Pulling Levers: Getting Deterrence Right

National Institute of Justice

July 1998

PULLING LEVERS: GETTING DETERRENCE RIGHT

ALSO IN THIS ISSUE:

Breaking the Cycle of Drug Abuse in Birmingham

The Impact of the Opportunity to Succeed Program on Employment Success

Smart Cards: An Information Tool for the Future DIRECTOR‘S MESSAGE National Institute of Justice Jeremy Travis This summer edition of the National Institute of Justice Journal showcases Director community-based programs that respond to crime and its destructive effects NIJ Journal Editorial Board with a comprehensive approach that reaches beyond a reactive criminal justice response alone. Sally T. Hillsman Deputy Director for Office of The feature article, “Pulling Levers: Getting Deterrence Right,” looks at Boston’s Research and Evaluation Operation Ceasefire, a two-pronged intervention strategy developed to come to John L. Schwarz grips with the city’s youth homicide problem. The Ceasefire approach combines Deputy Director for Office of a strong law enforcement response with a “pulling levers” deterrence effort Development and Dissemination aimed at chronic gang offenders. The dramatic reduction in youth homicide in David Boyd Boston in recent years is testament to the effectiveness of the community’s response to this deadly problem. The author poses a tantalizing hypothesis— Deputy Director for Office of perhaps the Ceasefire model might achieve similar success when applied to Science and Technology other criminal and public safety problems. Cheryl A. Crawford We are witnessing an increased level of support for drug treatment of criminal Mary G. Graham populations. This support is based on research results—findings show that treatment Pamela K. Lattimore can be effective in reducing drug use and recidivism. As a result, new policies Marj P. Leaming are being shaped merging a public health approach with a public safety approach. Criminal justice supervision can serve as a booster to enhance the effectiveness Christy A. Visher of treatment. In Birmingham, Alabama, a project is under way to find out what Issue Editors happens when the full force of the criminal justice system’s coercive powers are Daniel Tompkins applied to reduce drug use among the offender population. “Breaking the Cycle Gayle O. Garmise, NCJRS of Drug Abuse in Birmingham” describes this initiative.

This edition of the Journal also looks at another tool being implemented to reduce The National Institute of Justice Journal drug abuse and criminal recidivism among offenders—the Opportunity to Succeed is published by the National Institute of Justice, the research arm of the U.S. Depart- program. Begun in 1994 in five communities, the program pairs a local probation/ ment of Justice, to announce the Institute’s parole agency with a lead social services agency to provide a comprehensive policy-relevant research results and initia- range of services, frequent supervision contacts, drug use monitoring, and graduated tives. The Attorney General has determined sanctions to offenders who relapse. The article focuses on the employment that publication of this periodical is neces- services component, seen as a key factor in reducing the risk of recidivism sary in the transaction of the public busi- among program participants. ness required by law of the Department of Justice. Ceasefire, Breaking the Cycle, and Opportunity to Succeed are excellent Opinions or points of view expressed in this examples of efforts to develop rational public policies regarding crime and document are those of the authors and do not substance abuse and to ameliorate their harmful effects on our communities. necessarily reflect the official position of the Communities—and the governmental agencies that serve them—are increasingly U.S. Department of Justice. taking ownership of the problems that are facing them and seeking out effective, The National Criminal Justice Reference innovative responses. NIJ will continue to support these efforts and help spread Service (NCJRS), a centralized national the word about successes achieved. clearinghouse of criminal justice information, is sponsored by the Office of Justice Jeremy Travis Programs agencies and the Office of Na- Director tional Drug Control Policy. Registered users National Institute of Justice of NCJRS receive the National Institute of Justice Journal and NCJRS Catalog free. To become a registered user, write NCJRS User Services, Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849–6000, call 800–851–3420, or e-mail [email protected]. The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- quency Prevention, and the Office for Vic- tims of Crime. CONTENTS Issue No. 236

FEATURES

PULLING LEVERS: GETTING DETERRENCE RIGHT ...... 2

BREAKING THE CYCLE OF DRUG ABUSE IN BIRMINGHAM ...... 9

Pulling Levers: Getting Deterrence Right THE IMPACT OF THE OPPORTUNITY TO SUCCEED See page 2 PROGRAM ON EMPLOYMENT SUCCESS ...... 14

SMART CARDS: AN INFORMATION TOOL FOR THE FUTURE ...... 21

DEPARTMENTS Breaking the Cycle of Drug Abuse in Birmingham See page 9 EVENTS ...... 24

NIJ IN THE JOURNALS ...... 25

RECENT NIJ PUBLICATIONS ...... 27

The Impact of the Opportunity SOLICITATIONS ...... 29 to Succeed Program on Employment Success See page 14 NEW & NOTEWORTHY ...... 30

July 1998 1 by David Kennedy*

August 29, 1996, Boston, Massachusetts.

More than 20 members of the Intervale Posse, a street gang in in Roxbury public schools. The message Ceasefire members deliver Boston’s Roxbury neighborhood, are arrested in an early-morning is simple and direct: sweep after a nearly 9-month investigation. Fifteen of the arrestees The city is not going to put up with violence any longer. We face Federal drug charges and 10-year minimum mandatory sentences; know who’s behind the gang violence. We’re warning gangs to many face even stiffer sanctions. In the weeks after the arrests, Boston’s stop; if they don’t, there are going to be consequences. There Ceasefire Working Group—composed of frontline members of the are people here who want to help you—we can offer services, Boston Police Department’s gang unit, the departments of probation job training, protection from your enemies, whatever you and parole, the U.S. Attorney’s and county prosecutor’s offices, the need—but the violence is going to stop. The Intervale Posse Office of the State Attorney General, school police, youth corrections, was warned, they didn’t listen, and they’re gone. This doesn’t social services, and others—meets with gangs around the city, goes to have to happen to you. Just put your guns down. youth detention facilities to talk with inmates, and speaks to assemblies

*David Kennedy is a Senior Researcher in the Program in Criminal Justice Policy and Management at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government and Director of the Boston Gun Project.

2 National Institute of Justice Journal Getting deterrence right May 1997, Lowell, Massachusetts. Can we make deterrence work? Crimi- nal justice agencies have always tried, but the results—whether of preventive One by one, 20 of Lowell’s worst young troublemakers are brought into a meeting with 14 patrol or the death penalty—have al- representatives of 7 city and State agencies. In 2 additional meetings, the authorities meet ways been dubious. The three vignettes with a group of 35 less chronic offenders and 16 members of a city street gang. The message on Boston, Lowell, and Minneapolis basically is the same as Boston’s. “We just wanted to tell you that we know who you are,” highlight a new approach to crafting says assistant district attorney Michael Ortiz. “If you continue to get into trouble, you’re going deterrence strategies, and in the larger to end up in jail, or hurt, or even dead. But if you want to get out of a gang or back into tales that lie behind them there is rea- 1 son to be optimistic. In Boston, youth school, or you want a job or counseling, we’re here to help.” homicide fell by two-thirds after the Ceasefire strategy was put in place in 1996. In Lowell, youth assaults de- deterring violent behavior by chronic crime and public safety problems. clined; according to Lowell High School gang offenders by reaching out directly And it may be that “pulling levers” headmaster William Samaras, who had to gangs, setting clear standards for can, where applicable, substantially been dealing with gang conflicts among their behavior, and backing up that alter the balance of power between students, there was “an immediate message by “pulling every lever” le- the authorities and offenders. quieting effect on the school.”2 In gally available when those standards Minneapolis—one of several Mid- were violated. The deceptively simple western cities that had experienced operation that resulted made use of a The traditional an increasing homicide rate—homi- wide variety of traditional criminal approach: deterrence cide fell by 45 percent citywide in justice tools but assembled them in through case processing the months after the city kicked off its fundamentally new and different ways. homicide prevention strategy with the (See “What It Isn’t, and What It Is.”) Criminal justice has sought to generate Bogus Boyz’ arrests. None of these It may be that the basic “pulling levers” deterrence in a variety of ways: police operations were controlled experi- logic can be applied in a variety of agencies through patrol and rapid ments, and a detailed evaluation of the settings and against a range of different response, probation and parole agencies Boston intervention is still under way. But the experiences to date are interesting enough to support an explora- June 1997, Minneapolis, Minnesota. tion of the basic crime-control logic that was applied to the work in Boston, A dozen members of the Bogus Boyz, a street gang composed of members ejected from Lowell, and Minneapolis and that is currently being explored in a number other gangs and notorious for street violence, are arrested on Federal weapons charges of other jurisdictions. after a short, intensive investigation spearheaded by the Minneapolis Police Department’s gang unit, in cooperation with Federal authorities. At the same time, teams of police and The basic approach was developed probation officers hit the streets to visit some 250 individuals identified by the gang unit in Boston as part of the National Insti- tute of Justice-supported Boston Gun as the city’s most chronic gang offenders. The teams tell the gang members: Project, an attempt to bring problem- The Bogus Boyz’ arrests were no accident. The Bogus Boyz were violent, and solving policing to bear on the city’s their violence won them this treatment. This is how the city is doing things from youth homicide problem. A two-part intervention—the Ceasefire strategy— now on. We’ve got a dozen agencies, from probation to the Feds, meeting regu- emerged from the Gun Project’s re- larly and focusing on gang violence. Where we find it, we’re going to act. search and planning phase. One part mounted a direct law enforcement at- Gang officers visit injured gang members—victims of assaults by tack on the illicit market that was sup- other gangs—in the hospital and say to them: plying youths with firearms. The other part was what the Gun Project’s inter- This is a terrible thing that’s happened to you. But understand, we’re going to agency working group eventually came deal with it. Retaliation will not be tolerated. Remember the Bogus Boyz. to call a “pulling levers” strategy:

July 1998 3 PULLING LEVERS

WHAT IT ISN’T, AND WHAT IT IS

It is worth noting that while a “pulling levers” strategy like and Naturalization Service, and neighborhood groups. (Tra- Ceasefire may seem to be like certain existing criminal ditional deterrence approaches tend to rely primarily on the justice approaches, they are different in important ways. routine workings of the police, prosecutors, and corrections.) Ceasefire was not, for instance, a targeted prosecution (3) Deliver a direct and explicit “retail deterrence” message strategy: No attempt was made to systematically take to a relatively small target audience regarding what kind chronic offenders off the street. It was not a strategy for of behavior will provoke a special response and what that use against gang crime as such. It was not an antigang response will be. (Traditional deterrence approaches vaguely strategy to disrupt or dismantle Boston’s gangs. Rather, it “send signals” to a large and indeterminate population, was an attempt to deter and control the particular problem generally promise only arrest and prosecution as a response, of gang-related violence. If gangs refrained from violence and do not focus services and other opportunities on the but continued to commit other crimes, the normal workings same population in a complementary fashion.) of police, prosecutors, and the rest of the criminal justice community attended to them. But if they hurt people, (4) Follow through. In Boston, the Ceasefire Working Group Ceasefire members came calling. met roughly every 2 weeks, in addition to constant informal communication, to assess the violence problem in the city It is possible to sketch the essence of what “pulling levers” and craft necessary responses. (Traditional deterrence ap- encompasses. What follows is the basic structure, along proaches are generally unable to deliver a sustained and with the key differences from more traditional deterrence focused response.) approaches. (5) Continue to communicate with the target audience as (1) Select a “target category” of behavior to be addressed, the strategy unfolds. (Traditional deterrence approaches such as gang violence. (Traditional deterrence approaches rely on the routine workings of criminal justice agencies to have much broader targets, such as “offending” or “gang send signals to offenders and do not draw explicit cause- offending.”) and-effect connections between the behavior of the target (2) Assemble an array of agency capacities that can be population and the behavior of the authorities.) deployed in the service of the strategy. In Boston, for ex- (6) Select, if desired, a new category of target behavior. ample, the Ceasefire Working Group included police; pro- If the original target behavior is controlled, a new one— bation; parole; Federal and local prosecutors; the Bureau overt drug trafficking, domestic violence—may be selected. of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms; school police; youth (Traditional deterrence approaches do not take a strategic corrections; and gang outreach workers. Other agencies approach to winning selected battles in a manner of the and groups that became deeply involved included clergy, public’s choosing.) the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Immigration

through supervision, prosecutors and Unfortunately, both scholarship and average number of days between ar- judges by focusing attention and sanc- everyday experience suggest that the rest and conviction for felony cases tions on repeat and violent offenders, deterrent power of this strategy has disposed by State courts was 173.4 Fi- and the like. The main engine for cre- not been great. It is not hard to see nally, most of the resulting sentences ating deterrence, however, has been why. Most crimes are neither reported are not terribly severe; it is estimated the basic case-processing mechanisms to nor observed by the police; in many that 52 percent of all felony convic- of the criminal justice process: the types of crimes, such as drug dealing tions result in probation.5 Traditional apprehension, prosecution, and sanc- and prostitution, both parties to the probation is the most extensively used tioning of offenders. In this model, transaction actively strive for conceal- sanction in the correctional system. deterrence is generated by the threat ment. And the majority of crimes that About 60 percent of offenders under that an offender will face a formal are reported do not result in an arrest. correctional supervision are on proba- penalty for the crime he has commit- In 1994, 12,586,227 offenses were tion.6 And while research has repeatedly ted. We calculate—and presume that known to the police; only 21.4 percent suggested that the certainty and swift- offenders calculate—this threat on the were cleared by arrest.3 When police ness of sanctions matters more than basis of the expected costs, imposed by make an arrest, it generally takes some their severity, most of the political and the criminal justice process, on offend- time for the case to make its way policy debate has centered on increas- ers for the crimes that they commit. through to a disposition. In 1992, the ing sanctions. Debates center on the

