Houckgeest revolutionized the spatial construction of their church interiors by employing two- vanishing points which form a corner at the nearest foreground column, from which the perspectival orthogonals recede to both sides of the composition. Both lateral vanishing points are located outside the composition. This innovation creates a natural, and intriguing spatial recession which appears to expand "behind" the picture frame creating the sense of spatial breadth as well as spatial depth. By lowering the height of the vanishing point, which had been placed higher in earlier church paintings in order to create a wide panoramic view of the scene, the viewer of De Witte's and Houckgeest's works feel as if he is located "in" the picture, with his feet firmly on the church's pavement rather than suspened at an undetermined height somewhere above the ground.

In various Delft church interiors, De Witte, Houckgeest and Van Vliet, the latter a Delft painter of minor talent, placed hanging curtains, sometime brilliantly colored, to the side of the composition in order to increase the sense of spatial illusion. Sometimes the curtain's hanging rod is also represented (see image http://www.essentialvermeer.com/fakes_thefts_school_of_delft_lost_sp/school_of_delft_one.html#.W_0sxuhKhPY 5/8 27.11.2018 The School of Delft

left) creating the illusion that the curtain does not belong SCHOOL OF DELFT to the space of the church itself, but is located in front of the painting, imitating curtains which were hung over precious paintings in order to prevent them from collecting dust. The luxuriously colored green curtain which appears on the right-hand side of Vermeer's Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window was almost certainly inspired by the church painter's trompe-l'œil motif. The art historian Sergiusz Michalski traced this motif to Rembrandt, who had used it occasionally in representations of mythological or biblical scenes. 3

Due to the unquestionable naturalness of their works, most critics agree that De Witte and Houckgeest worked from life, although most likely in the form of drawing. Painters of the time rarely set up their easels to paint in oils outdoors while records of painters drawing outdoors are relatively abundant. The exact sequence of church paintings created by Houckgeest and De Witte in the Interior of the Oude Kerk, Delft, with the Tomb of Piet Hein crucial first years of 1650–1654 is still open to argument. Hendrick Cornelisz. van V liet The so-called "Delft-type" of church interior painting had between 1652 and 1653 Oil on panel, 76 x 65 cm. a significant impact on the development of the artistic Private collection types in the Gouden Eeuw, the Golden Age of Dutch painting.

Courtyard Scenes Perhaps the only motif entirely invented in Delft SCHOOL OF DELFT was the urban courtyard scene. Although Fabritius' View in Delft is generally considered to be the earliest townscape to have been painted in Delft, De Hooch brought the type to its splendid maturity. Rather than focusing on the topographical character of Delft's urban courtyards, De Hooch concentrated on rendering the weathered brick and plastered walls, foliage, reflecting water, and shimmering roof tiles in schilderachtig, or "picturesque," manner capturing the silence of daily life and the timeless routine of household work, so cherished by the Dutch people (see image left). Delft townscapes and architectural paintings of the 1650s onward have the look of personal impressions, of things too familiar and sympathetic to describe objectively. 4

Although Vermeer never painted courtyards per se, his two street scenes (one is lost) must have been inspired by De Hooch's courtyards.

Courtyard in Delft at Evening: a Woman Spinning Van der Poel and Daniel Vosmaer both Pieter de Hooch produced a number of street views of Delft as it Oil on canvas, 69.3 x 53 .8 cm. 1656–1657 appeared after the Delft thunderclap (12th The Royal Collection Tru st, London October, 1654), which, in spite of their dramatic subject matter and emphatic treatment are lacking in the qualities usually associated with the School of Delft.

Painting in Delft Why one center rather than another gives birth SCHOOL OF DELFT to a new and significant form of painting at a given moment is unknown. In Vermeer's time, Delft was a small town principally known for its prestigious ties to the Dutch nobility, its breweries, porcelain, tapestries, picturesque streets, canals, courtyards and cleanliness. However, Delft had immense historical and moral importance for the Dutch nation: it had been the focal point of activities which shaped the fate of all the United Provinces at the outset of the Eighty Years War . Some of the nation's major figures had been born in Delft: the admirals Piet Hein and Marten Harpertsz. Tromp; Prince Frederick Henry, the son of William the Silent and one of the war's military heroes; Hugo Grotius, the jurist and statesman. Although small, Delft was rich and many of its citizens lived comfortably. The worth of its surrounding lands was calculated to be greater A Young Bull and Two Cows than that of Dordrecht, Schiedam and Paulus Potter 1649 Rotterdam together. The tone of Delft's civic life,

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Oil on panel, 70.2 x 63 cm. like its art, was conservative and profoundly Royla Trust Collection, Londo n patriotic. Delft's economic base was shrinking in respects to the booming Amsterdam and no longer had an active role in the nation's affairs.

