EDITED BY JAMES MILLER Santa Barbara, CA • Denver, CO • Oxford, UK Copyright © 2006 by ABC-CLIO, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chinese religions in contemporary societies / edited by James Miller. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 1-85109-626-4 (hbk. : alk. paper)— isbn 1-85109-631-0 (ebook) 1. China—Religion—20th century. i. Miller, James. bl1802.c54775 2006 200.951'09051–dc22 2006001695 10 09 08 07 06 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Acquisitions Editor: Steven Danver Production Editor: Martha Ripley Gray Editorial Assistant: Alisha Martinez Media Editor: Ellen Rasmussen Production Coordinator: Ellen Brenna Dougherty Manufacturing Coordinator: George Smyser Text Design: Cynthia Young, Sagecraft, llc This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook. Visit http://www.abc-clio.com for details. ABC-CLIO, Inc. 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116–1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Manufactured in the United States of America Acknowledgments WHEN FIRST PLANNING THIS BOOK I did not intend that so many of its authors should have some connection to Canada—whether by birth, resi- dence, or education—but it has certainly turned out that way. Perhaps Canada’s contemporary idea of itself as a multicultural mosaic is in part to be thanked for providing a stimulating environment in which to contem- plate narratives of modernization and globalization. I would also like to ac- knowledge the advice and friendship of Emily Hill at Queen’s University, who helped me better understand the late imperial and republican periods in Chinese history and who provided extensive comments on Chapter 2. Grate- ful acknowledgments are also due south of the border to Frank Korom at Boston University for first suggesting this book to me, to Eric Tang, who read and commented on drafts of the introductory chapters, and especially to Steven Danver and the production team at ABC-CLIO, whose guidance helped bring this complex project to fruition. James Miller Queen’s University, Canada February 2006 | v Romanization THIS BOOK GENERALLY USES the Hanyu pinyin system to transliterate Chi- nese terms into Roman script. Some Chinese terms, however, are more com- monly known in English according to other systems of romanization. In those cases, both the pinyin and the traditional versions are usually given. | vii Contents Acknowledgments, v Romanization, vii Timeline of Chinese Dynasties, xv Timeline of Modern Chinese History, xvii Map of China, xviii General Introduction, 1 1 THE HISTORICAL LEGACY OF CHINA’S RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS, 9 Introduction, 9 History, 11 Society, 18 Geography, 21 Divinity or Divination, 27 References, 29 2 THE OPIUM OF THE PEOPLE: RELIGION, SCIENCE, AND MODERNITY, 31 Historical Background, 32 Independent, Not Servile, 38 Progressive, Not Conservative, 41 Aggressive, Not Retiring, 44 Cosmopolitan, Not Isolationist, 46 Questioning Modernity, 48 Contemporary Chinese Religions, 52 References, 55 | ix x | contents 3 LOCAL RELIGION IN CONTEMPORARY CHINA, 57 Introduction, 57 Outline of the Religious Scene in South China Villages, 58 Lineage Activities and Temple Festivals, 59 Variation and Diversity, 60 Continuities and Discontinuities of Traditions, 61 Villages and Lineages in South China, 63 Village Gods, 65 Ghosts, 66 Interconnection between Villages, 66 Contemporary Situation, 67 Lion Dance and Lineage Activities in Northwest Guangdong, 67 Dragon Parade and Lineage Activities in Western Fujian, 70 The Temple Festival of the Five Old Buddhas, 71 The Jiao Ritual in Qigong, Northwest Guangdong, 73 Concluding Remarks, 78 References, 81 4 BUDDHISM AND ECONOMIC REFORM IN MAINLAND CHINA, 85 Introduction, 85 The Economic Situation of Chinese Buddhist Monasteries, 86 The Impact of the Market Economy on Buddhism, 90 Reforming Buddhist Studies in China, 93 The Sangha in Chinese Society, 96 Buddhism and Globalization, 97 References, 99 5 DAOIST MONASTICISM IN CONTEMPORARY CHINA, 101 Historical Background, 101 Daily Prayer in the Complete Perfection Order, 105 The Structure of the Daily Prayers, 108 The Daoist Synthesis of the Three Religions, 111 contents | xi Reinterpretation of Ancient Chinese Mythic Images, 117 Conclusion, 119 References, 120 6 SHAMANISM IN CONTEMPORARY TAIWAN, 123 Introduction, 123 Mazu and Han Taiwanese Identity, 125 What Is Shamanism?, 127 The Legacy of Chinese Shamanism, 130 Taiwanese Shamanism and Performance, 132 Beliefs and Practices, 134 Spirit Writing, 135 Self-Mortification, 135 Types of Mediums, 136 Spirit Youth, 136 Daoist Ritual Masters, 137 True Talents, 138 Spirit Diviners, 138 Conclusion, 140 