4 National Institute of Justice Journal death penalty and three-strikes laws, as the Working Group came to call the time, and occasional crackdowns, not on clearance rates for violent them—they could impose costs on these while useful in the short term, had crimes or the workloads of prosecutors gangs. They could disrupt street drug little long-term impact. The ability to and judges. activity, focus police attention on low- deliver overwhelming crackdowns, level street crimes such as trespassing however, was not in doubt. The Work- The resulting weakness of deterrence and public drinking, serve outstanding ing Group’s innovation—again, simple is perhaps particularly vexing where warrants, cultivate confidential infor- but important—was to make it clear to chronic offenders are concerned. It mants for medium- and long-term gangs that violence would draw such has long been known that a relatively investigations of gang activities, deliver crackdowns and then continue to com- small number of criminals offend at strict probation and parole enforcement, municate with gangs as the resulting very high rates, are repeatedly arrested seize drug proceeds and other assets, strategy unfolded. and sanctioned, and—if only by virtue ensure stiffer plea bargains and sterner of their continued offending—demon- prosecutorial attention, request stron- This changed the game rather dramati- strate a particular resistance to both ger bail terms (and enforce them), and cally. From a world in which the cost deterrence and rehabilitation. This is even focus potentially severe Federal to a gang of committing a homicide a particular problem where violent investigative and prosecutorial atten- was, perhaps, that a gang member offending is concerned. Not all chronic tion on, for example, gang-related would be caught and prosecuted (while offenders are violent offenders, but a drug activity. “street” benefits such as a reputation large proportion of violent crimes are for toughness accrued to the gang as a committed by chronic offenders, who This was, of course, not news to the whole), the cost soared. Added to the commit not only crimes of violence authorities. There were two problems: original risk would be everything else but also property crimes, drug crimes, It was impossible to give all the gangs the authorities could bring to bear: disorder offenses, and the like. Such this kind of heightened attention all cash-flow problems caused by street offenders are themselves victimized at very high rates. Boston Gun Project research, for example, showed that youth homicide was concentrated BOSTON’S VICTIMS AND OFFENDERS among a small number of serially offending gang-involved youths. Only about 1,300 gang members— The Boston Gun Project examined number of arraignments was 9.5, records on 155 youths age 21 and 44 percent had 10 or more less than 1 percent of their age group and under who had been killed by arraignments. For the 96 offenders citywide—in some 61 gangs were re- a gun or a knife over a 5-year pe- with at least 1 arraignment, the sponsible for at least 60 percent, and riod. Prior to their murders, 75 per- average number of arraignments probably more, of all the youth homi- cent had been arraigned for at was 9.7, and 41 percent had 10 cide in the city. These gang members least one offense in Massachusetts or more arraignments. For both were well known to authorities and courts, 19 percent had been com- victims and offenders, arraignments tended to have extensive criminal mitted to an adult or youth correc- for property offenses, armed violent records. (See “Boston’s Victims tional facility, 42 percent had been offenses, and disorder offenses and Offenders.”) on probation at some time before outnumbered drug offenses. For their murder, and 14 percent were offenders, unarmed violent offenses on probation at the time of their also outnumbered drug offenses. Pulling levers in Boston murder. Of the 125 youthful of- Even within this population, the rate fenders known to be associated of offending was skewed, with the Deterring violence by this group of with those homicides, 77 percent worst 5 percent and worst 10 per- chronic offenders became a central had been arraigned for at least cent of the 125 offenders respon- Gun Project goal. The “pulling levers” one offense in Massachusetts sible for 20 percent and 36 percent courts, 26 percent had been com- of 1,009 total arraignments, re- strategy the Gun Project Working mitted to a facility, 54 percent had spectively. The worst 5 percent Group designed was built on a simple been on probation, and 26 per- and worst 10 percent of the 155 but crucially important realization: cent were on probation at the time victims were responsible for 17 Chronic offending made these youths, they committed the homicide. For percent and 33 percent of 1,277 and the gangs they formed, extremely the 117 homicide victims with at total arraignments, respectively. vulnerable. Authorities had a large and least 1 arraignment, the average varied menu of ways—“levers to pull,”

July 1998 5 PULLING LEVERS

drug market dis- Stella Johnson © 1998 “a promise, not a deal.” Other the shot. So it appears to have tran- ruption, arrests purposes emerged as the strategy spired in Boston. There was one seri- for outstanding was actually implemented. One ous crackdown in May 1996, followed warrants, the hu- objective was to make cause and by another—the one described above— miliation of strict effect clear: to explain to the in August 1996. Enforcement actions probation enforce- city’s gangs that a particular of the severity of the Intervale crack- ment, even the pos- drug raid, for example, was but down have not been necessary since. sibility of severe a means to an end and was not sanctions brought by about drugs as such but a pen- Federal involvement. alty being imposed for violence. Strategies against Those costs were Another purpose was to bol- other problems borne by the whole ster the Working Group’s own gang, not just the credibility: to be able to say It is interesting to consider applying the shooter. As long as the to gangs, in effect, “We said “pulling levers” strategy to other im- authorities were confi- it, we meant it, and here’s portant crime problems. Imagine a city dent that they knew what proof of that: Here’s what with 20 active street drug markets and gangs were involved in a they did, here’s what we associated problems of violence, disor- particular act of violence, did, here’s how you steer der, and the involvement of juveniles as they usually were, these clear.” Another goal was as corner dealers, lookouts, and drug penalties were certain; the to give gangs that ap- couriers. Such drug markets are notori- Working Group could al- peared to be on the verge ously resistant to ordinary enforcement ways figure out ways to of trouble a dose of what attention. A “pulling levers” strategy reach out and touch particu- the Working Group came could begin by creating channels of lar gangs. They were also to think of as “retail de- communication with each drug mar- swift: Drug market disrup- terrence”: to reach out ket: through beat officers, probation tion, increased disorder en- to them directly, one on officers, community representatives, forcement, warrant service, one and face to face, even posters and fliers. On, for ex- probation attention, and the and make it clear that ample, May 15, the authorities send like could be deployed within violence would bring the following message to all 20 markets: days of a violent event. Rather a strong response. than an uncertain, slow, and We have three serious crackdowns ready often nonsevere response to Perhaps most impor- to deploy. They will involve heavy police violence, the response with tant, however, was and probation presence, warrant service, the Ceasefire strategy became that the Working and the like. Those arrested will receive Group came to real- certain, rapid, and of whatever special prosecutorial attention and, if con- ize that communi- range of severity the Working victed to probation, will be put on strict- Group felt appropriate. cation allowed the creation of a fun- supervision probation regimes; groups and Talking regularly to the gangs damentally differ- individuals with a history of violence will served a number of purposes. ent balance of power be screened for added attention by DEA Originally, the Working Group between the authorities and the streets. and the U.S. Attorney. We will decide, wanted to make sure that gangs knew The Working Group could deploy, at over the next 2 weeks, where to direct about this new policy—so they could best, only a few severe crackdowns at comply if they wished—and to tell a time. But like an old-West sheriff those crackdowns. We will make our deci- other gangs when a gang was being facing down a band of desperadoes sions based on whether, between now and punished for violence. The Working with one bullet in his gun, direct com- then, there is any violence associated with Group also wanted to make clear to munication with gangs allowed the your drug market. gangs that while violence would bring Working Group to say, “We’re ready, strong attention, refraining from vio- we’re watching, we’re waiting: Who Presumably at least one or two of lence would not win them a “pass” to wants to be next?” And, as with the these hypothetical markets are violent, deal drugs or do other crimes: This sheriff, when that message was clear and they receive crackdowns lasting was, in language the Working Group and credible, not only did nobody want 6 weeks. On July 15, new messages used explicitly in the gang meetings, to be next, it was not necessary to fire

6 National Institute of Justice Journal go out to the drug markets. The It may not be unreasonable to think probation (or, perhaps, they will be authorities say: that such a strategy could address on probation but for other offenses). many of the worst problems associated The authorities will then brief them: We’re gearing up again. We remind you with street drug markets. It would not that you’ve been warned before and that address drug trafficking as such to You have made the “A team” by virtue of several markets broke the rules. Here’s any great extent; the market would your intransigent behavior or the fact that what happened to them. Once again, we no doubt reestablish itself in a safer, you are clearly a threat at the moment. quieter, and more discreet fashion. But warn you that any violence will bring We are watching you carefully. If you until we figure out how to stop the drug are on probation for a domestic violence serious consequences. trade, this would be a considerable victory, and one many cities would offense, we will be asking the judge to This cycle is repeated until drug mar- be happy to win. attach onerous conditions of probation, ket-related violence is controlled. which will include frequent drug Or how about domestic vio- and alcohol testing, manda- At this point, the authorities change lence? Unlike gang violence their message to the following: and street drug markets, do- tory counseling, restriction, mestic violence is not gener- frequent and unannounced The old rules still apply. Violence will bring ally public and overt. It is, curfew checks, and supplying consequences. But now that the violence is however, often associated Stella Johnson © 1998 district police officers who nearly gone, we’re also going to insist on with chronic offenders, in cover your “partner’s” home order. In 2 weeks, we’re launching new the sense both that abusers and work areas with your also commit other crimes crackdowns. We’re going to assign them and that domestic abuse name and picture. [Techno- based on what is bothering the community tends to be part of a pattern logical possibilities like the most: unruly buyers, late-night traffic, of misbehavior by the of- “reverse house arrest”—an public drinking and urination, street- fender over time, within a electronic bracelet that sounds corner sales, and the like. (And, by the particular relationship and an alarm when the wearer goes way, pick up your trash.) serially across relation- near the victim—might have a ships. We could begin by creating a special, strict role to play here.] If you are on Once again, the authorities repeat the surveillance and supervi- probation, but not for a domestic cycle of communicating, responding, sion regime for a limited violence offense, you will get and communicating again until order number of offenders: 100, very strict probation supervision, is established. for sake of illustration. and we will be working to the Using appropriate means, The authorities then send a final extent possible with your “part- the authorities select 75 message: of a jurisdiction’s worst ner” and advocates, patrol officers, and prosecutors to bring a case The old rules still apply. Violence and dis- domestic violence of- that will result in a domestic vio- order bring attention. (And, by the way, fenders and place them on this regime. Some lence charge and, if not incarcera- congratulations on behaving. We knew will be subject to re- tion, domestic violence probation you were rational people.) We have one straining orders; some status. If you are not under supervi- new rule. Don’t use juveniles in your trade will be put on proba- sion but are arrested for a crime of any more; the kids are off limits. And tion for domestic of- any kind, we will consider taking a since those of you using juveniles are usu- fenses; some will be very tough line in the disposition of ally one or two steps removed from the identified by police officers, probation that case as part of our recently an- streets, we’re going to have to resort to officers, and victim nounced “repeat domestic offender serious investigations, in concert with DEA, advocates as particu- enforcement policy.” For any violation to reach you. You don’t want that. We don’t larly dangerous but of probation or any new domestic vio- want to have to do it. So pay attention. not currently on re- straining orders or lence charge, we will do everything we can to take you off the street. And

July 1998 7 PULLING LEVERS

remember, you can earn your way off this for admission and exclusion from that communicating directly with the last list: Go a year without a probation viola- select group; and informing the larger group that is usually considered for tion, a new arrest, or some other sign that universe of offenders of the progress, inclusion in crime control strategies: both good and bad, of those who are offenders themselves. It would be nice you remain a threat, and we’ll happily subject to such strict attention. if this were so. Talk, after all, is cheap. give your slot to somebody else.

