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Science, Technology, and Warfare SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND WARFARE For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Omce Washington, D.C. 20402 The Military History Symposium is sponsored jointly by the Department of History and the Association of Graduates, United States Air Force Academy 1969 Military History Symposium Steering Committee Colonel Alfred F. Hurley, Chairman Lt. Colonel William Geffen, Executive Secretary Lt. Colonel Thomas A. Julian Lt. Colonel Victor D. Sutch Captain Frederick L. Metcalf SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND WARFARE The Proceedings of the Third Military History Symposium United States Air Force Academy 8-9 May 1969 Edited by Monte D. Wright, Lt. Colonel, USAF, Air Force Academy and Lawrence J. Paszek, Office of Air Force History Office of Air Force History, Headquarters USAF and United States Air Force Academy Views or opinions expressed or implied in this publication are those of the authors and are not to be construed as carrying official sanction of the Department of the Air Force or of the United States Air Force Academy. The authors serve notice of copyright for the material in this publication. Permission to use any material must be obtained from the author con- cerned. PREFACE The theme of the first Military History Symposium, held at the United States Air Force Academy on 4-5 May 1967, was “Current Concepts in Military History.” The papers delivered at the second, on 2-3 May 1968, together with the subsequent comments of a number of officers who had participated in the events discussed, were published by the Academy in 1969 as Command and Commanders in Modern Warfare. The present volume consists of the papers, revised and annotated for pub- lication, and the discussion sessions of the third Symposium, held on 8-9 May 1969. With the fourth Symposium, “Soldiers and Statesmen; the Policy-Making Process in Modern History,” to be held at the Academy on 22-23 Oct 1970, the series be- comes biennial. The Symposia are intended to serve a number of purposes. First, they provide a forum for scholars in military history, a field that has grown rapidly since World War I1 and one in which the Academy obviously has a special interest. Second, by bringing distinguished scholars to the Academy, the Symposia provide a link between the scholar and the military profes- sional. At a time of serious internal stresses in American society, all such links are generally valuable. More prosaically, however, the Academy’s history faculty is kept abreast of developments in their academic discipline, while cadets are encouraged to a continuing interest in the background of their chosen profes- sion. Third, by the participation of historians who do not con- sider themselves primarily “military” historians, but who are competent in areas that impinge on military affairs, the field of military history itself is enriched. The participants in the Symposium are identified in the V final section of this volume. The Department of History and the Association of Graduates, USAF Academy, thank them, once again, for their individual and collective labors. The commentators were requested generally to add to the basic papers with reference to their own areas of special competence, thus broadening the content of the total Symposium. This charter did not preclude scholarly criticism of the major papers, as the reader will discover for himself. In addition to the participants, the Symposium required the combined efforts of a number of individuals and organi- zations. The active support of the Superintendent of the Acad- emy, Lieutenant General Thomas S. Moorman, and of the Dean of the Faculty, Brigadier General William T. Woodyard; the warm encouragement of the Commandant of Cadets, Brigadier General Robin Olds; and the financial support of the Associa- tion of Graduates are acknowledged. Within the Department of History, the Symposium was truly a departmental project: everyone was involved, directly or indirectly, with the count- less logistical details. The chief secretary, Miss Marjorie Bur- ton, should be singled out for special mention, as should Mrs. Carolyn Stamm, who transcribed the tapes of the discussion sessions. The 11th Harmon Memorial Lecture, The War of Ideas; the United States Navy 1870-1890, by Professor Elting E. Mor- ison, Yale University, has been published separately. Because it was an integral part of the Symposium, it is reprinted here. M. D. W. September 1970 CONTENTS Page Preface ____________________--___-___------- --------------- V Introduction _-__________________-_-____------------------- ix 1st Session: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND WARFARE, 1400-1700 .................................... ---------- 1 Chairman: Lynn White, Jr. “Science, Technology, and Warfare, 1400-1700,” A. Rupert Hall ________________________________________--------- 8 Commentary, J. R. Hale ________________________________ 25 Commentary, John B. Wolf _______________________-------- 33 Discussion ________________________________________------ 44 2nd Session: THE IMPACT OF SCIENCE/TECHNOLOGY ON MILITARY INSTITUTIONS, 1700-1850 -_ 49 Chairman: Theodore Ropp “Military Education in 18th Century France; Technical ahd Non-Technical Determinants,” David D. Bien _____________- 51 Commentary, John Shy .................................. 60 Commentary, Thomas P. Hughes 69 Commentary, Gunther E. Rothenberg _____________________ 75 Discussion .............................................. 81 3rd Session: THE IMPACT OF SCIENCE/TECHNOLOGY ON 20th CENTURY WARFARE ______________ 85 Chairman: Bernard Brodie Introductory Remarks by the Chairman .................... 87 “The Evolution of Operations Research and Its Impact on the Military Establishment; the Air Force Experience,” I. B. Holley, Jr. _____________________-________--__-_-___-_-- 89 Commentary, Robert L. Perry _____________________________ 110 “Science-Technology and Warfare; Action, Reaction, and In- teraction in the Post-World War I1 Era,” Melvin Kranzberg- 123 Commentary, Clarence G. Lasby .......................... 171 Panel Discussion: John C. Fisher, Francis X. Kane, Eugene M. Emme 175 THE 11th HARMON MEMORIAL LECTURE IN MILITARY HISTORY _____ ______ __________________________________ 187 “The War of Ideas; the United States Navy, 1870-1890,” Elting.. E. Morison _____________________________________ 189 The Participants ________________________________________-- 201 Index ________________________________________--_-__---_- 211 vii INTRODUCTION The nature of warfare has always been largely determined by con- temporary technology. Instances of technological change undertaken for the sake of military advantage have also been relatively common in history. The relationships between science and warfare, however, have been much more variable and ambiguous. The papers and dis- cussions of the Symposium investigate selected aspects of the complex relationships between science and technology on the one hand, and warfare on the other, from the Renaissance to the 1960s. In the first session, Professor Hall takes up in turn the possible areas of interaction between science (exterior ballistics, engineering, explosives, mechanics, and metallurgy) and military technology (edge weapons, cannons and mortars, fortification and siege warfare, and small arms) in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. The notion that science is pursued for utilitarian ends, Hall finds, is an “unhistorical projection backward from our own age.” He excludes navigation and medicine from consideration, because they were civil as well as military con- cerns. In spite of the pleading of certain early propagandists of the “Empire of Man over Nature,” and in spite of the elaborate sketches of military engines in Leonardo’s notebooks, military technology was largely innocent of scientific method. The developments in fortifica- tion required mathematical skills, but nothing more than elementary geometry and arithmetic. Mathematicians studied the ancient problem of the trajectory of projectiles, but their efforts affected neither the design nor the use of guns. The range tables they provided were not even usable with the guns of the time. The solution of the trajectory problem would await Benjamin Robins and the 18th century. Professor Hale supports Hall’s conclusion with three arguments. In the 16th and 17th centuries, armies were so organized as to preclude any productive contact with the worlds of science and technology. Money was lacking for gun foundries to test new weapons in peacetime, so that when war began, existing models were put back into produc- tion. Second, the soldier’s status had never been lower. To refurbish the image, literate soldiers devoted their efforts largely to recalling the traditional values of discipline and morale and gave little thought ix to new weapons. While they made much of the need for liberally edu- cated officers and published elaborate diagrams of infantry forma- tions, such writings were almost entirely image-building and had no practical effect on what actually happened on the battlefields. Finally, soldiers had no understanding of what science was and therefore could not call on its aid. The idea of progress was not widespread, and technological advances were isolated, not appearing to the soldier as a process of which he could take advantage. Professor Wolf emphasizes the military consequences of certain technological developments. While scientists contributed little or nothing, craftsmen, proceeding by trial, error, and accident, developed the cast-iron gun which was cheap enough to be produced in large quantities;
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