Artistic production in Delft from 1600 to 1650 had been prodigious in portraiture, history painting, genre, landscape, still life, and architectural painting, but when compared to Haarlem or Amsterdam, both major artistic centers, it had only been of limited importance. Although conservative in subject matter and style, pre-School-of-Delft painting is nonetheless characterized by high standards of craftsmanship, refinement and a tendency toward understatement and reserve. The love of Delft's aristocratic society for rare and well- made objects, including paintings, may have been enhanced by the arrival of exotic Asian wares unloaded on the town's inland dock by ships returning from the Far East—Delft was one of the Dutch East Indies Company headquarters.

However refined, Delft painting of the first half of the seventeenth century lacked the dynamism of the high Baroque art—as Liedtke pointed out, there never was a "Delft Baroque." 5 Modeling of form was sober and brushwork unobtrusive. Delft's principal artists tended to perpetuate established artistic traditions, some of which were imported from abroad, rather than innovate. The revolutionary art of Rembrandt and were completely ignored. Although Liedtke holds that essential qualities of Delft painting before 1650 link the Delft School's art to the art of the town's past, many critics perceive an irreconcilable divide. Until the 1650s, the artistic production of Delft was closely intertwined with that of The Hague, which is no more than an hour's walk from Delft. A number of Delft painters worked for The Hague Court; satisfying the constant demand for high-quality portraits and history paintings.

Montias conjectured that in 1640s, Delft artists still went their separate ways, "exempt for the most part from any leadership or even from strong currents of influence. No more disparate group of painters can be conceived than Michiel Mierevelt, Balthasar van der Ast, Jacob Pynas, Anthonie Palamedesz, Simon de Vlieger and Leonaert Bramer, who were all active -and more or less successful- in Delft in the 1630s." 6

Even during the Delft School's heyday, the heterogeneous group of Delft artists continued to produce a wide range of paintings and artworks: still life, portraits for patrons and the court, sophisticated history paintings for the Court at The Hague and for patrician collectors in Delft, as well as decorative pieces of art, luxurious tapestries and silver objects.

Why Delft? Although Delft lacked the economic prosperity that could sustain a large patronage, some art historians have suggested that the town's quiet order, still noticeable today during tourist off-seasons, had played a role in attracting artists. Delft housewives were said to be "fanatically clean" while Delft itself was considered "not only the cleanest place in Holland, but, one may rightly assume, in the whole world." 7 Even Delft's town plan was orderly, organized as it was around a rectilinear scheme of streets and canals, the opposite of the ubiquitous alleyways which tortured Dutch urban environments. The art historian Peter Sutton claims that "the town's neat and orderly appearance, so suited to the mentality of the inhabitants, found its clearest expression in the works of De Hooch and his colleagues" and that "the quiet and precious art of De Hooch and Vermeer was appropriate to this conservative environment."

Liedtke maintains that the role of chance must also be considered: that is, "The coincidental encounter of artists whose experience and personalities fostered fresh ideas. Potter, Fabritius, De Hooch, De Witte, Steen and others who were familiar with painting in Haarlem and Amsterdam, did not settle in or near Delft by common consent, or for the same reason." The lack of a dominating pictorial tradition in Delft or a charismatic figure may have given sufficient wiggling room for a new generation of painters, with variegated cultural backgrounds and artistic specializations, to mix and experiment. Moreover, three important historic events may have encouraged the group of young artists residing in Delft to break with tradition and explore new artistic venues: the death of Prince Willem II in November 1650, the catastrophic explosion of the Delft gunpowder warehouse in October, 1654 which killed hundreds of citizens and prompted important rebuilding of the town, and the collapse of the Hague court which had deprived various painters in Delft of stable patronage.

In any case, the total number of inhabitants in Delft in 1650s was between 45,000 and 50,000. An appreciable percentage of those citizens were involved in the industry or other decorative arts.