The authorities now go to the much Conclusion Notes larger group of somewhat less serious Community policing and problem- 1. Berard, Darrin, “Turning Bad domestic offenders and say: solving policing can be viewed as at- Apples Around,” Lowell Sun, You are the “B team.” Here’s how you win tempts to escape what have become November 16, 1997. the routine, and often extremely unsat- a seat on the “A team.” We have 25 slots isfactory, choices posed by traditional 2. Ibid. just waiting for you. thinking about crime control. Deter- 3. Maguire, Kathleen, and Ann rence, or, failing that, incapacitation, Pastore, eds., Sourcebook of Criminal And they back up the entire scheme was the business of criminal justice, Justice Statistics 1995, Washington, by regularly communicating to both yet the ordinary case-processing busi- DC: U.S. Department of Justice, groups what happens to people on the ness of criminal justice agencies often Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1996: “A team”: how they misbehave and manifestly failed to deliver sufficient 425, NCJ 158900 [hereinafter 1995 are predictably sanctioned, how they crime control. The other alternatives Sourcebook]. behave well and are rewarded, how were root-cause strategies that prevent members of the “A team” are “gradu- crime by making fundamental im- 4. Maguire, Kathleen, and Ann ated” to the “B team,” and vice versa. provements in communities and the Pastore, eds., 1995 Sourcebook: 509. lives of the people and families that Can this work? It would certainly have constitute them. Yet these too were 5. See Cuniff, Mark, Sentencing Out- to be implemented in a way that mini- uncertain, hard to carry out in the comes in 28 Felony Courts, 1985, mizes the threat domestic violence midst of high levels of local crime and Washington, DC: U.S. Department victims face from abusers angered by fear, and offered little help to commu- of Justice, National Institute of Justice, official attention; takes advantage of nities needing immediate help with 1987: 1, NCJ 107760. all that domestic violence specialists serious public safety problems. Com- have learned in recent years about munity policing and problem-solving 6. Maguire, Kathleen, and Ann victim safety plans, when and why policing have tried to escape that bind Pastore, eds., 1995 Sourcebook: 540. offenders are most dangerous, and pat- by borrowing from the repertoire of Operation Ceasefire was a 1997 terns of offending by chronic abusers; both enforcement and prevention, Innovations in American Govern- and integrates the strategy into the crafting strategic interventions for ment program award winner. Every robust steps many jurisdictions now particular problems in concert with a year, the Innovations in American take in an attempt to control domestic wide variety of new partners. It may Government program, administered violence offenders. Quite possibly be that the “pulling levers” framework by the John F. Kennedy School of the scale of the example is wrong; we offers some useful guidance to shap- Government at Harvard Univer- might need 500 slots, or 5 levels of ing some of those interventions. De- sity, recognizes creative govern- supervision. But it seems worth ex- terrence may not be so hard to come ment initiatives. For descriptions ploring such a scheme: creating a tight by after all. And, remarkably, it may of other 1997 criminal justice web for a small but meaningful num- be that a key aspect of getting the award winners, see page 30. ber of offenders; creating clear rules deterrence equation right is simply

8 National Institute of Justice Journal BREAKING THE OF DRUG ABUSE IN YCLE BIRMINGHAM by Adele Harrell, Foster Cook, and John Carver*

In 1997, Birmingham, Alabama, became the first major Traditionally, the criminal justice system has not been U.S. city to take a comprehensive approach to the chal- particularly effective in addressing, in any substantive lenge of addressing offender drug abuse. With the sup- way, the substance-abusing behaviors exhibited by its port of the Office of National Drug Control Policy “charges,” despite the existing broad authority over (ONDCP) and the National Institute of Justice, Bir- individuals under supervision. mingham began the arduous task of implementing a systemwide initiative that encompasses all drug- Criminal justice practitioners are often the first to point involved offenders throughout their period of criminal out that they have been operating a “revolving door” for justice supervision under an award to the Birmingham drug abusers. When left untreated, drug abusers eventually Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime program. This return to their communities and resume the old behav- initiative, Breaking the Cycle (BTC), is being imple- ioral patterns that brought them to the criminal justice mented as a large-scale demonstration project designed system in the first place—perpetuating the cycle of sub- to answer the following questions: stance abuse and criminal activity. Treatment-oriented drug courts have demonstrated that an arrest of a drug- • What happens when all components of the criminal dependent individual presents an important opportunity justice system focus on drug addiction and apply for intervention. Moreover, if that intervention takes proven practices to lower the levels of drug depen- place in an environment of accountability, encourage- dency among the offender population? ment, and support, favorable outcomes often result.1 • What would the impact be on the incidence of drug BTC is designed to apply the lessons learned over the use and crime in a given community if all drug users past two decades. Research has shown that when sub- could be identified early, assessed for their drug treat- stance abuse treatment is reinforced by the coercive ment needs, referred to appropriate drug treatment, power of the criminal justice system, defendant out- monitored through regular drug testing, and immedi- comes improve. BTC fully integrates drug testing, ately sanctioned for drug use? referral to treatment, judicial supervision of treatment,

*Adele Harrell is Director of the Program on Law and Behavior at The Urban Institute. Foster Cook is Director of the University of Alabama at Birmingham Substance Abuse Programs and the Birmingham Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime program. John Carver, now Trustee for the District of Columbia for Offender Supervision, conducted much of the baseline process evaluation for the Justice Management Institute.

July 1998 9 BREAKING THE CYCLE and graduated sanctions. Specific completes the initial steps in the through the immediate judicial appli- objectives include the following: intervention process. cation of both sanctions and incentives, such as time in jail or increased frequency of drug testing. Sanctions • Close collaboration • Judicial oversight should be measured or graduated and between criminal justice BTC involves close judicial oversight based on the idea that certainty in their and drug treatment of drug treatment participation. The application is more important than BTC envisions that every drug-using experience of the drug court movement severity of the consequences. Imme- defendant entering the criminal justice has shown that close judicial oversight diacy is also important. Sanctions system will be assessed by a neutral can be effective in reducing drug use should be applied as soon as possible organization that serves the court but and criminal behavior among partici- after program violations. is not an ad- pants.2 BTC In Birmingham, BTC is building on vocate for applies this a strong foundation of court-based the defense lesson to all programs for drug-involved offenders. or the pros- drug-using For the past 25 years, the courts have ecution. defendants been referring drug-involved offenders Recommen- under all to the Treatment Alternatives to Street dations forms of Crime (TASC) program for assess- for court- criminal ment, case management, and treatment ordered justice su- referrals. Need for treatment was typi- treatment pervision. cally identified in a presentence inves- will be Judges have tigation report, and defendants were made, and broad au- ordered to TASC at sentencing. Inno- conditions thority to

Birmingham Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime vative programs developed by the dis- of treatment impose and Presiding Circuit Court Judge Mike McCormick, trict court expanded TASC services to will be enforce con- Criminal Division defendants before sentencing through based on ditions of a deferred prosecution program, a individualized treatment plans. Judicial pretrial release that address public drug court, and pretrial release pro- supervision will then take the form of safety. To optimally exercise this au- gram. These programs placed Bir- reviews of treatment participation and thority, judicial officers need quick mingham at the forefront of efforts drug testing at each court appearance. access to compliance information. BTC envisions regular reviews of drug test to address substance abuse problems. results and treatment participation infor- At the same time, Birmingham faced its • Early intervention mation at each scheduled court hear- share of problems in expanding services Early identification of defendants with ing. In this way, the criminal justice for drug-dependent offenders. As in substance abuse problems is a goal of system broadens its focus beyond the most jurisdictions, several agencies BTC, which calls for identifying of- resolution of legal issues presented by were faced with growing workloads. fenders eligible for drug treatment an arrest and begins to concentrate on The courts faced huge caseloads and immediately after arrest. An arrest the underlying factor of substance abuse. backlogs. The Jefferson County Jail, can provide the best opportunity to built to hold 750 inmates, was housing intervene in the offender/abuse cycle, • Use of graduated over 1,200 offenders in 1996 at the because it may force an individual to sanctions and incentives time of the BTC proposal, placing confront a substance abuse problem. constraints on the capacity of the jail An essential first step in accomplish- An integral part of BTC is the close to provide staff and space for screening this goal is routine, prearraignment judicial supervision that will be car- ing, urine testing, and jail-based treat- drug testing between the arrest and the ried out through regular reviews of the ment. In spring 1997, the probation first appearance in court. Following progress of drug-dependent offenders. department had five or six vacancies this testing, defendants would receive The goal of these reviews is to apply at a time when the average caseload a clinical assessment. Placement of steady leverage to retain offenders in had grown to 110 to 140 cases per the abuser in an appropriate treatment treatment. Borrowing from concepts officer. As a condition of the Federal modality shortly after the assessment pioneered by drug courts across the grant, Breaking the Cycle was man- country, the idea is to manage risk dated to improve the existing systems.

10 National Institute of Justice Journal Immediate challenges were the major the information systems and opera- from using drugs. For most arrestees, procedural changes and substantial tions of the Brooklyn Treatment Court it would be months before they were investments in upgrading the probation and the Midtown Community Court. asked if they had a drug problem, re- department’s basic infrastructure. NIJ Director Jeremy Travis joined the quired to take a drug test, or offered These upgrades included changes in group to discuss BTC’s expanded treatment. TASC intervention had the physical facility, enhancing drug- scope and historical significance. traditionally occurred at the time of a testing capability, developing better plea of guilty and application for pro- case management techniques, and The Jefferson County Commission bation. BTC has moved the interven- adapting a state-of-the-art manage- appointed retired Judge Daniel J. tion phase to the time of arrest or ment information system—developed Reynolds as adviser to the project. shortly thereafter, drastically changing in New York for the Brooklyn Treat- Ongoing planning meetings with staff how drug-involved offenders in Bir- ment Court—to meet the needs of Bir- from the Jefferson County Jail, Office mingham should behave if they want mingham. To build a more efficient of the District Attorney, probation de- to remain out on bond. system capable of intervening with partment, and other agencies culminated substantial numbers of offenders in in a 2-day fall retreat in November Implementation of Breaking the Cycle need of treatment, Birmingham began 1997 where a formal BTC policy required Birmingham TASC as the its multipronged strategy to incorpo- board was created. The full board agency responsible for case manage- rate the following initiatives: meets at least once a month to review ment of BTC clients to expand its drug- the progress of the project and make testing capacity, resulting in the creation • Develop a collaborative planning recommendations on program and sys- of an inhouse drug-testing lab. Inter- process to engage all relevant agen- tem changes. Smaller groups meet more viewing offenders and collecting urine cies in decisions on how the new often to focus on specific problems. specimens became a cooperative project system will operate, and use this process to identify the challenges facing various agencies, the resources available, and the resources needed. • Create policies and procedures for early case identification and intervention. • Build a case management and tracking system to facilitate timely exchange of information on offender legal status, treatment needs and progress, and compliance with treatment conditions. • Broaden the array of treatment Birmingham Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime options and providers to meet the expanded needs for service. Research technician Gerald Kitchens with urinalysis machine

Early identification and intervention. between the Jefferson County Jail and Collaborative planning As in other communities, drug-involved TASC. During initial implementation, offenders commit crimes to support it became obvious that universal col- Implementation of a systemwide con- their habits and repeatedly cycle through lection of urine specimens from all cept such as Breaking the Cycle re- Birmingham’s criminal justice system. offenders would be compromised by quired input and support from all NIJ Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) issues such as the quick turnarounds system participants. Prior to imple- positivity rates revealed 67 percent of offenders with prearranged bonds. mentation, a group representative of of the offenders tested positive for an To implement Breaking the Cycle, the criminal justice and treatment sys- illegal drug at arrest in spring 1997. three district court judges instituted a tems—including the presiding judge, Prior to BTC’s implementation, the policy in early 1998 ordering all drug circuit and district judges, sheriff, majority of those arrested were reoffenders into the TASC program district attorney, and TASC program leased on bond without supervision or at their initial hearings. To make staff—traveled to New York to view expectation that they would abstain even earlier intervention possible, a

July 1998 11 BREAKING THE CYCLE systemwide judicial order was later with the criminal justice system. The • Contracting for additional drug issued in May 1998 requiring appear- case manager is responsible for mea- treatment beds through community- ance at TASC within 48 hours of suring the offender’s performance based providers. release on bond. against TASC success/failure criteria • Expanding intensive outpatient and court mandates. If an offender drug treatment. Implementation of BTC revealed that fails to comply, the case manager rec- while drug testing at arrest has value, ommends program-level or judicially These strategies have helped; how- using each court hearing as a potential applied graduated sanctions. ever, waiting lists for treatment have intervention point greatly expands the grown since the implementation of capability of the system in identifying Because Breaking the Cycle is a Breaking the Cycle. drug-abusing offenders. systemwide approach, the Alabama Department of Pardons and Paroles Computerized assessment and case is supporting the project by adopting Learning from the tracking. BTC offender management a postconviction complementary Birmingham experience is based on case man- the TASC agement Breaking the Cycle was funded as case man- supervi- a research demonstration project to agement sion and answer questions about systemwide model link- sanction- intervention. The evaluation, being ing criminal ing sched- conducted by The Urban Institute, justice and ule. This includes a process analysis of the treatment. collabora- changes implemented, the barriers This for- tion has faced, and creative solutions identi- malized leveraged fied. It also includes an impact evalua- structure is the capac- tion that will examine BTC’s effects based on ity of the on four key areas: (1) lowering drug TASC’s project to use among the offender population, 10 Critical provide a (2) reducing criminal behavior in the Birmingham Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime Program consistent subject population, (3) improving indi- Elements, TASC staff member utilizes client database program cators of social functioning such as which proof super- employment levels and health, and vide the framework for TASC provision from pretrial to probation and (4) making more effective use of gramming. Case management parole. As the project moves forward, criminal justice resources, especially functions in the context of program assessment, case management, and detention capacity. rules and judicially applied graduated tracking will be supported by the sanctions, such as jail time. The initial management information system Next steps screening and urine test measure each developed by the Center for Court offender against the broad eligibility Innovation for the Brooklyn Treatment Implementing Breaking the Cycle has criteria for BTC participation. A Court. This next step will support required major commitments of time followup assessment combining clini- the project in its full implementation. and effort by the Jefferson County cal evaluation with criminal history Jail, the courts, the probation depart- produces a case management plan and Treatment options ment, and other criminal justice agen- recommendation to the court. cies that have produced significant The Birmingham project addressed the beneficial results. TASC has more The case management plan outlines need for expanded treatment and super- than doubled the number of offenders supervision and service needs over vision options through the following: under supervision who are receiving time. An offender is referred to the treatment from 1,127 in June 1997 to most appropriate treatment interven- • Developing a day reporting center. 2,893 in May 1998. Drug-abusing of- tion and supervision plan. Case track- • Expanding an electronic monitoring fenders are identified and admitted to ing and monitoring of drug use and program. TASC at a much earlier stage than compliance with treatment extends • Instituting a cognitive behavioral they were before BTC was initiated. throughout the offender’s involvement training program. The manner in which offenders

