EVENTS 2008-2009 Perspectivies of the Arab World ...... 47 Jihad and the Surge in Iraq ...... 47 Images of Saladin: Past and Present...... 48 Reflections of Islamic Art ...... 49 Islam and the Day of Judgement ...... 50 Writing the First Qur’ans: Running the Early Islamic State ...... 51 Seven Wonders of the World – The Bell Rock Lighthouse ...... 53 Regenerative Medicine: How will it change my life? ...... 58 Extracts from Celebrating the Achievements & Legacy of James Clerk Maxwell ...... 64 Our Genetic Inheritance: for better or for worse, in sickness and in health ... 68 Taxation without representation ...... 71 Science and Arbroath in the 21st Century ...... 74 The Royalty of the Man: How the Globe read Burns ...... 79 Robert Burns in Global Culture ...... 83 Cultural Flagships: Being a ‘National’ – Museums and Galleries ...... 89 UK–Taiwan Workshop on Tidal Current Energy ...... 102 Alcohol – Our Favourite Drug: from Chemistry to Culture ...... 115 The Gannochy Trust Innovation Award Prize Lecture ...... 128 The i-LIMB Hand - engineering innovation drives business success ...... 132 Meet Danny – The insanity of prison ...... 134 Drugs of the Future: Personalised Medicines for the Over 65s ...... 137 The Higgs boson: what, why, how? ...... 149 Scottish Aquaculture - A sustainable future ...... 159 Science, Politics and Drama ...... 179 After effects of Copenhagen - Fiction or faction? ...... 179 The Drama of Nuclear Weapons ...... 183 Robert Cormack Bequest Meeting ...... 192 Stem Cells as Therapy. Where have we been; Where are we now and where are we going (and how fast?) ...... 194 Today's EU : all passion spent ...... 206 Ripples from the Dark side of the Universe the Search for Gravitational Waves ...... 210 Malaria, Mosquitoes and Models ...... 214

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The Financial Sector after the Credit Crunch ...... 217 The Enlightenment – the international influence and impact of Scotland and the Scots ...... 222 The Enlightenment – An 18th Century Revolution of Thought ...... 225 Visual Art and the Enlightenment...... 228 Scotland Exports the Enlightenment ...... 231 Islam and the Enlightenment ...... 234 The Ages of Optimism and Pessimism: Utopian and Dystopian Ideas ... 237 Science and Tolerance...... 240 Music and the Enlightenment ...... 243 On the Dark Side: Witchcraft and the Theatre ...... 244 Science and the Enlightenment ...... 246 The Face of the Enlightenment ...... 249 Moral Universals and Moral Progress: The New Science of Good and Evil...... 251 The Enlightenment and the Academies ...... 254 Political Economy: Adam Smith and Others ...... 256 Engineering Scotland and Japan: Past, Present and Future ...... 259 Making Eyes – Lessons from Failed Miracles Henry Dryerre Prize Lecture ...... 264

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PERSPECTIVES OF THE ARAB WORD LECTURE SERIES November 2008 – March 2009 Between November 2008 and March 2009 the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in partnership with the Centre for the Advanced Study of the Arab World, hosted a series of five lectures aimed at providing both academics and members of the public with a greater perspective and insight into various aspects of the Arab World. The series drew on the expertise of both leading academics and influential public figures in presenting on areas of the Arab World as diverse as culture, history, politics and religion. As a measure of the series’ success, each lecture was fully booked, with over 600 people attending in total. After each lecture, a question and answer session followed, which gave members of the audience the opportunity to ask the speaker to elaborate on various aspects of the lecture as well as opening up new lines of enquiry. Both the Centre for the Advanced Study of the Arab World and the Royal Society of Edinburgh would like to thank warmly both the speakers and the audience for their participation in this exciting lecture series.

Major General Simon Mayall Assistant Chief of the General Staff Jihad and the Surge in Iraq 7 November 2008

Major General Simon Mayall, the interpretation of Jihad has been current Assistant Chief of the altered over time and, more General Staff, opened the series recently, how it has been manipu- with an insightful examination of lated at the hands of militants and the war in Iraq, taken from the extremists. Closely connected to perspective of both a scholar and this problem, General Mayall an experienced military command- assessed the political and histori- er. cal situation of Iraq, noting the General Mayall began his presen- confluence of religious, ethnic, tation with a critical analysis of the and cultural ‘fault lines’ within the concept of Jihad, assessing its country, and how the Coalition’s philosophy and development invasion unleashed many of these since the shattering of the latent tensions. Ottoman Empire and creation of General Mayall then proceeded to nation states within the Middle give a strategic view of the war, East. He discussed how the

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noting the many mistakes made stood strategy which has included by the Coalition: a brilliant military not only a rise in troop numbers, campaign, but a woefully ineffec- but also a coordinated increase in tive occupation. General Mayall economic development, recon- noted the comparative strengths struction, reconciliation, and of the insurgency at this time, transferal of responsibility to the among them a sense of general Iraqis themselves. General Mayall opposition to the invaders, a concluded that, despite many sense of paranoia, and influx of initial mistakes, much progress foreign fighters, observing that has been made, and the future for this combination brought the Iraq looks promising. country to the brink of civil war. Major General Mayall’s presenta- General Mayall moved on to tion exhibited both a deep compare the admittedly dire understanding of the history and situation of the first years of the politics of the Middle East and a occupation to the recent past, wealth of first-hand knowledge focusing on the positive effects of and experience of the region. the ‘Surge’ – a much misunder-

Professor Carole Hillenbrand OBE FRSA FRSE Images of Saladin: Past and Present 10 December 2008

The first non-Muslim to be Crusaders. A young noble of awarded the King Faisal Prize for Kurdish origin, Saladin was the Islamic Studies, Vice-President of protégé of the successful com- the British Society for Middle mander Nur ad-Din. He built on Eastern Studies, and Islamic his master’s success, and pro- Advisory Editor at Edinburgh ceeded to construct a strong University Press, Professor Carole powerbase through conflict and Hillenbrand shared some of her intrigue against his fellow broad knowledge and experience Muslims. Professor Hillenbrand about the image and reputation then discussed the darker sides to of Saladin throughout history. this charismatic and passionate Professor Hillenbrand began by figure, whose sense and aware- attempting to separate the ‘myth’ ness of image extended to the from the ‘reality’ concerning the employment of two ‘spin-doctors’. great military leader who, having Saladin’s reputation in the West, united the Arabs behind him, both during and after the Cru- recaptured Jerusalem from the sades, was discussed at length.

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Professor Hillenbrand noted the Hillenbrand exhibited a number of adoration and esteem with which intriguing examples of the image authors such as Dante and Scott of Saladin being usurped for the regarded Saladin: portraying him attainment of modern political as the paradigm of heroism and currency: stamps from Jordan, Christian chivalry. Contrasted to films from Egypt, bank-notes from this was the disdain and fear Iraq, all using the resonance of which was shown towards Islam Saladin’s image to glorify the and the Arabs, concurrent and current regime. seemingly contradictory to such Professor Hillenbrand concluded adulation of their leader. that Saladin’s role in recapturing The image of Saladin in the Jerusalem, an emotive city for Middle East was then discussed, Christians and Muslims alike, was and it was noted how his reputa- the definitive act which secured tion was rekindled remarkably both his fame and his mystery, recently by Christian Arabs and ensured that his name would translating texts for their Muslim live on through the ages. neighbours. From there, Professor

Professor Robert Hillenbrand FRSE Reflections of Islamic Art 14 January 2009

Having lectured on Islamic art for religious, and that it privileged over 30 years at some of the easel painting and sculpture. He world’s most prestigious institu- went on to demonstrate, through tions, serving as the Editor of a richly illustrated presentation, leading journals in the field, and that Islamic art, by contrast, found widely regarded as the world its most apt expression in more expert on Islamic art, Professor practical manifestations: textiles Robert Hillenbrand was ideally and carpets, bowls and candle- placed to deliver an introduction sticks, buildings and book to this diverse, fascinating, and painting. much misunderstood subject. Moreover, Professor Hillenbrand Professor Hillenbrand began by discussed the roles of architecture calling for the audience to ‘leave as a means of conveying complex their baggage behind’ when power-relationships within contemplating Islamic art, and to society: from shared features in jettison all preconceptions that mosques from Spain to India, to medieval art must be figural and megalomaniacal city plans

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employing concepts from astrolo- contrasts of colour and texture, gy and geometry to produce light and dark, solid and void, as impressive displays of wealth and well as employing devices of control. Allied to these architectur- rhythm, repetition, echo and al statements were commissioned symmetry to secure effects of paintings and illustrations which abstraction and concentration. depicted the rulers and their Throughout his lecture, Professor courts living in considerable luxury Hillenbrand used the artwork and decadence. which he was discussing to Professor Hillenbrand proceeded analyse medieval Islamic society, to consider the commonest forms providing penetrating insights on of expression in Islamic art – its conception of religion, politics, geometry, vegetal themes, and and the Cosmos. calligraphy – in their many Professor Hillenbrand’s presenta- manifestations. These achieved an tion provided both a uniquely unusual intensity in the hands of entertaining and accessible medieval Islamic craftsmen, well- introduction to such a specialised versed in mathematics and studies subject. of the natural world, using

Professor Mona Siddiqui FRSA FRSE Islam and the Day of Judgement 12 February 2009

Professor Siddiqui is currently the on descriptions of the Day of Professor of Islamic Studies and Judgement as presented in the Public Understanding, as well as Qur’an, as well as on the works of the Director and founder of the medieval theologians and modern Centre for the Study of Islam, at scholarly commentators, in an the University of Glasgow. She exceptionally well-researched also provides numerous consul- address. Simultaneous to this was tancy services to Government, and a close reading and deep analysis publishes and broadcasts exten- of the Qur’an, combined with an sively in the national media. An evident spirituality which also, on expert on Islamic theology and occasion, served as a powerful thought, Professor Siddiqui and personal interpretive tool. delivered her thoughts on the Day The lecture was concerned not of Judgement, as envisaged only with the Day of Judgement within Islam. itself, but also dealt with such Professor Siddiqui’s lecture drew philosophical issues as divine

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agency, free will, the nature of answer session expanded on God, and the position and role of Professor Siddiqui’s understand- man within God’s world. Professor ing of the precise nature of the Siddiqui’s thorough knowledge of after-life, and questions of Islamic, Christian and Judaic ‘salvation’, ‘sin’, and ‘forgiveness’, theologies was exceptional, with as explored within the Qur’an, many comparisons between the were abundant. basic tenets of the three mono- Professor Siddiqui, in characteris- theistic religions being made at tic fashion, managed to distil a various junctures throughout the considerable amount of expertise lecture. and knowledge into a clear and A particularly lively question and comprehensible lecture.

Professor Robert Hoyland Writing the First Qur’ans: Running the Early Islamic State 12 March 2009

Professor Hoyland, Professor of on coinage and in bilingual Arabic and Middle East Studies at administrative documents: with the University of St. Andrews, such sophistication as to indicate discussed his latest research into a long tradition of writing, the use of Arabic both before and influenced by the Graeco-Roman during the early Islamic conquests. World in style and content. A Beginning with the Islamic bilingual administration began to conquests and early empire, be deployed at this time, coupled Professor Hoyland examined and with an increasing involvement of challenged assumptions that the Arab officials in the everyday lives Arabs, in their first period of of their subjects. expansion, did not implement In the second half of his address, their language within the machi- Professor Hoyland considered the nations of empire. Professor pre-Islamic use of Arabic, begin- Hoyland discussed the initial ning in its oral form around the private usage of Arabic, confined middle of the first millennium BC. to supplicatory and funerary Professor Hoyland discussed inscriptions, as well as in numer- numerous examples of Arabic ous copies of the Qur’an, which being written in local scripts as begin to appear from the latter early as the first century AD, half of the seventh century. Soon, before noting the emergence of a however, Arabic began to be seen recognisably Arabic script only

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one hundred years or so before Professor Hoyland concluded with the advent of Islam, in a number a discussion of the importance of of bilingual documents, alongside Arabic in the Qur’an, noting the Greek. many references in the Qur’an not Professor Hoyland accounted for only to itself, but to parchments, the emergence of a distinctive scriptures, and tablets, as well as Arabic script with the develop- the self conscious nature of the ment of incipient state structures Book as being written in Arabic, among the Arab peoples, which for Arabic speakers, as the were created by an increasing language of the Arab people. interaction with the Roman and Professor Hoyland’s lecture, richly Persian empires. The effect of illustrated with inscriptions, regular contact with Christian parchments, and papyri, coupled missionaries was also noted as a with an evidently deep knowledge potential stimulus for the devel- of the Arabic language, provided opment of an Arabic script. a stimulating insight into a topic on which still very little is known.

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Bob McIntosh Engineer, Northern Lighthouse Board Seven Wonders of the World – The Bell Rock Lighthouse 10 November 2008

For nearly 200 years the Bell Rock Improvements came in the 1780s Lighthouse has helped protect when new technology, developed mariners around the great firths by Thomas Smith, that used of the Tay and Forth. Its design parabolic reflectors to boost the and construction were triumphs power of lights – and was already of engineering and human providing gas street lighting in determination. Mr McIntosh, Edinburgh – was employed by the whose career has been dedicated Northern Lighthouse Board to to maintaining and building establish a string of new light- lighthouses, explored the origins houses. and history of the elegant stone According to Mr McIntosh, it was tower and why it qualifies as an an urgent task. The structures at engineering wonder of the world. Kinnaird Head, the Mull of The engineering challenge was to Kintyre, Dennis Head on North build a lighthouse of great Ronaldsay, and Eilean Glas on strength, largely by hand, on a Scalpay, were completed in small rocky reef that was twice- around two years, even though daily submerged beneath five only one site was served by a road. metres of swirling and hostile sea. Smith was also stepfather of In the 18th and 19th centuries Robert Stevenson, of the great trade from Scotland’s great ports civil engineering family, in whose was on the increase but sailors, footsteps Mr McIntosh said he felt ships and cargoes were all at risk privileged to follow. from its coastal hazards, especially “Robert Stevenson learned the years of great storms such as craft of civil engineering in 1782. As far back as the 10th general and lighthouse construc- Century there are records of the tion in particular under the monks of the Isle of May lighting instruction of his stepfather, and beacons as a warning to vessels. he was the founding father of this Purpose-built structures began dynasty of engineers, and as such appearing in the 16th and 17th was responsible for the construc- centuries but were small and tion of some 15 lighthouses inefficient, relying on coal fires to between 1811 and 1833. He cast a powerful enough light to started in Arbroath with what was guide distant ships. possibly his most famous, the Bell Rock.”

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The project was necessary because loosely based on the trunk of an in the early 19th Century there oak tree, adopted the cycloidal was so little help available to curve tapering upwards so waves mariners. There were just three would sweep round it, minimising lighthouses round the firths of their impact on the stonework. the Tay and Forth – and ships did Every piece of the tower was not even have the benefit of the individually planned so the stones background lighting to illuminate would connect to each other like a the coast that comes from today’s jigsaw. “The yard established in coastal villages and towns. Arbroath was the land base and The Bell Rock, 600 metres long focal point for the construction and 12 miles out to sea, was in works. Every one of the stones direct line of Dundee and Edin- was cut, shaped and dovetailed burgh shipping, making it an there before it was shipped out to important place for a light and the rock.” Only once the third and also an incredibly difficult place to fourth courses were complete reach, let alone build a 36 m high were the workers above the tide tower. It was a location so danger- and such was the need for ous, that centuries before a bell strength of construction that the had been placed upon it to warn first 10m of the tower are entirely vessels to keep away. solid. One indication of the quality of workmanship is that the When work began in 1807, a cast iron railway completed in wooden beacon house was built 1809 to allow the easier landing to keep the blacksmith’s forge and moving of 1,000 tons of above the tide and which would stone has survived to the present later provide safe accommodation day despite the ferocity of the for workers. Labourers also started ocean. to cut circular foundations 12.8m in diameter and 60cm deep to Despite the enormous care that take the base of the tower and went into the preparatory work, prevent it being washed away. the challenges of the job meant One of the jobs that kept the that many pieces of equipment smith busy was re-sharpening the were developed or refined as work picks used to chip away at the progressed. One piece of equip- rock. Each time the tide receded ment that resulted from the the hole had to be pumped out, project, variously attributed to reducing the working day to a few Stevenson or his junior engineer, hours. was the balance crane which is now used on construction sites Stevenson had spent some six worldwide. years working on the design of the lighthouse,for which although Stevenson was determined that 1810 should be the last season of

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construction work and the final cramped but their work in stone was laid on 3 August. maintaining the lights and During the project, Stevenson had winding the clockwork mecha- won the admiration of the nism every 45 minutes was vital. workforce. Mr McIntosh said: “His Over the decades, the light itself drive and enthusiasm was greatly was changed and upgraded to respected. He was always con- use rape seed oil, then paraffin, cerned about safety on the ships followed by acetylene lamps from and on the rock and for looking Swedish company Aga when the after the men if they were injured, site was first automated in the or their families if they lost their 1980s. Nowadays, it has electric main breadwinner. He was well- lights powered by large batteries known for his strong religious with a diesel generator, and beliefs but almost more so for his maintenance work is carried out belief in the need for the project by NLB Engineers flown in by to succeed and for mariners to be helicopter. protected from the hazards of the Mr McIntosh described how Bell Rock.” technology has transformed the There was great relief when the job of providing hazard lights, light finally went on 1 February showing pictures of a small solar- 1811, using parabolic reflectors to powered unit with LED lights that increase the power of the lamps, he was involved with creating on a which were fuelled by sperm small island near Skye. whale oil. There are some 80 Scottish Stevenson had used winter lighthouses which are listed months away from the rock to buildings, in recognition of their experiment with the best colours architectural or historical impor- and settled on alternating red and tance. white. But after long and valuable service While Stevenson’s name is most they are now occasions when, as a closely associated with the feat, it result of consultation with users, a was John Rennie who held the few of the lighthouses are title of chief engineer, and identified as no longer required disagreement continues over the by the mariner. Questions are amount of credit each should be being raised about their future – awarded. not least because many are Once operational, Bell Rock remote and finding new uses became workplace and home, for could be difficult but at this stage shifts of a month at a time, to the users still use lighthouses as generations of lighthouse part of the Aids to Navigation keepers. Their conditions were system. Mr McIntosh said the

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Northern Lighthouse Board would if there were moves to safeguard continue looking after its light- the future of the buildings that houses so long as funding was are such an important part of our available. heritage. Mr McIntosh said the In closing his talk he pointed to Board is looking at a system to the continuing role of the Board grade properties in terms of in ensuring the safety of mariners importance to try to ensure the and quoted its motto – In Salutem preservation of good examples Omnium – For the Safety of All. from each era. The Northern Lighthouse Board Asked if there was a role for operates under statute – the councils in the future of light- Merchant Shipping Act 1995 – houses, Mr McIntosh said and is the General Lighthouse authorities had taken differing Authority for Scotland and the Isle approaches to getting them listed. of Man. The Board currently He said that while listing brings operates: 209 Lighthouses, 162 protection it also creates restric- Buoys, 37 Beacons, four Differen- tions, as special consent has to be tial Global Positioning System sought for major changes to the Stations, 27 Racons and one buildings. eLoran. The Board is funded Professor Black asked if ship entirely from the General Light- owners now argue that in the age house Fund, sourced by “Light of GPS they should no longer Dues”, a levy paid by shipping. have to pay a levy for lighthouses. The Board receives no direct Mr McIntosh responded that this funding from the Exchequer or was the case, but that lighthouses taxpayer. The other General act as a standby in case the GPS Lighthouse Authorities are the system fails. He added that there Commissioners of Irish Lights is a move away from using them (Republic of Ireland and Northern to mark coasts to a situation Ireland) and Trinity House (Eng- where they alert mariners to land, Wales, the Channel Islands hazards in difficult areas. and Gibraltar). Mr McIntosh was asked why the Following the lecture, the Chair of lighthouse levy falls on commer- the session, Professor Sue Black cial shipping, which often doesn’t OBE FRSE, thanked Mr McIntosh use lighthouses, rather than and led a question and answer leisure craft. He responded that session. there is a commitment to the As ships make increasing use of principle that the user should pay, GPS, rather than relying on but that no effective mechanism lighthouses, Professor Black asked has yet been designed for charg- ing leisure crafts.

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Asked about the power of the strength, modern ones are in the lights, Mr McIntosh said that millions. hazard markers are normally Arbroath Academy headmaster visible for 11 miles and full- David MacDonald ended the intensity lighthouses could be session with a vote of thanks for seen for 23 miles. Early lights were Mr McIntosh. hundreds of candlepower in

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Discussion Forum Regenerative Medicine: How will it change my life? Supported by the Beacons of Public Engagement (Edinburgh Beltane) 24 November 2008

Definition: Broadly, regenerative ment, asked what regenerative medicine is the umbrella term for medicine was and what it might innovative medical therapies do. Three distinguished speakers which allow the body to repair or – Dr Noble, Dr Anna Krassowska regenerate damaged or diseased and Professor Hamish Simpson – cells, tissues or organs. This gave short presentations, then the includes technologies which use bulk of the evening was made up stem cells’ capacity to ‘grow’ into of discussion and questions. the different cells of the body. Dr Anna Krassowska, formerly Introduction/Summary research manager with the UK Writing in the 17th century, Stem Cell Foundation, gave an Joseph Glanvill, a founding overview of the current state of member of the Royal Society, said play and potential of stem cell that one day grey hairs might be research. restored to ‘juvenility’ and that Dr Noble described some of his ‘exhausted marrow’ might be laboratory-based research, which renewed without a miracle. is working with stem cells to grow Almost 350 years later these lines bone and cartilage and make were quoted at the RSE, this time them into therapies. by Dr Brendon Noble, a scientist Dr Simpson, an orthopaedic who is helping to make them surgeon, spoke of how such come true. He and colleagues at technologies could benefit Edinburgh University’s Centre for patients in practice – and, impor- Regenerative Medicine – which tantly, said some could be had been launched officially available in the next few years. earlier that day – are using stem A number of challenges were cells to regenerate bone and brought out during the discus- cartilage, work which will poten- sion, including the need for a tially revolutionise treatment for strong, well-funded research base people with conditions including in Scotland and the importance of arthritis and bone fractures. a regulatory environment which is The RSE event, supported by robust and safe, but does not Edinburgh Beltane, one of the stifle innovation. The importance UK’s beacons for public engage- of engaging the public with the

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issues was emphasised through- are particularly flexible in terms of out. the type of cells they can grow Dr Anna Krassowska, former into. She also spoke about adult Research Manager, UK Stem stem cells, which are less flexible, Cell Foundation but have potential in a number of therapeutic areas. Dr Krassowska described how regenerative medicines, including Stem cells can be taken from a stem cell technologies, have person’s own body – for example, potential in many different from bone marrow or (with chronic conditions which are planning ahead) from umbilical caused by the loss of specific cell cord blood – which lessens the types. These include diabetes, risk of the body rejecting them where there is a loss of insulin- because of an immune response. secreting cells, and Parkinson’s, But Dr Krassowska also described where the dopamine-secreting allogeneic treatments, where a cells are lost. Others include spinal bank of cells is created and stored cord injury, osteoarthritis and at hospital sites to be used when heart disease. needed. Again there are challeng- “The idea is that one can take es, including making sure the damaged cells and replace them stem cells grow into the right by transplantation or encourage thing. “You don’t want bone endogenous cells to replenish,” growing in the heart,” she said. she said. There were several areas “Although there is promising with proof of concept – the first research, for example in heart real evidence that something disease, it is still early days.” works – including a Canadian Dr Brendon Noble, MRC Centre study where insulin-secreting cells for Regenerative Medicine, were transplanted into patients University of Edinburgh with diabetes, who then became Dr Noble began by describing the less dependent on insulin. There mythical Hydra – the creature were challenges, however. For which grew two heads for each example, the diabetes study one that was cut off – calling it an required cells from 2–3 donors for early experiment in regenerative just one patient, which would medicine. His work in Edinburgh, hinder large-scale treatment however, is concerned with bone programmes. rather than monster heads. She described the different types He talked about mesenchymal of cells which had the ability or stem cells, which are found in potential to develop into other bone marrow and which have the cells in the body. In particular, she potential to grow into bone and spoke about the stem cells which cartilage, among other cells. come from embryos, and which 59 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Although work in the lab has for bone injury and disease, talked been relatively promising, he said about conditions which might there is a need for a ‘reality check’. benefit from stem cell technolo- Persuading the cells to survive in gies then gave his assessment of real patients is more challenging, how soon treatments might be partly because they are going into available. He also emphasised the a harsh environment – the importance of translational previous bone or cartilage cells medicine, which is taking discover- didn’t like it there, so why should ies from the lab bench to the the new ones? Rather than send patient bedside and back again. in the new cells unarmed to a And he spoke about the human hostile environment, his scientists side of musculo-skeletal prob- are trying to find a way of protect- lems, including a patient who had ing them. This can involve a to undergo years of treatment, protective, bioactive scaffold losing his job and marriage in the which keeps the cells alive so that process. they can do their stuff. Hip and knee replacements had In Edinburgh, Dr Noble and his been a great boon, he said, but team have been testing different did not suit everyone and were materials to see which ones the difficult to repair. Better alterna- cells will be happy with. Early tives were needed. results have been promising, he Similarly, although 95 per cent of said, with bone growing where it fractures heal well, the remainder, wouldn’t have done and authen- the ‘non-union’ ones, fail to heal. tic-looking cartilage being produced. He described work which has been done to ‘regrow’ bone to fill If successful, some of Dr Noble’s gaps left where bone has died work will be placed in a clinical and had to be removed. He is trial in two years time. optimistic that treatment will be Professor Hamish Simpson, available within a very few years to Scottish Centre for Regenera- repair small, localised defects in tive Medicine and Professor of cartilage, which affect some 2,000 Orthopaedics and Trauma at people in the UK each year. the University of Edinburgh Similarly, ways of dealing with Following on from Dr Noble’s non-union fractures should be description of the work being available in the short term. Using done in the laboratory, Professor stem cells to treat osteoarthritis Simpson gave an overview of what and large bone defects are long- it could mean for patients. term ambitions, however. He described the great clinical He spoke of the challenges in need for more effective treatments clinical trials, including developing

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objective outcome measures and cartilage-forming stem cells finding enough similar patients to added. Professor Simpson added take part. Getting cells of suffi- that the trachea, which had been cient quality and winning ethical taken from a cadaver and had had approval can also be difficult. all its own cells removed, would Discussion have acted as a kind of mechanical strut to allow the stem cells to The discussion session was grow. chaired by Professor Mary Bownes, Vice-Principal for Re- One member of the audience search, Training and Community asked if the development of Relations with the University of regenerative medicine would put Edinburgh, who also heads the people under more pressure to Edinburgh Beltane. She opened have treatments or if perhaps they with a short explanation of the would choose to terminate their work of that project, which lives earlier. includes all the higher education The panel responded that, in institutions in Edinburgh and effect, it was just another medi- other organisations including the cine or therapy, which people RSE. One of six UK beacons of would have the right to refuse, so public engagement, its aim is to it didn’t change the current help scientists engage more with situation. Professor Simpson the public and vice-versa, chang- added that new therapies might ing cultures, improving be more about improving the understanding and influencing quality of life, not extending it in policy. all cases, and that this improved The involvement of Edinburgh quality might change people’s Beltane proved topical, with more minds about whether they wanted than one member of the audience to undergo treatment or not. asking for more information and One questioner asked about engagement. collaborative research across The questions ranged from the universities, remarking that personal and specific to more Scotland appeared to be leading general points. the way with regenerative medi- cine. Dr Noble said that the The recently reported case of the Scottish Stem Cell Network was a operation performed on a woman fantastic way of promoting in Spain to replace her windpipe collaboration and networking and was raised several times. Asked Professor Simpson said that trials about its relevance to regenerative involved many centres. medicine, Dr Noble explained that the patient had been given a Asked if stem cell therapy might trachea which had her own be used in birth defects, such as

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those related to thalidomide, Prof several, including funding, the Simpson said that would be a regulatory environment – getting bigger challenge because it would over the various hurdles to run involve growing muscle as well as trials and licence treatments – and bone. But Dr Noble said that the importance of keeping a treatments for even genetic workforce with expertise in conditions were not ruled out. Scotland.Professor Bownes asked One woman in the audience how much regenerative medicine offered herself up as a guinea pig would cost. Dr Noble said it would for Dr Noble’s research and asked be similar to other drug discovery what was being done to make – expensive to develop and bring GPs aware of new developments. to market, but less expensive later. She also asked if steps forward in Dr Krassowska has a vision of ‘off treatment would be patient-driven the shelf’ products, such as heart or if she had to wait for her GP. cells which have been frozen in Dr Noble said it was too early to vials and used to treat people who say which patients would be come into hospital needing suitable for trials and Professor urgent therapy. Professor Simpson Simpson said that patients would pointed out that current treat- probably be recruited from ment for a person with severe orthopaedics clinics, so it was bone trauma can run into hun- important that colleagues knew dreds of thousands of pounds. where trials were happening. He Asked if it would be possible to defended GPs, saying they had a grow large organs like hearts or lot to keep up with so wouldn’t lungs, Dr Noble said that while necessarily know about possible this was not possible at the future trials. moment it might be one day. Asked about the difference “Who knows?” he asked. Profes- between adult and embryonic sor Simpson said it was difficult to stem cells (to which some people get the interconnectivity right – have an ethical objection) the the liver has to hook up to several panel said that while they could vascular systems, for example. be used for many of the same Talking about the regulatory things, embryonic cells could environment in the UK, Dr Noble develop more cell types. However, said that although it involved Dr Noble said that he was con- hurdles, he was glad it was there. vinced that patients would be Dr Krassowska said clinics in other informed about the origin of the countries are offering expensive cells. stem cell therapies which have not Asked about the main policy been proven and could be issues, the panel mentioned dangerous, to vulnerable, desper-

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ate people. “There’s no long-term scientific colleagues regularly gave follow-up, nobody is learning talks to such groups. anything,” she added. Professor Bownes said that this is The audience was keen for the the sort of thing that the beacons public to learn more. One said of public engagement are trying medical meetings should be to promote. The debate wasn’t opened up. The panel said that closed with the end of this the public could attend many meeting, she said, and asked that medical meetings and that patient anyone who had further points or interest groups and charities were suggestions get in touch with the a good source of information. Dr Edinburgh Beltane. Krassowska said that many of her

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James Clerk Maxwell Conference and Statue Unveiling 25 November 2008 Extracts from Celebrating the Achievements & Legacy of James Clerk Maxwell (Proceedings of the Conference marking the unveiling of the Clerk Maxwell Statue) ISBN: 978 0 902198 85 2 James Clerk Maxwell became a Maxwell’s work on this and many Fellow of the Royal Society of other aspects of physics is today Edinburgh in April 1856 when he recognized as work of genius. We was aged twenty-four, having celebrate today the historic presented his first paper to the occasion of the unveiling of the Royal Society of Edinburgh at age statue of James Clerk Maxwell in fourteen (or rather Professor George Street, Edinburgh. Forbes, FRSE, the Professor of Introduction Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh The President of The Royal Society University presented it on Max- of Edinburgh: Lord Wilson of well’s behalf as Maxwell was Tillyorn, KT, GCMG, PRSE considered too young!). There is something particularly James Clerk Maxwell, FRS, FRSE is pleasing about gathering to revered today as Scotland’s celebrate the achievements and greatest scientist. His ‘mathemati- legacy of somebody who was sation’ of Michael Faraday’s field both a genius and a man of concept and his creation of modesty. That James Clerk ‘Maxwell’s equations’ are funda- Maxwell is not a household name mental to physics as they unify the in the UK cannot be due solely to forces of electricity and magnet- the complexity of his work, as ism. By means of these equations, many who know the names of Maxwell established the theoreti- Einstein and Newton would lay no cal foundation for the existence of claim to understanding their a whole spectrum of electromag- equations. Clerk Maxwell’s self- netic radiation of different effacing nature and antipathy to frequencies. The mere mention of self-promotion may offer clues to light of different colours, wireless, his relative obscurity. Perhaps micro-waves, mobile-phones, today’s conference will offer other radio-astronomy, x-rays, gamma- answers. It is a remarkable fact rays... illustrates the profound that James Clerk Maxwell is significance for mankind of the represented on postage stamps in progressive discovery of the extent Mexico and has a crater named of the electromagnetic spectrum. after him on Venus yet, until

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today, there has been no monu- Many people have been involved ment to Clerk Maxwell in in the production of this statue. Edinburgh, the city of his birth. Our thanks are due to all of them. At Sir Michael Atiyah’s instigation, But I should like to singleout two The Royal Society of Edinburgh individuals. In a spirit of genuine was much engaged in collabora- modesty, befitting Clerk Maxwell tive efforts in 2006, the 175th himself, Sir Michael Atiyah would anniversary of Clerk Maxwell’s not countenance any reference on birth, to raise his profile here in the statue’s plaque to him as the Scotland. With valuable input statue’s “Patron”, nor any from the James Clerk Maxwell acknowledgement of his being Foundation, a great deal was the driving force behind this done towards achieving this. In an commission. He could, though, obituary notice, Professor Peter- rightly be described as both. Guthrie Tait, who was General Without Sir Michael’s commitment Secretary of the Society (1879- to this endeavour; without the 1901) and James Clerk Maxwell’s great energy that he put into contemporary at the Edinburgh fundraising for it; and without his Academy and at Cambridge, steadfast confidence that, referred to the “imperishable through much effort and good- writings of Clerk Maxwell”. As will, the statue would be in place James Clerk Maxwell’s work on by November 25th, we would electromagnetism is the basis of never have had this very fine all the relevant technology, his statue. A mathematician of world- legacy is indeed enduring, in the wide renown and my immediate form of computers,mobile predecessor as President of the ‘phones and other crucial ele- Society, I offer my congratulations ments of modern-day life. to Sir Michael on this legacy. Using red, green and blue filters, Individual praise too is deserved he produced the first colour for the Sculptor, Alexander photography of a tartan ribbon, Stoddart. In recent years, he has and so also paved the way for already made his mark on Edin- today’s colour photography. burgh with the statues of David Hume and Adam Smith in the It seems extremely fitting that The Royal Mile, as well as the Robert Royal Society of Edinburgh, of Louis Stevenson memorial in which James Clerk Maxwell was a Corstorphine.Whilst he would be Fellow, should commission a quick to credit a large cast of lasting monument to this great characters who played a part in man in what the Sculptor, Alexan- this project, it is inspiring to der Stoddart, has called reflect that he has done the vast “deathless bronze”. majority of the work single-

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handed. I am delighted that Sandy statue would never have been Stoddart, who is increasingly erected on such a prominent site, regarded as Scotland’s National and in such a short time. It is a Sculptor, has created this monu- tribute to the genius, humanity ment to the man who was and modesty of Maxwell that we arguably Scotland’s greatest have had such universal backing. scientist. In 1865, Clerk Maxwell Our sculptor Sandy Stoddart described the Royal Society of always said that he hoped to Edinburgh as a “very sociable produce a statue of Maxwell for body, most of them good speak- Edinburgh to follow the statues of ers as well as sensible men”. I those other icons of the city’s hope that James Clerk Maxwell history, David Hume and Adam would feel that today’s event lives Smith. He was only waiting for the up to that characterisation and order to be given, and the that you will agree. outcome is the fine sculpture Preface which we can now admire. He has Sir Michael Atiyah, OM, PPRS, fulfilled all our expectations and PPRSE has worked long hours to com- plete the task in record time. The unveiling of a statue of James Clerk Maxwell in George Street at His lecture at the celebratory last gives due recognition by the conference will chronicle and City of Edinburgh to its greatest illustrate the progress of the work, scientist. The Royal Society of and the exhibition organised by Edinburgh, whose premises are David Forfar will embed the statue only a short walk from the project in a larger historical location of the statue, is proud to context. On the scientific side, have been the body responsible Malcolm Longair, formerly for commissioning the statue, Astronomer Royal of Scotland and raising the funds and organising more recently from the Cavendish the unveiling ceremony. Laboratory in Cambridge, is lecturing on Maxwell’s science and As President of the RSE for the has also been involved in advising past three years, I have taken a on the design of the friezes on the strong personal interest in this plinth. The statue will very project and I am delighted that my appropriately be turned into a successor, Lord Wilson of Tillyorn, hologram, based on the technolo- joins me to celebrate this great gy of light-waves, as will be occasion. We have been fortunate explained by Andy Walker, who to have had the enthusiastic has worked very hard to fit into support of many individuals and our tight schedule. Our final organisations, without which the lecture today will be from our

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American colleague Lew Terman ultimately on Maxwell’s electro- of the IEEE, who will turn our magnetism. Standard Life is both attention to the future. a major financial institution based The financing of the statue is a in Edinburgh and has offices in task which I felt it was my duty to George Street just opposite the oversee, not only as the then Maxwell statue. They are very President of the RSE but also as a kindly hosting the drinks recep- former Master of Trinity College, tion on their premises that will Cambridge and a former President follow the close of today’s of the Royal Society of London. conference. The City of Edinburgh Maxwell belonged to all these has throughout been supportive bodies and it was highly appropri- of the project. Both the present ate that they all contributed to Lord Provost and his predecessor this project. Lesley Hinds have given their backing and the officials involved The full list of the major financial in the planning application were sponsors is recorded on the plinth most helpful. of the statue and a fuller record of all contributions, both personal Many members of the Scottish and institutional, is contained in a Parliament have, in recent years, book placed in our Clerk Maxwell pushed for appropriate public Room. Perhaps, from among our recognition of Maxwell and one sponsors, I can single out three of these, Alex Fergusson, now for special mention. First there is Presiding Officer of the Scottish the Edinburgh World Heritage Parliament, has agreed to unveil Trust, who joined us at the very the statue. To cheer the proces- start and gave us the respectability sion from the RSE to the statue, that opened many doors. The bagpipes from Edinburgh Acade- other two I want to mention are my, Maxwell’s old school, will lead the David and Elaine Potter the way. Foundation and Standard Life, Finally, I must record the hard both of whom gave very generous work put in by the RSE staff in financial backing. David Potter connection with the whole was, like Maxwell, a physicist and project. Special thanks are due to a Fellow of Trinity, and he built up Stuart Brown, our former Public a very successful company explor- Relations Manager, and William ing technology that rests Duncan our Chief Executive.

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Professor David Porteous Medical Genetics Section, University of Edinburgh Centre for Molecular Medicine, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine Our Genetic Inheritance: for better or for worse, in sickness and in health Bruce Preller Prize Lecture 1 December 2008

Delivering the Bruce Preller Prize longer than ever before. From the Lecture, Professor David Porteous situation early in the last century, set out his vision of how the new where only a very few people genetics has the potential to reached what we would now call a transform our health. He spoke ripe old age, we’re heading for a about the Generation Scotland time where the number of people project, where volunteer families in their 60s and 70s outstrips are helping to build up a picture those in any other age group. This of the importance of genetic ageing population brings with it a history. And he made particular growth in chronic disease. The reference to how mental health west of Scotland has a particularly problems can be addressed grim tale to tell in that respect, through genetics. with high rates of heart and lung Professor Porteous’ lecture added disease and cancer. grist to the mills of those who Nature and nurture have roles to want to blame their parents for play in whether we succumb to everything – but quickly made it these diseases. Professor Porteous clear that it’s not all mum and described the “role of the genetic dad’s fault. Family history has an dice”, which determines our important role in determining our genetic likelihood of developing health, he said, but it isn’t the disease. whole story. There’s a balance, of Our greater understanding of nature and nurture. Our genetic DNA – the stuff of life – has inheritance probably accounts for revolutionised our understanding about half our risk of developing of our genetic inheritance. From a given disease, but other factors, the solving of the structure of including lifestyle, environment DNA in 1953 to the mapping of and what we do for a living, the human genome in 2003, our account for the other knowledge of this area has moved 50 per cent. on tremendously in the last few In the Bruce Preller Prize Lecture, decades. What we have learned, Professor Porteous set the scene among many other things, is that by showing that we are living we’re all pretty much 99.9 per

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cent the same; it’s that 0.1 per they are prescribed, with 10 per cent which accounts for individual cent suffering serious adverse variation and whether we’re at risk effects. of getting diseases. Having outlined the current The hunt for genes implicated in position and the potential disease has also moved on apace. benefits of genetic research, More than 2,400 genes for single Professor Porteous went on to gene disorders – such as cystic describe Generation Scotland, a fibrosis – have been found. These pioneering, family-based study tend to be rare, however, affecting which aims to cast new light on only small numbers of people. how and why we develop diseas- In the same period, more than es. Generation Scotland 100 genetic risk factors have been (www.generationscotland.com) found for common disorders, involves all four Scottish medical including cancer and mental schools and is supported by a illness. These affect far more number of other organisations people and rates will continue to including Scottish Enterprise and rise as populations age. the Scottish Government. The technology has moved on so Scotland is a good place for such much that it has become cheaper, a study, he said, partly because of less labour-intensive and much our high levels of ill-health, but quicker to sequence or read also because the population is human genomes. We are almost relatively stable and supportive, at the point where an individual which makes family-based can get an entire genetic printout research possible. Scotland also for $1,000, with results on the punches above its weight academ- same day. Advances have moved ically and has a strong hand-in-hand with computer background in clinical and other technology, however, which is research. The NHS, with disease essential for storage of informa- registers and cradle-to-grave tion, for example. health records is also a valuable resource. Professor Porteous showed a slide which gives a vision of a future Those taking part in the research where patients receive medicine are all volunteers. The process which is personalised to them, involves filling out questionnaires depending on their genetic make- about the history and health of up. This should revolutionise individuals, as well as clinical treatment and help move away testing to build up a biological from the current system which picture. The aims include identify- means that only 30 per cent of ing genetic risk factors, people benefit from the drugs understanding the origins of

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disease, devising new approaches The most important of these is to treatment and prevention, DISC1. Those with a damaged finding new (cheaper and better) version of that gene have a ten- medicines and making better use fold raised risk of schizophrenia or of existing treatments. bipolar disorder and also are at As an example of the huge more risk of major depression. potential benefits of using Although the research was genetics to help solve health dismissed at first, it has since been problems, Professor Porteous backed up by studies worldwide looked specifically at mental and has provided valuable illness. Around 450 billion people information about the biology – 10 per cent of the global adult behind the conditions. It appears population – are affected by that DISC1 is active at the point of mental disorder and in the UK it is our brain where connections are estimated that one in four will made and where learning and experience mental illness during memory take place. In other their lifetime. Mental ill health is a words, damage to the DISC1 gene huge burden, both personally and suggests our memories work in a globally, in terms of years lost to disrupted way. Professor Porteous disability and its use of NHS described DISC1 as the conductor resources, yet there are no in an orchestra of the brain: if it laboratory tests to diagnose it. isn’t working, the music won’t Drugs such as anti-depressants sound the same. The hunt is now and anti-psychotics have been on to find other leading players, great steps forward and do save such as the ‘first violin’, or other lives, said Professor Porteous, but genes which are involved in the aren’t good enough. Some people pathway. Some promising genes don’t respond, or respond badly have already been found. and there are significant side- Professor Porteous widened his effects. A new approach is orchestra analogy to the rest of needed. He looked particularly at the mind and body, describing schizophrenia, explaining that the mental and physical health as a biggest risk factor for developing ‘long orchestral performance the condition is a family history of played out by nature and nurture’. it. Professor Porteous described There is hope, he said, and work research he conducted in Scotland being done through Generation with colleagues, which has Scotland and elsewhere is helping identified genes implicated in to make his vision of the next schizophrenia. generation of predictive and preventative medicine a reality.

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James Kynge Taxation without representation Part of the Edinburgh Lectures Series 3 December 2008

Middle Kingdom, Middle Class 120 million in households According to James Kynge, the earning the equivalent of up to challenge for the Western world is £40,000 a year. not to make China become more Add to this the Chinese people’s like us or measure its develop- attitude to education, with ment according to how children spending up to 14 hours ‘democratic’ it is but to welcome a day in school and extra lessons, the progress that China is making and the future is anyone’s guess... — and be more humble about our James Kynge, who has spent most own ‘broken society’ instead of of the last 25 years in China, criticising one of the world’s working for the Financial Times greatest civilisations… and the Pearson Group, ap- The figures may vary, but the rise proached the big issues by of China’s middle class is truly painting a portrait of the typical spectacular. Some observers middle-class family in China. ‘Mr estimate that there are already and Mrs Wang’ earn £1,700 a 300 million ‘middle-class’ people month (equivalent to over in the ‘Middle Kingdom,’ expected £4,000), out of which they to double by 2025. More conserv- manage to save 10 per cent. They ative estimates talk about 120 have one child (who loves watch- million middle-class people today, ing the Teletubbies) and two cars rising to 150 million over the (Mazda and Chevrolet). Their same period. modern apartment is worth about The definition of ‘middle-class’ £158,000 and they borrowed the also varies. Some commentators deposit for the 20-year mortgage use the ‘Big Mac Index’ (compar- from relatives, paying it back at ing incomes in terms of how many 6% interest a year. They have Big Macs to the dollar) while furnished their apartment from others use ‘purchasing power Ikea, and have China-made parity,’ but whether you multiply products for home use and by 2.5 or 4.5, the disposable foreign-brand products for show. income of the average family in Education used to be free but is China is increasing fast, with 300 getting more costly, largely million people in households because of the extra tuition in earning £1,800 a year (equivalent subjects such as English, Chinese to roughly £4,000 – £10,000) and and Maths.

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This growing middleclass is a rich and poor is widening, but ‘force to be reckoned with’ as it ownership of land provides integrates with the global econo- security to farmers, while the my, but what are the political middleclass now have their implications? Do China’s middle pensions. There may be some classes want more democratic unrest, but no-one wants to rights or do they think it’s better overthrow the government or not to rock the boat? make it change its policies. Echoing the mantra of the early Dissenters tend to focus on the USA, “No taxation without minor details, not the big issues. representation,” Kynge borrowed People may be learning to exercise the title of his lecture from a car their property rights, for example, number plate spotted on the but private-sector businesses work worldwide web, to investigate hand-in-hand with government, whether Joseph Schlumpeter’s and many entrepreneurs are also idea that “modern democracy is a members of the Communist Party, product of the capitalist process” and seek to change it from within. rings true for modern China. From the outside, said Kynge, During the ill-fated Tiananmen China looks like “a monolith of Square demonstrations in 1989, a authoritarian rule,” but it is also few of the new class of entrepre- adaptable and moves with the neurs helped the students, said times. Kynge, but the “transmission Kynge even suggested that some mechanism from capitalism to degree of corruption can also democracy” did not transpire, and facilitate getting things done – for even though there are thousands example, local authorities set up of protests every year, these are thousands of ‘illegal’ investment mainly organised by farmers, not parks over the years which the the urban ‘elite’ who benefit from government quietly left well China’s pragmatic and adaptable alone, simply because they were one-party system. Kynge also working. To clean up corruption suggested that the higher-income would also require an independ- groups don’t even discuss ent judiciary, and this would mean democracy much and think it is surrendering too much political best to stay silent – rather than power. Much of what happens confront the People’s Liberation may be counter-intuitive, but “if Army. it’s not broken, don’t fix it” could Later, in response to an audience well be the motto of the People’s question, Kynge said there was no Republic, along with one of ‘powder keg’ about to explode in Kynge’s expressions: “Money buys rural areas. The gulf between the freedom.”

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In another example of China’s to public opinion at general adaptability, Kynge described how elections. The Chinese people government came up with a novel know they have an environmental solution to the problem of problem, he added, but this may cheating in high-school exams, be the price of their ‘right to devolving the examination process develop.’ to the provinces and introducing Do Chinese people want democ- new technology – including racy or larger families? Kynge even cameras in every exam hall. In this suggested that families may ‘buy’ way, he explained, the new the right to have more children. technology helps China overcome And what about Tibet? Kynge the single greatest weakness of said that Western criticisms may the single-party state – local have backfired, encouraging the versus central control. He also ‘angry youth’ to become more talked about the idea of authori- assertive and nationalistic than tarian government at the centre, the older generation. The worst surrounded by the ‘disobedient’ thing for a Chinese person, Kynge provinces. added, is to be seen as a traitor; Ultimately said Kynge, critics of supporting independence for China should be careful when it Tibet or other regions is to side comes to looking at cause and with interfering foreigners who effect. Rather than the govern- also seek to hold back China’s ment having a master-plan to economic growth. neutralise pressures and stimulate Kynge concluded: “It’s about time the economy, it has improvised the West just accepted China for many of its policies over the years the way it is and recognised the and allowed things to happen, improvement in human rights – thriving in the “chaos under stopped criticising and acknowl- heaven” so exulted by Mao. edged the progress that China In the Q&A session which fol- has made.” Attempts to “incul- lowed, Kynge also focused on the cate the building blocks of ‘pros and cons’ of democratic democracy” are now becoming government in relation to issues counter-productive, he added. such as carbon emissions, sug- “The challenge for Western gesting that although China will governments is that a whole probably increase its dependence generation of young Chinese on coal-based power to drive people misguidedly believe we are economic expansion, it is also in a against them, so perhaps we position to change direction more should go easy on our criticisms quickly and more easily than and interventions and be more Western democracies, because it humble about the shortcomings does not have to answer directly of our own democracies.”

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Professor Anne Glover Chief Scientific Adviser for Scotland Science and Arbroath in the 21st Century The Christmas Lecture 2008 10 December 2008

Scotland has a remarkable legacy ment about a life in science is I as the birthplace of many great feel that science isn’t shared scientists. This tradition is alive enough with all of our commu- and well today as the country nity.” She continued that its continues to be a leader in science sophistication has made it seem and technology. These are remote and inaccessible to those strengths of which Prof Anne without a background in the Glover, who spent her early subject, when it should be childhood in Arbroath, believes something with which we can we should all be proud and on readily engage and which we which we can build a great future. celebrate. Nonetheless, independ- Yet the future, not just for ent research shows Scotland is Scotland, but for all mankind, is in held in higher esteem than any dire danger from the effects of other country in the world for its man-made climate change. The scientific research. “That’s some- threat to the planet can only be thing I feel we should be proud averted if scientists, politicians of. But it will also be our future. and individual citizens act togeth- Our economy, our prosperity and er to bring about real change and our wellbeing will depend on our create sustainable lifestyles. excellence in science, technology Science is exciting – influencing and engineering, because we every aspect of our lives from the don’t need an economy that moment we are born. But unlike makes cheap widgets. If you are the arts, music and cultural the cheapest at making some- activities it can seem distant and thing there is always someone out inaccessible. Yet, from life-saving there who can undercut you, but medicines to iPods we are sur- if you are the smartest it’s very rounded by the benefits that hard for others to compete.” science, technology and engineer- According to Professor Glover, the ing have brought. recently launched Large Hadron Professor Anne Glover, Chief Collider at CERN, near Geneva, is Scientific Advisor for Scotland, a prime example of the impor- said: “Maybe my only disappoint- tance of science. “To me this defines what it is to be a human.