Case Studies, 140 Mr. Tai, 140 Mrs. Zhang, 142 References, 143 7 BODY CULTIVATION IN CONTEMPORARY CHINA, 147 Body Cultivation in Traditional China, 148 The Birth of Qigong, 152 Mass Qigong, 154 Ecstatic and Charismatic Qigong, 154 Qigong Science, 158 Qigong Fever, 159 End of Utopia, 162 Apocalyptic Qigong, 165 Conclusion, 170 References, 171 xii | contents 8 PROTESTANT CHRISTIANITY IN CONTEMPORARY CHINA, 175 Historical and Political Background, 176 Early Encounters, 176 Protestantism in Pre-1949 China, 178 Protestantism in China after 1949: The Formation of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement, 180 Protestantism under Leftist Politics, 181 Protestantism after the Cultural Revolution, 182 Political and Institutional Framework, 183 The Protestant Population in Today’s China, 185 Varieties of Protestantism in China, 188 Aspects for Analysis, 188 Inadequate Views, 188 A Nuanced View, 189 Types of Protestant Communities in China, 190 Three-Self versus House Church?, 190 A Fourfold Typology, 191 Protestant Communities in China Today, 192 Special Varieties of Protestantism in China, 195 New Sects and Cults, 195 Cultural Christians, 196 Protestantism and Chinese Popular Religion, 197 Official and Popular Protestantism, 197 Affinities and Interactions between Chinese Protestantism and Chinese Popular Religion, 197 Healing, 198 Exorcism, 199 Morality, 199 Retribution and Reciprocity, 200 Conclusion, 200 References, 202 contents | xiii 9 WOMEN IN CONTEMPORARY CHINESE RELIGIONS, 207 Introduction, 207 Folk Religion, 209 Confucianism, 211 Buddhism, 215 Universal Aspects, 215 China, 217 Taiwan, 222 Daoism, 229 Conclusion, 232 References, 233 10 CONTEMPORARY CHINESE AMERICAN RELIGIOUS LIFE, 235 Historical Context, 236 The Early Period, 236 From “Melting Pot” to “Religious Pluralism,” 237 Early Period Case Study: The Temple of Kwan Tai, 240 History of the Temple, 240 Description of the Temple, 243 Contemporary Period Case Study: Ma-Tsu Temple U.S.A., 245 Ritual Tradition and Veneration, 246 Creating Common Culture?, 249 The Globalization of Chinese Religious Life in America, 251 Tzu Chi Compassion Relief Society, 252 Teo Chew Association, 254 Conclusion, 255 References, 256 xiv | contents 11 CHINESE TRADITIONS IN EURO-AMERICAN SOCIETY, 257 Introduction, 257 Western Scholarship on Chinese Religions, 258 1940s–1970s: The Birth of “American Daoism,” 262 Chao-Li Chi and the Taoist Sanctuary, 263 Al Huang and Alan Watts, 265 The 1970s: The Organization of American Daoism, 266 Hua-Ching Ni, 267 Mantak Chia and Healing Tao, 268 Moy Lin-Shin and Taoist Tai Chi, 269 Liu Ming and Orthodox Daoism in America, 270 The Practice of American Daoism, 271 Reading Chinese Classics as an American Daoist Practice, 272 Body Practice in American Daoism, 273 Health and Medicine in American Daoism, 276 The Future of Chinese Traditions in Euro-American Society, 277 The Fluidity of American Daoism, 277 References, 279 12 CONFUCIAN SPIRITUALITY IN AN ECOLOGICAL AGE, 281 The Contemporary Invention of Confucian Spirituality, 281 The Ecological Turn in New Confucian Spirituality, 291 Ecology, Spirituality, and Modernity, 296 References, 297 Index, 301 About the Authors, 317 Timeline of Chinese Dynasties B.C.E. 1500–1150 Shang 1150–770 Western Zhou 770–221 Eastern Zhou 403–221 Warring States Period 221–206 Qin 206–6 Former Han C.E. 23–220 Later Han 220–265 Three Kingdoms 265–317 Western Jin 317–420 Eastern Jin 420–589 Six Dynasties 589–618 Sui 618–907 Tang 907–960 Five Dynasties 960–1126 Northern Song 1126–1279 Southern Song 1279–1368 Yuan (Mongol) 1368–1644 Ming 1644–1911 Qing (Manchu) 1912– Republic (on Taiwan only since 1949) 1949– People’s Republic | xv Timeline of Modern Chinese History 1839–1842 First Opium War 1842 Treaty of Nanjing 1850–1864 Taiping Rebellion 1855–1873 Muslim rebellions 1858 Treaty of Tianjin 1894–1895 Sino-Japanese War 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki 1897–1901 Boxer Movement 1898 Hundred Days’ Reform 1905 Sun Yat-sen establishes the Revolutionary Alliance 1911 Qing dynasty collapses 1912 Last emperor Pu Yi abdicates; Republic of China established; Yuan Shikai becomes first president 1919 May Fourth Movement 1921 Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao found the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 1924 Nationalists and communists establish a united front 1927 Chiang Kai-shek massacres members of the CCP and others in the labor movement 1937 Japan invades China 1945 World War II ends; island of Taiwan is restored to China by the Allies following Japanese occupation since 1895 1949 Nationalists flee to Taiwan, where the Republic of China continues 1949 Chairman Mao establishes People’s