12 National Institute of Justice Journal receive pretrial supervision has drasti- automated reporting, expanded case Notes cally changed and improved. management services, and additional treatment options. 1. Looking at a Decade of Drug The project was implemented in Courts, Washington, DC: U.S. Depart- phases. This was necessary to allow Beyond Birmingham ment of Justice, Drug Courts Program the system time to absorb the signifi- Office, June 1998, NCJ 171140. cant changes inherent in Breaking the NIJ is in the process of selecting four Cycle. Phase I admitted drug cases at additional sites for the implementation 2. Preliminary Results From the arrest and also selected other cases of BTC programs. The plan is to trans- Evaluation of the DC Superior Court that had been awaiting a grand jury fer the Birmingham model to two adult Drug Intervention Program for Drug hearing or sentencing. Phase II is and two juvenile justice systems. The Felony Defendants, presented at the expected to double the number of selections will be made later this year, American Society of Criminology admissions from 390 per month to and NIJ will work in partnership with conference, San Diego, California, between 800 to 1,200 per month and the sites to adapt the BTC model based November 1997. include all chargeable offense catego- on local needs. Together with ONDCP, ries. Achieving this goal will require NIJ will support developmental efforts for 3 years.

July 1998 13 thImpactImpacte of ofthe Opportunity programtoSUCCEED on Employment Success Shelli Rossman, Sanjeev Sridharan, and Janeen Buck*

The Opportunity to Succeed (OPTS) program is designed funded by RWJ and the National Institute of Justice and will to reduce substance abuse relapse and criminal recidivism be completed in September 1998 by The Urban Institute. by providing comprehensive aftercare services to felony of- Both the program implementation and evaluation occurred fenders with histories of alcohol and drug offenses. A key under CASA’s administrative oversight. supposition underlying the OPTS initiative is that alcohol and drug abuse—together with personal histories of crime, economic and family instability, social disorganization, and Focus on employment compromised health or mental health—are disorganizing services and outcomes factors in offenders’ lives that increase the likelihood of continued criminal activity. The program’s rationale is that Employment is a central requirement of probation and individuals will be less likely to relapse and engage in future parole supervision programs. OPTS planners identified crimes if they are exposed to the following: employment services as integral because unemployment and unstable employment are risks factors for engaging in • A comprehensive suite of aftercare services, including criminal activities and because enhancing individual self- substance abuse treatment, counseling, and skills-building sufficiency is a goal of the program. Additionally, practitio- activities. ners recommended that the OPTS initiative’s success should • Frequent supervision contacts and drug-use monitoring be assessed from a broad perspective that includes interme- through urinalysis. diate outcomes, such as employment successes, because they believed that the propensity of substance abusers to • Graduated sanctions that include incentives/rewards for periodically relapse might mitigate against a finding of pro- positive behavior and penalties for failure to comply with gram success if success was measured solely in terms of program requirements. sobriety and compliance with supervision requirements. The OPTS program model was developed by The National Employment issues are also both theoretically and empiri- Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA) at Co- cally relevant. Considerations of economic stability play lumbia University. OPTS programs were initiated as 3-year a central role in numerous theories of criminal behavior. demonstration programs in five communities in 1994 and For example, social strain theory assumes that crime is the continue to operate beyond the demonstration period in result of blocked opportunities, including limited economic Kansas City, Missouri, St. Louis, Missouri, and Tampa, and educational opportunities.1 The OPTS model itself is Florida. The five demonstration programs were funded by closely aligned with age-graded theories of informal social the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJ) and the Bu- control,2 which suggest that life events, such as obtaining reau of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. steady employment, can modify a person’s pathways toward Department of Justice. The national evaluation is being

*Shelli Rossman is a Senior Research Associate, Sanjeev Sridharan is a Research Associate I, and Janeen Buck is a Research Associate II at The Urban Institute. This article was supported by grant number 94–IJ–CX–0010 awarded by the National Institute of Justice.

14 National Institute of Justice Journal crime. In line with this theoretical per- the likelihood that an individual would The OPTS model spective, initial analysis of the OPTS commit a predatory crime in any given baseline self-report data used statisti- month and by 65 percent the likeli- The OPTS model was designed to cal models to examine causal linkages hood that an individual would commit coordinate services within five areas (focusing on individuals’ drug use and a drug crime in any given month.3 identified as aftercare priorities criminal behaviors in the period before This underscored the importance of for substance-abusing offenders the incarceration that led to inclusion the link between full-time employ- (see exhibit 1): in the OPTS study). One finding of ment and the commission of crimes the analysis was that individuals who and suggested that ongoing evaluation • Mandatory substance abuse treat- were employed full time were less activities should highlight employment, ranging from 12-step pro- likely to participate in short-term ment services offered to OPTS clients grams through intensive residential predatory and drug crimes in the and related outcomes anticipated by placements, is a key component of months before incarceration. Full-time the model. the OPTS model. employment decreased by 46 percent • Employability training involves a set of services to help clients find

EXHIBIT 1. THE OPTS MODEL

Antecedent/Risk Factors OPTS Intervention Outcomes

Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse Intensive Supervision Substance Abuse • Reduced use • No use • Decreased association with alcohol and other drug abuse (AODA) networks Crime ➠ ➠ Substance Abuse Treatment Crime • No reincarceration • Fewer convictions/arrests Economic Instability • Longer time to rearrest • Reduced involvement in • Educational deficits criminal activities • Unemployment Employment Services • Fewer technical violations • Income instability ➠ ➠ Employment • Reduced barriers to employability • Improved job-search skills Family Instability Family Support Services • More positive attitudes • Improved worksite behavior • Increased periods of employment • Increased prosocial self-sufficiency

Social Disorganization Family/Community • Housing stability • High-risk peers Housing • Improved parenting/family skills • Housing instability ➠ ➠ • Improved social functioning

Health • Improved access to health care Health/Mental Health Health/Mental Health Services • Reduction in AODA-related diseases • General health improvements

July 1998 15 OPPORTUNITY TO SUCCEED

and maintain legitimate employ- agency and the local probation/parole long histories of providing substance ment. For some individuals, suit- office. The case management function abuse treatment and other services to ability for employment may be offers: probationers and parolees. The lead related to educational deficits, agency in St. Louis, Lutheran Family which can be mitigated by complet- • Linchpin or brokering activities to and Children’s Services (LFCS), dif- ing a general equivalency diploma coordinate referral and provision of fers from the other two in that the or- (GED) or vocational training. For services. ganization has a religious affiliation others, service needs may be more • Intervention activities to keep and its primary focus is not on sub- limited (e.g., assistance in identify- clients out of institutions, provide stance abuse or offender services. ing job openings). crisis management, and help staff Although they had not planned to do • Housing is a central concern be- serve as advocates with courts and so, lead agencies directly delivered cause incarcerated offenders cannot other entities. job-related services in addition to re- be released without a home plan • Therapeutic activities, including ferring OPTS clients to one or two indicating that satisfactory living counseling and therapy designed employment/job-training entities with arrangements have been designated. to help clients understand their which the primary partners had prior OPTS housing services include strengths and problems and to relationships or that they identified placement in drug-free, supportive develop relapse-prevention skills. early as being sources of assistance. In environments (e.g., halfway houses, • Integrative activities such as ar- all three communities, case managers group homes, apartments to share), ranging for or providing transporta- were proactive in job development, as well as related emergency ser- tion, teaching life skills, and helping contacting and cultivating potential vices such as crisis assistance if a with employment or educational employers. In St. Louis, for example, domestic situation deteriorates and problems. case managers contacted employers requires immediate relocation or who had hired OPTS clients to inquire emergency funds to cover unantici- Enhanced supervision is anticipated about job opportunities for others, ac- pated expenses (e.g., unusually high based on keeping caseloads small for tively searched newspaper ads for ap- utility bills). both case managers and probation/ propriate openings, advocated for their parole officers (POs); a single PO in • Family intervention services and clients by responding to publicly dis- each demonstration site will be desig- parenting skills training include played “help wanted” signs, and net- nated the OPTS PO, and service and parenting classes, family counseling, worked with colleagues who had ties supervision staff will be co-located anger management training, and do- to training and placement services where feasible. mestic violence counseling to help or employers. At one point, LFCS se- clients assume responsibility for riously considered helping OPTS cli- their children and end violent or OPTS in action ents to open a small business (e.g., destructive domestic behaviors. cabinetmaking or cooking) that could • Medical and mental health serv- Lead agencies. In each demonstration build skills and provide revenue. They ices, ranging from regular checkups site, OPTS pairs the local probation/ did not pursue this type of program to specialized care, are part of the parole agency—the Missouri Depart- because probation staff cautioned model because substance abusers ment of Probation and Parole in Kan- against it: POs felt it could be a very often have a wide range of physical sas City and St. Louis and the Florida risky undertaking because it might and mental health problems. Department of Corrections in Tampa— give offenders too much freedom and with a lead social services agency that control. However, LFCS did hire at Although the OPTS model calls for provides case management and other least one OPTS client for temporary the provision of these core services, it services. The lead service providers in rehabilitation work in some of the does not expect that each client will each community are nonprofit organi- agency-owned transitional housing require the full spectrum of support. zations with offices located in selected units. In Kansas City, NCADD spon- Rather, services are provided on an target areas. The primary agencies in sored a “labor market overview” and as-needed basis. Kansas City and Tampa—the National invited representatives from a range of employment and training services pro- Service delivery is structured around Council on Alcoholism and Drug De- viders, union representatives, etc., to case management, involving in each pendence (NCADD) and the Drug introduce their programs and organi- demonstration site collaborative part- Abuse Comprehensive Coordinating zations to OPTS clients and provide nerships between a lead social services Office (DACCO), respectively—have

16 National Institute of Justice Journal clients with information about labor that some clients could be eligible for incarceration; others were returning to market trends, skills training, and these services because substance the community from court-ordered, accessing resources. abuse problems can be considered residential treatment facilities or half- disabilities. way houses that required offenders to Service provider partnerships. As be employed for a period of time be- expected, each site established memo- Employment services. Across the fore they were released. In addition, randums of understanding or devel- sites, the various employment organi- some clients independently found em- oped close working relations with one zations provided a range of services, ployment using their own resources or or two organizations providing em- differing in intensity and duration. networks. However, each of the OPTS ployment services. Most of the agen- Core elements included assessment of programs encountered challenges in cies selected had experience serving client skills and career interests; basic providing services for the majority low-income populations and offered job-search skills training, largely fo- of their unemployed clients. Com- programs developed for populations cused on how to develop a resume, monly cited difficulties included with characteristics similar to those complete applications, identify job client resistance to services, a lack of OPTS clients. Kansas City OPTS openings, and conduct oneself on job of high-quality jobs, limited services aligned with the Full Employment interviews; and job-referral and place- accommodating clients with special Council (FEC) and also used the serv- ment services. A few agencies offered needs, organizational factors that miti- ices of the Missouri Division of Em- more extensive services, such as basic gate against serving some types of cli- ployment Security. St. Louis primarily education or GED courses, vocational ents, and client characteristics that relied on the services provided by the skills training, apprenticeship pro- undermined success. Employment Connection (EC), which grams, other opportunities for on-the- was co-located with a substance abuse job training, and support services for Client resistance. OPTS staff and treatment program, Drug Alcohol Re- work-related needs. (See “Preliminary service providers in all three commu- habilitation and Treatment, Inc., and Employment Outcomes.”) nities reported some resistance to OPTS case management and PO staff. employment services. Most of the Tampa OPTS most often used the serv- resistance was fairly benign. For ex- ices of the Florida Job Services. Both Challenges in serving ample, staff noted that they periodi- St. Louis and Tampa used vocational OPTS clients cally had to remind clients about the rehabilitation services for eligible cli- importance of attending scheduled ents, who include individuals with Not all OPTS clients required employ- meetings and taking personal respon- physical or mental handicaps that in- ment services or used the services of- sibility for locating employment, but terfere with or preclude their ability to fered. Some individuals returned to that they rarely had to exert pressure work. OPTS case managers determined jobs they had occupied prior to their on clients to follow job leads. However,

PRELIMINARY EMPLOYMENT OUTCOMES

The OPTS evaluation collected self-reported information • Periods of gainful employment. OPTS clients from a sample of 398 substance-abusing felony offenders were employed full time for an average of 6.4 months who had been randomly assigned to either OPTS (the during their first year, compared with 5.1 months of aver- treatment group) or routine supervision (the control group, age full-time employment for the control group during that receiving standard services commonly associated with pro- same timeframe. bation and parole). In a preliminary analysis of employ- • Job-search skills. More OPTS clients reported ment outcomes based on a sample of 261 cases (139 improvements in their ability to identify job openings, OPTS clients and 122 controls) for whom both baseline complete job applications, and successfully interview. and 1-year followup surveys were available, 82 percent of the OPTS group, compared with 73 percent of the control • Job-related behavior. More OPTS clients reported group, had a full-time job during their first year of community- improvements in their ability to consistently arrive on time for based supervision. OPTS was found to have had a statisti- work, get along with supervisors and coworkers, and re- cally significant positive effect on full-time employment: ceive positive reviews or increased responsibilities because they were doing a good job.