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It highlights the difference us penicillin, and with it the cure between us and any other species to many once-fatal illnesses. Then on the planet that we can build there was Alexander Graham Bell, this.” credited with inventing the The collider is located in a tunnel telephone, and the founder of the 27km in diameter and is used to National Geographical Society. accelerate sub-atomic particles, Another great Scottish scientist heading in opposite directions, to was James Clerk Maxwell, father just below the speed of light of modern physics, who Professor before allowing them to crash Glover said “taught Einstein into each other. The results of everything he knew – metaphori- these collisions can tell us about cally speaking”. the fundamental nature of matter. Today we continue to excel, as the This research could yield immense home of great scientists such as practical benefits. It may hold the Sir Ian Wilmut, whose cloning of key to advances such as nuclear Dolly the sheep paves the way for fusion plants which would, unlike cures to devastating illnesses such the fission ones of today, create as Alzheimer’s. energy without radioactive waste. At the same time, the software It is helping us learn how to create behind famous computer games medical devices that can cure and the technology that gives us cancers by targeting individual iPods, are all the result of Scottish cells in areas of exceptionally ingenuity. sensitive tissue such as the brain. Scotland has also developed the Indeed, we already have enor- world’s smallest TV screen. This is mous benefits from the collider expected to lead to the develop- project, as its development ment of one-way glasses that demanded a whole new approach allow wearers to see programmes to the sharing of information on the lenses in front of their across the globe – giving rise to eyes. Similar imaging technology the internet. “The Large Hadron is also already being used to help Collider is an amazing achieve- blind people see basic shapes and ment. Sadly, there is much human in future may allow some fully to activity about which to be disap- regain their sight. pointed, but this has to be one of our ultimate achievements.” Science also has a critical role in addressing what Professor Glover Professor Glover looked at the described as “one of the biggest contribution Scots have made to challenges we all face; rapid man- the world through science in the made climate change”. This is past. This included Nobel Laureate because it allows us to observe Sir Alexander Fleming, who gave

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change, explain what is happen- created as human activity causes ing, reduce uncertainties and the release of more and more identify solutions. In the case of greenhouse gases, particularly climate change this may include carbon dioxide, into the atmos- carbon capture technology or the phere. This traps heat rather than use of renewables. allowing it to escape into space. To do its job, however, scientists We only know this is happening must be allowed to carry out pure thanks to rigorous scientific research and this will sometimes research. By analysing ice core involve decades of study. The samples from the Antarctic we can weather observations carried out look at the amount of carbon in the Antarctic from the 1950s dioxide present in the atmosphere onwards did not at first sight offer in the past which became trapped any practical returns on invest- as ice was laid down. This shows ment. But over 20 years scientists that it fluctuates naturally due to began to see changes taking place wobbles in the Earth’s rotation, and discovered that the CFCs, the meaning the planet shifts be- chemicals once used in fridges tween ice ages and warm spells and aerosols, were creating a hole every 120,000 to 130,000 years. in the ozone layer which protects Over the past million years the

us against damaging ultraviolet concentration of CO2 in the (UV) radiation from outer space. atmosphere has varied between “UV radiation causes cancers, skin 180 parts per million (ppm) when cancers for example, so it’s very the world is cold to 280ppm dangerous. Ozone protects us when it is at its warmest. Even from that and the ozone layer is though we are just 30,000 years very fragile. “But the really out of the last ice age, the current

comforting thing is that the levels of CO2 have changed world’s population and our dramatically. “I hope it will shock political leaders recognised what you to learn that the present levels was happening, they understood are over 380ppm. Never in history, the science, and put a ban on as far as we have been able to go CFCs. “The outcome will be that back through the ice core, has the hopefully by the end of this concentration ever been that high. century we will have repaired that “And that is because of human hole in the ozone layer. “So that activity.” gives us cause for optimism that Since the 1950s , there has been we can face big problems and do an enormous increase in popula- something about them.” tion, energy production, air travel, The big problem we face now is car use and the consumption of the greenhouse effect being goods, especially plastics. “We are

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responsible for all these extra “Why it’s different from in the greenhouse gases. What it does is past is that we fly everywhere and act like a fleece blanket. What we think nothing of it; we think are doing is putting more fleece nothing of driving around as a blankets round the Earth and single person in a car; we demand that’s warming up the surface of goods and services and foods the planet.” This causes the ice at from overseas; we are not content the poles to melt, which threatens only to have our raspberries and to raise water levels by six to seven strawberries at a certain time of metres – which would leave places year. The only way we will be able such as Arbroath submerged. “If to cope with this problem is if all you think of much smaller rises, of us change. And actually it is they would leave countries such as one thing where tiny acts by Bangladesh entirely underwater. individuals can make an enor- That’s going to affect all of us mous difference.” This might be because when that happens the directly by walking not driving, or people of Bangladesh have to go through example by holidaying in somewhere. All round the globe this country rather than abroad people will be fleeing from coastal which encourages others to do regions and if you think about the same. where our population is it tends Professor Glover said she is very to be in coastal regions.” proud that Scotland has just Current predictions are that the announced the £10 million Saltire heatwave of 2003, which brought Prize, the biggest-ever environ- a wave of deaths in Europe, will mental prize to be awarded for seem like a cool summer by 2050. the generation of a threshold At the same time, new diseases amount of power from wave or such as Blue Tongue, which is tidal resource. “Scotland, a very already affecting UK livestock, will small country, is doing something arrive as there are fewer cold very big to address a global spells to kill out the carriers of problem and this is displaying disease in the winter. scientific leadership.” Professor Glover showed maps of The Professor called on everyone how the coastline might change if to save energy and reduce worst fears are realised. Within consumption. “What’s the reward around 40 years, low-lying areas if we do this? The reward is that of Scotland, such as the Old we protect the planet on which Course at St Andrews, could be we live. It is the most awe- swallowed by the sea and by 2100 inspiring planet, no matter how the British mainland could be a flashy Saturn is with those rings, scattered patchwork of islands. there’s nothing quite like this and

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we need to protect our place on The Professor was asked her view the planet.” on the USA’s decision to invest Professor Glover ended with an large sums in propping up a car observation she found optimistic, industry that causes pollution. She but said others might find responded that we are not always pessimistic. “We are a very young good at swift changes of direc- and inexperienced species and it’s tion. But we do have a window of very hard for us to cope. We think about 10–15 years during which we are smart, we think we are relatively modest changes will be sophisticated, but we are not and able to mitigate the affects of we are making a mess of things at climate change. the moment. It’s possible that we Asked if Scotland can meet its won’t get ourselves out of this simultaneous targets for econom- hole. But for me the comforting ic expansion and major cuts in

thing is that if we disappear from CO2 emissions, she said both the planet there will still be might be possible, in part because microbes, and the thing about the country has 40% of Europe’s them is they grow, they develop, renewable energy resources. But they evolve. the Professor went on to question “Maybe next time round there why we are seeking growth and might be the evolution of a argued that the emphasis must be species of human that is slightly on sustainability. more considerate about the Professor Glover was questioned planet than we are.” on whether she thought the Following the lecture, the Chair of increasing inequalities in society the session, President of the RSE, fuelled consumerism by encourag- Lord Wilson of Tillyorn, thanked ing people to desire ever-more Professor Glover and led a products and services. She question and answer session. responded that ordinary citizens have a role in making it easier for Asked if she believed humans politicians to propose measures were capable of moving away that will change society to make it from the use of fossil fuels and a more sustainable. consumerist society before it’s too late, Professor Glover said the The vote of thanks was given by choices are stark. One reason for Dr David Keeble of the Institute of hope is that research suggests Physics, which was the joint people were happier when life sponsor of the event. He noted was simpler in the 1950s, so we that it was the last in a successful might discover we prefer another year-long series of RSE events in way of life. Arbroath for which he also thanked the Society and its staff.

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Neal Ascherson The Royalty of the Man: How the Globe read Burns Robert Burns in Global Culture Lecture 22 January 2009

The RSE organised a series of hard to think of another poet who events to mark the 250th anniver- has achieved such a colossal, sary of the birth of Scotland’s global readership, yet had so little foremost poet, Robert Burns. As perceptible influence on how well as the lecture from the subsequent writers wrote. distinguished author and journal- He quoted Murray Pittock in 2002 ist Neal Ascherson, there was a saying that Burns has 1,030 clubs concert; a Burns Supper; and a and societies with 80,000 mem- major one-day conference on bers in 18 countries and statues Robert Burns in Global Culture. standing across at least three In placing Burns in a global continents. His books have been context, Mr Ascherson set the translated 3,000 times into 51 tone for the events – and, indeed, languages, but since the Second more broadly, for Scotland’s Year World War Burns has “almost of Homecoming. vanished from the canon of what Views about the literary influence the critical academies choose to of Robert Burns diverge widely – define as Romanticism”. and Neal Ascherson said he could Burns, then, is hugely popular but “snowball-fight with contrary has become ‘British literature’s verdicts all night”. For example, invisible man’, Professor Pittock while Christopher Grieve – better said. Mr Ascherson agreed with known as the poet Hugh MacDiar- this – as far as the late 20th mid – contended in 1928 that Century English-speaking literary Burns had “no living literary criticism industry is concerned. But influence whatever”, biographer he said that even a hundred years James Mackay said in 1992 that before, Burns’ impact on how he was “universally recognised as world writers wrote was strikingly one of the greatest poets of all hard to trace. Although a number time”. In his wide-ranging talk, of would-be ‘Burnses’ sprang up Mr Ascherson discussed the after his death, they weren’t very difference between the influence good and, possibly, got in the way of Burns and of his literary of Scotland’s literary development. influence, which he contended Indeed, it might be that Burns – were two different things. It is

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writing as he was at the cusp of ty and currency of his work with industrialisation – was at the end his own people. While Goethe’s of a tradition given life by poets own songs were sung by pretty such as Dunbar and Fergusson. girls at pianos, Burns’ were sung Overseas, it’s a similar story. While by the ‘people’, in the fields and Burns has been popular, it has in the pub. In Germany, as been argued that his influence on elsewhere, Burns was admired for literature is limited. Mr Ascherson being a conduit for old folksongs quoted Robert Crawford, saying and the rural tradition, but then that Ossian and Walter Scott are was welcomed as a political ally in more influential. Mr Ascherson the liberal struggle for democracy. discussed possible reasons for the In particular, A Man’s a Man for a’ paradox of readership versus That, translated by Frederick influence – for example, could Freiligrath in the run-up to the dialect and metre have got in the 1848 revolutions, caught on to way, particularly for English- such an extent that it is quoted to speakers (translators wouldn’t this day on a plaque off Berlin’s have these issues with vocabulary). Friedrichstrasse. Mr Ascherson believes that Burns In Germanic lands, he was also translates with varying success – recognised as an apostle of awful in French, ‘pretty good’ in localism – a preacher of healthy, Slav languages. Russia, in particu- rural farming values and thus lar, is the greatest success story in helping to preserve people in their reuniting Burnsian form and natural virtue. Burns was particu- content, he said. larly popular in areas which had Burns’ importance abroad was maintained their own dialect and, highlighted by the worldwide indeed, was claimed as their ally celebrations of the first century of and translated into, for example, his birth. He was also written Schweizerdeutsch Zurich dialect. about in other countries, particu- Burns’s popularity was slower to larly in the French writer Auguste take off in Russia, but again he Angellier’s 1893 Life and Works, was claimed as an ally by different which argued that he should be groups. Translations of his work seen as a European poet. tended to be ‘adapted’ to fit He was celebrated in Germany political or other sensibilities – also, but the literati were unsure mentions of royalty and patriotism about whether he was an ‘artless were fudged or removed, for child of nature’, or a patriot, or example. any one of a number of labels. After the 1917 revolution, his Germany’s foremost poet, Goethe, status grew rapidly – he was was an admirer of Burns; in already in the canon of socialist particular, he envied the populari- song and poetry for the masses, 80 Events 08/09

said Mr Ascherson. In the Soviet Burns is very popular, however, Union the chief translator of particularly among the Scottish Burns was Samuil Marshak (1887- diaspora, with the philanthropist 1964) who made him what Mr Andrew Carnegie, for example, Ascherson called a “not simply “scattering 3,460 sculptures of popular but integral part of Soviet Robert Burns across the United mass culture”. Burns became a States”. His songs – or about a hero of Soviet culture and even dozen of them – became popular Shostakovich set Marshak’s in the US although most people translations to music. Again, didn’t even know who had written however, Marshak (as befits them. someone wanting to survive Mr Ascherson concluded that under Stalin) censored his transla- Burns scarcely ever has been tions, removing references to successfully imitated. This is not, royalty, and, for example, not however, because he is necessarily translating Burns’ (referring to “inimitable” – more like “un- Catherine the Great) mention of repeatable”, he said. ‘Auld Kate’s arse’. Marshak’s His environment – poor, but with monopoly over Burns set up a a wide appreciation of literature; a reaction after his death and rebel at home, a studier of liberty following the fall of the Soviet as it formulated across the world – Union, as his works were seen as was unlikely to be repeated. His part of the Communist culture passions – sex, for example – and apparatus. Burns is still one of his dignity in the face of poverty Russia’s best-loved and best- are also combinations hard to known poets, however. reproduce. He also never went Burns’ reception in the United away – as well as in the English- States was similar: “high apprecia- speaking world and Scottish tion by 19th century writers and diaspora he remains dear and critics, enormous popular reader- familiar to older generations in ship and no perceptible effect on many cultures, including Russia, the evolution of American verse, Germany and Scandinavia. Romantic or otherwise”. Burns “untold millions sing Auld Lang was seen as a poet of liberty, but Syne, who know at most two or also as an ignorant poet of the three of his other songs and few poor, with self-inflicted (booze lines of the poetry,” said Mr and sex) miseries. Walt Whitman, Ascherson. like Goethe, appreciated Burns’ Burns’s poetry is popular, not appeal to his own community, but because it is necessarily profound deplored his lack of spirituality or even always good, but because and his backward-looking in it, people recognise themselves fondness for Scotland’s past.

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and their own feelings and even He was asked about whether feel honoured. “Who else can do classical music settings of Burns that, and with an air you want to songs had helped to make them whistle?” Burns’s take on equality popular. Mr Ascherson said that was the thing that mattered most, they were popular to this day. said Mr Ascherson, saying that the Asked about Burns’ contribution poet believed that ordinary folk to parochial ideas of Scotland of shouldn’t be patronised nor the hills and haggis, when he was oppressed but treated with the writing about equality and social “royal respect due to all human development, Mr Ascherson said beings”. He concluded: “The that Burns would have, for Royalty he meant was not really example enjoyed Burns suppers about Man, but about men and up to a point, but wouldn’t have women, Rob and Jean, you and wanted them confined to institu- me.” tionalise “bardolotry”. “He would Questions ranged over a wide say equality is the chance to be area, from whether Burns – a equally fou,” he said. lowland Scot – had been appro- Just how much of the songs priated by the vision of the attributed to Burns, were actually Highlands, to how ‘liberal’ he written by Burns, was also raised. actually was given he planned to How many were folk songs he had go to Jamaica, possibly to become ‘tarted up a bit’, the questioner a slave-driver. asked. Mr Ascherson said that On the latter, Mr Ascherson while scholars argued about it, he pointed out that Burns had felt it was missing the point. written beautifully about the Burns wouldn’t have really cared plight of the slave, but admitted whether people thought he wrote that the man was “flawed and them; the important thing was contradictory”, as well as living in that they were out there and an era where “everyone was being sung. doing it”. The vote of thanks was delivered by Professor Murray Pittock of the University of Glasgow.

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Conference Robert Burns in Global Culture 23 January 2009

To mark the 250th anniversary of of the slave, but against that, he Robert Burns, the Royal Society of planned at one point to emigrate Edinburgh organised a number of to Jamaica, where his job would events, including an important most likely have been that of one-day conference on the poet’s slave-driver. Professor Leask made place in global culture. the intriguing suggestion that in Leading Burns scholars from the light of the Clan Campbell Scotland and around the world networks in Jamaica, his marriage contributed to the event, both as to Mary Campbell shortly before speakers and in floor discussions. his departure, might have been Topics included the role of Burns advantageous in practical terms, in Scotland’s image abroad, his although of course primarily place in history and contemporary dictated by romantic motives culture and the continuing Professor Leask looked in general celebration of the man and his at Scotland’s role in British works. The audience heard about empire-building, and homed in Burns statues in Canada and on Burns’ own particular case. America, Burns’ influence on the Despite the inherent contradic- rise and fall of the British Empire tions in Burns’ life, poetry and and his role in European democra- letters, Professor Leask contended cy. Delegates were also shown that his work offered resources to direct evidence of his influence on those who wanted to resist contemporary American culture in colonial power. So Burns’ poetry the form of the recent film of Sex influenced, for example, the and the City – and heard about his thinkers behind 19th-Century potential part in the creation of Bengali nationalism, at the same Mickey Mouse. time as it promoted a Scottish Theme 1: Reception of Burns in identity in the empire. Global Culture Without excusing Burns’ plans to Professor Nigel Leask FRSE, go to Jamaica, Professor Leask University of Glasgow gave them an economic context. Scots in Burns’ position couldn’t Burns creates problems for those afford to have a conscience about who try to place him in a colonial slavery and, in any case, their context. On the one hand, he chances of surviving in Jamaica wrote beautifully about the plight were not good. As a conclusion,

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Professor Leask spoke of the which deserves continued invest- contribution made to establishing ment. the Empire by Burns’ children – Theme 2: The Influence of Burns while his poetry helped inspire its on the Image of Scotland downfall. Abroad Professor Ronald Jack FRSE, Professor James Chandler, University of Edinburgh University of Chicago Professor Jack spoke about an The work of Burns has appeared internet project which is helping in hundreds of films and televi- to map and foster Burns’ interna- sion programmes since the early tional presence. The Bibliography 20th Century; Auld Lang Syne has of Scottish Literature in Transla- itself been played or sung in more tion (BOSLIT) is an online resource than 170. These include rendi- hosted by the National Library of tions in classics such as It’s a Scotland. With more than 25,000 Wonderful Life (1946) and When records showing where and by Harry Met Sally (1989) right up to whom Scottish literature has been last year’s hit, Sex and the City, translated, the website is a useful where it is the background for a tool for academics, writers, pivotal five-minute sequence. translators and others. Professor Sometimes Burns is directly Jack described it as a “uniquely mentioned as well. For example, in rich database”, but said it had last year’s Made of Honour, the faced, and still does face, chal- poet is discussed after a rendition lenges in getting funding. This is of My Love is Like a Red, Red Rose. a shame, he said, particularly as Professor Chandler gave some the resource offers a valuable reasons for the popularity in international perspective on romantic comedy of Auld Lang Scottish literature. Burns accounts Syne in particular, suggesting its for the second highest number of connections with Scottish moral records for an individual author sentiment in Adam Smith, and on BOSLIT, with more than 3,000 Scottish notions of sensibility in translations in languages includ- Henry Mackenzie, two writers ing German, Danish, Russian and Burns knew intimately. Burns also French. Professor Jack said that played a potential role in early the resource could pose as many animation, he said, citing a short questions as it answers, but that it Mickey Mouse film, The Plow Boy, gives interesting information where the hero is whistling a about, for example, who was Burns air. Perhaps Burns, specifi- translating Burns and at what cally To a Mouse, with its vivid time. There are gaps, he said, but imagination of a rodentine world, it is an important research tool inspired that cartoon creation.

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Perhaps the Scots invented Mickey now as he might be, but Professor Mouse, too, suggested Professor Prochazka blames the translations, Chandler mischievously. which he says use old-fashioned Professor Martin Prochazka, Czech and do not appeal to Charles University, Prague young audiences. Burns has traditionally been Lunch and Music popular in Czech culture and, in Sheena Wellington and Dr the century from 1850, was the Kirsteen McCue led an informal most translated of Scottish poets, lunchtime concert, in which the admired by those with and audience was occasionally asked without specific links to Scotland. to participate. Sheena Wellington, Professor Prochazka talked about perhaps best known for singing A the importance of the poetry of Man’s a Man for ‘a That at the Burns in helping to construct the opening of the Scottish Parlia- Czech national identity. In a time ment, sang (unaccompanied) a when many Czech poets were number of Burns’ songs, includ- censored, Burns’ work appeared ing ‘A Man’s a Man’. Kirsteen in translation in a number of McCue sang a number of Burns periodicals, both highbrow and songs which had been set to more popular. His popularity music by composers from across stemmed from different traditions Europe, emphasising his global of romantic nationalism and influence. political radicalism. His more Theme 3: The Performance of pastoral works were seen as part Burns in Culture of a folk tradition, a symbol of the Professor Robert Crawford country’s idealised village-based FRSE, University of St Andrews past, but at the same time, his egalitarian poetry, such as A Man’s Professor Crawford began by a Man for a’ That, expressed the paying tribute to the poet Mick strength and equality of the Imlah, who had died the previous people. Translations of Burns week. In particular, he cited could sometimes be vague and Imlah’s poem, The Ayrshire even incomprehensible; in some Orpheus, which refers to Burns – cases, their radical political thus placing both men in a implications were glossed over tradition of Scottish poetry. The altogether. Professor Prochazka bulk of Professor Crawford’s talk, discussed some of the most however, concerned Burns as a important translators of Burns European poet. When T S Eliot and pointed out that he was also spoke of the “mind of Europe” in the subject of literary criticism and the early 20th Century, he asked if essays. Burns is not as popular there was such a thing as Scottish

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literature. To Eliot, Scots were not and Lawrence and Lee’s Annie part of the mind of Europe and, Laurie (1954). These popular indeed, he left Burns out. This renditions, coupled with a critical could have been because Burns move away from biography, have was the opposite of Eliot, who combined to exclude Burns from was a royalist, a classicist and an academia. Anglo Catholic. But Professor Theme 4: Graduate Students Crawford makes a case for placing and Burns Burns in the European literary The relevance of Burns to tradition, saying he should be academia today, from his bawdy considered a poet of European poetry to the way he is commemo- democracy. Professor Crawford rated in North America and believes that Burns has had a Canada, was underlined in the lasting influence on European conference. The last session of the culture. He referred in particular to day provided concrete evidence the composer Arvo Part’s setting that research into Burns is taking of My Heart’s in the Highlands. place in Scotland’s universities. Burns supplements the European Four graduate students described order, said Professor Crawford, their projects in a discussion mutually enriching the way we chaired by Dr Gerry Carruthers of look at his poetry and how we see the University of Glasgow. European culture as a whole. Pauline Gray Professor Leith Davis, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver Burns’ bawdry is a legitimate area for study, although it was seen as Professor Davis examined Burns’ taboo until recently. His bawdy use by creative writers in the last songs contain discussions on the 150 years. She suggested that themes of gender, religion and Burns, more than any other poet politics, which make them ripe for in the English-speaking world, has critical appraisal. Ms Gray spoke been read through the lens of his about gender in particular, and biography. This tendency was exposed some of the contradic- already there in early reviews of tions in Burns’s work. For example, his work, but it was made official he may have had a reputation as a policy in James Currie’s Works of male chauvinist, but his poetry Robert Burns (1800). Fictionalised shows genuine notions of accounts of Burns’ life began after romantic love and appreciation of the Centenary celebrations and women’s bodies. He uses religious continued with such works as language to suggest that sex is a John Drinkwater’s Robert Burns gift from God - “divine blisses” - (1952), the “Immortal Memory” and also writes about women as novels of James Barke (1946–53)

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lustful beings with sexual urges of and the US. In particular, she is their own, rather than being looking at the inauguration passive objects of men’s desire. speeches, as reported in local Burns acknowledges that sex is newspapers, as well as who was complex and often mutual and his behind the building of them. She bawdry deserves a place in the is also looking at how he is canon of his work. represented, and has concluded Ralph McLean that people want to feel they have the best and most authentic This research centres on the seeds representation of the man. It may of the Scottish Enlightenment. be that Burns statues are there for Ralph McLean spoke about Burns’ reasons of nostalgia – a perma- relationship with the Edinburgh nent memorial of devotion to ‘literati’, describing how the poet Scotland from generations of had a “chameleon-like ability” to emigrants. act in the way which would suit him best in a given situation. For Jennifer Orr example, if people wanted to see Jennifer Orr described Burns’ a rustic vernacular poet, that’s influence on the Ulster poets, a what he would be, although he group of labouring class poets in actually wrote sophisticated verse what is now Northern Ireland. In and had read deeply. The literati particular, she is interested in were aware of Burns’ abilities but, Samuel Thomson (1766–1816) at the same, time, Burns appreci- who wrote verse epistles to Burns. ated the literati. Indeed, Burns “Anything but a bardoleter” as was at the heart of the Enlighten- she describes him, Thomson ment, which spread through all nevertheless puts Burns into a levels of society in a myriad of succession of Scottish poets and ways. pits him against English poets of Catherine McBay the time, such as Alexander Pope. She outlined how Burns’ work Are Burns statues erected abroad had an influence on Ulster poets to honour the man and his poetry writing in the vernacular Scots or as an expression of Scottish tradition. There’s a clear need to identity? Catherine McBay is study the influence of Burns on trying to answer this question political circles throughout the with a study of statues in Canada British Isles, she said.

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Burns Supper 22 January 2009 A special Burns Supper held in honour of Robert Burns' 2009 celebration. Contributors included Mr Clark McGinn and the renowned Scottish singer/ songwriter Gill Bowman one of the finest interpreters of Robert Burns' songs performing today.

Concert - Lament for Mary Queen of Scots The Haydn Trio Eisenstadt, Lorna Anderson, Jamie MacDougall. 23 January 2009 Featuring Harald Kosik on piano, Verena Stourhz on violin and Hannes Gradwolh playing cello the Haydn Trio Eisenstadt is one of Austria’s leading chamber music ensembles. Since 2002 the trio have worked closely with the renowned Scottish Singers Lorna Anderson (Soprano) and Jamie MacDou- gall (Tenor). The Royal Society of Edinburgh and the University of Edinburgh was delighted to be able to bring to Edinburgh, for one night only, Jamie, Lorna and the Haydn trio Eisenstadt and to watch all five performers breathe new life into Haydn’s Scottish songs. An exciting link up with one of Scotland’s pre-eminent composers of this generation James MacMillan FRSE added another dimension to the evening as the five performed his newest, as yet untitled, Scottish themed piece of work.

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Cultural Flagships Series Discussion Forum Cultural Flagships: Being a ‘National’ – Museums and Galleries 11 February 2009

The forum was introduced by Lord cutting edge of debates about Wilson of Tillyorn, President of the national identity and culture. Royal Society of Edinburgh, who Professor Macmillan then intro- thanked Professors Jan McDonald duced the four speakers. He FRSE and Adrienne Scullion FRSE pointed out that Belfast-born for their work on the National John Leighton, Director-General of Flagships seminar series, and the National Galleries of Scotland handed over to the Chair for the (NGS), is the first trained painter evening, Professor Duncan to occupy that post for many Macmillan FRSE of the University decades, and outlined his career of Edinburgh, who is also chief before he took over at NGS in visual arts critic of The Scotsman, 2006, which ranged from student and former Curator of the Talbot years at Edinburgh University, Rice Gallery, the University of Edinburgh College of Art and the Edinburgh. Courtauld Institute, to periods at Professor Macmillan introduced the National Gallery in London, the debate by drawing attention and the Van Gogh Museum, to the recent controversy over the Amsterdam. raising of funds to keep the Titian Enrique Juncosa, Director of the painting Diana and Actaeon on Irish Museum of Modern Art public display in Scotland. He (IMMA), was born in Majorca, and quoted the view of Iain Smith has previously worked in Valencia, MSP, Liberal Democrat Culture and at the Reina Sofia Museum in spokesman, that the painting is Madrid. Dr Gordon Rintoul, hardly worth saving for Scotland, Director of National Museums because it has no real Scottish Scotland (NMS), is currently connection. “It’s not even as if it presiding over a major refurbish- was by Jock McTitian”, the MSP ment of the Royal Museum was quoted as saying. Professor building in Chambers Street. And Macmillan said that this contro- Neil MacGregor, Director of the versy reminds us of the questions British Museum, was brought up faced daily by those responsible in Glasgow, before studying for for running ‘national’ galleries the Scottish bar, and moving into and museums in the 21st Century, the world of fine arts via the who often find themselves at the University of Edinburgh, the

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Courtauld Institute and the for encouraging artistic achieve- University of Reading. He was ment within Scotland, but also a Director of the National Gallery in potent sign of distinction to the London before moving to the nation. The Scotsman, at the time, British Museum in 2002. Profes- said that the purpose of the sor Macmillan said that many of collection should be “to teach art the exhibitions Neil McGregor has and elevate taste”; but added that presented at the British Museum in these respects, the existing have shown a strong sense of collections were “quite useless”. topicality, including the current Initially, the galleries had little or exhibition on The Remaking of no acquisition funding, and Iran in the Early 17th Century. depended almost entirely on gifts Professor Macmillan added that in and bequests. The aim, though, his view, culture is the essential was clearly to acquire the finest element from which politics examples of international art that grows, and that politics is only a could be bought or gifted; the function of culture. He therefore remit became more complex later, felt that the approach to national with the general growth of culture of those running major nationalism, and of indigenous national museums and galleries is Scottish schools of painting. Early of profound importance, and directors were soon complaining looked forward to hearing the that the prices of ‘old masters’ views of such a distinguished were becoming prohibitive, so the group of speakers on a subject so debate on acquisitions and critical to our future. spending priorities began early. John Leighton There were also strong class attitudes in the early management John Leighton began by pointing of the galleries. Directors used to out that the National Galleries of employ extra security staff on Scotland are approaching an public holidays, when the working important birthday; they are due classes might be expected to visit; to celebrate their 150th anniversa- and in every sense, the lower ry in March 2009. He said that orders received only a ‘guarded’ when the galleries first opened in welcome from management. 1859, there was general agree- ment that there was a compelling Nowadays, of course, things have need for the public in Scotland to moved on. John Leighton is have access to great works of art; concerned that it should be clear but there was no great consensus that these are not the ‘National – if any at all – about what the Galleries of Edinburgh’. He is content of the collection should interested in the mission of be. There was a feeling that the creating galleries “without walls”, gallery should be not only a force whose collections become visible 90 Events 08/09

and accessible throughout the of the “same everywhere” culture country. The gallery, he said, in modern art, where similar should not be a “self-contained exhibitions move around a treasure chest”, but should form fashionable circuit from Berlin to part of a wider network across the Paris to London to New York, and nation and beyond. He hoped to seem to have no real identity. He see more collaborations with argued that the easiest way to other collections, both in Scotland have a distinctive identity is to put and elsewhere. some emphasis on the national He felt that the Galleries are, in dimension of a collection, and the broadest sense, educational said that at IMMA, he aims to institutions, and that a continuing assemble the best possible relationship with contemporary collection of contemporary Irish Scottish art should be one of the art, in a good international foundations of the Galleries’ context. The general collection can work. They also play a crucial role be excellent, but the Irish one can in supporting the nation’s tourist reasonably aim to be the best in industry. the world. Mr Leighton said, in conclusion, The Irish Museum of Modern Art that questions of national identity was founded in 1991 with a very are always challenging, and small acquisition fund, and in its should be so. The temptation is to early years tended to use this to try to use institutions such as buy contemporary art from museums and galleries to simplify outside Ireland, along with some national identity, and define it in contemporary Irish work. Mr narrow ways. The duty of the Juncosa has tried to fill in the institutions is to resist that, and to gaps, updating the collection with insist on the complexity of their neglected Irish material created role, and of the culture they between the 1940s – the terminal record and reflect. And he added date of the collections in the that he is delighted by the National Gallery of Ireland – and purchase of the Titian painting, the 1990s. He also observed that which he described as “a sign of when he was appointed to his ambition, as well as a great work post in 2003, one newspaper of art.” article was published objecting to his appointment, and saying that Enrique Juncosa it was disgraceful that a foreigner Mr Juncosa began by observing should hold such a post. But that that people often use the term was the only hostility he encoun- ‘nationalism’ in a pejorative way, tered, and he has found the Irish and always of others, never of arts community very supportive. themselves. He said he is also wary

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He is currently collecting mainly about the relative lack of a focus Irish artists, including those with on Wallace. History is a contested Irish connections who live else- place. When Australia’s National where - Northern Ireland, North Museum opened in 2001, there America, etc. Mr Juncosa noted were so many protests and the paradox that while people in disputes that a government Spain see England, France and commission had to be appointed Germany as the essence of to investigate, and the row led to Europe, British people seem very the departure of the Director. reluctantly European. In Ireland, Dr Rintoul therefore felt that, in though, people are responsive to the first place, it is essential for a the European dimension and national museum, particularly in a enjoy making European links, and small country, to engage in the Mr Juncosa has also linked Ireland continuing debate about the through exhibitions to other ‘new’ history of the nation, and to or recently independent countries, provide a forum for that discus- including India and Pakistan. A sion. It should offer not just the museum in Ireland, he concluded, story of an imagined past, but an has to be Irish; and it also has to opportunity to understand the be much more than that. past through a range of different Gordon Rintoul voices, including those recorded Gordon Rintoul began by observ- through oral history and on film. ing how wide-ranging the Secondly, the national museum National Museums Scotland’s should hsave a role as a national collections are, and how this resource, with a vigorous loans reflects the history of Scotland, programme to other museums and the importance in our and institutions across the national story of Empire, science country. The National Museum and technology. He argued that currently has more than 2,500 national storytelling is always objects out on loan to various fraught with different viewpoints, institutions, and is particularly and that there are pitfalls in pleased that the collection known telling a story through artifacts. as St Ninian’s Treasure has recently There is, for example, not much returned to Shetland for the first about William Wallace in the time since its rediscovery in the National Museum of Scotland, 1950s. because there are no objects in Thirdly, the museum should be the collection relating to him; at involved in supporting and the time of the opening of the enabling others, particularly Museum, the current First Minister smaller museums across Scotland. had made vigorous comments Fourthly, the institution should be

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mindful that being national such as National Museums means being international, if Scotland should seek to act as a Scotland’s story is to be told in force for good, both nationally full. International exchange and and internationally. linkage is of central importance. Neil MacGregor Dr Rintoul said that he hoped the Neil MacGregor used historical revamped Royal Museum building and contemporary images of the would reflect this international British Museum to illustrate his perspective very strongly - for speech, and began by reflecting example, there was an exhibition on the values and ideas which in 2008 called Extremes, about helped inspire the museum’s the Hudson’s Bay Company of foundation at Montague House in Canada, featuring 250 items, 1753. He showed an image of the many of them brought back from steeple of St. George’s Church, northwest Canada by Scots Bloomsbury, close to the museum, involved in the history of the with its statue of King George I at company. The exhibition coincided the very pinnacle of the steeple, with a land claim by the Tlicho and reflected that the museum people of the area around was founded at a time when Yellowknife, whose representa- people were determined to tives visited Edinburgh during the strengthen and consolidate the exhibition; the whole event was idea of the nation – the question particularly moving and well of “which nation?” had after all received. been tested as recently as 1745. And fifthly place, Dr Rintoul Mr MacGregor showed a particu- argued that being national should larly powerful picture of the public mean being a centre for the execution of Jacobite lords at creation and sharing of knowl- Tower Hill following the rebellion edge, particularly through of that year, and said that in the research around the museum’s 1750s, the great and the good of substantial science collection. Britain were essentially saying Research activities could range “Here are the ideas we will from straightforward history of promote, and here are the much science to contemporary research larger group of ideas we will not in natural sciences, using the mention, in order to be able to museum’s collections as a re- live together.” source, and there are exciting The museum was created by a possibilities in this area. vote of Parliament, not by Royal Dr Rintoul concluded that nation- Charter, and was to be run by al status and national funding independent Trustees, not royal also bring national responsibili- appointees. The mood in Parlia- ties, and that national institutions

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ment was of the need to create a mother of all human cultures, society and forge a nation; Mr partly through the study of fine MacGregor reflected that interest artifacts found there. in the idea of a national museum In Neil MacGregor’s view, the often comes from the sense that objects are there in the museum we have a notion of how we want precisely in order to allow differ- our people to be, and want a ent narratives, and resisted museum that in some way reflects narratives, to be presented; and that story and that aspiration. The the civic value of that process is real purpose was to create, not very great indeed. He said that in recount, a national story, and it is London, one person in 20 is now striking that the Trustees were not of sub-Saharan African origin and to be part of government, but free that this is the fastest-growing and independent. They were to be part of the city’s population. He funded by government, but not showed a memorable picture of controlled by it. At the time, a an African study day at the British Royal institution would have Museum, featuring a huge crowd excluded everyone who was of people, including thousands of Nonconformist, Catholic or Londoners of African origin, Jewish, and the foundation of the gathered to hear music and British Museum was an important presentations in the museum’s step away from that. main courtyard. “Our job,” said In the years since 1753, the Mr MacGregor, “is to complicate nations of Britain have changed narratives, and to remind people dramatically, but the objects of how complex they are.” assembled in the collections still He added that museums need the allow us to tell different and resources to make collections competing stories about our available throughout the country history and our society. The idea is and beyond. The idea that the that different populations within British Museum should bring the nation can look at all the together artifacts ‘native and stories in one place, and begin to foreign’ was enshrined in the get a sense of how they fit original Act of Parliament found- together. This is the work that any ing the museum, and today the national museum has to embody, collection should be consultable and national museums must resist world-wide. Mr MacGregor said, any “nationalism” that makes in conclusion, that these remain that coexistence difficult. A good great ideals, and that both the example lies in attitudes to Africa, history and the potential of the which has gone from being British Museum help to demon- patronised as a primitive back- strate what such a collection could water to being recognised as the achieve in the civic realm.

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Questions and Answers and interaction must be good for Professor Sir Alan Peacock FRSE the institution, and there is now a opened the discussion, from the far broader range of ways in audience, by pointing out that the which members of the public can idea of a “national” institution become involved with the work of implies some continuing public the museum. debate about the organisation’s Mr Juncosa said that there is not a purpose and priorities. He simple canon of work which had welcomed the fact that museums to be shown, and that it is a and galleries have become more matter of complex narratives. interactive in terms of the experi- Duncan Thomson, former Director ence of visitors, but wondered of the National Portrait Gallery, how that need for wider public then asked whether modern debate and participation could be museums are speaking the expressed in the governance of language of inclusion, but failing institutions. to practise it. The museums He also questioned whether some themselves have become more of the activities of museums are accessible, but structural participa- not taking on a political education tion is being phased out – there role which could become danger- are no longer trade union repre- ous. Is it not possible, for sentatives on boards, for example. example, that the current Iran Neil MacGregor said that the exhibition at the British Museum British Museum Board are is running this risk? Trustees, not representatives. They Neil MacGregor said that there is are there to defend the interests no question of proselytising, of the public, born and unborn. either in the Iran exhibition or in They need to be strong, so that any other aspect of the British they can fight government if Museum’s work. The public necessary. receive the information, and John Leighton pointed out that literally informs itself through the boards of trustees do not run experience. The idea is to try to museums – directors are responsi- understand contemporary Iran ble for the operations. Museums through its past. The response or Boards have the responsibility to conclusions depend on the monitor and approve the broad individual visitor. strategy, policy and business plans Dr Rintoul said that there is no and if they get too closely involved intention of telling people what in the day-to-day operations then to think. His intention is rather “all hell usually breaks loose”. that the NMS should act as a Gordon Rintoul said there are forum for debate. Participation many ways of encouraging

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participation, for example through museum in Berlin, and wondering open meetings. It is important to what on earth it was doing there. offer the public a range of ways of John Leighton said that he thinks engaging with the work of the works of art acquire a resonance museum. through being exhibited in a The question was raised of the certain place, over time. It would still rather forbidding image of make us much poorer, for exam- formal galleries. Why do people ple, if we could only ever see still think only of official gallery Venetian art exhibited in Venice; it spaces, when it comes to display- should also be seen in other ing art or artifacts? lights. There is also an element of John Leighton said that he is very surprise or disjunction – like the interested in this issue, which was questioner’s experience in Berlin – why he had talked about the idea which can be revealing and of the “gallery without walls”. enlightening. There is a strong tradition of Neil MacGregor suggested that public sculpture in Britain, and of the real question is about how we art in the environment at various understand objects. The compara- sites. Mr Leighton felt that all of tive method is a very powerful tool these developments help to make of understanding, and collections art more accessible and less such as the British Museum are intimidating. founded on it. He argued that we Mr Juncosa said that the Irish cannot understand the world, and Museum of Modern Art has an how different geographical areas extensive programme of lending and traditions relate to one work from its collection to small another, unless objects are towns across Ireland, some of brought together for comparison. which are using informal exhibi- Cultures are contiguous, like a tion spaces such as garages and form of trade. They are shaped by shop-fronts. The ‘national contacts and exchanges, and programme’, as it is called, is an unless we can see objects side by increasingly important part of the side, those relations will not be IMMA’s work. clear to us. The questioner wondered, though, whether the The question was raised of people of Benin feel like that whether it is right to remove art- about their bronzes, which have works from the places were they become the property of the British were created, and to keep them in Museum and other galleries in the other cities and countries. The west. questioner recounted the strange experience of seeing an ancient Another questioner wondered Persian temple reconstructed in a how much sense of ownership

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people have in relation to their institutions have built up their national galleries and museums, own holdings through a combina- and how that could be fostered. tion of purchase, and generous Gordon Rintoul said that the NMS gifts and bequests. has carried out substantial Gordon Rintoul agreed that the outreach work, for example with generosity of private donors is of groups of women from the huge benefit to the national Chinese and Indian communities collections, and recalled a Japa- in Glasgow, although ethnic nese company with a plant in diversity is obviously not so strong Scotland generously donating a a thread in Scottish life as it is in hugely valuable silicon ingot for a London. recent NMS exhibition. A final questioner asked the Professor Macmillan then closed speakers to reflect on the impor- the formal debate, and invited tance of private collectors who Professor Jan McDonald to give donate works to national galleries the vote of thanks. She said that and museums. Among those the discussion had been fascinat- mentioned were the Rockefeller, ing, and had made it clear that Burrell and Bridgewater bequests. national galleries and museums John Leighton said that he agreed have a very complex contract with that it is easy to forget that the the nations they serve. In a sense, stewardship of heritage is, and they are there to help create a always has been, a public–private nation that can only exist if we partnership. Many countries have suspend our disbelief, and allow national collections based on old ourselves to become something royal collections, which have been more than an imaginary commu- nationalised or appropriated. But nity. She thanked all four our royal family still has its own speakers, and Professor Macmil- collection, and the national lan, for an outstanding debate.

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Professor John Beddington CMG FRS Global Challenges in a changing world ECRR Peter Wilson Lecture 17 February 2009

Science to the rescue - Demand for food is projected to Professor John Beddington, the increase by 50% by 2030, Chief Scientific Adviser to HM according to the United Government and Head of the Nations. Government Office for Science, - World grain reserves are at an believes that science and technol- all-time low of 14%, down from ogy must play a critical role in 35% in 1986, and 75% of the tackling the many global challeng- major marine fish stocks are es facing humanity through the either depleted, overexploited 21st Century – and that the or being fished at their biologi- economic downturn is no time to cal limit. be taking our foot off the acceler- - Demand for energy is projected ator for the investments to increase by 45% by 2030 in a required… BAU scenario. Listening to Professor Beddington - Demand for water may increase set out these challenges, you may by 30% by 2030. One in three be forgiven for thinking the future people already face serious is cancelled. He presents a stark shortages in the form of picture of complex, interacting physical or economic water problems, and of transformational scarcity. Potentially forcing changes to be managed alongside more countries to introduce these. charges and with the possibility - World population is expected to of increased tensions and rise from six billion at the start conflicts. of the century to nine billion by - The acidity of the oceans is 2050 – an increase of six million accelerating, with Ph expected people per month, mostly in to drop by approximately 0.4 by developing countries. the end of the century, due to - Urbanisation will accelerate. rising CO2 emissions. Last year, urban population - Economic migration has overtook rural. increased from less than 80 - More than a billion people live million in 1960 to around 200 on less than 50p a day. million by 2005.

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- The world’s mega deltas are worst-case scenario for the rate of particularly vulnerable to climate Arctic melting turned out to be change, and every year there is not as bad as actual observations. already around a 75% chance Further research and data will be of one of the world’s major 136 key to understand whether short port cities being inundated with term fluctuations or more funda- a one-in-a-100-year flood. mental trend factors are the cause. Even some of the good news is In many areas the full impact of bad. Beddington highlighted the changes being experienced or recent research which suggests which are predicted, such as rising that banning aerosols may have sea temperatures, is still not well led to an increase in deforestation understood by scientists. of the Amazon rainforest, due to Whilst spending much of his RSE an increase in droughts. lecture describing the problems, He explained too how economic he talked too about solutions. growth projected for the develop- Beddington remains optimistic ing world, lifting millions from that science and technology can poverty, would at the same time rise to the challenge, if we have increase exponentially the de- the political will and invest mand for energy, water, food and adequately in research and in its other resources. More prosperous effective exploitation. An eco- populations, centred increasingly nomic downturn may not seem in mega-cities and aspiring to the the best time to argue for in- lifestyles of affluent Western creased investment, but nations, will require servicing Beddington believes that there are often by a rural community profits to be made from the crisis, declining in at least relative terms. and that we have no other choice. Looming over all of this is climate Beddington welcomed the change – and other unpredictable inauguration of President Obama, phenomena such as terrorism because the new administration is and natural disasters. It’s no good already taking climate change having a healthy economy if the more seriously, including the planet is killing itself – for exam- appointment of two Nobel Prize ple, a 5º increase in temperature winners with an interest in climate would cause a catastrophic rise in change to the team of scientific sea levels and devastate agricultur- advisors. al production. Our prospects may look bleak, but Unfortunately some of our most Beddington seems to agree with pessimistic forecasts may not be the idea that every crisis means an pessimistic enough, said Bedding- opportunity. And he is very clear ton. For example, even the what this will mean: “We need

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significant investment in science expensive at the moment, but and engineering solutions to Beddington agrees that it will play complex inter-related issues.” a crucial role in substantially For example, the developing world lowering emissions from coal in will inevitably use its massive coal the decades to come. For many reserves to generate energy, but promising technologies, a new carbon capture and storage medium to long– term view of the (CCS) technologies will not only value of investments is needed. help cut emissions but also mean Other positive options are re- profits for the companies who forestation, combined heat and successfully develop and market power plants, biomass and other their solutions. And cleaner renewables such as wave, wind electricity and transport are two of and tidal power. the most critical issues. To promote these solutions, we Reducing emissions by 80% by don’t just need money and 2050 in the UK may seem an technological innovation, but also impossible challenge, but Bed- behavioural changes, said Bed- dington is confident we can reach dington, helped by incentives. our targets by using smart science Carbon trading may work at a and technology, especially if there national level, but individuals are strong international agree- need more persuasion. ments. Increasing food production by 50 Beddington compared a range of per cent in the next 30 years, at solutions in terms of cost- the same time as reducing benefits, suggesting that some agricultural energy and water technologies and policies are consumption and managing more cost-effective at reducing pesticides and fertilisers more emissions than others. For sparingly, may seem impossible, example, better home insulation but there are grounds for hope. would be the cheapest and Grain reserves are so low that our highest-impact solution, since total reserves are literally at sea at households alone contribute any given moment. But if we about 45% to total emissions. could eliminate crop losses and Nuclear energy is another “no other wastage through the food brainer” for Beddington, who chain, food production and food described it as “break even” in security could increase substan- terms of return on investment, tially, even on less land with fewer while other options such as resources. At the same time, sugarcane biofuels generate genetically modified crops he saw savings. CCS is still an unproven as another key technology option solution which appears more with the potential to make a significant contribution.

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Similarly, better water manage- Dwelling for a moment on a more ment like recycling “grey water” administrative aspect of his role, and improving irrigation using Beddington revealed that every new technologies (including government department has a nanotechnology) may mitigate the chief scientific advisor, with the worst effects of future shortages. exception of the Treasury. Some ideas like “fertilising” Just as with the changing eco- clouds and giant sun shades nomic climate however, there are orbiting the Earth may seem like no quick fixes with science. Asked pie in the sky, but Beddington has about birth control, for example, great hopes for fusion power and Beddington described how rapid other breakthrough concepts such changes in population can have a as growing algae to increase negative effect on an economy – absorption of carbon dioxide. while many religions oppose He saw an important role too for contraception completely. Rather climate models, to improve than legislating for the bedroom, progressively our understanding societies are better off educating of future climates. He noted at the women, said Beddington. When same time the difficulties in it comes to climate change and interpreting such models, which other global problems, what we are inherently chaotic, Beddington need is a much more holistic explained. Even tiny changes in approach, including better inputs can lead to dramatic communication and engagement variations in results. The models with people. also currently leave “major Finally, asked if it would be uncertainties”, including potential “madness” to reduce our invest- impacts on monsoons and El Nino ment in science and technology, phenomena. despite the financial constraints of the credit crunch, Beddington answered resoundingly: “Yes!”