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1. Vermeer and the Delft School (curated by Walter Liedtke), Tisch Galleries, second floor, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, March 8-May 27, 2001. 2. Peter C. Sutton, Pieter De Hoogh: Complete Edition, Oxford: Yale University Press and Wadsworth Atheneum, 1980, 52. 3. Sergiusz Michalski, "Rembrandt and the Church Interiors of the Delft School" Artibus et Historiae, vol. 23, no. 46, 2002, 183–193. 4. Walter Liedtke ed., exh. cat. Vermeer and the School of Delft, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001, 115. 5. Walter Liedtke, Architectural Painting in Delft, Doornspijk: Davaco, 1982, 11. 6. John Michael Montias, "Painters in Delft, 1613–1680," Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, vol. 10, no. 2 (1978–1979). 7. Dirk van Bleyswijck (1696) quoted these remarks made by a cartographer from Gologne.

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home vermeer catalogue glossary painting technique vermeer events vermeer bookshop The School of Delft: Pieter de Hooch & Johannes THE SCHOOL OF DELFT Vermeer the school of delft: origins & Pieter de Hooch characteristics baptized December, 162–died March 24, 1684 carel fabritius & paulus potter active in Delft c. 1653–c. 1663 pieter de hooch & johannes vermeer gerard houckgeest & emanuel de witte Vermeer news Pieter de Hooch (also spelled "Hoogh" or "Hooghe") was born in Rotterdam to Hendrick Hendricksz de Hooch, a Facebook bricklayer, and Annetge Pieters, a midwife. He studied in Vermeer FAQ Haarlem under the landscape painter Nicolaes Berchem, whose classical ruins and pastoral imagery seem to have Art bookshops had a negligible impact on the artist. Documents indicate that in 1650 he was working as a painter and servant for Vermeer slideshow a linen- and art collector named Justus de la Digital images Grange. In 1654, he married a woman of Delft named Jannetje van der Burch, by whom he fathered seven About children. He became a member of the Delft Guild of Saint Luke in 1655, moving to Amsterdam by 1661.

De Hooch began his career painting scenes called

Self Portrait (?) koortegardje (a bastardization of the French phrase corps

Pieter de Hooch de garde) which picture rowdy soldiers in stables or 1649 taverns in a scale of dark browns and yellows. In Delft, he (detail, self portrait?) Oil on panel, 32.5 x 34 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Johannes Vermeer focused on gezelschappen, or merry companies, and 1656 portraits but specialized in middle-class interiors and courtyards where common folk go serenely about their Oil on canvas, 14 3 x 130 cm. humble duties. Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dre sden

Best known for his complex interior spaces and sun-drenched courtyards, de Hooch's command of perspective and responsiveness to light was unprecedented. His works, generally small, exhibit an exceptionally refined observation of the unnoticed details of everyday living. His sophisticated treatment of light is comparable, if not superior in certain instances, to that of Vermeer. However, his figures, except for those in the best works of the Delft period, although they are never displeasing, do appear angular and rather like wooden puppets. On the other hand, their seeming clumsiness is a large part of the unpretentious charm of the scenes. De Hooch's technique, while eminently functional, is nonetheless below par when compared to that of the most technically sophisticated painters of the School of Delft, to say nothing of the Leiden fijnschilders (fine painters) who brought technique to its apogee. Whatever intellectual Resources lacunae or technical insufficiencies the grouping of figures in de Hooch's interiors might betray, by Wayne Franits, Pieter de Hooch: A Woman comparison, Vermeer's compositions appear staged. It is precisely this quality that has drawn so much Preparing Bread and Butter for a Boy, Getty attention to Vermeer in the twentieth century. Moreover, de Hooch's brush handling is often less than Museum Studies on Art, Los Angeles, 2006. elegant, yet his mode of description is both descriptive and evocative. Frederik J. Duparc, Gero Seelig and Ariane Van Suchtelen, Carel Fabritius 1622–1654, Domestic imagery constituted about one third of de Hooch's output. Although deeply intimate in character, The Hague: Royal Cabinet of Paintings, his depictions of domestic life are free of mawkish sentimentality and obtrusive anecdote which were Mauritshuis, 2004. hallmarks of Dutch . His narratives are generally straightforward, certainly more so than Sergiusz Michalski, "Rembrandt and the Vermeer's, and show scarce interest in moralizing innuendos or iconographic subtleties. Although he may Church Interiors of the Delft School" Artibus occasionally use pictures-within-pictures to add supplementary comment to the principal subject matter, "the et Historiae, vol. 23, no. 46, 2002, . 183– meaning of his art is usually directly associated with the subjects depicted, rather than through covertly 193. coded ideas."1 Few of his colleagues were able to capture the everyday thoughts of their painted figures, Walter A. Liedtke, Michiel Plomp, and Axel admittedly, extraordinarily difficult to pin down in the medium of painting. Vermeer was an exception. Women Rüger, Vermeer and the Delft School, New and children, almost to the exclusion of husbands and fathers, are repeatedly represented in simple York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001. situations in the home.2 He was particularly sensitive to the relationship between mothers and daughters. Gary Schwartz, "With Emanuel de Witte in the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam," in Geest en PIETER DE HOOCH IN HIGH-RESOLUTION gratie: Essays Presented to Ildiko Ember on Her Seventieth Birthday, ed. Orsolya Although viewing works of art in loco constitutes an experience for which there is no substitute, today's high- Radványi, 2001, . 84–91. resolution digital images, which are vastly superior in color and detail to traditional printed images, offer the most valid alternative. The following is a selection of high-quality digital images of the paintings of Pieter de Hooch Walter A. Liedtke, A View of Delft: Vermeer and his Contemporaries, Zwolle: Waanders currently accessible online. Publications, 2000.

Cardplayers in a Sunlit Room (1658) Danielle Lokin, Michiel C. Kersten, "The

http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/405951/cardplayers-in-a-sunlit-room Delft Church Interior," in Delft Masters, Vermeer's Contemporaries,: Waanders A Mother Delousing her Child's Hair, Known as 'A Mother's Duty' (c. 1658–c. 1660) Publications, 1996, 41–86.

https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-C-149 Amy L. Walsh, Paulus Potter: his works and their meaning. Ann Arbor: Columbia Woman with a Child in a Pantry (c. 1656–c. 1660) University, 1989.

https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-A-182 Walter A. Liedtke, "De Witte and Houckgeest: Two New Paintings from Their Figures in a Courtyard behind a House (c. 1663–c. 1665) Years in Delft," The Burlington Magazine,

https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-C-150 Vol. 128, No. 1004 (Nov., 1986), 802–805. Walter Liedtke, Architectural Painting in Delft: Gerard Houckgeest, Hendrick Van http://www.essentialvermeer.com/fakes_thefts_school_of_delft_lost_sp/school_of_delft_three.html#.W_0tBuhKhPY 1/4 27.11.2018 The School of Delft: Pieter de Hooch and Johannes Vermeer

Self Portrait (?) (1648–1649) Vliet, Emanuel De Witte, Doornspijk:

https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-A-181 Davaco, 1982. Christopher Brown, Carel Fabritius with a The Visit (c. 1657) Catalogue Raisonné, Oxford: Phaidon, 1981.

http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/436678? Peter C. Sutton, Pieter De Hoogh: Complete rpp=20&pg=1&ao=on&ft=pieter+de+hooch&pos=1 Edition, Oxford: Phaidon, 1980.

Leisure Time in an Elegant Setting (c. 1653–1655 Hans Jantzen, Das niederlandische

http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/459086? Architekturbild, Leipzig, 1910 (2nd ed. Brunswick 1979). rpp=20&pg=1&ao=on&ft=pieter+de+hooch&pos=5 Ilse Ruth Manke, Emanuel De Witte: 1617– A Woman Preparing Bread and Butter for a Boy (c. 1660–1663) 1622. (Dutch), Amsterdam: Hertzberger,

http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=852 1963. Arthur K. Wheelock, "Gerard Houckgeest The Courtyard of a House in Delft (1658) and Emmanuel de Witte: Architectural

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/pieter-de-hooch-the-courtyard-of-a-house-in-delft Painting in Delft around 1650," Simiolus, 8 (1975/76), 167–185. A Musical Party in a Courtyard (1677)

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/pieter-de-hooch-a-musical-party-in-a-courtyard

A Woman and her Maid in a Courtyard (1660–1661)

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/pieter-de-hooch-a-woman-and-her-maid-in-a-courtyard

The Courtyard of a House in Delft (1658)

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/pieter-de-hooch-the-courtyard-of-a-house-in-delft

JOHANNES VERMEER IN HIGH-RESOLUTION

Click here to access the high-resolution images of Vermeer's paintings are available online.

De Hooch and Vermeer The relationship between de Hooch and Vermeer has been the source of considerable debate among art historians. Nineteenth- century art historians had assumed that de Hooch had been influenced by Vermeer's work, but the opposite is now believed to be the case. Vermeer's early works of the 1650s reveal little interest in the developments that were revolutionizing Dutch genre painting. It was not until 1657 that he painted his first known genre interior, A Maid Asleep, in which he made a "superficial adaption" of the innovative motifs developed in Delft. "But nothing in this painting leads us to suspect that its author would eventually develop a perfect synthesis of illusionism and 'classical' composition. It was an external impulse—the work of Pieter de Hooch —which stimulate Vermeer's attempt at this synthesis."3 However, given the paucity of historical evidence it is not out of the question The Visit that Vermeer led the way on some occasions Pieter de Hoo ch c. 1657 while in others, De Hooch. Whatever the case Oil on wood, 67.9 x 58.4 cm. may be, although the art of de Hooch may Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York appear today as wanting in intellectual profundity and philosophical implications (and perhaps ambition) when compared to the art of Vermeer, de Hooch was unquestionably the more prolific and versatile painter of the two.

De Hooch explored a number of different lighting schemes other than the traditional left-to-right raking light which Vermeer never abandoned except in two late works, and The Guitar Player. Unlike his contemporaries, De Hooch also employed backlighting not only in his outdoor scenes but in his interiors as well. Particularly admirable is his ability to register, with the utmost fidelity, the reflections of light on ceramic pots, polished wood and glass. His renderings of dimly-lit interiors struck by a shaft of light penetrating from a window or open door have no equal.

While stylistic contrivances in Vermeer's paintings can be plausibly linked to the image produced by the camera obscura, nothing in de Hooch's work shows he was dependent on, or even interested in, any sort of optical device.

The Domestic Courtyard Scene De Hooch is credited with the, almost single handed, invention of one of the most popular motifs in genre painting while he was in Delft: scenes of private, urban courtyards (see image left).

"Courtyards were an intrinsic feature of Dutch domestic architecture and were either constructed within the middle of a house or at its very back. Houses in Dutch cities were customarily built close together on long, narrow lots. One function of the courtyard was to provide light to their interiors. Despite de Hooch's habit of including instantly identifiable structure in the background, his pictures do not simply duplicate real courtyards in paint. Thus, the artist's representations of courtyards, like his interior scenes, were, ultimately, contrived, skillfully combining direct observation of his immediate surroundings with prevalent pictorial conventions."4 His domestic scenes had an important influence on the development of the motif.

http://www.essentialvermeer.com/fakes_thefts_school_of_delft_lost_sp/school_of_delft_three.html#.W_0tBuhKhPY 2/4 27.11.2018 The School of Delft: Pieter de Hooch and Johannes Vermeer

Although de Hooch excelled in a number of motifs, his specialty was the so-called doorkijkje, or "see-through door" motif, which reveals secondary and tertiary views into other rooms, courtyards or the street beyond. This apparently simple device offers the painter an opportunity to create a more complicated architectural space and simultaneously expand narrative. The art historian Martha Hollander found that among more than 160 paintings attributed to de Hooch, only twelve do not exhibit this device.5

The light, perspective and descriptive detail of de Hooch's mature works are often so believable that they appear to be faithful records of actual sites. They are, however, in significant part, fruit of the painter's imagination and compositional skill. "Glimpses of Delft monuments, including the Oude Kerk, the , the Town Hall and the Old Town The Courtyard of a House in Delft Wall, regularly appear in his outdoor scenes. Yet

Pieter de Hooch the recurrence of altered and relocated details 1658 Oil on canvas, 73 .5 x 60 cm. confirms that these paintings include fictitious

National Gallery, London assemblages of naturalistic motifs."6

While Vermeer had achieved a higher professional standing in his era than de Hooch, in the centuries that followed Vermeer's fame became gradually obscured. De Hooch's signature was added to various works by Vermeer in order to increase their monetary value, including the latter's masterwork, .

After he left Delft, de Hooch began to paint for wealthier patrons in Amsterdam, although he lived in the poorest areas of the city. There, the quality of his work gradually deteriorated, perhaps caused by the death of his wife in 1667. He died in 1684 in an Amsterdam insane asylum, though the circumstances of his admission are unknown.

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1. Jane Turner, From Rembrandt to Vermeer: 17th-century Dutch Artists, New York: St. Martin's, 2000, 166. 2. Peter C. Sutton, Pieter De Hoogh: Complete Edition, Oxford: Yale University Press and Wadsworth Atheneum, 1980, 45. 3. Albert Blankert, Vermeer of Delft, Oxford: Phaidon, 1978, 29. 4. Wayne Franits, Pieter de Hooch: A Woman Preparing Bread and Butter for a Boy, Getty Museum Studies on Art, Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2006, 16. 5. Martha Hollander, An Entrance for the Eyes: Space and Meaning in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Art, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002, 153. 6. Peter C. Sutton, Pieter De Hoogh: Complete Edition, Oxford: Yale University Press and Wadsworth Atheneum, 1980, 25.

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