July 1998 17 OPPORTUNITY TO SUCCEED some clients actively resisted partici- being as strong as some of the other clients in positions of responsibility pating in the employment programs to service components. Among the weak- paralleling those they had held prior to which they were referred. Clients of- nesses noted was the fact that some of their incarceration. fered a range of explanations for this the employment services providers had behavior, including: limited capacity and were ill-prepared Augmenting services. Case managers to place clients in diverse and high- in each of the OPTS sites responded to • They did not need help and pre- quality jobs. Regarding capacity, em- deficits in their employment services ferred to find a job on their own. ployment agencies may not be able to capacity or their scope by cultivating • The program was too intrusive in respond efficiently in providing inten- relationships with an expanded net- its time demands (i.e., they did not sive services to many clients simulta- work of service providers. In addition, believe they needed to attend daily neously. Some agencies acknowledged case managers and POs became more sessions). waiting periods of 2 to 3 weeks. Al- directly involved in trying to identify suitable job openings. Also, in Tampa • The curriculum was designed with a though this may not seem like a long and St. Louis, case managers referred different population in mind and did time, many clients were frustrated by some clients to temporary employment not suit their needs. having to wait before their assisted job hunt could begin in earnest; some agencies, which provided an opportu- • They had already been through this were concerned about economic prob- nity for clients to update their skills exact training component or a simi- lems, while others were pressured by in short-term work assignments that lar job-search skills program and did their POs to comply with the employ- sometimes led to permanent positions. not want to repeat it. ment requirements of supervision. • They had little confidence in the Organizational barriers and solutions. agency’s ability to help them find a Many of the employment agencies had Other barriers were introduced by em- well-paying job with opportunity for structured their operations to serve the ployment services’ requirements. For advancement. least skilled, least educated job seek- example, some agencies limited the ers. Some employment services re- number of times a client could be served Overcoming resistance. Resistance peatedly dealt with only a handful of or the timeframe within which they was handled on a case-by-case basis. employers representing high-turnover could return for services. St. Louis’s Generally, case managers could re- industries with a steady need for new Employment Connection required solve problems by identifying each labor. Many of these types of positions people to wait 1 year after job place- client’s issues and suggesting accept- payed minimum wage or less. Appar- ment before returning to request assis- able alternatives. Occasionally, sterner ently, few of the collaborating em- tance in finding another job. However, measures were required, and OPTS ployment services had a policy such the agency made an exception for POs were instrumental in reminding as that of the Florida Job Services; OPTS clients, permitting them to re- clients that employment was a condi- the lowest wage it deemed acceptable turn for assistance more frequently tion of supervision and that they in identifying suitable job openings for because the clients experienced high needed to comply with the require- client placement was $5 per hour job-turnover rates. ments of the services to which their (which exceeded the minimum A different kind of problem was en- case managers directed them. Some wage—in place until October 1996— countered in Kansas City. FEC requires POs reinforced the message by dis- of $4.25 per hour). cussing clients’ plans for obtaining that its clients have a fixed address to jobs during scheduled meetings, en- Most of the service providers networked receive its employment services because gaging in development activities to with a limited number of market sectors lack of a stable or permanent address identify job openings, or routinely mainly offering low-paying, entry- complicates service delivery. However, verifying client employment by check- level positions (e.g., fast food opera- some OPTS clients are homeless— ing pay stubs or contacting employers. tions, unskilled factory jobs) and were they may be living in short-term tran- unable to adequately serve clients with sitional housing or moving from one Service capacity and scope. Case paraprofessional or professional skills relative’s or friend’s home to another— managers and POs were often sympa- and experience. Because of this, and and have difficulty meeting this re- thetic to clients’ objections because despite the stereotype that offenders quirement. Program staff tried to they considered some of them to be are hard to place because of deficient resolve the issue by referring such cli- valid. At various times, key OPTS skills and a lack of legitimate work ents to the Salvation Army. However, staff regarded employment services experience, St. Louis, for example, this solution was not always workable offered under the program as not struggled to place experienced, educated because the Salvation Army charged a

18 National Institute of Justice Journal modest fee, which some individuals employee but also refuse to accept meetings at the client’s workplace. were not able to pay without a job. future placements from the service In addition, OPTS case managers agency. As one counselor reported, reached out to employers to inform Client placement. In addition to bar- employers may feel it is not cost effec- them about the program and educate riers presented by external factors, tive, especially if they invested time them about the potential benefits of some difficulties may be introduced and money on training the new hire. hiring an ex-offender. Staff at the em- because of characteristics of the client. Some employment counselors men- ployment services organizations in at Employment counselors typically ex- tioned that tax incentives for employ- least one site noted that OPTS clients pressed the view that if clients wanted ers have been intermittently offered differed from other individuals they to work, they could be placed in jobs. in both Florida and Missouri and sug- served in that they had case managers Realistically, however, some clients gested that they are an asset in attract- who provided significant encourage- were harder to place than others. Cli- ing and maintaining a spectrum of ment and followup, which appeared to ents who could not read or write were employers willing to work with proba- motivate OPTS clients to be more se- difficult to place, although they could tioner and parolee populations. riously committed to finding and sus- be helped through the vocational reha- taining gainful employment. As one bilitation service assisting individuals OPTS clients demonstrated fairly high case manager put it, “Clients appreci- with disabilities. Also, women were job-turnover rates: One counselor esti- ate the chance to try and make it on somewhat harder to place than men mated that clients stayed in their first their own, and case managers help because many had young children and, job approximately 1 month and that clients get that chance.” as a result, required more flexibility in some clients did not settle into em- working arrangements or additional ployment until after their second or Programs such as OPTS should cul- services, such as assistance in securing third placement. According to counse- tivate relationships with more than suitable child care. lors, some clients repeatedly displayed one service provider in each service poor work habits or attitudes, while domain. In employment services, it Staff of the employment services others quit with little or no warning. is important to include providers that agencies reported that clients were In some cases, this was because of have experience working with of- relatively easy to place in jobs, even substance abuse relapse. Some of the fender populations but that also are with their histories of substance abuse employment counselors reported that prepared to offer services to meet the and criminal activity, when potential they will work with a client to negoti- needs of a diverse group of clients. employers were familiar with the ate time off for relapse treatment or Forming collaborative relationships backgrounds of the population being to secure new employment, although with multiple employment services referred from OPTS and its service- they find it harder to place a client in a providers should result in such ben- providing agencies. In general, clients second job if the person has been dis- efits as an increased capacity to serve were encouraged to acknowledge their missed from a prior position because numerous high-need clients simulta- criminal history on job applications or of a relapse. neously in a timely fashion and more in interviews, especially when dealing depth in the services offered because with employers unfamiliar with their providers can be selected to respond background. (The criminal history will Lessons Learned to different service needs (e.g., some be found, in any event, if the employer may offer training, while others offer performs a records check.) Employ- OPTS case managers play a central job-placement assistance) or to link ment counselors often suggested that role in directly delivering and clients to different market sectors. on their resumes and applications cli- brokering services as well as in ents first emphasize positive aspects, effectively serving as advocates for By design, OPTS programs forged such as education, training, or experi- their clients. By and large, case man- many of their service provider alli- ence, and then briefly discuss their agers were knowledgeable about com- ances either before or shortly after incarceration history. munity resources and able to link the program was initiated. The proc- clients to appropriate services; had ess for selecting service partners Job retention. Apparently, many em- flexibility that may not exist in the should retain some flexibility. Ser- ployers were willing to hire recovering offender-PO relationship; and had fre- vice providers may be included (or addicts. However, relapse was always quent client contact under a variety of conversely, overlooked) based on a major issue. Some employers will be circumstances: in their own or other who was involved during the planning supportive through a client’s relapse; providers’ offices, by telephone, phase. Although advanced planning is others will not only terminate the through home visits, or by onsite otherwise desirable, decisionmaking

July 1998 19 OPPORTUNITY TO SUCCEED often occurs before staff have been Incentives may be needed to induce Coordination and co-location of serv- exposed to clients and their actual employers to hire ex-offenders. Al- ices is beneficial to clients, OPTS needs. Some of the originally selected though some employment counselors staff, and service providers. Some providers may be unprepared to serve believed that inducements were not benefits of coordinating services were the range of clients that subsequently necessary, others reported they had seen in the improved employment out- enter the program, or they may be un- prior experience when tax credits to comes evidenced by OPTS clients. able or unwilling to introduce new employers were available and felt the “One-stop shopping” is more conve- approaches into their preexisting serv- lack of such incentives was a problem. nient for clients—it saves their time ice configuration. Some of the employment services agen- and limited resources (including cies were able to bond clients; others money for transportation to various Actively working with employers as were unable to and had to either seek job locations). Team members (case well as employees is important. Sev- employers that did not require bonded managers, POs, and service providers) eral staff and service providers across employees or refer bondable clients to liked the face-to-face interaction across the three sites expressed frustration State agencies, such as Missouri’s agency lines and the opportunity to with the lack of high-quality positions State Employment Security Office. share decisionmaking, particularly available to their clients. A number of when troubleshooting difficult cases. case managers felt the program and Clients trying to pursue job training St. Louis staff pointed out the benefits employment services providers needed to achieve more stable, better pay- of co-located services, but they also to be more proactive in promoting the ing jobs experienced significant noted that this may involve additional program to employers, networking counterpressures. Case managers costs to rent satellite space to accom- with employers before client intake, frequently expressed the belief that modate personnel who are being repo- and finding willing employers before clients need to develop career skills to sitioned to one-stop service locations. clients are ready to be placed in jobs. obtain more economically and person- Stronger working relationships with ally rewarding employment. Although employers have other potential ben- vocational training is often cited as the Notes efits. Networking may help shape em- key to long-term placement success, ployers’ expectations and willingness it is among the weakest service link. 1. For example, see Cloward, R., and to deal in a more realistic and, possi- Probationers and parolees must be em- L. Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportu- bly, tolerant fashion with offenders ployed to comply with supervision nity: Theory of Delinquent Gangs, returning to the workforce. At a mini- requirements. Also, they generally New York: The Free Press, 1960. mum, improved communication be- need income to cover minimal housing tween employers and program staff or and living expenses. As a result, they 2. For example, see Sampson, R.J., service providers may alert case man- are frequently pressured into accepting and J. Laub, Crime in the Making: agers or employment counselors to the first job offer they receive—gener- Pathways and Turning Points emerging workplace problems, which ally a low-paying position in a high- Through Life, Cambridge, MA: can be resolved before they undermine turnover operation. One case manager Harvard University Press, 1993. a client’s success. For example, one suggested establishing a safe haven of 3. Rossman, S.B., and S. Sridharan, of the agencies created a new posi- transitional housing that includes em- Using Survey Data to Study Linkages tion—work adjustment counselor, ployment and job training to facilitate Among Crime, Drug Use, and Life who serves as a liaison between em- successful reentry. She pointed out Circumstances: Findings From the ployed clients, employers, referral that existing, safe transitional housing Opportunity to Succeed Program, agencies, and OPTS staff—to assist in charges clients rent, so they must be Washington, DC: Urban Institute solving worksite problems by counsel- working within 21 days to cover even Report, November 1997. ing employees and employers who are minimal costs. experiencing adjustment difficulties, which may boost job-retention rates.

20 National Institute of Justice Journal By Lois Pilant* he Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction (ODRC) is leading the way toward a revolution in inmate access and information T management with a pilot project that has prisoners using “smart cards.” Peggy Ritchie-Matsumoto, deputy director of ODRC’s Office of Management Information Systems and a systems strategist, said this National Institute of Justice-funded project marries computer chips with photo identification cards. Initially, the cards will be used to track the medication activity of 2,300 inmates in a medium-security men’s facility.