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UK–Taiwan Workshop on Tidal Current Energy Organised with the National Science Council of Taiwan, in cooperation with the University of Edinburgh 24 February 2009

Islands linked by science resources, with biodirectional The UK and Taiwan may be islands tidal currents in the Irish Sea, on opposite sides of the planet, the Pentland Firth and around but the workshop on tidal current Orkney, where projects are energy highlighted how much already underway, including they have in common in terms of the world’s first twin-rotor the energy challenges they both tidal current turbine – SeaGen. face, their renewable resources 3. Both are also concerned about and the science required to the environmental impact of develop commercial solutions. developing renewable resourc- And ultimately, this may lead to es, and are working hard to ‘powerful’ partnerships between ensure that we not only have the two, involving industry as well greater knowledge of long- as academic researchers. term effects but also minimise Several themes emerged during potential damage. the workshop to emphasise these 4. Within the UK and Taiwan, common interests: partnerships are key to the 1. As well as the need to develop success of renewable energy renewable sources of energy, projects, because they tend to while reducing emissions and be multi-disciplinary and dependence on carbon-based require close cooperation fuels, both the UK and Taiwan between so many different have enormous resources interested parties, including around them – particularly the government, the general power of the sea. public, universities and business. 2. In Taiwan, scientists are focusing on a phenomenon 5. Similarly, international partner- called Kuroshio – an ocean ships will help to accelerate circulating current which runs progress at national and in one direction up the east global levels by sharing the coast of Taiwan, capable of results of our experience and producing 60GW of power. In avoiding duplication of effort. the UK, we have similar Even though the UK and Taiwan are surrounded by water, when it

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comes to solving our energy practical options, and nor is hydro problems, neither can afford to be power, due to geographical and an island, and the workshop was weather conditions, while nuclear a powerful demonstration of this, energy currently provides only as well as a great demonstration eight per cent of the total. that everyone involved was willing Taiwan is also a major industrial to share ideas and form strategic player, and, as a result, its green- partnerships – and friendships house gas emissions make it which the organisers hope to number 22 in the world in volume renew in the very near future. terms (one per cent of total WORKSHOP PAPERS emissions) and Number 18 in Energy Research and the emissions per capita, growing Kuroshio Power Plant Project faster than most others at a rate of five per cent a year. Clean coal, Professor Chen Falin, Institute carbon capture and gasification of Applied Mechanics, National will be major priorities in coming Taiwan University years, spending £4 billion to Professor Chen set the scene for replace all 18 coal-fired power the workshop by mapping out the plants over the next 20 years, at energy challenges faced by the same time as developing the Taiwan, then describing plans to nuclear sector (if there is political tap the Kuroshio – an ocean backing) and boosting the current which runs up the east renewables sector. coast of Taiwan which could Professor Chen said that Taiwan provide 60GW of power, using will face a huge energy problem in the next generation of turbines. the future if it does not act now, He also revealed that Taiwan’s and that is why the National National Science Council will Energy Program will focus on launch a new National Energy three major issues: Program this summer, investing about £100 million a year in 1. energy security academic research and industrial 2. greenhouse gas reduction projects over the next five years. 3. development of a new energy According to Professor Chen, industry Taiwan’s “inconvenient truth” is As part of this programme, Taiwan that an island one eighth of the also recognises the need to work size of the UK with a population with international partners to of 23 million people relies almost develop its renewables sector, entirely on imported energy, in including photovoltaic cells, wind particular oil, coal and gas. Wind power, biofuels and LED. It is and solar energy are simply not already successful in the photo-

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voltaic industry, with 30 manufac- need to invest in manufacturing,” turers (number four in the world) said Professor Chen, “and we are and LED lighting (number two in looking for international technol- the world). Biofuels are now a ogies, including new mooring and “hot issue,” said Professor Chen, anchoring systems.” but Taiwan is relatively new to Marine Energy Research and wind turbines, with a capacity of Development in the UK 347MW. Professor Robin Wallace, The Kuroshio Project is potentially Institute for Energy Systems, the most important part of the University of Edinburgh equation, however – and also the Professor Wallace provided the greatest technological challenge. British perspective on marine Scientists have already identified energy, focusing on the R&D the best location for a power environment in the UK, discussing plant, in a 100km-wide stretch of recent progress with new technol- water near the east coast of ogies and infrastructure, the Taiwan, which is not just easier to research challenges and opportu- access but also more reliable in nities for collaboration. terms of predictable flow. Even with a tidal flow of only two He recognised and applauded the metres per second, however, the significant progress in the sector, “Black Current” has 100 times noting that in the last five years more power than the Amazon and several technologies had complet- could provide Taiwan with 60GW ed the journey “from artist’s of energy – more than it uses impressions to the real thing” – today. deploying devices at sea. For example, he described the Scientists have already started Wavegen LIMPET, an oscillating surveying the area with a view to water-column shoreline wave building new power plants and energy converter deployed on the installing turbines, exploring the island of Islay, and plans for a environmental risks and archaeo- 4MW offshore breakwater device. logical implications, as well as Other technologies highlighted by likely costs. Professor Wallace included the One problem is that most existing Ocean Power Technology power tidal current turbines are designed buoys, the Pelamis Wave Power for shallow waters, and the wave energy converter (deployed turbines required are still artist’s in Portugal and UK waters), the impressions. The design of the Open Hydro tidal current turbine turbines will therefore be a critical in Orkney and MCT’s SeaGen factor – with each one capable of project (described in detail later in generating 2MW of power. “We the workshop).

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These new wave and tidal-current deployment. Technology evolution generators are full-scale proto- and learning by doing generally types with generators plugged reduces costs as volume deploy- into the national grid, demon- ment increases, but sometimes strating the UK’s achievements in there can be a challenging research and development activity, funding gap in the journey to device construction, open sea commercialisation – what Profes- testing and deployment – and sor Wallace called the “valley of actual power production from the death.” sea. Professor Wallace then talked Like Taiwan, said Professor about the world-class research Wallace, the UK faces an “incon- and development going on in venient truth,” including the fact many universities; some of them that most population centres were part of the SuperGen Marine established above the coalfields in Energy Research Consortium. He the south, with the electricity also highlighted the 1/10th scale supply network following the east tidal test facility at NaREC and the coast, while the greatest potential EMEC wave and tidal test sites on resources are found in the north Orkney. and the west – abundant wind Collaboration is key to success, and marine energy. said Professor Wallace, and many To exploit its rich marine resources energy research programmes in and help solve its energy prob- the UK are collaborative efforts, lems, said Professor Wallace, the with £200 million invested in UK needs to proceed with “a sustainable power generation joined-up campaign of develop- projects involving 14 consortia, ment and deployment and with 38 academic and 80 indus- strategic and prudent investment trial partners. The Energy in the network, to ensure that Technology Partnership (ETP) is good ideas are translated into another example of “outward- real-world solutions, not only facing collaboration,” he added, taking account of the technical by pooling the resources of 250 challenges and constraints but academics and 600 researchers in also the economic realities. It’s a Scottish universities – the biggest long way from dreams to deploy- partnership of its kind in Europe. ment, and important to learn from There are many research challeng- experience”, he added. Above all, es, said Professor Wallace, said Professor Wallace, it’s including the development of important to ensure continuity of better testing facilities, increasing funding for winning ideas and the size and number of devices technologies from concept to and moving into deeper water

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farther offshore, but there are also With a staff of 66 researchers, many exciting opportunities for including 17 with PhDs, TORI will collaboration as the industry also look at seismic activity and evolves in the next few years into the ecology of the ocean, map- second- and third-generation ping the habitats and distribution solutions. of deep-sea organisms, as well as Establishment of a CODAR studying storm surges, coastal System to monitor Ocean erosion and the movement of Surface Currents around sediments, coral reefs, water Taiwan. Dr Yang Wen-chang, quality and atmospheric condi- National Applied Research tions. Laboratories The CODAR real-time observation If Taiwan is going to take full equipment includes site data advantage of its marine energy acquisition systems plus transmit- resources, it is vital to understand ter and receiver, with a range of as much as possible about the 220km. The ultimate aim is to ocean which surrounds it, and Dr cover an area approximately twice Yang’s organisation will play a key as big as Taiwan itself with a role in that process, in the process network of intelligent buoys, and helping in the drive towards installation is scheduled for sustainable development and completion in 2011. better understanding of the full Tidal Current Characterisation effects of climate change. Professor Ian Bryden, Institute Set up last year, the Taiwan Ocean for Energy Systems, University Research Institute (TORI) is of Edinburgh carrying out a four-year project to Professor Bryden started by monitor the Western Pacific using declaring that tidal currents are a a CODAR system and a fleet of mechanistic process that is well research vessels to establish a understood and relatively easy to comprehensive database and mimic, using computers and wave information network, including tanks. Tides are also easy to hydrographic, geological, geo- predict because they are deter- physical and biological data, etc. mined by the push and pull of the It will also develop new ocean Solar System. He also explained exploration technology, including that the North Sea is like a semi- deep-sea ROVs (remotely operated enclosed basin, and that tides vehicles) and has commissioned a produce kinetic energy in a similar new 2,700-ton research vessel fashion to waves or wind. To tap expected to be operational in this power, we need the right 2012. coastal topography, but many countries have accessible “hot

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spots” where this can be found, is better not to interfere too much including the Pentland Firth in with nature or there may be north– east Scotland, where tidal undesirable effects on the currents can reach speeds of up to environment. six metres per second. Even Current Developments in though the hot spots move Taiwan Ocean and Coastal around in the Firth, there are Engineering. Kung Cheng-Shan, enough stable locations where Senior Vice-President, Sinotech energy capture is a practical Engineering Consultant Ltd option, and a channel roughly Dr Kung described a number of 1,000 metres wide by 40 metres marine and coastal projects in deep is capable of producing Taiwan, including five harbour enough electricity to power large development schemes, modeling cities such as Glasgow or Edin- Typhoon Wave and storm surge burgh. analysis. He also talked about how After showing a “scary” film of Taiwan exploited its deep-sea the tide in the Pentland Firth resources, tapping water from moving at less than two metres 300 to 1,000 metres under the per second, to illustrate the huge sea surface for use in cooling amounts of energy available even processes, as well as for drinking, in relative calm, Professor Bryden aquaculture and mineral extrac- then explained that kinetic energy tion. He then described how is only part of the story. Friction Taiwan has established its first and potential changes in the sea offshore wind farm project, and surface level can produce twice as has learned from UK experience much power as tidal currents. The and adapted that to local condi- extraction of energy from a tidal tions (such as typhoon and flow also alters the underlying earthquake). The jacket-type hydraulic nature of the flow, and foundation will be the most this may affect the environment, suitable for future projects. he added. Taiwan is also seeking to achieve Professor Bryden then explained the right balance between nature that if we extract 25 per cent of and human activities, said Dr the kinetic flux in a current, the Kung, monitoring the effects of energy in the current actually offshore industrial estates as well increases rather than decreases, as trying to design the most but he also cautioned that there is suitable dykes to protect the an absolute limit on the amount coastline without damaging its of energy that can be extracted, appearance. based on the laws of physics, and that because tides are turbulent, it

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SeaGen – Moving Tidal Turbines MCT, said Fraenkel, has deployed into Deeper Waters. Professor three of the five tidal turbines Peter Fraenkel, Marine Current now being tested in the UK, with Turbines (MCT) output ranging from 300kW to One of the highlights of the 1MW. He also said that MCT was workshop was the talk by Peter the first company to achieve Fraenkel describing the develop- commercial viability, with SeaGen’s ment of SeaGen, “the largest twin 16-metre-diameter turbines rotating device in the sea,” which producing up to 1.2MW of power the delegation visited later in the – and strong enough to carry week, in Northern Ireland. three double-decker buses. Early versions developed by MCT, such Warning of the risks of “getting as the world’s first tidal current into deep water,” Fraenkel started turbine (deployed in Loch Linnhe by outlining his four conditions in 1994) which produced 15kW, for marine energy projects: or the more recent Seaflow 1. scale – the device should be (deployed in 2003), with a rated able to generate at least 1MW power of 300kW, were experimen- to be economic tal prototypes. 2. access – it should be close to Fraenkel then described the land so it is easy to service installation of SeaGen in 3. reliability – to minimise the Strangford Lough, including the need for repairs/intervention design of a new “Quadropod” – a 4. life – it should last for several temporary platform used for decades construction. Even though SeaGen was up to full power by Then having outlined these December last year, Fraenkel said conditions, he stated that “few that it would be another year or technology developers are two before MCT would have a anywhere near to meeting these reliable system. criteria.” As well as power output, MCT’s Moving on to the technology investment has accelerated over itself, Fraenkel then said that the the years, rising from about design of the rotors was not the £350,000 from 1992 to 1995 to big challenge. The simple rule is £3.4 million in Seaflow and over to use the least amount of £20 million in SeaGen. The next material over the greatest area. step for MCT will be to deploy an When it comes to location, he array of turbines in the Irish Sea by added, “the seabed is not the 2011, capable of generating place to go,” because 75 per cent 10MW, and this will need a of the energy is found in the top further investment of about £52 50 per cent of the water column.

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million, said Fraenkel. Above all, Dr Johnstone then explained how he added, MCT has been able to the design had evolved from learn so much from its experience research into wind turbines. What that the risks should be less and makes tidal current turbines the costs should be lower – different, however, is that they ultimately leading to a lower cost operate in a very different environ- per megawatt than wind turbines. ment, and if they could float in Looking to the future, Fraenkel the water, tethered to a single- said that second-generation point mooring, this would cut designs will need more reliable roughly 40 per cent of the cost – power units, and will have to be the cost of the solid structure capable of scaling up and down, usually used as foundation (like with 24-metre-diameter rotors the SeaGen). maximum size, deployed in arrays The other advantages of contra- with a surface area of 1,5000 rotation are a reduction in torque square metres, as compared to (“zero-reactive torque”), which SeaGen’s 400 square metres. He makes the turbine more stable, a also talked about deploying longer lifetime, greater power- horizontal arrays, incorporating six capture area, and a reduction in rotors, and floating vertical arrays, the turbulent flow downstream of submerged in deep waters, which the rotors. In addition, because it could be the solution for the is possible to pack more into any Kuroshio Power Plant Project in given area, you don’t need bigger Taiwan. rotor blades to increase power A Contra-Rotating Marine output – simply more rotors. Current Turbine. Dr Cameron According to Dr Johnstone, the Johnstone, Energy Systems “unique selling points” of contra- Research Unit, University of rotation are higher power output, Strathclyde reduced environmental impact, Following the discussions of lower maintenance costs and no rotors and mooring systems, Dr need to construct expensive Johnstone described his “revolu- seabed foundations. Add these tionary” design for a together, and the new design fits second-generation tidal current the requirement for deep-sea turbine which would not need a deployment, with the added solid structure for support in the bonus of reduced system and water, thanks to the use of two operational costs. The new device dissimilar rotors (one three-blade also generates power using a and one four-blade) which turn in direct-drive alternator, which opposite directions, thus counter- eliminates the need for a gearbox, balancing each other and while the open-to-water design stabilising the turbine. enables natural cooling, at the 109 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

same time as eliminating the need marine energy projects but also to for complex seals to protect the establish present conditions, to power equipment. help with plans for sewage The development of the prototype treatment, industrial pollution, has already moved on from 1/ aquaculture and agricultural run- 30th-scale testing to 1/7th-scale off. testing to sea trials in the west of After explaining that Taiwan has Scotland (Kyles of Bute and Islay). 118 rivers and streams, and that The results of these trials have 24 of them provide about 85 per confirmed the low deployment cent of the water supply, Professor and maintenance costs (six Wen then outlined the different minutes to deploy and eight conditions affecting the estuaries minutes to recover) and proved and coastal waters of Taiwan, not the viability of single-point just because of rapid industrialisa- mooring. The flexibility of tion and urbanisation but also configuration for different depths because of its sub-tropical climate and resistance to marine growth and historical problems with also make it suitable for deep-sea waste-water treatment. Professor deployment in a wide range of Wen also revealed that despite climates. covering only 0.024 per cent of Geochemical Dynamics and the surface of the planet, Taiwan Anthropogenic Impacts of produces 1.9 per cent of estimat- Estuarine, Coastal ed global sediment discharge. and Shelf Waters of Taiwan. And to illustrate the scale of the Professor Wen Liang-Saw, problems it faces, it is only today Institute of Oceanography, that the capital city, Taipei, has National Taiwan University adequate sewage facilities – a few years ago, less than 60 per cent of To underscore Taiwan’s concerns households had proper sewage about environmental impact, and even very recently, 10 per cent Professor Wen described his were still without modern facili- comprehensive study (from 2000 ties. According to Professor Wen, to 2003) of the estuaries and old industries also cause problems coastal waters surrounding – with disused outlet pipes buried Taiwan. The focus of his study was from view still responsible for on water quality and the balance some degree of pollution. of nutrients found in the water, analysing how the land interacts Professor Wen’s study covered a with the ocean. The results of the number of factors, including study have widespread implica- water quality, precipitation, water tions, not just when it comes to temperature, salinity, particulates, measuring the impact of future turbidity and dissolved oxygen,

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phosphates, carbon dioxide, conservation interest and several nitrogen, copper and silver. One agencies are concerned about the of the findings was that house- danger to wildlife posed by the hold pollution is a more pressing construction of SeaGen and its problem than industrial effluents, giant rotors. with traces of silver (used in The environmental monitoring domestic disinfectant) betraying programme managed by Queen’s the scale of the problem. Profes- University Belfast and St Andrews sor Wen is confident, however, University’s Sea Mammal Research that the silver pollution has a Unit was not just designed to negligible global impact. satisfy the Northern Ireland As a result of the study, the Environmental Agency (NIEA) and government has closed down the the Maritime & Coastguard pig farms on the banks of the Agency (MCA), but also European river, due to excess copper flowing agencies, the general public – and into the water from the cleaning MCT itself. As well as praising agents used on the pig farms. MCT for being so willing to Measuring the effects of sewage support the programme, Dr has also driven policy changes, Savidge also stressed that it was and over the last two years, important to get input from all nitrogen levels have decreased by stakeholders, to avoid missing 50 per cent. anyone out who may raise a “Economic growth over the last concern, especially considering 50 years has brought prosperity the damage which could be and rapid development,” Profes- caused by media images of sor Wen concluded. “This had damage to wildlife. He also serious environmental conse- pointed out that there were risks quences – and now we are trying for MCT, since one of the condi- to fix it.” tions of the programme was that in the event of a “significant Environmental Monitoring in environmental impact,” the Strangford Narrows. Dr Gra- turbine could still be shut down. ham Savidge, Queen’s By welcoming the programme, University Belfast however, MCT was clearing the After describing the advantages of way for future projects by estab- Strangford Narrows for tapping lishing the environmental facts tidal current energy, such as tides right from the start, rather than of four metres per second, easy waiting for something to happen access from land and good and dealing with it after the event. shelter, Dr Savidge then explained “This will soften the pressure on the possible down side – the developers,” said Dr Savidge. lough (lake) is an area of major

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The study looked at the impact on The divers also took a lot of risks common harbour seals, cetaceans, to examine the benthos, Dr birds and benthos (seabed Savidge explained, in their creatures such as hydroid turf and attempts to capture images of life sponges), including tagging seals on the seabed, in the 10-minute with GPS tracking devices, visual calm between fast-moving, observation, acoustic monitoring turbulent tides. of porpoises and sonar to detect The results so far indicate some approaching creatures in the degree of impact but no signifi- water, which could even be used cant damage. Benthic surveys to shut down the turbines show little change. Seabird diving automatically (in about four has increased in the wake of the seconds). Seals are intelligent and turbines, but no major changes inquisitive animals, said Dr have been noticed in activity Savidge, but little is known about patterns. Porpoise activity has their ability for close avoidance of reduced in the area near the hazards, so the researchers went turbines, but SeaGen is already to great lengths to minimise risks becoming part of the landscape. to the seals at the same time as Wave and Typhoon Activity in closely observing their move- the Western Pacific. Professor ments. Kao Chia-Chuen, National The researchers also monitored Cheng-Kung University changes in the flow pattern of the The Kuroshio is a natural phe- Narrows to measure the impact of nomenon with the potential to the turbines on currents. power the whole of Taiwan, but The data gathered covers the two what is provided by nature with years before SeaGen was con- one hand is taken away with structed and the two years another. The island is located in following deployment. The an area of sometimes spectacular objective is to establish the weather conditions which could environmental impact on factors play havoc with future energy such as long-term population and projects, and mean that the short-term behaviour of wildlife. design of any turbines will have to In the process, said Dr Savidge, be extra strong to survive. the researchers learned more Taiwan is in the firing line for about seals than expected, several typhoons a year and some including the discovery that they of the waves observed in coastal behaved more individually (in waters are as large as Tsunamis, some cases swimming long- according to Professor Kao, whose distance, alone) and did not work involves measuring waves always stay in the Narrows in and other oceanic phenomena groups.

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using a network of 12 solar- and the cost of electricity over the powered wireless buoys. long term. His basic conclusion In addition to in situ observation was that the Minas Passage in and analysing the data produced Nova Scotia has the greatest by the buoys, Professor Kao’s potential to generate power. Tidal department uses numerical current energy is reliable and modelling and remote sensing to predictable, said Mr Chang, but keep a close watch on the ocean – his study was also concerned with particularly tides, waves, winds, the large variations in power over pressure and surface currents. The the course of a day, and the critical data is provided to a number of gap at certain times between agencies, including the marine power generation and demand. weather bureau, the water Wake Effects of Tidal Current resource agency and the tourism Turbines. Matthew Topper, PhD office. During major storms or Student, University of Edin- typhoons, the equipment is burgh capable of taking measurements Just when you thought that you every minute, to avoid missing any understood something about large waves, using X-band radar tidal currents, along comes Mr to monitor the sea state. And his Topper with his mathematical equipment has monitored waves theories about the complex as high as 30 metres, with the interaction between the surface of highest recorded wave in October the ocean and the turbulence 2007. created in the wake of turbines – A Review of the Tidal Current or “decomposing power curve Power Plant of the US. Chang free-surface effects.” This is Sen-Tsun, PhD Student, Nation- important, because it helps to al Taiwan University understand why power genera- Mr Chang described his study of tion is so variable with full-scale the various tidal current energy tidal current turbines, and the projects underway in North problem for Mr Topper is that the America, ranging from Alaska all numerical models used to analyse the way to Nova Scotia, via San these highly complex effects are Francisco’s Golden Gate. Taking not good enough – one model into account a number of factors may be very good at understand- such as local topography, cable ing surface dynamics while the installation, structural elements, other may be very good at grid connections and the design analysing turbulence, but neither of the turbines themselves, Mr can cope very well with the Chang’s research was designed to interaction between them. “There compare the cost of installation is more than one type of physics

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going on at the same time,” Mr model free-surface problems, Topper explained, describing the studying the flow and interac- fact that a wind turbine produces tions, but said we don’t know a steady wake while a tidal turbine much about the turbulence effects produces an unsteady wake in high-energy tidal channels because it interacts with the free- which flow at a rate of three moving surface (i.e. waves in the metres per second, such as the water). Mr Topper uses the Pentland Firth and Strangford boundary element method to Narrows.

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Public Discussion Forum and Full-Day Conference Alcohol – Our Favourite Drug: from Chemistry to Culture 26 and 27 February 2009

Introduction/Summary but to those around him or her. As the Scottish Government They learned about how heavy prepared to publish its far- drinking has a disproportionate reaching alcohol strategy, experts effect on poorer populations, from around the world gathered both at our country level and in Edinburgh to take part in two worldwide, and heard a call for a events to discuss what the RSE global framework convention for calls ‘our favourite drug’. alcohol policy. On Thursday evening, Lord Wilson On the more scientific side, of Tillyorn, President of the RSE, advances in imaging and other set the scene for the events by techniques are helping to improve talking about Scotland’s ‘love- our understanding of addiction – hate’ relationship with alcohol. and hence leading to new modes of treatment and prevention. Broadly, the speakers covered two Those present were informed main areas: the science of addic- about the role of genetics and the tion, including genetic complex interplay with environ- components and, secondly, the ment and lifestyle factors and role of alcohol in our culture. Over found out at first hand about the the two days, participants heard huge burden of alcohol-related about young ‘determined drink- disease on our health services, ers’ in Manchester and the habits which is costing us all – individu- of people in urban and rural als, families and societies – so Scotland, many of whom are dearly. drinking far too much but think that they don’t have a problem. The events were supported by the The audience was also told of new Alcohol Education and Research research from Australia which has Council (AERC) and Scottish started to map the social costs of Health Action on Alcohol Prob- drinking – not just to the drinker lems (SHAAP)

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Thursday 26 February have given its name to a drink Public Discussion Forum (Scotch). Scotland has a drinking problem – as evidenced by a visit The public discussion forum heard to any town or city centre on a in particular from three of the Friday or Saturday night. But are speakers who were also to give we passive victims, he asked, or presentations at Friday’s full-day can we do something about it? conference. Professor Anne Lingford- In summary, Professor Anne Hughes, Professor of Addiction Lingford-Hughes spoke of the Biology, Imperial College, biology of addiction, and de- London. scribed how advances in scanning of brain function and chemistry, As an addictions biologist and a for example, are improving our psychiatrist who, until recently, understanding of what alcohol is was treating addicted patients in doing in the brain, and how this is Bristol, Professor Lingford-Hughes leading to new treatments. sees the value in learning more about the effects alcohol has on Dr Fiona Measham sounded a the brain. Alcohol is well-known note of optimism, saying that the to rot the brain, but modern brain alcoholic excess of the last 15 imaging techniques such as PET years in particular may be levelling and MRI are showing us more off, (although figures reported specifically how the substance acts were only for England), but gave a on the brain. valuable insight into the reasons why alcohol consumption has For example, PET scans show us been increasing for the last half that alcohol acts on different century. pathways, which may lead to clues about the best form of treatment, Professor Robin Room outlined prevention and how to stop research which showed the relapse. This includes the use of indirect cost of alcohol – ‘passive new and existing drugs and drinking’ – in its effects on people treatments, some of which might other than the drinker, including replicate the desired effects of families and society in general. alcohol, but less harmfully, while The discussion was chaired by Dr others may help repair the Bruce Ritson, Chairman of damage already caused by the Scottish Health Action on Alcohol drug. For example, for people who Problems (SHAAP). He asked like the endorphin rush of whether there is something alcohol, exercise might be an ‘special’ about Scotland and its effective substitute. relationship to alcohol – after all, She showed slides which indicat- it is possibly the only country to ed that even where the brain has

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been damaged by alcohol, some Professor Room’s team carried out of the damage can be reversed by a national phone survey, which a period of abstinence. In the involved interviewing 2,649 addicted drinker withdrawal from people. This found that a signifi- alcohol also carries health risks, cant number (17 per cent) knew a however. heavy drinker and had been She also sounded a warning negatively affected. The drinkers about drinking in young people. included family members and co- Because the adolescent brain is workers. A small amount of those still forming, alcohol damage at questioned had suffered sexual or that stage might well ‘hard-wire’ other assault and children had damage into the brain, which also been mistreated by heavy could last for the rest of a teenag- drinkers. The research revealed er’s life. that there was a significant amount of social harm – two More details on Professor Ling- thirds said a drinker had disrupted ford-Hughes’s work can be found a social occasion such as Christ- in the conference report below. mas – and also community harm. Professor Robin Room, Director, For example, 13 per cent of those Centre for Alcohol Policy affected by the latter had called Research, Australia the police. Usually, the cost of alcohol is Australia is a country not unlike calculated in terms of the individ- Scotland, and he said that these ual – we’re told how much money other costs should be factored in it costs to treat alcohol-related when drawing up alcohol policy – health problems and the money in much the same way as the costs lost to the economy because the of passive smoking had been a drinker does not turn up for work. driver for change. That’s not the whole story, Dr Fiona Measham, Senior however. Professor Room de- Lecturer in Criminology, Lancas- scribed research carried out in ter University Australia looking at the people around the drinker and the effects Dr Measham sounded a note of that a person’s drinking has on optimism in the title of her talk, them. This, he says, gives a wider The Turning Tides of Intoxication. picture of social costs of alcohol. She put alcohol consumption in ‘Passive drinking’ can affect an historical context – for exam- people around the drinker in a ple, although our drinking has variety of ways. This can range been rising in the last 50 years, it from someone being disturbed by has not reached the highs of the rowdy behaviour to becoming a Victorian era. And although victim of a drunken assault. consumption in the under-16s has

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doubled in recent years, it appears and treatment. From the floor, Dr to be levelling off now, giving Francesca Ducci explained that some hope that the tide may be although there is no single turning again. alcoholic gene, there was a She described some of the genetic component in addiction. reasons for what she called the “It’s not a yes–no phenomenon, ‘carnival’ of excess in the last 15 but some people are more likely years. New types of drinkers – to develop disease,” she said, including women and young adding that it is a complex professionals – are attracted by interplay between genetics, new-style pubs and bars. New, environment and lifestyle factors. sweeter, alcopop-type drinks have Asked about a possible north– drawn in new drinkers and now south divide in drinking habits have a significant market share. and attitudes, at a global level, the The way we drink is changing, panel agreed that even within with men and women of the same Europe there are differences, with age drinking together, rather than the Protestant northern countries in mixed age, same sex groups. tending towards a weekday Getting drunk is seen as the aim restraint/weekend excess model on a night out, usually at week- while Mediterranean countries ends – with the notion that young tend to drink a little wine with people in particular feel they meals daily. But Dr Measham and ‘deserve’ it after a hard week at Professor Room said this is work. As well as the ‘pull’ factors changing, with young people in drawing people to the pub, there France, for example, choosing to are also the ‘push’ factors getting drink beer and condemning red them out of the home. There’s a wine as something drunk by trend of extended adolescence, ‘alcoholics or their parents’. she said, with young people One questioner asked why alcohol staying at home with their parents isn’t banned, when other drugs for longer. Where else is there to are criminalised. Professor Room go but the pub? For more detail responded that alcohol is part of on Dr Measham’s work, see the our lives. While smoking is now conference presentation report essentially a poor people’s habit, below. drinking is familiar to newspaper Questions/Discussion editors, politicians and profes- Questions ranged from whether sionals. Dr Measham pointed out there is a gene for alcohol that drugs such as opium used to addiction to habits and perspec- be available legally but suggested tives in different parts of the that the historic power of the world – on drinking, law-making alcohol industry may have contrib-

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uted to keeping it legal. Professor he said. “The harm to health Lingford-Hughes said that society caused by alcohol-related disease endorses some risks, but not is ‘shocking’” he said – adding others – for example, horse-riding. that there was no doubt that One student in the audience something needs to be done. asked about teenage drinking, Session 1: Science saying that in his experience the Professor Anne Lingford- students who get wild and drink Hughes, Professor of Addiction too much when they come to Biology, Imperial College, university are those who have London previously had no experience of Brain Mechanisms of Intoxica- alcohol. Dr Measham said that the tion, Dependence and Damage American students at her universi- ty, unable to buy drink until they Understanding the biology of are 21 at home, “think it is alcohol addiction helps us treat Christmas’” when they come to and prevent it, says Professor the UK. Lingford-Hughes. Recent advances in imaging are helping us see The topical issue of a doctor who more clearly how alcohol affects reportedly ‘cured’ himself of the brain. We know that it is a alcoholism by taking a muscle- ‘rich’ drug targeting many relaxant was also raised. Professor different chemical systems in the Lingford-Hughes said she had brain and we know that it rots the used the muscle-relaxant baclofen brain, but now we are able to see in treatment – and stressed that the specific vulnerable areas of the there were more pharmaceutical brain it affects. Recent advances, products available which might for example, in PET (position prove useful once they had been emission tomography) and MRI fully evaluated. scanning, allow us to get a fuller Friday 27 February picture of how alcohol acts on the Conference brain. Chairman’s Introduction In her talk, Professor Lingford- Professor Harry Burns, Chief Hughes outlined some of the Medical Officer, Scottish Gov- pathways activated by alcohol and ernment other drugs of abuse. For exam- ple, drugs, including alcohol and Professor Burns compared alcohol cocaine, increase the concentra- today with tobacco 10– 20 years tions of the ‘pleasure’ chemical ago. “Tobacco used to be our dopamine. This chemical is favourite drug, but we’ve left released through what you might smoking behind and have moved call ‘natural’ pleasures, but also into an era of alcohol addiction”, mediates the ‘high’ of drugs, she

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said. Addicts hit the system so Dr Francesca Ducci, Institute of hard that it stops working so well, Psychiatry, King’s College, she said, which can lead to taking London more of a drug to try to get the Genetics of Addiction same effect. Addictions can be inherited and The dopamine system is modulat- about half a person’s vulnerability ed by other neurotransmitters, is genetic, said Dr Ducci, but it’s a and they might be targets for complex disease and no single possible treatments. For example, gene can be blamed. There is the GABA system is the brain’s specific gene involvement, ‘brake’ on dopamine cell firing. however, with different genes Drugs which increase GABA levels implicated in different people. – such as the muscle relaxant In her talk, she described some baclofen – are increasingly being candidate genes where differenc- used to treat addiction in special- es make a carrier more likely to ist settings and trials in the develop alcoholism and related Europe have been promising. psychiatric illnesses. She focused Other brain systems – such as the on the monoamine oxidase A opioid receptors – also appear to (MAOA) enzyme, which appears to play a fundamental role in play an important role in the addiction and possibly craving, amount of serotonin (the ‘happi- again providing a useful pharma- ness’ chemical) in the brain. ceutical target. Drug treatments, People with a variation in the both new and existing, may help MAOA gene are more likely to treat addiction and prevent develop alcoholism and antisocial relapse. They may also help personality disorder. Environmen- mitigate some of the adverse tal factors are important too, and effects of alcohol addiction, such may interact with the genetic as memory loss and can therefore differences. For example, a study help to make it easier for those of women who had experienced trying to give up drinking to sexual abuse showed that those function in day-to-day life. with the MAOA variation were Although some damage caused to more likely to develop alcoholism the brain by alcohol will be and antisocial personality disor- repaired by abstinence, withdraw- der. The research findings suggest al in itself can be dangerous. that the gene influences sensitivity However, it’s an exciting time in to stress. addiction biology and treatment, The task now is to look for more with a greater understanding of genes which could in turn provide the mechanisms leading to new more targets for treatment. modes of treatment.

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Dr Alastair McGilchrist, Depart- rapid progression to cirrhosis. ment of Gastroenterology, Dr Graham described the current Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh; position in Scotland. While Dr Lesley Graham, Public chronic liver disease rates and Health, Information Services deaths from cirrhosis are falling in Division, NHS National Services most of Western Europe, Scotland Scotland has among the fastest growing Scotland’s Liver Disease Epi- rates in the world. Scotland’s demic: What’s the Story? chronic liver disease and cirrhosis Drs McGilchrist and Graham death rates among 45–64-year- spoke about what the former old men have increased called ‘an epidemic of liver disease dramatically in the last ten years of frightening proportions’. While and are twice as high as in Dr Graham explored the reasons England and Wales, with rates for behind this, Dr McGilchrist set the women in Scotland higher than scene by talking about liver those for men in England. While disease – and alcohol’s role in it. liver disease attacks all sectors of He showed how liver damage society and rates have risen across happens, comparing pictures of a all socio-economic groups, the healthy liver, with one which has rise has been more acute in the become infiltrated by fat, then most deprived, (with, for example, progressively through alcoholic men in the most deprived groups hepatitis to cirrhosis. The process 16 times more likely to die than can take years and can often be those in the most affluent groups) ‘silent’ or without serious symp- ,so contributing to health inequal- toms. With the complications of ities. She presented evidence to cirrhosis, the results could be liver show that the main driver of the failure or cancer. Alcohol is one of epidemic to date has been the three most common causes of alcohol. liver disease, the others being viral She also looked at the figures hepatitis (both B and C) and behind alcohol consumption. At obesity. He described the risk UK level, having fallen in the factors for alcoholic liver disease, beginning of the 20th Century, including how much is drunk, particularly during the two world what is drunk, how often and wars, it has more than doubled how – for example, risk increases since 1950, with a particularly if it is taken without food. noticeable increase since the early Individual susceptibility is also 1990s. Recent revised estimates important. Drinkers who have from the Scottish Health Survey other risk factors, such as diabetes (SHS) suggest that people are or obesity may have increased risk, drinking more than previously while hepatitis C leads to a more

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reported. For example, 40 per cent lead to a reduction in mortality of men and 33 per cent of women from liver disease, with a rise in are drinking twice the daily limits price being one of the most and almost two thirds are drink- effective ways of reducing con- ing over the daily benchmarks. sumption. An effective alcohol The picture could actually be even policy has to be multi-faceted and worse than this, as the SHS tends include targeted approaches as to be completed by healthier well. Hepatitis C and obesity also people, particularly so in deprived need to be tackled. areas. Evidence from work with Panel Discussion prisoners suggests that there is The speakers from the morning very heavy drinking in deprived session took part in a panel groups. Industry sales data also discussion. Issues raised included shows that Scotland is drinking the importance of co-factors, such almost two litres of pure alcohol as hepatitis C; the interplay per capita more than England and between genetics and environ- has the eighth highest consump- ment; and how soon effective new tion of pure alcohol in the world. drugs would be available. Other contributing factors to the Asked about whether alcohol high levels of liver disease in policies should be selective – ie, Scotland could include smoking targeted at individuals at most risk rates, which are higher in Scotland – or population-based (eg, than England, and the type of through increasing price), Profes- alcohol drunk – Scots drink more sor Lingford-Hughes said there spirits than English people, for was a debate to be had. Dr example. Graham said that brief interven- Wider environmental changes may tions are cost-effective and that also account for higher mortality both population-based and rates, such as the liberalisation of targeted approaches in combina- the licensing laws in Scotland in tion were most effective (as the 1970s and the increasing recommended by the World affordability of alcohol. She Health Organisation, WHO). considered whether Scotland has A member of the audience reached a ‘tipping point’ where a pointed out that targeted ap- small change in consumption had proaches tended to be more made a big difference in mortality, popular with the industry and then asked whether something with most governments, partly could be done to make a similar because they didn’t want to be change in a positive direction. seen as ‘nanny’. A reduction in population Asked about the availability of consumption of alcohol would specialist services and the possibil-

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ity of new drugs, Professor those who do are more likely to Lingford-Hughes said it was an drink heavily and suffer alcohol- exciting time with many potential related harm – compounded by treatments, but that it was a social deprivation and social complex process to decide what to exclusion. Bad policy – such as give and when. reducing taxes on alcohol – tends Session 2: Culture to result in everyone drinking more, but affects those in lower Chairman’s Introduction: Dr socioeconomic groups more. Magnus Linklater Good policy, on the other hand, is Dr Linklater said that drinking and likely to reduce negative alcohol- drunkenness had moved from related socio-economic being a private and furtive activity inequalities, he said. and state. Now they are not only The current economic crash, he done openly, but are actually said, could have good and bad celebrated. While it was appalling effects. It is potentially positive that town centres were seen as because it may reduce affordabili- ‘no-go’ areas on Friday and ty of alcohol so people may drink Saturday evenings, he said there less. It is potentially bad, because was a struggle to find the right changes in social dislocation and policy approach. Indeed, politi- cohesion may increase problem cians tended to veer between drinking. He said there was a need standing back from the problem for strengthened alcohol policy, and being interventionist. which reduces the affordability Dr Peter Anderson, Consultant and availability of alcohol. in Public Health and Alcohol At a European level, there are Policy, Ministry of Health, alcohol-related health inequalities Catalonia between eastern and western Alcohol, Inequalities and Health Europe and, in particular, between Dr Anderson focused on socioeco- the Baltic States and the rest of nomic inequalities and looked at Europe. This means there is a what alcohol meant for policies particular need for strong alcohol based on a single country, both policies in these areas – coupled Europe-wide and globally. For with dealing with issues of cross- each, he considered alcohol border trade (which has led to consumption, alcohol-related lower alcohol taxes). Globally, Dr deaths, the impact of bad policy Anderson pointed out that poorer and the potential impact of good countries are hit harder by a given policy. level or pattern of drinking than People in lower socioeconomic more affluent countries. This can groups are less likely to drink, but be due to a variety of factors – for

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instance, poor street lighting and has also observed the factors making drink driving incidents which have contributed to more likely and because poor increased consumption. For nutrition might lead to worse example, as well as various happy- outcomes in liver disease and have hour-type discounts, she found a role in communicable diseases one venue where free vodka is such as TB. Increasingly, he said, served for a specific period. She the alcohol burden will be has also asked young people dominated by the burden in low about their drinking as well as to middle-income countries. looking at the overall epidemio- He said there was a need for a logical evidence. global framework convention for She shared some of her findings alcohol policy and that action was at the conference, and speculated, needed to counteract the activity with some optimism, that we of the alcohol industry, particularly might be seeing the end of the in poorer countries. He gave the last 15 years of excess – the example of a government alcohol ‘carnival’ she called it – and said policy in sub-Saharan Africa, that while the rise in young which was industry-friendly and people’s drinking was levelling which actually turned out to have off, she was detecting that originated from industry. Effective drunkenness might be going out alcohol policy within and between of fashion. countries is likely to reduce First, however, she looked at the alcohol-related health inequali- factors leading to more drinking. ties, he concluded. This could be These include the ‘pull’ factors, needed even more in times of encouraging people to drink, such economic turmoil, where al- as new-style pubs attracting new though consumption might drinkers and drinks such as decrease, the potential for harm is alcopops. She also spoke about different. the environment and policies of Dr Fiona Measham, Senior pubs and clubs which encouraged Lecturer in Criminology, Lancas- drinking – such as no seats, the ter University availability of table service, the The Turning Tides of Intoxica- fashion for ‘shots’ (often un- tion measured) and the high price of soft drinks. Dr Measham has conducted research on the frontline – in the She also spoke about the ‘push’ pubs and clubs of Manchester. In factors – the period of extended so doing, she has witnessed the adolescence which means that environment in which people, young people live at home longer particularly young people, drink and want somewhere to go.

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While accepting that binge At the same time, when the media drinking is a problem, she said it portrays drinking problems it isn’t new, giving the example of concentrates on extremes, such as the 19th century gin shop. She drunken violence, which makes it also suggested that it is a particu- easier for many people to distance larly northern European Protestant themselves and not see their pattern of working hard during ‘normal’ way of drinking as a the week then ‘letting go’ at ‘problem’ – in a sense it is hidden weekends, in comparison to as an issue. traditional Mediterranean drink- The Institute of Social Marketing ing habits of a little wine each day at Stirling University carried out with meals. In the last 15 years some qualitative research which there has been normalisation of looked at drinking in both urban binge drinking – among young and rural settings and among the men and women – she said, and advantaged and disadvantaged also a normalisation of deter- populations. Researchers ques- mined drunkenness. She hopes tioned 172 people and found the tide is turning, however. high levels of consumption across Susan MacAskill, Institute for the board. Key findings were that Social Marketing, University of there is no single drinking Stirling and the Open Universi- behaviour; individuals can drink a ty lot without recognising a prob- Consumption Norms: Hidden lem, people have their own Problems, Complex Solutions ‘sensible’ drinking strategies and there is media and marketing It is acknowledged that alcohol awareness. People’s drinking consumption and alcohol-related habits change with age and with harm are increasing, but the life stages and motivations vary media, public and policy focus has too. For example, people can drink been on the young ‘binge’ to relax, to celebrate or even just drinker. Many people in Scotland to get drunk. are drinking too much, however, and that includes people from all She gave two examples: an age groups and social classes. affluent urban woman in the 40– 55 age group, who drinks every Marketing and media contribute day, adding up to 55.9 units per to the pervasiveness – and week. She did not realise she was normalisation – of drinking. The drinking so much. The other was a industry makes drinking easy and woman in the 18– 30 age group attractive and the media under- in a rural deprived household who lines its place in our lives – for can drink 40.75 units – in a single example by setting so much action night – but nothing the rest of the in soap operas around the pub. week.

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The research found high weekly level, including promoting consumption among affluent positive (sensible drinking) drinkers – many of whom drink options, addressing price and every day – and heavy episodic availability of alcohol and chal- drinking among poorer people. lenging current definitions of People mostly distanced them- problem drinking. Challenging selves from the totals recorded, cultural drinking norms and for example, saying it hadn’t been developing an environment a typical week and blaming supporting sensible drinking is ‘young people’ and ‘alcoholics’ for also important, she said. the ‘problem’. Self-perceived Panel Discussion ‘sensible’ drinking included being Questions covered issues includ- aware of personal limits and ing labelling, the possibility of ensuring plenty of time to recover ‘shock’ advertising and the risks to before going back to work. People an ageing population. While it were aware of the concept of was important to learn the lessons units, but they were felt to be from marketing, Ms MacAskill difficult and impractical to apply said there were no easy solutions. in a drinking session, and so were She was not particularly in favour easy to ignore. One quote from a of ‘shock’ pictures of diseased rural affluent man in the 31– 59 livers on wine bottles, but would age group was: “How many pints like to see more done to empha- is 20 units? Ten pints a week! I sise the positives of not drinking spill more than that!” too much – for example, weight She concluded that people may be control. Dr Measham said it was heavy drinkers but that they don’t easy to evade shock messages: for see themselves as such and think example, people sometimes use ‘others’ are the problem. There’s a stickers to cover warnings on need to reframe the problem so cigarette packets. Dr Measham that it connects with people and was questioned about her makes it harder for them to ‘optimism’ when the disease distance themselves. Multi-faceted burden in Scotland is far more approaches are needed as there is pessimistic, with alcohol-related no one Scottish drinking behav- death rates continuing to rise. She iour. She believes the lessons from said that while she is optimistic, marketing – including under- her feeling was based on work standing of target groups – need done in England and that in any to be learned. Action is needed at case drinking levels are still too an individual and population high.

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Summary Closing Talk with politicians in particular Professor Robin Room, Director, nervous of being accused of Centre for Alcohol Policy creating a nanny state. But there Research, Australian (this talk were dangers with targeted was supported by SHAAP) approaches too, including the ethical problems of how to select Choices for a Society in Reduc- and how to intervene. Govern- ing Drinking Problems ments need to pay attention to Professor Room described the evidence and then evaluate conference as a ‘rich day, with a policies so that others can learn rich tapestry of presentations and from them. discussions’. He offered a few Capturing people’s hearts and closing thoughts about the way getting them on board is also forward in Scotland and in the important – not giving the world generally. technocratic point of view only. Scotland, he said, had the poten- Community groups might help do tial to be bold with its proposed this, just as the actions of the new alcohol legislation, which temperance movement had far- would tackle pricing, marketing reaching effects which last to this and displays and the age at which day. people could buy alcohol. The rest This is a ‘fateful moment’ for of the world would be watching. Scotland, he said, and will be He said there were risks with watched in the rest of the UK and whole-population approaches, the broader world arena.

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The Gannochy Trust Innovation Award Prize Lecture Dr Colin Urquhart CEO, Dimensional Imaging Ltd 2 March 2009

Dr Colin Urquhart, winner of the type, is being used in diverse prestigious Gannochy Trust Award fields ranging from the medical for Innovation, which carries a and psychological to entertain- £50,000 prize, invited a captivated ment. RSE audience to don their 3D But it didn’t start out like that. In spectacles and view the revolu- an engaging lecture, Dr Urquhart tionary technology which is took the RSE audience through a making a big impact in facial whistle-stop tour of the history of surgery, orthodontics and even using stereo images to allow the entertainment industry. depth to be perceived, which was From the zombies in Hollywood first described by Charles Wheat- blockbuster 28 Weeks Later to stone in 1838. This work was then burns units, psychology labs and refined by Dr David Brewster in orthodontic practice, the technol- 1849, who invented the prism ogy of Dimensional Imaging Ltd is stereoscope and went on to making itself felt. The Scottish develop the technology further. company has sold its products to Dr Urquhart used this example to customers around the world and explain the difference between is continuing to develop new and invention and innovation. Innova- exciting technologies. tion is more about Chief Executive Officer, Dr Colin entrepreneurship, he believes, Urquhart, 2008 winner of the because it probably means Gannochy Trust Innovation Award introducing an invention to of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, market. While Wheatstone described how the company was invented the stereoscope, Brews- set up to exploit the technique of ter was the innovator. The passive stereo photogrammetry, Victorians realised they could take which is used to derive accurate, measurements from stereo high resolution, three-dimension- photographs – a process called al surface images from stereo photogrammetry. A century later, pairs of images captured by in the 1970s, neuroscientists standard digital cameras. The became interested in taking this company’s DI3D (TM) system, the further because they wanted to first commercial application of its understand how we perceive

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depth. They used tools such as Urquhart and his colleagues chose random dot stereograms, as to publish instead. developed by Dr Bela Julesz, which Further developments were made helped to show how depth is to the ASP technology, including perceived by the human brain. The the addition of colour, but advent of computers meant that attempts to commercialise it were theories could be tested more unsuccessful. Around this time, easily. however, at the turn of the But in 1989, when Dr Urquhart Millennium, digital camera was working for his Masters technology was moving on apace. degree, it still took days to Returning to Glasgow University, compute images and the technol- Dr Urquhart and his former ogy didn’t work with natural supervisor used two high- images, possibly because they specification Kodak cameras to didn’t have enough texture. Dr create 3D surface images which Urquhart and his supervisor, Dr J. were even higher resolution and Paul Siebert, developed active better quality than those previous- stereo photogrammetry (ASP), ly achieved with ASP. There was no which involved projecting random need to capture a second image patterns on to the same images, and colour was ‘built-in’. This was and was able to capture a three- to become passive stereo photo- dimensional model. Dr Urquhart grammetry, which definitely had described how he and his supervi- commercial possibilities. sor were very excited about this, Following Proof of Concept so published their findings. Had funding from Scottish Enterprise, they patented them, things may Dr Urquhart and colleagues have taken a different course, he developed a demonstration reel, said ruefully. Unlike traditional which showed how real people methods of creating 3D pictures, could be turned into virtual which use lasers and can take up characters. Their target was the to several seconds to scan an video games market, with the idea object, ASP was instantaneous; that life-like 3D images of anyone indeed, its applications are still in – be they celebrities or ordinary use today. punters – could be dropped into In 1995, Dr Urquhart worked with games. A company, then called facial surgeons at Canniesburn Virtual Clones, was formed in Hospital and helped to develop a January 2003. technique which involved combin- Dr Urquhart showed the compa- ing the ASP technology with x-ray, ny’s development from its very to give a picture of hard and soft early stages, with particular tissue. Again, this technology was reference to financial challenges. probably patentable; but again, Dr

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He believes it was the right resolution all the time, and approach that he and his co- Dimensional Imaging can use founder set up the company, these advances to provide ever- rather than the university. Entre- better products. preneurs should set up Other applications have since companies, he believes, because been developed. These include they will drive it forward. using the technology to treat The chosen market – entertain- facial burns – where previously the ment – was not to prove fruitful at patient would have to undergo an first, however. In August 2003, unpleasant plaster-casting of the they made their first sale, but it face, probably involving an was to the Glasgow Dental anaesthetic, the DI3D system Hospital and Southern General – allows a highly accurate ‘mask’ to users of the previous ASP technol- be made without even touching ogy. A change of focus followed, the patient. and the young company turned its The technology is also of interest attention more closely to the to psychologists, who use it to medical market. The move was morph the shape and appearance successful. Since then, the of a number of people into a technology has been used to single image – a technique very create ‘virtual patients’, on whom useful in the growing discipline of techniques can be tested and facial recognition, where applica- measured. It lets maxillofacial tions include witness surgeons observe precise images identification. of patients before and after And finally, as if to come full circle, surgery and measure outcomes the entertainment industry has objectively. ‘It allows them to see, been knocking at the company’s measure and assess what they are door. As well as being used to doing – they can capture the create some of the zombies in 28 patient at all stages of treatment,’ Weeks Later, Dimensional Imaging he said. systems have now been sold to In 2005, the company name was major UK and US video games changed to Dimensional Imaging, companies. ‘Our original business which better reflected the medical plan wasn’t wrong – just five years focus. At the same time, the ahead of its time,’ he smiled. company was able to exploit Last year the company made a advances in digital camera profit for the first time and Dr technology which, as Dr Urquhart Urquhart plans to invest the put it, meant you could get more £50,000 Gannochy Prize in pixels for your pound. Cameras Dimensional Imaging to help it to are getting cheaper and higher develop new technologies and to

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continue to innovate. He aims to he has learned. Innovation is use any future returns from the harder than invention, he believes. investment of the Prize to help It’s tough, but satisfying, to see support other young innovative products that embody technology Scottish companies. you have developed sold across Dr Urquhart finished with a brief the world. You can innovate with description of the company’s existing technologies – arguably latest innovation, which adds the his innovation is based on an fourth dimension – time – with invention from 160 years ago. the use of video cameras. This can Cash is king – and so is the capture three-dimensional customer: talking to and getting sequences of dynamically chang- feedback from those who use the ing surfaces, which allows even equipment is vital to develop- very subtle changes to be cap- ment. And you have to adapt to tured accurately. In facial surgery, survive. His company started with for example, the data can be used a focus on entertainment, moved to measure facial function, while to medical applications, and this in video games it creates more financial year so far, a third of the realistic facial animation. It’s a sales have come from entertain- novel technology on the world ment. He ended with an advert – scale and is revolutionising our anyone interested in the technolo- ability to track temporal changes. gy should contact him for a chat. In conclusion, Dr Urquhart http://www.di3d.com/ summed up some of the lessons

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Hugh Gill Director of Technology and Operations, Touch Bionics Philip Newman Director of Marketing, Touch Bionics The i-LIMB Hand - engineering innovation drives business success Joint Lecture with the Royal Academy of Engineering A National Science and Engineering Week (6–15 March 2009) Event 11 March 2009

They said it couldn’t be done. For individually -powered finger can years, the prosthetics industry be quickly removed by simply focused on delivering incremental removing one screw. This means improvements to a pincer-like that a prosthetist can easily swap hand design that was not a true out fingers that require servicing reflection of a human hand. The and patients can return to their concept of a hand with articulat- everyday lives after a short clinic ing fingers was considered too visit. Traditional devices would great an engineering challenge have to be returned to the for prosthetic device companies. manufacturer, often leaving the While the industry stood still, a patient without a hand for many small company from Scotland was weeks. tearing up the rule book and Controlling bionic devices forging ahead with the develop- ment of the i-LIMB Hand, the The i-LIMB Hand relies on some of world’s first bionic hand. That the most advanced control company was Touch Bionics and software yet seen in the prosthet- this is their story. ics industry. This software provides speed and grip-strength control Advanced design to the device, while patients Touch Bionics is the first company generate signals to control the to offer commercial availability of device in a way that does not a true bionic upper-limb product. differ from how traditional devices Both the i-LIMB Hand and operated in the past. Two small ProDigits have been fitted to many metal electrode plates, which different patients at a number of detect the minute electrical signals leading prosthetic and orthopedic generated by the remaining clinics both in the US, the UK and muscles in the limb stump, are in another 28 countries around placed against the skin to pick up the world. signals. Traditionally one electrode The modular construction of the i- is placed on the top of the LIMB Hand means that each forearm and the other on the bottom.