“It’s like a driver’s license with a computer chip in it,” Ritchie-Matsumoto said. “Inmates’ photos are electronically stored, as is the data that says who they are and their inmate number. When inmates come up to the pharmacy, they put their card into a reader that reads the microchip on the card. If I’m the pharmacist, what I see on my computer screen is their pharmacy record. I know what their history is and what medication they are supposed to have. I also know if they have refused meds before, or if they’ve not picked up their meds. This system will track all of that.”

*Lois Pilant is President and CEO of Wings Publishing.

July 1998 21 SMART CARDS

The processor and memory chip are The first use of smart cards in a cor- smart card biometric access control embedded in the cards, and they have rections environment was in the Naval system that uses a smart card and an the capacity for off-line storage as well Consolidated Brig ultrasound finger- as encryption for security. One of the in Miramar, Cali- print reader. It is benefits of such a system will be the fornia. That pro- currently being increased ability to manage inmate gram, initially Biometric information from used by the U.S. data; another is that it will speed the called the Multi- Marine Corps to fingerprints, eye scans, or process of dispensing medication. Technology Auto- control two-man ODRC currently spends 1 minute per mated Reader “finger geometry,” which access to sensitive patient dispensing medication. The Card, or MARC, takes measurements of a areas in Hawaii. smart card is expected to significantly used three different reduce the time required to complete media: a bar code, finger and converts it into For all of their po- this paper-intensive process from 1 a magnetic strip, a three-dimensional model tential, however, minute to a few seconds. and an 8-kb inte- smart cards have for matching, can all be grated-circuit com- not been especially The project relies on software created by puter chip. Steve used as identifiers. well received by the Battelle Institute, a nonprofit com- Morrison, who the public. When pany that works on national security, manages the smart Utah legislators health, environmental, transportation, card program at the National Law En- talked about implementing a smart and industrial technologies. Battelle forcement and Corrections Technol- card driver’s license in 1997, one of has been working on smart card tech- ogy Center’s (NLECTC’s) Southeast the biggest concerns was about the nologies since 1980. It helped the U.S. Regional Center in Charleston, South privacy of the data. When New Jersey Department of Defense develop elec- Carolina, heard about the MARC pro- began considering a smart card driver’s tronic dog tags for soldiers in the Per- gram and recognized its potential. “I license that would include a fingerprint sian Gulf and created a smart card for knew immediately that smart cards of the driver, the American Civil Lib- colleges that deducts purchases from could reduce manpower and paper- erties Union protested, and the idea student accounts. work. We could use them to document eventually was scrapped. Privacy medical treatment. They also could issues also figure prominently in Smart cards can include several differ- carry emergency medical information discussions about using smart cards ent types of technologies and are issued for first responders. That information for heath care. for a variety of purposes. Some pro- would be stored in the chip, and first vide access to restricted areas; others This lack of acceptance in the United responders would carry a palmtop are service related, such as telephone States is the antithesis of the cards’ smart card reader to access the data, calling cards or those that deduct pur- widespread use in Europe, where most determine current medical problems, chases from the holder’s account. Some automated teller machines require a and get a medication history,” are for identifica- thumbprint for identification, and in Morrison said. He tion purposes only; Australia, where there is a national also envisioned others enable re- debit card system and where noncash that the cards could mote payment, payments are growing at about 50 per- “Pretty soon our computer be used for access money access, and cent each year. control and to information ex- keyboards will have record inmate change via com- “There is a lot of resistance to smart biometrics built right movements as well puter, telephone, or cards in the general population,” said as an electronic television “set top” into them. Even now there ODRC’s Ritchie-Matsumoto, “which purse for commis- boxes. Biometric is an identification device is why part of the research is happening sary purchases information from in closed environments like prisons, that can be plugged into and to store fingerprints, eye universities, and the medical arena. The biometric or scans, or “finger the keyboard.” public in this country doesn’t seem demographic data. geometry,” which quite ready to have smart cards, but it is definitely where we’re going. Pretty takes measurements of a finger and In addition to the ODRC project, soon our computer keyboards will converts it into a three-dimensional NLECTC–Southeast worked with the have biometrics built right into them. model for matching, can all be used Space and Naval Warfare Systems Even now there is an identification as identifiers. Center in Charleston to develop a

22 National Institute of Justice Journal device that can be plugged into A second problem may be inmates’ when the card is used, it will automati- the keyboard.” reactions to the cards. cally bring up a picture of the inmate on a computer screen. In the future, Although smart card technology is still “That is difficult to predict,” said however, plans are to activate magnetic in its infancy in the United States— Ritchie-Matsumoto. “Will they de- strips, bar coding, and some form of Americans bought only 2 percent of stroy their cards? Will they try to ex- biometric identification. Inmate classi- the 826 million cards sold worldwide change their cards? Will they try to fications, medical and mental health in 1996—its popularity is beginning to carve the chip out of the cards? If this information, and parole information grow. A 1997 conference sponsored project is successful and the cards be- also will be stored on the microchip. by the Smart Card Industry Associa- come so totally integrated that the tion boasted 530 exhibitors and 7,500 inmates need it for meals, access to “Smart cards are the tool of the future attendees from 65 countries. Total certain areas, or to the commissary, in corrections facilities to save valu- U.S. card sales my guess is that able staff time and paperwork,” said are expected to they won’t do any- Morrison. “In this age of computers increase as well, thing to damage and rapidly changing technology, we from 2 percent of “In this age of computers them.” must keep pace with the growing worldwide sales in demand to do more with less. Smart and rapidly changing 1996 to 15 percent Morrison agreed. cards can help us take that step into by 2000. technology, we must keep “Early on, we the future. The results of the Ohio identified the fact pace with the growing project should lay the groundwork The ODRC smart that the smart card for the use of smart cards in prisons card project is not demand to do more should only be and jails.” only addressing the with less.” used for positive technical aspects data storage and For more information on the project, of this technology. collection. If nega- contact Peggy Ritchie-Matsumoto at Its attendant issues also are being con- tive information such as disciplinary the Ohio Department of Rehabilitation sidered, such as the legality and ac- action is incorporated, the inmates and Correction, 614–752–1262, or ceptability of an electronic signature would have no incentive to keep the Steve Morrison, the program manager and the problem of authenticating a cards intact.” at the National Law Enforcement and pharmacist’s signature. ODRC is Corrections Technology Center– working with the State’s pharmacy In the early stages, the smart cards Southeast in Charleston, South board on a workable solution. will be integrated with ODRC’s elec- Carolina, 800–292–4385. tronic photo-imaging system so that

July 1998 23 EVENTS

1998 R&E conference • Viewing Crime and Justice From a their current work on Residential set for July Collaborative Perspective: Raising Substance Abuse Treatment for the Questions. State Prisoners (RSAT). Among the The National Institute of Justice (NIJ), • The Changing Role of Research in programs to be highlighted are the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA), Helping Collaborations Work. Delaware Key-Crest program for Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- substance-abusing adult offenders • Replicating Complex Community quency Prevention (OJJDP), and other (Steve Martin), an aftercare program Partnerships: Can It Be Done? Office of Justice Programs (OJP) for youths who have completed their bureaus will sponsor the Annual • Examples of How Collaboration sentences at the Barrett facility (Jill Conference on Criminal Justice Has Worked in Domestic Violence Gordon), aftercare for the Maryland Research and Evaluation July 26–29 Partnerships. RSAT program being run in local in Washington, D.C. jails for adults (Faye Taxman), and Panels will present findings on a wide a parolee RSAT program operated range of criminal justice topics and The conference is designed for crimi- by the Pennsylvania Department of related health, behavioral, social serv- nal justice researchers, practitioners, Corrections (Douglas Young). policymakers, and students interested ice, and community research and in the criminal justice field. The pur- evaluation efforts. In addition, Nancy La Vigne and poses of this national conference are to: the Crime Mapping Research Center For more information, call (CMRC) staff will present a crime 703–684–5300, fax 703–739–5533, • Convene NIJ, BJA, OJJDP, and OJP mapping workshop outlining the ben- or e-mail [email protected]. grantees currently conducting crimi- efits to the criminal justice system of nal justice program evaluations and geographic information systems (GIS) research studies, together with other technology. The CMRC staff will ex- participants interested in evaluation NIJ research to be highlighted at APPA plain how this technology enhances and research results. the ability of researchers and practitio- • Create a national forum for the NIJ research will be highlighted at the ners to identify hot spots and analyze exchange of evaluation results, upcoming American Probation and complex spatial patterns of crime. research findings, and program Parole Association (APPA) conference information related to crime, drug August 29 through September 2 in control, and violence initiatives. Norfolk, Virginia. Office of Research NGA Center/NIJ • Produce a summary of program and Evaluation (ORE) staff members regional workshops abstracts to report on promising will lead panel discussions on the fol- planning under way programs and approaches in critical lowing topics: areas of preventing and controlling The National Governors’ Association crime, drugs, and violence. • Managing Sex Offenders in the Center for Best Practices (NGA Cen- Community (chaired by Voncile ter) is working with NIJ to plan three • Showcase the Federal Government’s Gowdy). Three specific topics will regional policy forums tentatively set priorities in criminal and juvenile be discussed: the impact of sex of- for fall 1998, winter 1999, and spring justice research and evaluation fenders on Wisconsin communities, 1999. These forums will be designed funding. the use of lie detector tests to im- to inform policymakers about the lat- This conference will include 45 ple- prove the management of sex of- est research on crime prevention and nary sessions, panels, and training fenders living in the community, the effective administration of juvenile workshops. More than 125 leading and the risk factors contributing to justice and corrections. NIJ will be criminal justice evaluators, research- recidivism of sex offenders. coordinating with the Office of Juve- ers, practitioners, and policymakers • Institutional Treatment and the Im- nile Justice and Delinquency Preven- will be featured as presenters. plications for Aftercare: Findings tion in developing issues and topics. From Current Research on the While topics for sessions are still in This year’s conference will provide Effectiveness of Substance Abuse the planning stages, NGA is particu- a special forum where prominent re- Treatment Programs (chaired by larly interested in discussing research searchers and discussants will synthe- Laura Winterfield). Several NIJ on the following issues: size findings on the following major grantees will present findings from themes:

24 National Institute of Justice Journal EVENTS

• Identifying children prone to vio- offenders by reexamining reform implementation. Sessions lence before they become dangerous preadjudicatory, probation, and may focus on policymakers’ concerns and implementing appropriate community-based treatment; and about domestic violence within wel- school- and community-based nonsecure residential, secure resi- fare families. A joint NGA/NIJ plan- interventions. dential, and aftercare services. ning group will consider these and • Promoting effective community- • Treating and managing violent other topics for the forums. After each based primary and secondary crime juvenile and youth populations forum, the NGA Center will publish and drug abuse prevention strategies within both the juvenile and adult and disseminate Issue Briefs, publica- targeting teens and preteens. correctional systems. tions highlighting the issues, research findings, and best practices. In addi- • Lessening the allure of gangs and In addition, the NGA Center has ex- tion, Issue Briefs will be posted on combating violent youth gangs and pressed an interest in discussing rel- the juvenile crime page of the NGA drug-related youth crime. evant violence and criminal justice Center Web site. • Reducing recidivism rates and research within the context of welfare improving outcomes of juvenile NIJ IN THE JOURNALS

The following articles are based on particular importance with this re- and L.W. Sherman, grant number 96– studies sponsored by NIJ. Copies search design is the ability to identify IJ–CX–0058, ACCN 169870. This are available on loan from NCJRS; meaningful approaches to violence analysis of the Milwaukee Domestic in some cases, photocopies may be prevention that are grounded in the Violence Experiment explores whether obtained. For information on avail- experiences of these cities. the perception of police procedural ability, call NCJRS at 800–851–3420; fairness by suspects arrested for spouse or send an Internet e-mail to “Consent to Search and Seize: assault effectively inhibited subsequent [email protected]. Please cite Evaluating an Innovative Youth violence. Consistent with expectations, the accession (ACCN) number. Firearm Suppression Program,” procedural justice suppressed subse- Law and Contemporary Problems quent violence. Suspects who were ar- “Changing Patterns of Homicide 59(1)(Winter 1996): 197–220, by R. rested and perceived they were treated and Social Policy,” Homicide Studies Rosenfeld and S.H. Decker, grant in a procedurally fair manner had sub- 1(2)(May 1997): 190–196, by M.A. number 95–IJ–CX–0067, ACCN sequent spouse assault rates that were Zahn and K.M. Jamieson, grant num- 169550. This article describes the St. as low as those for suspects who were ber 95–IJ–CX–0115, ACCN 170167. Louis Metropolitan Police Department’s warned and then released without arrest. This article reports the findings of a Firearm Suppression Program (FSP) 2-year homicide study. The authors conducted by St. Louis’ Mobile Reserve “Double Your Trouble: Dual Arrest examine homicide during a 15-year Unit (a police squad that responds to in Family Violence,” Journal of Fam- timeframe from 1980 to 1994 in Phila- pockets of crime and violence through- ily Violence 12(2)(June 1997): 139– delphia, Pennsylvania, Phoenix, Ari- out the city). FSP seeks parental con- 157, by M.E. Martin, grant number zona, and St. Louis, Missouri. The sent to search for and seize guns from 89–IJ–CX–0038, ACCN 169580. This research tests hypotheses related to juveniles, considers criticisms of its study uses data from family violence urban economic and social environ- methods and purposes, and presents a cases in Connecticut in which both ments and how changes in these con- plan for evaluating the operation and the perpetrator and the victim were ditions may be related to changing outcome of this and similar programs. arrested to examine the characteristics types of homicide (e.g., circumstance of the crime and the people involved. and relationship). The results of this “Do Fair Procedures Matter? The Emphasis was placed on the women study may provide an indication of Effect of Procedural Justice on arrested, 40 percent of whom were how social-structural conditions evi- Spouse Assault,” Law and Society previously victimized in a domestic dent in these urban areas influence Review 31(1)(1997): 163–204, by R. assault incident. Those involved in the pattern of lethal violence. Of Paternoster, R. Bachman, R. Brame, dual arrests were primarily white,

July 1998 25 NIJ IN THE JOURNALS young, nonurban, unmarried, employed than the male prison. These findings unrecognized advantage over data on persons. Findings suggest that dual cast doubt on the frequent assertion calls for service. Remarkable variabil- arrests may reflect both the differential that female defendants are treated more ity existed across crime types in the use of violence in domestic relations leniently in criminal sentencing than discrepancies between dispatch crime and the excessive enforcement of ar- similarly situated male defendants. counts and crimes that police officers rest policies by some police agencies. encountered. “Meaning of Punishment: Inmates’ “Gang Membership and Criminal Orientation to the Prison Experi- “National Survey of Pursuits and Processing: A Test of the ‘Master ence,” Prison Journal 77(2)(June the Use of Police Force: Data From Status’ Concept,” Justice Quarterly 1997): 135–167, by P. Van Voorhis, Law Enforcement Agencies,” Journal 14(3)(September 1997): 407–427, S.L. Browning, M. Simon, and J. of Criminal Justice 25(4)(1997): 315– by T.D. Miethe and R.C. McCorkle, Gordon, grant number 85–IJ–CX–0063, 323, by D.J. Kenney and G.P. Alpert, grant number 94–IJ–CX–0053, ACCN ACCN 169925. Inmate attitudes toward grant number 93–IJ–CX–0061, ACCN 170262. This study provides some sup- the prison experience and perception 170274. This article presents the report for the characterization of gang of sentencing intents were studied by sults of a survey conducted between membership as a master status, finding means of a survey of 114 minimum- October 1994 and May 1995 to collect that gang membership had a significant security and 111 maximum-security pursuit and use-of-force information net effect on both charging and sen- Federal prisoners in Indiana 4 months from police agencies throughout the tencing decisions. Data collected from after prison admission. Data were col- United States. Nearly all police agen- 370 criminal defendants processed in lected as part of a larger classification cies reported having written policies 1993 in Clark County, Nevada, also study conducted at the United States regarding pursuit situations. Municipal reveal that sentencing decisions for Federal Penitentiary and the Federal police agencies were significantly gang members were far less likely Prison Camp at Terre Haute, Indiana, more likely than county police agen- to be affected by other offender and between 1986 and 1988. Multivariate cies to restrict pursuits to felony inci- offense characteristics than those for analyses for the penitentiary inmates dents, and municipal police agencies nongang members. reveal that inmates most likely to fo- restricted pursuits to marked vehicles cus on rehabilitation were nonwhite, and imposed supervisory responsibil- “Impact of Prison Crowding on young, unemployed at the time of their ity more often than county police Male and Female Imprisonment arrest, and not entrenched in crime agencies. Twenty-five percent of po- Rates in Minnesota: A Research as a lifestyle. In contrast, older white lice agencies said pursuits resulted in Note,” Justice Quarterly 14(4) inmates and those employed at arrest officer use of force, in addition to the (December 1997): 793–809, by L. were more likely to believe that prison pursuit itself, to apprehend a suspect. Stolzenberg and S.J. D’Alessio, grant served no purpose. The findings are number 96–CE–VX–0008, ACCN less conclusive for the minimum- “Public Support for Correctional 169867. This study examines the rela- security inmates. Treatment: The Continuing Appeal tionship between gender and criminal of the Rehabilitative Ideal,” Prison sentencing. The researchers used lon- “Measurement Error in Calls-for- Journal 77(3)(September 1997): 237– gitudinal data from Minnesota to test Service as an Indicator of Crime,” 258, by B.K. Applegate, F.T. Cullen, whether gender-specific levels of Criminology 35(4)(November 1997): and B.S. Fisher, grant number 96–IJ– prison crowding interact with miti- 705–726, by D.A. Klinger and G.S. CX–0007, ACCN 170256. The authors gated departures from the State’s sen- Bridges, grant number 95–IJ–CX–0023, studied public attitudes toward reha- tencing guidelines in mediating the ACCN 169421. This study used data bilitation using a survey of a randomly relationship between gender and rate from an observational study of polic- selected sample of 1,000 Ohio residents. of imprisonment. Results suggest that ing in 60 neighborhoods to examine Results show that not only does the legally mandated sentencing factors the limitations of the use of calls for public still believe that rehabilitation are important in determining severity service to police 911 centers to measure should be an integral part of corrections of sanction for both males and females crime at the address, neighborhood, policy, but such support for a treatment but that male offenders are more likely and city level. The results reveal that approach is fairly consistent across to receive mitigated departures when calls-for-service records substantially demographic groups. Findings also crowding levels are high in male pris- undercount the amount of crime that indicate that policymakers consistently ons. This relationship exists even police officers encounter on patrol and overestimate public punitiveness atti- though the women’s prison in Minne- indicate that data from the Uniform tude and consistently underestimate sota is in reality more overcrowded Crime Reports have a heretofore public support for rehabilitation.

26 National Institute of Justice Journal NIJ IN THE JOURNALS

“Youth Violence in Boston: Gun Participants in the project made im- significant discoveries about the illicit Markets, Serious Youth Offenders, portant discoveries about the nature gun market, including the importance and a Use-Reduction Strategy,” of youth violence in Boston; namely, of intra-State trafficking and a dispro- Law and Contemporary Problems the centrality of gangs and gang conflict; portionate youth preference, relative 59(1)(Winter 1996): 147–196, by the criminality of both victims and to other criminal consumers, for new D.M. Kennedy, A.M. Piehl, and A.A. offenders; and the “knownness” of semiautomatic pistols, and their appar- Braga, grant number 94–IJ–CX–0056, high-risk individuals and groups to ent preference for particular brands of ACCN 169549. This article describes front-line police, probation, and gang those pistols. the findings of the Boston Gun Project. mediation workers. They also made RECENT NIJ PUBLICATIONS

The following recent and forthcoming through data analysis, project evalua- street or in a shelter, and purchase the NIJ publications are available in tions, and firsthand accounts from cli- drug in their own neighborhood. Hav- both online and hardcopy formats. ents, employers, and staffers. ing such information can shape the To order hardcopy, call NCJRS at way law enforcement officers, service 800–851–3420; or send an e-mail to Community Policing in Action: Les- providers, and policymakers address [email protected]. Electronic copies sons From an Observational Study, the problem. This report, produced in can be downloaded from the NIJ Web Research in Progress Preview, by conjunction with the Office of Na- site: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij. Stephen Mastrofski, Roger B. Parks, tional Drug Control Policy, explores and Robert E. Worden, U.S. Depart- the differences in drug markets with Chicago’s Safer Foundation: A ment of Justice, National Institute of the intention of forecasting future Road Back for Ex-Offenders, Pro- Justice, June 1998, 4 pp., FS 000199. trends in drug use and purchase. gram Focus, by Peter Finn, U.S. De- Community policing seeks to establish partment of Justice, National Institute crime-prevention partnerships between Early Childhood Victimization the police and the neighborhoods they Among Incarcerated Adult Male serve. This report presents research Felons, Research Preview, by Robin demonstrating that cooperation between Weeks and Cathy Spatz Widom, U.S. the police and citizens created a feeling Department of Justice, National Insti- of security among neighborhood resi- tute of Justice, April 1998, 2 pp., FS dents, officers with community policing training were more likely to control a citizen at the request of another citizen than officers without community policing training, and the police super- visor role had changed from controlling officers to supporting them.

Crack, Powder Cocaine, and Heroin: Drug Purchase and Use of Justice, June 1998, 20 pp., NCJ Patterns in Six U.S. Cities, Research 167575. This report examines a highly Report, by K. Jack Riley, U.S. Depart- successful effort to help ex-offenders ment of Justice, National Institute of find employment and avoid further Justice, December 1997, 46 pp., NCJ criminal activity. Produced in conjunc- 167265. Drug purchase and consump- tion with the National Institute of Cor- tion patterns differ substantially de- 000204. An NIJ-sponsored study finds rections and the Office of Correctional pending on the drug involved. For that 68 percent of male inmates at a Education, this publication details the example, crack users are more likely New York State prison suffered some Safer Foundation’s program for success to know numerous dealers, live on the type of abuse—physical abuse, sexual

July 1998 27 RECENT NIJ PUBLICATIONS abuse, or neglect—before the age of and the recent innovations in commu- Justice, National Institute of Justice, 12. The study, outlined in this Preview, nity policing, provide the basis for this March 1998, 20 pp., NCJ 168102. New presents findings that address the report. Designed to help law enforce- York City’s Center for Employment widespread preconceptions that most ment, administrators, and policymakers Opportunities (CEO) seeks to lower incarcerated felons were victims of prevent youth violence, Kids, COPS, recidivism by addressing one of the abuse and that sexual offenders were & Communities explores juvenile primary reasons ex-offenders become most likely sexually abused as children. crime and cooperative, community- reoffenders: unemployment. Many oriented means of preventing it. offenders have difficulty finding Forensic Laboratories: Handbook permanent, unsubsidized, well-paid for Facility Planning, Design, Con- Predicting Criminal Behavior employment after release because they struction, and Moving, Research Among Authorized Purchasers lack job-seeking experience, a work Report, U.S. Department of Justice, of Handguns, Research in Progress history, and occupational skills. This National Institute of Justice, April Preview, by Garen Wintemute, U.S. 1998, 212 pp., NCJ 168106. Design- Department of Justice, National Insti- ing and constructing a forensic labora- tute of Justice, April 1998, 4 pp., FS tory requires a high level of diligence 000198. This report reveals that hand- and attention to detail. NIJ, in collabo- gun purchasers with a criminal record ration with the National Institute of are 3.7 times more likely to commit Standards and Technology, created a criminal offense than buyers with this report to help laboratory managers no prior criminal history. The study, and developers maximize organizational based on historical data, also shows efficiency, ensure the economical ex- that the risk of reoffense rises with an penditure of resources, and develop increase in the rate of prior offending. a safe, secure, and well-designed In an appeal to update laws that prevent facility. This handbook provides use- certain groups from buying firearms, ful guidelines throughout all stages of the report suggests further research to production. define those high-risk populations. report focuses on the program’s suc- Kids, COPS, & Communities, Stalking in America: Findings cessful use of short-term work crews Issues and Practices, by Marcia R. From the National Violence Against to help recently released offenders Chaiken, U.S. Department of Justice, Women Survey, Research in Brief, by develop job skills and become reliable Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, employees. U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, April 1998, 20 pp., Texas’ Project RIO (Re-Integration NCJ 169592. Highly publicized inci- of Offenders), Program Focus, by dents of celebrity victims have focused Peter Finn, U.S. Department of Jus- public attention on stalking. NIJ and tice, National Institute of Justice, the National Center for Injury Preven- June 1998, 20 pp., NCJ 168637. Re- tion and Control collaborated on this Integration of Offenders, or Project report to answer some fundamental RIO, is Texas’ innovative answer to questions about stalking. The study, recidivism. Based on the theory that based on the first national data on ex-offenders who find steady employ- stalking collected in the United States, ment soon after release are less likely describes the prevalence of stalking, to reoffend, Project RIO begins job the characteristics of victims and of- training while offenders are still incar- fenders, what stalking is, how often it cerated and continues service after re- National Institute of Justice, June is reported, and the consequences of lease. A cooperative effort between 1998, 67 pp., NCJ 169599. National stalking on individuals and society. NIJ, the National Institute of Correc- youth organizations such as 4-H tions, and the Office of Correctional Clubs and the Boys and Girls Clubs Successful Job Placement For Ex- Education, this report presents data of America have had years of success Offenders: The Center for Employ- evaluations and firsthand testimony helping at-risk youths develop into ment Opportunities, Program Focus, of Project RIO’s success. responsible citizens. Their experiences, by Peter Finn, U.S. Department of