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Patients usually have a sensation true movement and life-like that their hand still exists despite accuracy of a human hand. The it being amputated, something challenge has been to find often referred to as ‘phantom’ materials that can move and flex feelings. When encouraged to in the same way that human skin generate a strong signal, the does. patient is often asked to move This has been addressed in two and flex their missing hand to ways, in order to support two generate a strong control signal. distinct patient preferences. Before too long, these reflexes Some patients, mainly military become intuitive. personnel, particularly love the Feedback from early patient robotic nature of the uncovered i- studies identified that software LIMB Hand and prefer not to wear adjustments can allow patients to it with a cosmesis glove. However, perform simple tasks and improve because of the need to provide a functionality. An example of this is grip surface and to protect the thumb parking, instructing the hand from dust and water, Touch thumb to close down against the Bionics has developed the i-LIMB side of the hand to allow a jacket Skin. This is a thin layer of semi- to be put on. Another is a com- transparent material that has been pletely new grip function for computer-modeled to accurately prosthetic hands, the index point, wrap to every contour of the whereby the hand grasps into a hand. fist whilst leaving the index finger Other patients wish their device to extended. Patients have found this blend anatomically with the rest very useful for operating compu- of their body, and have a life-like ter keyboards, telephone dial covering for the i-LIMB Hand and pads, ATM cash machines and a ProDigits. As these products are host of other everyday require- more anatomically correct than ments. any currently on the market, which Advances in cosmesis not only allows for increased Cosmesis is the flexible skin functionality but also a vastly covering that covers the i-LIMB improved cosmetic appearance, Hand and ProDigits. By applying the challenge has been to find a in-house expertise and partnering high-definition cosmesis of with companies that specialise in superior quality. Touch Bionics has cosmesis, Touch Bionics has launched with custom cosmesis achieved major breakthroughs in products from two of its cosmesis the aesthetic appearance of its partner companies. prosthetic products. The Touch Full report available: ISBN No 978 Bionics products are the first 0 902198 80 7 prosthetic hands to imitate the 133 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Dr Andrew McLellan Chief Inspector of Prisons Meet Danny Airborne Initiative Public Lecture – The insanity of prison 1 April 2009

“Prisons sometimes do good but 4. Most offenders are “daft lads they always do harm” was how Dr and lassies,” not villains. Andrew McLellan concluded his 5. Insanity is doing the same lecture on the problem of finding thing again and again and realistic alternatives to prison for expecting different results. young offenders. And to grasp 6. To halve the prison population, the opportunity for change, he everyone must “grasp the declared, we need to realise that opportunity for change.” these young offenders belong to us all… Einstein’s definition of insanity echoed McLellan’s description of Dr Andrew McLellan may talk the typical cycle experienced by himself out of a job as Her many young offenders, who Majesty’s Chief Inspector of commit crimes again and again Prisons, but nothing would give and are institutionalised again him more pleasure than to see our and again, then carry on doing overcrowded jails emptied of the same when they’re older. inmates, because rather than That’s why prisons are not the viewing our prisons as a cure for solution, he said. Housing, society’s ills, he believes they are education, better healthcare and one of the causes. employment, as well as drug and His started and ended his lecture alcohol treatment, are the keys to with six thought-provoking success, and what happens after quotations, from a wide range of release matters much more than people including Albert Einstein prison itself. and former First Minister, Henry The crime–prison cycle can McLeish: sometimes seem impossible to 1. We should do all we can to break, but taking inspiration from keep people out of jail. Barack Obama, McLellan thinks 2. We can’t reverse the damage that “yes we can” can transform done to children if there’s an Scotland’s all-too-common absence of nurture beyond attitude of “no we cannae.” He age two or three. also thinks that if we want to 3. Prisons can’t solve the prob- bring hope, not despair, “it’s now lems of Scotland. 134 Events 08/09

or never – the opportunity won’t housing offices, etc, to make sure come again in our generation.” offenders stay focused on trying McLellan then described a few to rebuild their lives, instead of examples of programmes which drifting back into their old ways. do make a difference, including What we need for young offend- the Venture Trust, Columba 1400, ers, said McLellan, is what social The Duke of Edinburgh Awards, workers call, “wraparound Includem and the Motorcycle support” including a new Project. Like the Airborne Initia- approach to probation, integrated tive, these projects challenge with health care, education and young people emotionally and help with employment and socially, and “powerful learning housing. All of this would cost a takes place,” said McLellan. lot of money, he admitted, but Young people get more confi- how much do we value our young dence through gaining a sense of people – and how much do we achievement and working as part spend on our prisons already? of a team, and drug abuse tends Why is it, he asked, that we to reduce at the same time as the question the value of punishment rate of offending behaviour. The in the community much more projects are also fun, said McLel- than we question the value of lan – a far cry from typical prison prisons? conditions. And the lesson which To put a human face on these McLellan draws from all of these ideas, McLellan then invited the projects is that if politicians want audience to “Meet Danny” – a to reduce crime, they should pay young man who has been in and more attention to youth groups, out of the Young Offenders and invest more in probation and Institution in Polmont three times community services, both of which already this year. Like 90 per cent are now “hopelessly under of the inmates, Danny is a repeat funded.” visitor, and he sometimes returns Some new programmes offer in a matter of days, a victim of his considerable hope for the future. own alcohol problem, which For example, in “Routes out of started when Danny was just eight prison” young offenders are years old. mentored immediately after Conditions in Polmont have release by a former offender who improved significantly in recent knows how they feel and can years, but there is no escape from speak the same language. The some things, such as the lack of mentor not only offers advice but privacy and overcrowding. There accompanies the person to are programmes to help with appointments at job centres and addiction and relationship

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problems, including a course to between them, or an average of help young offenders become seven per person, and the figures more aware of the consequences will only get worse unless we of their own actions. But despite change our attitudes to treating all the good work that Polmont young offenders. and other institutions may do, Finally, McLellan added, we need McLellan very strongly believes to change our attitudes to the that it cannot provide all the young people themselves, and answers. And the statistics realise that “prisoners are not confirm this – the 575 inmates them – they are us.” have committed 4,508 offences

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Drugs of the Future: Personalised Medicines for the Over 65s Joint event supported by The Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation and the Ewan & Christine Brown’s Charitable Trust 17 April 2009

Introduction and Summary As populations age, the need to find safe and effective treatments for diseases which primarily afflict older people becomes more acute. There are, however, challenges in making this happen, not least the current status of the pharmaceutical industry, where a massive investment into drug discov- ery has been accompanied by a dramatic fall in the number of new therapies introduced per annum. The conference heard about the current state of play in treatments of diseases affecting the elderly, as well as hopes for the future. The morning session focused on Alzheimer’s disease and dementia, while the afternoon looked at heart failure. In the evening, exciting potential treatments for age-related macular degeneration – the most common cause of sight-loss in the over-60s – were discussed, along with industry’s approach to drugs for dementia and the push towards personalised medicine, tailored to individuals.

Session One: Alzheimer’s Translational Medicine and the Chair: Professor Leslie Iversen, Crisis in Drug Development Department of Pharmacology, Professor Garret FitzGerald, University of Oxford Director, Institute for Transla- Alzheimer’s disease is the most tional Medicine and common form of dementia and Therapeutics, University of the number of people suffering Pennsylvania from it is predicted to increase Professor FitzGerald called for a dramatically as the population new model of drug development, ages. There is no cure, but a which he said would benefit number of potential therapies are patients as well as the pharmaceu- in the pipeline. There are chal- tical industry. This new model lenges, but personalisation may would include more partnerships help provide some answers. with academia and better invest- ment in ‘human capital’ – the scientists and clinicians who can bring treatments from the bench to the bedside. He spoke of the

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crisis in pharma, with only 17 new losses), but Professor FitzGerald drugs approved by the FDA in suggested some other solutions. 2007 – the lowest number since Academia has talented physician 1983. Previously, high prices for scientists with access to patients, prescription drugs have insulated but traditionally these have been the pharmaceutical industry, but resource-starved. Often too, they now they recognise that they have are poorly educated in pharmacol- a broken business model. ogy, which may hinder the drug He spoke about the potential development process. There are benefits of personalised medicine, few incentives for ‘team science’ – bringing in the example of Vioxx which brings expertise together – (rofecobix), which was withdrawn and huge competition for grants, from the market when found to which is helping to keep younger increase the risks of cardiovascular applicants out. On average, disease. If companies knew which physician scientists are now in patients would react well or badly their 40s before getting the to a drug, that knowledge would funding which makes them increase safety and improve independent, making academia effectiveness. He said there is a unattractive as a career. need to combine quantitative Professor FitzGerald suggests measures of drug response with more collaboration between genetic information, and then academia and pharma, but also relate these to clinical outcome. advocates a changed approach to He described the current ‘broken’ trials. There is pressure to get into model as one where there is Phase 3 trials, at the expense of massive and quite effective selecting doses and understand- investment into drug discovery ing how a drug works, he said. but poor translation to new Currently, Phase 3 trials assume products. one dose works for everyone, There are also two ‘cliffs’ facing ignoring the potential benefits of pharma, relating to patents and personalisation. generic drugs. Some calculate a He suggests a new discipline decline in revenue stream of up to which develops quantitative 40 per cent, due to patents biomarkers which can be used to expiring. Increased use of generics measure response and use these – now 60 per cent of prescribed to come up with the optimal drugs in the US – is also hitting doses for people with different profits. Pharma is trying to cope phenotypic responses. He would with these challenges in various like academia, industry, funders ways, including mergers which and regulators to work together allow for efficiencies (i.e. job to develop a unitary nomenclature

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and agree core competencies. older people. Based on current He’d like funding to be revised trends, he said that Scotland’s and to be focused on longer term elderly are likely to live longer, and more heterogeneous portfoli- spend a longer time with disability os. He’d like more emphasis on (particularly women), and have Phase 2 trials, including on improving physical, but worsening personalised doses, and he would mental health. Life satisfaction is like more people with good unlikely to change. Based on a knowledge of pharmacology to be survey carried out in Scotland in at the centre of the process. 2000, a man aged 65 now can The Elderly in Scotland and expect to live another 17.2 years their Health and a woman 19.9 years. Both sexes could look forward to about Professor John Starr, Depart- 10 years of good health and a ment of Geriatric Medicine, further five years of modest ill University of Edinburgh health while the remainder of Professor Starr gave an overview between two and five years would of the current state of health of be spent with a considerable older people in Scotland and, incapacity. based on evidence, made some Demand for hospital admissions predictions about the future. Life and care at home and in care expectancy is going up and the homes increase when people number of over-65s is increasing. reach 65, although the number of By 2031 the 60–74 age-group will GP visits remains about the same. have increased by 40 per cent, Older people use more prescrip- while there will be 91 per cent tion drugs than younger age more people aged 75 and over. groups, but many are prescribed This is likely to have an impact on inappropriately. Adults over 60 health and social care. years have 3.6 times more pre- Professor Starr looked at what it scriptions than younger adults means to be healthy, including and up to 80 per cent of elderly how people feel about their own people receive inappropriate health and what society says treatment, he said, with some health means. He also described being hospitalised due to adverse some of the conditions suffered drug reactions. Importantly, some by Scotland’s elderly, including drugs which are commonly osteoporosis, dementia and prescribed will have an effect on depression. As the population cognitive abilities. ages, rates of these conditions are He concluded that there will be a likely to increase. substantial increase in numbers of Professor Starr looked at what’s older people, living with and being done now to look after

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without disability; that there will glutamatergic agent memantine. be changing patterns of disease, While the former can be pre- increasing numbers or prescrip- scribed on the NHS for ‘moderate’ tions and increasing risks of disease, the latter is only available adverse drug effects. The impact as part of a clinical trial. Other on health and social services is treatments including anti- difficult to measure. depressants, antipsychotics, and New Drugs for Cognitive novel interventions, including Decline aromatherapy, are also used in the management of dementia. The Professor Alistair Burns, School economic case is difficult to make of Medicine, University of for these drugs. Manchester A number of drugs are being Professor Burns looked at demen- developed with the aim of tia now and in the future. He slowing down the cognitive summarised current and potential decline in dementia. These include treatment strategies and also those which tackle the amyloid considered prospects for preven- plaques, which develop in a brain tion. with AD, and the tau protein, Dementia affects 700,000 people which is implicated in the neurofi- in the UK and this figure is brillary tangles characteristic in expected to rise as the population AD. There are a number of continues to age. Public aware- vaccines and other products in the ness has never been higher, partly pipeline, including the possibility due to a number of official studies of the use of a Rember, which and documents which have been appears to act on tau, although publicised and partly as it be- this work has yet to be published. comes a pressing political and Other possibilities include the use economical issue. According to a of a non-selective antihistamine King’s Fund report, for example, (Dimebon) and even a food incidence of Alzheimer’s disease supplement, Souvenaid. (AD) (the most common cause of dementia) will increase by 61 per Public interest in AD is high and cent between 2007 and 2026, every week, it seems, a new paper with costs projected to rise from is publicised, but nothing defini- £14.9 billion to £34.8 billion over tive has emerged as yet. There is the same period. also public interest in prevention of dementia, and there are known There are known treatments for risk factors. These include socio- AD. These include the cholineste- demographic factors, education rase inhibitors, (donepezil, level, habits, genetics and medical (Aricept), galantamine (Reminyl), history and treatments, in addi- rivastigmine (Exelon)) and the tion to age. Hypertension and 140 Events 08/09

high cholesterol levels are risk the management of heart failure. factors, so it is possible that This is part of a large body of reducing these might help prevent work, which included Scottish AD. Keeping the brain active and Intercolegiate Guidelines Network participating in social networks (SIGN) guidelines on chronic heart may also be protective. failure published in 2007, and Professor Burns concluded that draft standards on the prevention public interest in dementia has and treatment of coronary heart never been higher, that current disease more widely, which were treatments are safe and effective published in February of this year. and that there are real and Dr Denvir described some of the realisable prospects for preven- process in drawing up standards tion. and guidelines, and also said that implementation of the SIGN Session Two: Management of guidelines had been variable. Heart Failure Cardiologists were more familiar Chair: Professor Henry Dargie, with the guidelines than GPs, Department of Cardiology, although the majority of heart Golden Jubilee Hospital failure is treated in primary care. Heart failure is a serious condition The clinical standards may be a which affects young and old but is way of ensuring more consistent more common in the over-75s. implementation of guidelines, There is a vast array of drugs which include recommendations available, but recent advances on diagnosis, pharmacological have included device therapies, treatment, a multi-disciplinary such as implantable defibrillators. approach to care, the use of It’s a common, complex and lethal device therapies, and supportive condition, said Professor Dargie. and palliative care at end of life. Essential Clinical Standards for Standards should be clear, the Diagnosis, Treatment and measurable and evidence-based, Long-Term Management of he said. They should be small in Chronic Health Failure number and achievable, but Dr Martin Denvir, Consultant stretching. Dr Denvir accepted, Cardiologist, Royal Infirmary of however, that there were many Edinburgh demands on doctors and health boards, so the aim is to make As well as being a consultant complying with the guidelines, cardiologist working with pa- and with audit and monitoring, as tients, Dr Denvir is clinical advisor streamlined and painless as to NHS Quality Improvements possible. Scotland (QIS) and is involved in drawing up clinical standards for Management of heart failure will be continually assessed, however,

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under the Scottish Patient Safety recent developments have Programme. The national heart included resynchronisation failure audit will include six to ten devices and internal defibrillators. measures or indicators to show Much of the progress in intracar- how well patients are being diac devices has been driven by managed. technical advances outside He concluded by saying that the medicine, as batteries and evidence was out there and the processers have improved dramat- guidance written; the standards of ically. care are agreed and implementa- The UK lags behind much of the tion and measurement of the rest of the developed world in its quality of care must be linked in a rate of implantation. There could clear process that everyone be a number of reasons for this, understands. They should pro- including affordability – more mote care which is effective, safe, devices are implanted in health- timely, efficient and patient- care systems which rely on the centred. number of procedures for pay- The Efficacy of Intracardiac ments – and lack of awareness of Devices in the Management of the benefits among health Sudden Cardiac Death and professionals. Ventricular Dysfunction There is also the question of Dr Neil Davidson, North West acceptability to patients: some do Regional Cardiac Centre, not like the implantable cardiac Wythenshawe Hospital, Man- defibrillator (ICD), for example, chester because it works by delivering a ‘shock’ when it senses cardiac As well as drug therapies for heart arrhythmia in patients at risk of failure, the meeting heard that sudden cardiac death due to other interventions, including ventricular fibrillation. Sometimes specialist nurses and electrical it is activated in error and there devices such as pacemakers, had can be psychological side-effects made a big difference to treat- for patients. ment, quality of life and survival. While electrical devices show Dr Davidson described the history good results, resynchronisation of implantable devices, talked devices, for example, help improve about their benefits and disadvan- heart function and lead to better tages and discussed emerging quality of life – but they are and possible future technologies. expensive and aren’t getting Intracardiac devices have been in cheaper. Resynchronisation use for some 50 years, beginning devices cost around £6,000; when with the simple pacemaker. More combined with a implantable

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cardiac defibrillator, the cost goes treatment have been the use of up to £15,000. Dr Davidson said specialist nurses and of intracardi- that the manufacturers did not ac devices, such as CRTs and ICDs. focus on producing cheaper Professor Struthers outlined the models, but instead kept prices current strategies for finding new constantly high by adding ‘bells drugs. These include looking for and whistles’. He drew attention other neurohormones to target, to the way mobile phones have following the success of ACE become ever more complicated inhibitors, and there have been but no cheaper. trials of a number of possibilities, In the future, he believes there will including testosterone. Another be further useful refinements. For strategy has been to re-examine example, information from the inotropic drugs, which was where blood flow in the patient’s the so-called ‘smart money’ was individual cardiac chambers and before ACE inhibitors proved major blood vessels (haemody- more effective. He described two namic monitoring) using ‘wireless’ inotropic drugs which might be devices with no leads might be promising. Other potential used to adjust medication. therapies could involve those acting on the cardiac metabolism, He concluded by saying that or antiarrhythmic drugs, such as electrical devices had improved fish oils. quality of life and that they should be used more. In his view, techno- There is also a suggestion that logical advances should be drugs in use for other conditions, focused on cost-effectiveness. for example Viagra, might have an application in heart failure. The Which New Medicines Produce twist, however, is that some drugs, Heart Failure and Which which have been introduced for Alleviate It? other diseases, seem to cause Professor Allan Struthers, heart failure. These include some Department of Clinical Pharma- anti-diabetic drugs and the cancer cology and Therapeutics, drugs doxorubicin and herceptin. Ninewells Hospital and Medical In the case of herceptin, the heart School, Dundee failure seems to be reversible There have been a number of when the drug is stopped. successful drugs for heart failure However, an understanding of the introduced since the 1980s and detrimental action of these drugs ‘90s, including the neurohormo- on the heart muscle might provide nal therapies of ACE inhibitors clues to potential therapy targets. and beta-blockers. Since then, Professor Struthers said that there however, the major advances in are hopeful new drugs around,

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but that more research is needed macula become damaged. The to see if they provided clinical macula is in three layers: the benefit. retina, the choroid, and, in the Session Three: The Future of middle, the RPE layer (retinal Personalised Medicine pigment epithelium). It is the RPE cells which seem to age and die Chairman: Professor David first, affecting the retina’s ability Lawson, Honorary Professor of to ‘see’. Professor Coffey is Medicine and Therapeutics, director of the London Project, led University of Glasgow by UCL, which aims to find a cure The evening session of the for AMD. This involves using stem meeting looked at potential cells to halt and reverse loss of therapies for the disease often sight. known as ‘Alzheimer’s of the eye’ So far stem cells have been used because it is so common in older to create healthy RPE cells which people. It also heard about have been used to replace those industry’s approach to treatments in animal models, most recently in for dementia, and learned how, in a pig. The possibility of ‘personal- the genomic age, personalised ised’ treatment exists because a medicine could be coming into its person’s skin could be used to own. obtain stem cells which could Future of Therapies for Macular then be used to create RPE cells Degeneration which could be used in the Professor Peter Coffey, Ocular treatment. This is likely to be an Biology and Therapeutics, expensive option, however, Institute of Ophthalmology, although the technology might University College London help find new targets for drug Professor Coffey described new treatments. and emerging techniques for Stem cell technology is likely to treating one of the most common have major advantages over and distressing conditions existing treatments. At the relating to getting older. moment, the biological drug Age-related macular degeneration Lucentis is the main (and contro- (AMD) is often called ‘Alzheimer’s versially expensive) treatment for of the eye’ – not because it has ‘wet’ AMD, which accounts for anything to do with the disease, around 10 per cent of cases of but because of the vast numbers AMD (with ‘dry’ AMD accounting of older people it affects. AMD is for the other 90 per cent). Treat- the most common cause of sight ment with Lucentis involves loss in people aged over 60 and injecting the patient in the back of occurs when the cells of the the eye every few weeks at a cost

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of between £1,000 and £1,500 He described the beta-amyloid per injection. hypothesis – essentially that too There are other possible treat- much of this protein in the brain ments. Professor Coffey showed causes ‘plaques’ present in the videos of patients, one whose brains of people with dementia – central vision had been improved which has dominated scientific by a surgical technique moving thinking about Alzheimer’s RPE cells from the periphery of the disease in the last 30 years. It is retina to the centre. In another, a only now that drugs based on this retinal flap of healthy cells was theory are emerging, and so far, rotated to replace the diseased they have not been very success- tissue. These techniques take up ful. There are also, however, to three hours, however, so would known genetic factors which not be suitable for an outpatient increase the risk of AD. For or day-case procedure, compared example, there are mutations to 40 minutes for the stem cell which promote formation of beta- operation carried out on the pig. amyloid and others such as the Professor Coffey hopes that nature of Apo-enzyme E alleles 1 techniques using stem cells will be to 4 which effect the age of onset in clinical trials shortly. and the overall severity of the disease. Industry’s Approach Currently cholinesterase inhibitors Professor Leslie Iversen, De- (such as Aricept) are the only partment of Pharmacology, approved medicines. Other University of Oxford approaches in the pipeline include Professor Iversen, who for many inhibitors of beta-amyloid years held a senior role with the synthesis, drugs that may prevent pharmaceutical giant Merck, or reverse formation of plaques or described industry’s approach to vaccine or antibody treatments. Alzheimer’s disease therapy. There has also been a suggestion Every pharma company is involved that inhibiting aggregation of the in research and development in tau protein (which leads to the area of dementia, which is tangles in the brain associated seen as a huge marketing oppor- with AD) might provide an answer. tunity by industry, he said. There is Cholinergic treatments such as a large amount of unmet need, Aricept are only moderately which will grow as the population effective and many people do not continues to age, and current respond. It could be that genetic therapies are seen by industry to factors determine who will be making large amounts of respond. Beta-amyloid synthesis money. Global sales of Aricept inhibitors have not proved were $2 billion in 2008. successful in trials so far, but at

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least six other drugs are in strategies to be successful in development. those without the E4 allele. Vaccines have looked promising He suggested new approaches to but one trial was halted because clinical trials, including identifying the drug caused inflammation in and including patients at an early the brains of some patients. There state of disease and making better are several other vaccines in use of neuro-imaging and development. Another novel improved tests for cognitive approach involves using mono- function. clonal antibodies to clear the The goal, he concluded, is to disease from the brain. Although improve quality of life for the successful in animal trials, a Phase future. His hopes for the future 2 clinical trial of one antibody include seeing the first effective (bapineuzimab) showed positive treatment for AD within ten years, clinical benefit only in a subset of and also the use of stem cell patients (without the Apo-enzyme therapy to replace damaged or E4 allele.) missing nerve cells in the same Professor Iversen said it was too timescale. He would also like to early to write off the beta-amyloid see ways of identifying suitable hypothesis, although trial results people to treat with preventative had been disappointing so far. medicines. Most of the trials to date have Personalised Medicines: Coming involved moderate to severe AD of Clinical Age patients, where it might be more Dr Geoffrey Ginsburg, Director, difficult to see a benefit. Personal- Centre for Genomic Medicine, ised medicine may be a way Institute for Genome Sciences & forward, although industry is Policy, Duke University naturally concerned about the commercial effects of the stratifi- Dr Ginsburg began by outlining cation of disease, each with a some of the reasons why we need different treatment splitting the a different sort of medicine. There market for the invidual products. are safety issues, with some 6.7 Phase 3 trials of bapineuzimab per cent of patients suffering will include patients with and adverse drug reactions in hospi- without the Apo-enzyme E4 allele tals alone. Serious reactions in – a form of personalised medicine. small groups of patients have led Post-hoc analysis of earlier trials to drugs being withdrawn, for which is not accepted as evidence example Vioxx. And there are by the regulatory bodies, suggests efficacy factors: even commonly that this division will show some prescribed drugs are ineffective in of the new amyloid attenuating a substantial numbers of patients.

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There are many reasons for a push tailored treatments for diseases towards personalised medicine. which have many forms, for These include advances in tech- example, breast cancer. Genomics nology and disease can help us refine prognosis, understanding on the one hand – make better use of available drugs including the mapping on the and develop personalised thera- human genome – but on the pies. other hand also including pres- Cancer drugs tend to be designed sure from consumer demand, for groups, not individuals, he demographics, health policy said, but different people will makers and industry. Personalised react differently. For example, medicine means getting better at although most people who have knowing who, how and when to surgical resection of early stage 1 treat, and there are a number of non-small cell lung cancer will be ways of doing this. fine, around 30 per cent will have You can look at risk factors for a recurrence and die. If it was disease, said Dr Ginsburg, and possible to identify that 30 per make predictions. It’s known that cent, they might benefit from risk factors for developing heart adjuvant chemotherapy. disease include smoking, in- A study is being carried out which creased cholesterol and high seeks to use gene expression blood pressure, so people with analysis to predict high risk, with these conditions might be these patients being randomised considered for preventative to chemotherapy or observation treatment. He cited a paper from (which is the current standard 1961, showing that these ideas treatment). Gene expression data had been around for some time. from tumour samples may also be Medicine and biology have moved used to identify which patients forward in the last half century will respond to different drugs. from observational to molecular Designing clinical trials to do this science and, now, to genomic or – so-called trial enrichment – digital science. The sequencing of could lead to savings in clinical the human genome and other trials and better identification of advances, such as gene expression the patients who would benefit. profiles, are revolutionising drug The personalised approach to discovery and the way we define cancer care would therefore disease. involve using genomics to predict Genomics can be used to predict recurrence, which would identify risk and also response to treat- whom to treat, and then predict ment. This is hugely important chemotherapy response, showing because it can help develop how to treat.

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There is a strong public policy cerns about ethics, and the fear of move towards personalised discrimination by insurance medicine. The Food and Drug companies and others. Administration (FDA) is behind it, Much needs to happen to make and President Obama, when a personalised medicine a reality, senator, introduced a medicine act including building better infra- to ‘secure the promise of person- structure, improving alised medicine to all Americans’. information-sharing and getting To illustrate how genomics is the right workforce in place. moving on, Dr Ginsburg shared Medicine which is science-based is his own profile, obtained from patient-centred, he said, but one of the many companies which pharma cannot achieve this in will now provide a read-out for a isolation. Academia, health care price. There are concerns about systems, federal agencies and the reliability of such information, others will have to contribute and however, as well as public con- work together.

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The Higgs boson: what, why, how? A panel discussion organised jointly by the RSE and the International Centre for Mathematical Sciences (ICMS) 21 April 2009

Questions, questions, ques- (University of Glasgow) outlined tions… the experimental challenges. In 1964, Peter Higgs came up with The focus of the panel discussion an idea which turned the world of was “what, why and how?” But physics upside down – a theory as the evening developed, it which helped to explain how the seemed more a question of universe came into being and why “when?” it does not fall apart. The critical Introduction component of Higgs’ revolution- RSE President, Lord Wilson of ary theory was a mysterious Tillyorn, introduced the discussion sub-atomic particle called the by saying it was part of a series of “Higgs boson,” but 45 years later, special events, jointly organised by no-one has been able to prove it the RSE and the International exists. Centre for Mathematical Studies, At the RSE in April 2009, Profes- to celebrate the 80th birthday of sor Higgs was joined by Professor his predecessor as RSE president, Edward Witten and Professor Sir Michael Atiyah. Describing David Saxon to discuss the himself as a mathematician who missing piece in physics’ jigsaw – had become “a pseudo physicist” and the Large Hadron Collider later in life, Sir Michael then (LHC) at CERN which is seeking to explained that the focus of the find it. The panel discussion which evening was to ask “what’s going ensued was chaired by Sir Michael on” with the Higgs boson, posing Atiyah, OM, FRS, Past President of the question to a panel who, the RSE. between them, covered the whole Professor Higgs described how spectrum of physics. He said that the concept was born, Professor he also looked forward to hearing Witten (Institute for Advanced what is happening at CERN – or Study and European Organisation what isn’t happening at CERN – as for Nuclear Research) discussed scientists investigate one of the the modern theory of the boson great ‘mysteries’ of fundamental and what’s being tested at CERN, physics… and Professor David Saxon

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Professor Peter Higgs – The of crystal lattice in which matter historical background (what?) condenses in various ways, Invited by Sir Michael to talk “breaking the continuous about ‘where it all started,’ translational symmetry that’s in Professor Higgs modestly suggest- the underlying dynamics.” ed that he had only been invited No-one took these theories very because his work “has interesting seriously, Higgs said, until the mathematical connections” with theory of superconductivity was the topic. He then said the idea of developed by Bardeen, Cooper the Higgs boson arose from and Schrieffer in 1957, describing thinking about “spontaneous how the charged particles in a breaking of a symmetry” – which superconductor move about like a he said was about “the conse- superfluid, without friction. In quences of having a ground state 1960, Yoichiro Nambu expressed of a quantum system where the this in the language of quantum underlying dynamics respect some field theory, and Higgs explained symmetry under a group of that his role was to “fill in a gap” transformations.” in the theory. “If the ground state of the Another key figure was Jeffrey quantum system is asymmetric, Goldstone, who expressed the then that has an interesting theory of symmetry breaking in impact on the behaviour of the more “easy-to-understand” states of the system,” said Higgs. terms, including a model often According to quantum theory, he referred to as the “wine bottle” continued, electromagnetic and potential which helps to visualise other fields “come in lumps” or the various phenomena. “What packets of energy which behave happens is that the ground state like particles – or photons. “Such of the system, which classically is systems can have an asymmetric just the state of lowest possible ground state or a vacuum,” he energy, is where the value of the continued, “and when the field sits – somewhere in the ground state is asymmetric, then bottom of the wine bottle, instead the asymmetry spreads into the of on the axis which would be the excitations which are the particle symmetry point,” Higgs explained. states and you have a broken The trouble, said Higgs, was that symmetry.” in Goldstone’s and Nambu’s Before 1960, the concept of models, there were particle spontaneous symmetry breaking excitations which had a mass of was originally developed in zero. These were easy to under- condensed matter physics – e.g., stand in Goldstone’s language ferromagnets and different kinds because they corresponded to

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excitations of the field around the symmetry breaking, and all bottom of the trough where you independently showed that you don’t need to put in any energy to give mass to the quanta of the get it to go in another direction in Maxwell type of field as a result of that two-dimensional space, and spontaneous symmetry breaking. the Goldstone Theorem was “So finally, where’s the Higgs formulated “as a necessary boson?” asked Higgs. “There is consequence of trying to combine at least one system in which the a relativistically invariant quantum Higgs type of excitation has field theory with spontaneous already been detected, and that’s symmetry breaking.” in a superconductor.” Higgs then explained that the flaw And that is why there’s something in Goldstone’s axioms was the for the LHC to look for… insistence on manifest Lorentz Edward Witten – The theory invariance, and that there was an (why?) exception well known to that rule of transformations – the class of Edward Witten put things in gauge theories. “The potentials context by saying that particle in the Maxwell theory are ill- physics is a modern name for defined up to what is called the something much older – the quest gauge transformation,” he to understand the laws of nature. continued, “and that is the In the 20th Century, Witten feature which drives a hole continued, physicists discovered through the axioms in the that subatomic particles play a key Goldstone Theorem.” role in this quest, and there are “crucial parts of the puzzle” that According to Higgs, Philip we can only learn by using an Anderson said that if you put accelerator such as the Large together the so called Yang–Mills Hadron Collider. theory (a generalisation of Maxwell’s theory) and a system Witten then described how with spontaneous symmetry particles are accelerated and how breaking, their apparent difficul- their orbits are bent into circles by ties would cancel one another powerful magnets. Then, as they out. “But he failed to say why go round the ring – two miles there was anything wrong with across – they collide. The accelera- that theorem,” Higgs then tor has to be large, he explained, explained. and use very powerful magnets, to ensure that the particles reach very Higgs and other physicists then high speeds so that when they studied what actually happens collide, they produce a lot of when you combine a Maxwell type energy. When Witten was a of theory with spontaneous

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graduate student, the highest in energy.” One question Witten energy for two colliding protons believes we can reasonably hope was about 30 times mc2, but today to answer is why electromagnet- the LHC studies protons at 2,000 ism is “so different from the weak times mc2. When you go to higher interactions.” We can detect energies, collisions are rarer, said electromagnetic effects (i.e. light Witten, so the beams have to be waves) with our eyes, he ex- more intense. The events also plained, and modern technology become more complicated, so you is based on electromagnetism. need much better particle detec- But the weak interactions are tors, which produce vast amounts much less familiar, he said, and we of data. need special equipment to see Many fundamental questions them and even to know they exist. have already been answered, said Witten then said it was “funny” Witten, including what holds the that we use the same type of nucleus together, but equally big equations to describe electromag- questions still “tantalise” physi- netism and the weak interactions, cists. “Some of these are old even though they’re very different riddles,” he continued. For forces. And this raises an obvious example, why does nature have so question, he said. If electromag- many different “flavours” of netism and the weak interactions similar particles, including muons are fundamentally the same, why and tau particles? There are also do they look so different? riddles like dark matter, he said, It is all to do with symmetry and “particle physics is now on breaking, said Witten, and there the brink of a very big jump into are solid reasons to believe that the unknown,” because of the the answer can be found at the LHC. terascale – at the energy range of The LHC will boost the energy the LHC. The simplest explana- from 2,000 times mc2 to about tion, he continued, involves the 14,000 times mc2, taking it into existence of a new particle like the the terascale range – the equiva- Higgs boson, but it hasn’t been lent of 14 trillion ordinary found yet so the theory has not electrons with the same power as yet been proved. “It’s a question a flashlight battery. that’s been with us since I was a student,” said Witten, “so we’ve Witten then described what had the chance to dream up a lot scientists hope to learn from the of variants and competing LHC, saying that part of the theories.” answer is: “We don’t know everything that’s going to happen, Finally, said Witten, the LHC will because there is such a big jump give physicists the chance to look

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at the terascale and find out exotic than muons. To really what’s going on there – whether understand dark matter, an even there’s a Higgs particle, whether more speculative project, said there’s a more complicated theory, Witten, is to probe the unity of or whether there’s the Higgs the laws of nature at a much particle plus other things. “But deeper level than ever before. whatever is the nature of the “The three main forces in particle electro-weak symmetry breaking,” physics are the electromagnetic said Witten, “we ought to find and weak force, the symmetry out once the LHC is operating.” breaking and something else The search for the nature of called the strong force,” he said, symmetry breaking is also linked and the LHC may help to prove to many other questions, said the unity of all elementary particle Witten. “For example,” he forces, using supersymmetry. continued, “it’s believed that the Ultimately, this would update symmetry breaking process is the Einstein’s theory in the light of origin of the masses of familiar quantum theory, stating that as particles such as the electron. It’s well as space and time, there is an also the origin of a crucial part of additional quantum dimension in the masses of the protons and which an ordinary particle could neutrons.” vibrate – leading to the existence of new particles which could be The symmetry between the weak produced and detected at the LHC interactions and electromagnet- or other accelerators now being ism is what interests Witten the planned, including the Interna- most, “because the origin of tional Linear Collider... masses is what is perhaps most often explained, and because the David Saxon – The experiment symmetry breaking is very impor- (how?) tant.” Saxon talked about how to detect Witten then described the other the Higgs boson, starting off with big questions that the LHC might protons – the nuclei of hydrogen answer, including dark matter – atoms – then accelerating them to the invisible stuff which has a gain kinetic energy. There are two major effect on the orbits of ways to accelerate the protons, he planets and stars. “We don’t explained – in a straight line know what the dark matter is (rather difficult and costly) or by made of, but there is a very using a ring so the particles go interesting theory that it consists round and round and return of exotic elementary particles that through the same accelerating are part of the cosmic rays,” said element again and again, eventu- Witten – particles even more ally leading to head-on collisions,

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with 7TeV (seven trillion electron innovative concepts in technology. volts) hitting 7TeV coming in the The key to the project is the CERN opposite direction. “The colliding laboratory in Geneva, set up in beam is the efficient way to 1954. Today, it has 20 member destroy energy to create mass,” states and eight observers, plus a said Saxon – this technique was budget of about £600 million invented by Bruno Touschek, who pounds per annum – roughly the did his PhD in Glasgow. cost of one cup of coffee per A head-on collision is called an person, per year. event, and detecting events will The CERN collider is 100 metres help to capture the characteristic below the ground and 27km in Higgs signatures, Saxon ex- circumference, traversing the plained. Theories today are like Franco– Swiss border. One bunch jigsaw puzzles that we’ve almost of the protons goes clockwise completed, and the Higgs boson around the ring, while another is the last piece. We already know bunch runs anti-clockwise, and a lot about its properties, but there are collisions at four points there’s one thing we don’t know – around the ring. “There’s a huge how massive it is – and that is amount of energy,” said Saxon – critical because as the mass of the equivalent to 20 one-volt batteries Higgs boson candidate alters, its for every star in our galaxy or 1014 properties vary, so to cover the times room temperature. These range of possible masses, the staggering statistics have made detectors must be sensitive to people worry that the LHC would many different processes. Produc- create black holes, but Saxon tion of the Higgs boson is rare – explained that although a black one event in 1011 – and this hole may be created by one means different experiments (such proton colliding with another, as hunting for muons) have to run fortunately these black holes simultaneously. “You have to be don’t breed – because of Hawking alert to all possibilities all the radiation, they die very quickly, time,” Saxon explained, with and only produce enough energy events arriving at a rate of 40 (about one micro-joule) to swat a million a second. mosquito. The Large Hadron Collider is the The most challenging compo- world’s most powerful accelerator, nents in the LHC are the with the most powerful detectors superconducting magnets, said and the most powerful computing Saxon, and that is what broke in infrastructure, said Saxon. It also the 2008 start-up. The accelerator involves the widest international is also one of the coldest places in collaboration and uses the most the universe, cooled to 1.9 Kelvin.

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Saxon then described the detec- good idea what a Higgs event tors, explaining that thwe proton might look like, but so far we only beams collide with each other have an artist’s impressions. every 25 nanoseconds, producing Saxon then described the comput- an average of about 10 interac- ing resources required to analyse tions, out of which come particles. the data produced by the accelera- The detector first determines if it tor. Each LHC experiment was a very short-lived particle, produces 10 petabytes (a million then the momentum and the gigabytes) and this requires the energy, and finally it measures the processing power of about outgoing muons. It’s constructed 100,000 computers, and a in a multi-layered way so that network of computer centres – different studies can co-habit, but what’s called “The Grid.” The this means it is very complicated world wide web was invented at and as big as a cathedral – 45 CERN, but Saxon said The Grid is metres long and 25 metres in much more organised than that, diameter. because the data in themselves The detectors produce data 40 are valueless. “What is valuable,” million times a second, but all this Saxon explained, “is what we call is useless without collaboration, the metadata – which tells you said Saxon. The final version of how it was measured and speci- the data is published only after fies all the conditions that it was independent analysis and there done under, and which version of are powerful safeguards. Mis- the program it was processed takes and disagreements are under.” We can’t afford to repeat inevitable, but everyone must feel calculations that have already a sense of ownership over the been done in America, Saxon data and overcome internal continued. We need all the rivalries. It wouldn’t do, for computing resources to hand. example, if a Scottish group The Grid provides seamless access claimed to discover the Higgs to computing power and data boson and another group looked storage distributed all round the at the same data and said: “No world. “Once the LHC starts you haven’t!” Saxon suggested producing for real it will be like a that what holds them together is bicycle race,” said Saxon. “At the hope. moment it’s like learning to ride a The readout system has 100 bicycle.” In the UK, he explained, million electronic channels and the effort is led from Glasgow by 300km of cable, and involves Tony Doyle and Dave Britton – a some “tricky” engineering, said £60 million project over 11 years, Saxon, adding that we have a funded in part by the Scottish

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Funding Council. The idea of The cancer therapy and “Seeking Grid started in particle physics but answers to fundamental ques- other disciplines are now showing tions about elementary particle interest, he said – e.g. for research physics in the universe – that’s into DNA coding. why we do it,” said Saxon. There’s “Present data tell us that the going to be a new era of discover- Higgs mass should be between ies, starting at the LHC. We’re 114 and 200 GeV, based on the advancing the frontiers of tech- minimal theory,” said Saxon. But nology, training young people even if there’s only one piece left and bringing nations together in the jigsaw, there could be through science.” another page missing. The Q&A standard model without the Higgs How do you select which events to violates unitarity – e.g. the theory analyse? that if you fire 10 arrows at a “In the trade, that’s called trigger- target, the number that hit won’t ing,” said Saxon. You capture the be greater than 10 – but the data and store an event for a difference between the theory and fraction of a second, and in that the model is that if you take a time you have to do enough model up to high energy, it always computation to identify two violates unitarity, while if you take candidate electrons – with 20 to a theory up to high energy, it 50 triggers at any one time. “The works beautifully. “We need crucial step in the game is know- people like Witten and Higgs to ing what to preserve for future explain why that works,” he study,” he said. continued, “but the theory without the Higgs is incomplete – What about superstring theory? it must lead to a contradiction and Witten said that supersymmetry to a disagreement with data. and string theory “grew up Something Higgs or Higgs-like together,” and hopes the LHC will must occur.” confirm supersymmetry. Saxon Superconducting magnets were explained that in the standard pioneered for particle physics, said model, there is the minimum Saxon, and now these are routine- Higgs, then the Minimal Super- ly used in MRI scans, with the symmetric Model, and so on. In “nuclear” component which the simplest supersymmetric makes it safe. “Real life is much model, he continued, there is not more complicated than headline one Higgs boson but four Higgs writing,” said Saxon, citing other bosons of different masses, with “side-benefits” of nuclear the same decay possibilities but research such as medical imaging, different ratios. So, when you see

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something that looks like a Higgs, with the Higgs particle that you have to check if it’s obeying all weighs not more than a few the standard model predictions. tenths of a TeV – and it doesn’t How long will it take to hand on work otherwise.” some of this exciting physics to Does CERN also hope to reveal the young generation – given that some insight into gravity? the experiments take many years Witten said the LHC could and involve so many people? “possibly shed light on quantum Saxon said he was amazed the gravity,” but thought it less likely project had survived since 1990, than the study of “symmetry and said that “hope” had kept it breaking” and perhaps the going through the years. Witten discovery of supersymmetry – said young people are excited “which would combine Einstein’s about large projects like the LHC special relativity with quantum because they have so many crucial You’re firing protons at protons. sub-components which are Whatever happened to the challenging projects in their own promise of controlled nuclear right. fusion? What leads us to believe the 14 Firing protons at protons is one tera-electron volt scale is the right way to do nuclear fusion, said scale to look at? Saxon. There are large machines Witten re-worded the question as: which get “close to ignition” – i.e. “What gives us confidence that get more energy out than put in – the energy of the LHC is sufficient but it is not yet “remotely eco- to explain symmetry breaking nomic,” he added. Witten between the weak interactions explained that accelerators like and electromagnetism?” He then CERN involve a lot of particles and said that an earlier collider at energy, but for fusion, you need CERN had discovered the heavy more of both – and not enough particles responsible for weak collisions for a fusion machine, interactions in the 1980s – the W even though the energy in each and Z particles. “We know their collision is “vastly bigger than it masses already, and we know that would be to do fusion.” the mechanism that breaks the What if you find nothing? Have symmetry can’t involve energies you got a Plan B or will you just that are too much higher than go on? that, or the model stops making Saxon said that the theory without sense,” he continued. “The data the Higgs is known to give tells us that the standard model impossible answers, so whatever works if you try to complete it is found will be different. He also

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said he wasn’t worried because Saxon said you need a lot of half of the large accelerators built vocabulary to teach undergradu- around the world were built for ates, so it’s hard to do a master reasons which became out of class in particle physics. He date, and instead did something recommended “hands-on “unexpected and different.” practical experiments.” Witten said the standard model Finally, Alan Walker then drew without the Higgs particle doesn’t attention to the exhibition make sense mathematically at LHC upstairs, Particle Physics for energies, “so we’d have a kind of Scottish Schools, and said that a contradiction.” primary school in Musselburgh How do you see this filtering had invited him to take the down through the education exhibition to its school fair – a system? breakthrough which Sir Michael described as a good note on which to end the discussion.

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Scottish Aquaculture - A sustainable future A joint International Symposium organised with the Scottish Aquaculture Research Forum 21-22 April 2009

Scotland is a leader in seeking to use science based policy, regulation and voluntary industry codes to increase the sustainability of the aquaculture sector within the context of increasingly focused regulation and global environmental and economic forces. The symposium explored sustainability under four broad themes of the environment, fish health and welfare, the role of science within regulation and policy, together with the socio-economic impact of aquaculture. The symposium was organised by the Scottish Aquaculture Research Forum (SARF) in conjunction with The Royal Society of Edinburgh and The Norwe- gian Academy of Science and Letters, and aimed to engage delegates from a wide range of backgrounds with an interest in aquaculture, bring together the extensive portfolio of SARF– sponsored research, complement- ed by internationally recognised keynote speakers.

Speaker Abstracts of aquaculture, promoting its DAY ONE. PLENARY SESSION competitiveness and improving Aquaculture – an EU perspec- governance. tive. Jean Weissenberger, DG - Sustainable development is about MARE A2 (CFP & Aquaculture) ensuring compatibility between In spring 2009, the European aquaculture and the high Europe- Commission will adopt a Strategy an standards for environmental for the sustainable development protection. It is also about of European aquaculture. While it shaping a performing aquatic is not possible to prejudge the animal farming industry, able to final outcome of this initiative at provide safe and healthy food to this time in this abstract, this the consumers. Promoting Strategy should aim at providing competitiveness implies, among political impetus and addressing a others, giving the highest priority number of challenges faced by the to research, innovation and aquaculture sector. It would focus technological development. on the role of public authorities, Addressing the high competition at EU and national level, in for access to water and space, or considering some major objectives enabling the aquaculture business such as establishing conditions to cope with market demands are for the sustainable development necessary if aquaculture is to develop. Finally, aquaculture

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would benefit from improved other institutions. SEPA will work governance and a better level with Marine Scotland and other playing field when decisions are partners in seeking to continue to taken by public authorities. This use research findings as a route to should be based on a proper policy change wherever practical stakeholder participation in the and possible. process, on a factual information Identification of risk factors in base and should be accompanied shellfish harvesting areas: by a reduction in the administra- regulatory and policy implica- tive burden. tions. David Kay, Centre for DAY ONE. PARALLEL SESSION Research into Environment and 1: POLICY AND REGULATION Health, University of Wales Scottish Aquaculture Research Bacterial fluxes from the land Forum (SARF) outputs aid surface and sewerage system can Scottish Environmental Protec- impact on both shellfish harvest- tion Agency (SEPA) policy and ing waters and bathing waters. In regulation. Campbell Gemmell, the USA and the EU, new ap- Scottish Environment Protec- proaches to protection of such tion Agency waters are outlined in the Clean Robust research outputs are an Water Act (USA) and Water essential tool in the development Framework Directive (EU). Both of policy in connection with require by law a catchment environmental regulation and perspective involving quantifica- have been used by SEPA to effect tion and integrated policy to significant changes in aquaculture achieve attenuation of microbial policy in recent years. fluxes. However, this regulatory environment assumes: (i) that we Expectations of changes to the know where the pollutant are regulatory framework arising from coming from; (ii) their fate and the outcome of research are high transport in the catchment and but the steps required to turn near-shore marine systems; and research findings into policy (iii) the uptake of faecal indicators change are often significant and in target species. In fact, there are not always obvious at the start of many information gaps in present any project. This can lead to regulation of microbial pollution, delays in the evolution of policy or because this area is very new and a requirement for significant lags behind efforts designed to additional work. control nutrients, sediments and Nonetheless, SEPA is a committed oxygen demand. partner within SARF and a strong A great deal of the early UK supporter of the research projects research effort in this area was commissioned by both SARF and

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initiated in Scotland and directed The recovery of the seabed at protection of both bathing and after fish farming. Kenny Black, shellfish harvesting waters. This Scottish Association for Marine growing empirical evidence base Science (SAMS) can inform many of the required Marine fish farms can cause judgement on: (a) the balance profound changes to natural between ‘point’ and ‘diffuse’ biogeochemical processes and to pollution inputs; (b) the regulatory the benthic community. The scale impacts of both baseline pollution of change depends on farm size, inputs and short–term rainfall- feeding efficiency, site bathymetry, driven events of peak bacterial ambient currents and sediment flux; (c) appropriate targeting of grain size. Organic matter (OM) sustainable land use and associat- from fish faeces and uneaten feed ed Best Management Practices cause local oxygen demand as (BMPs) within the farming they are bacterially degraded on community designed to reduce the seabed. This causes a change the ‘diffuse’ pollutant flux from in the reduction-oxidation livestock farming areas; (d) potential of the sediments and a appropriate remediation of shift toward domination by pollutant flux from sewerage anaerobic processes, especially to systems and industrial point OM degradation by sulphate- discharges, specifically addressing reducing bacteria. Hypoxic and the complex temporal and spatial sulphidic sediments are inimical to patterns of microbial flux from many groups of benthic inverte- treated effluents and intermittent brates and, as sediments become discharges via storm overflows increasingly anoxic, the benthic discharged from combined community becomes dominated sewage systems; and, finally by large numbers of small, diffuse pollution flux from urban opportunist worms, mostly near and industrial areas which is the sediment surface. The speed proving to be an emerging of this process depends on the problem world-wide. degree of imbalance between the This presentation provided an enhanced oxygen demand caused overview of developments in by the farm wastes and the supply regulation of catchment microbial of oxygen to the sediments by the pollution world-wide through overlying water, but sediments can review of the science information become highly degraded very base, new challenges and infor- quickly (~weeks). The process of mation gaps which require recovery once fish farming has attention by the research commu- ceased is the topic of the present nity. talk. This process has strongly

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coupled biochemical and biologi- strategies through regular and cal components that determine effective interaction with stake- the trajectory of the sediment holders; disseminating findings back to biogeochemical and once a project is complete is not ecological “normality”. enough. We are now using Applied epidemiology as it existing data more effectively than relates to aquatic animal health ever, but it is essential that we policy and regulation. Jimmy have UK-wide databases and UK- Turnbull, University of Stirling wide strategies for aquatic resources. Epidemiology is the study of diseases, health and welfare in What has been done to mini- populations, not in individual mise uses of medicines and animals. It is based on simple anti-parasitic drugs in Norwe- ideas, such as comparing affected gian aquaculture? Paul with unaffected farms to identify Midtlyng, Norwegian School of differences between them, but it Veterinary Science (VETH) is supported by sophisticated For nearly 15 years, the use of maths. Epidemiology can identify antibacterial treatments in causes or risks (e.g. smoking and Norwegian fish farming has been cardiovascular disease). However, dramatically reduced to a total of it can also improve monitoring to between 650 and 1500 kg active detect problems earlier and more substance, slightly varying from cost effectively. Epidemiology can year to year. The amount of 649 estimate the impact or cost of kg prescribed in 2007 corre- diseases and model their spread, sponds to less than 0.8 gram per allowing control strategies to be ton of salmonid biomass, which is evaluated. Since the mid 1990s, an unprecedented figure com- epidemiology has been used pared to any other segment of successfully in aquaculture and animal production, or to antibiotic wild fisheries. During that time use in humans. Among the factors several important lessons have contributing to this favourable been learned. situation are proposed: (a) the Epidemiology is only one of the unique government – industry available research tools. Most initiative to facilitate vaccination aquatic diseases are too complex against classical furunculosis in for a single discipline and it is the early 1990s; (b) the continuing important to choose the correct predominance of vaccine develop- tools for the job. Applied re- ment within the business search produces understanding, strategies of fish vaccine compa- but this can only be converted nies; (c) zoning and the spatial into practical or regulatory re-arrangement of marine produc-

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tion sites to minimise horizontal problem, and describe dhusband- spread of infections; and (d) ry techniques that include the use adoption of an “all-in-all-out” of acoustic deterrent devices production system with mandato- (ADDs). ADDs have been criticised ry fallowing periods between because of their potential effect of yearclasses. Adequate legal and habitat exclusion on dolphins and regulatory instruments for the porpoises which are more sensi- continuing success of disease tive to such acoustic signals than control in aquaculture will be seals. The evidence for such discussed using examples from concerns was discusssed and their several salmonid farming coun- importance was discussed in the tries. The limited use of medicinal context of European legislation. therapeutics in industrialised Some preliminary evidence was aquaculture has, however, some also presented that the reactions negative aspects. One of the of cetaceans to ADDs are more dilemmas is the availability of complex than previous experi- veterinary medicines that are ments have suggested. There are needed to provide adequate also some fundamental uncertain- treatment of our cultured stocks, ties about seal depredation at which is important to animal salmon farms that limit our ability welfare. The emergence of to evaluate or develop predator resistance to therapy is also control measures. Despite a stimulated by lack of diversity in wealth of knowledge within the medicinal products. industry, little structured research Appropriate and Sustainable has yet been conducted to Predator Control: the use of understand seal predation. The ADDs and other measures to speaker concluded by suggesting control seal predation at some areas that need to be Scottish salmon farm sites. examined in more detail if we are Simon Northridge, SMRU, to develop more effective, appro- University of St Andrews priate and sustainable means of managing seal predation at The main predatory problems aquaculture sites. faced by Scottish marine fish farms involve net damage, fish The relationship between kills, fish escapes and slowed aquaculture and biodiversity. growth due to stress. Most such Dr Tom Wilding, Scottish problems are attributable to seals. Association for Marine Science Interviews and official statistics Most Scottish aquaculture demonstrate the likely scale of this operations occur in sheltered sea- problem in Scotland. The paper lochs in relatively deep (>20 m) discussed methods to control the water underlain by shelly muds/

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fine sands and frequently in understood so that any conse- relatively close proximity to rocky quences to native biodiversity can substrata. The effect of aquacul- be established. ture on megafauna is, compared Incident prevention in the to macrofaunal, poorly under- Scottish shellfish sector. Lorna stood and is the focus of this Murray, Food Standards Agency paper. The UK is a signatory to Scotland the Convention on Biological On 1 January 2005, European Diversity and, consequently, has Commission Regulation 178/ assigned ‘Biodiversity Action Plan’ 2002 came into force, laying (BAP) status to habitats and down the general principles and species considered particularly requirements of food law and important. Many Scottish aquac- establishing procedures in matters ulture operations currently overlap of food safety. The regulation is the ‘Mud in Deep Water’ BAP and enforced in the UK via The evidence suggests resident General Food Law Regulations megafauna should be relatively 2004 (as amended). The regula- resilient to aquaculture-related tion contains provisions for sedimentation and organic determining the safety of food or enrichment. However, such feed on the market and outlines assemblages will not tolerate the responsibilities for food and changes above a currently un- feed business operators. The known threshold level. Regulation requires food business Preliminary observations indicate operators to withdraw food which the presence of megafaunal such is not in compliance with food as the seapen Pennatula phos- safety requirements, if it has left phorea (L.), in close proximity to their control, and to recall if it has fish cages. The impact of other reached the consumer. The salmon farming activities on the Agency’s incident response megabenthos, such as discharged capability is governed by the chemotheraputants, are largely Incident Response Protocol. This unknown. Higher energy sites protocol defines the Agency’s view host biotopes that are likely to be of an incident and details the more sensitive to fish-farming and action to be taken thereafter. Every an expansion of the aquaculture year the Agency has noted a industry into these habitats considerable increase in incidents. should only proceed where For example, in 2006 the Agency appropriate impact threshold investigated 1342 incidents in the levels have been determined. The UK. This is an increase of 388 link between aquaculture and incidents from 2005, when 954 invasive species needs to be better incidents were dealt with.

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The Food Standards Agency in identify the beliefs and under- Scotland (FSAS), as a competent standing of the shellfish authority, deals with many community in Scotland, both incidents and outbreaks of food – harvesters and enforcers, and borne disease associated with the benefit from an understanding of consumption of contaminated the awareness, knowledge, shellfish originating from Scot- attitudes and practices in place. In land. These are due both to so doing, the Agency will be able naturally occurring biotoxins to design an approach to assist accumulated in the flesh of live reduction in shellfish-related bivalve molluscs and Norovirus incidents. accumulated by the molluscs DAY ONE. PARALLEL SESSION growing in sewage contaminated 2: UNDERSTANDING OUR waters. With an average of 60 ENVIRONMENT classified shellfish production area Carrying capacity. Anders closures per year due to toxic Stigebrandt, University of events alone, we have the poten- Goteburg tial for this many incidents. In reality there are eight to ten Carrying capacity is the biomass of incidents each year in Scotland, a certain species an environment where there is evidence that can support without causing shellfish not meeting food safety significant negative impacts to the requirements have reached the given species and its environment. market place. These require In practice, carrying capacity tracing, withdrawal, seizure, depends on the degree of detention and destruction. environmental impact that can be accepted, which is expressed by Incidents themselves are not environmental quality standards. simple procedures; the investiga- The latter are established in a tion is multifaceted and complex, political process where environ- requiring many hours of investiga- mental impact may be traded for tion by Agency staff, local economical and social benefits. enforcement officers and food Obviously, the scientific part of the business operators. The costs problem, which is the topic of this associated with incidents are large paper, is to develop a toolbox with and many tonnes of shellfish are reliable, objective methods or destroyed as a result. The Agency models to estimate the environ- has therefore begun a strategy mental response to specified aimed at incident prevention; as loads and sinks from aquaculture. part of this, Scotland is working The models may differ between with the Scottish shellfish sector. countries because of differences The main project strand intends to in environmental quality stand-

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ards. Models must properly deal generated by aquaculture, the with hydrodynamic and biogeo- effects of these pressures on the chemical and ecological processes, ‘state’ of ecosystems, and the as well as with sources and sinks ‘impact’ of state changes on the of organic matter, nutrients, etc., ‘goods and services’ provided to due to farm activity. Uncertainty in humans by the ecosystem. estimates of environmental impact Mathematical models offer one is discussed. Current speed data way to generate such relation- and farm activity data are identi- ships and can thus enable the fied as two generally large sources estimation of assimilative and of uncertainty. carrying capacities for particular Carrying capacity: fit for water-bodies and types of farm- purpose models. Paul Tett, ing. This was illustrated using the Napier University ACExR-LESV model developed in the SARF012 project to estimate ‘Carrying capacity’ is the ability of the capacity of Scottish sea-lochs that water body to support a stock and voes to assimilate farm or harvest of farmed animals (or waste. Reference was also be plants) without long-term harm made to work completed in the to the health of the aquatic EC ECASA project, and being ecosystem concerned, and in an done in the SARF012b and EC economically as well as an SPICOSA projects, aimed at ecologically sustainable manner. estimating carrying capacity for Carrying capacity is linked to the shellfish. ‘assimilative capacity’ of the water body for the waste products of Environmental Standards for farming, as well as to the supply Aquaculture Medicines. Mark of needs such as food (for filter- Crane, Crane Consultants feeding shellfish) or oxygen. It Environmental Quality Standards involves considerations of the (EQS) based on Predicted No Effect scale of farming, the size of the Concentrations (PNECs) for non- water body, and the extent to target aquatic organisms are which it exchanges with surround- required for a wide variety of ing waters. substances released to water, It is suggested that these capaci- including sea louse treatments ties are best understood in a and other aquaculture medicines. Driver-Pressure-State-Impact- Companies producing medicines, Response (DPSIR) approach to the farmers who use these aquatic ecosystem management. medicines, and the regulatory This approach posits knowledge agencies charged with protecting of relationships between ‘pres- the environment from any adverse sures’ on the environment effects cause by chemical use must

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comply with a range of different area distributed amongst several European regulations which smaller farm units. The findings of require consideration of PNECs, a field survey which aimed to but which are not always consist- determine the relationship ent in the way that they apply between farm size and zone of them. These include regulations impact across a range of farms on the marketing authorisation of were presented together with veterinary medicines, the Water findings based on a national Framework Directive, and the analysis using SEPA’s archive, Habitats Directive, plus national where the size of a fish farm and regulations on discharge con- its environmental impact was sents. This presentation we examined. Using linear mixed- provided a critical overview of effects models, it was shown that these regulations and present a the discernable effects of the case study for deltamethrin, the farms investigated (n = 50) are active substance in a synthetic greatest at the cage edge, declin- pyrethroid sea louse treatment, to ing with increasing distance from show how a tiered risk assessment the farm. The abundance of approach can be used to balance benthic macrofauna and sediment the needs of all stakeholders, concentrations of organic carbon comply with necessary regula- are both influenced by an, albeit tions, and safeguard the weak, interaction between farm environment. size and current speed, such that Coastal assimilative capacity: the magnitude of effects at farms fish farm amalgamation, size located in areas of elevated matters? Martin Solan, Univer- current speeds are greater than sity of Aberdeen those of similar sized farms located in more quiescent waters. Intensification of fish farming Collectively, results suggest that activity and the amalgamation of there is a non-linear relationship farm units has the potential to between farm size and organic cause an increased risk of organic waste production and that such contaminant pollution. Although relationships depend on complex the amalgamation of fish farm interactions that are site-specific. units into a fewer number of In order to constructively inform larger operations offers greater policymakers on the placement financial efficiency, concern exists and design of amalgamated fish over whether the discharge of farm units, it is clear that more nutrients and organic compounds detailed information on farming from large scale operations may practices and influential variables have a greater environmental is needed. impact than an equivalent spatial

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Dispersion modelling of fish Containment and genetic farm particulate wastes. impact of fish farming on wild Andrew Symonds, ABPmer populations. Terje Svåsand, IMR Consultancy Norway An important consideration in the The continuing global decline of design of fish farms is the fate of wild fish stocks has been accom- the particulate wastes arising from panied by a parallel increase in the farm. Therefore this study was aquaculture. In the course of the aimed at investigating the fate of past ten years, worldwide produc- chemical/faecal particulate wastes tion of farmed fish has more than that arise from activities associat- doubled, with farming activities ed with fish farms and gaining a now producing half of the fish better understanding of their directly consumed by humans. For dispersive mechanisms and a species as Atlantic salmon, resultant environmental concen- capture of wild fish in Europe was trations. A numerical model only 0,3% of the aquaculture encompassing Loch Shuna and production. Loch Melfort was configured, The potential for genetic effects of calibrated and validated to aquaculture on natural fish provide a means of assessing the populations is arousing a great local hydrodynamic and sediment deal of concern among scientists, regime as well as any issues as well as the general public. The related to fish farm activities perceived risks are often associat- within its area. The dispersion ed with cultured and native fish, modelling was undertaken using and the adverse effects of the a layered three-dimensional tidal interactions of escaped fish with model with coupled sediment the ecosystem. Atlantic cod reach transport and dispersion modules. sexual maturity in their net pens, The results indicate that much of and genetic material can even the wastes remain in suspension, “escape” through the release of with only minimal rates of eggs by fish that spawn in the deposition. The findings from the pens. study have helped to advance the Application of novel ecotoxicity technical understanding of far- assays in aquaculture. field dispersion processes of Graeme Paton, University of waste from fish farms and provide Aberdeen a means of validating existing regulatory management devel- Ecotoxicology has evolved greatly oped to investigate processes in from the systematic testing of the near-field/mid-field region. freshwater species to a given dose of a relevant compound. Today, ecotoxicology includes marine,

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intertidal, infaunal, deep sediment The Scottish Marine Bill: sus- and soil environments in its tainable and strategic applications and has been management extended to include trace ele- David Palmer, Scottish Govern- ments and to be linked to ment environmental fate models. As The Scottish Marine Bill will form the discipline has evolved, the the basis of an improved and interpretation of mechanistic more sustainable management of responses has become more akin human activities within the marine to the mature models that environment and increased underpin pharmacological assays. protection of Scotland’s marine These resultant quantitative natural heritage. The proposed structural activity relationships legislation aims to provide (QSAR) can be used to assess both coherent integrated framework the performance of given recep- for marine planning, licensing and tors and the suitability of the conservation. This will enhance optimised assay. Furthermore they Scotland’s stewardship of the can also be used (with a degree of seas, support sustainable develop- certainty) to understand the ment and provide protection for potential impact of as-yet- the marine environment, so untested compounds. In this ensuring that future generations presentation we consider the of Scots will be able to enjoy the evolution of QSAR for a range of many social, cultural and econom- trophic levels and then couple the ic benefits that the seas deliver. response to a measure of the Scottish Ministers are working bioaccessible and bioavailable constructively with the UK Govern- fraction of the target analyte. ment and other administrations to Coupling receptor responses to ensure that an integrated and physicochemical parameters is joined-up approach to this new essential if we are to be confident legislation and its implementation that adopted assays are adequate- is achieved. ly protective. A predictive capacity in this context is key, not just for The development of The Marine dealing with the many metabo- Bill has been informed by the lites associated with aquaculture recently-completed consultation but also for the potential of new reports Sustainable Seas for All – generation compounds that may Environmental Report (SEA-ER be released into the environment. December 2008), and Regulatory Impact Assessment (RIA December 2008) that outline the five key policy areas which underpin the Scottish Marine Bill:

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· Creating Stability: Marine learning what, and to what extent Planning and Integrated Coastal can these lessons be implemented Zone Management in new policies? These issues were · Reducing the Burden: Licensing discussed within a framework and Enforcement where aquaculture is only one of many factors presently affecting · Securing the Future: Nature the coastal communities. Conservation DAY TWO. PARALLEL SESSION · Understanding our Seas: 1: FISH HEALTH AND WELFARE Science and Data Emerging virus disease prob- · Managing our Seas: Marine lems in aquaculture. Epsen Scotland Rimstad, Norwegian School of DAY TWO. PLENARY SESSION Veterinary Science Aquaculture as a new-comer in Viruses may be on the bright side the economic and social life of of life in modern marine aquacul- coastal communities. Do we ture, due to high densisty learn from experience? Bjorn monoculture of hosts, numerous Hersøug, University of Tromso possible routes of transmission, This presentation dealt with the and lack of effective vaccines for aquaculture experience in three most viral diseases in fish. Aquac- selected countries: Norway, Chile ulture can thus offer close-to-ideal and Vietnam, demonstrating that environments for the spread of industrial, marine aquaculture viral diseases. Furthermore, poses specific challenges regard- infectious diseases do not respect ing its accommodation to the national boundaries and they can economic and social life of coastal have detrimental effects on both communities. The three countries production and export of aquacul- have chosen different models for ture products. Effective vaccines their aquaculture industries, and are available for only some of the although all three have experi- serious fish viral diseases, leaving enced considerable success, there avoidance, or expensive compul- are several challenges ahead, not sory “stamp-out” eradication, as least regarding industry structure the official national approaches. and government regulations. The What can the aquaculture com- article discussed to what extent munity do to prevent and control the aquaculture industry can be future epidemics? How far will the managed by planning and which infection spread and how rapidly? aspects should be left to the When fish health officials don’t market. Finally, the article dealt act quickly enough, outbreaks with the difficult aspects of may become epidemics. The key to institutional learning. Who are controlling viral epidemics is to

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block the transmission of infec- lighted in this talk. The potential tion. This requires that knowledge to boost vaccine performance, to about reservoirs, susceptible fish manipulate the immune system in species, shedding of virus and a more controlled fashion and to survival of viral infectivity outside measure more precisely the type host for each viraus species ought of response being elicited, are to have a sound scientific basis. examples of ways in which these Development of highly effective molecules can now be used to the vaccines offers another way of benefit of fish health. preventing and controlling future Development of diagnostics: risks. challenges and opportunities. Fish immunity: vaccine develop- Sandra Adams, University of ment and performance. Chris Stirling Secombes, University of The application of biotechnology Aberdeen in aquaculture has enabled the Control of disease to maintain development and improvement of fish health is important for the a wide range of immunodiagnos- continuing success of the Scottish tic and molecular technologies, aquaculture industry. Of the and reagents and commercial kits different approaches that can be have become more generally adopted, it is clear that vaccina- available. Recently method tion offers a prophylactic development has increased treatment with limited environ- exponentially as techniques mental issues, and is thus a developed for clinical and veteri- method of choice against ubiqui- nary medicine are adapted and tous diseases accessible to the optimised for use in aquaculture. immune system. Whilst some Careful consideration needs to be vaccines have been proven to be given to selecting which rapid tremendously successful, others diagnostic methods to take have not, and ways to improve forward and apply in aquaculture vaccine performance and to pathogen detection methods accelerate their development are need to be robust yet sensitive. needed. Over the last few years, There are many innovative knowledge gained abut the techniques that may fulfil these complexity of the fish immune criteria and provide valuable system has increased enormously, diagnostic tools. It is also impor- in large part due to the availability tant, however, that useful of sequenced fish genomes. The diagnostic methods already many immune genes discovered developed are standardised and will allow new approaches in fish fully validated, and that new vaccine development, as high- technologies do not supersede

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these just because they are novel using histopathology, electron methods. The cost, speed, microscopy and blood biochemis- specificity and sensitivity of assays try. Finally, molecular tools were are all extremely important to end- used to examine the association users. This paper looked at some of Candidatus arthromitus with of the opportunities and challeng- RTGE-affected fish. The findings es for the development of rapid of this project were used to diagnostics for aquaculture. develop management strategies Investigation and control of for RTGE, based on feeding and rainbow trout gastroenteritis. movement controls, these have Jorge del Pozo, University of been circulated to rainbow trout Stirling farmers in the UK. Disease has a significant economic Biosecurity in aquaculture: a UK impact on the UK rainbow trout perspective. Andy Shinn, industry and during the last University of Stirling decade several new important Biosecurity presents continuing diseases have emerged, including challenges for the aquaculture rainbow trout gastroenteritis industry and its stakeholders. (RTGE) and red mark syndrome. Disease introductions are a threat Scientific research produces through both intentional and understanding that can be turned accidental movement of aquatic into effective management species and products. This strategies through dialogue with presentation provided an overview end users. This talk presented of UK biosecurity considerations, RTGE as an example of how from a local scale, e.g. disease multidisciplinary approaches may transfer within a single farm, to lead to the development of the global, e.g. risks associated management strategies. Epidemi- with common water sources and ology, histopathology and national trading networks. These microbiological molecular tools considerations were illustrated were used to study RTGE. Two within the context of three types of epidemiology study were aquaculture environments: a employed a cross-sectional survey marine fin-fish cage facility – a examined the prevalence of RTGE shellfish site and a freshwater in the UK and the risk factors trout farm using examples of associated with affected farms anthropogenic and ecological and a longitudinal prospective threats to biosecurity. design was used to describe the Key on-site biosecurity considera- impact, pattern of spread and risk tions include diagnostic capability, factors for RTGE within affected stage of the production cycle, and sites. The pathogenesis of RTGE the robustness of routine health in affected fish was investigated

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management, surveillance and imposing restrictions on accuracy communication procedures. of selection as well as selection Livestock movements and harvest intensity. Thus, methods allowing practices must be designed to individual selection among include health-screening and untested individuals would be disinfection procedures to avoid especially advantageous in the transfer of pathogens through selection for improved disease water. Larger-scale considerations resistance (i.e. selection for include the use of risk assessment identified QTL, genomic selection, (e.g. network analysis, Import Risk or indirect selection based on Analysis) and risk traits correlated to resistance). For management (e.g. HACCP). diseases characterized by chronic Improved biosecurity also de- infections, survival may be a poor pends upon the development of indicator of resistance, making good communication and other supplementing indicators information management systems necessary. Furthermore, a popula- including cross-border co- tion may contain a fraction of operation, complemented by individuals being non-susceptible well-parameterised epidemiologi- to specific diseases. If so, forced cal and other models, which termination of the challenge test together assist the assessment of (e.g. at 50% overall mortality) or risks and the implementation of genetic evaluation based on time improved risk-reduction strate- until death will be suboptimal. gies. Vaccination programs may also Genetic evaluation of disease complicate selection for improved resistance in farmed fish – resistance, as indicated by an challenges and future pros- estimated low genetic correlation pects. Jørgen Ødegård, NNIFES (0.3) between resistance to furunculosis in vaccinated and Genetic evaluation of disease unvaccinated salmon. Current resistance in farmed fish is research projects are now address- commonly based on challenge ing these challenges. testing, for which medium to high heritabilities are often estimated. Optimisation of on-growing of Analysis of such data is often marine finfish – a welfare based on survival (often at 50% perspective. Herve Migaud, overall mortality). However, University of Stirling accounting for time to death may Management strategies devel- improve accuracy of selection. Due oped to combat the problem of to disease prevention reasons, early maturation in marine tested individuals are normally aquaculture are species-specific. culled after testing, and selection Regarding Atlantic cod, photope- is thus limited to between-family, riod manipulation is the preferred

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management approach; however, Can we get the upper hand on there are welfare concerns as to its virus diseases in aquatic organ- application in commercial condi- isms? Borre Robertsen, NFH, tions. In this project, work has University of Tromso investigated the impact of The current disease situation in traditional (metal halide) and Atlantic salmon aquaculture novel (green cathode) lighting suggests that large gains in the systems on welfare and light control of virus diseases can still sensitivity in the species. Results be made through classical combat have revealed that the application principles. Improved and enforced of such lighting does not induce a strategies for avoidance of viral significant chronic stress response pathogens by breaking horizontal (plasma cortisol and glucose transmission have given encour- analysis) or non-specific immune aging results both for ISA-virus response (lyzozyme activity), and PD-virus. More emphasis suppress feeding behaviour or should, however, be put on severely damage the retina. possible vertical transmission of Melatonin analysis did, however, viral pathogens. Atlantic salmon indicate that even under constant possesses a very well developed lighting (LL), cod perceived the interferon system, which is a main overlying ambient photoperiod. component in the first line of Consequently, a longer term defence against viruses. Salmon outdoor study is currently being have high resistance against IPN conducted to investigate the and PD virus in laboratory experi- perception of day/night light ments and interferons protect intensity ratio in cod under LL in host cells against infection of combination with shade netting these viruses. In contrast, these to suppress the intensity of viruses cause high mortality in ambient illumination. salmon farming. Accordingly, Overall this project is intended to avoidance of production condi- improve the competitiveness and tions that result in suppression of sustainability of the marine the immune system should be aquaculture industry within the another primary effort in aquacul- UK by refining photoperiod ture. Interferon does not protect manipulation in Atlantic cod cells against ISA virus, however, farming and enhancing their which confirms that ISA must be growth potential. This work is combated by avoidance and supported by SARF, the British vaccination. Breeding of virus Marine Finfish Association and resistant fish also shows promis- Intravision Aqua AS. ing results. Finally, development of more effective viral vaccines will be

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crucial for a sustained control of Streamlining the environmen- virus diseases. To effectuate the tal impact assessment above combat principles, it is procedure for aquaculture. important to educate highly Richard Slaski, Federation of competent health personnel to Scottish Aquaculture Producers the aquaculture industry. In The Environmental Impact Norway, this is accomplished Assessment Directive was pub- through a five-year integrated lished in 1997, and for the marine MSc program in Aquamedicine. fish farming industry this was DAY TWO. PARALLEL SESSION transposed to Scottish legislation 2: SUSTAINABILITY as the Environmental Impact Aquaculture management in Assessment (Fish Farming in Norway. Magnor Neirheim, Marine Waters) Regulations 1999. Ministry for Fisheries and From that point, there was a Coastal Affairs, Norway perception by the industry that it was being required to produce The presentation was on how the full Environmental Statements, at Norwegian government is regulat- significant cost, for a very large ing aquaculture and how it is percentage of the applications it working to achieve sustainable made for development consent. growth in aquaculture. The This perception was backed up by development and growth of evidence provided by the then Norwegian farmed Salmon has Office of the Deputy Prime been a success story over the last Minister. Recognising the burden 30 years. This is partly due to of the EIA process for the industry, favourable natural conditions, but in 2007 the Scottish Aquaculture also to strict regulations. Research Forum commissioned a In the current work to define more study into the subject, with a view precisely the requirements for to producing a Guide to good sustainable growth in aquaculture practice in the use of the EIA production five areas have been regulations. This was completed, identified which must be given but a steering group of public attention: bodies and industry recognized · Genetic interaction that a further step was required: · Effects on water quality the preparation of easy-to-use templates for all three stages of · Diseases the EIA process, based upon the · Access to coastal waters, and best practice Guide. This was seen · Fish feed as being in keeping with the Guidance and templates being used for Strategic Environmental

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Assessment in Scotland. This Feed sustainability: current presentation and paper described status, future prospects and the process of, and objectives for, consumer attitudes. Paul creating EIA templates. Morris, Skretting Review of marine fish farm The sustainability of fish feed is environmental impact assess- being addressed from multiple ment (EIA) thresholds- scope perspectives. Firstly, in the light of for change and application of limited annual availability of permitted development rights fishmeal and oil, fish feed com- Suzan Bennett, Xodus Group pounders have directed enormous The need to examine the possibili- effort towards finding alternatives ty for a change in environmental to these two commodities. impact assessment (EIA) screening Secondly, given that fishmeal and thresholds and the application of oil will remain highly desirable permitted development rights to feed materials (primarily as marine fish farming, was identi- sources of long-chain omega-3, fied during a consultation exercise polyunsaturated fatty acids on Extending planning controls to (PUFAS), the industry is engaging marine fish farming, carried out by with stakeholders in the fishery the Scottish Government in 2004. and reduction sectors to secure Following this, research was sustainably fished and processed commissioned by the Scottish marine feed materials. This has led Aquaculture Research Forum to to the adoption of numerous examine current screening codes of practice and rigorous thresholds within the Environ- selection criteria throughout the mental Impact Assessment fishing, farming and retail chain. (Scotland) Regulations 1999, with Thirdly, feed compounders are respect to fish farming. The results engaging with the suppliers of of the review of current thresh- agricultural commodities to assure olds, including similar thresholds that they too are responsibly applied to marine fish farming sourced. Over-arching these elsewhere were presented. Some activities is the principle that fish potential approaches to establish- farming is fundamentally ing thresholds were explored, resource-efficient, due to the low together with the concept of feed conversion ratios (FCRs) Permitted Development Rights. achievable by fish. However, there is scope for further improvement, and feed producers and farming companies devote considerable attention to maximising returns per unit of feed fed. The UK and

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Norway are very actively pursuing In the sample number of 120 improvements in the fundamen- detailed ‘face-to-face’ interviews a tals of formulation and feeding to large percentage of respondents optimise FCR and in the sourcing (87%) had seen fish farming of sustainable feed materials. But before, although half of these had the legacy of food and feed scares not seen fish farming at the case has led to conservatism in Europe study location. When asked to and particularly, the UK, with focus on the effect of specific regards what constitutes a natural aspects of fish farming, including feed ingredient for fish. As a perception of the area, impact on result, having rejected many of the scenery, natural environment, feed materials used widely in the recreational activities and willing- global agriculture industry, there ness to re-visit, the majority of have been missed opportunities respondents remained neutral. with regards partial replacement The overwhelming majority of of fishmeal and oil in salmon and respondents believed that: trout feeds. This conservatism is · Fish farms contribute to the expressed largely through retailer livelihoods in coastal communi- specifications and independent ties; quality schemes on behalf of the consumer from whom, we the · Fish farms do not spoil the feed manufacturers hear very little appearance of the coast; and directly. · Tourists would not be less likely Tourism and aquaculture. Fiona to visit those places in Scotland Nimmo, Royal Haskoning where fish farms are sited. Aquaculture is an important The research conducted that, at industry for rural Scotland, in current levels, the presence of particular for the west coast and aquaculture operations would not the islands. Tourism is also affect visitors’ willingness to re- important to Scotland’s economy visit or affect their key recreational and depends heavily on the activities. country’s landscape. Environmental values and Targeted research was undertaken consumer behaviour: a case to assess whether fish or shellfish study of Scottish salmon farming impacts tourism in coastal aquaculture. David Whitmarsh, areas of Scotland. This was University of Portsmouth accomplished through interviews Aquaculture has contributed with tourists, tourism related substantially to world fish sup- businesses and aquaculture plies, but alongside this there has businesses at three case study been growing concern about the locations: the Western Isles, sustainability of many of the Shetland and Oban and Mull. 177 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

practices employed in fish farm- approach to economic and ing. This concern affects public environmental developments. But attitudes towards aquaculture, calls for rationality are usually and there seems little doubt that made when the speaker (or the social acceptability of the author) is aiming to imply that industry is shaped by what people other people are being irrational. perceive to be its environmental The famed German sociologist performance. What is less clear, Max Weber helpfully distin- however, is how far such attitudes guished between different kinds influence consumer behaviour. of rationality in modern societies, This paper reported on a survey of including instrumental rationality public attitudes towards salmon (choosing the best means for a farming in Scotland, which inter given end) and value rationality alia collected data on the frequen- (our reasons for selecting ultimate cy of salmon purchases. The values or goals). This presentation results showed that purchasing is analyses the broad social impacts influenced by both context and of aquaculture in relation to attribute variables, including Weber’s work on types of rational- environmental preferences. The ity. Dominant approaches to research also has implications for assessing the impact of aquacul- the method by which preferences ture characteristically operate with and values are appropriately a limited conception of what is measured. rational; they are usually instru- Social impacts of aquaculture. mentally rational. I shall examined Steve Yearley, University of ways of extending the kinds of Edinburgh social values and goals that may This meeting was originally to be be taken into account and entitled “Sustainable Aquaculture indicated how this may lead to – A Rational Approach” and that differing ideas of what aquacul- original emphasis on rational ture’s impacts are and a different assessments was telling. Of assessment of those impacts. course, no one wants an irrational

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Science, Politics and Drama in collaboration with The Royal Lyceum Theatre Edinburgh 23–24 April 2009

In April 2009, the RSE presented a series of events to run concurrently with the staging, at the Lyceum Theatre in Edinburgh, of Michael Frayn’s intense, absorbing and powerful piece of theatre, Copenhagen. The events followed on from the 80th birthday conference for Sir Michael Atiyah OM, PPRSE at the University of Edinburgh, which included the Higgs boson discussion held at the RSE on Tuesday, 21 April. On Thursday 23 April, the RSE presented the film The Strangest Dream, which tells the story of Joseph Rotblat, the history of nuclear weapons and the efforts of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs – an international movement Rotblat co-founded – to halt nuclear proliferation. The story takes the audience from the site of the first nuclear test, in New Mexico, to Cairo, where contemporary Pugwash scientists meet under the cloud of nuclear proliferation, and to Hiroshima, where survivors of the first atomic attack are seen. Featuring interviews with contemporaries of Rotblat, members of the Pugwash movement and passionate public figures, The Strangest Dream demonstrates the renewed threat. The author of Copenhagen, Michael Frayn, was invited to present a talk at the RSE on Friday 24 April on The After-effects of Copenhagen. Following Frayn’s talk, Muriel Romanes (Artistic Director, Stellar Quines) directed guests of the RSE as they read from the papers that inspired the play Operation Epsilon – readings from The Farm Hall Transcripts. Michael Frayn After effects of Copenhagen - Fiction or faction? 23 April 2009

Frayn began by saying that one of added, and a lot of what was the difficulties of writing plays or solidly established is now being novels based on the historical called into question. If he wrote record is that the record keeps the play again today, it would changing. For example, now that need to be altered in light of what the archives of the former Soviet we know now. Union are open to view, “people Moving on to the Farm Hall are discovering things about the Transcripts, which recorded the past that they hadn’t known.” secret conversations of the The ground has already shifted captured German nuclear physi- under his play Copenhagen, he

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cists who had worked on the focused on research into fusion – development of nuclear weapons to develop a hydrogen bomb. for the Nazis during the Second This was an “extraordinary piece World War, Frayn said that when of information,” said Frayn, which the transcripts were made availa- no-one had known about before. ble to the public in 1992, no-one There was also a “fundamental had challenged their accuracy, but difficulty” in believing that the they had certainly altered the Germans at that time had been so historical record. advanced, because to produce Frayn then described how he was fusion you need conditions of bombarded with books after he extreme heat and pressure, and wrote Copenhagen – more than must first explode an atom bomb he could ever conceivably read. in order to do this. Yet, the two And two years ago, he received a teams led by Heisenberg and copy of a book called Hitler’s Diebner had not come “within a Bomb by Rainer Karlsch, which thousand miles” of developing brought many things into ques- fission weapons, said Frayn, so tion, including the Farm Hall there was little chance of making Transcripts. a hydrogen bomb. Karlsch’s theory was that the third team working Before Karlsch’s book, the devel- on the hydrogen bomb (involving opment of ‘Hitler’s bomb’ had many different institutes across been very thoroughly covered by Germany) believed they could historians, said Frayn. We knew create enough heat and pressure there were two programmes, one with conventional weapons. Even under Werner Heisenberg and the though he may not be a scientist, other under Kurt Diebner. Even Frayn believes this programme though Nazi Germany was highly had really existed, based on the centralised, the two teams were available evidence. The Nazis had like “feudal baronies,” said Frayn, clearly taken the project very competing for resources, power seriously because towards the end and influence. When Heisenberg of the War, the SS had taken it was moving his reactor away from under its wing. Kurt Diebner was the fighting, Diebner even tried to also in charge of the programme, hijack it. said Frayn, along with Walther But Hitler’s Bomb revealed there Gerlach, who also co-ordinated had been a third programme the two other programmes. trying to develop a nuclear bomb It is interesting to note, said Frayn, – a fact which had been hidden that neither Gerlach or Diebner since the War. And the most referred to the fusion programme surprising thing, said Frayn, was during their stay at Farm Hall, and that the third programme had even though it was widely

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believed at the time that the Transcripts and put a different German physicists were unaware “gloss” on what had happened, that their conversations were said Frayn. According to Bernstein, being recorded, they may have the transcripts are full of allusions suspected that this was the case, and “shorthand” which make it and “retired to the rose garden” difficult to reconstruct the actual outside the house when they conversations, and when Frayn wanted to talk to each other in later introduced Bernstein and private. When the bomb was others to Karlsch’s revelations, dropped on Hiroshima, Frayn they “dismissed the possibility” of continued, the physicists seemed a fusion programme during the genuinely stunned and had no War, and said there was “no way time to work out a “security that any configuration of conven- response.” Yet even though we tional explosives can begin to learn about the details of the produce the conditions you need” fission programme, nothing is for a hydrogen bomb. The tests, said about the fusion programme. they said, had not been fusion but So, were the Germans being frank the first “dirty bombs,” using and open with each other? Frayn conventional weapons to scatter suggested that Diebner and radioactive material over the site. Gerlach may have been more So what did the fusion pro- “devious” than previously gramme really achieve? Frayn said thought… that even if they did not build a “But is Karlsch right?” asked workable weapon, the test would Frayn, despite his claims of still have been very impressive, concrete evidence and the and this may explain the Nazi suggestion that the Germans had government’s strategy in the final even tested prototype weapons, days of the War. Instead of their including an explosion in the refusal to surrender, being Baltic for which there is “reasona- “crazy,” the high command may ble evidence,” and another test at have believed they were about to Ohrdruf which is supported by get a “wonder weapon” to halt “impressive” eye-witness testimo- the Soviet advance. This may not ny – plus corpses with evidence of seem practical, but to “desperate radioactive damage and survivors people” this may have appeared a suffering from radiation sickness possibility, said Frayn. This may (including inmates from a nearby also explain why the SS moved concentration camp). resources to the test site at After writing Copenhagen, Frayn Ohrdruf, perhaps for a desperate met the American physicist Jeremy last stand. Bernstein, who edited the Ameri- A lot of information landed on can version of the Farm Hall Frayn’s desk after writing Copen-

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hagen (which described the escape from Nazi Germany, so one uncertainties surrounding the implication is that Heisenberg may meeting in the Danish capital have been trying to alert the Allies between Niels Bohr and Werner to the Nazi’s nuclear programme. Heisenberg in 1941), but he also Following a performance of suggested that the play itself has Copenhagen to celebrate Heisen- also had an impact on the berg’s centenary, the German historical record, because the physicist Hans-Peter Dürr, who controversy after its initial per- worked with Heisenberg after the formance led to the release of War, revealed that Heisenberg had new material, including the so- been “obsessed” with the called ‘Bohr letter’ – originally meeting – and why Bohr had intended to be kept under wraps seemed so angry and ended their until 50 years after Bohr’s death. talks. The suggestion was that Frayn’s knowledge of the meeting Heisenberg was naïve to think the between Heisenberg and Bohr two men (no matter how close had, until then, been based on they had been in the past) could what Heisenberg said, with Bohr’s simply sit down for a chat, views only known via indirect ignoring the historical circum- sources. The letter, said Frayn, had stances and the fact that his visit been addressed to Heisenberg but to occupied Denmark would be had never been sent, and Bohr viewed as unwelcome and even had written several drafts over the “embarrassing.” years, describing his account of So what did Heisenberg hope to the fateful meeting in Copenha- achieve? Was he seeking technical gen. Even though Bohr’s account or moral advice? Or did he simply “dissents” from Heisenberg’s in want to talk things over and some respects, said Frayn, what rehearse his arguments? they agree on is more interesting, establishing the fact that Heisen- What is fact and what is fiction? berg did talk about developing Frayn left these questions unan- nuclear weapons. This was swered when he said that putting amazing, said Frayn, because Bohr events into narrative form “chang- was half-Jewish and “notoriously es our attitude to the events,” and anti-Nazi” and would have been concluded by paraphrasing considered as an “enemy alien.” Einstein’s idea that just as theories Bohr was also in touch with may determine observations, people in the US and Britain, and “often the narrative determines had helped several physicists events.”

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Panel discussion The Drama of Nuclear Weapons in collaboration with The Royal Lyceum Theatre Edinburgh 24 April 2009

Chair Sir Michael Atiyah OM PFRS Hon FRSE – Mathematician & Past President of the RSE. Panel Professor John Finney – Professor Emeritus of Physics (University College London), Chairman, British Pugwash Group Revd Dr John Polkinghorne KBE FRS – Theoretical Physicist and Theologian Michael Frayn – Author of Copenhagen Right Revd Richard Holloway FRSE– Chairman of the Scottish Arts Council War of the Words first Pugwash movement, in a bid Nuclear weapons are an ethical to control and eventually elimi- dilemma for all thinking people – nate nuclear weapons. particularly the scientists who John Polkinghorne said that Los build them. Should nuclear Alamos saw the greatest concen- physicists have worked for the tration of high scientific talent Nazis, refused to follow orders or ever assembled for a single even sabotaged the project? common purpose, adding: “With Should the bomb have been the honourable exception of Jo dropped on Japan – and should Rotblat, nobody really asked civilians have been targeted? themselves what they were up to, What about the arms race now – until they actually saw the test and in the future? explosion in the New Mexico Sir Michael Atiyah kicked off the desert.” And according to discussion by saying that many of Polkinghorne, “that was too the scientists constructing the late.” atomic bomb in Los Alamos may Scientists involved in this kind of have had qualms about what they research have two roles, said were doing, but only one of them Polkinghorne: they are indispen- resigned on moral grounds. sable experts and morally Robert Oppenheimer (‘the father responsible citizens. Pure science of the bomb’) did express misgiv- gives us knowledge, and that is a ings later on, but the only scientist good thing, but the “lusty who actually resigned was Jo offspring” is technology, which Rotblat, who went on to form the turns that knowledge into power,

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“and that is a much more ambig- ly ‘good’ for power production. uous gift,” he continued, because That’s why we need public forums not everything that can be done in which scientists participate but should be done. do not monopolise, not seeking We therefore need another gift, what the media love (the conflicts said Polkinghorne – the wisdom which make “really good televi- to choose good over bad. Scien- sion”) but a “measured, tists also have to make such truth-seeking, wisdom-seeking decisions, but they have no debate.” Scientists have to unique expertise in that respect. contribute, he said, but they have The hymn says “every calling has no unique role to play. its snare,” he continued, and the The “slightly pessimistic” Michael snare of the scientific calling is the Frayn said that the control of “technological imperative,” the nuclear weapons is like “the excitement of discovery and doing balloon problem” described in Ian new things, even though the next McEwan’s novel Enduring Love, thing may be something that we when a balloon breaks loose and shouldn’t do. several people grab the ropes to That is why there has to be a hold it down, but then someone dialogue between scientists and drops one of the ropes and it the general public, when society becomes in the interest of tells scientists to think about what everyone else to drop the ropes they are doing and the conse- before they fly away with the quences of their actions. Scientists balloon. Unfortunately, however, can’t always be their own judges, one of them is carried off and falls he added. They should never to his death. And for Frayn this forget that they also have a symbolises the idea that renuncia- community role. tion of nuclear weapons only works if it is universal. It’s always hard to reach the right decision, said Polkinghorne, “It seems extremely unlikely that especially when ethical discourse it’s going to be universal,” he is so often about “the clash of said, “because there is always a single-issue pressure groups.” living to be made by some group While one group howls “X is as a predator.” The only way to terrible,” another group is saying control nuclear weapons, he “X is wonderful!” And it’s very added, “is by extremely elaborate, unlikely that either is right, he tiresome and complicated agree- continued, because “X” will be ments between great powers to good for some things and bad for join together to resist any minor others, just as nuclear reactions power or private interest who tries are ‘bad’ for bombs and potential- to seize the advantage by becom- ing a predator.”

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Frayn also thought it was unlikely of an “apocalyptic financial that renunciation of nuclear crisis.” Maybe the RSE should weapons could ever be completely look at the morality and econom- successful, but hoped it would be ics of the renewal of Trident, he “largely successful.” Sir Michael said, as its “next piece of drama.” agreed there is some room for John Finney mused on the hope, but also conceded “it’s suggestion that was raised that tough.” Heisenberg might have been Richard Holloway described the “something of a German Rot- two days of drama as “a kind of blat,” and said that Rotblat’s narrative of the fall of science,” short-term goal was the abolition with the invention of the bomb as of nuclear weapons – and his “science’s original sin.” We long-term ambition the abolition gained “astonishing but danger- of war. And “there is certainly no ous knowledge” by inventing the Heisenberg uncertainty” in that, bomb, he explained, and lost our he declared. innocence as a result. Rotblat did some very fundamen- These terrible weapons may have tal work on nuclear fission, said prevented war between “ad- Finney. He was one of the first vanced” nations, said Holloway, people to calculate how many so there is “a weird kind of evil additional neutrons are produced grace in the invention.” The by uranium fission, and saw as a danger is that the bomb will fall result of that the possibility of a into the hands of people who do nuclear bomb. “He joined the not have the same restraint. Manhattan Project because of the Describing the “ambiguity of possibility that Germany would science,” Holloway said we may develop a nuclear weapon,” said be very clever, but scientific Finney, “but he left it when it was knowledge often outstrips ethical clear Germany was not developing considerations and there’s a lag the atomic bomb.” He went into between what we can do and the Manhattan Project believing in what we ought to do, which the deterrence as a theory, but at the bomb demonstrates. He also said end of his life, he no longer we have a “duty” to deal with this believed this, said Finney. dangerous knowledge. After quitting the Manhattan Fifty miles away, Holloway added, project, Rotblat spent most of the there are submarines in Holy Loch rest of his professional scientific with “enormous predatory career looking into the medical nuclear weapons” that the uses of nuclear physics, and government is about to renew, at indeed built what appears to have a cost of £20 billion, in the midst been the first X-ray scanner. He

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also signed the Russell–Einstein moved into the political main- Manifesto, calling for the aboli- stream, with ‘getting to zero’ seen tion of nuclear weapons, and as a viable aim by many politi- co-founded Pugwash in 1957. cians, including President Obama. And while Rotblat was the The Americans and Russians could President of Pugwash, the get down to 500 weapons, said organisation and Rotblat himself Finney, “without any problem,” were awarded the Nobel Peace but getting down to zero would Prize. be harder, and we’d need complex Finney then described Pugwash agreements to do so. (named after the small town in Finney also emphasised that the Nova Scotia where the first Pugwash movement is also conference was held) as an concerned with other issues international network of scientists where scientists can play a positive who are concerned about the role, including problems of social impact of science – and climate change and the ethics of want to do something about it, science, where the idea of a including preventing the “mis- Hippocratic Oath for scientists has use” of science. Initially, the focus been developed by the Student/ was nuclear weapons, but that Young Pugwash organisation. brief has since expanded. Because Q&A it works behind the scenes, a lot How do we ensure that this of its achievements are not public knowledge (about nuclear knowledge, but after the Cold weapons) will always reach people War, Gorbachev confirmed it had in an unbiased way? Via drama? had a major effect through Or more education? keeping communication channels open during the Cold War. It had Polkinghorne was concerned that a critical influence on many arms the general public do not have a control agreements, but Finney good understanding of science, wondered why we have outlawed while Finney said that the decision biological and chemical weapons to renew Trident has both political but not nuclear weapons. and technical aspects. The design lifetime of the submarines is 25 Pugwash today remains focused years, he explained, but experts in on nuclear weapons, trying to the US argue that this lifetime help resolve conflict through could be extended by ten or more dialogue – e.g. “very interesting years, which would allow a discussions with senior Iranians in decision on replacement to be the last 12 months.” The Pug- postponed while international wash nuclear disarmament efforts towards nuclear disarma- agenda has in the last two years ment continue. “But there’s a

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disconnect in being able to get have a group of experts giving that information into the policy politicians advice, it doesn’t follow process,” said Finney. “There are that they will accept it,” for no easy mechanisms in the UK for political reasons and to keep the feeding independent scientific media happy. In Scotland, he said, advice into government,” partly a majority oppose renewing because we don’t have many Trident, and it should be possible independent scientists who to start a good debate, especially haven’t signed the Official Secrets given the fact that we could save Act, unlike in the US where £20 billion by not renewing scientists who have been previ- Trident. ously active within government We have had over 60 years of can raise technical issues from the peace in Europe as a result of outside. deterrence, whereas in other Today’s Guardian said it’s likely to countries, “monstrous acts cost £80 billion to renew Trident. continue.” So, does deterrence Is it possible to “dis-invent” work? nuclear weapons – like South Atiyah pointed out that even Africa? And what’s the French though we have had peace, the position on disarmament? causes are much more complicat- Finney replied that France has said ed: “The idea that deterrence it is prepared to join in negotia- solved all our problems in the past tions when weapons reductions and we should have more of it – have reached a certain (unspeci- that doesn’t work, I’m afraid.” fied) level, and that it is reducing Is there any “narrative” that will its number of weapons to about link things like climate change, 350, although it’s still building nuclear disarmament and the improved warheads. “They’ve also financial crisis? opened up some of their military Frayn replied that we can’t assume fissile material production that all human beings have the facilities for inspection,” he said, same aim or could have the same “but there is no pressure within aim. “It’s always in the interest of the French population for nuclear someone to break ranks,” he said. disarmament.” There’s a discon- Polkinghorne believed prolifera- nect, he added. People in France tion would continue and that one appear to accept that nuclear of the drivers is the fact that the weapons are important and will powerful nuclear states have the even protect them from terrorists, most powerful weapons, which but there hasn’t been much of a encourages more states to acquire public debate on the issue. their own weapons, “almost in Holloway said: “Just because you self-defence.” We need to look at

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these issues in a different way, he views. “We’ve got to get rid of added, “but how do we make it that simplified view of the world,” possible for politicians to shift he added. their positions?” One of the Some of us do not share your answers could be attempting to views on nuclear weapons. I mobilise “international civic believe they’ve been an unfortu- society,” Polkinghorne continued, nate blessing. I wish that they even if this may be “pie in the would go away but you can’t sky.” reinvent them. And how do we What about Pakistan, with the address the problem of prolifera- Taliban 60 miles from Islamabad? tion in less “sophisticated” Finney said the situation in countries? Pakistan is “very worrying and I was shocked by the suggestion grave,” and expressed his concern that the balance of nuclear about other areas of the world powers prevented the Third World where if something went wrong, War. Do you think this changed it could go very, very wrong, after the Cold War ended? because of the presence of Polkinghorne said the situation nuclear weapons – e.g. the Middle has changed for the worst, East and North Korea. “I have no because of proliferation. Not only easy answers,” he said. The are more states acquiring nuclear people there have to solve their weapons, but there is also a large own problems, he added, with black market for terrorists. “It whatever assistance they can get seems like we’re in a more from outside. Because a conflict dangerous place now than we might escalate into the use of were 30 years ago,” he added. nuclear weapons, these are areas Holloway “kind of agreed” that where Pugwash is making deterrence had worked, but said particular efforts to try to help that some things only work until find ways forward. they stop working, “so there’s Should we have a Muslim forum never any actual proof that they for scientists? And communica- are working.” Some states are tion between scientists with probably not interested in different ideological back- deterrence because they’re not grounds? bothered about mutually assured Atiyah pointed out that many destruction. “I think that’s the scientists from Muslim areas, new world enemy,” he added. including Pakistan, are involved in Atiyah then described how, at the Pugwash, and said it is a serious end of the Cold War, the Russians mistake to believe that the Muslim and Americans who had been world is a hotbed of extremist involved in the Cuban Missile

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Crisis exchanged information that theory to a world in which about “what they knew and what there are 100 states with nuclear they didn’t know,” about each weapons? other at the time. “The outcome According to Finney, the Nuclear was extremely chilling,” said Non-Proliferation Treaty was a Atiyah, because they found out bargain between the recognised how much they had been misin- nuclear weapons states – France, formed by their own the UK, US, USSR and China – and governments, and how poor the the other signatories that recog- intelligence was. “They very nearly nised the right of all countries to stumbled into a thermo-nuclear access nuclear technology for war,” he continued, “without peaceful purposes if they agree even knowing it.” Robert McNa- not to develop nuclear weapons. mara, who became very active in And as part of that grand bargain, Pugwash, said that the longer we the five nuclear weapons states have nuclear weapons, the more agreed to work towards the likely it is we will make a mistake, elimination of nuclear weapons. because “the fallibility of human Unfortunately, said Finney, the beings will guarantee an acci- nuclear weapons states haven’t dent.” So if anyone still believes fulfilled their part of the bargain, that nuclear weapons can ever be and the danger of nuclear a permanent source of stability, weapon proliferation has in- Atiyah continued, they should creased. India and Pakistan study those events. haven’t signed the NPT, Israel Finney said that nuclear weapons doesn’t officially acknowledge it were initially developed to deter a has nuclear weapons (even possible German attack. After- though everyone knows that it wards, nuclear weapons were does), and North Korea applies justified on the grounds that they the same argument in favour of would prevent a conventional developing a nuclear weapon attack by the Russians, who were capability as we do for retaining thought to have superior conven- ours, saying its weapons will deter tional forces. When the Cold War other states from attacking it – an ended, “we moved from a bi- argument that every other state polar world to a multi-polar could also use to justify posses- world,” said Finney, and we had sion of nuclear weapons. And that to rethink how to keep the peace. is why “there’s no way forward Even if you believe that nuclear but to get rid of the damn weapons actually worked in a things,” said Finney. “bi-polar world,” can you extend

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To stop proliferation, stop testing be solved in relation to inspec- and get everyone to sign a tions by the International Atomic comprehensive nuclear test ban Energy Agency to be able to treaty, including the US. What ensure that nuclear technology is does the panel think about that? only being used for peaceful Finney explained that the US has purposes. The problem, he signed the Comprehensive continued, is that it is relatively Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) but straightforward for a country with it hasn’t been ratified yet by the a nuclear power infrastructure to Senate – and this requires a two- make a further step and develop a thirds majority. The treaty is high nuclear weapon. So we need on the new administration’s “some sort of trip wire” to alert priority list but there is still a lot of us to when the line between work to do, he added. having nuclear power and developing a nuclear weapon There’s been a lot of talk about capability has been crossed. But the ‘advanced’ and ‘sophisticated’ the problem is not “insoluble,” nations with nuclear weapons, Finney said, but agreeing that if but if I lived in a country which there were no nuclear power, it has been on the receiving end of would be easier to prevent the behaviour of these ‘morally weapons development. superior’ nations, I might find it harder to get so worked up about CLOSING REMARKS the prospect of terrorists gaining Frayn: “It’s not a question of the same kind of power. morals or sophistication – it’s Holloway explained that he had always going to be in the interests used the word ‘advanced’ not in of smaller powers to retain a any moral sense but in the sense trump against the massive of developed technology, and powers.” agreed we are not morally Holloway: To build ‘a narrative of superior. “I think we are all pretty hope,’ Britain could re-think the mixed,” he said. renewal of Trident. “I don’t know Most of the panel appear to agree if that would render us any less about nuclear weapons and are safe,” he said, “but it would be also happy about nuclear power. an enormous spiritual and moral But as long as there’s nuclear gesture and save us a hell of a lot power, there’s always the potential of money.” to make nuclear weapons. Do you Polkinghorne: “If we gave up our see any optimistic way forward? nuclear deterrent tomorrow, what Finney said there are serious effect would that have on North technical issues that still need to Korea? Not very much, I think.”

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Finney: “We certainly can’t dis- produces problems, knowledge is invent nuclear weapons, but that important.” And part of the is not to say we can’t abolish trouble, he said, is that politicians them. We need to mobilise and the general public are not international civic society.” Rotblat well informed. “On a more believed that in addition to its hopeful note,” Atiyah pointed out traditional “behind the scenes” that the former Chairman of work, Pugwash had to convince Pugwash, John Holdren, has been people nuclear weapons are not appointed scientific adviser to the way forward. “It’s no good President Obama. Obama wanting to get rid of “We didn’t solve the problems of nuclear weapons, if he can’t take the world,” Atiyah concluded at his population with him,” Finney the end of the evening, but added. perhaps the renewal of Trident Atiyah: “Most of our scientists would be a good topic for next agree that although our science time…

191 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Robert Cormack Bequest Meeting 27 April 2009

The Robert Cormack Bequest world’s most successful survey of Meeting, supported by the bright transitting planets. Cormack Bequest Fund and the The welcome and opening lecture Scottish Universities Physics were followed by a series of Alliance (SUPA), was held on contributed talks, by PhD Students Monday 27 April, hosted for the and Researchers from across first time by the University of Scotland: Dundee. The physical and chemical envi- The aim of this annual meeting is ronment of a star-forming to bring together astronomers, bright-rimmed cloud - Alison space scientists and those inter- Craigon (University of Strathclyde) ested in astronomy, mainly Stellar Encounters: A Stimulus for post-graduate level students and Disc Fragmentation? - Duncan post-doc researchers, to share Forgan (Institute for Astronomy, their work and discuss the latest University of Edinburgh) happenings in Scottish astronomy. Silicate, ruby and opal in the This year’s meeting opened with a atmospheres of Brown Dwarfs welcome from co-host Dr Steve and planets - Christiane Helling Parkes, of the University of (University of St. Andrews) Dundee’s Space Technology NIR and optical luminosity Centre. He also gave the audience distributions and functions in an insight into the dynamic MGC/GAMA - David Hill (Universi- research being carried out in the ty of St. Andrews) Space Technology Centre. Cosmological Perturbations and The opening lecture, entitled Instabilities in Coupled Dark Sizing-up extra solar planets, was Energy and Dark Matter Models - given by Professor Andrew Collier- Brendan Jackson (Institute for Cameron from the University of St. Astronomy, University of Edin- Andrews. His fascinating presen- burgh) tation provided an overview of the Extrapolating Coronal Stellar latest research in the area of Magnetic Fields - Colin Johnstone exoplanetary science, including (University of St. Andrews) some of the more unusual planet University of Dundee involvement discoveries. Professor Cameron with the ExoMars mission - Mark also presented the history of the McCrum (University of Dundee) UK Wide-Angle Search for Planets (WASP) which has become the

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Fragmentation in Molecular Jennifer Noble (University of Clouds and its Connection to the Strathclyde) IMF - Rown J. Smith (University of Hamish Reid (University of St. Andrews) Glasgow) The Nature and Clustering of Star- David Sobral (University of St forming Galaxies at z=0.84 - David Andrews) Sobral (University of Edinburgh) The meeting closed with the The temperature structure around presentation of the following Quasars during Reionisation - Eric prizes: Tittley (Institute for Astronomy, Cormack Undergraduate Prize – University of Edinburgh) Mr William Simpson (University of A new SMBH Mass Function for St Andrews). Coronal Null points the Local Universe - Marina Vika and Solar Flares: a study of the (University of St. Andrews) topology of Active Regios AR0486 Testing the stability of dwarf during the time of the X17.2 Flare. ellipticals in MOND - Xufen Wu Cormack Postgraduate Prize – (University of St. Andrews) Ms Jenny Richardson (Royal Posters on a variety of topics, Observatory, University of including the first non-linear Edinburgh). An HCT/ACS view of force-free Vlasov-Maxwell equilib- the inhomogeneous outer halo of rium and the development of M31 comprehensive Lunar South Pole maps using a planetary surface Prize for Best Poster – Ms simulation tool, were presented in Jennifer Noble (University of a poster display: Strathclyde). Probing the chemistry of molecular cores: 2.5 - 5 micro Gráinne Costigan (University of Prism spectroscopy of B35A Dundee) Martin Feix (University of St The meeting was followed by a Andrews) tour and drinks reception at the Mills Observatory, Dundee, the Scott Gregory (University of St. only UK Observatory to have been Andrews) built with the sole aim of encour- Emma Grocutt (Institute for aging public understanding of Astronomy, University of Edin- science. burgh) This year’s meeting attracted a Julia Kennedy (Institute for total of 65 participants, from five Astronomy, University of Edin- Scottish Universities, as well as burgh) members of the Dundee Astro- Procheta Mallik (University of nomical Society and the Mills Glasgow) Observatory Advisory Group. Dr. Thomas Neukirch (University of St Andrews)

193 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Stem Cells as Therapy. Where have we been; Where are we now and where are we going (and how fast?) Caledonian Research Foundation Conference 30 April 2009

Stem cells may well hold the key to finding treatments for previously incurable conditions. But they tend to divide populations. While many are excited about their possible therapeutic applications, others see them as an ethical affront and are uneasy about their use. Stem cell research has, however, been one of the fastest growing areas of biomedical science in the last decade. The recent election of US President Barack Obama – who is in favour of stem cell research – is likely to accelerate that further. Leaving aside the ethical debate, just how close are we to turning dreams of a range of stem cell therapies into clinical reality? This conference, organised by the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Caledonian Research Foundation, brought together some of the world’s leading figures in stem cell research to discuss the scientific barriers which must be overcome. Taken in three sections, the conference heard about achievements to date, reviewed the current state of research and took a look into the future – including developments in the regulatory framework which governs the field. Significant questions and hurdles remain, but there was a sense of optimism that, given the right policy and research environment and backing, stem cells may one day become routine therapy.

Session One – Where have we change from one pathway to been? another – once they have started Sir John Gurdon FRS. Wellcome developing, they will continue to Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon become the specific adult cells Institute, University of Cambridge. they started out to be. But experimental nuclear reprogram- Nuclear reprogramming in eggs ming can be used to encourage and oocytes other, unrelated, cells to grow. Described as a ‘father figure’ in This works most efficiently where the field of stem cells because of the nucleus of a somatic cell is his pioneering work with frog transplanted to an egg which has cloning in the 1960s, Sir John had its own nucleus removed. introduced the day with an The advantage of this process is overview of nuclear reprogram- that it is natural and highly ming. In nature, cells do not efficient and does not require new

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genes. The disadvantages are that the first crucial step. The DNA has human eggs are hard to obtain, to be demethylated (which so, realistically, it would not be essentially means having its possible to obtain enough. memory taken away) for epigenet- The long-term aim is therefore to ic reprogramming. Sir John said identify the mechanisms and that although you might think substances with reprogramming that transcription factors would ability, then use them to improve be required, they are not. Also, it the success rates of creating is important to switch processes replacement cells from easily ‘on’, but not ‘off’. obtainable tissues such as skin or The egg is a remarkable thing and blood. a better understanding of how it He asked three questions: how works will help us make more efficient is reprogramming by efficient the switches for repro- eggs and oocytes? What causes gramming and cell replacement. the failures of nuclear transfer? Professor Roger Pedersen MRC And what mechanisms are used Cambridge Centre for Stem Cell by eggs and oocytes for repro- Biology & Medicine, Cambridge. gramming? Mechanisms of pluripotency Using nuclear transfer to eggs to and differentiationin human switch between cell types is pluripotent stem cells around 30 per cent efficient. Pluripotent stem cells are capable Unsuccessful reprogramming may of generating all body tissue and be due to epigenetic memory, are potentially a source of impor- whereby the cell ‘remembers’ tant new therapies. what it was supposed to be in the Understanding how human first place. embryonic stem cells (hESC) This may be explained by the maintain their pluripotent state presence of histone H3.3, which may be the key to translating stem appears to be required for cell research to therapeutic epigenetic memory. If this is applications. removed, it is possible to make Comparisons between mouse and the cells ‘forget’ what was once human stem cells are helping us their destiny and happily become to understand more about how different types of cells. they work. There are significant Sir John then discussed some of differences between mouse ESCs the specific mechanisms which and hESCs. Unlike in mice, may lead to efficient transfer. pluripotency in hESCs is main- Chromatin decondensation seems tained by the growth factors to be necessary to ‘switch on’ Activin and Nodal. Differences pluripotency in cells, so could be between the mouse and human

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cells have a developmental, rather ling represses SIP1 expression than a species, origin, and human through Nanog and OCT4 and stem cells (including induced also directly by Smad2 and 3, pluripotent stem cells) represent while SIP1 is activated by SOX2. the state of pluripotency in the All these factors affect cell fate pre-gastrula stages of mammalian decisions and help determine embryos. Activin/Nodal inhibition pluripotency, and improving our in hESCs induces neuroectoderm understanding of them in the lab differentiation. The question is will accelerate the development of how does Activin/Nodal signalling new stem cell therapies. regulate the cell fate decision Professor Robin Lovell-Badge between pluripotency and FRS. Head of Division, Division of neuroectoderm differentiation? Stem Cell Biology and Develop- Professor Pedersen discussed mental Genetics, MRC National research which is taking forward Institute for Medical Research our understanding of the biologi- Many ways to pluripotency – cal mechanisms of stem cells. This embryonic, adult and inducible has included analysis of the roles pluripotent stem cells of the Smad proteins and their binding partners, as well as Embryonic stem cells are pluripo- isolating and studying relevant tent, that is, they have the ability growth factors. to become any of the differentiat- ed cell types in the adult body. But Other research has looked at the there are ways of obtaining role of Activin/Nodal in Nanog relatively stable stem cell lines expression (a critical factor in cell from a number of sources, pluripotency) and has found that including blastocysts, teratocarci- it depends on the growth factors, noma tumours and early while Nanog transcription is (post-implantation) embryonic or regulated by Smad2 and Smad3 foetal tissue. Adult stem cells have binding sites. This is important been used for therapy for many because Nanog over-expression years – for example in bone maintains pluripotency in hESCs. marrow transplants and skin Therefore, Activin/Nodal signalling grafts – but they tend only to give maintains pluripotency through rise to the same cell type. its regulation of Nanog expression Adult and embryonic stem cells and Nanog activity will inhibit can also be encouraged to neuroectoderm differentiation. pluripotency by using genes such He also discussed the role of SIP1, as SOX2, so that they become which promotes and accelerates induced pluripotent stem cells. neuroectoderm differentiation in These stem cell genes are required hESCs. But Activin/Nodal signal- for the establishment and mainte-

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nance of tissues, to permit or gene network and chromatin encourage self-renewal and status. confer the ability to differentiate Session Two – Where are we into one or more cell types. now? Looking for these genes and Professor Ian Duncan CorrFRSE seeing how they act in different rofessor of Neurology, University types of stem cell is providing of Wisconsin, USA valuable information about how cells work. For example, SOX2, Repair of myelin disorders using OCT4 and Nanog are thought to stem cells; exogenous vs regulate many genes that define endogenous strategies the embryonic stem cell state, and Myelin, the protective layer which SOX2, OCT4, KLF4 and cMYC can surrounds nerve cells, is an reprogramme fibroblasts to ES- important target for treating like iPS cells. neurological disorders. Of these, Professor Lovell-Badge talked the most common disease is about the role of SOX9 in the multiple sclerosis (MS), where the generation of neural stem cells – myelin degenerates (demyelina- the number of neurones and tion). There are also a number of oligodendrocytes, for example, is serious inherited disorders where reduced if SOX9 is removed. myelin does not form. There are no current treatments which SOX2 marks several stem cell types promote the repair or formation in adults and is also expressed in of myelin, but Professor Duncan several differentiated cell types, described various strategies by but its regulatory region is very which stem cells might be used to complex. build or replace this insulating or There are a number of ways to protective sheath, providing induce or improve pluripotency, potential cures. but questions remain, not least In his talk, Professor Duncan around safety. Professor Lovell- concentrated on MS, a chronic, Badge concluded by saying that demyelinating condition, which is robust assays for pluripotency, or particularly common in Scotland, proxies for this, are needed, is pathologically complex and for especially for human ES and iPS which there are treatments but no cells. cure. These should include organised One of the hallmarks of the and consistent in-vitro differentia- disease is demyelination of the tion assays; teratoma assays; brain and spinal cord (CNS), to chimera studies (except in hu- which, in the early stages of the mans); and profiling to look for disease, the CNS appears to activity of both the pluripotency respond with a partial remyelina-

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tion. As the disease progresses, Professor Paul Sharpe. Depart- however, the CNS seems to lose its ment of Craniofacial ability to respond. Development, Dental Institute, Myelin arises from a well-studied King’s College, London cell, the oligodendrocyte. Under- Tooth morphogenesis: from standing the lineage of these embryonic development to cells, from the earliest stages of postnatal tooth regeneration embryonic differentiation to the For thousands of years, man has production of oligodendrocyte replaced lost teeth. Today we tend progenitors, may provide clues to use dental implants, involving a about the best way to provide metal substitute for the root – not therapies. so very different from an iron peg Professor Duncan described two found in the mouth of a Roman approaches: exogenous treat- from 2,000 years ago. It’s all been ment, where cells are effectively about inert substances, not transplanted to replace myelin; or biology, said Professor Sharpe. endogenous, where existing cells All this could be about to change. are ‘recruited’ and persuaded to He described the development of repair the myelin loss. The latter a biological process to use stem method may well avoid the risks cells to create replacement teeth. of immune reactions, but may This could have huge quality-of- have other risks, and, in any case, life benefits; could revolutionise the recruitment process is not treatments for people with sufficiently understood as yet. The diseases such as osteoporosis former has shown more promis- (who may lose teeth and the bone ing results so far in animal in the jaw) and could also provide models. Research to date may not important clues for how best to have been conclusive, but has use stem cells to replace other suggested that both methods are organs. promising. It might be, said Professor Sharpe said it was Professor Duncan, that the two important to understand the techniques could be used togeth- development of the tooth. He er to provide a better outcome. took it right back to the epitheli- There will be challenges, however, um and mesenchymal cells which in translating the animal model form an embryonic tooth primor- findings into humans, not least dium. The idea was to identify the because the human brain is much cells, start the process, and then larger. you should get a tooth, he said, adding that while the idea is simple, doing it is more difficult.

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Using mouse models, they have take time to develop ‘roadmaps’ found cells (both embryonic and to the clinic. In particular, he adult) which will form tooth warned against ‘scientifically ill- primordia and then develop into founded’ trials in patients and complete teeth when transplanted said more research was needed to into the mouth. get a better understanding both There is a need, however, to of the diseases themselves and identify human cells – and also how potential treatments worked. find a source of these. Professor Professor Lindvall made special Sharpe described how dental stem reference to Parkinson’s disease cells are a ‘fantastic’ mesenchymal (PD), where there is proof-of- cell source – one of the reasons principle that neuronal why commercial companies are replacement can work. But he said now ‘banking’ ‘baby’ teeth which there were many issues to be children lose naturally. But there considered. Any stem cell therapy remain challenges, including a would have to be clinically relative lack of knowledge about competitive, in that it would have these cells, where they are found to be better than existing treat- and how they function. In order to ments for PD. Specific cell types, improve this understanding, for example, dopamine neurones, Professor Sharpe is using mouse would have to be generated; models to determine the genetic good animal models would be processes involved in the repair of needed and the biological damaged teeth – the idea being mechanisms underlying the to learn more about the mesen- observed functional effects would chymal cells believed to be in have to be understood. adult molars. Trials using human foetal Professor Olle Lindvall. Section dopamine neurones are promis- of Restorative Neurology, Wallen- ing, but have limitations, he said. berg Neuroscience Centre, Lund For example, there is a limited University Hospital, Sweden availability of human foetal tissue. There is also the question of Stem cell therapy for neurolog- whether the grafted tissue is likely ical disorders to become affected by the disease. While there is some evidence that Research so far suggests that stem cell therapies for some patients will be fine ten years after disorders of the brain would work treatment, but that disease will in principle, Professor Lindvall progress in some in 16 years. urged a cautious approach, To make a successful treatment, a pointing out that there was still a good supply of standardised lot to learn. Stem cells have dopamine neurones would be possibilities, he said, but it would

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needed. There have been recent clinician, stem cell treatments had interesting developments in seemed a ‘distant possibility’. Now animal models, but there are risks. they are closer to hand, but hold a For example, stem cell therapies number of challenges, not all of (as tried on rats) could be tumour- them clinical. Stroke is a good forming. There is also a question starting point, he said, because it about what type of stem cell is a single, focal brain injury, is would be best and research common and causes disability should be carried out on each in with limited recovery – there is a parallel. There is also the possibili- huge clinical need for effective ty that the brain could be treatments. stimulated to produce new, The trial will involve injecting healthy cells of its own. foetal-derived neural cells directly Challenges include making into the brains of stroke patients, treatments more effective – in the hope that they will differen- improving survival of neurones is tiate into brain tissue, neurones a major goal, he said. Minimising and other tissue and lead to unwanted side-effects is also vital. repair, either directly or by stimu- In summary, Professor Lindvall said lating the existing cells and that stem cell therapies for connections to repair themselves. neurological disorders were There have been enormous possible, but were a long-term challenges in designing the trial, prospect. More information is which received approval from the needed on the mechanisms of the Medicines and Healthcare Prod- disease and on the biology ucts Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in underlying the functional effects. January 2009. These include Research on exogenous and choosing patients – and there is a endogenous stem cells should big variety in stroke patients and continue to work in parallel, and most are older people with other potential problems should not be diseases. There are also problems underestimated. with recruitment of patients, as Professor Keith Muir. Division of many are automatically excluded, Clinical Neuroscience, University for reasons ranging from a lack of of Glasgow ability to consent, to clinical suitability. There are also challeng- Taking stem cells into clinical es around finding methods of trials showing if the treatment is Professor Muir described the working – it is not possible to development of what will be the ‘mark’ the cells to see what they first clinical trial on stroke patients are doing – and in ensuring safety. using foetal-derived stem cells. He There are questions around started by saying that, as a control groups, whether patients

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should be immunosuppressed Proposed uses for hESC include and about length and type of drug screening and allogenic cell follow-up. The proposed solu- therapy and also, possibly, for tions for the first trial would autologous cell therapies. He probably change in future trials, described some current research, he said. including the work of Coffey and Professor Muir also described others in London to ‘cure’ age- regulatory hurdles, with two related macular degeneration distinct bodies overseeing (AMD) – a common cause of sight- scientific review at present (MHRA loss – by using stem cells to make and also the Gene Therapy replacement macular cells. Advisory Committee). Another Cells could also be made and pressure is media interest – and used in drug screening, which dealing with public expectation. should improve safety and avoid Desperate patients and their situations where drugs have to be families have contacted him withdrawn because they are saying they would sell everything causing harm in some patients. and move to Glasgow just to be Prospects are less good for part of the trial. autologous therapies, however, Professor Alan Colman Singa- partly because it is difficult to pore Stem Cell Consortium, make the right cell type in suffi- (A*STAR), Institute of Medical cient numbers. Biology, Singapore Adult stem cells or iPSC have the Translational applications of potential to be created in far pluripotent stem cells – hESC greater numbers – which might and iPSC make them more suitable for Cell therapy has reached some autologous treatments. Here the interesting milestones and there limitations include finding ways of are promising therapies in getting the cells to the affected development, but there is still site without causing problems. some way to go and the challeng- These cells make it possible to es should not be underestimated. create an almost unlimited amount of material for drug Professor Colman outlined the screening and for research to potential uses and pros and cons study the biology of diseases. But – as we know them so far – of a major challenge will be growing human embryonic stem cells and ageing them quickly enough (hESC) and induced pluripotent so that they are of use in examin- stem cells (iPSC). He also gave ing late-onset diseases, such as some examples of how they are motor neurone disease. being used in research.

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Panel Discussion willing to take part in trials, Asked if the mechanisms in nobody wants the placebo – Europe for getting new therapies patients are willing to take risks. to the market are counter- Session Three – Where are we productive, and if it could be done going? (and how fast?) more quickly and safely, Professor Sian Harding. Profes- Professor Muir said he felt that sor of Cardiac Pharmacology and regulatory processes are still member of the Nuffield Council developing and need a rigorous on Bioethics, National Heart & review. Rigorous regulation is Lung Institute, Imperial College, important, but the current process London could be improved. Translating research into reality Professor Lindvall said he felt that Reality, said Professor Harding, stem cell therapies are moving too has been ‘messier than planned’, quickly into the clinic and that when it comes to translating stem they should be developed in a cell research into clinical treat- responsible way. ments. Although clinical trials From the floor, Professor David using cells derived from autolo- Baird said that moving forward in gous bone marrow and skeletal a rational way has the potential to muscle cells have been taking stifle innovation. IVF has been place for over ten years, and some developed in a ‘chaotic’ fashion, results have been promising, there he said, and the more it has are still a number of challenges to become regulated, the more overcome before the treatments innovation has decreased. He said become a clinical reality. more account should be taken of The heart can be subject to many consumer groups and of patients different kinds of damage, and willing to take risks. Professor the high incidence of heart Lindvall said he had been a disease makes it an important clinician for 30 years and his first therapeutic target. Damage can be ambition was to do something caused by a single event, such as a good for his patients. But he heart attack, or by a reaction to warned against rushing into prolonged toxic stimulus, and a treatments, for example, for process leading to heart failure is Parkinson’s disease, for which likely to set in. Heart failure has a there are existing therapies. If a poor prognosis and sufferers have stem cell treatment causes a a reduced quality of life, and tumour, for example, it could kill transplant is still the only option stem cell research for 25 years. for a cure. Professor Muir added that one What we are looking for is repair problem is that while patients are of the contracting muscle of the

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heart, and stem cell technology is other areas might be an answer to a possible way forward. But what some of these problems. Alterna- kind of stem cells? tively, using or stimulating the There have been trials using intrinsic cardiac progenitor cells skeletal myoblasts, which showed might produce a greater benefit. some early benefit, but also For the cardiac area, we are at a suggested that there was a risk of stage where the first reliable the unwanted side-effect of clinical trials are informing and arrhythmia. One trial, the Myob- directing progress, but a consen- last Autologous Grafting in sus has not yet been reached on Ischaemic Cardiomyopathy cell type, or even whether extrinsic (MAGIC), was stopped early application of stem cells can be because there was no evidence of replaced by stimulation of the benefit, although the treatment natural repair process of the appeared safe and may have had patient. positive secondary effects. Dr John Connolly. Health of Cell Bone-marrow derived cells have & Gene Therapies, Department of produced modest improvement Health, London with no safety issues, but act Regulation of stem cell thera- indirectly rather than by creating pies in the UK new muscle. Dr Connolly outlined the current Many questions remain around regulatory and legislative frame- the efficacy of bone marrow stem work which governs stem cell and cell treatment for heart disease. gene therapy research in the UK. For example, are the trials using He described recent developments enough cells? Could paracrine – such as publication of a UK factors do the same? Are the cells regulatory route-map, which from patients impaired, and is this provides a one-page picture of the impairment actually a factor in the regulatory process – and he progression of the disease? stressed that regulators are willing Embryonic stem cells have been to listen and trying to learn. shown in the lab to produce The current system is complex – as contracting myocardial muscle evidenced by the route-map – but cells, but are more difficult to so is the science. The different translate to clinical situations. regulatory bodies, including the There are hurdles to overcome in Human Fertilisation and Embryo terms of immune reaction, tumour Authority (HFEA), the Gene formation and potential arrhyth- Therapy Advisory Committee mias, as well as ethical issues. It (GTAC) and the Medicines and may be that patient-specific Healthcare products Authority embryonic-like cells from skin or (MHRA), have shown a willingness

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to work together in order to needs one apparent success to improve the overall regulatory make a media story, he said, and environment in the UK. vulnerable patient groups are Regulation can be a good thing, being targeted. said Dr Connolly, as it can improve Sir Ian Wilmut OBE FRS FRSE. the quality of research. There is a Scottish Centre for Regenerative general acceptance that the Medicine, University of Edinburgh process is evolving and can be A surfeit of opportunities: improved but there are barriers to which cell is best? making that happen quickly – not Stem cells provide new opportuni- least that there is still considerable ties but it’s a distraction to ask scientific uncertainty surrounding which cell is best; we need them the clinical application of stem all, Sir Ian suggested. As well as cells and that most policies opportunities for new therapies, require Pan-European agreement stem cells have the potential to before they can be taken forward. give us a better understanding of He said that regulators are not risk disease and may accelerate drug averse and are willing to discuss discovery. research proposals to help find Many inherited diseases have no the best way forward. There are treatment. Stem cells may offer an other helpful documents, includ- answer, not only in leading to ing a handbook published potential therapies but in helping recently by the International us to study the cause of the Society for Stem Cell Research. disease and to find new drugs. This publication is also helpful in For example, family history is combating ‘stem cell tourism’ – known to be a factor in ten per where patients are enticed into cent of cases of motor neurone taking part in ‘trials’ which are disease. Mutations in the SOD1 ethically dubious, not based on gene cause 20 per cent of the evidence, and usually cost the cases of inherited MND, but it may participants a great deal of money. be that deposits of an abnormal In some cases, even if the ‘trials’ protein, TDP43 actually cause are advertised as ‘free’, they can many cases of the disease. Drug involve the individual paying vast development is lengthy and amounts for travel and accommo- expensive, but it could be possible dation costs. Although regulators to accelerate discovery using stem and others are working to tackle cells from human patients with the purveyors of such treatment, the disease in appropriate mouse patients can be desperate and models. This could be optimistic, may accept some extreme risks, however, as symptoms typically financial and otherwise. It only

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show at the age of 50 – so it Panel Discussion and Close would take a long time to see the Dr Connolly was asked how the effects. complex regulation road map Use of stem cells in drug testing compared with that of other may also help prevent develop- countries. He responded that the ment of dangerous drugs with UK was the only country which unexpected side-effects. Late had mapped it out. He acknowl- withdrawal of a product is very edged that it is complex, but said expensive – it is estimated to cost that he is open to suggestions the pharmaceutical industry $8 about how it could be improved – billion a year. If this could be and stressed that regulators are reduced by creating high through- approaching the issue with a put screening using induced degree of humility. pluripotent stem cells, then it Asked if the wealth of regulation could produce safer drugs, more put people off researching in the quickly and more economically. He UK, in favour of going somewhere also spoke about the possible use less regulated, Dr Connolly said it of stem cells to help the liver to is a mixed picture. While some repair itself, leading to the may be put off, others find that aspiration of a stem cell therapy the quality of regulation in the UK for cirrhosis. is helpful, because, for example, Looking to the future, stem cell investors see regulatory approval technology provides real opportu- as a positive thing. nities, but there are still many Asked whether there should be unanswered questions and points more focus on potency and purity for debate. A way forward would of stem cells, Professor Harding be to bring together all those who said that in cardiac terms, purity is are involved in stem cell research not possible, because a number of to create collaborations which different cells would be needed. pool expertise and lead to the Professor Haites wound up the best chance of advances in the event by thanking the organisers understanding of and treatment and the speakers and all those for disease. who had contributed.

205 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Lord John Kerr of Kinlochard GCMG HonFRSE Today's EU : all passion spent MacCormick European Lecture 26 May 2009

As Secretary-General of the when most people in Scotland are European Convention, Lord Kerr showing little if any passion about helped to draft the EU Constitu- the European elections,” Russell tion from 2002 to 2003, and in concluded, “it is the passion he this year’s inaugural MacCormick had for the things he believed in European Lecture, renamed to that will distinguish this lecture commemorate the former MEP Sir and future lectures.” Neil MacCormick, the ex-diplomat In his opening remarks, Lord Kerr said what is needed in Europe is echoed these sentiments, describ- not just more debate but more ing Sir Neil’s endless Neil MacCormicks… encouragement, optimism, Introduction enthusiasm and passion, adding To commemorate the late Sir Neil that what we need in the debate MacCormick, Michael Russell, about Europe is “a lot more Minister for Culture, External MacCormicks.” Affairs and the Constitution in the Europe matters Scottish Parliament, introduced Even though the title of his lecture the lecture now named in his implies that the EU has run out of former mentor’s honour with steam, Lord Kerr made a passion- some warm words of praise for his ate call for debate about Europe – “learning, experience, kindness not just more logical and better and knowledge,” highlighting Sir informed but also recognising Neil’s contribution to the RSE and how much it matters to the UK Scotland and also his passion for and Scotland as well as to coun- Europe. Russell began by quoting tries beyond. the English writer John Aubrey, Lord Kerr wore his passion on his who wrote in Brief Lives: “When a sleeve from the start, saying that learned man dies, there dies a we only need to look at our war great deal of learning with him.” graves to see that the EU makes But in Russell’s view, this is not the sense: any political construct that case with Sir Neil, since in dying prevents such slaughter happen- he left his learning and his ing again must be good. Having passions with us, including his served in the UK Embassy in passion for Europe. “At a time

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Moscow in 1968, he described The EU Constitution, which Lord being moved when the Czechs, Kerr helped to draft and insists is and other East European and not a constitution but a treaty, is a Baltic states, showed how keen “tombstone” of the old ways of they were to be members, after thinking, he said. It confirms that the break-up of the Soviet Union, the EU may not raise taxes or and said that it is “worth getting borrow money, make peace or passionate” about an entity which war, or even decide who its reinforces freedom and makes citizens are. “All that is left dictatorship impossible in mem- entirely to the nation-states,” he ber countries. said. The Lisbon Treaty is a bargain “There is passion,” he said, “but between states, with no ‘constitu- we are not good at expressing it.” tional’ claim to a legitimacy arising directly from the people. Lord Kerr He then described the findings of also believes that the EU would, if a survey which suggested that the Lisbon Treaty were ratified, most British people think that the become more democratic, clearly EU is “bad for jobs” and a “raw recognising the sovereign role of deal” for the country, and said national parliaments, as well as this is “demonstrably absurd”. taking due account of population The creation of the single Europe- in its own voting procedures. UK an market and the correction of voting weight would increase by original budget imbalances, both almost 50 per cent, he said. successes won by Mrs Thatcher, mean that the UK now gains a lot Lord Kerr then quoted William in terms of employment and Hague, saying that the Treaty of makes a fair contribution to the Lisbon is “all about institutional budget. aggrandisement.” Not only is this not true, he said, it is the reverse “Why leave a club when we are of the truth. He also stressed that winning?” he asked, noting that it is more important than ever to English is now the main language uphold the principles of the single of the EU institutions. “Why leave market, at a time when economic when the tide has turned?” he pressures lead some politicians to added, noting that the old idea of argue for national protectionism – power steadily accruing to the e.g. for the car industry. “Protec- centre is out of fashion, along tionism protects only decline,” he with dreams of a big EU budget said. and laws which fail to take account of national interests. When it comes to immigration, he “The tide turned in the 90s,” he added, we should also be more said. aware of the facts, recognising that northwest Europe has an

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ageing and stagnating population he asked. Not to be part of any of which will have to be renewed by the big Strasbourg groupings, immigration from the faster- Lord Kerr suggested, means being growing south and east. “Our committed to “impotence,” since choice,” he said, “is whether to the work of the Parliament is done import workers or outsource in committees and power in work.” committee lies with the Centre- EU elections, Scottish independ- Right, Centre-Left and Liberals, ence and the Euro who make up nearly 80 per cent of the Parliament. “The Conserva- In the second half of his lecture, tives have had real influence via Lord Kerr (in his own words) the EPP (European People’s “insulted” one by one the Party),” he said, “but now seem to Conservative Party, the Scottish be giving this up. It makes no National Party and the Labour sense to decide to have no Party, starting with the Conserva- influence. If you don’t want to get tives and their negative approach things done in Strasbourg, why to the forthcoming EU elections stand for election?” (June 4). As for Tory talk of forming a new Noting that turnout is likely to be Euro-sceptic grouping, Lord Kerr less than 33 per cent of the thought they might well succeed, electorate and that the election is but only by embracing “some “a mid-term referendum on an rather odd bed-fellows,” largely unpopular government” in the UK from Eastern Europe, very socially and some other countries, he conservative and very opposed to expressed concern that the agricultural reform. “Was Mr Conservatives appear to be more Klaus from Prague or Mr Gorski “anti-Europe” or “Euro-sceptic” from Warsaw a natural ally for the than ever and plan to form a new party of Sir Alec or Lady Thatch- alliance with parties who oppose er?” he asked. And did it make the very idea of the EU, even sense to reject alliances with potentially finding themselves in Chancellor Merkel and President the same camp as the BNP and Sarkozy, in favour of such “fringe UKIP. figures of the far Right”? “How can you stand for election Turning his attention to Scotland, to an assembly of which you don’t Lord Kerr had a warning for the want to be part, to pass Europe- SNP. “Unlike many in England, we wide laws of which you Scots know it’s not a zero-sum disapprove, and – as a first task – game; you can be both a good approve a new European Commis- Scot and a good European,” he sion whose powers you reject?” said. But this should not blind us

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to the fact that “selling our by 30 per cent, he explained, but independence in Europe would Mr Brown did not argue 11 years not be easy.” Spain has the ago that we must reject the Euro Basques and Catalans to think in order to retain the right to about, he explained, and along devalue; rather, he told us that the with four other EU member states days of “boom and bust” were also facing minority separatist over. movements, has refused to The UK’s credit rating is now recognise breakaway Kosovo. threatened with down-grading by Lord Kerr also wondered what Standard & Poor’s, said Lord Kerr, would happen to the Treaty of even though our government Accession if Scotland became borrowing is less, for example, independent, and how easy it than France, Germany or the would be to renegotiate the United States, who are not yet budget rebate won by Mrs threatened. “Why the differ- Thatcher. An independent ence?” he asked. They have the Scotland would not face insur- benefit of having reserve curren- mountable EU obstacles he cies: 27 per cent of international added, but “part of the debate reserves are now held in Euros, about Scottish independence with only about four per cent in should be about Europe, and how Sterling. “Alas, neither Tories nor to overcome them,” he conclud- Labour seem willing to revisit the ed. debate,” said Lord Kerr. “The Lord Kerr then pointed out that silence is deafening.” the Euro, now 11 years old, is “The EU is a good idea which used by 15 countries, the world’s works,” Lord Kerr concluded, but most widely used transactions we still need to have a debate, currency, and the world’s second particularly if we are to have an reserve currency. The economic independence referendum in effects of adopting the Euro are Scotland. It isn’t right to let complex, he said, “but it has Europe’s critics get away with probably increased trade flows.” slogans and prejudice. “We need Perhaps it is time to debate again more debate, logic and passion, “whether our isolation is really so and less fear, ignorance and splendid”? The UK has effectively cynicism. We need more articulate been able to devalue the pound advocates. Neil MacCormick is greatly missed.”

209 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Professor James Hough FRS FRSE Ripples from the Dark side of the Universe the Search for Gravitational Waves Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize Lecture 15 June 2009

The evolving field of Gravita- in space-time which move out- tional Wave Astronomy wards like ripples across a pond. Gravitational waves are ‘ripples in However, these strains, as they are space-time’ caused by the acceler- known, are at extremely low levels ation of large masses in the of the order of one part in a universe. They carry information thousand billion billion. That is about what is happening deep in equivalent to a change in the the heart of some of the most separation of the Earth and the violent events in Space. It was Sun by less than the diameter of Einstein who first postulated that an atom. Detecting them has they exist in his General Theory of proved to be one of the most Relativity in the early part of the challenging problems in experi- last century. Almost 100 years on, mental astrophysics. they have never been directly Little interest was shown in detected by scientists, although carrying out experiments in this there is indirect evidence of their field until the work of Joseph existence. Professor Hough Weber in the 1960s. That encour- explained the nature of gravita- aged other research teams to tional waves and the research become involved, leading on to being carried out around the the developments of recent years. world to detect these elusive Professor Hough said this work signals. He said that establishing was designed to answer some proof of their existence would important scientific questions confirm Einstein’s theory and, including: more importantly, would open up - What are the properties of a new kind of astronomy that gravitational waves? would add to our understanding - Is Einstein’s theory of general of the universe. relativity the correct theory of According to the theory of gravity? relativity, gravity is the result of the - How does matter behave under curvature of space-time. As two extremes of density and objects orbit each other, their pressure? acceleration causes disturbances

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- What is the history of the black hole formation; neutron accelerating expansion in the stars coalescing; rotating neutron Universe? stars such as pulsars; and from - Where and when do massive general noise background from black holes form and how are sources such as cosmic strings they connected to the formation which are thought to be like of galaxies? elongated black holes. To a non- - What happens when a massive specialist, the challenge seemed star collapses? not dissimilar to designing and - What is the history of star deploying equipment in Edin- formation in the Universe? burgh that could detect a leaf dropping from a tree in Ecuador. Professor Hough said that up to about ten years ago scientists The technology being used to thought they were close to detect gravitational waves is the understanding everything about laser interferometer. The interfer- the Universe. However, it was then ometers used for this work have discovered that the Universe is two arms down which the laser expanding, with its outer part light is fired, with reflecting accelerating away as if gravity was mirrors at the ends of the arms. acting as a repulsive force. No one The light travels inside stainless could understand what was steel tubes which are kept causing this to happen. It is evacuated. The arms need to be believed to be due to something up to four kilometres long and called dark energy, but that is built on the surface of the earth another phenomenon that is not (with the mirrors isolated from understood. Professor Hough said seismic disturbances by being that detecting gravitational waves hung as pendulums), to make will help scientists measure what them sensitive enough to pick up the Universe is doing in a totally the wave signals. The laser light different way and begin to get an inside the tubes is the measuring understanding about what is tool. The laser light is first split causing this acceleration. into two beams by a beam-splitter, and after travelling to the ends of A large part of Professor Hough’s the arms and being reflected back, lecture was devoted to the the two beams then combined to technical challenge of detecting interfere with each other. This these minute signals from faraway creates a form of ‘telescope’ that in space. It will need huge masses can ‘see’ these signals from space. accelerating very strongly to produce waves that are capable of This system is incredibly sensitive being detected from Earth. This and can be affected by the will come from events such as smallest vibration, sound or Brownian Fluctuations of its

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mirrors. Professor Hough said a from 55 institutions. Five science great deal of experimental care is runs have now been completed needed to isolate the equipment with the detectors in this collabo- from all these influences to ensure ration but, so far, nothing has that pure measurements are been found. Professor Hough said obtained. Animals living in the this is not surprising given the surrounding area can exert a current limitations of the existing gravitational pull that can affect instrumentation, which cannot equipment and even passing reach far enough out into the clouds have a gravitational universe to pick up potential influence. All this has to be taken measurable events. The LIGO into account in designing and system is currently being en- operating the interferometers. hanced by a factor of two and A network of interferometers is there are plans to run the systems currently in operation around the again this summer. At this world. Professor Hough’s team is improved level, LIGO might be involved with colleagues in able to detect two events a year. Germany on GEO 600. This uses a The real promise for the future lies novel technology known as Signal in developing advanced detectors Recycling, which feeds the signals that will have 10–15 times the that try to come out of the sensitivity or range of current interferometer back into the interferometers. This will allow system to make them bigger and scientists to reach further out into more measureable. It also sus- space and increase the number of pends mirrors with pure glass large-scale events that potentially fibre to reduce fluctuations in can be detected to 500 a year. An movement (Brownian Fluctua- advanced version of the LIGO tions) caused by the system being detector, based on the British and at room temperature. Other German technology, is expected to detectors exist in the United States be fully installed and operating by (the LIGO experiment), Italy (the 2014. The Italian-based detector Virgo experiment) and Japan (the is to have a similar upgrade. In TAMA experiment) and there are Japan, an interferometer – called plans for an additional interfer- the Large Cryogenic Gravitational ometer in Australia. The Scottish Telescope – is planned to be built and German research teams have underground in a disused mine to joined together with their US reduce seismic and gravitational colleagues in the LIGO scientific fluctuations. It will also be cooled collaboration to pool their to cryogenic temperatures to knowledge and work together. reduce Brownian Fluctuations. This involves some 500 scientists Professor Hough described this as

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quite an undertaking, but predict- connected in a triangle by laser ed this would be the first phase of light. A demonstrator mission the next generation of experi- LISA Pathfinder is being prepared ments where cold systems are for launch in late 2011 to test the built underground. potential of this proposal. Scientists are also looking beyond Professor Hough said there is a advanced detectors to build the whole network underway which third generation of instrumenta- he is confident will be able to tion. This would have ten times guarantee detection of gravita- the sensitivity of the advanced tional waves sometime after 2014, detectors and a design study, although it is possible that funded by the EC, has already something will be seen before begun to assess the building of then. It offers nothing less than such a detector, which has been the prospect of a whole new given the name of the Einstein astronomy, leading to a host of Telescope. Professor Hough said new and totally unexpected events the technological challenges and phenomena to be observed in involved will be significant, but the future. Astronomy, he said, the spin-offs from this work will has been exciting since man first have benefits for industry around looked up at the stars. More the world. The timescale for recently, Infra-red and gamma-ray starting building is around 2020. astronomy, together with cosmic There are also proposals from an microwave background scanning, American and European team to have increased our understanding take experiments into space. This of the universe. He is confident is known as LISA and would that with the detection of gravita- involve creating a space-based tional waves, another new chapter laser interferometer, consisting of is about to begin. three spacecraft orbiting the earth

213 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Professor Charles Godfray FRS Department of Zoology, University of Oxford Malaria, Mosquitoes and Models Joint Lecture with the International Centre for Mathematical Sciences 17 June 2009

Although there are excellent ways Professor Godfray began by of controlling malaria now, there describing the life cycle of malaria is a real risk that these will break and of the mosquito, a vector down. We therefore need new which transmits the disease. He strategies to save lives in the outlined the scale of the problem future. Professor Godfray de- and current control methods, scribed some of the exciting before going on to look at novel possibilities currently being control measures. These include researched – and alluded to the ways of stopping mosquitoes important role being played by transmitting malaria and causing mathematical modelling in trying early death in the mosquito itself, to combat this deadly disease. thus reducing the opportunities Malaria is a major problem, for transmission. causing at least a million deaths He also spoke about the impor- and up to 500 million clinical tance of an inter-disciplinary episodes a year. About 60 per cent approach to the problem, making of cases and 80 per cent of deaths particular reference to the role of occur in sub-Saharan Africa. There mathematical modelling. Malaria are good and effective ways of is caused by a single-celled micro- combating malaria – although organism called Plasmodium, and poor health infrastructure in is transmitted only by female developing countries challenges mosquitoes of the Anopheles their implementation – but there genus. The mosquito injects will always be a need for new malaria sporozoites into the strategies. Professor Godfray’s human when taking the blood lecture was, as he said, not so meal essential for successful much about saving the lives of reproduction. This then reproduc- children in Africa now, but about es in the (human) body, causing providing possible means of illness and possible death – and doing so in the future. There is a passing the disease on when the need to have ‘things on the shelf’ mosquito bites again. for the day when current methods Current strategies include insecti- fail. cide-treated bed nets and indoor residual spraying – where the

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walls of huts are sprayed with a possible vaccines, but also novel long-lasting insecticide which kills ways of tackling the vector – the off the mosquito, a creature which mosquito itself. Professor will often ‘rest’ on the wall while Godfray outlined some novel anti- maturing her eggs prior to laying mosquito tactics. These include them in suitable water bodies. driving genes through the There are also effective drug mosquito populations which treatments which act against the make them unable or less able to pathogen, particular the recently- transmit disease, and causing the introduced drug artemisinin and mosquito to die before it can its derivatives. There are several transmit malaria. problems with both strategies, Researchers have created a however, in that health infrastruc- refractory mosquito – one which ture of countries afflicted by cannot pass on malaria – but how malaria is variable and often poor, do you “drive” this gene through so getting control methods out to a wild insect population? As was populations is a challenge. In first realised by Austin Burt at addition, mosquitoes and malaria Imperial College, homing endocu- itself are good at becoming clease genes (HEGs) are a resistant to insecticides and drug promising avenue of research. treatments respectively, making it These are selfish genes, found a constant struggle to keep naturally in single-celled micro- ahead. organisms, that are able to spread As well as making current strate- rapidly through a population by gies work better – particularly by cheating Mendel’s laws – ensuring improving health infrastructure – they are over-represented in the we have to look to the future, said next generation. A useful gene, Professor Godfray. “There are such as one that interrupts good current strategies and we mosquito transmission, can be can save children today, but we attached to the HEG and hence have to prepare for these strate- driven through the population. gies failing,” he said. “We need Alternatively, the HEG can be to have other things on the engineered to spread in a manner shelf.” Researching new methods that knocks out a gene in the requires significant investment in mosquito essential to the malaria molecular biology and biochemis- pathogen, or for the mosquito try, and mathematical modelling itself. In the last case the aim is to plays an important role in decid- drive down mosquito population ing what are the most promising numbers. Mathematical modelling strategies. has been and is an important tool Strategies on which people are in predicting how these different working include new drugs and strategies would work and in

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finding the best ways of making it reduces transmission. This has possible. been confirmed by mathematical HEGs can also be used to cut or modelling. ‘shred’ the X chromosome, which Work on the fruit fly has shown means there would be significant- that some Wolbachia can cause ly more males (XY) than females what is colloquially known as (XX). Mathematical models show ‘popcorn’ in the brain – essentially this can significantly reduce damaging it and causing early population densities and hence death. Getting ‘popcorn’ into the disease spread. Although it has brains of malarial mosquitoes been demonstrated in the lab that could shorten their lives, but we’re this technique works in mosqui- not there yet, he said. This would toes, one problem is that currently have the advantage, however, of it works too well (X chromosomes not involving genetic modifica- in offspring are also shredded), so tion, which opens up ethical and means of modifying X shredding regulatory dilemmas. activity are being explored. Another approach would be using Parasitic bacteria use is another fungi as an insecticide. Again, promising approach. Professor mathematical modelling provides Godfray described research into answers on the optimum way to Wolbachia pipiens, abundant do this, including getting the intra-cellular bacteria, found in balance between efficacy and around 20 per cent of all insect avoiding the development of species, including some mosqui- resistance. The disadvantage is toes. Females who are uninfected that it doesn’t kill immediately, with Wolbachia cannot use sperm but does accelerate senescence. from infected males, again cutting Professor Godfray concluded by down on reproductive chances. stressing that there are excellent There has also been research into, ways of saving lives and control- for example, using the bacteria to ling malaria now, although carry a useful gene and spread it getting the health infrastructure through the mosquito popula- working remains a major chal- tion. This is possible in principle, lenge. There is, however, a real risk but we can’t yet get genes into of current control measures Wolbachia. breaking down, so novel methods Another strategy is trying to are needed. Many exciting ideas reduce the lifespan of the mosqui- are being explored – both GM to. Only a small fraction of the and non-GM – and mathematical insects live as long as ten days – modelling is essential to these the life cycle of malaria infection – research programmes. so anything that can speed death

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Sir John Gieve Former Deputy Governor of the Bank of England The Financial Sector after the Credit Crunch in partnership with The David Hume Institute 18 June 2009

As Deputy Governor of the Bank the current build-up of public of England from 2006 until debt as one of the major results of February this year, Sir John was the credit crunch. Whilst hoping responsible for financial stability that the last quarter of 2008 and and was a member of the FSA the first of 2009 will prove to be board. He was welcomed to the the low point, he added that RSE by Jeremy Peat, Director of the much remains to be done to pull David Hume Institute, and Gavin the economy out of its tail-spin. McCrone FRSE, who chaired the Pointing to similarities between event. Both said the lecture was the path of the current crisis and taking place at an extraordinary the Great Depression, he is moment. The Chancellor of the hopeful that recovery is on the Exchequer had just made a way. This is likely to be a slow keynote Mansion House speech process, as Western governments about the financial crisis, the and consumers need to build up Governor of the Bank of England savings, whilst many other had declared that sermons are not economies are export driven and enough, and President Obama will have continued difficulty had announced far-reaching finding markets. measures in the United States. Sir Even though we are still in the John emphasised that world-wide midst of the crisis, Sir John argued action is needed to restore the that we already know enough to financial sector and ensure that start drawing conclusions – and similar problems cannot happen that these are far-reaching. He again. He also argued for a said: “This crisis calls not just for rethink of macro-economic emergency measures, but for strategies and argued that the major changes in our longer-term greatest threat to sustainable approach to policy. And this isn’t recovery is not over-reaction but just about banking and regula- inertia. tion, because the financial crisis Quoting Hume’s claim that “either also brought the worst world the nation must destroy public recession for 80 years. This has credit or public credit will destroy also been a failure of macro- the nation”, Sir John pointed to economic management. So we

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need to go back to the drawing global reach, and the speed at board, not just on financial which it took hold after its regulation, but on macro-eco- emergence in the USA – a result of nomic policy, and, in my view, on the integrated nature of the macro economics itself.” financial system. Checks and Sir John pointed to features of the balances were in place that could crisis which were similar to cope with a certain level of previous booms and bust. The instability but, like other complex property price boom of recent networks, it had a tipping point years, the ensuing rise in interest after which it plunged into rates, the credit squeeze, and the catastrophe. In this case after ‘the eventual bursting of the bubble point of no return’ institutions were all familiar from the 1970s needed government support to and 1990s. Yet the scale was of a raise large amounts of capital very new order, resulting in the worst fast, and help in funding when collapse of financial confidence no-one was prepared to lend. since 1914 and the first drop in The first lesson Sir John drew was global output since World War II. that much greater weight must be Nonetheless, he said, “I still think given to the systemic links it’s a bit of a puzzle why an old- throughout the network, rather fashioned property boom and than just watching the outliers. At bust should lead to a global the same time, there is a need to meltdown in financial markets.” recognise that there are some There was also the issue of why actions which are rational and no-one saw it coming. Much of sustainable for an individual, but the problem lay in financial not for a whole system. Sir John innovations, with the growth of listed a number of necessary derivatives obscuring real risk reforms – from ensuring the levels. “I think banks and their quality of capital, to tackling regulators thought that a lot of it bonuses, and moving more was sustainable and that the trading onto exchanges – for hedging of their balance sheets which there is already a consen- through the use of derivatives was sus. Yet he argued that it would reducing their vulnerability to a be a serious mistake to implement downturn. That was a critical and these and return to business as shared misjudgement.” The usual. Instead he identified four ultimate outcome was that when areas for fundamental change. a downswing came, no-one could These were under the headings be sure of the extent of losses or of: where they lay. The third special - Market mood swings feature of the crisis has been its - Moral hazard

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- Regulatory capture and group- banks … to collect the best staff think with offers that include guaran- - International inertia. teed bonuses for several years – displaying what we thought were As the banking system is central features of a boom.” This is to the world economy, Sir John happening at a time when we believes it must be cushioned have just seen the failure of self- against market swings; something regulation by banks. There is, that can be achieved by insisting therefore, a need for firm public that banks hold greater insurance. regulation and to rebuild market His recipe for stability included discipline. Sir John recommended more capital, greater liquidity and the development of special smaller balance sheets. At the insolvency regimes for larger and same time the economy needs more complex banks, and higher protection from the banks, which capital and liquidity requirements can be achieved by direct meas- for the biggest firms. If these are ures to dampen the effects of the not enough, it may be necessary cycle in the financial sector. “The to limit the size of banks and the way I believe we can most easily business they can do – though do that is to adjust capital and this was not his favoured option. liquidity requirements as a proportion of assets in good Sir John considered the approach- times and reduce them in bad. es taken to regulation by a variety That would create bigger buffers of countries, saying no one to absorb losses.” It would also approach was clearly better than dampen the pace of expansion the rest. Nonetheless, the financial and contraction in the banking crisis has demonstrated the need market. to be alert to the dangers of regulatory capture and “group- With regard to moral hazard, Sir think”. The problem is not that John said the government has banks pull the wool over the eyes dispelled any creative ambiguity of regulators, but that they share about how far it is willing to allow common misjudgements. While financial institutions to suffer by supervisors can identify abnormal introducing a safety net for banks. or unusual behaviour, it is difficult This brings short-term gain by to question common behaviour encouraging inter-bank lending, which has built up over the years but it can store up problems for and has previously been seen as the next upswing by spurring acceptable. One option is to rely rapid expansion and risk taking. less on discretion and more on Signs of problems are already rules. There is also a powerful emerging “with fierce competi- argument for the system to be tion between the investment

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scrutinised by “a second pair of consensus between practitioners eyes” from outside the day-to-day and academics that so long as a running of the banking system. low-inflation regime was main- On inertia, Sir John said: “As tained, then market forces were people feel there are green powerful enough to haul cyclical shoots, we are beginning to hear variations back into equilibrium. and see some reduction in the Macro economics became reduced pressure for reform; there are calls to monetary policy, and monetary for caution.” While acknowledg- policy was just interest rates. Fiscal ing that a bad situation can be policy and regulation were seen as made worse, he added that the a micro-economic function. risks from over-reaction are Interest rates were set according outweighed by those of inertia. to whether inflation was above or He cited examples of reform below a target and whether proposals that had become economic activity was above or bogged down for decades, below sustainable levels. The meaning that avoidable problems “Greenspan doctrine” – from had been allowed to occur. Sir former Chairman of the US John praised the EU’s calls for Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan – tighter rules, a strong body to also held sway. This stated that it oversee systemic risk (which is was “better to mop up after asset separate from the regulator) and price bubbles than to prick them effective control of implementa- in advance,” because the authori- tion by nation states (so countries ties were ill-suited to identify don’t fear they will lose a competi- bubbles and pre-emptive action tive edge because others fail to risked distorting a state’s entire follow the rules). However, he economic policy. “The last few added that reforms at national or years have proved the limitations EU level are not enough, they of that approach.” Limitations in must be implemented by the G20, policy were compounded by the or globally, to prevent financial fact that conventional indicators institutions from undermining failed to show that trouble was on them by shifting operations to the the way: accelerating inflation or least regulated areas. the growth in the output gap gave little sign that we were Turning to economic policy, Sir heading for a precipice. John said in the dozen years up to 2006 we had achieved stability, Sir John drew four conclusions for growth, low inflation, low interest economic policy: rates and falling unemployment; - New Keynesian models failed to “it seemed like we had reached forecast the problems. the Promised Land”. There was - They also failed to cope with the

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challenges thrown up by the though Sir John warned against credit crunch, such as self- the concentration of functions in sustaining departures from one pair of hands as a retrograde theequilibrium. step. He called on university - Inflation levels and output gaps, economists to help in the process and mopping up when bubbles of rebuilding by rethinking their burst, do not represent an most fundamental assumptions in effective macro-economic policy. the light of recent events, and help in the process of charting the - Interest rates alone cannot way forward. guarantee stability, and more than one policy instrument is In summing up, Sir John re- needed. Liquidity provision, emphasised that radical measures quantitative/credit easing, are necessary if similar, or worse, capital requirements and fiscal economic crises are to be avoided. policy are essential factors. “The experience of the last few years has important lessons for On top of this, he suggested that regulation and the way we do a complete separation of roles in economic policy and for econom- which central banks care for ics itself. We must not allow the stability, finance ministries for emphasis on reform to weaken equity and efficiency, and regula- and I conclude with the thought tors supervise, is obsolete. Overlap that inertia, particularly interna- and interdependence have already tional inertia is a far greater risk emerged and will continue, than over-reaction.”

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Professor Tom Devine The Enlightenment – the international influence and impact of Scotland and the Scots Edinburgh Book Festival 17 August 2009

Was the Scottish Enlightenment so many years, he later suggested, Scottish? was that Scottish historians were Professor Tom Devine believes the living in “a glen of tears,” flowering of genius in 18th- appalled by the horrors of century Scotland was influenced industrialisation which seemed to by several key events and ideas, flow directly from the economic including Calvinism and capital- theories and inventions of the ism, centuries of “intellectual period, and obsessed with the networking” all around Europe – dark side of Scotland. and “the death of politics” after The puzzle, he said, is why the political union with England. But Enlightenment happened at all. why are we the only nation in the At the end of the 17th century, world to turn a universal event Scotland was still persecuting into an object of national pride? witches and hanging blasphemers The Scottish Enlightenment, (including Thomas Aitkenhead in Professor Devine declared at the 1697 for comparing the Bible start of his lecture, was “invent- with Aesop’s Fables). There was ed” by the philosopher WR Scott widespread poverty, and trade was more than 100 years later in being strangled by protectionist 1909. Today it’s a “totemic and tariffs and war. The “vengeful iconic” badge of honour, but it’s Presbyterians” despised any form only been during the last 30 years of deviance. We were a small that the Scots have moved away nation, living next door to a giant, from a “victim” perspective prone to parochialism and (dwelling on disasters such as the introspection. Darien Scheme, the Clearances Yet within 50 years, the Scottish and the Glencoe massacre) to Enlightenment was already trumpet the achievements of our emerging into the light from the great 18th-Century thinkers – darkness of “fanaticism, prejudice sometimes even daring to claim and the tyrannical influence of that Scotland invented the whole tradition,” promoting tolerance modern world. and “violent disagreement that One reason why the Scottish did not end in violence.” Scot- Enlightenment was neglected for land was one of the “hot spots”

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of Enlightenment in Europe. 18th Century. There was a commitment to Even though the country was learning and the world of the poor, Scotland was not an mind, with a strong interest in the intellectual desert, said Devine. use of reason to explain human Scottish academics “served their behaviour and a belief that time in Europe” from the 13th improvement was possible Century onwards and were the through rational intervention. first to teach Newtonian science. The Enlightenment was not The great “virtuosi” were also unique to Scotland, said Devine, leaders when it came to law, but the Scottish Enlightenment biology and medical science. was distinctively Scottish, “looked Scotland also took a systematic at through a Scottish lens,” and – appoach to the funding of unlike other countries – based in schools, including special taxes universities (Edinburgh, Aberdeen and, after the Reformation, and Glasgow). everyone was encouraged to read It also had extraordinary cohesion, so they could read the Bible for said Devine, and encompassed themselves. Devine then described every discipline – like the Royal how Adam Smith’s Wealth of Society of Edinburgh, a child of Nations was first read by 14-year- the Scottish Enlightenment. But olds, already fluent in Latin and above all, he added, it was a attending school 12 hours a day, “Christian Enlightenment,” five and a half days a week. “No deeply influenced by Calvinism, other ethnic group in the British and most of its pivotal figures Isles could compete,” said Devine, were content to embrace Christian giving rise to the notion of “Scots values (at least, in public) and on the make.” believed in a propertied, enlight- The Scottish identity is inextricably ened oligarchy, “going with the linked with Calvanism, according flow” rather than promoting to Devine, and the Calvinist aetheism and democracy. They obsession with morality was one were also Anglophiles – not of the precursors of the new social Scottish patriots but citizens of sciences, while the urge to the world. “understand God’s design” was The big issue, Devine said, was also a driver of science. “People how this great phenomenon had could reflect and think for flowered so quickly in such themselves,” said Devine, and “barren soil,” and his argument even though some people feared was that the roots of the Enlight- that this would lead to anarchy, it enment were incubating long also led to breakthroughs in before 1700 – fertilised by several philosophy, science and the arts. key events in the first half of the 223 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Religion was also less orthodox But history does not move in after the Union of the Parliaments straight lines. Professor Devine in 1707, while the Patronage Act later suggested that the Scottish also boosted secular influence. Enlightenment had not complete- The Church of Scotland was also ly triumphed in the end over its becoming more liberal, and the Jabobite rival, since the “great Secession reduced fundamentalist tartan monster” seems to have power. hijacked the national character, Devine also suggesed that after even though most people in the Union, “politics did not exist in lowlands treat “Highlandism” Scotland.” There were no with contempt. ideological divides, so intellectuals But above all, Devine said, there is did not need to take sides and no escape from the fact that could debate issues free of Calvinism changed the “shape, constraint. The crushing of the nature and stamp” of the Scottish Jacobite rebellion was also Enlightenment more than any welcomed by most intellectuals in other internal or external factor. Scotland, as urbanisation began Was the Scottish Enlightenment to accelerate, fuelled by the linen Scottish? “Wha’s like us?” may be and tobacoo trade, the Clearances the only reply. and Empire.

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The Enlightenment – An 18th Century Revolution of Thought Edinburgh International Festival 15 August 2009–3 September 2009

In partnership with the Edinburgh International Festival, Nature and the Wellcome Trust, the RSE presented a series of twelve discussions and talks exploring various aspects of the Enlightenment, as part of the Edinburgh International Festival in 2009. Forty-four eminent experts took part in the series, either speaking or chairing the events; all twelve events were well attended by lively and participative audiences. The twelve topics covered were: Visual Art and the Enlightenment; Scotland Exports the Enlightenment; Islam and the Enlightenment; The Ages of Optimism and Pessimism: Utopian and Dystopian Ideas; Science and Tolerance; Music and the Enlightenment: Classical and Vernacular Traditions; On the Dark Side: Witchcraft and the Theatre; Science and the Enlightenment; The Face of the Enlightenment Moral Universals and Moral Progress: the New Science of Good and Evil; The Enlightenment and the Academies; Political Economy: Adam Smith and Others The following are summary reports of each of the events. The first four reports were prepared by a young person who worked with the RSE during the summer on a work experience project. Eade Hemingway was a pupil at Hills Road Sixth Form College in Cambridge and obtained 10 grade As at GCSE level before coming to Edinburgh in August 2009. Whilst here, not only did she celebrate her 17th birthday but she also received the results of her AS levels in Maths, Economics, Philosophy and Art, for which she was awarded A, A, B and A respectively. She went on to study for her A levels, also in Maths, Economics, Philosophy and Art. When writing to offer her services to the Society she stated “I would like to offer my insights – as a young person, pre-university but post-compulsory education …. For example, I note that there are a number of talks and debates in August; maybe I could attend some of these and offer some feedback from a young person’s perspective”. Eade attended the first four of the Festival events and prepared the summa- ry reports, which were edited by an experienced freelance report writer, Peter Barr, whom the RSE employs on a regular basis. Peter also prepared the reports on the remaining eight events. Introduced by Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, His Grace The 10th Duke of Buccleuch and Queens- berry spoke at the first event and made an introduction to the series.

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The Enlightenment – An 18th Century Revolution of Thought Introduction to the series by The Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry FRSE 15 August 2009

The good, the great and the us something of the spirit of the noble civic humanism abroad at the The Duke of Buccleuch reflects on time,” said the Duke, “and the the Enlightenment and the role of wish to make the RSE a forum for his distinguished forebear – the the nation”. third Duke of Buccleuch and the The Duke also suggested that the first President of the RSE… conversations taking place in It was highly appropriate that the 2009 reflected many aspects of 10th Duke of Buccleuch intro- that earlier era of which we duced the first of The should not lose, including the Enlightenment discussions, since image of the “intellectually good Henry Scott, the 3rd Duke of and great rubbing shoulders with Buccleuch, was the first President the financially and socially good of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and great, and the very best minds – not just a child of the Enlighten- of the professional elites mingling ment but also a sponsor of the with, enriching and being en- series of talks, in partnership with riched by the amateur thinkers.” the Edinburgh International As well as being open to newcom- Festival, Nature and the Wellcome ers, added the Duke, the good Trust. and great did not converse “in the rigid silos of arts and sciences, It was also appropriate that the self-absorbed and self-referen- Duke focused on a portrait of his tial,” but in open debate, without forebear which hangs in the RSE boundaries – “debate that was, if at 22 George Street, since the not revolutionary, at least unor- theme of the first talk in the series thodox and maybe a little radical.” was Visual Art and the Enlighten- ment. The 3rd Duke also had another interesting connection with one The current Duke’s ancestor held of the leading figures of the his position from 1783 until his Enlightenment. In 1763, the death in 1812, despite the fact he young Henry Scott went on the was not a scientist, nor even “a Grand Tour to Europe, accompa- practitioner of the arts or litera- nied by Adam Smith, who wrote ture.” But his appointment “tells to David Hume of his companion:

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“I flatter myself, that I shall spend support of the library, “whose the rest of the time we are to live inspiration and rationale was so together not only in peace and deeply embedded in Scottish contentment but in gaiety and cultural and intellectual values” – amusement.” According to the the same values that helped send current Duke, their friendship Robert Burns and Thomas Carlisle endured for the rest of their lives, on the road to Edinburgh. and Smith would sometimes As the Duke travelled the same spend weeks with the family at road that morning, grumbling Dalkeith Palace, engaging in about the rain, he was struck by “serious pragmatic discussion how spoilt we are now and how across a huge spectrum of easy it is for people today to enjoy subjects.” “all the ingredients of wonderful Henry Scott, his son and his civilised conversation, stimulated grandson also enjoyed a close by a thoughtful and eclectic cast relationship with Walter Scott of speakers,” like those on the (who also became President of the panel for the opening talk. RSE), receiving “torrents of letters Like his forebear, he added, he on every subject under the sun – also felt “a sense of pleasure and from sawmills to schoolmasters to of duty” to be present at such an monumental stones.” occasion, and hoped that others The Duke then talked about “one felt the same – suggesting “that of the most remote and godfor- with the material rewards of our saken corners of the Duke’s century there go responsibilities eventual inheritance,” the mining for engagement and participation village of Wanlockhead, high in in the conversations that enrich the Lowther hills, where the public civic society.” subscription lending library was Having earlier referred to the founded in 1756 – only the “rather nondescript portrait” of second in Scotland. “The library is the 3rd Duke of Buccleuch which still there today,” said the Duke, hangs in the RSE, the Duke then “and if you browse the shelves revealed how Walter Scott had it and early catalogues, it is hum- “cobbled together to fit a gap of bling to take in the diet of the RSE’s own making.” Accord- philosophy, theology, Greek and ing to a “perhaps apocryphal Latin that was read by flickering family story,” the RSE had first candle in the hovels that were been offered Thomas Gainsbor- homes.” ough’s portrait of Henry “in The founders of this remarkable relaxed woodland setting, with his institution had a sense of duty arms around a most huggable and were generous in their Dandie Dinmont dog,” but this

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was rejected by “the starched Perhaps the moral of the tale, the shirts then in charge as lacking Duke concluded, is “not to be too gravitas” for such a great institu- serious or portentous,” and to tion. “Their loss, our gain,” said remember those common-sense the Duke. “It hangs today at words of Adam Smith about Bowhill.” spending time “in gaiety and amusement.” Visual Art and the Enlightenment Alexander Broadie FRSE Professor of Logic and Rhetoric, University of Glasgow Sir Timothy Clifford FRSE former Director-General, National Galleries of Scotland Juliana Engberg Curator of The Enlightenments exhibition Duncan Macmillan FRSE Art critic, The Scotsman; RSE Curator 15 August 2009

Seeing is not always believing art’s connection to other fields In the opening event of The and the development of painting Enlightenment series, the four from the 18th Century until the speakers highlighted some of the present day. diverse opinions about what really Sir Timothy Clifford took a more happened in 18th Century critical view of the visual arts in Scotland – and whether the visual Scotland in the 18th Century, arts matched the achievements in pointing out the areas avoided – science and philosophy. such as sculpture – but also Alex Broadie discussed the praising the world-class achieve- relationship between artists and ments of Scottish architects philosophers, the influence of during the same period. philosophy on art, what artists Juliana Engberg talked about the think and how their perceptions Enlightenment in a more general are different from most other way, discussing its influence on people. the development of knowledge, Duncan Macmillan talked about not just in Scotland but around the birth of “modernism” during the world – with an emphasis on the Enlightenment, when artists the “New World” of Australia. (and other people) started to think Broadie started by saying that for themselves. He also described painting is “impoverished”

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without philosophy, and how we Macmillan started by pointing out appreciate art more if we under- that the “modernism” of the 20th stand the philosophy behind it. and 21st Centuries was to a great After a brief introduction to the extent formed during the Enlight- work of the 18th-Century philoso- enment – which in turn had its pher Thomas Reid, the founder of roots in the Reformation, when the Scottish School of Common people started to question Sense, Broadie said that one of authority and use reason in the great projects of the Scottish pursuit of the truth. Perception Enlightenment was the “science was also at the heart of the of man” – and the idea that to Enlightenment, said Macmillan, so investigate human nature, we painters were also of central should use the same methods we importance. use to investigate the world as a He then said that science and art whole. share a common pursuit. They ask “Painters have special ways of the same question: “How can we looking at the world,” he said. describe the world if we are part They paint what they see, he of it?” Or, as David Hume said: continued, but the question is: “It’s absurd to conclude we could “What do they see?” ever distinguish between our- Broadie then explained that adults selves and external objects.” may see a table, but infants see Enlightenment wasn’t just about colours and shapes. Seeing is an understanding reason – it was “idea,” said Broadie, and it is only about understanding the limits of after many years of learning that reason and what lies beyond. So, we manage to interpret colours while scientists had to ignore the and shapes as particular objects. problem outlined by Hume, Similarly, painters have to put assuming we could be objective, down the “original visual appear- artists could acknowledge the ance” and let the spectators problem and make attempts to interpret the blotches themselves. understand the world despite it. An artist paints with “ignorance” Thomas Reid developed the idea and spectators have to unlearn that our thoughts are intuitive not and “regress” to see the visual intellectual, that feeling not image as a child would and reason is the key to morality. Just become “adult infants.” And this as the information we receive on is one reason why philosophers our retinas must be read like a are so interested in artists, said language, so painters “record the Broadie, because they are con- sign, not what it signifies” – cerned with observation and which may produce a more reason. accurate picture of the world.

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Reid’s ideas also influenced artists mental to the Scottish Enlighten- like Monet, said Macmillan, and ment, Clifford continued, despite the Impressionists. the fact that most of its greatest Finally, Macmillan talked about exponents did not work primarily Marcel Duchamp, one of the in Scotland. “heroes” of contemporary art. Clifford then described what he According to Macmillan, Duch- felt was lacking in Scotland in the amp cut out the “messy creativity” second half of the 18th Century – and said that art is simply an act most notably, sculpture. Whilst of subjective will. This rejects the the Grand Tourists travelled to whole Enlightenment concept, Rome to admire its classical making every artist a “statement sculpture, they ignored their of identity” and killing the notion home-grown sculptors. Scotland of a common pursuit. Macmillan at that time was also importing art then suggested we have already from countries such as Italy, turned our backs on what really France, Holland and Belgium, but mattered in Enlightenment “that did not rub off on Scottish thought, so perhaps we are painters”, he added, although worthy heirs to the work of artists artists like Ramsay were more like Duchamp… influenced by French painting “So far,” said Clifford, “we’ve than anything Scottish. been talking about philosophers There was “precious little paint- and the Enlightenment and ing” of merit in Scotland during portraiture, but it’s broader than the Enlightenment, said Clifford, that.” Rather than praise the at a time when science and accomplishments of the Scottish philosophy were booming. Enlightenment, he focused on the Clifford then summed up by areas avoided and the lack of saying that there were many achievement. He also pointed out contradictions in Scottish art at that the Scottish Enlightenment the time – between what people wasn’t a unique phenomenon – it were thinking and talking about had been around since the 17th and what they were creating. So Century. He also thought the why, he asked, when there was ideas of the Enlightenment such a turmoil of ideas, did “didn’t get through” to the visual Scotland produce so little great arts in Scotland. painting? Most of its achieve- On the other hand, Clifford ments were “confined to believed that Scotland in the 18th portraiture,” he said. Century produced the greatest Engberg said the “New World” ever architects in the UK – “by was created by the Enlightenment miles.” Architecture was funda- – for example, her home town of

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Melbourne has marvellous seem to be on the rise, along with architectural features such as religions such as Buddhism. “Self- Corinthian columns, as well as Enlightenment” is becoming democracy and a health system for more important than Enlighten- all. And it all started here… ment, she added. She also brought greetings from Communication is a key aspect of the Kulin nation – an alliance of the Enlightenment, Engberg also five indigenous peoples who lived suggested, mentioning the letters in Australia 35,000 years before that passed between nations and the Europeans arrived. And philosophers, connecting the Engberg said this helps her realise most brilliant minds so they could that the Enlightenment “is not a share their ideas and build on bell jar” but a continuum – we are them. the product of an ongoing She summarised the Enlighten- process not a single event in the ment as a great “hybridisation” of past. thought and style. It gave us tools Engberg also commented that to build more – the foundations fundamentalism and superstition of progress.

Scotland Exports the Enlightenment Arthur L Herman author of How the Scots Invented the Modern World Ong Keng Sen Artistic Director, TheatreWorks Tom Devine OBE FRSE Professor of Scottish History, University of Edinburgh 16 August 2009

The conversation continues… talking about Scotland “export- Arthur Herman talked about what ing” the Enlightenment, he was the US imported from Scotland more interested in the contribu- during the Enlightenment, tions of different countries, including the “common sense” helping each other to achieve ideas of Thomas Reid and their mutual greatness. influence on the “creator of Tom Devine said that without modern American culture,” John Europe there would have been no Witherspoon. Scottish Enlightenment. He also Ong Keng Sen discussed the links traced the influence of Scotland between his country (Singapore) on America, focusing on church and Scotland. And instead of and universities, the middle class,

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the Clearances, the “Atlantic ideas, although Witherspoon also Superhighway” – and the key role felt he was due some of the credit of “a Scotsman on the make.” for developing the theories, later Herman began by discussing taken on by another Scottish Scotland’s “gifts” to America, philosopher, William Hamilton. focusing on Scottish philoso- Witherspoon also had a liberal phers, including the common attitude to his acceptance of sense theories of Thomas Reid students, taking the best candi- and his idea that our interaction dates from all towns, including with the world is between a Native Americans and black thinking subject and objective students. reality – in other words, we are Herman concluded by mapping not passive recipients of sense the line from Reid through perceptions, as John Locke Witherspoon to Hamilton, and on proposed. to pragmatism. In Herman’s view, One of the main questions posed the key idea is that there is a real by Locke and others was: “How world out there and our job is to do we know what, if anything, is go out and find it. And if Wither- real?” Reid thought we can tell spoon and colleagues had what is real by using our judge- developed a slogan, it would ment and that it is the power of probably be Nike’s “Just do it!” those judgements that makes us Ong explained that he had fully human. Our judgements are learned about the Scottish also based on certain principles, Enlightenment during a three- which Reid called “the principles month residency in Edinburgh. At of common sense.” Every rational that time, he also became more human being has these basic aware of the Greek and Roman principles, so in theory we all influence that still leaves its mark know what is real and what is not, on the city, which got him asking: what is right and what is wrong, “What is Scotland today?” and etc. We are also “built equipped “What was Scotland then?” to understand the world.” Ong described how, at the time of Herman then talked about the the Enlightenment, many different “creator of modern American elements all came together at the culture” – John Witherspoon, the same time, in the same place – President of Princeton University something still reflected in for 25 years and tutor to a future Scotland today. He also said that US President as well as many other he was less interested in Scotland influential American figures. “exporting the Enlightenment” Witherspoon’s teachings were and thought of it more as a based upon Reid’s common sense migration of ideas – the migration

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of soul and the migration that put our own experience in comes from “cultural flow.” So context, he said, including the instead of give and take between achievements of the countries countries, it was more about around us – realising we were sharing. only “one part in a grand Europe- Another issue raised by Ong was an symphony of ideas.” For Scottish nationalism versus example, if we look at Thomas Scottish cosmopolitanism, and his Jefferson’s library, we may “arro- interest in the latter. He also gantly” note that a fifth of his asked: “What is going to be the books were by Scottish Enlighten- future Enlightenment?” and “Can ment authors, and ignore the there be one?” four-fifths written by other European authors. Without Ong also emphasised the differ- Europe, he said, there would be ent strengths coming together, to no Scottish Enlightenment, so create the best possible outcome, why was there such a strong including travelling across the “Scottish stamp” on the develop- world and working with people ment of North America in the late from other cultures to achieve 18th century? greatness – for example, Scottish scientists asking Chinese artists to One reason, said Devine, was the produce drawings of birds and “Atlantic Superhighway of the plants, etc. – and benefit equally 18th Century,” not only helping from this collaboration. the export of goods and services but also ideas and people, the Singapore’s connections with commercial links underpinning Scotland were something Ong intellectual connections. had also learned about while living here, finding out for the Another reason for so much credit first time how much of his own going to Scotland was the impact world had been influenced by of university-trained Scots on Scotland. North America as a whole, especially in the early days of Ong concluded by saying that colonisation. For example, Enlightenment is about transfor- between 1680 and 1780, over mation of sources and a growing 800 university-educated Europe- sense of belonging to the world. ans were operating in the 13 Devine said that although the colonies which eventually became Scottish Enlightenment was no the USA, and two-thirds of them doubt a great thing, there is not had been educated in Scotland. enough criticism of its achieve- Half of all 19th-Century Canadian ments, so it’s important not to fall universities had direct Scottish into what he described as “the origins or Scottish influence on trap of ethnic conceit.” We should their development.

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The simple explanation is that class which was still a minority, Scotland had a lot of universities but a higher proportion of the producing lots of graduates, who total population than in any other had to look abroad to find work. country. And secondly, the Another explanation is that nearly Highland Clearances – the major everyone in Scotland was Chris- reason for Scots leaving Scotland, tian, including many sons of accounting for more than half of ministers, something which went the total. Migration also carried down very well in America. on over three centuries, motivated Devine then explained two aspects by the search for opportunity. A of Scottish migration that make it Scotsman on the make, Devine very different to other European concluded, was why the Scots countries. First, there was the were so influential in the 18th- export of an educated, middle Century transatlantic world, and later on in Australasia and Asia.

Islam and the Enlightenment Dr Ibrahim Kalin Georgetown University (Washington DC) and SETA Foundation (Ankara, Turkey) 16 August 2009

When Europe met Islam… there was any point in writing Dr Kalin started by asking what about the Enlightenment at a time the Enlightenment was and when its ideas and values seemed quoting Immanuel Kant: “We do to have ended in such brutal not live in an Enlightened Age,” fashion. Kalin then explained that said Kant, but in an “Age of he didn’t mean to say Islamic Enlightenment.” Dr Kalin also said culture was “unenlightened” but there were still a few “dark simply that Islam had never spots,” and quoted another experienced what the West did in German philosopher, Jurgen the 18th Century, questioning Habermas, who described the everything we thought we knew. Enlightenment as an “unfinished Islam didn’t go through the same project,” adding: “The history of stages that created what we call reason is not yet complete; the “the modern world” and there- light of reason was never fully fore did not feel so connected released during the Enlighten- with it – an issue which Muslims ment.” have debated since the 19th Century. The Islamic concept of After 9/11, Dr Kalin continued, an placing everything in a larger American historian wondered if

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context such as transcendence has on, a certain very famous French little appeal in the modern world, general, Napolean, studied the said Dr Kalin, and Islamic religion Qur’an… and Islamic traditions would be However, said Dr Kalin, Christian compromised if that were Europe also had a love–hate changed. relationship with Islam – it was How did Muslims create one of both admired and despised. In the the most advanced civilisations 17th and 18th Centuries, there and maintain it for centuries until were efforts to “rediscover” Islam, relatively recently (the 19th and also a mission to correct the Century), and why did it now Christian world’s “fanatical and seem so “backward” compared to distorted” views of Islam. the rest of the world? How can The Crusaders of the 11th and Muslims, Dr Kalin asked, now 12th Centuries were the first “catch up” with the modern people to come into contact with world – and do so while maintain- Muslims and envied the advance- ing their core values? ment of Muslim society and its Since the prophet Muhammad material achievements. The was first called an “imposter” in unexpected consequence of the the 8th Century – a popular Crusades was therefore a change opinion which continued in opinion, as well as the intro- throughout the Middle Ages – no duction of new things such as Western intellectual could remain chess, ink and perfume, and indifferent to Islam, said Dr Kalin. Muslims were no longer thought During the Enlightenment some of as “monsters.” philosophers were interested in When the first modern encyclo- Islam because they hoped it paedia was written in the late would provide an alternative 17th Century (the Historical and religious system to compete with Critical Dictionary by Pierre Bayle) Christianity. They were seeking a there were 25 pages on the religion without institutions – a Prophet of Islam, describing “natural” religion that could be Muhammad as “an imposter and understood rationally – and found a false teacher.” Although this part of the answer in Islam. wasn’t meant to be a positive Because Islam was a “natural description, it encouraged people theology” which appealed to to find out the truth for them- human reason more than super- selves, and this had positive stition and myth, it spread further repercussions, said Dr Kalin, than Christianity. Scholars and including travel to the Muslim historians of the period also world to witness the religious praised Muhammad for his tolerance of Islam, as opposed to worldly achievements, and later

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the “brutality” of many Christians peace with the “modern” world, when they came across different said Dr Kalin. beliefs. One French historian Islam’s encounter with modernity wrote at the time: “The teaching goes back to the 18th Century, of Islam conforms to the light of and since then Muslims have seen reason…and is neither gross nor (but perhaps not acknowledged) barbaric.” that modernism isn’t quite so Jews, Christians and Muslims all perfect. One of the consequences believe in a divine creator, Dr Kalin of the new thinking in Europe was continued, so how does reason fit colonialism, whilst improved with this? Enlightenment philoso- technology meant better weap- phers decided that reason was the ons, and rationalism could source of truth, and this led to the sometimes lead to racism. start of “ideological rationalism.” The encounter with the modern The philosophy that grew out of world produced three major the Enlightenment contradicted responses in Islam: both Christianity and Islam, and 1.Islamic modernism – wanting one effect of this was less hostility Islam to “catch up” with the towards Islam. Dr Kalin also talked West about the importance of reason in 2.Fundamentalism – the opposite Islam – something which may of modernism appear puzzling because reason is concerned with truth and logic, 3.People who thought Islam had while religion is concerned with to adjust but shouldn’t give up beliefs. According to Dr Kalin, its traditions fideism – the idea that you don’t There were certain traditions, Dr need proof to justify beliefs –was Kalin explained, that contributed never very popular with Islam. to the Muslim world’s previous Muslims believe that reason is successes, producing “philosophi- used to distinguish between the cal reflection, logical rigour and self and the non-self, and even to spiritual depth.” And he said that understand “the world beyond what the Muslim world needed reason” – which is why it is still so today was a revival of those important to Muslims. traditions. What does all this mean for us Dr Kalin concluded that in an today? Does Islam need an increasingly globalised world, the Enlightenment? If so, what form task of creating a civilised world will it take? And who will initiate cannot be the sole responsibility it? These are just some of the of any one nation or culture. We questions asked by those who must rise to the challenge togeth- want the Muslim world to make er, he said – which is why the

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Qur’an calls on all of humankind a Nelson Mandela – adding that to “fight for the common good.” we do not always listen to such One member of the audience said figures. that Muslim countries didn’t play Dr Kalin also said the values of the a large part in shaping the UN Muslim world must be respected Declaration of Human Rights and even though they are different. that we need common values to There are often double standards, achieve world peace. Dr Kalin said he added, regarding human it was a shame the Muslim rights, with more powerful countries weren’t directly involved, countries making lots of demands and wondered why the Muslim and often doing something very world does not have a Ghandi or different themselves.

The Ages of Optimism and Pessimism: Utopian and Dystopian Ideas Tom Wright writer of the Malthouse Melbourne production, Optimism Knud Haakonssen FRSE Professor of Intellectual History, University of Sussex Maggie Gee novelist Michael Kantor Artistic Director, Malthouse Melbourne 17 August 2009

Enlightenment vs Endarken- tracing the plots of three of her ment own books. Tom Wright talked about the Michael Kantor looked at the impact of the Enlightenment on positive side of human nature as Australia, exploring both the explored in Voltaire’s Candide – positive and negative aspects – the inspiration behind the current including colonisation. production of Optimism. Knud Haakonssen explained how Wright began by describing how Australia at one point was he had grown up in Melbourne, thought of as Utopia, and at a time when dystopian works of discussed the connections art such as William Golding’s between optimism and Utopia. novel Lord of the Flies and Stanley Kubrick’s film A Clockwork Orange Maggie Gee described the history (adapted from the novel by of dystopias and why so many Anthony Burgess) encouraged novelists write about them, him to “mistrust human nature.”

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He then described the paradox of were placed on the “respectable” the Enlightenment – was it like side of Sydney. The city itself switching on a light bulb or encapsulated the idea of “light “letting loose a plague upon the versus dark,” with the officers and world?” For Wright, this is gentlemen on one side of the reflected very clearly in the harbour and “uneducated founding of modern Australia, convicts” on the other – the and he sees the “colonisation of template for modern Australia, the dark continent” as a product with intellectuals versus the of the Enlightenment. Whilst survival instinct (which makes Europeans looked out of their ‘Aussies’ so good at sport!). windows and saw a benign Wright wrapped up his talk by landscape, “the eternal verities discussing “the problematic were turned upside down” when attitudes of encouraging Enlight- they arrived in Australia, where enment,” and how this can lead nature was hostile and dark. In to the feeling we have to control other words, Enlightenment other people and tell them they’re means one thing in one place and ‘wrong’ – for example, saying something quite different when it Muslim women need to undergo is transplanted to the opposite enlightenment. “There is always a side of the world. price to be paid,” he concluded. He developed this “paradoxical” Haakonssen echoed these ideas theme by describing the juxtaposi- by describing how many people tion of the graveyard where David used to think that Utopia really Hume and Adam Smith were existed – and imagined they buried, next door to the Political would find it ‘Down Under’. Martyrs Monument on Calton Hill However, when they reached the – in honour of the five Scots terra incognita of Australia, the transported to Australia in 1794 fantasy soon changed into reality for campaigning for parliamentary (cognita). reform. This was moving for There is a fundamental divide anyone from Australia to see, between optimism and Utopia. Wright explained, because these Optimism – like pessimism – is men were more than petty essentially about time: our self- criminals – they were a crucial part consciousness about the future. of what made Australia the society Utopia is stationary, unchanging, it is today. Wright also described outside of time. how the five men were sent with a note to the governor saying that To bring the two together requires despite their “criminal behaviour” draconian measures – some kind they were still men and should be of speculative theory, showing well treated, and as a result they Utopia as the goal of a process of

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which we are part. The idea of The first was set in the 1980s laws of history is one example, the when all that seemed to matter to idea of providence another. many people was “sex and Contrary to popular notions, shopping.” A couple go off much of the Enlightenment travelling, leaving their kids accepted the latter, and further, behind, but their lives fall apart that humanity could assist and they end up unsatisfied and providence in all manner of ways – lonely. The second is about and that was Enlightenment. climate change going into reverse, Voltaire, Hume and Adam Smith to make the point that human rejected such ideas – but that beings always look in the wrong didn’t make them pessimists. direction, using environmental As an author of three dystopian problems to exaggerate what she novels, Gee said this was one of wanted to say about society. The her areas of expertise. “No-one third was written before the Iraq writes utopian novels any more,” war, when many people thought it she explained. would not happen. And soon after the book was released, war She said the urge to write about broke out. dystopias often originated in rebellious childhood, when young Finally, she said that dystopian people start to question authority novels are proof that some of the and also feel that ‘no-one under- best things of the Enlightenment stands’ them. Gee also said that are still here – including the ability dystopian writing is a way of to be sceptical and realistic. expressing ideas without the Kantor talked about his fascina- irrelevant details you have to tion with optimism, fuelled by his include in ‘realistic’ novels. It is involvement in an adaptation of easier to express ideas set in a Voltaire’s novella Candide appro- virtual world. priately called Optimism. He then Every novelist is trying to highlight wondered how we can remain the fact that their experience is positive in face of so much bad interesting and that they have news and things to be negative something to say that they think is about, somehow managing to worth hearing, said Gee. And believe not only that bad things even though fiction means lies, won’t happen to us but also that she thinks novelists are ultimately good things may happen. interested in truth, but don’t The play, he said, unfortunately always believe what they’re told. doesn’t tell us how to remain Gee then gave a brief description optimistic. It is in fact a satire. of each of her dystopian novels. Voltaire is pointing out how stupid it is to remain optimistic,

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via his depiction of the character to the practical world, an idea Pangloss, who witnesses extreme- expressed in the very last line of ly negative events, but somehow the play, when Pangloss says how manages not to become pessimis- great the world is and Candide tic, the idea being that we have to replies: “That’s all well and good, be optimistic or “humanity goes but now we must tend to our to muck.” garden.” Originally, said Kantor, the “What does it mean?” Kantor Malthouse team thought they asked. For him, it is the radical would have to change a lot to fit idea that we need to return to Voltaire’s ideas in with contempo- more practical things. Faced with rary society, but in fact they still wars and natural disasters, “we work very well (the stage play is need to tread lightly on the soil,” set on an airplane). This shows he said. that despite the many changes Kantor said he hated to be naïve, since Voltaire’s time, the complexi- then concluded by saying: “It fills ty of the human mind is much the me with hope that there is same today. Voltaire understood something we can do,” despite all that human beings need positive the problems around us. thought, and also need to return

Science and Tolerance Baroness Onora O’Neill of Bengarve FBA philosopher and former President of the British Academy John V Pickstone Wellcome Research Professor of History of the Medicine, University of Manchester Lord Rees of Ludlow President of the Royal Society, Astronomer Royal, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge 21 August 2009

Science vs pseudo-science through war-weariness and John Pickstone set the historical political expediency, and partly context by saying that tolerance though the promotion of individ- was ‘invented’ towards the end of ual enquiry which tested theories the 17th Century. The persecution by arguments or experience. These of heresy (which had been seen as attitudes remain associated with endangering the spiritual health the ‘scientific revolution’ of the of the people) diminished, partly 17th Century, but were also

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associated with developments in evidence – “disciplined enquiry religious and political thought. not a free-for-all.” She also For John Milton, one could be a suggested that we should not pay “heretic in the truth” if one equal respect to every position, believed for the wrong reasons. and should differentiate between Tolerance created the space for arguments which rely on evidence enquiry. and those which do not. Pickstone argued that careful There has been a move away from scepticism still remained appropri- older conceptions of freedom of ate across all fields of enquiry – speech, said O’Neill, to thinner from those known since the conceptions of freedom of nineteenth century as science, expression. Good communication through the wider questions or enquiry needs structure, clarity which once constituted natural and discipline and self expression philosophy, and on to politics and can neglect all of these. “Mere religion. It was unhelpful to think freedom of expression comes at a of matters of science as now cost,” she continued, “and secure and as contrasting with distracts from what really mat- ‘mere opinion’ or fixed faiths. ters.” There is also the problem of Disciplined scepticism was libel and hate speech, she added, essential to the technical and which tempts us to introduce laws social development of the scienc- to control how we talk to each es; but we too easily forget that other in public. increases in gender, racial and Martin Rees explained that in the economic equality, for example, late 17th and early 18th Century, grew more from campaigns and medicine and astronomy were the debate than from any particular only professional branches of ‘faith positions’ (or indeed from science. But even though science ‘science’). today may be broader in scope, he Onora O’Neill pointed out that continued, it is not always “we are the generation which has “optimally deployed for the sake endangered the environment and of human welfare” – e.g. many trashed the economy,” yet is also scientists focus on weapons more insistent on human rights research and curing the diseases and more willing to embrace of the rich rather than tropical diversity. She then said toleration diseases. “Scientists as a tribe are was sometimes seen as easy and fascinating subjects for anthropol- equated with indifference. Instead ogy,” Rees then declared. of saying “anything goes,” we For scientists, the path to consen- should be more concerned with sus is a winding one, Rees said, critical enquiry and focus more on referring to the “vendettas”

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which sometimes exist in subjects particularly when it comes to like cosmology. When rival “low-probability, high-conse- theories fight it out, he explained, quence events.” For example, only one argument wins, and with Variant CJD, a scientist could sometimes only one piece of say there is a one per cent chance evidence clinches the argument – of one million deaths, and people e.g. theories like the Big Bang or may panic. In reality, however, Continental Drift. Very strong there have only been about 100 support for a particular viewpoint deaths. So what do you say and can also be problematic, al- how do you say it? though, on the other hand, “we Complex scientific questions can love to see a maverick vindicated.” be social and political minefields, The general public are interested and must be seen in context. The in subjects such as cosmology, as moratorium on gene splicing may well as health and diet, but not have been a good idea but it sometimes the “flaky ideas” are made sense at the time, Rees paid more attention than life and suggested. With synthetic biology, death issues, and this may lead to consensus is harder, and commer- problems with the claims made cial pressures make it more for alternative medicines or the intense. Dialogue with politicians confusion about MMR. At the has enabled progress when it same time, he added, “the media comes to stem-cell research, he should not exaggerate or gloss continued; but with GM crops, over the uncertainties.” the views became too polarised Climate change, Rees said, is right from the start and the whole another problematic area, particu- thing went wrong. “Scientists larly when it comes to political must engage upstream,” Rees action. Scientists are not in charge added. of the world, but Rees suggested When it comes to “pseudo neither scientists nor politicians science” or UFOs, said Rees, it is should make decisions alone – we also difficult to have a sane all must decide. At the same time, debate because the different sides some campaigners can get in the don’t use the same methodolo- way of rational debate. “The gies, but unlike Richard Dawkins, global village has its global Rees does not think astrologers idiots,” said Rees, later adding ought to be sued. “The heirs to that we also have to rise above the the Enlightenment should not level of the tabloids. allow intolerance,” Rees then Even when there is consensus, concluded, “but we must be there is always a problem with rational and use evidence.” measuring the scale of threats,

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Music and the Enlightenment: Classical and Vernacular Traditions Sir Roger Norrington conductor and academic John Purser Research Fellow, Sabhal Mor Ostaig, Skye Marjorie Rycroft Professor of Music, University of Glasgow 23 August 2009

From princely palaces to Norrington, Haydn was “a farmyard… weather vane for music in the The Austrian composer Joseph Enlightenment,” promoting the Haydn was the focus of attention idea that music should be enter- for much of the discussion, as the taining and available to everyone, three speakers outlined the in the same way that education dramatic shifts in music during should be entertaining. the 18th Century – including the John Purser then sketched out the ‘internationalisation’ of traditional Scottish connections, describing Scottish airs. the “aristocratic” composers of Haydn’s career was a metaphor of the early 18th Century, Sir John how music changed in the course Clerk (described as lawyer, of the century. Of modest birth, he dilettante and Mason) and the started off as a composer for the Earl of Kellie (drank too much and court, then later on became as died young), who according to famous as a pop star, moving Purser was “our own little from “servitude” and music as Haydn.” Purser also talked about “simply a job” to complete artistic the Scots’ love of Italian fiddles freedom and the joy of creativity. and the drive during the 18th In the process, his music also Century to integrate traditional evolved from private, religious and Gaelic songs with classical music, serious pieces to much more “making sonatas out of old Scots accessible and “recognisable tunes.” Purser also amplified the tunes” enjoyed by the general Masonic theme, describing how public. During the same period, the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Haydn also evolved as a man, Rite influenced major composers casting off the uniform of a such as Haydn and Mozart, and servant and adopting the Masonic how the Scottish composer James apron which symbolised the Oswald wrote music of Masonic universal brotherhood of man. relevance. And according to Sir Roger

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The starting point for Marjorie Thomson’s Orpheus Caledonius, Rycroft was the founding of the the first published collection of Edinburgh Musical Society in Scots songs and airs (1725), which 1728 by gentlemen intending to later inspired Robert Burns. At the “better themselves” by establish- end of the 18th Century, George ing the city as one of the major Thomson sent Haydn 30 Scottish venues for classical music on the airs which the Austrian composer European circuit, and the export arranged for a fee of two ducats of Scots tunes to Europe. As well per air, eventually completing as discussing the difference more than 200 such arrange- between folk music and high art, ments for voice and piano trio, Rycroft described the way in which many of which were set to words traditional tunes were translated by Robert Burns. Rycroft also into music which could be explained that Haydn, who performed by “amateurs and received only the melodies from young ladies” in middle-class Thomson, did not set out to homes, including Alan Ramsay’s match words and music – the Tea-Table Miscellany and William music just fitted.

On the Dark Side: Witchcraft and the Theatre Julian Goodare Reader in Scottish History, University of Edinburgh Ruth Little dramaturg and Literary Manager of Royal Court Theatre Rona Munro playwright of The Last Witch Adrienne Scullion FRSE Professor of Drama, University of Glasgow 25 August 2009

Spellbound 1727 – just before the Scottish Enlightenment officially started... The background to the discussion was The Last Witch by Rona Julian Goodare kicked off the Munro, a play which was commis- discussion by describing changing sioned for the Edinburgh Festival, attitudes to witches in the early inspired by the legend of Janet 18th Century, when The Last Horne, a senile old woman from Witch is set. The common people Dornoch found guilty of witch- may not have changed their craft and burned at the stake in beliefs very much, seeing witch-

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craft as the work of the Devil, but able part of city life and culture, during the Age of Enlightenment, and members of the clergy even the persecution of witches was took time out from the General becoming “old hat.” The judiciary Assembly to attend a perform- wanted to stop executions and ance. By 1796, the famous English the torture of witches. Politicians actor Henry Johnson appeared in wished no more religious wars, the play in full Highland dress, and the church itself was growing reflecting the fact that the Union much more moderate. Above all, was now more secure and scientific sceptics swept away Highland heroes no longer posed beliefs in demonology because any serious threat. “The Enlight- they thought the world could be enment illuminated the dark explained in natural – not super- recesses of theatre,” Scullion natural – ways. concluded. In the 18th Century, the theatre Ruth Little talked about her also went through lots of chang- interest in prejudice and scape- es, said Adrienne Scullion, and goating, and how witches women became much more active represented opposition to – and respectable – players. To authority – exemplified in modern illustrate this, Scullion described times by a radical feminist move- three productions of The Douglas ment of the late 1960s called by John Home, reflecting different WITCH – the Women’s Interna- attitudes to Scotland, women and tional Terrorist Conspiracy from the theatre over the decades. At Hell – who tried to “hex” Wall the first staging of the play in Street. The hunt for scapegoats Edinburgh in 1756, the famous usually leads to a paralysis of cry was heard “Whaur’s yer Wullie intelligence, Little continued, and Shakespeare noo?” Set in the the “perfect storm” of the witch dark and mysterious Highlands, trial. She also described the idea the play also attracted consider- that witches were supposed to able controversy, because there have more “slippery tongues” was a lot of prejudice against the and an “insatiable carnal lust” theatre at that time – and against which threatened the moral women appearing on stage. The establishment, and quoted the Jacobite rebellion was also still character Elizabeth Sawyer in the fresh in the minds of the audience Jacobean play The Witch of and cast its shadow over the Edmunton: “It’s all one to be a production. In 1784, a second witch as to be counted as one.” production starring Sarah Siddons Little then said that witchcraft was was staged at the Theatre Royal. a lens through which to observe The theatre by then was a respect- the behaviour of local communi-

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ties and ended by saying “we are probably romanticised the story brilliant at negative definitions” 60 years later. of those outside society, with the Because Janet Horne held her witch as the metaphor of the hands to the fire which would outsider. later consume her and described it Rona Munro shared her experi- as a “bonny warming,” she was ence in researching and writing either suffering from dementia or her play The Last Witch, and the extraordinarily defiant, said challenge of making an historical Munro, and the latter was how play interesting and relevant to a she chose to dramatise the modern audience. As well as character, since this was what she saying that research was some- found more interesting and closer times a good excuse for watching to her personal experience. Munro Vincent Price films, she praised the also said that women like Janet database created by Julian Horne who alienate or annoy their Goodare and colleagues which neighbours seem to suffer the provided so much useful raw consequences much more than material. She also said that the men. “If women get some power, story of Janet Horne was more they are often seen as being interesting because of what we repellent,” she added, referring to don’t know rather than the so- the demonisation of Hillary called “facts,” and described how Clinton. Walter Scott ‘rediscovered’ and

Science and the Enlightenment Geoffrey Boulton OBE FRS FRSE Professor of Geology and Mineralogy, University of Edinburgh Dr John Henry Director, Science Studies, University of Edinburgh 26 August 2009

Let there be Newton masterpiece, Principia Mathemati- According to John Henry, Newton ca. After this was published, was the driving force behind the people thought that everything Enlightenment and science was solved and that the only became the “new intellectual challenge left in science was “the authority,” taking over from donkey work” of the “Newtonian church and religion. “Science programme.” As the poet Alexan- made the Enlightenment possi- der Pope wrote: “Let Newton be, ble,” he continued, because of and all was light.” the amazing success of Newton’s

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No-one else made such an impact the chief reasons Scotland as Newton, an iconic figure who progressed so rapidly during the became the embodiment of the period. Add to this so many Age of Reason, said Henry. His people with so many different principles were applied not only to ideas in the same place at the subjects such as physics but also same time, and the end result was the study of man – a social science an “interdisciplinary riot,” said which was later developed by Boulton. thinkers in Scotland such as Adam So what was the role of science at Ferguson and David Hume. Newton this time? Boulton illustrated this analysed morals as if he was by describing the careers of three conducting an experiment. Psychol- leading Scots – the geologist ogy, said Henry, also owed a lot to James Hutton, the chemist Joseph Newton – for example the idea that Black and the inventor James attraction (or the association of Watt. Hutton was a “systems ideas) operated the same in the scientist” who reached the broad psychological dimension as in the conclusion that the planet went physical world. through a cycle of changes similar Henry then asked what made the to crop rotation, driven by internal Scottish Enlightenment so differ- heat and ground down by ent, concluding that the reason erosion. This not only brought was that Scots were very quick to him into conflict with contempo- adopt Newtonian ideas. And finally, rary scientific theory and the book he talked about the way that new of Genesis, but was frowned branches of science emerged in the upon because it was associated period, including chemistry and with the “dangerous” idea of electricity, both Newtonian in revolution. Hutton claimed that he origin. “Enlightenment science was based his theory on careful Newtonian science,” he declared. observation of objective data, “Why did the flame of the Enlight- using the “minimum of imagina- enment burn so brilliantly in tion,” but we now know that he Scotland at the end of the 18th actually developed his theory Century?” asked Geoffrey Boulton, before he had gathered the facts suggesting the country had not to support it. been so bright at the start of the Joseph Black, said Boulton, century. The John Knox-inspired engaged in a “reductionist, system of education, the opportu- experimental branch of science,” nities presented by Union with concerned with latent heat and England, which opened up new other thermal phenomena, or markets, and the fact that so many “analytical chemistry.” He took Scots travelled abroad – these were “enormous leaps of understand-

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ing,” said Boulton, because he of cause and effect” to produce was “taking apart the nuts and unexpected outcomes or “emer- bolts of reality.” Watt was an gent behaviour” which we are not instrument maker who improved “wired” to understand. Newcomen’s first working steam Boulton then asked: “Is our engine by a factor of four to confidence in the power of “power the industrial revolution”. human reason justified?” Is social He also owed little to science, said progress a by-product of scientific Boulton, who described Watt as progress? Or are enlightened an “enlightened technologist,” in views – such as historical progress tune with the ideas of a mechani- and the “perfectibility” discussed cal universe. by Adam Ferguson – profoundly Boulton then subverted the idea flawed? “What would Watt and that reason is by definition always his fellow improvers have thought a good thing. If these men had about the miseries of the industri- known the social consequences of al revolution and the their theories and inventions, he industrialisation of slaughter?” said, they may have “thought asked Boulton. And is it true that twice.” To explain this, he quoted social and ethical progress is the playwright Bertold Brecht, fiction, while scientific progress is who said the aim of science “is fact? not to open the door to infinite “If there were to be a modern wisdom, but to set a limit to Enlightenment, and we decided infinite error.” Boulton then that human affairs should be developed this theme by discuss- conducted primarily through the ing the modern scientific power of reason, what would that revolution ushered in by comput- reason look like?” he finally ing, “delving into the complexity asked.

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The Face of the Enlightenment Anne Bogart Artistic Director SITI Company Lee Breuer Co-Artistic Director of Mabou Mines Roger L Emerson Emeritus Professor, University of Western Ontarion, Canada Paul Goring Senior Lecturer, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim 30 August 2009

Appearances can be deceptive happened. Was it what Kant Was the face of the Enlighten- described as freeing oneself from ment the portrait of David Hume “self-imposed immaturity,” or was by Allan Ramsay (“not an easy it more to do with utility, as face to paint”), a face scarred by described by the Scottish encyclo- smallpox or the head on a paedist, William Smellie? Did it banknote? This was how the chair start with Voltaire in 1734 or John Leighton summed up what Spinoza in the 1670s? Did it end was probably the most abstract after the French Revolution, when debate of the series – trying to many critics thought it had led to understand the Enlightenment by the Terror? With this in mind, to “reading” its appearance. talk about the “face” of the Enlightenment depends on how Leighton set the tone when he you define it, he said. asked at the start if the face may be considered as a metaphor for Emerson also said that the the Enlightenment, or if we Enlightenment was part of a large should focus on what we can tell “improvement programme” from painted likenesses of people dating back to the Renaissance – the private and public faces of and the Reformation, the major 18th-Century portraits. He also difference being the ideas of the suggested that in an age of sceptical philosophers and economic and political uncertain- scientists, and the application of ty, we may look back on the Age their thinking across a number of of Enlightenment with a lot of disciplines. nostalgia. The Scottish Enlightenment was First speaker Roger Emerson not known as such until 1906, began by saying there was little and Emerson asked if its face agreement on what the Enlighten- could perhaps be the four ment actually was, or when it paintings of the Leadhills Mines

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by the Scottish painter David because of the growth of public Allan, recently acquired by the life – including coffee houses and National Galleries of Scotland, public exhibitions. Doing business because of their association with “face to face” meant that reliabili- improvement (the public library), ty was also a critical factor. Was science and technology, or the the face a window or a mask? portraits of people such as Lord Finally, said Goring, even though Alva, David Hume or Archibald people were ‘performing’ in Grant. Only a few thousand public, they also yearned for people were involved in the honesty, and this led to the rise of Enlightenment in Scotland, and physiognomy as a respectable most of them were Lowlanders. discipline during the 18th Very few were women. And Century, even though it was later ironically, Emerson concluded, the discredited as a science. faces were more likely to be Dutch As a theatre director, Anne Bogart or Italian, since these were the talked about how she first portraits that people in Scotland thought about how a stage play bought at the time. Paul Goring should ‘look’, and suggested that decided to take the subject we are often ‘seduced by the literally, talking about the “relia- façade’ – interested in looks rather bility of the face as an indicator of than the impulse or the ‘energy’ character,” and stating that behind an idea. She then declared although we think of the body as that we are at the end of the post- a natural constant, it is possible to modern era. There is nothing left study the history of the body in to deconstruct, she said, so maybe various ways, including the we are now entering the age of differences between the face of the “New Enlightenment,” the Enlightenment and our faces rediscovering stories and “new today. At that time, many faces ways of meaning through were marked by smallpox, despite stories.” the popular use of cosmetics, and many people’s noses had col- Fellow director Lee Breuer began lapsed because of mercury in provocative style by declaring treatment for syphilis. People then that all artists focus on “making a also consumed lots of sugar and buck,” and then described the dentistry was not widely available, history of patronage, pre- and so most people also had very bad post-Enlightenment. Before the teeth. Changing social patterns Enlightenment, Breuer said, artists also had an impact, said Goring. had to go to the church or Today we are the ‘Facebook’ aristocracy for funding, and as a Generation, but at that time there result became court “playthings” was a major shift in society or jesters, creating work which

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promoted the cause of their doing the dirty work now, we have patrons. After the Enlightenment replaced one form of slavery with – with its ideas of democracy, another and all become “wage technology, science and econom- slaves.” Politicians and corporate ics – what changed? Were we business are the new patrons of more advanced than the ancient the arts. The game has changed, world, when women, animals and he added, but the economics have prisoners were slaves? Breuer not. “We may as well hitch-hike to suggested that even though Rome,” he suggested. machines are supposed to be

Moral Universals and Moral Progress: The New Science of Good and Evil Paul Bloom Professor of Psychology, Yale University 31 August 2009

Are moral judgements ruled by mean such ‘disgusting’ acts are head or heart? morally wrong? Is it always better Where do moral values come to sacrifice one life if that will save from? Do we make our moral five lives? judgements based on reason or Did Uncle Tom’s Cabin do more to emotion? Can babies tell right end slavery in the US than thou- from wrong? And would babies sands of essays which argued the ‘punish’ a ‘bad guy’ if given the same? Did the comedy show Will choice? & Grace do more to change In the 1950s, most people attitudes to same-sex relation- thought inter-racial marriages ships than years of activists were wrong. Nowadays, the demanding gay rights? opposite is true. Meanwhile, These were just some of the attitudes to many other social, questions posed by Paul Bloom in moral, philosophical, religious the course of his lecture – a cross and political issues have also been between a stand-up act, psychol- turned upside down. But what ogy experiment and public has changed since then, and is opinion poll, described by one this moral progress or simply a member of the audience as “a change? master class in the art of public Just because we are ‘disgusted’ by presentation.” incest, necrophilia or the idea of The Enlightenment may have been eating the family pet, does that all about reason, but Bloom

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subverted the idea that we base “Instinctive empathy is universal, our moral judgements on reason, natural and important,” said suggesting that emotions and the Bloom, but there are huge influence of ‘stories’ are more differences when it comes to critical factors than rational attitudes towards more controver- arguments – based on his psy- sial subjects such as sex and chology experiments with babies religion, and Bloom believes that and adults. this can be explained according to Bloom also suggested that people three types of ethics: autonomy are ‘hard-wired’ to make moral (concerned with notions such as judgements, illustrating this with freedom, rights and equality); his description of an incident in community (concerned with duty, 1848, when a man called Phineas status, hierarchy and interdepend- Gage suffered terrible brain ence); and divinity (concerned with damage after an accident, leading purity, sanctity, pollution and sin). to a major change in character, There are also radical differences which suggested that his physical amongst people according to brain played a greater role in their politics, with conservatives making moral judgements than tending to be ‘disgusted’ by his powers of reason, which were certain things and liberals tending still quite intact. This raised the to say that something is ‘OK as question, said Bloom, of whether long as it’s fair and no-one is gut feeling or reason determines harmed’. our ability to tell right from To test where people sit on the wrong. political spectrum, Bloom then Bloom then discussed the idea of presented four scenarios – incest, the “foundations of a universal eating the family dog, using the morality” and our altruistic national flag to clean the toilet aversion to the pain of others, and having sex with a dead citing his experiments with babies, chicken – and surveyed how the observing their reactions to a audience reacted to each in terms cartoon which portrayed a ‘good of right and wrong. Every situa- guy’ and a ‘bad guy’, to show that tion was more complex than it the babies were ‘hard-wired’ to be appeared, and this led to complex capable of telling the difference responses – and moral dilemmas. and also capable of altruistic “People struggle to find reasons behaviour – unlike psychopaths to say why something is wrong,” whose lack of sensitivity makes Bloom declared, and our gut them indifferent. (Bloom also feelings tend to hold more sway claimed that James Bond was the than rational arguments. perfect example of a psychopath, To illustrate this further, he rather than Hannibal Lecter.) presented two scenarios where we

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are asked to decide the fate of the slave of the passions,’ and several people standing on a rail said that his own findings also track, as an express train ap- suggest that emotions tend to proaches. In the first case, the over-ride the rational side of the train will kill five people, but we brain – for example, when it can pull a switch to divert the train comes to changing attitudes to onto another line, thus killing slavery and sexism. Bloom also only one person. Do we pull the said there is a big difference switch – saving five people by between our idea of moral causing (remotely) the death of progress and what he prefers to just one? Most people tend to say call “moral change.” yes. In the second case, five “What are the forces underlying people are again on the rail track moral progress?” he asked. And as the train approaches, but this the answer, he suggested, was time we are standing on a bridge imagination and the power of with a very large person – ‘the fat stories which exploit our natural, man’ – beside us. If we push the empathetic responses to the real- fat man off the bridge onto the life suffering of others. For rail track, the train will stop and as example, he explained, when a result the five people will be charities use real people to make saved. Bloom then explained that an appeal, the end result tends to most people find it harder to be much more successful because decide what to do in the second we find it harder to turn down a scenario, measured with a brain person who really exists and scan of ‘emotional involvement’ stories which tug on our heart which highlights different strings, rather than a rational, patterns of activity in different impersonal appeal. Similarly, areas of the brain depending on feeling disgusted tends to shape the choice being made, even moral judgements, even though though it is logically the same this is an unreliable indicator of decision – five lives versus one life. ‘right or wrong.’ The key difference, said Bloom, is In conclusion, Bloom said, we are that in the second scenario, we ‘hard-wired’ to be moral creatures, have to actually touch the person, our morality is driven by gut not just pull a switch. Bloom also feelings rather than reason, and suggested that how we express our gut feelings tend to be such dilemmas can have an effect triggered by stories. “Man will on the outcome – for example, become better,” he concluded, using words like ‘killed’ or ‘saved’ quoting Chekhov, “when you can influence people’s decisions. show him what he is like.” Bloom then quoted David Hume: ‘Reason is, and ought only to be,

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The Enlightenment and the Academies Lord Sutherland of Houndwood KT FBA PPRSE former Principal, University of Edinburgh Paul Wood Professor of History, University of Victoria, Canada 1 September 2009

Back to school reason, rules of evidence and Chair Louise Richardson put the sometimes utility were what really discussion in context by describ- mattered. The natural sciences ing how the academies of the were also of central importance, 18th Century expressed the basic since the ideas of Newton and principles of the Enlightenment by Bacon provided a “proper trying to be independent of the universal method” in the search church and the state, encouraging for the truth. Newton also showed people to think for themselves us, said Wood, that truth was and be tolerant of other people’s something that could be discov- ideas. ered. And “commitment to Paul Wood started by defining a improvement” was the other few basic terms, asking if the major characteristic, he added, Enlightenment was a period or a whilst we should not forget that cultural and intellectual move- most scientists also supported ment. If it was a period, it lasted religion. from about 1690 until 1805, Turning to the meaning of when the Scottish clergy vetoed ‘academies,’ Wood said that some the appointment of John Leslie as institutions of that time were set a professor at the University of up with a more practical and Edinburgh, after a century when commercial emphasis, whilst the church had generally not national academies such as the interfered with such matters. RSE were closely tied to universi- If the Enlightenment was a ties. Two major factors were at cultural movement, said Wood, play in 18th-Century Scotland, he then its leading principle was added. There was general consen- toleration – at least in theory if sus that education was a good not in practice, as exemplified by thing because it would lead to Locke tolerating everyone except moral and material improvement, Catholics and atheists. Another in a country which was “culturally pillar of the movement was the backward” and had suffered idea that tradition can’t sustain a economic disasters and famine in modern way of life, and that recent decades. The school

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curriculum was reformed to meet when extraordinary four-foot-high the needs of the age, and this led waves were observed. The cause to dramatic progress in disciplines of the phenomenon was the such as medicine and even radical earthquake in Lisbon on the very ideas such as education for same day, whose seismic move- women. Wood also set out to ments were recorded many miles ‘ruffle some feathers’ by discuss- away. What was significant, said ing academic freedom, and the Sutherland, was that scientists – fact that it did not exist in the influenced by Newton – recorded 18th Century as we think of it the event and analysed the today. Academics could philoso- evidence, and sent a report to the phise freely but they tended to Edinburgh Philosophical Society avoid questioning the basis of which we can still read today. religion, and the establishment “This was not a cause or conse- still ‘micro-managed’ society, via quence of the Enlightenment, but figures such as the third Duke of the Enlightenment at work,” said Argyll, who was one of the great Sutherland. architects of the Scottish Enlight- The second point concerned the enment – although also an importance invested in education enlightened and moderate man, in Scotland, and the fact that the and a good scientist. The paradox, University of Edinburgh was not suggested Wood, was that state established by Papal Decree like control today suggests negative other institutions, but was created things such as bureaucracy, whilst by civic demand. In Aberdeen- then it did good things. shire, he added, there were three Stewart Sutherland began by universities in 1600, including reacting to this latter statement, one in Fraserburgh, also estab- saying that if you must have a lished because the community despot, “make sure he’s an wanted it. This tied in with John enlightened despot.” He then Knox’s belief in the fundamental said that the Enlightenment was importance of education and the not a thing or event but a process, idea of a “school in every parish.” with no specific starting or end The church also believed that first point, and that he would discuss principles and reason were it via three ‘vignettes’ which prerequisites for reasonable illustrated what was going on in debate – even when it came to Scotland during the 18th Century matters of faith. and beyond. Sutherland then described how First, he told the story of the universities went out “into the ‘perturbation of the waters’ on world,” with Scottish influence Loch Ness on 1st November, 1755, spreading to London and

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Princeton and even to the Univer- the Enlightenment principles are sity of Chile, whose first rector, institutionalised, academies take Andres Bello (Simon Bolivar’s on lives of their own and it tutor), was deeply influenced by becomes increasingly difficult to the ideas of Scottish philosophers, resolve the competing interests of including Thomas Reid and different disciplines, whose Dugald Stewart. knowledge is increasingly frag- Finally, Sutherland said, there was mented and compartmentalised. a widespread belief that for Secondly, we should note that reason and rationality to rule in universities and academies such as society, we needed to educate the RSE are hugely dependent on people – starting in primary the public purse – not always a school. But today there are also bad thing but also not always a two problems, he added. First, as good thing.

Political Economy: Adam Smith and Others James Buchan Author of Adam Smith and the Pursuit of Perfect Liberty Andrew Skinner FRSE Adam Smith Professor Emeritus of Economics, University of Glasgow 3 September 2009

The conversation continues… say “let the market do what it Gordon Brewer introduced wants,” then posed the question: proceedings by declaring that it “What are the limits?” was cheering to see so many James Buchan outlined Smith’s life people attending the Enlighten- from his birth in Kirkcaldy in 1723 ment discussions, at a time when until his death in Edinburgh in we are being “bombarded with 1790, to describe the human articles about dumbing down.” being behind the great legend. He then said that Adam Smith and Smith’s father was a customs his theories provided the back- official, a servant of the new drop to our current economic administration set up after Union, crisis, “a world in which the but he died before his son was banking system has exploded and born. Smith was devoted to his is now being propped up by mother all his life and never taxpayers’ money.” He also said married, said Buchan, and was that there had been a deeply affected by the death of his re-evaluation of Smith since the mother in 1784. Smith studied at 1980s, when it became popular to the University of Glasgow (which

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he loved) and Balliol College in during his travels, and returned to Oxford (which he detested), said Scotland in 1766, taking another Buchan. Early on, he was engaged nine years to complete The Wealth in philosophical enquiries, and of Nations, in the course of which wrote an essay on astronomy. In a banking crisis rocked his 1746, he returned to Scotland patrons, the Buccleuchs. What with no prospect of employment, made the book so successful, said no vocation or religious calling. Buchan, was that it was a new way Two years later he gave a series of of looking at history and society – lectures in Edinburgh which led to “not moralistic and with no his appointment as Professor of political axe to grind.” Logic and Rhetoric at his alma Buchan then described Smith’s mater in Glasgow, becoming final years, his absent-mindedness Professor of Moral Philosophy the and “worm-like” way of walking, following year. and summed up the major factors Smith was concerned with in his career. Most importantly, institutions such as the family, said Buchan, Smith believed (like marriage and taxation, and this his friend David Hume) that a led to an interest in political single principle like sympathy (the economy and jurisprudence, and ability to put yourself in some- the question of why some body else’s position) or countries are more prosperous specialisation could explain a wide than others – a subject which range of philosophical phenome- inspired The Wealth of Nations. na. Like many others of his age, he Buchan then quoted Smith stating was also enthralled by natural one of his central beliefs: “Little science and the theories of else is requisite to carry a state to Newton. During his lifetime, many the highest degree of opulence other factors also influenced his from the lowest barbarism but thinking, such as Scotland peace, easy taxes and a tolerable becoming more wealthy and administration of justice.” becoming a more polite and In 1759, Smith published his ‘polished’ society. The supernatu- Theory of Moral Sentiments and ral was also abolished from enjoyed worldwide success, which philosophy, with a little help from led to him embarking on a Grand Smith himself. Above all, said Tour of Europe in 1764 on a Buchan, Smith focused on the pension of £300 a year as tutor to betterment of society and the the young Duke of Buccleuch. drive for prosperity, and was anti- Even though he hated the idea of authoritarian as well as a a Grand Tour, Smith grasped the republican, against the idea of opportunity to meet intellectuals either being ruled from above or such as Voltaire and Franklin below.

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After describing Smith’s core Smith was also not a blind beliefs (accepted standards of believer in the supremacy of free behaviour, rules of law, the close market forces. According to links between ethics and econom- Skinner, Smith advocated an end ics, etc) and tracing his to the apprenticeship system and philosophical career, Andrew trade guilds, believing they Skinner focused on Smith’s inhibited freedom of trade, but he meditations on market forces also advocated taxation, and was versus regulation, as well as the acutely aware of the problems of doctrine of unexpected outcomes the credit structure. Smith sought and the so-called ‘invisible hand,’ to create an economic environ- and how we all live as ‘merchants’ ment in which individual initiative by exchanging the fruits of our could thrive, but he also thought labours. Smith’s critique of the that government must provide mercantile system may suggest public works, Skinner said, that economic equilibrium is like a believing that the profit motive law of nature, but when should would not provide things such as the State intervene? bridges and roads – or education. Smith talked a lot about high Many areas required intervention, concepts such as freedom and and government must scrutinise security and dynamic global and regulate to protect people. economic forces, but when it There are negative and positive comes to more domestic issues, freedoms, said Skinner, and things become more difficult. increased wealth can also lead to damage.

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Discussion Forum Engineering Scotland and Japan: Past, Present and Future (part of the Japan–UK 150 series) 3 September 2009

Bridges, beer and student education, science and technology exchanges… – not forgetting beer. The discussion forum at the RSE The first speaker, Professor Alex was part of the Japan–UK 150 Craik, described the emergence of series of events, organised to modern Japan between 1853 and celebrate 150 years of friendship 1885, and the Scotsmen who between Japan and the UK and played a key role in the process. encourage exchanges in culture, Among the leading figures were the arts, sport, education and Lord Elgin, who gained the first science. And the five speakers not trading concessions in the late only revealed some surprising 1850s; Laurence Oliphant, who connections between Japan and wrote a popular account of Elgin’s Scotland in the past, but also travels; William Keswick and Hugh shared their recent academic and Matheson (of Jardine Matheson business experiences – and their fame), who broke the law to help hopes for the next generation of five young Japanese samurai (the Japanese and Scottish engi- “Choshu 5”) sail to the UK to neers… study. Some of these young men Did you know that a young returned to Japan to play promi- Japanese engineer was involved in nent roles in government and the construction of that great business, including Kikuchi Scottish icon, the Forth Rail Dairoku, a mathematician who Bridge? Did you know that a later became the Minister of Scotsman founded one of Japan’s Education and President of Kyoto leading breweries? Or that University. Scotsmen played a key role in the One of the most colourful Scots in founding of Japan’s first universi- Japanese history was Thomas ties, shipyards and banks? Glover, who played a “dangerous These were just some of the facts game” selling arms to the to emerge from the evening’s Satsuma and the Choshu clans, discussions, which focused on the and founded a shipyard which links between Japan and Scotland was later bought by engineering since the mid 19th century, with giant, Mitsubishi. Glover also an emphasis on engineering, founded Kirin Beer, still one of

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Japan’s leading brands. Other enjoyed high prestige – a tradition leading Scots included John Black, that continues up to this day. one of Japan’s first newspaper Sadayuki Ujihashi of the Tokyo magnates, and numerous medical Institute of Technology then missionaries, bankers and engi- described the links between the neers – including Richard two countries from a Japanese Brunton, “the father of Japanese perspective, and discussed the lighthouses” (trained by the success of the exchange pro- Stevensons) who in his spare time gramme between his Institute and improved Yokohama’s drainage the University of Strathclyde. and macadamised roads. Japan’s Professor Ujihashi explained how shipbuilding, railways and iron Japan first opened up to the production also owed a lot to world, from the time Commander Scottish engineers. Perry arrived in Tokyo in 1853 with Craik then described the influence his “black ships,” until the Meiji of Scots on education in Japan, Restoration in 1868, and beyond. focusing on Henry Dyer, who In 1603, the Tokoguwa Shoguns became the Principal of the thought that they would rule Imperial College of Engineering in forever and banned foreign travel. Tokyo in 1872, recruiting many The port of Nagasaki was “a Scots and others with Scottish pinhole” through which Japan connections, including the saw the rest of the world, but the geologist John Milne, inventor of country lived in almost complete the seismograph, and the physi- isolation for about 250 years, cist Sir James Ewing, who when foreigners including the discovered hysteresis (the idea British established relations and that physical systems have forced Japan to open up its ports. memories). Among the Japanese The British had a major influence scholars with Scottish connections during this period, said Ujihashi, were Seikei Sekiya, who became and nurtured the talents of many the first professor of seismology young students like Yozo Yamao. at the Imperial University of Tokyo; When Yamao returned to Japan Tanakadate Aikitsu, who visited after his studies in Glasgow, he Lord Kelvin in Glasgow; and Kaichi joined the new government and Watanabe, who studied in played a key role in the founding Glasgow and worked on the of the Imperial College of Engi- construction of the Forth Rail neering. Ujihashi also described Bridge in the late 1880s. the development of Japan after “The Imperial College of Engi- the Meiji restoration, and how the neering,” said Craik, “set the Scots had helped, including the scene for engineering in Japan,” first telegraph in 1869, the postal and its students (mainly Samurai) system (1871), the founding of

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the Bank of Japan (1882) and the has spent time in Japan and he first telephone link between Tokyo and Ujihashi were the first and Yokohama in 1890. In academics to do an exchange, education, Scottish influence was with the first student from not just felt at university level, but Strathclyde (Dr Chris Roach) also in primary schools. He also visiting Tokyo in 1994. Some described Henry Dyer (a graduate students from Tokyo now spend of Anderson’s College in Glas- up to one year in Glasgow, while gow) as the “father of Scottish students visit Japan for a engineering education in Japan,” single semester, to carry out and said he played a key role in various projects; including the developing the curriculum, development of a remote-control including general science, where robotic arm designed for use in English was also taught alongside disaster recovery, biomimetic more technical subjects such as robots which mimic human maths. behaviour, and a “human-driven Kaichi Watanabe then came under snake vehicle.” The first integrat- the spotlight, with Ujihashi ed project started in 2008 and describing his studies in Glasgow from 2009 to 2010, ten students from 1884 to 1886, his work as a from Japan and eight from foreman on the Forth Rail Bridge Scotland will work as a team. Nash from 1886 to 1888 and his said that students from Strath- return to Japan, where he became clyde were now competing for an entrepreneur with an interest acceptance in the programme, in railways and civil engineering. with 25 students applying for only For his grand finale, Ujihashi then five places. displayed the famous photograph Nash also said that Henry Dyer’s of Watanabe, sitting in the centre legacy survives in the form of in- of the cantilever model of the class teaching and off-class bridge – then zoomed in on the training still encouraged today. He image of the Bank of Scotland also quoted Dyer’s ambitions for £20 note, printed two years ago, Japan: “Knowledge should be featuring the same image of the sought for throughout the whole young Japanese engineer. world, so that the welfare of the Dr David Nash of the University of Empire may be promoted (or in Strathclyde then provided an order that its status may be raised insight into the student exchange ever higher and higher).” programme set up by Strathclyde Finally, Nash said that the pro- and the Tokyo Institute of Tech- gramme is “all about nology – an agreement recently relationships and all about fun.” renewed until 2013. Nash himself

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To provide the commercial So what was the impact? Ashton perspective, Tim Ashton, Research said the first thing that impressed Director of Vascutek, then de- him and his colleagues was the scribed what happens when a President of Terumo immediately Scottish high-tech firm is acquired coming to Scotland to speak face by Japan’s largest medical device to face with the staff. The Presi- company, Terumo. And the plain dent said there would be no job facts are that Vascutek has more losses and no local management than doubled in size from about changes for at least two years, and 200 to 550 people, with turnover kept to his promise. The Vasutek up from about £23 million to £55 team carried on as usual, with a million. Japanese “transition manager” The origins of Vascutek go back to joining them in Scotland. Terumo 1979, when the company devel- people joined the board and oped a new kind of vascular graft engineers were sent out to work in a project involving Glasgow in the plant, along with represent- Royal Infirmary, the textiles atives from quality control and manufacturer Coats Patons and accounts. The two companies the University of Strathclyde’s share more technology now and bioengineering department. Ashton said that Vascutek has had Several inventions and Queen’s to make some “cultural adjust- Awards later, the company was ments” as well as learn to live taken over by Terumo, and has with new reporting requirements. since developed several more Recently, Terumo became the new innovations, and gone on to distributor for Vascutek in the acquire another company which Japanese market, and Ashton said makes porcine heart valves. the company would wait to see if this arrangement works or not. In 2002, Vascutek’s parent Ashton said that Japanese company got into difficulties and executives found it odd at first the Scottish subsidiary was ripe that British people laugh and joke for acquisition, with several US at meetings and sometimes “tear firms keen to move in. Ashton into each other,” but he said that revealed that Terumo arrived on their Japanese colleagues now the scene at the 11th hour, and know when they’re being ironic. even though it did not offer more Vascutek has also retained a cash, it offered better terms than degree of autonomy, according to the American favourites, and its Ashton. bid was accepted. The bottom line for Ashton is Terumo wanted to be a global continuing investment, technical player and Vascutek was the first collaboration, some extra bu- implant company it had acquired. reaucracy, good personal

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relations, higher turnover, more new Vascutek product, and staff and a new factory. Vascutek Terumo has signed a cross- also uses Terumo technology, licensing agreement which helps whilst Terumo engineers now split protect Vasutek’s intellectual their time between Scotland and property – not just a good Japan, and the manufacturing of example of how to conduct global some of Terumo’s vascular grafts business, but an exciting new has transferred to Scotland. A chapter in the story of relations Terumo research team is also at between Scotland and Japan. work on the development of a

263 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Professor Veronica van Heyningen Making Eyes – Lessons from Failed Miracles Henry Dryerre Prize Lecture 7 September 2009

Pick up any newspaper and there core-set of highly conserved will be frequent reports detailing interacting genes regulates eye the identification of yet another development in all classes of human disease gene. What is the creatures across evolution from significance of such discoveries? flies to man, suggesting the re- How can we use the information use of common underlying to learn more about the mecha- components. nisms of disease and about We have identified three major possible paths to improved genes with key roles in eye disease management and thera- development and function. All py? Our work on human eye three work as DNA-binding malformations illustrates these transcription factors that regulate principles. the expression of many other The eye is the ultimate precision genes in eye, brain and some instrument. It needs to be “built” other sites. Subsequently we very precisely in order to fulfil its determined how different types of function. Charles Darwin de- mutations cause abnormalities scribed the eye as an ‘organ of and were able to deduce some of extreme perfection’. When the mechanisms through which developing his theory of evolu- such regulator genes control the tion, Darwin felt that the eye complex processes of develop- provided a strict test for the ment. Each gene was found to theory, which stipulates that an fulfil multiple tasks in eye and organ cannot pass through a brain development, and they stage where function is lost, as interact with each other and essential components disappear additional eye and brain genes in when selection is relaxed – the different combinations, generat- “use it or lose it” concept. Eyes ing complex networks that ensure exist in several fundamentally the tight regulation required for different designs in different robust error-free development. animal groups; they are organised Detailed analysis of how normal so differently that they must have functions go wrong in humans evolved independently multiple and animals with known muta- times. And yet, as we shall see, a tion-driven eye malformations has

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provided strong insight into the process occasionally goes wrong, finely-tuned mechanisms of often as a result of altered gene normal development and mainte- function. nance, as well as into the etiology Identification of disease genes. of disease. Using animal models, Genetic eye disease is relatively we have also explored how the frequent and often familial, partly final outcome, the “phenotype”, because human societies look can be influenced by environmen- after people with visual impair- tal factors. ment and they survive and A brief introduction to eye reproduce relatively well. From development and organisation the early 1980s efforts were made The vertebrate eye starts to to identify genes responsible for develop as an evagination of the inherited diseases. Genes were brain, even before the neural tube mapped using a variety of ap- is closed. The evagination proaches to identify their balloons out and the curved chromosomal location and then surface of the neuronal precursor candidate genes in the region hemisphere touches the surface were tested to assess whether ectoderm, the outer layer of the they carried disease-causing body from which skin and also the mutations. One way to locate lens and cornea will develop. The disease genes most easily then contact triggers an invagination of and even now, is by identifying both the neural hemisphere and cases where some demonstrable the surface ectoderm, so that a chromosomal rearrangement is double-layered retina is formed associated with the disease of and the lens pinches off, while the interest. The first developmental surface ectoderm reseals and abnormality of the eye we studied eventually develops into the was aniridia (absence of the iris) cornea. The double retina forms which had been previously the outer pigmented retina and associated with chromosomal the inner layer becomes the soon- deletions that caused two unrelat- to-be-stratified neural retina. ed diseases because the two Photoreceptors develop on the disease genes were co-deleted by outer curve of the neural retina, a single event, suggesting that the adjacent to the pigmented retina. genes mapped close together. The neural connections from the Although such deletions arise very photoreceptors make connections rarely, they are highly recognisable with the visual cortex in the brain because of the co-occurrence of so that an exact map of retina is two rare diseases. At that time, produced. It is not surprising that well before the Human Genome this complex developmental Project had properly begun, the

265 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

search for candidate genes in a Transcription factors (TFs) bind to chromosomal region was a chromosomal DNA at the required painstakingly slow process; but target sites. Access to the delicate following extensive work interna- DNA thread is modulated by tionally to map the deletions, a chromatin conformation resulting DNA-binding transcription factor from DNA interactions with gene called PAX6 was suggested support proteins such as histones. as the candidate gene by col- DNA transcription into RNA is leagues in Texas. We set about facilitated by an open chromatin helping them to prove that this conformation. Switched off genes was the gene. The process of reside in regions of tightly-packed identifying mutations in a gene closed chromatin. TFs may work was much harder in those days, by turning target genes on or off. but we succeeded, using both a Frequently a single TF can function mouse model for aniridia and as an enhancer or repressor of collected human patient DNA. gene expression under different More than a decade later, using circumstances. TFs work in similar chromosomal deletion concert with others of their kind, approaches we identified two including some that are required other transcription factors, each of for all gene expression (general which was shown to be mutated transcription factors) while many, in a proportion of rare anophthal- including our three eye genes, are mia (no eye globe) and tissue-specific regulators. microphthalmia (small eye) cases. The role of PAX6, SOX2 and The two genes identified are OTX2 in development and SOX2 and OTX2. disease The nature of the genes These three transcription factors All three genes are tissue-specific cause developmental malforma- DNA-binding proteins, expressed tions that affect the whole in the developing eye and brain complex structure of the eye – the and some other tissues. Each one diseases associated with muta- regulates the expression of tions at these three gene loci are multiple target genes important panocular. Other TFs are associat- for development. The pattern of ed with many different eye expression changes as develop- diseases, including retinal degen- ment progresses. Each of these erations, glaucoma, corneal genes fulfils multiple roles during disease and cataracts. eye and brain development, in Analysis of the expression pattern some other tissues too and also in of each gene during different adulthood. times in development – the spatiotemporal expression pattern

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– can be very informative about long-term aniridia patients (all the nature of the phenotypes to over 16 years old) was asked to be assessed. For these expression participate in a research project to studies model organisms are study their brain structure by MRI generally used, and the mouse is (magnetic resonance imaging), a highly favoured, because it is such non-invasive powerful analytical an amenable, manipulable model. method for imaging brain However, significant contributions structure. To everyone’s surprise, a are also made using zebrafish, as high proportion of the aniridia well as invertebrate models such patients were found to have as the fruitfly Drosophila and the absent or hypoplastic anterior nematode worm Caenorhabditis commissure, one of the key elegans. This is particularly true connections between the two for PAX6, which is very highly hemispheres. Other abnormalities conserved in terms of both observed frequently include function and amino acid se- olfactory system deficits even to quence. Indeed, PAX6 mutations complete anosmia, but this had are known in all of the mentioned been heralded by observations of organisms and these mutations considerably reduced olfactory are associated most notably with bulb size in mice. Another the eye phenotype, or other surprise was the high frequency of sensory system abnormalities in cases with absence of the pineal, the worm, which has no eyes. although no particular sleep Careful examination of the mouse pattern problems have been “Small eye” heterozygotes, and described. Finally one case with the neonatally lethal homozy- some hearing problems was seen gotes, reveals that the by an audiologist, who found that heterozygote is a good model for each ear functions normally, but human aniridia, while the ho- there is a problem with informa- mozygotes with no eyes have tion transfer between the two severe brain and olfactory system hemispheres. Subsequently, a abnormalities, which lead to number of other adults and also death within a short time of birth. some children were tested. Many Interestingly, heterozygous mice were found to have similar can be shown to have mild brain auditory transfer deficits, though abnormalities as well as the the children generally did not aniridia-like eye phenotype. show absence of the anterior Spurred on by knowledge of the commissure, raising the possibility expression pattern, and by the that the absence of the commis- severe homozygous mouse sure is a progressive feature of phenotype, a selected group of aniridia.

267 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

What the details of the muta- Occasionally other associated tions tell us abnormalities are also seen, such Although classical aniridia, with as tracheo–oesophageal joining – absence of the iris, is generally SOX2 is also expressed in the caused by so-called null mutations relevant epithelial cells, so this where the most likely situation is associated anomaly “makes that there is a reduction in protein sense”, although the variable levels because one copy of the occurrence is not understood. gene does not produce protein, OTX2 null mutations also give rise we do find a number of mutations to anophthalmia and microph- which give rise to altered protein thalmia which are not readily from the mutated copy. These distinguished from the SOX2 cases, generally with a single phenotype. However, in this case aminoacid change (missense we have seen a number of mutation), often have a variant completely unaffected mutation phenotype, sometimes milder and carrier parents. There have also sometimes more severe than the been differences in phenotype classical case. There is a general severity within a family. Anoph- trend to specific amino acid thalmia and microphthalmia can mutations to be associated with be unilateral, particularly with particular phenotypes. The most SOX2 mutations. Recently a severe missense mutations are family with an inherited SOX2 actually associated with microph- missense change was reported thalmia which is indistinguishable with variable phenotypes some of superficially from phenotypes that which overlapped with Pax6- are caused by mutations at the associated iris coloboma. We other two loci. SOX2 mutations shall discuss the possible reasons are frequently found in the most for the phenotypic variability and severe cases with bilateral anoph- overlaps observed with these thalmia. All the mutations, which genes. are mostly loss of function in one Long-range regulation of gene copy, seem to arise anew in the expression germ cells of one of the parents. We were alerted to the existence Until very recently no vertical of important distant regulatory inheritance of SOX2 mutations elements outside the coding had been observed. This suggests region of developmental tran- a highly penetrant dosage scription factor genes like PAX6 by sensitivity for this gene. The several cases of classical aniridia anophthalmia is frequently where gene disruption arose by associated with brain anomalies, chromosomal breakpoints outside developmental delay and seizures. the gene. We showed that in the

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mouse Small eye model, a stop sub-set of the total PAX6 pattern. codon mutation within the gene Each regulatory element typically could only be corrected using a drives expression in more than large genomic piece of DNA which one tissue and the pattern included the intact PAX6 gene and changes with developmental extensive flanking sequence on timing. Generally each PAX6- either side of the gene. This led expressing tissue is regulated by us to begin to explore the com- several elements – for example the plex regulatory system of genes brain expression is controlled by a like PAX6 that fulfil multiple large number of enhancers which distinct roles in time and space, behave in a hierarchical manner in during development and even in some instances. As a result of an adulthood. Once genomic ancestral genome duplication, sequences became available, it zebrafish has two different copies emerged very quickly that the of the PAX6 gene, PAX6a and regulatory functions are associat- PAX6b. They have an overlapping ed with highly conserved genomic but distinct expression pattern. elements upstream, downstream PAX6a is more widely expressed in and within the introns of these brain, and PAX6b has taken on genes. PAX6 has most of its the role of pancreas control; both regulatory region in the down- are expressed in the eye. We were stream region (relative to the interested to find that evolution- direction of transcription). ary changes in the regulatory Surprisingly, all the downstream elements can be linked to the elements identified so far reside changes in expression pattern. within the introns of a neighbour- It is now considered that changes ing gene called ELP4, which is in gene regulation are a major apparently not affected by these mechanism for evolutionary elements, as it is ubiquitously change. Not surprisingly, it is also expressed, unlike PAX6 with its very likely that regulatory element strict expression pattern. To variation is involved in many assess the functional capacity of disease associated mutations. these conserved elements, we Some of these variants are likely to have used a system known as be implicated in the more subtle reporter transgenesis in mice and genetic predispositions to later to some extent in zebrafish. We onset common diseases. Genome- have shown for PAX6 that the wide association studies place predicted regulatory elements about half of all the recently behave as enhancers, showing identified disease-associated tissue-specific expression of the variants in regulatory regions. reporter gene in a pattern that is a One of the continuing mysteries is

269 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

how all the different regulatory ways. It is becoming clear that elements work together to bring transcription factors participate about the complex control of within complex finely tuned individual genes and their fine networks which have nodes and coordination with other genes. some hierarchical characteristics. Enhancer function and tran- Network architecture, which is scription factor networks probably continuously evolving, is a very important determinant of It is clear that enhancers fulfil their developmental robustness. It is role under the direction of not surprising that developmental transcription factors that bind to abnormalities are very often them. There is plenty of room for caused by dosage-altering a large number of transcription transcription factor mutations. factors to bind to each predicted, sequence conserved, regulatory In order to expand our knowledge element. It is therefore not of transcription factor networks, surprising that these enhancers we have used bioinformatic are controlled by multiple, often approaches to predicting novel interacting transcription factors. PAX6 (and SOX2) targets, using a Thus it emerged that SOX2 and few already defined binding site PAX6 interact at the protein level sequences in a method termed by co-binding to neighbouring Hidden Markov Modelling. We sites in more than one target site, are now in the process of validat- including in controlling the ing the predicted targets using expression of a lens crystallin zebrafish as a model, since the protein and also in an auto- and predicted targets are by definition cross-regulatory loop modulating conserved between mammals and SOX2 expression (and also PAX6 fish. expression – target element not Phenotype modulation in yet clearly identified). The actual health and disease sequences binding SOX2 and We have remarked on the signifi- PAX6 at the two known targets cant phenotypic variation that can are very different, probably be associated with the same because the exact affinity for the mutation between families, within complex varies from tissue to families where we sometimes even tissue, where the expression levels see non-penetrance of disease in of the two transcription factors is mutation carriers, and even within probably critical and very finely a single individual (eg unilaterality tuned. This is just one example of in eye disease, kidney disease, interaction between two or more deafness etc). We wanted to transcription factors working in explore the mechanisms that the same developmental path- might underlie such variation. An

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important pointer was work in the of one of these further, we have fruitfly Drosophila, where it was very recently found that these shown in 1998 that cryptic proteins fulfil multiple roles, by mutations could be uncovered if showing a presence in the the function of the chaperone cytoplasm as well as the nucleus, system based around HSP90 (heat which is expected for a chromatin shock protein 90) was perturbed. modifier. It turns out from HSP90 has multiple roles in looking further at its interactors facilitating protein folding for that our protein associates with newly produced proteins, main- intraflagellar transport proteins taining structure for metastable and can now be identified by proteins and helping denatured immunohistochemistry in primary proteins to refold (or chaperoning cilia and in known ciliated tissues, them to their destruction). We such as the zebrafish lateral line decided to see whether the same structures. This is very exciting, system is also at work in more since ciliary abnormalities are complex vertebrates and used implicated in many diseases with zebrafish for this purpose. We variable phenotypes, including showed that we were able to obesity and diabetes, kidney modulate eye phenotype in two anomalies and developmental zebrafish mutants, both of which heart defects. It is most exciting turned out to be caused by to be able to associate the ciliary missense mutations. We were functions of environmental also able to uncover repeatedly sensing with chromatin modifica- rare microphthalmia and anoph- tion which would lead to changes thalmia cases in one particular in the regulation of gene expres- strain of zebrafish, initially at low sion. frequency, but this was increased Epilogue when we inbred selected It has been, and continues to be, predisposed parents. an exciting journey from the study To pursue the molecular mecha- of human malformations to begin nisms further, we set out to to unravel some of the deeper identify novel interacting proteins mysteries of biology and gene that associate with HSP90. regulation and hopefully also to Interactors which turned out to open up some possible avenues belong to a family of proteins for improvements in disease now known to be involved in management and phenotype chromatin modification were modulation. identified. Pursuing the function

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