28 National Institute of Justice Journal RECENT NIJ PUBLICATIONS

Trends in Juvenile Violence in June 1998, FS 000201. A gunshot de- European Countries, Research tection system is composed of acoustic in Progress Preview, by Christian sensors that identify and discriminate Pfeiffer, U.S. Department of Justice, gunshots, transmitting a message to National Institute of Justice, May the police computer dispatch center 1998, 4 pp., FS 000202. Since the within seconds of firing. Researchers mid-1980s, juvenile violence has risen at the University of Cincinnati, with sharply across the European Union. support from NIJ, undertook this study This study links the increase in juvenile to determine the accuracy of these sys- violence to an increase in unemploy- tems and their potential impact on po- ment and poverty. The report also lice response times and workloads. notes the rise in juvenile victimization This publication reports the study and details two studies currently under findings and makes suggestions for way that will analyze these trends and from weeks to days. The creation of future research. recommend solutions. networks of DNA databases will increase the usefulness of DNA profil- The Unrealized Potential of DNA ing. This report discusses the impact Testing, Research in Action, by of innovations on collection procedures, Victor Walter Weedn and John W. laboratories, and databases that will Hicks, U.S. Department of Justice, help criminal justice professionals re- National Institute of Justice, June 1998, alize the full potential of DNA evidence. 8 pp., NCJ 170596. DNA analysis is recognized as a vital part of criminal Using Gunshot Detection Technol- investigations. Improvements such as ogy in High-Crime Areas, Research detailed collection procedures will in Progress Preview, by Lorraine Green result in more samples, and new test- Mazerolle, U.S. Department of Justice, ing methods will cut testing times National Institute of Justice, 4 pp., SOLICITATIONS

Proposals for Comparative, Cross- have forged new partnerships with their develop new ideas on criminal behav- National Crime Research Challenge counterparts abroad. The application ior and the criminal justice system. Grants. To further the development of deadline is September 1, 1998. Call NIJ is particularly interested in studies cooperative crime prevention, NIJ is NCJRS at 800–851–3420 to receive a of NIJ-supported research, comparisons soliciting proposals for cross-national copy of this solicitation (SL 000277). of similar research from different sites, research. With decreases in language, the application of innovative method- communication, information, and Data Resources Program Funding ologies, and research that can have an technology transfer barriers and the for the Analysis of Existing Data. immediate impact on the development ever-increasing globalization of the NIJ is looking for original analyses of programs. Application deadlines are economy, cross-national crimes are of previously collected research. This August 15 and December 15, 1998. on the rise. In an effort to address bi- solicitation asks researchers to use Call NCJRS at 800–851–3420 to lateral and multilateral interests, U.S. information stored in the National receive a copy of this solicitation law enforcement agencies at all levels Archive of Criminal Justice Data to (SL 000278).

July 1998 29 NEW & NOTEWORTHY

Violence research and Research Center, Seattle, For more information about the Na- consortium sponsors Washington. tional Consortium on Violence Re- roundtable on violence • Mercer Sullivan, Senior Research search, the Roundtable on Violence in the Schools, or the availability of the in schools Fellow, Vera Institute of Justice, New York, New York. Roundtable monograph and videotape, visit the NCOVR Web site at http:// The National Consortium on Violence • Jeffrey Fagan, Director, Center for www.ncovr.heinz.cmu.edu. Research (NCOVR) is a research and Violence Research and Prevention, education center that focuses on the Columbia University. causes of interpersonal violence in the • Faith Samples, Senior Research Innovations in United States. Sponsored by the Na- Associate, CSR Consulting, American Government: tional Science Foundation, in partner- Washington, D.C. ship with NIJ and the U.S. Department Awards program of Housing and Urban Development, • Marcia Chaiken, Director of Re- includes winners NCOVR was established in 1995 and search, LINC, Alexandria, Virginia. in criminal justice is headquartered at Carnegie Mellon • James Mercy, Associate Director, University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Science Division of Violence Pre- The Innovations in American Govern- vention, Center for Injury Preven- ment program recognizes creative gov- NCOVR’s mission includes advancing tion and Control, Centers for ernmental initiatives that are especially research on violence by pursuing a Disease Control and Prevention. effective in addressing vital public comprehensive research agenda, estab- needs. These initiatives can be in any lishing a data center to share research The panel was moderated by Mark area and at any level of government— data, training violence researchers Scott Kamlet, Dean, H. John Heinz III municipal, county, tribal, State, or through a fellowship program, and dis- School of Public Policy and Manage- Federal. The program’s aim is to draw seminating its research findings to prac- ment, Carnegie Mellon University. attention to exemplary achievements titioners, policymakers, and the public. in government problem solving and NCOVR plans to produce and dis- amplify the voices of public innova- seminate a 20–30 page nontechnical In late June 1998, NCOVR sponsored tors in communicating their practices. monograph in conjunction with the the first in a series of pubic interest Special effort is made to identify Roundtable, authored by former New discussions focusing on key areas re- initiatives that involve interagency York Times and Wall Street Journal lated to violence in the United States. collaboration, tap the creativity of writer David Anderson. In addition, a The Roundtable on Violence in the frontline employees, reshape agency 60-minute videotape synthesizing the Schools brought together a panel of missions and routines, or entail sig- discussion will be produced and dis- 10 national experts from the researcher, nificant departures from policy. practitioner, and policymaking fields. seminated. These items will be available in early September for a fee of Administered by the John F. Kennedy The panelists included: $25. NCOVR will accept written re- School of Government at Harvard quests directed to [email protected]; • William Modzeleski, Director, U.S. University, one of the Nation’s fore- include your full name, title, organiza- most schools of public policy, the Department of Education’s Safe and tion, address, and phone number. Drug-Free Schools Program. Innovations program has recognized • Wesley Mitchell, Chief of Police, Los Angeles Unified School District INNOVATIONS IN AMERICAN GOVERNMENT Police Department. • Pamela Riley, Director, Center for the Prevention of School Violence, North Carolina State University. • Ronald Stephens, Executive Direc- tor, National School Safety Center, Westlake Village, California. • Frederick Rivara, Director, Harborview Injury Prevention

30 National Institute of Justice Journal NEW & NOTEWORTHY more than 200 programs and adminis- NIJ-sponsored researchers are evaluat- analysis ensures that the State’s pris- tered more than $13 million in Ford ing the program, which has been sum- ons can handle the sentences imposed. Foundation grants. marized in a recent NIJ publication, Juvenile Gun Violence and Gun Mar- The approach has proved to be tough Criminal justice winners span kets in Boston, by David M. Kennedy on crime, while at the same time has diverse fields (NIJ Research in Progress Preview, reduced prison crowding. NIJ is spon- March 1997, FS 000160). The report soring an evaluation of the program As it has since its inception in 1986, of the evaluation will also be pub- and will publish a report of the find- the program this year has included lished by NIJ. (See page 2, “Pulling ings. An indepth description of the among the award winners and finalists Levers: Getting Deterrence Right,” program is presented in the NIJ report a number of initiatives in criminal jus- to read more on this program.) Managing Prison Growth in North tice that address issues of pressing con- Carolina Through Structured Sentenc- cern to the public and policymakers. Of Gallery 37—arts-based jobs for ating, by Ronald F. Wright (NIJ Program the criminal justice programs selected risk youths. From the metamorphosis Focus, February 1998, NCJ 168944). for recognition in 1997, several have of “Block 37,” a vacant eyesore just been the subject of NIJ evaluations, off downtown Chicago’s Loop, has 1997 finalists reports, or other types of support. arisen a job-skills and employment The award recipients range widely in program for the city’s young people. Disarming the Criminal—reducing scope, covering programs based not When Block 37 became “Gallery 37,” firearms violence. The strategy be- only in criminal justice agencies but 14- to 21-year-olds were given the hind this Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco also in related organizations, such as opportunity to work in a multimedia and Firearms (ATF) program is to fo- health services. Among them are ini- art studio and gallery that focused on cus on gun trafficking as a way to re- tiatives in prevention as well as con- the visual and performing arts, litera- duce gun violence. The program uses trol, and their aims include reducing ture, media, and architecture. Under the a computer database to help law en- gang violence, reducing firearms vio- tutelage of professional artists, young forcement throughout the country lence, achieving rational sentencing, people from all over the city are offered identify and arrest illegal firearms traf- streamlining access to correctional paid apprenticeships to produce works fickers. ATF’s automated illegal fire- information, preventing child abuse, for display and sale. Boosting job skills arms trafficking information system and promoting job skills among at-risk and work habits was and remains the analyzes data when firearms are re- young people. major aim of the program, which has covered in crime investigations, and been replicated in several other cities the system shows trends and patterns 1997 winners both in this country and abroad. that may reveal links to illegal traffickers. This information is then dis- Operation Ceasefire—preempting Structured sentencing—managing tributed to law enforcement offices. gang violence in Boston. In a city prison growth in North Carolina. where funerals for children and teen- Like many other States, North Caro- Since the program’s inception, the agers—most a result of gang and gun lina was concerned about the discrep- amount of time taken to respond to violence—had become all too common, ancy between the sentences required firearms trace requests has been cut, there has been a remarkable turnaround. by statute and the length of sentences although requests for traces rose Part of the recent, dramatic decrease actually served as well as crowding 46 percent. As a result of the program, in youth firearms violence may be at- in prisons. The response was an ATF recommended the prosecution tributed to a collaborative approach approach to sentencing that accommo- of traffickers responsible for marketing launched by the Boston Police Depart- dates the requirement for tough sanc- more than 34,000 guns and estimated that ment, local clergy, probation officers, tions and the need for cost control in incarcerating these violators would avert community workers, educators, and corrections. The structured sentencing an even greater number of gun crimes. school police. Essentially, the partners guidelines enacted by the legislature Constituent Services Office—meeting in Operation Ceasefire work to identify call for lengthier prison terms for the the need for corrections information. hot spots of incipient gang trouble and most serious offenses, with steps taken Missouri’s Department of Corrections then move swiftly and deliberatively to strengthen community corrections reduced the number of inmate lawsuits to head it off. The program combines and intermediate sanctions programs by addressing the root causes of com- education for gang members with se- as less costly alternatives to prison plaints in the correctional system. The vere penalties for possession of even a for less serious offenders. Computer Constituent Services Office established single bullet.

July 1998 31 NEW & NOTEWORTHY by the department is a clearinghouse that and rearrest. In collaboration with law D.C.—program staff presented details handles questions and complaints—from enforcement and public health and of this innovative strategy. both inside and outside the system— private agencies, the office provides about the State’s prisons. It helps in- the women and girls counseling and A look ahead mates, their families, and friends to other assistance and the “johns” the decipher rules and regulations govern- opportunity to pay a fine and attend The semifinalists for 1998 were an- ing prison visits, inmate medical serv- an educational program in lieu of nounced this May. In early September, ices, and transfer policies. The most prosecution. Since the program began that list will be narrowed to 25 finalists, important effect has been on the in- in 1995, 1,350 women and girls have with the 10 winners for 1998 selected mates, because ready access to the de- received services that helped them in October. Each of the 10 winning partment has meant scores of complaints escape prostitution, and only 4 of the programs will receive a $100,000 have been resolved that otherwise might 1,300 customers who have completed award, and the remaining 15 finalists have resulted in lawsuits. Inmate liti- the program have reoffended. To date, will each receive a $20,000 award. gation has declined nearly 70 percent, of the 165 women who have enrolled with attendant cost savings, despite in substance abuse programs, 68 suc- More information the fact that the prison population has cessfully completed the program and The Innovations in American risen by more than half. found legal employment. Government Web site (http:// www.ksg.harvard.edu/innovations) Healthy Start of Hawaii—preventing With NIJ support, the First Offender has more detailed information about child abuse and neglect. Hawaii’s program was showcased at the second 1997 winners and finalists and those program prevents child abuse and ne- conference on community justice that from previous years. The information glect by identifying and counseling the Institute sponsored in collaboration includes the names of contacts for at-risk families early—even before with the other bureaus of the Office of each program. NIJ’s Web site (http:// children are born. Operated by the Justice Programs. At the conference— www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij) also has State’s Department of Health, the pro- “Community Justice: Transforming information about the award recipi- gram offers intensive, home-based the System to Serve Communities,” ents. The Innovations program can services to families with young chil- held March 8–10 in Washington, also be reached at 617–495–0558. dren. Its community-based assistance is directed at relieving stress on new families before problems start. Followup studies indicate that Healthy Start has Visit NIJ’s Web Site been successful in seeking out such families and preventing child abuse and neglect. In operation for more than 10 years, the program has also increased family access to health care, including childhood immunization.

The program is described in an NIJ publication, Helping to Prevent Child Abuse—and Future Criminal Conse- quences: Hawai‘i Healthy Start, by Ralph B. Earle (NIJ Program Focus, October 1995, NCJ 156216).

First Offender Prostitution Pro- gram—diverting offenders from repeat involvement. San Francisco’s For the latest information on NIJ research, District Attorney’s Office offers first- programs, and grant opportunities, visit: time offender prostitutes and customers an alternative to the typical and inef- fective cycle of arrest, jail, release,

32 National Institute of Justice Journal U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs 810 Seventh Street N.W. Washington, DC 20531

Janet Reno Attorney General U.S. Department of Justice

Raymond C. Fisher Associate Attorney General

Laurie Robinson Assistant Attorney General

Noël Brennan Deputy Assistant Attorney General

Jeremy Travis Director, National Institute of Justice

Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice World Wide Web Site World Wide Web Site http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij