Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Effect of Pozzolana on the Compressive Strength of Concrete in Chemically Aggressive Environment
1Aka, A., 2Musa, A. A., 3Kaase, E.T. and 4Tukur, A. 1 Department of Building, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. 2, 3 and 4 Department of Building, Waziri Umaru Federal Polytechnic, Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State. Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract Concrete deteriorates considerably when exposed to aggressive chemicals such as sulphates and acids. Incorporation of pozzolana to concrete can ameliorate its effectiveness in these chemicals but this has to be experimentally established. This paper therefore investigates the effect of pozzolana; (rice husk ash (RHA), powdered burnt brick (PBB) and saw dust ash (SDA)) on the compressive strength of concrete in chemically aggressive environment. This was achieved by partially replacing concrete with 10 percent (%) of each pozzolana to produce three different concrete samples. Samples of 100% concrete were equally produced to serve as the control. The quantities of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate used for the production of the specimens were obtained through absolute volume method of calculation. A mix ratio of 1: 2: 4 with water- cement (w/c) ratio of 0.65 was adopted for the various specimen. 150x150x150mm twenty-seven (27) concrete cubes were produced for each pozzolana and the control specimen. The specimens were cured for 28 days in ordinary water after which they were equally and completely immersed in chemical solution of 5% H2SO4, 10% MgSO4 and ordinary water for another 28 and 56 days. The specimens in ordinary water were used as the control during the chemical test. The percentage reduction in strengths of RHA, PBB, SDA and the control specimens in 10% MgSO4 at 56 days were observed to be 2.09%, 3.26%, 23.03% and 10.06% respectively. In 5% H2SO4, the percentage reductions in strengths of RHA, PBB, SDA and the control at 56 days were also observed to be 25.13%, 21.27%, 52.19% and 33.61% respectively. The results show that RHA and PBB concrete exhibit better strength than SDA and the control specimen in MgSO4 solution. All the specimens tested in H2SO4 performed poorly at 56 days. The study concludes that RHA and PBB concrete are highly resistant to MgSO4 and can be recommended as sulphate resistant additive in concrete production. Keywords: Aggressive environment, Concrete, Compressive strength, Pozzolanana.
Introduction Neville and Brooks, 2002). The extensive Concrete, a heterogeneous material is being leaching of Ca (OH) 2 increases porosity debilitated when exposed to certain and consequently, concrete becomes feeble conditions. Among these conditions is in strength and liable to attack (Ogwu, aggressive chemicals (Collepardi, 2003; 2001). According to Shetty (2005), Dehwah, 2007). Aggressive chemicals are magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) is the main substances such as sea-water/soil rich in salt that constitutes maximum damage in sulphates, nitrates, chlorides and carbonates concrete, and a characteristics whitish that are deleterious to any material in its appearance is the indication of its attack. vicinity (Ogwu, 2001). Sadiq et al. (2001) Neville and Brooks (2002) observed that and Neville and Brooks (2002) affirmed calcium aluminate (C3A) in porous concrete that the degree of the damage constitute by is more prone to sulphates attack, and the these chemicals depends mainly on the susceptibility of the attack can therefore, be permeability of the concrete. This implies reduced through the application of cement that once concrete is sufficiently permeable that is low in C3A. Alternatively, Feret that water could percolate through its (1992) and Smeaton (2002) proposed for thickness, calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH) 2) the adoption of a Pozzolana. will be leached out (Sadiq et al., 2001;
Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment
Pozzolana is defined as siliceous materials Reviewed Literature which in itself possesses little or no Chemical Composition of Portland cementitious properties but in finely divided cement form and in the presence of moisture, Based on the reviewed literature, Table 1 chemically reacts with Ca (OH)2 at ordinary shows the chemical composition of Portland temperature to form a compound possessing cement. cementitious properties (Neville and Brooks, 2002). Zelie et al. (2001) Table 1: Chemical Composition of Portland accentuated that pozzolana can be cement incorporated as active addition or Normal Rapid Low substitution to concrete due to its capacity Hardening Heat (a) for reacting with lime. It is essential to Composition know that this lime principally originates in percentage during the hydration of Portland cement Lime 63.1 64.5 60 (Smeaton, 2002). Zelie et al. (2001) are of Silica 20.6 20.7 22.5 the view that the result of this reaction Alumina 6.3 5.2 5.2 Iron Oxide 3.6 2.9 4.6 (pozzolanic reaction) leads to the formation (b) Compound of cementitious compounds (tricalcium in percentage silicate (C3S)). Zelie et al. (2001) further C3S 40 50 25 declared that this C3S modifies the C2S 30 21 35 properties of cement and the resulting C3A 11 9 6 C2A 12 9 14 concrete. Source: Holland (2005); Kosmatka et al. (2002)
Generally, researches have been conducted Chemical Composition of Common by different researchers to explicate the Pozzolana effectiveness of pozzolana as partial From the reviewed literature, Table 2 and replacement of cement in concrete Table 3 also indicates the chemical production (Kamang and Datok, 2001; composition of common pozzolana such as Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002; Sa’ad et al., RHA and Dutch Fly Ash . 2007; Dahiru and Zubairu, 2008; Garba and Tahir, 2008). However, the reviewed Table 2: Chemical Composition of RHA literature shows that limited studies exists Constituent % Composition on the concrete that exhibits higher Fe2O3 0.95 performance when exposed to aggressive SiO2 67.30 environments. Premised to this gap in the CaO 1.36 Al2O3 4.90 literature, this research examined the effect MgO 1.81 of three different pozzolana (RHA, PBB L.O.I 17.78 and SDA) on the compressive strength of Source: Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006) concrete in chemically aggressive environment. Hence, the pozzolana (RHA, BBP and SDA) that produces the highest compressive strength concrete in ordinary water and chemical solutions of MgSO4 and H2SO4 were established at 28 and 56 days curing periods.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 3: Chemical Composition of Dutch Fly Ash dried and then converted into ashes at Fly ash sample Average values CUR No. 12 control temperature of 650 °C for six hours (%m/m) (%m/m) (Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002). The ash SiO 49.6 - 2 obtained (SDA) was then grounded in Al2O 26.1 - Fe2O 6.8 - grinding machine and sieved using the same Na2O 0.46 - sieve as above. K2O 1.96 - Further, the coarse aggregate used was CaO 2.7 < 5.0 crushed granite stones obtained from a MgO 1.68 < 4.0 single quarry site along Sokoto-Zaria road, TiO2 1.05 - P2O5 0.55 - opposite School of Aviation Technology SO3 0.72 < 2.5 Zaria. The aggregate was sieved using C 5.7 < 5.0 standard sieves and the one obtained Source: Balkema (1992) between 10 and 20mm sieves were used for the production of the test samples. The fine Materials and Methods aggregate (sand) used was naturally, Materials occurring clean sharp river sand. It was The materials that were used for this study sieved using standard BS 4.75mm sieve size includes: Powdered Burnt Bricks (PBB), to remove impurities and only those that Rice Husk Ash (RHA), Saw Dust Ash passed through the sieve was used for the (SDA), Fine Aggregate (Sand), Coarse samples production. The magnesium Aggregate (Gravel), Ordinary Portland sulphate (MgSO4) and sulphuric acid Cement (OPC) (Dangote Brand), (H2SO4) used for the research were obtained concentrated solutions of H2SO4 / MgSO4 from Chemistry Laboratory of Ahmadu and tap water. The PBB was obtained from Bello University, Zaria. They were prepared broken burnt bricks which were sourced into different percentage (%) concentrations from Funtua Bricks Producing Industry through the method of chemical water Funtua, Katsina State. Pieces of the broken addition (H2SO4,) and chemical water bricks were subjected to manual crushing dissolution (MgSO4). Thus, 5% H2SO4, 5% using pestle and mortar in the laboratory to MgSO4 and 10% MgSO4 ware prepared and form powdering particles. The powder was used for the research. These were done in then sieved using electric vibrating table accordance to ASTM C 1012 shaker. Only powdered particles that passed recommendation. ASTM C 1012 through the 75-micron standard BS sieve recommends minimum of 5% and (No. 200) were collected and used for the maximum of 10% Sulphate solution to carry research. The Rice Husk used was obtained out sulphate attack on concrete. Ordinary from Samaru Rice Milling Factory, Zaria. It tap water good for drinking was adopted was burnt into ashes through the electric throughout the design mix. The chemical furnace in Industrial Design Centre, Zaria. analysis tests that was conducted on RHA, Rice Husk was converted into ashes at PBB and SDA to determine their percentage control temperature of 650 °C for six hours composition of iron oxide (Fe2O2), silicon (Dahiru and Zubairu, 2008). The ash oxide (SiO2), magnesium oxide (MgO), obtained was then ground in grinding aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and Loss on machine and sieved with the use of the Ignition (LOI) was conducted in energy same micrometer sieve that was used for the research center, Zaria. The tests were done PBB. Also, the saw dust used for the study in accordance to ASTM C 168-94 was obtained from local furniture making recommendations. beside Samaru market in Zaria. It was sun-
Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment
MgSO4 and 5% H2SO4 for another 28 and Physical Properties of Materials 56 days. Samples of RHA, PBB, SDA and The specific gravity of the various samples control were equally immersed in ordinary of PBB, RHA and SDA were determined in water at the start of the chemical test which the laboratory in accordance to the served as the basis of the comparison. The requirement of ASTM C 127-93 (1993). specimens in chemicals were covered with The uncompacted bulk density of each polythene leather to prevent air interruption pozzolana and fine aggregate were that could affect the concentration of the determined by the method recommended by chemicals (ASTM C 1012). At 28 days BS 812: Part 2 (1990). The moisture content immersion, three concrete cubes were test of samples of RHA, PBB and SDA removed from each chemical and ordinary were also determined in accordance to BS water. The cubes were also allowed to dry 1377: Part 2 (1990). in open air for 6 hours and thereafter, subjected to strength test in aggressive Specimens Production and Compressive chemicals. This was also repeated at 56 Strength Test days. The percentage reduction in strengths The concrete cubes produced for this study of the specimens in water/various chemicals includes OPC/RHA, OPC/PBB, OPC/SDA were determined at each immersion period and 100% OPC. The 100% OPC cube (28 and 56 days) and compared. These served as the control. 0.65 water / cement served as the main findings, conclusion and (w/c) ratio was adopted for all the recommendations of the study. specimens produced. The w/c ratios were obtained from the results of the trial mix Results and Discussion design that was first conducted before the The Results of the Physical Properties of start of the actual mix. Absolute volume Materials method of calculation was used to The results of the physical property test determine the quantities of the materials conducted on the pozzolana (RHA, PBB used for the research. Physical properties and SDA) and the sand used for the such as workability, setting time and research are shown in Table 4. From the soundness of the mix were determined in results, PBB gives the highest specific accordance with ASTM C 143-78, ASTM C gravity of 2.54 while SDA gives the lowest 451-89 and BS 4550: 1992 respectively. It value of 2.13. The value obtained on PBB is essential to know that twenty seven (27) complied with BS 12:1991 which specified samples of 150x 150 x150mm concrete its range to be minimum of 2.20 and cubes were produced for each pozzolana as maximum of 2.80.The specific gravity of well as the control. Curing of the concrete RHA and SDA are within the range of 1.9 cubes was done by complete immersion in to 2.4 recommended for pulverized fuel ash ordinary water for 28 days. At 28 days (Neville, 1996) and also similar to the curing periods, three concrete cubes were values reported by Oyetola and Abdullahi removed from each pozzolana and the (2006) and Dashan and kamang (1999) on control. The cubes were allowed to dry in Acha Husk Ash (AHA) and RHA which open air for 6 hours and thereafter, was 2.13 for RHA and 2.12 for AHA. The subjected to compressive strength test. The specific gravity of the three materials are remaining concrete cubes were less than the specific gravity of Ordinary subsequently allowed to dry and then Portland Cement of 3.15 (Neville, 1996). transferred (completely immersed) into This means that the three materials are chemical solutions of 5% MgSO4, 10% lightweight constituents. The difference in
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 the specific gravity of the three materials (RHA, PBB, and SDA) may be due to the The Results of Chemical Analysis dissimilarity in their biological origin. This The chemical analyses of RHA, PBB and may also be the reason to the disparity in SDA are presented in Tables 5, 6 and 7 the materials weight. Based on this findings, respectively. The percentage total content of it can be concluded that SDA is the lightest Silicon dioxide (SiO2), Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) in weight among the three materials and Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) on RHA, followed by RHA. This consent with the PBB and SDA were found to be 76.16%, findings of Sa’ad (2005) on different PBB 75.8% and 61.14% respectively. Both samples. values on RHA and PBB are greater than the minimum of 70% specified in ASTM C Further, the compacted bulk density of 618-94 while that of SDA is less. ASTM C RHA, PBB and SDA were found to be 670 618 - 94 stipulates that the percentage total 3 3 3 kg/m , 1117kg/m and 660 kg/m content of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 in any respectively. The values obtained in RHA pozzolana should not be less than 70%. The and SDA are close to the one reported by Loss on Ignition (L.O.I) obtained was 4.52 Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006), Nensok et for RHA, 0.78 for PBB and 12.5 for SDA. al. (2012) and Aka et al. (2015). While the The value obtained on RHA and PBB are value obtained on PBB is also close to 1115 less than the 12% maximum required for k/m3 reported by Taylor (1991) and Aka et pozzolana (ASTM C 618 -94, 1994) while al. (2012). It was notable that the bulk that of SDA is slightly higher. This means density of RHA, PBB and SDA are less that SDA contain more un-burnt carbon that than that of OPC (1440kg/m3) (Neville, might have reduced its pozzolanic activities 1996). This further confirmed that the three (Oyetola and Abdullahi, 2006). materials are actually lightweight materials. The compacted bulk density of sand used The Results of Workability Test for the research was found to be very close The results of the workability test shown in to the range speculated by Jackson and Dhir Table 8 on each specimen sample indicate (1998), which ranges from 1650 Kg/m3 to that the slumps for 100% OPC and that of 1850kg/m3 specifically for all sandy soils 10% replacement of each pozzolana were before excavation. within the range of 6-10 mm. These indicate low workability (ASTM C 143-78). Also, Table 4: Physical Properties of RHA, PBB, SDA the result of the compacting factor test on and Sand all the pastes ranges from 0.72 to 0.74 S/No Properties Sample type and description RHA PBB SDA Sand which also indicates low workability 1 Specific 2.15 2.54 2.13 2.65 (Shetty, 2005).The compacting factor test Gravity on all the pastes is closed to the range of 2 Compacted 670 1117 660 1600 0.85-0.92 recommended by Shetty (2005) Bulk for roads and slabs concrete. It was Density (kg/m3) observed from the tests results that mixes 3 Un- 540 980 530 1490 containing 10% replacement of RHA and compacted SDA have lower slump than that of PBB Bulk and 100% OPC. According to Kamang Density (1999), this may be due to the high un-burnt (kg/m3) 4 Moisture 1.01 1.01 1.01 carbon content in RHA and SDA pastes that Content made the two materials to absorb more (%) water than PBB and 100% OPC pastes.
Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment
Table 5: Chemical Analysis of RHA Constituent SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO L.O.I % composition 69.5 2.16 4.50 1.50 4.52
Table 6: Chemical Analysis of PBB Constituent SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO L.O.I % composition 60.50 5.30 10.00 1.70 0.78
Table 7: Chemical Analysis of SDA Constituent SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO L.O.I % composition 46.5 2.14 12.5 9.25 12.5
Table 8: Workability of the Pastes
S/No Paste W/c Degree of workability Sample Ratio Slump(mm) Compacting factor 1 100%OPC 0.65 10 0.74 2 RHA/OPC 0.65 6 0.72 3 PBB/OPC 0.65 8 0.73 4 SDA/OPC 0.65 6 0.72
The Results of Setting Time Test hydration period as well as the setting time The result of the setting time test for each period (Neville, 1996).The difference in pozzolana and 100% OPC pastes are initial and final setting times of each presented in Table 9. From the results, it pozzolan paste might be due to difference in can be observed that SDA paste has the particles found in each pozzolana. The highest initial and final setting time while initial and final setting time of all the pastes 100% OPC has the least. This could be due tested were within the range recommended to the higher heat of hydration evolved by for OPC paste. That is, minimum of 45 100% OPC paste over SDA, RHA and PBB minutes for initial setting and a maximum pastes. Literature shows that the reaction of 10 hours for final setting (BS 4550, between cement and water is exothermic 1992). which can lead to the liberation of heat to the surrounding, evaporation of moisture The Results of the Soundness Test and consequent stiffened of the pastes The results obtained on soundness tests (Neville, 1996). Therefore, as OPC is being carried out on each sample of pozzolana and replaced with pozzolana, the rate of reaction 100% OPC paste are presented in Table 10. may be reduced and the quantity of heat It was observed that RHA and PBB have liberated into the surrounding also reduced. lower expansion as compared to SDA and Hence, the late stiffening of the pastes. It is 100% OPC cubes. The results of all the expected that with the introduction of samples tested complied with BS 812 part pozzolana to cement paste, the lower the 121:1989 recommendation. heat liberated hence, the longer the
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 9: Setting Time (Minutes) S/No Sample Initial Final paste setting setting time(minutes) time (minutes) 1 100%OPC 90 190 2 RHA/OPC 150 240 3 SDA/OPC 180 290 4 PBB/OPC 130 270
Table 10: Soundness (mm) S/No Specimen Initial Final Expansion sample pointers pointers (mm) reading reading before after boiling (mm) boiling (mm) 1 100% OPC 3 3.5 0.5 2 RHA 3 3.2 0.2 3 PBB 3 3.2 0.2 4 SDA 3 3.5 0.5
The Results of Density and Compressive and 56 days are within the range Strength Tests recommended for normal weight concrete which is between 2355 to 2560 kg/m3 (A) In ordinary water (Everett, 1990). BS 8110 (1995) recommends that the strengths of lightweight structural concrete In 5% MgSO4 solution, the percentage should range from 20-40 N/mm2 at 28 days strength reduction of 100% OPC and PBB curing periods. From the study conducted, in this chemical at 28 days were observed to all the concrete mixes attained the minimum be lower than the percentage strength compressive strength at 28 days (Table 11) reduction of RHA and SDA. However, as exception of SDA/OPC cubes that was hydration progressed (56 days) the observed to have compressive strength of percentage strength reduction of RHA was 18.05 N/mm2. observed to be lower than the percentage strength reduction of 100% OPC, PBB and (B) In chemical solutions of MgSO4 SDA. Also, the densities of the various From the results that is presented in Table specimens in this chemical were observed 12 and 13, it can be observed that there is to be higher than their densities in ordinary no substantial difference in the densities of water. In 10% MgSO4, the percentage the specimens in water at 28 and 56 strength reduction of 100% OPC and PBB hydration periods. This might mean that at 28 days were also observed to be lower specimens in ordinary water were than the percentage strength reduction of adequately compacted during mixing RHA and SDA. Conversely, at 56 days, the (Neville and Brooks, 2202). Neville and percentage strength reduction of RHA was Brooks (2002) accentuated that when observed to be lower than the percentage concrete is adequately compacted, excessive strength reduction of 100% OPC, PBB and water that can lead to density increase will SDA. Also, the densities of all the not be able to penetration into the capillary specimens in this chemical solution were pores of the specimens. Also, the densities observed to be higher than their densities in of all the specimens in ordinary water at 28 ordinary water at 56 days.
Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment
Table 11: Average Initial Compressive Strengths of Specimen Cubes in Water at 28 Days Before Chemical Test. S/No Specimen Sample W/C Average Density Average Ratio (kg/m3) Compressive Strength(N/mm2) 1 100% OPC 0.60 2439.50 24.70 2 RHA/OPC 0.65 2380.45 21.10 3 PBB/OPC 0.65 2400. 00 22.70 4 SDA/OPC 0.65 2390.00 18.05
Table 12: Average 28 and 56 Days Compressive Strengths of Specimens in 5% MgSO4 Specimens Compressive strengths (N/mm2) Average density (Kg/m3) Percentage Water 5% MgSO4 Water 5% MgSO4 strength (Control) 28 Days (Control) 28 Days reduction (%) 100% OPC 28.80 28.55 2449.38 2439.51 0.87 OPC/RHA 24.30 23.50 2380.45 2390.00 3.29 OPC/PBB 26.30 25.60 2409.88 2400.00 2.67 OPC/SDA 20.10 19.00 2370.78 2380.45 5.47 56 Days 56 Days 100% OPC 31.60 30.52 2488.89 2479.01 3.42 OPC/RHA 28.25 28.00 2390.00 2409.88 0.88 OPC/PBB 28.20 27.84 2419.75 2419.75 1.28 OPC/SDA 22.80 20.25 2400.00 2409.88 11.18
Table 13: Average 28 and 56 Days Compressive Strengths of Specimens in 10% MgSO4 Specimens Compressive strengths (N/mm2) Average density (Kg/m3) Percentage Water 10% MgSO4 Water 10% MgSO4 strength (Control) 28 Days (Control) 28 Days reduction (%) 100% OPC 28.80 27.55 2449.38 2459.26 4.34 OPC/RHA 24.30 22.30 2380.45 2400.00 8.23 OPC/PBB 26.30 24.30 2409.88 2400.00 7.60 OPC/SDA 20.10 17.40 2370.78 2409.88 13.43 56 Days 56 Days 100% OPC 31.60 28.42 2488.89 2479.01 10.06 OPC/RHA 28.25 27.66 2390.00 2409.88 2.09 OPC/PBB 28.20 27.28 2419.75 2429.63 3.26 OPC/SDA 22.80 17.55 2400.00 2429.63 23.03
(C) In chemical solution of H2SO4 Hence, increase in density of a specimen in MgSO4 solution may mean that the Table 14 shows the densities and specimen was not well compacted or being compressive straights of specimens in 5% permeable to chemical denser than water H2SO4 at 28 and 56 days. High strengths and as a result, being penetrated by MgSO4. reduction was observed in all the specimens This adds to the densities of the specimen tested in 5% H2SO4 at 56 days. Severe due to crystal (gypsum (CaSO4)) deposition reduction in densities were also observed in on the pores of the sample. Hence, the all the specimens at 28 and 56 days. highest increase in densities specimen may Reduction in density of a specimen in mean the least resistant to sulphate attack H2SO4 may mean that H2SO4 was too (Neville and Brooks, 2002; Shetty, 2005). corrosive which led to loss of mortar on the specimen and the consequent reduction in
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 14: Average 28 and 56 Days Compressive Strengths of Specimens in 5% H2SO4 Specimens Compressive strengths (N/mm2) Average density (Kg/m3) Percentage strength Water 5% H2SO4 Water 5% H2SO4 reduction (%) (Control) (Control) 28 Days 28 Days 100% OPC 28.80 22.67 2449.38 2350.61 21.28 OPC/RHA 24.30 20.00 2380.45 2360.49 17.70 OPC/PBB 26.30 22.05 2409.88 2370.37 16.16 OPC/SDA 20.10 12.78 2370.78 2360.49 36.42 56 Days 56 Days 100% OPC 31.60 20.98 2488.89 2350.61 33.61 OPC/RHA 28.25 21.15 2390.00 2370.37 25.13 OPC/PBB 28.20 22.20 2419.75 2360.49 21.27 OPC/SDA 22.80 10.90 2400.00 2360.49 52.19 density of the specimen. Hence, the least to 10% MgSO4 but decrease in 5% H2SO4 reduction in density specimen in H2SO4 at 56 days. The aforementioned concretes may mean the highest resistant to attack by are also liable to cracking and warping in the corrosive media (H2SO4) (Neville and 10% MgSO4 / 5% H2SO4 at 28 days. Brooks, 2002; Shetty, 2005) . Further, this study also shows that the cracking conditions of concretes exposed to Conclusions H2SO4 is more severe than that of 10% MgSO4. Based on the outcomes of chemical tests conducted on RHA, PBB, SDA and 100% OPC concretes, it can be concluded that: Recommendations • RHA concrete has higher strength Based on the findings of the study, the than PBB and SDA in ordinary water following recommendations were made: and chemical solution of MgSO4 specifically at 56 days curing • RHA and PBB are recommended for period; production of sulphates resisting concretes; • PBB concrete exhibits higher strength than SDA concrete in ordinary • Effects of other sulphates different water and chemical from MgSO4 should be carried out on solution of MgSO4; RHA and PBB concretes so as to further examine their • RHA and PBB can be adopted as performance in sulphates environment. sulphate resistant additive in concrete production, and References American Standard for Testing Method C • OPC/RHA, OPC/ PBB and 143-78, Specification for Concrete OPC/SDA concretes perform poorly in Slump. 5% H2SO4. American Standard for Testing Method C 618-94, Specification for fly Ash It can be also be said that the density of and Raw or Calcined Natural OPC/RHA, OPC/ PBB and OPC/SDA Pozzolana for Use as a Mineral concretes increase drastically when exposed
Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment
Admixture in Portland Cement Attack on Concrete, Cement and Concrete. Concrete Composites, 25, 401-407 American Standard for Testing Method C Dehwah, H.A.F. (2007). Effect of Sulfate 1012: Method for Testing Sulphates Concentration and Associated Attack on OPC Concrete. Cation Type on Concrete. American Standard for Testing Method C Deterioration and Morphological 451-89, Specification for Setting Changes in Cement Hydrates, Time of Ordinary Portland Cement. Construction and Building Aka, A., Nensok, M.H. and Kaase. E.T. Materials, 21, 29-39 (2015): Effect of Rice Husk Ash on Dahiru, D. and Zubairu, I.K. (2008). An the Compressive Strength of assessment of properties of concrete Concrete in Chemically Aggressive made with Rice Husk Ash as partial Environment: Nigerian Journal of replacement of cement. Journal of Construction Management and Engineering and Technology (JET). Technology.12(1&2), pp. 26-30. 3, . 32-40. Aka, A., Nensok, M.H. and Adamu, N. Elinwa, A.U. and Mahmood, Y.A. (2002). (2012): Strength Comparative Study Ash from Timber Waste as cement of Concrete Produced with Different Replacement Materials, Cement and Pozzolana: Journal of Centre for Concrete Composites, 24(2), 219- Human Settlements and Urban 222. Development.. 4(1), pp. 22-30. Everret, P.J. (1990): Building Material British Standard Institute BS 812: 2 (1995). Prentice Hall, U.K, pp. 20-25.. Specification for Bulk Density of Feret, J.J. (1992). Influence of the Finest of Materials. London, United Pozzolana on the Strength of Lime Kingdom. Natural Pozzolan cement Pasts. British Standard Institute BS 1377: 2 Cement and Concrete Research,. (1990). Method for Determination 1189-1195. of the Specific Gravity of Garba, M.M. and Tahir, M.A. (2008): Aggregates. London, United Comparative Sulphate Resistance of Kingdom. Pozzolanic Cement Mortal, Journal British Standard Institute BS 812: 121 of Engineering and Technology (1989). Method for Determination of (JET) 3(1), 75-81. OPC Soundness, London, United Holland, T.C. (2005): Silica Fume Kingdom. Association and United States British Standard Institute BS 4550: 3 Department of Transportation. (1992). Standard Consistency of Federal Highway Administration Cement. London, United Kingdom Technical Report FHWA-IF-05-016. British Standard Institute BS 8110: 2 Available at: www.slicafume.org/ (1985). Recommendation for pdf/silicafume-users-manual Minimum Strength of Concrete. (retrieved October 31, 2014), pp. 2-8 London, United Kingdom. Kosmatka, S., Kerkhoff, B. and Panerese, Balkema, A.A. (1992). Fly Ash as Addition W. (2002): Design and Control of to Concrete, International Journal Concrete Mixtures (14th edition). for Institute of Material and Skokie, Illinois: Portland cement Environmental Research, , 8-19. Association,. Collepardi, M.A. (2003). A State of the Art Kamang E.E.J. and Datok, E.P. (2001). The Review on Delayed Ettringite effects of chemicals on the
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properties of OPC/PFA Concrete, Sadiq, O.M., Akpan A.J. and Musa A.O. Nigeria Journal of Construction (2001): Strength Evaluation of Technology and Management, 4, 12- Concrete in Chemically Aggressive 19. Environment. Nigerian Journal of Neville, A.M. (1996). Properties of construction, Technology and Concrete. , London, UK: Longman Management, 31(2), pp. 80-86. Group Ltd. Pp. 62-67. Environment. Neville, A.M. and Brooks, J.J. (2002). Shetty, M.S. (2005). Concrete Technology Concrete Technology, (2nd Edition). Theory and Practice. New Delhi, Delhi, India: Person Education Ltd,., India: S. Chad and Company Pp. 8-15, 18-34. Publishers. . Nensok, M.H., Aka, A. and Adamu, N. Taylor, W.H. (1991), Concrete Technology (2012): Impact of Relative Humidity and Practice, (4th Edition). New and Air Temperature on the York: McGraw Hill, Pp. 33-35, 47- Mechanical Properties of Rice Husk 57. Ash (RHA) Blended Cement Zelie, J., Russie, D., Vera, D., and Concrete. International Journal of Krestulovie, R. (2001): Reactivity of Scientific Innovations, 4(1), pp 16- various pozzolanic materials. Cement 19. and Concrete Research, 30(1), pp. 16- Ogwu, A.A. (2001). The Effect of 55. Aggressive Chemicals on the Strength of Concrete. Lagos: Fore Sight Press Limited. Pp. 9-12. Oyetota, E.B. and Abdullahi, M. (2006).The use of Rice Husk Ash in Low Cost Sand Crete Block Production, Nigeria Journal of Construction Technology and Management of (NJCTM ), 6 (1) pp 6-9. Smeaton, A.R. (2002): Improving the Environmental Performance of Pozzolana in Concrete. Concrete Industry Alliance Report. Available at: www.reportlinker. com/ concrete/ reports (retrieved Sept. 12, 2005), pp 1-14. Sa’ad, M.M. (2005). Comparative Pozzolanic Activity of Selected Burnt Bricks. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis. Department of Building Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Sa’ad, M.M., Garba M.M. and Okoli O. G. (2007) Comparative Strength of Pozzolana- Portland cement mortar; Nigerian Journal of Construction, Technology and Management. 2(2),86-91.
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Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
1 Odegbenro F.J. and 2 Ojoye S. 1Centre for Human Settlements and Urban Development (CHSUD), Federal University of Technology, Minna. 2Department of Geography, Federal University of Technology, Minna.
Abstract Climate change represents a significant environmental, social and economic threat and is now firmly recognized by the majority of the world’s governments and scientists as an issue of extreme concern for the planet. The study examines the public perception of climate change on both local and global scales by residents of Minna, Niger State. Both Primary and secondary data were used for the analysis. The primary data for the study was collected by the administration of a structured questionnaire and conduction of group discussions while the secondary data was sourced from written materials on climate change. The results revealed that 85.6% of the public were aware of the change in climate using change rainfall and temperature pattern as indicators. The respondents noticed that there are changes in the amount of rainfall received and increase in average daily temperature while14.4% were completely unaware of climate change issues. The study thereby recommended among others that information and communication technology be used to sensitize people on the effects of changing climate. Keywords: assessment, climate change, global warming, greenhouse gas, perception
Introduction ecosystems, agriculture, industry and Cities all over the world have witnessed settlements and the economy. significant change in climate due to global One of the causes of climate change is fossil warming caused by greenhouse gas fuel combustion. In Africa, only a few emission and other activities of man. The countries account for the bulk of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate region’s emission from fossil fuels. These Change [IPCC](2007), forecasts a are Nigeria, Egypt and Algeria which temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees together account for 35.5% of total fossil Fahrenheit over the next century. The fuel emission from the continent. In fact, effects of global climate change are very Nigeria is the largest contributor of carbon diverse. During the last century, the earth’s dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the average surface temperature rose by around West African sub-region (World Bank 0.6oC and by the end of this century, the Report, 1995). In Nigeria, only a relatively global average surface temperature is small proportion of the natural gas produced expected to rise by a further 1.1 to 6.4oC is utilized and as much as 76 per cent of the (IPCC, 2007). Climate change currently gas is flared (World bank Report, 1995). contributes to the global burden of disease Nigeria Natural gas comprises per cent and pre-mature deaths. Okali (2008) methane1.5-2.0. Carbon dioxide 1.4-2.4, observed as quoted by Adeoti (2008) that heavier hydrocarbons 3.9-5.3 per cent, and human beings are directly exposed to ethane, among other compounds (Jones et climate change through changing weather al., 1998) thereby contributing substantially patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea- to greenhouse gases locally and invariably level rise and more frequent extreme to the global climate. events) and indirectly through changes in
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Odegbenro, Ojoye Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
Nigeria is among the nations of the world heard of global warming, while awareness that have been at the forefront of the global remained quite low in several developing efforts in addressing climate change and its countries in particular, large categories of effects even though the resources for respondents had never heard of global understanding the magnitude and potential warming in Pakistan, Indonesia, Nigeria, impacts on its economy is low. Despite this and Egypt. This result suggests that many effort and knowledge of the fact that human have not heard about global warming activities majorly through deforestation and causing climate to change. There have been fossil fuel combustion, affect the a lot of researches on climate and climate environment and greatly contribute to change and its threats to humanity and global warming which in turn brings about adaptation strategies by authors both within climate change, the question is, how and outside Nigeria, however, only few informed are the people whose activities studies exist on public perception of climate contribute adversely to climate change and change. for whom efforts are being made by world leaders and scientists to discover mitigation In response to the report, similar studies and adaptation strategies to climate change? were carried out in Lagos, Ibadan and Kaduna on climate change awareness in One of the ways the impact of climate Nigeria with the result showing that climate change can be addressed is to acknowledge change awareness increases with the level the issue, discuss and share the knowledge. of urbanization and education. The study It is important to note that people’s conducted by Adelekan (2005) within perception of and reaction to, vary between Ibadan city revealed that a significant economic status and literacy level. In most proportion of the public is aware of the developed countries, regular perception dynamics of the local climate. In addition, studies are conducted in form of opinion 70% of the respondents have heard of survey. Such surveys are necessary in order global climate change but less than 25% to create awareness about an issue but this know the causes. Ishaya (2008) examined is missing in developing countries where the way indigenous people in Jema’a Local the majorities are dependent on economic Government Area of Kaduna State activities that are sensitive to climate such perceived climate change and the author as agriculture and forestry activities. concluded that lack of awareness and knowledge of climate change scenarios are Leizerowitz (2004) observed that despite the hindering factors to the adoption of the scientific warnings of earlier decades, modern techniques of combating climate global warming did not become a public change in the area. The response by issue until 1988-the hottest year since the experienced farmers in Jema’a on the 19th century and thereafter, numerous identified effects of climate changes in the public opinions have found that the area indicated observed increase in Americans, Europeans and Japanese are temperature and decrease in rainfall increasingly aware of and concerned about quantity. Gbadegesin and Ogundele (2008) global climate change and supportive of a revealed that Lagos level of awareness tally wide range of mitigation and adaptation with the current perception of climate studies. The world poll partner (2010) change in the USA. Most Lagos residents discovered through the Pew Global are aware of the climate change issues and Attitudes Survey conducted that majority of concluded that awareness increases with respondents from developed countries had
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 level of urbanization, educational status and to some extent, gender and age.
It is against this background that this research paper assessed the public level of knowledge on climate change issues within Minna metropolis, how they understood the environment and in addition to investigate their sources of information on the issue which could serve as a tool for decision making on ways to increase climate change awareness.
The Study Area Minna is the capital of Niger state, Nigeria. Its conversion to a state capital gave rise to its population growth with the majority Figure 1: The study area Source: Niger State Ministry of Lands and Housing, working with the government and the 2016 livelihood of the remaining population is dependent on agriculture, trading and Methodology transportation. The metropolis has a mean Primary and Secondary data were annual rainfall of 1334mm. The highest employed. Primary data through structured mean monthly rainfall is September with questionnaire and oral interview were used almost 300mm. The rainy season starts in to collect information on the socio and April and lasts to October. The duration of demographic characteristics of respondents, rains is between 190-200 days. The mean questions were structured to address the monthly temperature is highest during the respondents’ consciousness of prevailing peak of the dry season usually between climatic conditions, level of knowledge 0 Februarys and March at 37.8 C and lowest about climate change in particular on key 0 in August at 25.8 C.The study covered two climatic element of temperature and local government areas that make up Minna rainfall. Secondary data on temperature and metropolis; which are Bosso and rainfall were collected from the Nigerian Chanchaga. Bosso is a Local Government Meteorological Agency (NIMET) in Minna area in Niger state with its headquarters in (on climatic conditions of Minna metropolis Maikunkele. It occupies an area of showing the maximum and minimum 1,592km2 and a population of 147,359 at temperatures) for the period of 20 years the 2006 census. Chanchaga has its capital (1988-2008). A total of 208 responded, out 2 being Minna. It has an area of 72km and a of 240 questionnaires distributed. This population of 201, 429 at the 2006 census. number participated in the study across the The whole study area has been further different socio-economic strata of the study subdivided into six major districts namely: area which was sub-divided into six districts Bosso, Maikunkele, F-layout/GRA, Tunga, for the purpose of this study. Chanchaga and the Central Business District comprising of Mobil area, Keterin- In order to have an unbiased sample; gwari, Kwangila, Yoruba road and Lagos random sampling was used within the street. districts. Simple frequency analysis was
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Odegbenro, Ojoye Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria used to compute the onset and cessation body. This portends that the respondents dates of rain and the trend of heat waves. were enlightened. Chi-Square analysis was used to measure the reliability and significance of data by Occupation of Respondents comparing observed measurement with the The study revealed that 29.8% of the expected. respondents were civil servants, 52.4% were students, those that were artisans are 10.1%, Results and Discussion traders are 4.8% and farmers were 2.9%. It can be deduced that the respondents were Socio-Economic Characteristics of actively engaged in one trade or the other respondents and there are evidences that they are Age of Respondents conversant with their locality and their Out of the two hundred and eight immediate environment. respondents (208) respondents, 57.2% were males while 42.3% were female. Majority of the respondents (56.3) %, were between Residency Period 20-40 years of age, 21.3%, falls below 20 To establish the level of awareness of the years, 18.8% % were between 41-60 years respondents as regards changes experienced while the elderly between the ages of 61-80 both in temperature and rainfall, the year of years were3.8%, implying that the residency of the respondents became respondents were vibrant. essential. Respondents who had lived in Minna for over 20 years were 15.9%, 41.3% Educational Level of Respondents had been living in Minna for 11-15 years, The study had respondents with post- 17.3% had residency period of 6-10 years secondary educational level taking 81.7%, and 15.9% had lived below 5years. those with secondary education were 13.0%; 2.4% had no formal education Knowledge of change in the pattern of whereas those with only primary education rainfall were 4.3%. The educational statuses of the Knowledge of Past and Present start of respondents were high due to amongst other rain factors, the establishment of Federal University of Technology, College of The respondents opined that there is an Education and a National Examination observable change in pattern of rainfall from their experiences in the past and present years.. Table1: Educational Level of Respondents Education Frequency Percentage Post-Secondary 169 81.7 Secondary 27 13.0 Primary 8 4.3 Non formal 4 2.4 Total 208 100.0
Table 1: Respondents Residency Period Residency Period Frequency Percentage 0-5 years 33 15.9 6-10 years 36 17.3 11-15 years 86 41.3 16-20 years 20 9.6 Above 20 years 33 15.9
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Total 208 100.0 51.4% said in the past 20 years that rain used to start around April, 17.3% claimed the month of May as the beginning of rainy season and another 17.3% claimed that start of rain was in March. Presently, 44.7% of the respondents’ still observed the start of rain to be in the month of April, 35.6% submitted the month of May while 7.7% believed commencement of rain as March. It could be deduced that the data for month of April was reduced while the month of May was increased implying that the start of rain has changed from the month of April to Figure 2a: Past and Present onset of rain May in Minna as presented figure 2a.
Knowledge of Past and Present cessation of rain It was observed that 43.8% of the respondents observed that the past cessation of rain was November, 37.5% opined it was in the month of October while13.5% claimed that it was in the month of September. While considering the present cessation of rain, 13.5 % claimed it was the month of September, 50% of the respondents claimed it was in October while only 11.1% observed November as the Figure 2b: Past and Present end of rain present cessation of rain and 25.4% were Knowledge of temperature not sure. The result gives a sharp shift from Temperature values were also used as 43.8% that claimed November to 11.1% indicator to examine the public knowledge while the month of October receive the of changes in climate. 54.3% was of the biggest nod as the present cessation of rain opinion that the temperature used to be hot, (see figure 2b). This implies that the people 32.2% said the temperature used to be very are observant and invariably aware of the hot while only 6.2% opined it used to be changing climate. extremely hot. Presently, 37.0% were of the
opinion that the temperature is hot, 28.4%
believed it to be very hot while 13.5% thought the temperature is extremely hot. The percentages of those respondents who observed that the temperature used to be hot decreased while extremely hot respondents’ increased which buttressed the internationally acclaimed fact that the world temperature is indeed changing. This
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Odegbenro, Ojoye Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria implies that the consciousness and level of activities, 25.5% opined that the change awareness of the people is high. resulted from position of the globe, while Table 2: Maximum and Minimum Temperature 13.0% had no idea, only 0.5% of the for Minna (1988-2007) respondent attached change to act of God. Year Max. Min. Temperature Temperature Table 3: Causes of Change in Rainfall and C C Temperature 1988 38.52 26.52 Cause of Change Frequency Percentage 1989 32.49 20.49 Climate 97 46.6 1990 39.01 27.01 Change/Global Warming 1991 41.34 29.38 Human Activities 30 14.4 1992 35.06 23.06 Position of the globe 53 25.5 1993 34.82 22.81 No idea 27 13.0 Spiritual(Act of 1 0.5 1994 41.13 29.13 God) 1995 34.45 22.45 Total 208 100.0 1996 39.23 27.23 Source: Authors Field Survey (2011) 1997 36.30 24.30 Knowledge of the term “global warming” 1998 38.80 26.80 and “climate change” 1999 39.62 27.62 The results on the concepts of global 2000 37.10 25.10 warming and climate change shows that the 2001 39.27 27.27 majority are conversant with happenings 2002 35.16 23.16 around them. 85.6% are aware of the terms 2003 32.25 20.25 while only14.4% claimed not to have heard about them. 2004 34.63 22.63
2005 42.86 30.86 Source of information 2006 31.67 19.67 On the source of information available to 2007 42.67 30.67 people on their awareness of global climate Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency, Minna, issues, 26.6% said through television 2010 programmes, 22.8% of respondents claimed that their occupation contributed to their Cause of Changes in rainfall and knowledge of climate change and 13.5% temperature pattern who mostly student, gathered the The result of the public perception on information from the internet/classroom, changing pattern of rainfall and temperature from the newspaper carried 6.2% and 4.8% indicate that 48.5% identified climate acknowledge they heard from family and change and global warming as a cause. 13.0 friends while 4.8% got their information on relate it to human activities, 25.5% opined the radio. This invariably implied that that the change results from position of the television remains an important source of globe while 13.0 had no idea and 0.55 information with dual advantages of seeing attached change to an act of God(received and hearing at the same time. when asked about reasons behind the change in rainfall and temperature pattern were categorized and presented: 48.5% were quick to mention climate change and global warming,13. 0% said human
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Table 4: Source of Information Conclusion Source of Frequency Percentage It has been established that climate change Information Television 49 26.6 will have a strong impact on Nigeria and Occupation 42 22.8 West Africa in general, particularly in the Internet/ Classroom 34 18.4 areas of agriculture, land use, energy and Newspaper 13 7.0 water sources. Making perception study a Family & Friends 10 5.4 regular exercise, as in this case, Radio 10 5.4 Total 158 85.6 environmental perception which is the Source; Authors Field Survey, 2011 means by which we seek to understand environmental phenomena in order to arrive Test of relationship between Occupation at a better use of environmental resources and Perception of climate change and a more effective response to Using Chi-Square to determine the effect of environmental hazards will help policy occupation on the perception level of the makers to formulate better policies that people on climate change, it shows that could meet the local needs of the people. It there was a significant effect. The test was is important for Urban Planners to use the carried out under 0.05(5%) level of available resources one of such is the significance. Chi square value was14.581 outcome of the perception studies generated and degree of freedom (df) 5. While to improve the understanding of people on checking df under 0.05, the result was equal impacts of climate change and its related to 11.07. This shows that the Chi-square causes in order to enhance security and (calculated) value was greater than the table safety of lives and livelihoods in our small, value. The authors therefore accepted the medium-sized, large cities. hypothesis and deduced the there was a significant relationship between types of Recommendations occupation and knowledge of climate It is expedient to state the following change. recommendations which includes:
i. The recommends that more indices Test of relationship between Education about climate change awareness and and Perception of climate change its causes and impacts should be The test was conducted using the given chi- designed. square value of 11,052 degree of freedom ii. In addition, television and other (df) 4 of respondents who had knowledge of outlets of information dissemination climate change and checking df under 0.05= should be explored to target 9.49. Chi-square (calculated) value was population. greater than the table value; the authors iii. Finally, climate change education therefore accepted the hypothesis and should be incorporated into school implied that education has a significant curriculum to enhance better effect on the level of awareness of understanding of climate change respondents on climate change. These issues. results confirms to the earlier findings of the similar studies carried out on the level of education and climate change awareness in cities such as Lagos and Ibadan.
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Odegbenro, Ojoye Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
NIMET (2010). Nigerian Metrological References Agency, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria. Adelekan O.I. and Gbadegesin A.S. (2005). The world poll partner (2010). Analysis of Analysis of the Public Perception of Climate Change Perception and Climate Change issues in an Adaptation among Arable Food Crop indigenous African city. International Farmers in South Western Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Studies, Contributed Paper prepared for 62(1), 115-125. presentation at the International Adeoti, J.O. and Ajibade L. (2008). The Association of Agricultural Role of Governmnet in Climate Economists’ 2009 Conference, Change Adaptation in Nigeria, Beijing, China, August 16-22,209 Challenges of Climate Change for Nigeria, A Multidisciplinary World Bank Report (1995). Defining an Perspective, TunjiAkande and Environmental Strategy for the AjibolaKumuyi(eds) NISER, Ibadan. Niger Delta. New York: World Gbadegesin A.S. and Ogundele F.O. (2008). Bank. People’s Perception of Climate Change in Lagos, Challenges of Climate Change for Nigeria, A Multidisciplinary perspective. In T. Akande and A. Kumuyi(Eds.), Ibadan: NISER. Global Awareness of Climate Change. 2010 Retrieved from http://www.worldpollpartner@gallup. com. [Retrieved 4th June, 2010]. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change (2007). IPCC Publications htpp://www.ipcc.ch/pub. [Retrieved 4th June , 2010]. Ishaya S. and Abaje I.B. (2008). Indigenous people’s Perception on Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Jema’a L.G.A. of Kaduna State Nigeria. Journal of Goegraphy and Regional Planning, 1(8), 138-143.. Jones N.A., Arnott S. and Douglas O. (1998). The Human Ecosystems of the Niger Delta. Benin City, Era Handbook. Leizerowitz A. (2004). International Public Opinion, Perception and Understanding of Global Climate Change. Yale University Press.
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Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
*Adebola Abiodun. Olufemi, Adegboyega, Suleiman & Ibitoye, Matthew Olomolatan Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information System, Federal University of Technology Akure, Ondo State Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract This study assesses shoreline changes, land use and land cover change, geomorphological changes of the coast as well as analyzes the coastal landforms with a view to generating baseline information for evolving informed decisions and policies for effective flood control and management. The study utilized multi-temporal satellite images namely, Landsat TM 1980, 1990 and Landsat 7 ETM+ 2010. Remote Sensing and Geographic Informtion System techniques were used to analyse the satellite images, shoreline and geomorphological maps were extracted. The land use classes identified from the image include vegetation, outcrops, grassland, water body and settlement. The land use classification indicates a gradual reduction in the grassland, increase in vegetation, water body and also an emergence of settlement in the year 2010. Grassland reduced from 247.65km2 to 93.6km2, vegetation increased from 6.60km2 in 1990 to 135.3km2 in 2010 and waterbody reduced from 98.75km2 to 97.8km2. The change detection image also illustrates that areas that witnessed increase are mostly water body and vegetation. Slope of the area also ranges from 0° to 12° with a stream order of 4. The shoreline length for the year 1980 was 71.60 km, 71.43 km in 1990 and 69.70 km in 2010. A gradual reduction of 0.17 km in length was noticed between 1980 and 1990 while a rapid reduction of about 1.724 km was recorded between 1990 and 2010. The shoreline change movement showed that between 1980 and 1990, the net shoreline movement was estimated 259 meters while the net shoreline movement between 1980 and 2010 was about 347 meters. The end-point rate also indicated the rates of erosion (424.96 meters) and accretion (277.5 meters) (loss and gain), suggesting higher increase in erosion over accretion. It implies apparent reduction of the shoreline on yearly basis due to low elevations that range from 00 to 60. The study advocates continuous monitoring of shoreline changes to reinforce our understanding and establishing the processes driving erosion and accretion in the coastal areas. Keywords: Shoreline, Remote Sensing, Digital, Coastal dynamics, Accretion & Erosion
Introduction Processes operating in these systems are Coastal zones are considered vital responsible for the shaping of the coastal components of the global bio system as well zone. The interaction among the three as high biological productive regions that different sets of processes makes the coastal contain wealth of mixed species, genetically zone an extremely dynamic one. The zone diversified habitat and filter pollutants that is also a zone of transfer of material from help to protect shorelines from erosion and the land surface to the ocean system. The storms (Nemani and Running, 1995; eroded sediments are often moved to the Yagoub and Kolan, 2006). These zones beach and near-shore, some to the ocean serve as major carbon sink and oxygen floor and accumulated sediments may add sources by way of regulating climate and to the land mass in some areas (Davidson- global ecosystem. Coastal zones are found Arnott, 2010). occuring at the interface between the three major natural systems at the earth’s surface Several studies have shown the atmosphere, ocean and land surface. effectiveness of remote sensing and GIS techniques in shoreline dynamics
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria assessment. For example, Kumaravel et al. estimation of coastal changes along selected (2013) used a remote sensing based locations of Karnataka, India using GIS and approach in shoreline change studies in Remote Sensing approach. Qualitative and Cuddalore District, East Coast of Tamil quantitative studies on changes of coastal Nadu, India. The rates of shoreline changes geomorphology and shoreline of Karnataka, were estimated by overlay analysis using India were carried out using topo sheets of GIS The study revealed that most of the Survey of India and satellite imageries study area has been undergoing erosion (IRS-P6 and IRS-1D). Changes during 30 around 3.21km2 for the past four decades years period are studied at each station and and that both natural and anthropogenic observed significant morphological changes processes along the coast modify the in landforms like spit, channel Island, shoreline configuration and control the coastal plain, tidal flat, lateritic plain, erosion, accretion activities of the coastal alluvial plain and sand bar within and zones. In a related study, Ogoro (2014) adjacent to estuarine river mouths of Kali, carried out spatio – temporal analysis on Sharavathi, Kollur-Chakkara—Haladi and changes in the geomorphic shoreline of Udyavara Rivers. Bonny Island. The showed that 1,819.4sq km, 4,588.38 sq km and 1,781.96 sq km of Given consideration to environment land were lost to sea between 1986 and changes, global warming, and issues 2001, 2001 and 2006, 2006 and 2011 regarding human activities, studies and respectively. In another study, Odunuga et quantitative measurements from periodic al. (2013) conducted a geomorphic mapping changes are beneficial for the environmental and assessment of human activities along management of shores. Shoreline change is the southwestern Nigeria coastline. The one of the most common natural processes paper identified various coastal landforms that prevail upon coastal areas. The most and anthropogenic activities in relation to important aspect of managing coastal areas ecosystem degradation and stability on the is identifying the location and change of southwestern Nigeria coastline. In a similar shoreline over time. This requires frequent study, Pandiaraj et al. (2010) utilized monitoring of the shoreline using satellite remote sensing to perform a study on imagery over time (Tamassoki et al., 2014). coastal geomorphological landforms from In view of the non-existent of this kind of Coleroon River Mouth to Cuddalore South study on shoreline dynamics in the study Arcot, Tamil Nadu, India using aerial area, this study therefore attempts to carry photographs and LANDSAT images. out an assessment of the shoreline changes, an identification of geomorphological Tomar and Singh (2010) utilized remote features along the coast, land use and land sensing as a tool in geomorphological cover change as well as analysis of the mapping in land use planning around coastal landform of Cross river State in Shivpuri city, India. Landforms were Nigeria. The study also scrutinizes the interpreted on the basis of interpretation environmental consequences of the element keys namely such as- tone, texture, shoreline changes with a view to generating size, shape, color etc. and extract the baseline information for evolving informed specific information from the false color decisions and policies for monitoring and composites LISS-III sensor images. managing anthropogenic activities in the Geomorphological units were classified on coastal zone. the basis of differential erosion processes. Vinayaraj et al. (2011) assessed quantitative
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Study Area It resulted from the rotation of the Obudu Cross River State is one of the 36 states of basement with respect to the Oban Massif the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Cross (Oden et al., 2013), and is predominantly a River State is made up of parts of old sedimentary environment in which Albian Calabar and Ogoja Provinces divided into sandstones and limestone are overlain by a 18Local Government Areas. Its capital city sequence of Lower Turonian sandstones, is Calabar. It is located between longitudes shales and limestone, all of these being 8017’00 E and 80 20’00’’E latitudes 40 intruded by a series of post- Turonian basic 50’00’’N and 5010’00’’N (Figure 1). The to intermediate intrusive (Hossain, 1981). state has a total area of 21,287.8km2 and The Obudu plateau consists dominantly of ranked19th of the 36 states of Nigeria basement migmatitic gneisses, schist and a (Bassey, et al, 2013). The state is home to few amphibolites, all of which have been approximately 2.9 million people (NPC, intruded by acidic, basic and ultra-basic 2006), predominantly of Efik, Ejagham and igneous rocks (Odein, 2013). This area has Bekwarra background. One of the fastest a rugged topography with a series of growing states in Nigeria, Cross River is elevated ridges separated by lowlands. endowed with vast mineral resources, Structural data (Oden et al., 2013), show plentiful arable land, and a growing number that the most prominent fracture set in of tourist attractions (Funds for Peace, Obudu basement area is the NW-SE which 2015). It is a coastal state bordering trends 140º - 150º from north. Minor sets Cameroon to the east. occur in the NNE-SSW, E-W and ESE- WNW directions (Oden et al, 2013). The It covers the Oban Massif, Ikom-Mamfe state is covered by a body of water from the embayment and Obudu plateau southern tributary of the river cross and the Atlantic Nigeria with a humid tropical environment Ocean. This renders the land very fertile which experiences alternation of wet and and provides abundant aquatic resources for dry seasons. The Oban Massif is composed exploitation. About two third of the state is of Precambrian basement, which is overlain covered by tropical rain forest. This makes by Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments of the it one of the biodiversity hotspots. This Calabar Flank. It has an interesting geology covers about 32% of the entire state, which includes metamorphic rocks such as making it the world’s second largest phyllites, schist, gneiss, amphibolites and preserved rain forest. The vegetation ranges charnockites with igneous intrusions such as from mangrove swamp, through rain forest, dolerite, granite, granodiorite, diorite, derived savannah and montane parkland. tonalite and monzonite. The most prominent Cross River State falls within tropical fracture set in Oban Massif is the NNW- equatorial climate with high temperature, SSE, with a trend of 150º -160º from the high relative humidity and abundant annual north. Others are NNE-SSW, E-W and NW- rainfall. Two major air masses affect the SE sets (Oden et al., 2013). The Ikom- climate of Calabar as well as other Mamfe embayment is a 130 Km long by contiguous locations in the West African 60Km wide Cretaceous sedimentary basin region. The Tropical Maritime (mT) and the extending east from the Lower Benue tropical continental (cT) air masses affect Trough, Nigeria, into Cameroon where it the climate in two distinct seasons. mT air narrows and terminates beneath the Tertiary prevails and influences its moisture to Recent volcanic cover of the Cameroon characteristic while the cT air influences the volcanic line (Fairhead et al., 1991). dry season condition due to is desert source across the two air masses at the upper
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria troposphere from east to west. This is called interface. Landsat 7 image which had scan the Equatorial Esterlies (EE). The two air line errors was corrected using Landsat masses meet at the pressure front called toolbox in Arcmap and Focal Analysis tool Inter Tropical Discontinuity (ITD). There in Erdas Imagine 9.3. In addition, Digital have been a massive development and Elevation Model of the study area was used urban expansion in the area over the last 10 to delineate the drainage pattern. Bands 432 years. Humid tropical climate (1300- within the visible region of the 3000mm rainfall, 30°C mean annual electromagnetic spectrum (green, red and temperature) prevails over Cross river state near infrared bands) were used to create a except Obudu Plateau where the climate is false composite image to make features sub-temperate with temperatures of about distinct from each other. ArcGIS 10.1 and 15°C-23°C. Erdas 9.1 GIS softwares were used for image restoration. Creation of coastline About 3 local governments out of 18 cover region was done by creating shapefile for the coastal part of the study area. They digitizing using the Local Government Area include Calabar South, Bakassi and as input. Land use classes were identified Akpabuyo Local governments. This is and mapped in the images, which include illustrated in Figure 2. grassland, settlement, outcrops, vegetation and water body using Maximum likelihood Materials and Methods (ML) classification algorithm in supervised The study used Landsat images TM 1980, classification method. 1990 and ETM+ 2010 acquired Global Landcover Facility website and earth explorer in United States Geological Survey
Figure 1: Map Showing Local Government Areas of Cross River State Source: Oden et.al. (2013)
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Figure 2: Local Government Areas along the Shoreline
This classifier considers not only the cluster related to their dates. It is the greatest centres but also the shape, size and shoreline distance between two periods. The orientation of the clusters, which is study revealed that the distance (SCE) achieved by calculating a statistical distance between the 1980 shoreline and 1990 based on mean values and the covariance shoreline was 259 meters (reduction in line matrix of the clusters. The statistical distance) while SCE between 1990 and distance expresses a probability value: an 2010 shoreline was about 800 meters. unknown pixel is assigned to a cluster to which it has the highest probability. The Furthermore, the net shoreline movement assumption of ML classifiers is that the (NSM) is associated with the dates of only statistics of the clusters has a normal two shorelines. It reports the distance distribution. So called equi-probability between the oldest and youngest shorelines. contours are drawn around the centre of This represents the total distance between each cluster and this allows the operator to the oldest and youngest shorelines. If this specify a threshold distance by defining a distance is divided by the number of years maximum probability value. By choosing a elapsed between the two shoreline small threshold value, a small ellipse positions, the result is the End Point Rate centered on the mean defines the values (EPR). The net shoreline movement with the highest probability of membership between 1980 and 2010 was about 347 of a class. meters. This indicates the extent distance The calculated parameters for the shoreline movement of the oldest and youngest change include shoreline change envelope shoreline. (SCE), net shoreline movement (NSM), and end point rate (EPR). The change envelope DEM was re-projected from geographic describes the distance between the shoreline coordinate system (GCS WGS 1984) to farthest from and closest to the baseline at projected system (WGS 1984 UTM Zone each transect. The shoreline change 32N). Drainage network was delineated envelope reports a distance. This represents using a stream threshold of 500 cells in the the total change in shoreline movement for conditioning of the elevation raster in the all available shoreline positions and is not hydrology tools of the ArcGIS software.
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
File geo-database was created in order to Shoreline Change Envelope (SCE), End create a shapefile which houses the Point Rate (EPR), Linear Regression Rate shoreline for each year using on-screen (LRR) and Weighted Linear Regression digitizing. Digital Shoreline Analysis Rate (WLR). Despite the inability of this System (DSAS) uses a measurement tool to determine the forcing of morpho- baseline method (Leatherman and Clow, dynamics, it has been shown to be effective 1983) to calculate rate-of-change statistics in facilitating an in-depth analysis of for a time series of shorelines. The baseline temporal and historical movement of is constructed by the user and it serves as shoreline positions and cliff geometry. the starting point for all transects cast by the DSAS application. The transect intersects Change detection studies was carried using each shoreline at the measurement points Erdas Imagine 9.1 using the classified as used to calculate shoreline-change rates. input to generate a difference file and a Each shoreline vector represents a specific highlight file. Areas that have undergone position in time and must be assigned a date change are shown while areas that in the shoreline feature-class attribute table. unchanged are presented. The measurement transects that are cast by DSAS from the baseline will intersect the Results and Discussion shoreline vectors. Identification of Land Use and Land Cover Change landforms was achieved by visual Figures 3, 4, 5 and Table 2 showed a drastic interpretation using remote sensing reduction in the area covered by grassland techniques as well as methodologies from in the area and a rapid increase in the area existing literatures. Change detection covered by vegetation. This may be due to analysis was done by calculating areas presence of good soil condition as well as cover by each land cover classes for the lush amount of tropical rain forest in the years in view. The characteristics of the area. Also, gradual reduction of grassland images used the year, resolution and source between 1990 and 2010 may be attributed to of each image is given in Table 1. the emergence of settlement in the coastal part of the study area. Outcrops area Shoreline geometry remains one of the key coverage in 1990 was 0.03 km2 and was parameters in the detection of coastal increased to 68.7 km2 with an introduction erosion and deposition and the study of to a small percentage of settlement in places coastal morpho-dynamics. DSAS as a laden with outcrops. The total area ocuppied software extension within ArcGIS has been by water body in 1980 was 35% of the used by many researchers in measuring, coastal area but was increased to 36% with quantifying, calculating and monitoring an increment of about 1.1% due to shoreline rate-of-change statistics from closeness to the ocean.. Vegetation multiple historic shoreline positions and increased from 14.5% in 1980 to 34.13% in sources. The main application of DSAS is 2010 with an increment of 19.5% while in utilization of polyline layers as outcrop increment in acreage ranged from representation of a specific shoreline feature 0.009% to 17.3%. The result of the research (e.g. mean high water mark, cliff top) at a carried out by Odunnuga et al. (2013) particular point in time. A range of supports the results of this research as it statistical change measures are derived establishes that human activities along the within DSAS, based on the comparison of southwestern coastline have affected the shoreline positions through time. These coastal features along the coast. include Net Shoreline Movement (NSM),
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Table 1: Summary of some satellites (LANDSAT) missions used. Data Resolution Source Landsat Tm Visible To NIR- 30 Meters Landcover.Org (1980) Thermal Band-60 Meters Landsat Tm Visible To NIR- 30 Meters Landcover.Org (1990) Thermal Band-60 Meters Landsat Etm Visible To NIR- 30 Meters Earthexplorer.Usgs.Gov Plus (2010) Thermal Band-60 Meters Panchromatic Band- 15 Meters Dem 1 Arc (30 Meters) Earthexplorer.Usgs.Gov
Figure 3: Land cover map of 1980
Figure 4: Land cover map of 1990
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
Figure 5: Land cover map of 2010
Table 2a: Land Use Change Statistics 1980 1990 (%) 2010 (%) Landuse Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Vegetation 58.2 14.5567 6.60 1.6504 135.3 33.8 Water Body 141.32 35.3338 98.75 24.6879 97.8 26.4269 Grassland 200.43 50.1095 247.65 61.9132 93.6 23.6202 Outcrops - 0.04 0.009549 68.8 17.3549 Settlement - - 4.5 0.202779
Table 2b: Land Use Change Statistics Change Change betw1990 & Change betw 1980 Average rate of betw1980 & Landuse 2010 &2010 Change per yr 1990 Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Vegetation -51.2 -88.0 128.7 1950 77.1 132.5 2.57 4.42 Water Body -42,57 -30.12 -0.95 -0.96 -43.52 -30.8 -1.45 -1.03 Grassland 47.22 23.56 -154.05 -62.20 -106.83 -53.3 -3.56 -0.12 Outcrops 0.04 - 68.76 171900 - - 3.44 8595 Settlement/ - 4.5 - - - 0.225 - Built Up
Vegetation along the coastline in Cross proportional to the rate of vegetation River State has increased over the 30 years increase long the coastline. In Bakassi due study period by 2.57km2, the relationship to the crisis over some portion of land, between the rate of urbanization and human activities in these areas have reduced activities along the coast is inversely
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 considerably which gave vegetation the avenue to spring up. Hydrology Analysis The stream analysis showed that there were The dynamics of water body as shown in four stream orders bordering the coastal Figure 2b explains the unstable nature of area. The drainage pattern was dendritic in water, in this case the coastline reduced by nature. Also, the slope map also showed 43.52km2 in 30 years and an average that there were steep areas ranged from 5° 1.45km2 per year. Sand mining along the to 12° along the outcrop areas while river coast has affected the natural flow of water and coastal area showed gentle or relatively along the coastline. The rate of loss water is flat areas which range from 0° to 5° directly proportional to the rate of water (Figures 6 and 7). Most of the flat areas loss along the coast. Migration of cattle were located in the coastal zones with rearers from northern Nigeria to Southern values ranging from 0° - 6° considered to be Nigeria in search of pastures for animals has extremely flat in nature. This accounts for depleted the grassland in the area between erosion occurrence in the area. Vegetation 1980 and 2010, grassland reduced and grassland in the region showed gradual 106.83km2 representing an average of increment. This also accounts for luxuriant 3.56km2 per year. Outcrops in 1990 covered vegetation and supports farming activities in 0.04km2 erosion, flooding in the area the region. The highest order of the stream between 1990 and 2010 exposed the (4th order) was located in the coastal region outcrops that were formally covered by soil. bordering the shoreline. In 2010 outcrops exposed covered 68.76km2 which is a result of urbanization and erosion.
Figure 6: Slope of Study Area
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
Figure 7: Map Showing Stream Order
Shoreline Change Analysis and about 1.724 km was recorded between 1990 Extraction and 2010. End point rate is calculated by The shoreline length analysis indicated a dividing the distance of shoreline movement gradual decrease between the years in view. by the time elapsed between the oldest and The shoreline length for the year 1980 was the most recent shoreline. The major 71.5962 km, 71.4262 km in 1990 and advantages of the EPR are the ease of 69.7015 km in 2010. A gradual reduction of computation and minimal requirement of 0.17 km in length was noticed between only two shoreline dates. In the analysis, it 1980 and 1990 while a rapid reduction of was observed that between 1980 and 2010,
Figure 8: Shoreline from Landsat Images
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 the EPR was about 11.5m for thirty years. occurrences are very much peculiar to the Also, the rate of erosion between 1980 and coastal region of Cross River State. 1990 was 424.96m while rate of accretion Therefore, quantitative analysis of shoreline (increase by gradual accumulation) was changes at different timescales is very about 277.59m. The rate of erosion was important in understanding and establishing about 15.4m per year between 1980 and the processes driving erosion and accretion 2010. This indicates that the erosion that computing sediment budgets, identification occurs per year is higher than rate of of hazard zones as a basis for modelling of accretion. This results in the apparent dynamics and for coastal management and reduction of the shoreline per year as shown interventions. in figure 8. References Conclusion Bassey, O., Arong, Avwenagha E. and The study observed a remarkable change in Oghenero, O. (2013). Evaluation of the shoreline with a gradual reduction of ground water resource in Akamkpa 0.17 km in length between 1980 and 1990, area, Cross River State, Nigeria. and a rapid reduction of about 1.72 km Advances in Applied Science between 1990 and 2010. The study also Research, 4(5), 10-24 revealed that shoreline change envelope was Oden M. I, Udinmwen E. and Esu, O. 259m between the 1980 shoreline and 1990 (2013). The Dolerites of Cross River shoreline (reduction in line distance) while State (DCRS): Physical and it was 800m between 1990 and 2010 Mechanical Properties. Environment shoreline. The net shoreline movement and Natural Resources Research, 3( between 1980 and 2010 was about 347 1) (1-12) meters, representing the extent distance Odunuga C. U., Lawal O., and Ogoro M movement of the oldest and youngest (2013). Vulnerability Of Coastal shoreline. The study further observed that Communities In The Niger Delta between 1980 and 2010, the end point rate Region To Sea Level Rise. Journal was about 11.5 meters for thirty years. Also, of Research in Environmental and the rate of erosion between 1980 and 1990 Earth Science, 2(8), 01-08 was 424.96 meters while rate of accretion Ogoro, C. (2014). Shoreline Geometry: was about 277.59m. The rate of erosion was DSAS as a Tool for Historical Trend about 15.4m per year between 1980 and Analysis Geomorphological 2010. This indicates that the erosion that Techniques, Chap. 3, Sec. 2.2 occurs per year is higher than rate of (2014) British Society for accretion. Geomorphology Pandiaraj. D, Karikalan. R, Alaguraja. P, This results in the apparent reduction of the Jeyaraj. N, Roger .D.C, and shoreline per year. This may be attributed to Giriprasad .C (2010). A study on low elevation with values ranging from 0° - Remote Sensing on Coastal 6°, suggesting extremely flat topography Geomorphological Landforms From and intense farming activities. This trend is Coleroon River Mouth to Cuddalore similar to other parts of the Niger Delta South Arcot, Tamil Nadu, India. region of Nigeria. Erosion and accretion International Journal of Geomatics processes have been ongoing, outstanding, and Geosciences, 1(1), 98-105 and very severe in the area. Specifically, it Prabaharan S., SrinivasaRaju K., is worthy of note to say that these Lakshumanan C. and Ramalingam
Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria
M. (2010). Remote Sensing and GIS Applications on Change Detection Study in Coastal Zone Using Multi- Temporal Satellite Data. International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, 1(2), 159-166 Tamassoki, B., Rabia S., Sheikh S. A. and Neelam A. (2014) Land use change mapping and analysis using Remote Sensing and GIS: A case study of Simly watershed, Islamabad, Pakistan. The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, 18, 251–259 Tomar A. S.and Singh U.C. (2012). Geomorphological Mapping Using Remote Sensing and GIS: A Tool for Land Use Planning Around Shivpuri City, M.P., India. IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSRJCE), 5(1), 28-30 Vinayaraj P., Johnson G., Udhaba Dora G., Sajiv Philip C., Sanil Kumar V. and Gowthaman R. (2011). Quantitative Estimation of Coastal Changes along Selected Locations of Karnataka, India: A GIS and Remote Sensing Approach. International Journal of Geosciences, 2, 385-393.
Odein, (2013) is not listed in the reference.
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Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
Ayuba, P. & Akpama, D. S. Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria. Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract In an era of climate change and a time when pupils especially those in elementary schools spend most of their time indoors, attempt to entice and encourage children and their teachers to spend more time in well-structured, child-centred green designed school grounds is timely and cannot be overemphasized. Creating an outdoor learning and play environment is an initiative that would incorporate green design principles targeted at meeting children's developmental needs. Children developmental needs are cognitive, physical, social and emotional. This paper assessed the physical outdoor spaces and natural elements in elementary schools with a view to integrating these elements in elementary schools in Minna, Niger State. The research was carried out by the use of a structured observation schedule and questionnaires. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools such as mean, percentages and averages. The findings revealed that only 25% of the playgrounds of elementary schools in Minna have above average fixed components. It also showed that no provisions were made for experimental, individual, gathering and ecological spaces. The results generated were shown in tables. The paper recommended that play-learning environment be integrated in elementary schools in Minna. Keywords: Developmental needs, elementary schools, green designed, space, play-learning.
Introduction In the world over, every child plays. The Play has a wide range of definitions ranging drive to play in children is so profound that from discrete descriptions of various types of children will make effort to do so in the midst play such as physical, construction play, of any circumstance. Young children consider language play, or symbolic play (Miller and pretending, running and building as fun Almon, 2009), to a list of broad criteria, (Whitebread, 2012). It is a well-known fact to based on observations and attitudes that are researchers and educators that these playful meant to capture the essence of all play activities are of immense benefit to the behaviours (Rubin et al., 1983). development of the whole child across social, cognitive, physical and emotional domains. Contemporary definitions of play focus on a Play is indeed very instrumental to a healthy number of key criteria. The founder of the child’s development; it is no wonder that the National Institute for Play, Stuart Brown in American Academy of Pediatrics issued a his words defines play as anything that white paper on the topic (Ginsburg, 2007). spontaneously is done for its own sake. The National Association for the Education of Similarly, Krasnor and Pepler (1980) and Young Children (2009) named play as a Rubin et al. (1983) defined play along a central component in developmentally continuum as more or less playful using a appropriate educational practices, and the set of behavioural and dispositional criteria. United Nations High Commission on Human Play includes activities that are freely Rights (1989) recognized play as fundamental chosen and directed by children and arise right for every child. from intrinsic motivation (Miller and
Ayuba, Akpama Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
Almon, 2009). Today under the pressure of children and their teachers to spend rising academic standards in our elementary appreciable outdoor time to play and learn. schools, play has been given trivial consideration. In our society today, a It is alarming that as experts are arguing and pseudo dichotomy has been created between yet to come to terms with the importance of play and learning. play in the lives of children, the actual time This paper therefore, seeks to discourage children spend daily in playing continues to the strict relegation of learning to the four decrease. Today, children play eight hours walls of the classroom by assessing the less each week than their counterparts did physical outdoor spaces and natural two decades ago (Elkind, 2008). elements in elementary schools with a view to integrating these elements in elementary Play as a Pedagogy schools in Minna, Niger state. This research Moyles et al. (2002) examined that although will encourage outdoor learning through adults endorsed the educational benefits of play thereby reducing the time spent by play, they were uncertain of their role in pupils in the classrooms. play and how to assess the prospects of play. Professional knowledge and expertise The Importance of Play is critical in planning and engaging in Play builds the foundation for a lifetime of playing, learning and teaching. Siraj- learning. Play is pleasurable, intrinsically Blatchford et al. (2002) studied effective motivated, freely chosen and is process pedagogy and distinguished between oriented. Play is also non-literal and is pedagogical framing (planning for play, actively engaged. According to American providing resources and a routine) on behalf Academy of Pediatrics (2016), children of adults and pedagogical interactions playful behaviours can range from 0-100% (specific behaviors in face to face playful. It is through play that children at a encounters), and established that both are very early age engage and interact in the required. In conclusion they emphasized world around them. The American that the most effective settings had a Academy of Pediatrics titled “The balance between adult-initiated and child- Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy initiated activities. Child Development and Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bonds" elucidates on the Play is a natural medium through which importance of play to the healthy learning and development is holistically development of children. Among other enhanced. As suggested by Hayes (2003), things, the report says the" play allows "Play is a pedagogical tool for the teacher as children to use their imagination, dexterity, well as a pathway for learning for a child"( and physical, cognitive and emotional p.122). It is obvious that young children strength"(p.151). Play is important to the learn through play in a composite system. development of healthy brain. Children stand the chance to learn how to work in Components of a Supportive groups, to negotiate, to share and to resolve Environment differences, and to learn self-advocacy skill Outdoor and indoor learning environments (Heidi, 2013). These aforementioned should be motivating and inviting to all benefits of play would be impossible children, so that they are encouraged and without a well-structured and conducive helped to explore and to use all the environment that can foster and instigate possibilities offered for fun, adventure, challenge and creativity as stated by
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
National Council for Curriculumn and with a small group of children and adults, Assessment (NCCA, 2004).The physical where they can feel secure and build environment, both indoors and outdoors, relationships. Older children need more encourages positive growth and space (French, 2003). development for children through opportunities to explore and learn. Safe, A supportive environment is one structured clean, spacious, bright, welcoming, warm, to meet the developmental needs of and accessible environments for children children. The developmental needs include and adults, including those with additional emotional development, physical needs, should afford opportunities to rest development, social development and and play. Babies, toddlers and young cognitive development needs. It is children need fresh air and outdoor play paramount to note that any distinct space on space is essential if children are to have a the playground is likely to have both fixed balanced, healthy day. Learning is and movable components and serving a constrained and may be damaged if young range of developmental needs (Heidi, children are required to sit still indoors, 2013). Fixed landscape components are the where adults do most of the talking and anchor points of a landscape, for example, require children to follow their lead (Bruce, trails, groves of trees, hills, and rock circles. 2004). The environment should offer These components must be thoughtfully children opportunities to: actively explore, arranged, to prioritize connectivity, make decisions and follow through with maintain flexibility and create a kind of their ideas; engage in co-operative, "loose fit" that allows educators and symbolic, dramatic or pretend play; move, children to play an active part in adding dance and increase control over their bodies moveable components to customize their (Hohmann and Weikart, 1995). play-learning environment (Heidi, 2013). A menu for moveable components was Socio-cultural theory is concerned with suggested by Heidi (2013), to serve as children’s learning in context. Children objects that enhances play and can be respond to the reality they see around them incorporated into the play space as seen in and what they learn reflects that reality figure I. They include but not limited to: (Penn, 2005). Environments can reflect the 1. Containers: milk crates, buckets lives and activities of the children/families 2. Gardening equipment: in the service to establish positive identities. wheelbarrows, gloves, watering cans In addition, environments can have 3. Chalk boxes and tubes resources to counteract stereotypical and 4. Dirt, mud, cob, sand and water. discriminatory attitudes (French, 2003).
The same principles apply whether organizing indoor or outdoor areas. In fact many of the activities babies, toddlers and young children enjoy indoors can be achieved outdoors and with greater freedom. If in group care, careful consideration of the organizing of rooms for different age groups is necessary. Babies and toddlers need a room or home base where they can relate for part of the day
Ayuba, Akpama Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
(2000) referred to this as an informational environment which supports children ability to make and learn from mistakes, discover the best way of doing things and learn how to make decisions.
Integrating Key Spaces into Play- Learning Environments Developing a conceptual design for a play- learning environment will require the bringing together entire piece together- the fixed and moveable landscape components, children developmental needs and the desired spatial qualities of the site. It was Fig. I. Fixed and moveable components serving advocated that priority be placed on five developmental needs. Source: Heidi (2013) key spaces that should work in concert to create a diversity of play and learning Creating a Supportive Environment opportunities (Heidi, 2013). The key spaces Smith et al. (2005) advocated that the as described by Heidi (2013) are active learning environment should be carefully spaces, experimental spaces, individual planned to meet children needs by spaces, gathering spaces and ecological providing them with the optimum spaces as indicated in figure II. opportunities to work independently, to make choices, decisions and solve problems, to engage in real experiences, and to experience success. The High and Scope Educational Research Foundation (2001) suggested that the space should be inviting for children and organize into well-defined areas of interest to encourage distinctive types of play. Hohmann and Weikart (1995) noted that the interest areas are arranged to promote visibility and easy movement between areas and are flexible to accommodate children changing interests. Fig. II. Key spaces in play-learning environments Curtis and O’Hagan (2004) promoted a Source: Heidi (2013) variety of easily accessible, open-ended, natural, found, real life materials which can Active Spaces be used in creative and purposeful ways and Spaces that encourage active play vary in reflect children’s family lives. Materials are topography, incorporate changes in height, stored so that children can find, use and challenge the mind to assess competencies return materials they need. The most and go beyond perceived limits. Plate I effective learning comes from simple but explains how these spaces feel energetic as versatile materials and environments which they promote fitness and health. extend the child’s imagination and can be adapted by children to suit their learning needs and level of understanding. Dowling
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enclaves that are protected, cozy and enclosed. This type of space would accommodate one or two children and could be on the edge of another play zone, most likely away from an active play area. This is a space for private time. Some children are sensitive to noise and have need for a quiet space in the playground (Heidi, 2013).
Plate I. Active Space Source: Heidi (2013)
Experimental Spaces These are spaces for discovery, exploration, hypothesizing. They are temporary in nature. They are also flexible, alive, messy and emergent. They should feel more like a lab, a space that supports creativity, constructing, building, testing and idea Plate III. Individual Space generating. Plate II identifies spaces that are Source: Heidi (2013) often very social, offering opportunities for the development of Gathering Spaces communication/language skills. They are Gathering spaces can be for a large or small filled with materials, and have child sized group. Plate IV describes a typical furnishings and storage. Mud, sand, water, welcoming, fostering of social interaction, wood, buckets, tools and other types of and focused on communication, negotiation, loose parts are essential. Educational and sharing. They offer seating, shade, and materials such as hand lenses, clipboards, should have a balance of soft and hard pencils and cameras should be used (Heidi, features (Heidi, 2013). They should be 2013). flexible and accommodate multiple use and users (staff, children, parents).
Plate IV. Experimental Space Source: Heidi (2013)
Individual Spaces Individual spaces support quiet reflective Plate IV. Gathering Space Source: Heidi (2013) moments, observation and listening as shown in plate III. They feature small
Ayuba, Akpama Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
Ecological Spaces Ten public schools selected from each the Trees, shrubs, and vegetation are strong two local government local areas are elements of these spaces. They are alive, tabulated below: containing ecosystems that attract birds, butterflies, insects, and worms. They offer Table 1.0: Schools selected in Bosso local children access to water, soil, and plants government area (plate V). They create habitat on different S/No Name of Primary School scales and will attract a diversity of plant 1 Baban Dabo Primary School and insect species. They evoke an emotional 2 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch. 3 Gusase Primary School response, nurture a sense of responsibility, 4 Gurusu Primary School and offer moments for reflection(Heidi, 5 Jikuchi Ube Primary School 2013). 6 Kadna Primary School 7 Maitumbi Primary School 8 Shango Primary School 9 Tudun-Fulani Model School 10 Kwarkwota Primary School
Table 2.0: Schools selected in Chanchaga local government area S/No Name of Primary School 1 Shango Primary School
Plate V Ecological Space Source: Heidi (2013) 2 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem. Sch. 3 Anguwan Zakka Primary School 4 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School Research Method 5 Ibb Primary School The research method employed to carry out 6 Kuyanbana Primary School this study was the use of post-occupancy 7 Usman Nagogo Primary School survey research. An observation schedule 8 Limawa Model Primary School was structured to evaluate the physical 9 Tunga North Primary School outdoor spaces and natural elements 10 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch available in primary school play grounds. The assessment was conducted in Minna, Niger state, Nigeria. Two local governments Findings and Discussion of Results which lie within Minna are Bosso and The results obtained through observation Chanchaga Local governments. Ten public schedules were recorded using following primary schools were selected at random representations. from each of these local government areas 0 -not available by simple random technique of probability 1 - available sampling method. The selection of public The result in Table 3.0 shows that all the schools was based on the fact that large playgrounds of the schools had both hard populations of pupils in Niger State attend and soft surfaces required for physical public schools and has a wide variety of development. It also shows that 85% of spread across the wards in the area. The groves of trees will enhance the emotional data was collected and analyzed using development of children. It further shows descriptive statistical tools such as mean, that only 10% of the playgrounds have hills percentages and averages in a tabular which support cognitive learning, 20% of format. rock circles which support social
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 development but none had trails or Table 5.0 shows that the only type of play pathways in the playgrounds. space available in the playgrounds of the selected primary schools is the active space. Table 4.0 shows that all the playgrounds The ecological space, individual space, had either sand or mud or both and chalk experimental and gathering space which boxes which support emotional and support play-learning environments are not cognitive developments in children during available. The environment should offer play. No playground had a play table which children opportunities to: actively explore, supports both cognitive and social make decisions and follow through with development and only 25% had garden their ideas; engage in co-operative, equipment which also supports cognitive symbolic, dramatic or pretend play; move, developments in children. dance and increase control over their bodies.
Table 3.0: Fixed components in playgrounds S/ List of Schools Hard/Soft Hills Rock Groves Trails Total No Sur. Circles Of Trees 01 Baban Dabo Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 02 Chanchaga Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 03 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch. 1 0 1 1 0 60% 04 Gusase Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 05 Gurusu Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 06 Jikuchi Ube Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 07 Kadna Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60% 08 Maitumbi Primary School 1 1 0 1 0 60% 09 Shango Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 10 Tudun-Fulani Model School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 11 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem. Sch. 1 1 0 1 0 60% 12 Anguwan Zakka Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 13 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 14 Ibb Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 15 Kuyanbana Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60% 16 Kwarkwota Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 17 Limawa Model Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% 18 Tunga North Primary School 1 0 1 0 0 40% 19 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch 1 0 0 1 0 40% 20 Usman Nagogo Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40% Total 100% 10% 20% 85% 0%
Ayuba, Akpama Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
Table 4.0: Moveable components in playgrounds S/No List Of Schools Containers Garden Chalk Sand/ Play Total Equip. Boxes Mud Tables 01 Baban Dabo Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40% 02 Chanchaga Primary School 1 1 1 1 0 80% 03 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch. 1 0 1 1 0 60% 04 Gusase Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40% 05 Gurusu Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60% 06 Jikuchi Ube Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40% 07 Kadna Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60% 08 Maitumbi Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60% 09 Shango Primary School 1 1 1 1 0 80% 10 Tudun-Fulani Model School 0 0 1 1 0 40% 11 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem. 1 0 1 1 0 60% Sch. 12 Anguwan Zakka Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40% 13 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40% 14 Ibb Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60% 15 Kuyanbana Primary School 1 1 1 1 0 80% 16 Kwarkwota Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40% 17 Limawa Model Primary School 1 1 1 1 0 80% 18 Tunga North Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40% 19 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch 1 1 1 1 0 80% 20 Usman Nagogo Primary School 0 0 1 1 0 40% Total 55% 25% 100% 100% 0%
Table 5.0: Types of spaces required for a play-learning environment. S/No List of Schools Active Experi- Indivi- Gather- Ecolo- Total Mental Dual Ing Gical 01 Baban Dabo Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 02 Chanchaga Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 03 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch. 1 0 0 0 0 20% 04 Gusase Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 05 Gurusu Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 06 Jikuchi Ube Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 07 Kadna Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 08 Maitumbi Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 09 Shango Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 10 Tudun-Fulani Model School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 11 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem. 1 0 0 0 0 20% Sch. 12 Anguwan Zakka Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 13 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 14 Ibb Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 15 Kuyanbana Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 16 Kwarkwota Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 17 Limawa Model Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 18 Tunga North Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% 19 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch 1 0 0 0 0 20% 20 Usman Nagogo Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20% Total 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
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Conclusion Elkind, D. (2008). The Power of Play: The study has revealed that a play-learning Learning What Comes Naturally. playground has not been given any French, G. (2003). Supporting quality: considerable attention. It was observed that Guidelines for best practice in early only 25% of the playgrounds of primary childhood services (2nded.). Dublin: schools had above average fixed Barnardos. components and 55% had moveable Ginsburg KR. (2007). The importance of components. It is alarming that no play in promoting healthy child provisions were made for experimental, development and maintaining strong individual, gathering and ecological play- parent-child bonds. American learning spaces. These would limit or Academy of Pediatrics, deprive the children certain developmental 119(1), 182-91. needs which these spaces would have Hayes, N. (2003). Play, care and learning: offered if they were present. Creating an integrated curriculum for early childhood education in Recommendation Ireland. Researching Early Stake holders, developers and professionals Childhood, (5), 69-81. involved in the development of primary Heidi, C. (2013). Landscape and Child schools, should pay adequate attention to Development: A Design Guide for these key design considerations which Early Years Kindergarten Play- support play-learning playgrounds thereby Learning Environments. creating an enabling environment where High/Scope Educational Research children developmental needs would thrive. Foundation. (2001). The physical learning environment: Participants References guide. Michigan: High/Scope Bruce, T. (2004). Developing learning in Educational Research Foundation. early childhood. London: Paul Hohmann, M. and Weikart, D. (1995). Chapman. Educating young children. USA: Cowie, B. and Carr, M. (2005). The The High/Scope Press. consequences of socio-cultural Krasnor, l., and Pepler, D. (1980). The assessment. In Anning, C., Cullen, J. study of children’s play: Some and Fleer, M. (Eds.)..Early suggested future directions. New childhood education: society and Directions for Child Development, culture(pp.95-106). Delhi, New 9, 85–94. York and London: Sage Miller, E., and Almon, J. (2009). Crisis in Publications. the kindergarten: Why children need Curtis, A and O’Hagan. M. (2004). Care to play in school. College Park: and education in early childhood: A Alliance for Childhood. student’s guide to theory and Moyles, J., Adams, S., and Musgrave, A. practice. London: Routledge (2002). Study of pedagogical Falmer. effectiveness in early learning. Dowling, M. (2000). Young children’s Research Report No. 363. London: personal social and emotional Department for Education and development. London: Paul Skills. Chapman. National Association for the Education of Young Children (2009).
Ayuba, Akpama Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria
Developmentally appropriate children’s play with a series of practice in early childhood programs policy recommendations. serving children from birth through age 8. http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/fil e/positions/PSDAP.pdf. [Accessed May 22, 2015]. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (2004). Towards a Framework for Early Learning. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. Penn, H. (2005).Understanding early childhood. Glasgow: Open University Press. Richard, L.(2013). Landscape and Child Development: A design guide for early years kindergarten play- learning. Amazon Publisher Rubin, K., Fein, G., & Vandenberg, B. (1983). Play. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (4), 693–774. New York: Wiley. Siraj-Blatchford, I., Sylva, K., Muttock, S., Gilden, R. and Bell, D. (2002). Researching effective pedagogy in the early years. Research Report No. 356. London: Department for Education and Skills Smith, P., Cowie, H. and Blades, M. (2003).Understanding children’s development (4th ed.). UK: Blackwell Publishing. The American Academy of Pediatrics. (2016). The importance of play in promoting health Child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds, American Academy of Pediatrics Tippet, K. (2008). Play, spirit, and character. Speaking of faith. [Radio broadcast]. St.Paul, Minnesota: American Public Media. United Nations High Commissions on Human Rights 1989 Whitebread, D. (2012). The Importance of Play: A report on the value of
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
Oluwole M. S.1, Masugari, D. Y.2 and Elegonye I. I.3 1Department of Transport Management Technology, School of Entrepreneurship and Management Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. 2Department of Geography, Kaduna State College of Education, Gidan-Waya, Kafanchan. 3Training Department, Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology, Zaria, Kaduna State-Nigeria. Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract Parking management is increasingly becoming a major component of surface transport planning needs of public institutions like schools and hospitals, this is because the means of transportation cannot continually be in motion. Zaria metropolis harbors a number of such institutions which generates substantial vehicular traffic. Despite efforts by these institutions to provide parking facilities in the past ten years, persistent incidences of indiscriminate parking, non-usage of prescribed parking lots, double and road side parking is still very common. This study examines car par usage and management in five Federal Institutions (NITT, ABUTH, NCAT, FCE and NARICT) within Zaria Metropolis, it provides information to the number of parking facilities provided by the institutions, type of parking system adopted, users perception of such facilities and challenges of parking management in the Institutions. The study was carried out through field observation, traffic count and administration of 260 copies of questionnaires to determine the types, number, usage and parking duration on the available facilities (tarred, roadside and shaded) across the Institutions. The study revealed that ABUTH has the largest and most organized parking lots amongst all. This is perhaps due to the nature of its operations (tertiary health care service provider) and high level of enforcement instituted by the management. The major challenges faced by users of the car park facilities are long distance of the parking lots to the destination of the users within the institutions as well as poor medium of communication and direction to the available parking facilities. The implication of this study to the usage and management of car park in the study area lies in the provision of additional designated parking facilities to accommodate the increasing number of vehicles, strict enforcement through monitoring and sanctions to discourage parking within undesignated areas as well as integrating parking programmes into the physical development plans of the institutions.
Keywords: Surface Transport, Car Park, Vehicular Traffic, Road Infrastructures.
Introduction level of conflicts of supply and demand Parking issue has become an integral part of amongst transport operators and managers surface transportation system, this is as observed by Victoria Transport Policy because all road based means of movement Institute (VTPI, 2013). In Nigeria, car is cannot continually be in motion, and there one of the dominant means of transportation will certainly be a time where such vehicle and yet parking management seems to be a will come to rest either at home, workplace, neglected aspect of transportation planning shops or social centers. Car park and development. Venues of activities such management is thus an essential component as offices, Institutions, markets, shops and of any trip and has risen in significance as similar places often generate enormous an issue in local and strategic transportation parking demand that is more than what the planning and policy (Hensher and Button, parking provisions can accommodate thus, 2000). The socio economic costs of creating difficulties of parking vehicles at providing parking facilities to the society is desired destinations particularly when significant and sometimes there are some located within the central areas. Since
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria illegal parking, roadside and on-street Institutions of Zaria metropolis. The study parking is becoming a major feature in provides information with respect to the Federal Institutions within Zaria, the traffic number of organize car park facilities carrying capacity of the road within them available in the institutions, type of parking which would have supported an efficient system adopted, users’ perception of such movement of automobiles is greatly limited. facilities and challenges to the car park usage and management in the Institutions. It Cities in Nigeria are rapidly growing and is expected that findings of this study will the economic patterns of the people in them assist in the planning, designing or re- are equally changing, with these changes designing of parking system in the various there is a dire need for these cities to institution. adequately provide all the infrastructures that would aid ensure and efficient mobility. Review of Related Literature The use of cars as a means of intra-urban Ogunsanya (2002) noted that evidence in movement in Nigeria has grown literature suggests that one of the major appreciable, therefore adequate provision of objectives of transportation planning is to parking spaces as transportation ease the movement of passengers and infrastructures is one issue relevant goods. However, in many towns and cities authorities must adequately address (Cuddy, of Nigeria (Kano, Port Harcourt, Kaduna 2007). Zaria in Kaduna state Nigeria is and Abuja), there is an undesirable degree home to a number of federal institutions like of traffic congestion on urban roads Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Federal occasioned by unorganized parking. He College of Education (FCE), ABU further observed that, the provision of new Teaching Hospital (ABUTH), Nigerian roads is often expensive and most municipal College of Aviation Technology (NCAT), government usually considers the option of Numerous Research Institutes like the widening existing roads which involves the Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology demolition of houses and its attendant cost (NITT), National Research Institute for of compensation. As city transportation Chemical Technology (NARICT) among system expands, it takes up more spaces, the others. Military formations like the Nigerian construction of new roads, the expansion of Military School (NMS), Nigerian School of existing ones and the building of parking lot Military Police just to mention a few. These requires the acquisition of part of the institutions have been found to be centers of exchange space, yet the more space is trip generation and attraction. Despite allocated to road transport, the greater the efforts made by the management to provide requirement for more traffic space. parking facilities in the past ten years, Automobile therefore has an insatiable persistent incidences of indiscriminate appetite for space, it uses space at home, at parking, non-usage of prescribed parking work, shopping and even when some spaces lots, double and road side parking is still a are empty it is tied up or reserved for the major source of worry. All these put automobile. Automobile do not only have together raise some concern about parking exclusive space for moving, they also have facilities, and its management in the study a” zone of influence” which expands as the area which if not addressed could lead to speed and quantity of traffic increases, thus great traffic, environmental, safety and reducing the effectiveness of exchanges security within and around the institutions. space and the level of interaction The forgoing leads to the examination of car (Ogunsanya, 2002). park usage and management in Federal
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Unlike other urban problems, crisis in urban after vehicle is driven to a destination, its transportation quickly manifest itself in usefulness greatly diminishes if there is congestion, delay, accident, parking difficulty in parking. To be effective difficulties and environmental pollution. therefore, transportation system must Ayeni (1983) described these as the most include adequate parking facilities in all pressing and most visible urban problem of places that attracts vehicular traffic. Nigeria cities. Earlier, Oduola (1981) has exclaimed that most urban congestion Litman (2011) conceptualized parking problems are caused by the sub-optimal problem in terms of a paradigm shift which manner in which the roads are used, as road describes a fundamental change in how a side and on-street parking, street trading and problem is perceived and solutions total disregard of traffic regulation by road evaluated. Parking problem and solutions users are significant human contribution to can be viewed in terms of a shift from the the traffic problem. In Lagos for instance, old paradigm to the new one. The old Ogunsanya (1986) observed that illegal paradigm assumes that parking should be parking alone account for 30 percent of the abundant and free at most destinations. It cause of delay along Bangbose, Igbosere, strives to maximize supply and minimize Ipodo, Bajulaiye, Ereko and Balogun and price. The paradigm also assumes that Ojoo roads in Lagos state. Litman (2011) parking lots should almost never be filled noted that mobility within the cities is generally and that parking facility costs should be the key to economic growth in the developed incorporated into the costs of buildings or world, sustainable mobility need to be among subsidized by governments and that every the first problem addressed when talking about destination should satisfy its own parking ways to make cities more sustainable. This needs The old parking paradigm asserts that sustainable mobility development implies that parking requirements should be applied the consumption activities should be able to take into consideration effective utilization of rigidly without exception or variation and available resource and develop environmental that parking management should be seen as friendly system for the mobility of the people a last resort to be applied only if increasing that would not change the natural resources and supply is not feasible. The new parking at the same time have some positive effect on paradigm on the other hand strives to the environment. provide optimal parking supply and price, it considers too much supply as harmful, as Simon (1996) observed that there are two too little, and prices that are too low are as serious disadvantages facing urban harmful as those that are too high as it transportation, first was the heavy increase strives to use parking facilities efficiently in motor traffic in city centres which often by considering full lots to be acceptable, creates almost insolvable parking and provided that additional parking is available garage problems. The second is the vast nearby and any spill over problems are increase in road congestion, he submitted addressed. It emphasizes sharing of parking further that in the developing countries, facilities between different destinations and parking is a complex and long term problem favours charging parking facility costs which cannot be totally eradicated but directly to users and providing financial managed. Buses and trucks have to load and rewards to people who reduce their parking unload passengers and goods, they all need demand (Willson and Shoup, 1999). space to park and this pose a problem of required spaces. The usage of vehicle has a Management solutions tend to reduce most direct linkage with parking. This is because parking problems, providing a greater range
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria of benefits and so are supported by more options, so less parking is supplied where comprehensive planning. It is also parking supply is relatively costly to important to define parking problems provide and where management carefully in order to provide solutions. For programmes are easy to implement. Litman example, it is important to determine (2007) has also recommended an integrated exactly what type of problem, and where, parking plan which should be adjusted to when and to whom it occurs. Increasing reflect the needs of a particular situation. supply simply helps reduce parking The steps include defining the geographic congestion and spill over problems but scope of analysis such as the site, street, increases most other problems (Edwards, district/neighbourhood and regional scale; 2002). In order to provide optimal parking carefully defining the parking problems; supply, it is the practice in conventional parking planning should be coordinated planning to determine how much parking to with a community’s overall strategic vision be provided at a particular site by planners and development of a comprehensive based on recommended minimum parking evaluation framework. standards. This provides an index or parking ratio used to calculate the number of spaces Methodology to supply at a particular location. These are The study collects data on the capacity of unconstrained and unadjusted values, which parking facilities, Parking System in place, generally reflect the maximum supply that parking facilities compliance level in could be needed. These standards are often different institutions and challenges to excessive and can usually be adjusted parking management in the study area. The significantly downward (Litman, 2009). data required were sourced from the Conventional parking standards are based respective Federal institutions parking lots, on parking demand surveys but the analysis users and security units. Physical does not usually take into account observation, photographic method and geographic, demographic and economic administration of questionnaires to staff, factors that can affect parking demand such students and visitors to the institutions. The as whether a site is urban or suburban, and study focused on five purposively selected whether parking is free or priced. These Federal Institutions out of the fourteen standards err toward over supply in many major Federal Institutions in Zaria ways. They are derived from parking metropolis. Their selection were based on demand studies that were mostly performed their relative size, the volume of vehicular in car-dependent locations. Applying these traffic generated or attracted per day and the standards results in far more parking supply relative ease of accessing data. The five than is usually needed at most destinations, selected institutions are: particularly where land use is mixed i. National Research Institute for (Bradley,1997). Chemical Technology (NARICT). ii. Nigerian Institute of Transport Better ways are now available to determine Technology (NITT). how much parking to supply at a particular iii. Nigerian College of Aviation site. These are the efficiency-based Technology (NCAT). standards which take into account, iv. Ahmadu Bello University Teaching geographic, demographic and economic Hospital (ABUTH) and factors that affect parking demand (Cuddy, v. Federal College of Education (FCE). 2007; VTPI, 2008). They also reflect the relative costs and benefits of different
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Pilot survey was first conducted between comfortably accommodate at full capacity 9am- 10am for 3 days to have insight into was investigated and presented in Table 2. the average volume of vehicular traffic attributed to each institutions per day. Table 2 Capacity of Parking Facilities within the Institutions Physical observation was also carried out in Capacity NI NCA NARIC FC ABUT the various Institutions’ parking lots, where of TT T T E H an enumerator was stationed from 7am to Parking 5pm to observe the parking behavior. Facilities Marked 11 Information with respect to the duration of Parking 80 50 45 650 0 the average parking time were obtained by space evaluating the time respondents spent on Covered parking 40 60 0 15 80 parking lots. The study population space Total 15 considered the average number of vehicles 140 50 55 735 in circulation (staff, students and visitors) in 0 these selected federal institutions and the sample size was determined following The result revealed that NITT have a total Krejcie and Morgan, (1970) table of of 150 parking spaces with 110 marked and determination of sample size where it states 40 covered parking space, NCAT have a that a sample size of 248 is sufficient for a total of 140 parking space with 80 marked population of about 700 at 0.05 level of and 60 covered parking spaces, NARICT significance, see table 1 below. have a total of 50 parking spaces with all marked while ABUTH has the largest space Table 1 Average Vehicular Flow in the and capacity (650 marked and 80 covered Institutions spaces) compared to the other institutions. Institutions Av. No. of Vehicle Sample Size The figure of marked and covered parking ABUTH 200 70 spaces in table 2 seems proportional to the FCE 150 53 relative size of the organization and the NCAT 130 46 vehicular traffic it attract. Plate 1 and 2 NITT 110 40 present a pictorial view of this marked and NARICT 110 39 covered parking spaces. Total 700 248
A total of 260 copies of questionnaires were administered and 248 which represent 96% were returned, only 12 which represent 4% were not returned or filled improperly. The stratified sampling technique was used to select the respondents for the study. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive method involving tables of percentage. Plate 1: Shaded Parking Space at ABUTH Results and Discussion Capacity of Parking Facilities The capacity of parking facilities (marked and covered parking) in the institutions in terms of the number of vehicles it can
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
The result shows that 87.3% of users across the institutions were staff, 8.1%, students/participants, while 3.2% respondent are patients on appointments which could be relatives of the staff to the hospitals and staff clinics within the institutions. It can thus be inferred that staff are the major users of parking facilities in these institutions; this is expected in the sense that they have to commute to work Plate 2: Open Marked Space at ABUTH almost on a daily basis.
Users of Parking Lots Frequency of Parking Space Usage The parking needs of users within these The ability of parking facilities to meet the institutions varies in frequency, duration demand to a large extent depends on the and timing, proper management of parking frequency of usage per space and time in lots demands that information on this the respective institutions; this was should be known, this is presented in table investigated and presented in table 4. Four 3. Five categories (staff, students, patients, scales (once a while, daily, 2-3 times a visitors and other general groups) of users week and weekly) were used. group were noted.
Table 3 Categories of Users Name Of Institution Total N.I.T.T NARICT NCAT ABUTH FCE % % % % % Staff 59 35 34 38 27 193 26.7 15.8 15.4 17.2 12.2 87.3 Student 0 0 4 11 3 18 0.0 0.0 1.8 5.0 1.4 8.1 Patients 0 0 1 2 4 7 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.9 1.8 3.2 Visitors 0 0 0 0 2 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.9 Others 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.5 Total 59 35 39 51 37 221 26.7 15.8 17.6 23.1 16.7 100.0
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Table 4 Frequency of Parking Lots Usage Name Of Institutions N.I.T.T NARICT NCAT ABUTH FCE Total Frequency % % % % % Once in a While 24 2 7 1 2 36 11.1 0.9 3.2 0.5 0.9 16.6 Daily 26 29 25 37 31 148 12.0 13.4 11.5 17.1 14.3 68.2 2-3 Times a 7 1 1 8 3 20 Week 3.2 0.5 0.5 3.7 1.4 9.2 Weekly 2 0 4 5 2 13 0.9 0.0 1.8 2.3 0.9 6.0 Total 59 32 37 51 38 217 27.2 14.7 17.1 23.5 17.5 100.0
users adopted road side parking. Similarly As observed 68.2% uses the parking lots, 22.2% from NARICT, 5.6% from NCAT, 16.6% once in a while (i.e not exceeding 2.8% and 2.2% from FCE and ABUTH twice a month), 9.2% 2-3 times a week and respectively equally adopted parking along 6% weekly. Across the five institutions the road. Furthermore, 38.1% of NITT users daily usage account for the highest parking lot users (which is the highest percentage, this agrees with table 3 position amongst the institutions) parked in which indicated that staff of the respective undesignated open spaces found in the organizations are the major users as they Institute, followed by 23.8% from ABUTH, have to commute to work almost on a daily 21.4% from FCE, while 11.9% and 4.8% basis and frequently than visitors and are from NCAT and NARICT respectively. students category. Compliance level of designated areas parking is higher in NCAT (27.2%) and Kinds of Parking System Adopted by ABUTH (25.6). this is pointer to the Users effectiveness of the management team The study sought to know the types of which are most times security personnel. parking system adopted by the users at the Plate 3 shows road side parking at NITT. institutions premises as against what is required by the management, this led to table 5 below. As observed 47.2% of NITT
Table 5 Kinds of Parking Lots Adopted by the Users
Name Of Institutions Kinds N.I.T.T NARICT NCAT ABUTH FCE Total % % % % % Undesignated Open 16 2 5 10 9 42 Places 38.1 4.8 11.9 23.8 21.4 100.0 Road Side Parking 17 8 2 8 1 36 47.2 22.2 5.6 2.2 2.8 100.0 Designated Parking 17 23 34 32 19 125 13.6 18.4 27.2 25.6 15.2 100.0 Total 50 33 41 50 29 203 24.6 16.3 20.2 24.6 14.3 100.0
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
Different approaches are adopted to secure parking space by users, information in this regard can be used to substantiate argument on the degree of orderliness of parking system in each institutions. Table 7 provides insight to this. As indicated 14.1% of respondents from NITT drive in and then start searching for space, followed by Plate 3: Road Side Parking at NITT NCAT and ABUTH with 8.6% of the respondents each, while 7.3% of Duration at Parking Lots respondents from FCE and 6.4% of The average time spent at the parking lots respondents from NARICT adopt similar was measured in minutes the outcome is approach. The analysis revealed that users presented in table 6. The table shows that from NITT have more problems searching 86.5% of users in the five institutions for space, this may be attributed to its small spends above one hour at the parking lots, size compared to other institutions. 10.2% spends 31- 60 minutes, while 3.3% Generally, most respondents in these spends 1-30 minutes. It can thus be inferred institutions have less access to private or that the duration of parking in the lots the reserved space for parking in the following study area is long and this is because since order NITT 0.9%, ABUTH 1.8%, NCAT most users are staff that spent about 8 hours 2.7%, and FCE 3.2%. Further interview from resumption to closing. At the with the authorities of this institutions comparative level amongst the different revealed that reserved/private parking institutions, NITT parking lots users spend spaces are exclusively preserved for top less time (1-30 minutes) compared to management level staff. The situation of ABUTH. This variation can be attributed to easy access to parking lots location can the nature of ABUTH services as a tertiary aggravate the tendency for unorganized health care institution which attracted parking systems in the institutions premises. visitors and referrals all over the nation and Plate 4 below shows unorganized parking at is open for service 24 hours of the day. FCE.
Methods of Acquiring Parking Space
Table 6 Duration At Parking Lots Name Of Institution N.I.T.T NARICT NCAT ABUTH FCE Total % % % % % 1-30 Minutes 2 0 1 4 0 7 0.9 0.0 0.5 1.9 0.0 3.3 31-60 Minutes 2 4 8 3 5 22 0.9 1.9 3.7 1.4 2.3 10.2 Above 1 Hour 55 27 26 44 34 186 25.6 12.6 12.1 20.5 15.8 86.5 Total 59 31 35 51 39 215 27.4 14.4 16.3 23.7 18.1 100.0
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Table 7 Methods of Acquiring Parking Space Methods Name of Institution Total N.I.T.T NARICT NCAT ABUTH FCE % % % % % Always go to the same 14 16 11 22 9 72 parking space 6.4 7.3 5.0 10.0 4.1 32.7 Have a private or reserved 2 0 6 4 7 19 space 0.9 0.0 2.7 1.8 3.2 8.6 Drive in and then start to 31 14 19 19 16 99 look for space 14.1 6.4 8.6 8.6 7.3 45.0 Drive around the institution 12 4 3 4 7 30 looking for a free space 5.5 1.8 1.4 1.8 3.2 13.6 59 34 39 49 39 220 Total 26.8 15.5 17.7 22.3 17.7 100.0
the respondents will want parking services be provided free of charge.
Challenges of Car Park Usage The need for the respective institutions to provide a car park system which will meet the need of the users’ necessitated enquiry to car park usage from the perspective of the users, the result is presented in table 9. Plate 4: Unorganized Parking at FCE Zaria As observed parking space is least a challenge across Institutions, so also is the Users’ perception on parking facilities in cost of ticket, this is because investigation the Institutions during the data collection shows that none The overall perception of the parking of the institutions charges any fee for system in the study area was obtained from parking within their premises and each of the users on a four scale level of strongly them have a fairly large land space. The two agree to strongly disagree. Various issues issues that is fairly a challenge are distance on parking system management like of parking lots to destinations (offices, availability, effectiveness of manpower, hostel, classes of hospital words and safety and security of cars and presence of medium of communication or who to seek signage facilities for ease of identification direction from with regards to the available were considered as presented in table. The and nearest designated parking lots. This inference that can be drawn from table 8 is development is perhaps one of the reason that the general provision and standard of users will park in undesignated places. signage for directions, safety and security of vehicles, and quality of parking lots is Implications of the Study adjudged suitable as majority of the The implications of the above findings for a respondents agreed to the claim. However, sound and safe car park usage and it was noted that there is no effective and management in the Federal Institutions of adequate manpower to guide users of the Zaria metropolis are: parking lots. Notwithstanding, car owners • There is the urgent need to are guarantee of minimum safety of their discourage parking in undesignated vehicles when parked in their premises and places within their premises, this
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
policy should be backed up with personnel should be provided to sanctions like: fines, clamping ensure compliance. wheels or detention of erring driver’s vehicles. Conclusion • More parking lots should be In conclusion car park facilities is an provided within the premises of important component of surface these institutions, this should be transportation planning and management preceded with a periodic car park and corporate institutions like ABUTH, survey to know the trend of NITT, NCAT, FCE and NARICT should vehicular traffic influx into the integrate this into their physical institutions. development plans. This is because car par • Each designated parking areas usage and management in each organization should be properly marked and can affect the effectiveness of traffic within directional signs be provided to them as well as adjoining land uses guide users. In addition security
Table 8 Respondents ranking of car parking issues in the Institutions Range of perception SA A DA SD Total Median There is more signage in parking areas 54 63 45 27 189 Agreed There is the presence of standard car 50 72 57 31 210 Agreed parking system There is effective manpower, 40 50 63 62 215 Disagreed enforcement officers and efficient car parking service delivery Car owners assured of the safety, of their 66 68 43 36 213 Agreed cars from theft Parking lots should be free of charge to 118 48 23 20 209 Strongly staffs, students and visitors agreed Parking policy is an important tool to 188 69 7 19 213 Strongly reduce car traffic within the institution agreed
Table 10 Challenges of Car Park Usage Challenges Not a Least a Fairly a Major Great Total Median IQR challeng challenge challenge challenge challenge e (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) Parking 91 38 55 15 15 2 2 space 214 Cost of 143 21 5 2 5 1 0 ticket 176 Distance to 112 36 36 7 6 1 2 Destination 197 Insecurity 88 15 17 5 4 129 1 1 Medium for 94 33 27 19 9 1 2 complain 182 Source: Authors’ Field Survey (2016)
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References inling 18. Gif/gt; [Accessed 18 Baltimore, C. T. (2009). Department of January, 2015]. Transportation [internet] Baltimore. Indian institute of Technology (2007). DOT Available from: http: // Illustration of 60 Degree Parking. www.hamdeenhappenings.org/HCC [Online image] available from it; WEB/zoning Pdf/RAP/Angle http://www civil.iitb.ac. parking.pdf 1> [Accessed 15 in/vintom/1106_ce740/112ce740/pla January 2009]. inling 19.gif/>. [Accessed 18 Bradley J, (1997). Toward a Common January, 2015). Parking Policy, Transportation Kim, J. H., Kim, H. W., Heo, D. H., Chang, Research Record 1564, M., Baek I. J., Yun C. W. (2008) . Transportation Research Board System and Method for Providing (www.trb.org). Vehicle Parking Information Using Cuddy M. R, (2007). A practical method for Navigation Satellite [internet], developing content-sensitive Washington DC. Patent ducs. Residential parking standards, Available from &igt; Dissertation Rulges University at http://www.faqs.or/patents/app/2009 http/. Transportation 0085773> [accessed 15, January edu/news/2007/Cuddy dissertation. 2015]. Edwards J. D. (2002). Changing On-street Krejcie A. and Morgan S. (1970). Table of Parallel parking to Angle Parking. Determination of Sample Size of Institute of Transport Engineering Population. University of Journal 72(2), 28-33. Minnesota, Duluth. Dan Z. (2005). The Downtown Redwood Litman T. (2011). Parking Management, City Parking Management Plan Strategies: Evaluation and Planning. Available from: shoup Victoria Transport Policy Institute. Bol.ucla.edu/Downtown%20Redwo Ng CP, Ma’soem DM, 2005. The od%20 city 20 parking %plan. Pdf Development of Model Estimation >. [Accessed 15 January]. to Determine Parking Needs at LT Filani M. O. (2002). Mobility Crises and the Stations in Suburban Area. Federal Government Mass Transit Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Programme, Department of Society for Transportation Studies, Geography and Regional Planning, 5:877 - 890. Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ayo- Litman T. (2009). Recommendations for Iwoye Nigeria; pp 37-51 Improving LEED Transportation Indian Institute of Technology (2007). and Parking Credits, VTPI Illustration of 30 degree parking (available at [online image]available from: www.vtpi.og/leedrec.pdf). http://www.civil.iitb.ax.in/- Ogunsanya A. A. (2002). Maker and vmtom/1106_ce740/112ce740/Plainl Breaker of Cities 59th Inaugural ing 16.f>[accessed is January, Lecture, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, 2013]. Thursday, 27th June 2002. Indian Institute of Technology (2009). Ogunsanya A. A. (1986). Traffic Illustration of 45 Degree Parking. Congestion in an Urban Centre: the [Online image] available from & it, case of Ilorin Nigeria”, Nigerian http://www.civil.iitb.ac. Geographical Journal, 27(1&2), In/vintom/1106_cc740/112cc740/pla 84-95.
Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria
Oduola S.O. (1981) Towards a commuter transport policy for Nigeria’, in Onakomaiya, S.O. (Ed.) Transportation in Nigeria National Development. Ibadan: NISER. Online TDM Encyclopedia (2008). online TDM Encyclopedia [internet] Canada TDM. Available from:&it: http://www.vtp.org/Edm/edm28.htm /*gt. [Accessed 15 January, 2015]. Parking Disc (2009). Wikipedia, encyclopedia [online image] available from: *it; http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/file: zeichen_291.svg/gt. [Accessed 15 January, 2015]. Pay and Display Ticket Machine (2009). Wikipedia Encyclopedia [online- image] available from: & it; http//upload.wikipedia.org/Wikipedi a/commons/f/fo/payand_displaytick et_machine jpg/& gt: [accessed 15 January, 2015]. Simon D. (1996). Transportation and Development in Third World, Routledge, London. Victoria Transport Policy Institute (VTPI), Summer- Newsletter 2013. Wilson R.W. and Shoup D.C. (1990). Parking Subsidies and Travel Choices: Assessing the Evidence. Transportation, 17(2):141–157. Your Dictionary (2009). Your Dictionary [internet] YD Available from; http://www.yourdictionary.com/para llel_parking> [accessed 15 January, 2009].
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
Babatunde, Isaiah Olajide Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna; Corresponding Email: [email protected]
Abstract This study examined the dependability of Two-Third of Market Value (TTMV) model of determining liquidation value of real estate collateral in Niger State. It discussed the value concepts required for mortgage valuation and the models of liquidation valuation in Nigeria. Primary data were collected by questionnaire served on thirteen Estate Surveying and Valuation (ESV) firms and sixteen commercial banks (CBs) in the state. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data. The results showed that only one ESV firm identified Market Survey Model (MSM) as the appropriate model of liquidation valuation; that liquidation values assessed by the ESV firms ranged between 60% and 88.20% of market value (MV) in the state. The appropriate proportion of liquidation value (LV) to MV in the principal cities, using MSM, was assessed to be 55.28% for Minna; 57.05% for Suleja; 42.80% for Bida and 39.02% for Kontagora. These results provide the ESVs, the CBs and the academics in the state the necessary information on the appropriate LV –MV proportion for collateral valuation. It also enjoins NIESV and ESVARBON to review their valuation standards by substituting LV for FSV and to include rental value in mortgage valuations. It also recommends MSM to the valuation regulators as the basis of LV assessment where the property market is active in the state.
Keywords: Market value, Forced sale value, Rental value, Liquidation value, Real estate collaterals; Market survey model
Introduction collateral does not seem to be matured Real estate assets have remained one of the enough to allow forced sale value to be so most applied collaterals by institutional easily measured by the current conventional lenders in the global financial credit market method (Babatunde, 2011). Some scholars (Nwuba, Egwuatu and Salawu, 2011). have also differed on the possibility of the Nwuba et al. (2011) also confirmed that the pre- determination of forced sale value of Nigerian commercial banks alternated real real estate collateral before foreclosure of estate collaterals with the use of other assets loan transactions. Crosby, Devaney and such as treasury bills, certificates of cash Matysiak (2003) argued that time was a deposit, government securities, bank critical factor in real estate marketing and guaranties and receivables of blue chip sale and that forced sale implied that it had companies, bonds, stocks and shares, become mandatory and compulsory that the machinery and equipment among others. collateral would be sold. If this assertion is The vulnerability in the Nigerian stock true, how valid then is the notion of “forced market in recent times has dampened the sale value” in valuation of collaterals for interest of institutional credit operators in secured lending in Nigeria? accepting stocks and shares as collaterals for securing loans (Asset Management Similarly, the current conventional Corporation of Nigeria Report, 2014). technique of forced sale valuation does not The Nigerian property market which agree with the auction sale method adopted provides the necessary data for market and in the disposal of the pledged collaterals forced sale valuations of real estate during the period of foreclosure. Chow,
Babatunde, Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
Hafalir & Yavas (2013) emphasized the canvassed .Similarly the methods and merit of auction sales for both foreclosed techniques of determining liquidation value and non-foreclosed properties in Singapore. of collaterals by estate surveyors and In the United Kingdom and America, the valuers could no longer provide a proxy for notion of forced sale value has become very auction sale price. There is therefore an contentious. Crosby et al. (2003) in U.K urgent need to explore a more appropriate and Rice (2006) in America argued that technique that will produce a good liquidation value of pledged collateral was substitute for auction price of real estate the intended requirement of the lender collateral for foreclosure purpose in the before and during the collapse of mortgage study area. transactions. If this argument is valid, why do estate surveyors and valuers in Nigeria Aim and Objectives prefer forced sale value to liquidation value The aim of this study is to examine the ( as provided in NIESV’s Guidance Notes dependability of the current technique of on Property Valuation, 1985 and NIESV’s determining the liquidation value of real Valuation Standards and Guidance Notes, estate collaterals in Niger State with a view 2006) when predicting the auction price of to providing an alternative model that will real estate asset during foreclosure? ensure a more accurate value assessment. The aim is intended to be achieved by the Another critical issue of contention is the following specific objectives: technique of assessment and analysis. The (i) identify the types of value of real estate conventional technique adopted by estate collaterals required for secured lending surveyors and valuers in Nigeria is not practice in Niger State; currently acceptable in the developed (ii) examine the conventional and markets of Europe, America and Asia. contemporary models of determining Many valuation scholars in Nigeria such as liquidation/ forced sale values of real estate Ogunba (2004), Aluko (2007, 2010), collaterals and Oluwumi, Ajayi, Olaleye & Fagbenle (iii) assess the liquidation value-market (2011) and Babawale (2012) have also lent value ratio of real estate collaterals in the their voices to the use of contemporary major urban centers of the study area. property valuation models in Nigeria. Aluko (2007) and Kalu (2007) declared that the Profile of the Study Area use of conventional income capitalization The study area is Niger State. The state method in the mist of rental volatility was situates in the Northcentral geopolitical highly flawed and consequently suggested zone of Nigeria. According to the Niger the use of one of “its variant, the discounted State website (www.nigerstate.gov.ng cash flow (DCF) which was a much more retrieved on15/06/16) , the state is bounded contemporary option with the required local to the south by River Niger and Kwara and necessary adjustments.” State; bounded to the north by the states of Kebbi and Zamfara; bounded to the Statement of the problem northeast by Kaduna State; to the east by Forced sale value has become a Abuja; and to the southeast by Kogi. It controversial value notion among some also shares an international boundary with critical valuation scholars in the global the Republic of Benin .It has a land area of appraisal community. A more logical value 76,363 square kkilometers (29,483.9 square alternative (liquidation value) that could be miles which makes it the largest state in reasonably defined and assessed is being land mass in Nigeria. According to the
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
National Population Commission (2006), its population was 3,950,249 which made it the 18th largest state in the country. Minna is its capital city. It is subdivided into 25 Local Government Areas with Minna, Bida, Suleja and Kontagora as the four major urban centres.The map of Niger State showing the four major cities is displayed on Figure 1. According to the NIESV Directory (2014), there are 13 practising firms of estate surveyors and valuers in the state. Figure 1: Niger State Showing the Four Major Cities Source: Niger State GIS Agency, Minna Value Concepts and Valuation (2017) Models for Secured Lending Types of value Ifediora (2005, 2009)) and Ogunba (2013) Two types of value were provided by the described it as the fundamental basis of NIESV (2006) valuation standards and value for properties for sale, mortgage, guidance notes on valuation of real estate secured lending, liquidation, collaterals for secured lending purpose. merger/acquisition and all other market They comprised of market value and forced based transactions. Babawale (2012) sale value. International Valuation similarly portrayed it as the surrogate of Standards Council, [IVSC] (2011) however market price. Arising from these academic specified liquidation value in place of connotations this paper accepts market forced sale value. AMCON (2010) required value as the available substitute, proxy, rental value in addition to the two types of alternate or replacement of market price of a value required by the NIESV (2006) property before actual sale thereof takes standards. In this subsection, the notions of place. market value, forced sale value and rental value are discussed. Forced sale value: Encyclopedia of American Law (2008) described forced sale Market value: Foremost valuation standard value (FSV) as not having any strong organizations such as Appraisal Foundation theoretical substance. The few academic (2010), IVSC (2011), Royal Institution of postulations made on FSV did not refer to it Chartered Surveyors[RICS] (2014) and The as a concept of value rather it was European Group of Valuers Association, conceived as the value that resulted from an TEGoVA ( 2016) defined market value as action taken in a law court forcing the “the estimated amount for which an asset or owner of a unit of real estate collateral to liability should exchange on the valuation sell it and to utilize the proceeds of the sale date between a willing buyer and a willing to settle his mortgage debt (West, 2008). It seller in an arm’s length transaction after is therefore an unintentional sale that takes proper marketing and where the parties had place by the method and at the time each acted knowledgeably, prudently and specified by law so as to apply the proceeds without compulsion. to settle the mortgage debt incurred by the owner of the property. NIESV (2006) asserted that FSV was the same as liquidation value and subsequently defined
Babatunde, Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State it as “the amount that may be reasonably Plc. and Stanbic-IBTC among others received from the sale of a property within a require it as a concept that should be time frame too short to meet the marketing included in secured lending valuations. time frame required by the market value Rental value of real estate collateral definition. becomes significant where it is very difficult to find a buyer in good time for the From the definitions, description and property and it has to be subjected to explanation of FSV provided by receivership. In that instance, the receiver Encyclopedia of American Law (2008), could lease out the property on the basis of West’s (2008) and the Business the rental value. Dictionary.com, it is not synonymous with liquidation value as intended by NIESV Conventional liquidation valuation model (2006). The action of carrying it out through Conventional liquidation valuation that is auction sale is also that of liquidation. It incorporated into market valuation as part similarly requires the order of the court of secured loan underwriting documents in before it could be executed. It is therefore Nigeria today was adopted erroneously not a forced sale but rather a court ordered from the principles of fixing loan for sale. Juxtaposing all the aforementioned property development and acquisition perceptions with the views of scholars in enunciated by British authors such as Europe and America, liquidation value Britton, Davies, Johnson, Lawrence and seems to be the value notion contemplated Rees (1980). The guiding procedure under by the lender before mortgage transaction. It the latter was to determine the market value is therefore accepted in this study as the and the rental value; use trial and error value notion required, in addition to value method to initially fix the proposed property concepts such as market value and rental development/acquisition loan at two-thirds value during loan underwriting. of the market (or acquisition) value; verify whether the net rent could defray the Rental value: IVSC (2011) construed rental interest and part of the principal; and build value as market rent and defined it as the an amortization table on the basis of the “estimated amount for which a property subject net rent for the tenure of the loan. If would be leased on the valuation date the loan could be repaid from the proceeds between a willing lessor and a willing lessee of the subject rent, then the two-third- on appropriate lease terms in an arm’s figure earlier projected would be acceptable length transaction, after proper marketing as the mortgage (loan). If the pre- and where the parties had each acted determined net rent would not be able to knowledgeably, prudently and without defray the interest and the principal during compulsion”. This definition, which is the tenure of the mortgage, the fraction different in some instances from rent could be further reduced to 3/5; 1/2; 2/5 and passing or rent reserved on a property, is the in that geometric order continually. accepted description of rental value in this study. All the auction sale valuations of collateral prepared by ESV firms for AMCON AMCON (2010) popularized the demand between 2010 and 2014 were based on the for the inclusion of rental value and its notion of MV.Today, TTMV is still adopted definition in foreclosure valuations in among ESV firms as the predicted auction Nigeria. Many commercial banks in Nigeria sale value of collaterals in Nigeria today such as the Unity Bank of Nigeria (AMCON Report, 2014) as against a more
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 logically and scientifically researched appropriate model as a guiding procedure. proportion of market value (Rice, 2006). The model adopted to determine the Studies such as Ogunba (2004) and Aluko liquidation value in that work required more (2007) among others which focused on the illumination and illustration. appropriateness of the assessed market values of real estate collaterals by ESVs in Rice (2006), nevertheless, declared that the Nigeria did not examine the model they Market Survey Model (MSM) was one of adopted in assessing the liquidation value of the most suitable models of determining the collaterals. liquidation value. Rice (2006) of Rice Group popularized the use of the model for Contemporary model of liquidation the determination of liquidation value of valuation of real estate collaterals real estate collaterals in the United States of Before liquidation value of real estate America. According to him, the usual collateral could be accurately assessed, two procedure was: to determine the duration of conditions, according to Crosby et al. the sale; classify the property according to (2003) should be precedent. They its neighbourhood; find out, through market comprised of the appropriate assessment of survey (the discount allowable on market the MV (through accurate data assembly value of such property within the and processing) and the adoption of a more neighbourhood); and make necessary acceptable technique of determining the adjustment for appeal factor. The result appropriate proportion of the liquidation should produce a fair estimate of liquidation value to MV in the location. Aluko (2007) value. Babatunde (2011) agreed with Rice confirmed that a great number of MV of (2006) on MSM for liquidation value and collaterals assessed by ESVs in Lagos, consequently assembled evidence of rents in Nigeria were inaccurate and reviewed them Niger State of Nigeria through multiple through contemporaneous valuation. Aluko listing system, MLS, (market survey from (2007) inferred contemporaneity to imply a estate agents); gathered evidence of situation where valuation exercise liquidation value of similar properties from previously carried out by one valuer was recent auction sales that emanated from reviewed by another independent valuer as foreclosure procedures; found the if the exercise was carried out proportion of each auction sale to market simultaneously by the two valuers at the value derived from contemporaneous same time. Aluko (2007), using the data valuation of such real estate asset; extracted from the valuation reports determined the mean percentage as the prepared for deposit money banks in Lagos proportion of LV to MV. The result was the and provided by the Nigerian Deposit LV percentage for the subject cities of Insurance Corporation carried a Minna, Suleja, Bida and Kontagora in the contemporaneous market valuation of the state. collaterals. The study did not however carry out a contemporaneous assessment of the According to Babatunde (2011), the strong liquidation value of the affected collaterals. message that this model conveyed to Also, Babatunde (2011) declared that in valuers and users of valuation service was order to determine a reliable market value that the proportion of liquidation value to of any real estate collateral, there was need market value varied from one city or town for the identification and selection of the to another and it was a function of actual appropriate method; use of accurate market auction sale evidences and accurately data: and identification and adoption of the assessed market value. He also declared that
Babatunde, Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State where a city was very big, it could also vary the banks. Thirty two (32) of them were from one neighbourhood to another. made available for examination. Descriptive Babatunde (2011) however did not generate statistics (frequency, percentages, means a specific formula that would generally and ratios) and the market survey model define the model, which among others this were the main tools of data analysis. Data study seeks to accomplish. derived from the reports were used to reassess the contemporaneous market value The challenge of keeping records of: of the properties. The auction sale prices of foreclosed mortgage transactions involving the subject properties were compared with real estate collaterals by Niger State High their respective contemporaneous market Courts; transfer of title of auctioned real values in order to determine the proportion estate collaterals and accurate assessment of of liquidation value to market value in each MV of real estate collaterals could however of the four principal cities of the state. be some of the difficulties encountered by estate surveyors and valuers in putting this Data Analysis and Discussion model into optimum use in the state. All the thirteen (13) registered firms of Similarly, the model may not be applicable estate surveyors and valuers who received where the property market is not active. the questionnaire completed and returned them giving a response level of 100 %. 16 Methodology CBs were given questionnaire. Only seven The study relied on primary data generated (7) of them completed and returned them, through a survey conducted with indicating a 43.75% response level. The questionnaire and interview guide. There criteria for the determination of LV or FSV were two sets of questionnaire each of by ESV firms during loan underwriting which was structured according to the period, ESV‘s model of objectives of the study. The first set was LV,contemporaneous MV, liquidation and administered on the 13No practicing firms auction sale price after foreclosure, auction of estate surveyors and valuers (ESV) in price percentage of MV and contemp. MV Niger State while the second one was and determination of appropriate MSM similarly administered on the 16No percentage in the study area were presented, commercial banks (CBs) in the state. The analyzed and discussed in this section. questionnaire for the ESV firms consisted Table 1 showed the criteria adopted by the of one aptitude question on the appropriate ESV firms in determining LV of collaterals method of determining the liquidation value in the study area. (or FSV as recognized by NIESV, 2006). Table 1: Analysis of Criteria for Determination of Liquidation Value The questionnaire for the CBs however S/N Criteria Frequency Percentage (%) consisted of two sets of questions. The first 2/3 of Market 1 10 76.92 section sought information on MV and FSV Value Rule of the of real estate assets that were used as 2 2 15.39 collaterals for mortgage transactions which Thumb failed and were subsequently foreclosed. 3 Market Survey 1 7.69 The second section contained questions on Total 13 100 the auction sale prices of the properties at foreclosure. Also the valuation reports of The result on Table 1 indicated that 1No the mortgaged properties involved in ESV firm or 7.69 % selected market survey foreclosed transactions were requested from model which is the appropriate model;
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 while 10 No ESV firms or 76.92 % and 2No assessment of the liquidation value of the ESV firms or 15. 39% selected TTMV and six (6) other properties could not be rule of the thumb respectively.This implied ascertained. They could have been assessed that the conventional TTMV model was the either on the basis of intuition, rule of the practice in the state. It really indicated that thumb, instruction by the creditor/borrower ESV firms in the state were yet to be or by mere guess work. Out of the 11No conversant with the contemporary market properties considered for liquidation survey model of liquidation valuation. valuations in Suleja, six (6) of them were apparently assessed on the basis of TTMV The result of the analysis on Table 2 while other models that could not be easily showed that 17No properties in Minna,11 verified were used for the five (5) others No properties in Suleja,3No properties in that produced 70%,70%,60%, 60% and Bida and 1No property in Kontagora were 70% respectively. The model of liquidation assessed by the ESV firms. The percentages value in Bida was 2/3 of MV for the three of the assessed FSV in Minna ranged properties assessed. The result also showed between 60 and 88.20; those of Suleja that the TTMV model was adopted by the ranged from 60% to 70% while the ones in ESV firm to assess the LV of the collateral Bida and Kontagora ranged between enumerated in Kontagora. 66.66% and 66.67%. Out of the 17No properties assessed in Minna, TTMV model was presumably used to produce 2/3 of MV of eleven (11) of them. The model for the
Table 2: Analysis of Forced Sale Valuations of ESV Firms during Loan Underwriting Period Identification Date of Types of Property Location MV FSV % of of ESV Valuation N’000 N’000 FSV RSV/MNA/01 10/2007 Flat Bosso,Minna 29,390 19,594 66.67 07/2007 Block of Flats Tunga, Minna 30,000 20,000 66.67 RSV/MNA/02 2005 Duplex Tunga, Minna 3,000 2,500 83.33 2005 Tenenment Tunga, Minna 3,600 3,000 83.33 2005 Tenenment Bosso, Minna 5,000 4,000 80.00 2009 Commercial (shops Tunga, Minna 10,000 7,500 75.00 and office units) RSV/MNA/03 9/1/07 Fuel Station Kuta Rd,Minna 15,144 10,600 70.00 31/5/07 Block of Flats F -Lay Out 30,000 20,000 66.67 Minna 26/2/09 Flat Suleja 15,108 10,575 70.00 5/3/09 Fuel Station Suleja 32,000 22,000 70.00 RSV/MNA/04 2004 Flat Tunga,Minna 6,000 4,000 66.67 2006 Bungalow D/Kura, Minna 7,500 5,000 66.67 May,2013 Flat Tayi, Minna 5,500 3,667 66.67 RSV/MNA/06 2005 Bungalow Nassarawa 3,750 2,500 66.67 Ward B, Minna RSV/MNA/07 2008 Flat Tunga,Minna 2,800 2,100 75.00 2008 Bungalow GRA,Minna 17,000 15,000 88.20 RSV/MNA/08 2010 Maissionette London St 30,000 20,000 66.67 Minna Nov,2010 Factory/ Suleja 120,000 80,000 66.67 Warehouse RSV/MNA/09 July,2010 Flat M.I.W.Estate 6,000 4,000 66.67 Minna
Babatunde, Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
Aug,2010 Flat M.I.W.Estate 6,000 4,000 66.67 Minna RSV/SUL/01 Jan,2010 Bungalow Suleja 6,000 4,000 66.67 Nov,2010 Flat Suleja 5,000 3,000 60.00 June,2010 Shops Suleja 12,000 8,000 66.67 RSV/SUL/02 March 2010 Flat Suleja 6,000 4,000 60.00 26/2/09 Flat Suleja 15,108 10,575 70.00 RSV/SUL/03 27/8/2010 Bungalow Suleja 13,050 8,700 66.67. 2/9/2010 Bungalow Suleja 2,100 1,400 66.67 14/07/12 Tenement Suleja 7,850 5,230 66.62 RSV/BDA/01 2010 Flat Bida 5,000 3,333 66.67 2010 Mixed Res/Comm Bida 70,000 46,667 66.67 Feb, 2013 Bungalow Bida 9,150 6,100 66.66 RSV/MNA/02 2011 Bungalow GRA,K/gora 10,000 6,670 66.67
Further analysis of Table 2 is presented on the review is presented on Table 4. Table 4 Table 3. was further analyzed to produce the auction price percentage of both the MV and Table 3: ESV‘s Model of Liquidation Value Contemp. MV presented on Table 5. Type of Model Frequency of Percentage adopted by ESVs collaterals The results on Table 5 showed that TTMV TTMV 21 65.62 MSM 0 0 could not be a suitable basis for liquidation Unidentified Models 11 34.38 value since none of the proportions of Total 32 100 auction prices of the foreclosed collaterals Findings on Table3 indicated that TTMV to market values (i.e. the LV) was up to model was adopted to assess liquidation 66.67%. It therefore implied that any value value of 65.62% of the collaterals surveyed. assessed by TTMV could not be a suitable The use of other unverifiable models was proxy for auction price in the study area. considered to have been adopted for the The proportion of auction prices to market remaining 34.38% of the collaterals values assessed by ESV for Minna ranged enumerated. MSM was not applied to assess between 33.33% and 53 % .The ones for any collateral. Only twelve (12) real estate Suleja ranged between 50% and 51.72% collaterals out of the thirty two enumerated while those for Bida ranged between had been fully foreclosed with concluded 30.30% and 35%.The proportion of auction auction sales after court orders. Their price and market value in Kontagora was contemporaneous valuations were 32%. subsequently carried out. The analysis of
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Table 4: Contemporaneous MV, Liquidation and Auction Sale Price after Foreclosure Auctio MV C/ MV FSV Bank ID ID of ESV Property Location n Price N’000 N’000 N’000 (‘000) CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/01 Block of Flats Tunga, Minna 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/02 Tenenment Bosso, Minna 5,000 4,000 4,000 2,000 CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Tunga, Minna 6,000 4,500 4,000 2,200 CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/07 Bungalow GRA, Minna 17,000 15,000 15,000 9,000 M.I.W Estate CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/09 Flat 6,000 4,300 4,000 2,000 Minna CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Tayi, Minna 5,500 5,000 3,667 2,750 CB/SL/04 RSV/SUL/02 Flat Suleja 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Bungalow Suleja 13,050 12,500 8,700 6,750 CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Tenement Suleja 7,850 7,000 5,230 4,000 CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Flat Bida 5,000 3,500 3,333 1,500 CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Bungalow Bida 9,150 5,500 6,100 3,200 CB/KT/07 RSV/MNA/02 Bungalow GRA,K/gora. 10,000 8,200 6,667 3,200
Table 5: Analysis of Auction Price Percentage of MV and Contemp. MV Bank ID ID of ESV Property Location %AP of MV % AP of C/MV CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/01 Block of Flats Minna 50 60 CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/02 Tenenment Minna 50 50 CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Minna 43.33 57.77 CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/07 Bungalow Minna 53 60 CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/09 Flat Minna 33.33 48.88 CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Minna 50 55 CB/SL/04 RSV/SUL/02 Flat Suleja 50 60 CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Bungalow Suleja 51.72 54 CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Tenement Suleja 51 57.14 CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Flat Bida 30.30 42.86 CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Bungalow Bida 35 42.73 CB/KT/07 RSV/MNA/02 Bungalow K/gora 32 39.02
Table 6 presents further analysis of Table 4 P=∑a/m N in order to determine the MSM percentage Where P= percentage figure; a= auction sale for the four cities under consideration. price; m= properly assessed market value Results of the analysis on Table 6 showed and N=number of sales transactions that the percentages of liquidation value to market value in Minna, Suleja, Bida and The results of the analysis further revealed Kontagora were 55.28, 57.05, 42.80 and that where the property market was not 39.02 respectively. The MSM percentage active in terms of frequent sales of for each city was obtained by computing its foreclosed collaterals as it was in case with mean %AP of Contp. MV. The percentage Kontagora, the MSM equation might be of liquidation value in relation to market misleading to the lender in the event the value in the study area could be generally market later becomes active. defined by the following MSM equation which was derived from Table 6:
Babatunde, Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
Summary of Major Findings contemporaneous valuation in Minna, The summary of major findings in this Suleja, Bida and Kontagora indicated study arranged in accordance with its aggregates of 55.33%, 57%, 42.86% and objectives indicated that 10 No ESV firms 39.02% of market values respectively. representing 76.92% and1 No ESV firm These percentages proved to be closer to representing 7.69% of the respondents those of auction sale prices of collaterals selected the conventional TTMV model and foreclosed in the recent past in the state. MSM of determining liquidation value respectively. Twenty one (21) real estate Conclusion and Recommendations collaterals representing 65.62% of the The study reviewed the use of the TTMV collaterals surveyed had their liquidation model of assessing LV of real estate values assessed on the basis of TTMV collaterals during valuation for secured model while the liquidation values of the lending in Niger State. It discovered that remaining eleven (11) collaterals TTMV model was the most popular model (signifying 34.28% of the total) were for assessing liquidation values of assessed on the basis of unverifiable collaterals amongst estate surveyors and models. It was also discovered that TTMV valuers in the state. The study considered could not be a suitable model for the MSM of liquidation valuation popularized assessment of the proxy for auction price in by Rice (2006) to assess the liquidation the study area. values of some foreclosed real estate collaterals in the state. It discovered that the LV of such real estate assets could be Table 6: Determination of Appropriate MSM proxies, surrogates and replacement values Percentage Bank ID ID of ESV Property C/MVN Auction Price % AP of MSM ’000 (AP)N ‘000 C/MV % CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/01 Block of Flats, 25,000 15,000 60 Minna CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/02 Tenenment, 4,000 2,000 50 Minna CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/04 Flat ,Minna 4,500 2,600 57.77 CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/07 Bungalow, 15,000 9,000 60 Minna CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/09 Flat, Minna 4,500 2,200 48.88 55.28 CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/04 Flat, Minna 5,000 2,750 55 CB/SL/04 RSV/SUL/02 Flat,Suleja 5,000 3,000 60 CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Bungalow, 12,500 6,750 54 57.05 Suleja CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Tenement, 7,000 4,000 57.14 Suleja CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Flat, Bida 3,500 1,500 42.86 42.80 CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Bungalow, Bida 2,350 42.73 CB/KT/07 RSV/MNA/02 Flat,Kontagora 8,200 3,200 39.02 39.02
Similarly, the use of MSM was yet to be for their auction prices during foreclosure recognized as a model for assessing since they were at close range to ones liquidation value of collaterals in the study indicated by the proportion of auction prices area. Liquidation values of collaterals to MVs of collaterals assessed by ESVs in assessed by the use of MSM in a the study area.
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Babatunde, I.O. (2011). .A critical The study is concluded with the examination of mortgage valuation recommendation that MSM percentage of methods in Niger State. An market value should form the basis of the unpublished M.Tech Thesis determining liquidation values of real estate submitted to the Department of collaterals where the property market is Estate Management, Federal active in the state. Similarly, NIESV and the University of Technology, Minna. Estate Surveyors and Valuers Registration Babawale, G. K. (2012). Paradigm Shift in Board of Nigeria (ESVARBON) should Investment Property Valuation replace forced sale value with liquidation Theory and Practice: Nigerian value as canversed by IVSC (2011) and Practitioners’ Response. other international valuation standards Mediterranean Journal of Social organizations in their valuation templates. Sciences, 3(3), 217-228. Since valuation users now demand for the Britton, W., Davies, K., Johnson, T., inclusion of rental value in valuation reports Lawrence, M. and Rees, W. (1980). for secured lending, NIESV and Modern Methods of Valuation, (7th ESVARBON should include it in their ed.) London: Estate Gazette Limited standards. Academics in Estate Business Dictionary.com Management and Valuation are also advised (www.businessdictionary.com to carry out similar studies in other states of retrieved on 10/05/2016).Definition Nigeria in order explore the possibility of of forced sale value. building more valuation models that would Chow Y., Hafalir, I. and Yavas, A. (2013). reduce lenders’ losses whenever real estate Auction sale versus Negotiated Sale: collaterals are foreclosed in Nigeria. Evidence from Real Estate Sales in Singapore. References Crosby, N., Devaney, S. and Matysiak, G. Aluko, B.T. (2007). Implication of current (2003). Valuation accuracy: trend in mortgage valuation practice reconciling the timing of the in Nigeria. International Journal of valuation and sale. Conference Strategic Property Paper at the European Real Estate Management,11(1), 17-31. Society Helsinki Finland, June 10- Aluko, B.T. (2010). Accuracy of auction 13, 1-17. sale valuations in distressed bank Encyclopedia of American Law (2008). lending decisions in Nigeria. Definition of forced sale value. Journal of Business Economics and Ifediora, B.(2005). Valuation Mathematics Management 8(3), 225-233. for Valuers and Other AMCON (2010). Template for foreclosure Financial/Investment Analysts. valuations: Working template Enugu, Nigeria: Immaculate presented for the use of Estate Publications Limited. Surveying and Valuation firms Ifediora, G.S.A. (2009).Appraisal engaged for foreclosure valuation at Framework. Enugu:Institute of Abeokuta Business Interactions Development Studies, University of (2010). Nigeria. AMCON Report (2014). Report of IVSC (2011). International Valuation Recovered Debts from Bad Loans Standards. London: The Owed Nigerian Commercial Banks. International Valuation Standards Council.
Babatunde, Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State
NIESV (1985). Guidance Notes on Property TEGoVA(2016). European Valuation Valuation.Lagos: The Nigerian Standards (8th Edition).The Institution of Estate Surveyors and European Group of Valuers’ Valuers. Associations. , NIESV (2006).Valuation Standards and The Appraisal Foundation (2010).Uniform Guidance Notes.Abuja: The Standards for Professional Appraisal Nigerian Institution of Estate Practice. Washington DC: Appraisal Surveyors and Valuers. Foundation. Niger State GIS Agency (2017). Map of West’s Encyclopedia of American Law Niger State Showing the Four Major (2008). 13 Volume Set 2nd Edition Cities Niger State Website (www.nigerstate.gov.ng retrieved on15/06/16) .Information on Niger State Boundaries with other States in Nigeria and the Republic of Benin Nwuba, C.C. Egwuatu, U.S. and Salawu, B.M. (2011).The application of real estate as loan collateral in Nigeria’s banking sector. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting. 4(11), 61- 71. Ogunba, O.A. (2004). The demand for accuracy in valuations: the case of Nigeria. Globalization and the Demand for Accuracy in Valuations Serieswww.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/C IB6046. 679-688. Ogunba, O.A. (2013). Principles and Practice of Property Valuation in Nigeria. Ibadan: Atlantis Books. Oluwumi, A.O, Ajayi, C.A, Olaleye, A.& Fagbenle, O.I. (2011). An analysis of clients' satisfaction with mortgage valuation reports in Nigeria. International Journal of Marketing Studies 3(2), 160-168. Rice, A. (2006). Analysis of Liquidation Value in Michigan .Real Estate Appraisal forum.com Michigan arise @ numail.org retrieved on 22/11/2011. RICS (2014). RICS Professional Valuation Standards. London: The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors.
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Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna
Ayuba, P. & Albert, B. S. Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Minna Corresponding E-mail: arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng
Abstract Deconstruction involves the process employed to disassemble the existing building structures such that it can be reused or recycled. As cities develop and grow, urban renewal is often carried out which requires that existing structures be made to reflect changes in modern architecture and to meet new standards. This process is often done hurriedly and without necessary precautionary measures required to salvage building components that may still be valuable and reusable. The resultant effect is great economic loss, damage and more worryingly generation of significant waste and lots of debris to the built environment. Selected urban renewal and renovation sites were examined to find out the techniques employed in removing whole or parts of such existing structures allow for effective reuse or recycling. The study employed the case study survey and descriptive research methods. Data were collected by means of structured observation and interviews. The result showed that more emphasis was given to the economic benefits of deconstruction over its sustainable benefits. The findings further demonstrated a lack of technical know-how as well as deployment of unsuitable equipment during the construction process. The study recommended that there is need for the engagement of deconstruction experts and specialists in order to ensure proper deployment of appropriate tools in carrying out the work. The research concluded that greater partnership between construction industries and recycling factories should also be encouraged. Keywords: Building components, deconstruction, recycle, reuse, salvage, waste
Introduction States arising directly from building related Buildings are known to require construction and demolition waste. The maintenance, refurbishment or renovation to bulk of which comes from renovation and sustain their life cycle. It may also be urban renewals. The Century Bay Builders completely demolished when it has (2016) further reiterates that the approached its end of life. Over the years, decomposition of construction and demolition has been mostly employed to demolition waste is directly responsible for achieve this partial or complete removal of the production of methane – one of the most buildings. This process generates portent greenhouse gases. However, as tremendous amount of waste and debris. more attention is continuously drawn Santos and Brito (2005) confirm that towards sustainability, more attention is construction and demolition wastes are also paid to the techniques and methods that responsible for up to a third of all wastes are used to take buildings apart. dumped into landfills. The result of this includes ecological impacts, severe negative The process where old buildings are landscape, and occurrence of illegal dumps, dismantled carefully in such a manner as to emissions and leaks. The Boulder County preserve the building components for reuse (2008) adds that about 136 million tons of or recycling is referred to as deconstruction debris is generated annually in the United (Sherman, 1998). Deconstruction can be
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Ayuba, Albert Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna seen to be the opposite of building reuse or recycle building components and construction as the building is dismantled in materials. the reverse order in which it was built. Deconstruction as a Sustainable Practice Century Bay Builders (2016) and Greer The modern concept of deconstruction goes (2004) also concur with the above definition well beyond the economic benefits to being that deconstruction is simply construction in strongly tied to environmental sustainability reverse. Diven and Taylor (2006) put (The Century Bay Builders, 2016). Beyond deconstruction to mean the process by giving a building material a new life cycle, which a building is dismantled from the it helps reduce the craving for new roof down, a piece at a time. Deconstruction resources and materials for building new can similarly be seen as a green approach to projects. This leads to lower energy the dismantling of buildings. It ensures that consumption and emissions that could have the waste arising as a result of the debris are otherwise been emitted from the production minimized and the building components are of new building components. recycled (Addis, 2006).The Century Bay Deconstruction is usually carried out on a Builders (2016) similarly defines local level, it saves energy that would have deconstruction to be the selective been expended on transporting debris and dismantling of building components for wastes to dumps or landfills. It also grossly recycling, reuse and efficient management reduces the production of solid waste by of waste. Santos and Brito (2005) also ensuring that construction waste is either describes as a process that ensures the significantly minimized or not produced maximization of whole building materials entirely. It further opines that since and components to complete the duration of construction and demolition waste accounts their technical life cycle for social, for up to 20% of solid waste, this should be sustainable and economic purposes by a big saving for better sustainability means of careful disassembly methods and (Century Bay Builders, 2016). techniques. The New South Wales Department of This is as opposed to demolition where the Environment, Climate Change and Water ‘wrecking ball’ or ‘bulldozer’ approach is (2010) also alludes to the fact that employed to teardown a building with all of Deconstruction contributes immensely to the building components crushed into debris sustainability and helps avoid negative that would typically end up in landfills or environmental impacts associated with dumps (Thomsen, Schultmann, Kohler, Construction and Demolition wastes. This 2011). can be achieved through the lowering of the It can hence be deduced that deconstruction amount of materials extracted and reducing is a sustainable practice that can be the amount needed to be produced. Other harnessed to significantly reduce waste and benefits of Deconstruction to sustainability debris arising from renovation or renewal include protection of air quality, reduction projects. The potentials that deconstruction of water pollution, reduction in energy use, possesses especially when sustainability is reduction of habitat loss as well as reduction factored is quite enormous and could in the production of greenhouse gases. potentially lead to massive energy savings and enhance the environment. This paper The National Association of Home Builders seeks to assess the extent to which building [NABH] (2000) who are responsible for the deconstruction is employed in building construction of over 80% of homes in the renovation and renewal projects in Minna to United States of America further support
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 the earlier assertions by The Century Bay approach. The New South Wales Builders (2016) and New South Wales Department of Environment, Climate Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (2010) posits that the Change and Water (2010) that choice between Demolition and Deconstruction has important benefits to Deconstruction lies with the factors of time, sustaining the environment by diverting cost, site security, availability of storage valuable resources from dumps into space, health and safety issues, construction recycled components for profitable uses. company/client reputation and environmental sustainability. Sherman (1998) comments that Deconstruction is Stages in Deconstruction increasingly becoming practical for its The main goal in deconstruction is to ensure savings on disposal costs, reducing that disassembled building components are demolition costs, decreasing distance to either reused or recycled. However, that dump sites, the generation of financial may not often be the case as certain revenue from the sale of recycled materials, building materials may not be salvageable minimizing dangerous air pollutants such as entirely. The figure 1 further explains the asbestos, lead, dust and burning of building process involved in the Deconstruction components on construction sites. He cycle. further states other benefits to include the enhancement of contractor/client image as Benefits of Deconstruction being more environmentally responsible, There are incentives for a contractor or preserving landfill spaces, while conserving client to take the deconstruction option as energy at various stages of deconstruction against the generally accepted norm of the and preserving raw materials. ‘bulldozer’ or ‘wrecking ball’ demolition
Figure 1: Stages in Deconstruction. Source: Kibert, Chini (2000).
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Ayuba, Albert Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna
Daven and Taylor (2008) similarly support a. Longer time taken to deconstruct the postulation put forward by Sherman b. The labour required is more skilled (1998) that apart from financial benefits that and intensive. would likely accrue to the client/contractor, c. Specialised tools and equipment the environmental trade-off as well as life Jacque (2008) also opines that cycle assessment of building materials with Deconstruction takes more time, requires the accompanying savings on the more pre-planning and involvement in the acquisition, transportation, manufacture, process by everyone and requires more on- installation and energy expended makes site storage space. Deconstruction an interesting prospect. It continues that the use of Deconstruction can Bruening and Chini (2004) provide further lead to less dust, less noise and reduced insight into some of the current challenges vibrations around sites. to Deconstruction viz; a. Existing buildings structures were The New South Wales Department of neither designed nor constructed in Environment, Climate Change and Water such a manner as to allow for (2010) further reiterated some of the Deconstruction benefits of Deconstruction to include; b. Deconstruction often requires a. Financial gains from the sale of special equipment and tools and is salvaged components. sometimes unavailable or even non- b. Lowering of disposal costs as well existent. as transportation of debris to dumps c. Building codes and building sites. standards very rarely adopt c. Reduction in the consumption new standards or regulations to aid resources that would have been Deconstruction. manufactured. d. Lack of expertise. d. Increasing the business prospects e. Financial and environmental and opportunities of contractors to benefits have not been sufficiently environmentally savvy costumers. established. The Indiana Brown Fields Program (2010) further comments that as much as 30-50% As specialised tools and equipment for can be saved from using Deconstruction Deconstruction become more available and when compared to traditional labour cost. accessible, the intensive nature of the labour It can be deduced that there exist quite some would likely reduce. This could in turn lead advantages when using Deconstruction over to lesser time required to successfully the traditional Demolition in addition to deconstruct a building. As more attention is sustaining the environment. continuously drawn to field of Deconstruction, experts and skilled Current Issues on Deconstruction technicians and artisans may likely emerge Although a lot of advantages and benefits to further enhance the disassembly of exist for Deconstruction vis-à-vis building parts. This could also further Demolition, quite a number of issues remain provide job employment opportunities as unresolved and serve as potential stumbling well as make Deconstruction even more blocks to the use of Deconstruction New efficient in reducing waste until eventually South Wales Department of Environment, a situation is reached where everything can Climate Change and Water (2010). Some of be salvaged. Greer (2004) however, argues these issues observed include; that unless there are more economic and
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 financial benefits to Deconstruction, its more priority while simple residential potentials based on sustainability alone may buildings were given lesser priority. be limited. This is especially because the Secondary data were obtained from construction industry is largely money journals, textbooks, online sources and driven and heavily influenced by financial other publications to further corroborate benefits. findings from the field. The data was collected and analysed using descriptive Types of Deconstruction statistical tools such as mean, percentages Deconstruction is basically divided into and averages in a tabular format. The data two: Table 1 summarises the types of were analysed and computed using deconstruction, its characteristics and likely Microsoft office 2010. Deconstructed materials.
Study Sample. Research Methodology Table 2: Sampled Project Sites The study employed the case study and S/No Name of Project 1 Cbn Minna, Paiko Road descriptive research methods, to study the 2 Mini Market, FUT Minna (Gidan Kwano problem. Both primary and secondary data Campus) were used. Primary data were obtained from 3 Late Idris kuta’s Villa, IBB Drive, Hill Top Minna direct observation and interviews. A total of 4 City Centre Shopping Mall, Mobil Roundabout 8 renovation/ urban renewal sites within 5 No 15. Commissioners Quarters. Minna metropolis were studied. Sites were 6 DSS Office Minna 7 Residential Estate, Behind Bomas Supermarket. selected using purposive non-probability 8 Kuta Road sampling based on the magnitude of renovation wok carried out and wastes generated. Public works were accorded
Table 1: Types of Deconstruction Type of Types of Materials Definition Characteristics Deconstruction Salvaged Non-structural Non-structural Normally light and can be Floor finishes, doors and deconstruction involves salvaged with minimum windows, wall finishes, removal of building parts safety issues. It seldom sanitary wares, electrical and elements whose requires bracing or support fittings and installations, disassembly does not to disassemble. fire fighting fittings. affect the structural integrity of the building. Structural Structural deconstruction Typically large, rough and Roofing sheets, roof involves the removal of often more likely to be trusses, ceilings, suspended building parts and reused as building floor systems, elements that constitutes materials or recycled into blocks/bricks, an integral part of the other products. steel/wooden beams and building and/or columns contributes to the integrity of the building structure. Source: National Association of Home Builders [NAHB] (2000).
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Ayuba, Albert Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna
Discussion of Results Table 4: Method of disassembly Table 3 shows the demography of the Name of Project Labour Equip used ment samples studied. 37% of the sampled Used
studied were urban renewal projects while
63% were renovation works. This implies
that a lesser amount disassembling of
Unskilled volunteer s Simple tools powered tools building components is required since Skilled renovation works requires lesser amount of CBNMinna, paiko road 1 1 stripping and removal of components and Mini market, FUTMinna 1 1 materials. (gidankwano campus) Renovations are mostly carried out on non- Late IdrisKuta’s Villa, 1 1 structural components of buildings; hence IBB Drive, Hill Top the materials salvaged are mostly non- City centre Shopping 1 1 Mall, Mobil Roundabout structural components. Table 3also shows No 15. Commissioners 1 1 63% of the Clients public/ government Quarters. institutions and 37% of were private clients. DSS Office Minna 1 1 This signifies that majority of the projects Residential Estate, 1 1 studied were sufficient in scope and size as Behind Bomas most public buildings or offices have large Supermarket. Kuta Road 1 1 acreage. TOTAL 2 4 2 7 1 Percentage (%) 2 5 25 8 13 Table 3: Demography of The Samples Studied 5 0 7 Nature Nature of of Client Table 4 shows the distribution of the Project
various methods and skill sets employed in
Name of Project
carrying out the task. The table indicates al
ation that 50% of the projects employed unskilled
Renov Public Renew Private labour, 25% skilled labour and a further CBN Minna, Paiko 1 1 25% utilised volunteers. Proper Road Mini Market, FUT Deconstruction of building components or Minna (Gidan Kwano 1 1 building structures require sufficient Campus) knowledge of the building process as Late Idris kuta’s Villa, deconstruction is merely construction in IBB Drive, Hill Top 1 1 reverse. It then means that unskilled labour Minna City Centre Shopping and volunteers which constitute 75% of the Mall, Mobil 1 1 labour used- though cheaper and more Roundabout economical – are generally unsuitable for No 15. deconstruction works. This results in more Commissioners 1 1 wastage and poor management of the Quarters. deconstruction activity. Building materials DSS Office Minna 1 1 Residential Estate, and other components salvaged are hardly Behind Bomas 1 1 reusable immediately and end up being Supermarket. recycled (raw materials for the same or Kuta Road 1 1 equivalent product) or down cycled (raw TOTAL 3 5 5 3 materials for lower value goods). The Percentage (%) 37 63 63 37 wasted components or materials remaining
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 sadly end up in dumps or landfills due the also shown in Table 5. Concrete and use of inappropriate labour force which sanitary wares were not salvaged on any of endanger the environment. the sites sampled. Very few sites disassembled Ceiling and Lighting fitting Table 4 further shows the equipment and may not be unconnected with the low utilised during the Deconstruction process. resale value of these components. 87% of projects studied utilised simple Although sanitary piping (PVC or handheld tools and 13% employed the use Galvanised) and lighting fittings (tungsten) of powered tools. This reveals that more have harmful impacts on the environment, time and effort will be required in 87% of they were not salvaged. This further Deconstruction works. Since powered confirms that economic benefits are the machines require careful handling, skilled primary motivation for deconstruction with labour will be required to execute the job as sustainability of the environment probably is the case on the CBN Minna site shown in being a secondary reason. Blocks were also plate 1. Less time will also be spent in predominantly neglected due to difficulty carrying out the work. and expertise required in carefully disassembling as seen in plate 4. This further reiterates the assertion made from Table 4 that the use of unskilled workers will result in wastage and turning of blocks and concrete into debris. The lack of technical know-how in recycling blocks and concrete even when broken or turn to debris further contributes the neglect in deconstructing blocks and concrete.
Plate 1: Removal of Floor Finish using powered tools
Table 5 shows deconstructed building materials salvaged on the respective sites. All sanitary fittings, roofing (Plate 3), egresses and wooden trusses were salvaged in all of the samples studied. Floor finishes were sampled in 87% of sites. The remaining 13% was salvaged due to the nature of floor finish involved (cement sand screed). 63% of sample studied also made Plate 2: Wall tiles carefully salvaged. efforts to salvage power fixtures and steel bars. Ceiling, Blocks/bricks, lighting fitting and wall finishes were only deconstructed in 13% of the sites sampled, while no site salvaged sanitary piping and concrete as
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Table 5: Deconstructed Building Components and Materials Name of Project Non-structural Components Structural components
(Salvaged) (salvaged)
Plumbing wares Plumbing piping Power fittings Light fittings Floor finishes Wallfinishes Egresses Roofing sheets Ceiling Wooden trusses Blocks/Bricks Steel Bars Concrete CBNMinna, paiko road 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Mini market, futminna Na N 1 1 1 1 1 (gidankwano campus) a Late IdrisKuta’s Villa, IBB Drive, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Hill Top City centre Shopping Mall, Mobil 1 1 1 1 1 Roundabout No 15. Commissioners Quarters. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 DSS Office Minna 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Residential Estate, Behind Bomas 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Supermarket. Kuta Road na na 1 1 1 1 1 TOTAL 6 0 5 2 7 1 8 8 1 8 1 5 0 recycled, down cycled, compost, and burn or landfilled in the order of preference. The study also shows that more preference is given to the economic benefits of deconstruction to its sustainability.
Recommendations • Tax breaks or relief or other reward systems can be offered to companies and contractors who choose deconstruction over demolition as practiced in Australia, US and the EU. Plate 3:Roofing sheets carefully salvaged. • Efficient deconstruction requires Conclusion specialisation and expertise. Companies A lot of waste is generated from that specialise in Deconstruction should Construction and Demolition sites. be subsidized and encouraged. Deconstruction is one of the sustainable • The Leadership in Energy and practices that can be employed to mitigate Environmental Design (LEED) rating and substantially reduce the amount of system should be incorporated into the waste and debris generated, conserve National Building Code to encourage energy and protect the environment. industry professionals to adopt Deconstruction was shown to be more sustainable deconstruction practices. beneficial and helpful than ‘wrecking ball’ • Architects should design buildings to or ‘bulldozer’ style demolitions. allow for Deconstruction. Deconstructed materials salvaged from • More modular, demountable and buildings can be reused, up cycled, prefabricated construction should be
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encouraged as it allows for easy Indiana Brown Fields Program (2010). disassembly. Demolition, Deconstruction, • Recycle plants and Processing facilities Environmentally-Responsible Waste for concrete, blocks and cement related Management. Responsible waste is highly required to eliminate Brownfields Redevelopment. cement waste as it constitutes the bulk Indiana Brown Fields Program. of the debris that end in landfills and Jacque, R. (2008). Waste diversion during dumps. Deconstruction. Build June/July • Surveys need to be carried out prior to 2008 72-75. Deconstruction to determine the Kibert, C., Chini, A. (2000). Deconstruction required tools, equipment and as an essential component of technicality to be used. sustainable construction. In Proceedings of CIB Conference on References Overview of Deconstruction in Addis, B. (2006). Building with Reclaimed Selected Countries, University of Components and Materials. Earth Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA, 18– scan Publications Ltd. Retrieved 19 May 2000;6-14. from National Association of Home Builders http://www.amazon.com/Building- [NABH], (2000). A guide to Reclaimed-Components-Materials- Deconstruction. The Path, a Recycling/dp/1844072746 last publication of the US Department of accessed at 10:36pm on the 7th Housing Development. Retrieved January, 2016. from Boulder County (2008). Deconstruction and http://www.huduser.org/publications Recycling. Boulder County Land /pdf/decon.pdf last accessed at th Use Publication. Retrieved from 11:12pm on 7 January, 2015. www.bouldercounty.org/doc/landus New South Wales Department of e/bs02bldsmrtdeconstruct.pdf last Environment, Climate Change and accessed at 9:36pm 7th January, Water (2010). House 2016. Deconstruction. Information Bruening, S., Chini, A. (2004). booklet, Australia. Deconstruction and Materials Reuse, Santos, A., Brito J. (2005). Building An International Overview. Final Deconstruction: A contribution to Report of Task Group 39 on Sustainable building. The Second Deconstruction. A CIB Publication, Scottish Conference for University of Florida, USA. Postgraduate Researchers in the Diven, R., Taylor, M. (2006). Demolition Built and Natural Environment Planning. Supplementary (ProBE),593-600. Architectural Services. Excerpt from Doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1744.2009. The Architect’s Handbook of Sherman, R. (1998). Deconstruction: Giving Professional Practice, Update 2006. Old Buildings new lives. Water John Wiley and sons Incorporated, Quality and Waste Management USA. journal. A publication of the North Greer, D. (2004). Building the Carolina Cooperative Extension Deconstruction Industry. Biocycle, Service, USA. November 2004, 36-42. The Century bay Builders (2016). Deconstruction. Retrieved from
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Ayuba, Albert Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna
www.centurybaybuildes.com/index. php/green-info/deconstruction last accessed on at 10:11pm on the 7th January, 2016.Thomsen, A., Schultmann, F., Kohler, N. (2011). Deconstruction, Demolition and Destruction. Building and Research Information journal 39(4), 327- 332.Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09613218. 2011.585785. [Accessed 7th January 2016 ].
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A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Adebola Abiodun Olufemi 1, Ojoye Shamsideen2 & Ibitoye Matthew Olomolatan1 1Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information System (GIS), Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State 2Department of Geography, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. 1Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information System, Federal University of Technology Akure, Ondo State Corresponding E-mail:[email protected]
Abstract The shoreline is one of the most important features on earth’s surface. They are highly dynamic and ever changing. Changes are over time scales including minutes, hours, decades and Centuries. Spatial scales vary from local to regional to worldwide. Although change is continuously occurring, it doesn’t occur in a constant manner. Many factors influence these changes including the type of shoreline (rocky, sandy), wave activity, tidal variations, storms and human impacts. The shoreline change study is necessary for updating the shoreline change maps and management of natural resources. Shorelines are the key element in coastal GIS and provide the most information on coastal landform dynamics. The frequent monitoring of coasts is only to accesses variation of shoreline changes. This study investigates the shoreline changes of Akwa Ibom in Nigeria for three different years 1990, 2000 and 2016, changes that occur in the land use land cover of the area and landforms around the coast. The rate of shoreline change was assessed using Linear Regression (LRR) and End Point Rate (EPR) methods. Landsat imageries for the three years were acquired and processed using Arcgis software by digitizing the shoreline of the coast to determine the changes that occurred in the years under review, maximum likelihood classification was done to classify the study area into different landuse/landcover in order to detect the changes that had also occurred. The shoreline change detection was conducted using the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS). Based on this result, it was concluded that the shoreline is eroding at -19.03 m/yr and accreting at 15 m/yr. Keywords: Coasts, End point rate, Accretion, Erosion, shoreline, geospatial.
Introduction Coastal shorelines worldwide are changing Shoreline shifting is the uncontrollable rapidly as a result of natural physical result of coastal erosion/accretion, the processes and human activities. Natural consequence of near shore currents. With factors such as sediment supply, wave reverence to the sediment supply, a certain energy, and sea level are the primary causes portion of coastline may have excess, be in of coastal changes, whereas human balance, or have a discrepancy in its activities are catalysts causing sediment budget. Enormous drop or boost in disequilibrium conditions that accelerate the sediment supply, in a little span of time changes. Coastline defined as the line of or a stretched period, creates a contact between land and the water body, is shortage/excess in the sediment budget one of the most important linear features on which causes shoreline shifting, multi-year the earth’s surface, which has a dynamic shoreline shifting mapping seems to be an nature (Winarso et al., 2001). important task for coastal monitoring and
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria appraisal, satellite remote sensing data in of immense benefit to the understanding of combination with Geographic Information complex coastal ecosystems. Shorelines are System (GIS) is being used in shoreline widely used as ports for navigation and extraction and mapping. marine commerce and therefore are of economic value and critical to the socio- Tides often determine the range over which economic development of non-land locked sediment can be deposited or eroded and the nations. tidal range are influenced by the size and shape of the shoreline. Waves erode The location of the shoreline and the shorelines as they break on the shore changing position of its boundary over time releasing their energy, the larger the wave are of elementary importance to coastal the more energy it releases and the more the scientists, engineers and managers sediment it moves. Human activities of (Douglass and Crowell 2000; National dredging, reclamation and infrastructural Research Council, 1990). development along shores also deface the shoreline. A coastline or shoreline can be Study Area geographically defined as a linear Akwa ibom is a state in Nigeria, it is located intersection of coastal land and the surface in the coastal southern part of the country, of a water body. lying between the latitude 40 32’N and 5033’N and longitudes 7025’E and 8025’E. The shoreline is generally considered to be The State is bordered on the east by Cross the edge or margin of land next to the sea or River on the west by Rivers state, on the river Shorelines have been defined by south by Atlantic Ocean with population of different coastal management and over 5 million people, it was created in regulatory agencies but most coastal zone 1987 from the former cross river state and is studies describe the coastline as the currently the highest oil and gas producing interface between land and water (Bird, state in the country. 1967; Dolan et al., 1980). The changes in the coastline largely depend on its geology The topography of Akwa Ibom is rugged, and geomorphology, the nature of tidal consisting of hills and ridges with steep- waves impacting on the coastline; changes sided valleys. The hills and ridges of this in sea level; and sediment transport by long- region which are separated by flood-prone shore currents (Carter and Woodroffe, lowlands are remnants of the west-east 1994; Cowel and Thorn, 1994; Pidwirnyi, extension of the Enugu-Okigwe. The slopes 2006a). Human activities which include are greatly ravaged by erosion during the dredging, construction of breakwater rainy season. The existing climatic factors infrastructure and physical development; in Akwa Ibom would have favoured mineral exploration and exploitation, ports luxuriant tropical rainforests with teeming construction, removal of backshore populations of fauna and extremely high vegetation, construction of barges and terrestrial and aquatic biomass. The native coastal control works and reclamation also vegetation has been almost completely deface the coastline tremendously (Franos replaced by secondary forests of et al., 1995; Bergerand 1996; Ibe 1988; predominantly wild oil palms, woody Pandian et al., 2004). The shoreline is the shrubs and various grass under growths. bridge between aquatic life and terrestrial Akwa-Ibom state is reputed to hold the life, and it is usually a fragile eco-zone, highest oil palms per capita in Nigeria. The hence the study of shoreline changes can be climate of Akwa-Ibom State is
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 characterized into two seasons, namely, the 2008 were used to extract the shoreline wet or rainy season and the dry season. In through heads-up digitization. The rate of the south central and central parts of the shoreline change was assessed using Linear state, the wet or rainy season lasts for about Regression (LRR) and End Point Rate eight months but towards the far north, it is (EPR) methods. The shoreline change slightly less. The rainy season begins about detection was conducted using the Digital March-April and lasts until mid-November. Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS). Akwa-Ibom State receives relatively higher Landsat Thematic Mapper (LTM) of 1986 rainfall totals than other parts of southern and Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) of Nigeria. The total annual rainfall varies 2006 both of 28.5 X 28.5metres ground from 4000mm along the coast to 2000mm resolution were acquired from the United inland (NIMET, 2014). The whole of States Geological Surveys (USGS) and Akwa-Ibom State is underlain by actually used for various analysis carried sedimentary formations of late tertiary and out. A high resolution Ikonos image of 2008 Holocene ages. with about 1m ground resolution was obtained and used. These imageries cover a Deposits of recent alluvium and beach ridge period of 22yrs. The range of time and years sands occur along the coast and estuaries of chosen was due to data availability. The Imo and Qua Iboe Rivers, and also along result however indicated that the rate of the flood-plains of creeks. Inland, a greater erosion is found out to be very high with part of the state consists of coastal plain maximum value of -7.8m/yr recorded at Itak sands now weathered into laterictic layers. Abasi community. On the other hand, some Ituen et al. (2014) remote sensing and portions of the shoreline are accreting at an Geographic Information System (GIS) average rate of 2m/yr. Based on this result based application in the analysis of however, it was concluded that Ibeno Shoreline change in Ibeno Local shoreline is eroding at an average rate of - Government. Area [LGA], Akwa Ibom 3.9m/yr. State. Satellite imageries of1986, 2006 and
Fig 1: Map of the study area
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Areas mostly affected by accretion greatest value of erosion over 30 years of processes are identified near Qua Iboe River studying. Boatemaa et al. (2013) used Estuary and ExxonMobil Jetty where sand impacts of shoreline morphological change filling is usually done for settlement and sea level rise on mangroves keta coastal purposes. This best explains the reason for zone investigated the effect of sea level rise the submersion of school buildings, and shoreline recession on the mangroves at residential buildings and the persistent Anyanui, using geospatial data and inundation of large portions of land in the modeling techniques. The local trend in area. Mitra et al. (2013) used Change rising sea level was analysed using data detection analysis of the shoreline using from a tide gauge station in Ghana. The Topo-sheet and Satellite Image in results indicate that Keta coastal zone is Mandarmani-Shankarpur West Bengal eroding at a rate of about 2.32m/yr and the applied remote sensing and GIS techniques sea level is rising at a historic rate of on the multi-temporal satellite image and about3mm/yr. The study revealed that topo-sheets, shoreline extraction using increasing sea level rise will enable the water index and subsequent change shoreline to migrate about 8 km inland in detection analysis was carried out to assess the next 100 years, which could pose a the erosion-accretion pattern in the region at severe threat to the mangrove forest. It also both regional and local scale. Depending on emerged that there is a significant increase the erosional pattern, the entire study area in mangrove cover between 1986 and 2002. was divided into four erosional-cells, and Ramanamurthy et al. (2016) used Shoreline independent study was carried out in Change Monitoring in Nellore Coast at East different cells. The results exhibit that this Coast Andhra Pradesh District Using coastal region has been experiencing Remote Sensing and GIS to investigate the erosion. shoreline changes of Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh coast, as well as the Kumaravel et al. (2013) and Saravana et al. quantity of the erosion and accretion rate. (2015) used remote sensing and GIS based Using multi-temporal resolution satellite shoreline change studies in the Cuddalore data(TM & LISS III, IV) and Geographic District, East Coast of Tamilnadu South information system(GIS) 25 years period India, to investigate the spatial as well as i.e, from 1989 to 2015. The resultant coastal quantify the shoreline changes along the maps were used to estimate the coast in the parts of Cuddalore district, east geomorphologic changes and shifting of the coast of TamilNadu by using geospatial shoreline position. This integrated study techniques. used Quantitative estimation for was found useful for exploring accretion shoreline change using Remote Sensing and and erosion processes in the region. About GIS for South South Andaman Island, India 87.6 km of coastline was found to be and Andaman Island, India, respectively accreting nature with average of +1.40 m/yr Multiyear shoreline mapping is considered followed by 38.4 km of coastal line eroding as a valuable task for coastal monitoring with average of -1.36 m/yr and stable and assessment and detection of shoreline coastline of 41.4 km was found. This study change and estimation of erosion and demonstrates that combined use of satellite accretion along the eastern coast of the imagery and statistical method such as South Andaman. The SOI topo-sheet 1979, linear regression for shoreline change IRS 1D 1998 and IRS P6 2009 satellite analysis are helpful for erosion monitoring pictures were used to delineate the shoreline and preventive measure. changes. The results revealed that there is a
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Prukpitikul et al. (2012) used shoreline Mean Square Error (RMSE). In addition, it change prediction model for coastal zone was tested by means difference between management in Thailand to utilize geo- actual and predicted shoreline positions informatics technology to increase accuracy using “t” test and it has been found that of a shoreline prediction model along two predicted shore line is not significantly study sites in Samutprakarn province and in different from actual shoreline position at Prachuabkirikhan province. The result (t132 = 0.278) p < 0.01. presents that averaged erosion and accretion rate along Samutprakarn province was Materials and Method 22.30 meters/year and 2.94 meters/year, In the process of carrying out this study, the respectively. On the other hand, the average use of satellite images and GIS tools to rate of coastal erosion along extract the shorelines for three different Prachuabkirikhan province was much years of 1990, 2000 and 2016 became very lower, being 2.48 meters/year while the necessary. In this case, Landsat Thematic accretion rate was approximately 4.11 Mapper (LTM) of 1990 and Enhanced meters/year. The predicted shoreline change Thematic Mapper (ETM) of 2000 both of at Samutprakarn province in 2019 is about - 28.5 X 28.5metres ground resolution were 132.69 ± 0.758meters while at acquired from the United States Geological Prachuabkirikhan is 40.58 ± 0.0012 meters. Surveys (USGS) site and used for various analysis carried out. These imageries cover Barman et al. (2015) used an approach of a period of 26yrs. The images were future prediction for trends of shoreline processed to delineate the shorelines for position for Balasore Shoreline to analyze 1990, 2000 and 2016 with a view to the shift in shoreline due to coastal determining their rate of changes over the processes and formular available for best study period. ARCGIS was used to perform estimate of future shoreline positions based clipping of the study area, image processing on precedent shorelines, simple Linear of the areas were done by combining bands Regression Model and End Point Rate together. (EPR) was adopted to takeout the rate of change of shoreline and its future positions, Image classification was done on the three based on empirical observations at images to separable land use/cover 67transects along the Balasore coast.. The categories which are dense, light vegetation, rate of shoreline movement calculated from unpolluted, polluted water, settlements and the fixed base line to shoreline position of wetlands. Digitizing of the shorelines was 1975, 1980, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005 and done on the three images to detect the 2010 and based on this, the estimated changes that occurred over the years. The shoreline of 2013 was calculated. The combined false colour images of the area estimated shoreline was compared with the were used for the identification of actual shoreline delineated from satellite geomorphology and landforms around the imagery of 2013. The model error or coast. positional shift at each sample point was a) Processes of Shoreline Extraction observed, the positional error varies from To extract the shorelines from the satellite −4.82 m to 212.41 m. It has been found that images, shape files were created in Arc model prediction error is higher in the left catalog for each of the images. For easy hand side of river Subarnarekha. The data handling, the three images were overall error for the entire predicted spatially re-projected to Universal shoreline was found to be 41.88 m by Root Transverse Mercator (UTM 1984). This was
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria followed by the determination of shoreline tool from the Arc Toolbox. The various reference feature where measurements were attribute tables for the baseline and the based. appended shoreline file were created as b) Determination of Rate of Shoreline shown below. If no accuracy field value Change exist for a specific shoreline or Zero is used After the shorelines were extracted, a base- in the accuracy field, a default value line was created parallel to these extracted specified in the Set data Accuracy section shorelines in order to cast perpendicular by the user could be used. The ID field was lines to the shorelines and also to serve as populated to control the order of transect the origin for measuring distances of the casting along the baseline. shorelines in relation to the established base-line. c) Determination of Net Shoreline The base-line was created through buffering Movement (NSM) method in ArcGIS 10.1 and this served as After the computation of the rate of change the starting point for generating transects. In in shoreline, the End Point Rate method was this case, a 600 meter buffer was created used to calculate the distance of shoreline just above the lines, resulting in a single movement by subtracting between the buffer of 600 meters around the outermost earliest and latest measurements (i.e., the line. The upper and side sections of the oldest and the most recent shoreline). The buffer were deleted resulting in a single line major advantage of the EPR is that, it is 600 meters from the shoreline. easy to compute with minimal requirements of shoreline data (two shorelines). The This line served as the base-line and was linear regression rate-of change statistic smoothened to remove the rough side of the (LRR) was the second rate of change line in order to cast perpendicular transects method used. This was done by fitting a on the shorelines under consideration. The least squares regression line to all shoreline base-line and shoreline data were imported points for a particular transects. The rate is into a geo-database in order for DSAS to the slope of the line. The linear regression recognize the data. Before running the method has the advantage that all the data DSAS program, spatial reference and are used, regardless of changes in the trend feature type requirements of the shoreline or accuracy in addition to the method being files were reconciled. The multiple shape purely computational. files of the shorelines were appended into a single feature class by using the Append
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Figure 1: Baseline, Transects and Shoreline of the Study Area
Result and Discussion The rate of shoreline change was assessed using Linear Regression (LRR) and End Shoreline length Point Rate (EPR) methods. The shoreline From the maps and table, it shows that 1990 change detection was conducted using the shoreline is 246.928 in length; it increased Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) in year 2000 to 257.678 and decreased an extension of ArcGis. again in year 2016 to 251.061m.
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Table 1: Length in meters of each of the shoreline from 1990-2016 Shoreline Year Length(m) 1990 246.928 2000 257.678 2016 251.061
Fig 2: Shoreline of the study area in year 1990
Fig 3: Map showing the shoreline of the study area in year 2000
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Fig 4: Map showing the shoreline of the study area in year 2016
distance between the most recent and Changes In Shoreline Over Time earliest shorelines, in this case the 1990, Getting the changes that occurred over the 2000 and the 2016 shorelines changes. 1990 years (End Point Rate) EPR and Net to 2016 shows the highest changes between Shoreline Movement (NSM) was used. the remaining years of shore line changes. The change that occurred between the Net Shoreline Movement timing of each available image is presented The result of the analysis revealed in Figures 6. remarkable changes in the study area Shoreline, the net change measured as the
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Fig 5: Map showing the shifting in shoreline between 1990-2016
NSM NSM CHANGE
Fig6: Net Shoreline Movement (1990- 2016)
End Point Rate This shows that in this period erosion was After the computation of the rate of change more than accretion. EPR for shoreline in shoreline, the End Point Rate method was 2000-2016 shows that the highest accretion used to calculate the distance of shoreline is at the rate of 250 and the erosion is -800. movement by subtracting between the This shows that in this period erosion is earliest and latest measurements (i.e., the more than accretion. It is noticed that there oldest and the most recent shoreline). is a decrease in erosion and accretion of EPR of shoreline 2000-2016 compare to From Figure 7, the highest accretion is at that of 1990-2000. the rate of 950 and the erosion is -1300.
Fig 7: EPR of the shoreline from 1990-2000
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Fig 8: EPR of the shoreline from 2000-2016
Fig 9: EPR of the shoreline from 1990-2016
Accretion = 390 / 26 = 15 m/yr From graph, EPR for shoreline 1990-2016 shows that the highest accretion is at the Table 2: Shoreline Erosion, Accretion and Net rate of 390 and the erosion is -495 Change in Meters Table 2 shows the sum total of the Periods Accretion Erosion Net (M) (M) Change magnitude of Net Erosion and Accretion (M) that occurred over the different periods 1990-2000 950 -1300 -350 under investigation. Table 2 shows the net 2000-2016 250 -800 -550 change of shoreline erosion and accretion. 1990-2016 390 -495 -105 The net change was at -350m in 1990-2000, it increased in 2000-2016 but decreased in Land Use Land Cover Change Analysis 1990-2016 at the rate of -105m. From the classified images of 1990, 2000 Rate per year of erosion and accretion over and 2016, the area of each land use 1990-2016 is calculated as; Erosion or categories were computed and compared accretion / years from 1990-2016. statistically Erosion = -495 / 26 = -19.03 m/yr
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Fig 10: LULC map of Akwa Ibom and the ocean area of year 1990
Fig 11: LULC map of Akwa Ibom shoreline in year 2000 (for example peatlands). It also includes Land use classes reservoirs Vegetation- this is classified into dense and Cloud cover- these area covered by cloud light vegetation when the image of the area was taken by the Settlements- These portray all developed satellite. land, including social utilities such as From table 3 the total land use in square transportation infrastructure (roads and kilometers is 17304.132568. highways), built up areas, bare grounds and Dense vegetation decreased from 3475.298 human settlements of any size. in 1990 to 2992.5162 in 2000 and to Water- These are categorized into polluted 1187.178 in 2016 sq km. Light vegetation and unpolluted water. They include all areas increases from 1990-2016, Settlement is covered by water like ocean, river and low in 2000 compare to 1990 and increases lakes. in 2016, wetland increases from 1990 to Wetlands - lands that are covered or 2016, unpolluted water increases. saturated by water for all or part of the year
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Table 3: Land use and land cover classification statistics between 1990 and 2016 Year Year Year 1990 2000 LULC 1990 Area 2000 2016 2016 Area Area Area CLASSES (In %) Area Area (In %) (sq km) (In %) (sq km) (sq km) Dense 3475.296 20.08362 2992.5162 17.29365 1187.178 6.860664 Vegetation Light 407.2473 2.353468 4222.5948 24.40224 5237.414 30.26684 vegetation Settlement 1208.528 6.984043 723.0681 4.178587 954.243 5.514539 Farmland 2236.056 12.92209 - - - - Wetlands 1642.298 9.490785 1794.8313 10.37227 2677.335 15.47223 Polluted water 2306.006 13.32633 1694.8953 9.794744 1946.384 11.24809 Unpolluted 2354.049 13.60397 5559.7509 32.12962 5301.578 30.63764 water Cloud cover 3674.651 21.23568 316.476 1.828904 - - 17304.1325 Total 100 17304.13 100 17304.13 100 68
Conclusion Environmental Research and The shoreline change in Akwa ibom has Management. 4(11). 359-367, been analyzed using the integrative Ituen, U.J., Imoh,U.J. and Njoku, J.C. approach of satellite imageries and GIS (2014). Shoreline Change Detection tools and it revealed that the shoreline of the in the Niger Delta: A Case Study of study area is being eroded due to natural Ibeno Shoreline in Akwa Ibom cause and human interference. State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Also the present study demonstrated the human-social science: B efficiency of remote sensing data in the Geography, Geo-Sciences, and study of land use and land cover changes. It Environmental Disaster gives a fairly good understanding of land Management, Volume 14 Issue 6. use/land cover changes or transition for a (13-30) period of years, which in turn will be very Kumaravel, S. Ramkumar, T. Gurunanam, helpful for local administrative bodies for T. Suresh, M. &Dharaniraja, D. decision making in the state and coastal (2013). An Application of Remote management in the country. Sensing and GIS Based Shoreline Change Studies – A Case Study in Refrences the Cuddalore District, East Coast of Barma, N.K., Chatterjee, S. and Khan, A. Tamilnadu, South India (2015). Trends of shoreline position: International Journal of Innovative an approach To future prediction for Technology and Exploring balasore shoreline, Odisha, india. Engineering (IJITEE), 2(4),2278- IndiOpen Journal of Marine 3075. Science, 5, 13-25. Makot, V. Sallema, R. and Mahika, C. Boatemaa, M.A., Kwasi, A.A., and Mensah, (2004). Monitoring Shoreline A. (2012). Impacts of shoreline Change using Remote Sensing and morphological change and sea level GIS: A Case Study of Kunduchi rise on mangroves: the case of the Area, Tanzania, Western Indian keta coastal zone, Journal of Ocean Journal of Marine. Science, 3(1), 1–10,.
Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria
Mitra S, Santra A, & Mitra D (2013). Change detection analysis of the shoreline using Toposheet and Satellite Image: A case study of the coastal stretch of Mandarmani- Shankarpur, West Bengal, international journal of geomatics and geosciences Volume 3, No 3. Niya, A.K., Alesheikh, A.A. Soltanpor, M. and Kheirkhahzarkesh, M. M. (2013). Shoreline Change Mapping Using Remote Sensing and GIS Case Study: Bushehr Province International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications,3(3), (46-58) Prukpitikul, S., Buakaew, V. Keshdet, W., Kongprom A. and Kaewpoo, N. (2012). Shoreline Change Prediction Model for Coastal Zone Management in Thailand, Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering, 2, 238-243. Ramanamurthy, M.V., Kannan R, and Kanungo, A. (2016). Shoreline Change Monitoring in Nellore Coast at East Coast Andhra Pradesh District Using Remote Sensing and GIS. Journal of Fisheries & Livestock Production, 4(1), (276- 288) Saravana, Y. E and Dharanirajan. K (2015). Quantitative Estimation of Shoreline Change Using Remote Sensing and GIS For South Andaman Island, India. International journal of geomatics and geosciences, 5(4), (245-260)
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The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
Abd’razack, Nelson T.A., Medayese, S.O., Umaru, E.T. & Shaibu, S.I. Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology, Minna. Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract This study investigated the spatial distribution of solid waste dump sites in the study area, established the residents’ perceived level of exposure to solid waste hazards, and the effect of living near refuse dump sites. Systematic random sampling technique was used to administer 500 questionnaires to the households in the study area. The result of the study indicated that there is only one legal dump site located in Buntu area; there are 19 illegal dump sites within the town. The proliferation of illegal dumpsite was as a result of convenience and open spaces within the town. The most frequently used method of waste disposal is on weekly basis. The use of plastic bucket is favoured for storage. The level of health risk associated with living close to dumpsite shows that a total of 878 houses are at the severe risk, while, 1,898 houses are at mild risk level. The study concludes that There should be a total clearance of the existing illegal dump site and proper monitoring of the waste management in the town to forestall illegal dumping, and adequate information to residents and awareness on the danger of consequences of indiscriminate dumping of refuse in an undesignated dump site. Keywords: Illegal Dump Site, Solid Waste, Waste Management, Environment, Urbanisation.
Introduction no small role in increasing extant Waste generation is a result of consumption environmental pressures (Karanjit et al., of resources and other activities of mankind. 2007). As this is an unavoidable event in day to day living, there is need for waste generated The double function of Sabon Wuse as the to be managed. Lack of proper management Local Government Headquarters and the of waste always results in environmental resettlement of displaced people from Abuja and health challenges. Globally, the process due to its proximity to the Federal Capital of waste management requires a chain of has increased the population of the town activities from collection, sorting, and thereby increased the solid waste being transporting and disposal. If any of these generated. The responsible agencies, such lines of management is disrupted, it affects as Niger State Environmental Protection the management of the waste. How this Agency (NISEPA) and Tafa Local may be efficiently done poses a problem in Government Council Public Health many societies today. Another natural Department did not have any improvement process, population growth, makes waste in the capacity to handle the massive management even more challenging; more garbage being generated in the town. The people in a specific geographic location local Government and NISEPA could not would imply a higher level of waste control the urban development as well as generated, hence more waste to contend waste disposal sites that are scattered all with in that area. As poorly managed wastes over the town, which resulted into poor and are perceived as environmental hazards of unclean environment. high significance, the societies’ inability to manage waste generation effectively play
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
General Concept of Waste garbage, refuse, and sludge (Nwosu and Waste generally is an unwanted by-product Olofa, 2015). Solid waste can also be of man’s activities. It is defined by Lutui regarded as materials, which are no longer (2001) as “materials that currently have in use. This includes household garbage, negative value to their owner, that is the unwanted materials from commercial and generator incurs costs in managing them mining activities. Solid wastes are (importantly this does not prevent them categorized in to three (3) types, based on from having positive value to another owner the composition. These are: at another location in space or time)” i. Biodegradable; mainly composed of (Lututi, 2001: p3) and are disposed of. Solid green waste, garbage, trash. waste is a matter of time and places, as what ii. Non-biodegradable; this consist of is a waste can become raw material in scraps, synthetic (plastic, rubber, leather) another place. For example, the recycling materials, metals etc. plant uses solid waste product as raw iii. Semi-biodegradable; this consist of material for production of other items rubbish (paper, cartons, wood.) (Sanusi, 2010). Research has shown that there are two different variance of waste, Solid waste can also be defined as those that is, solid waste (effluence) and liquid materials that are generated, resulting from waste (foul water, semi- liquid and the man’s activities and are not in form of gaseous liquid Biogas). “Waste” does not liquid or gas but are compacted and have a generally concise definition, substantial. however waste is generally known to be any unwanted material (Lutui, 2001). Types of Solid Waste i. Domestic Solid Waste: These Morrisson, Wray, Dever, and Dusbaun consist of rubbish and garbage from (2000) define waste as “any matter household (i.e Municipal waste). prescribed to be waste under national Other examples are reminant of food legislation, any material listed as a waste in materials, old newspapers, spoilt appropriate schedules, and in general, any kitchen utensils, cartoons, baby toys surplus or reject material that is no longer etc. it is always the principal focus useful and which is to be disposed off”. of solid waste management till date This definition uses two words that is (Abdrazack, Yusuf and Utange, important to this study “waste is neither 2013). In Sabon Wuse, The Niger wanted nor has value to the owner” and State Environmental Protection which in turn need to be disposed off. Agency are those that are saddled Waste has an unwelcome and often with the responsibility of collection unnoticed effect on the environment and and disposal of Municipal solid hamper development and civilization (Kim waste management. and Gobalan, 1997) and can be traced to the ii. Agricultural Solid Waste: These growth of industrialization in modern waste resulting from different economies (Holmes, 2000). agricultural activities, include cultivated waste (weed); harvested Solid Waste wastes from plants, field and tree Solid waste could be defined as any non- crop wastes; the dung from Animal liquid and non-gaseous substance produced production and waste from operation out of human activities which are regarded of feed lots as described by United as being useless. It could take the form of
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Nation Environmental Programme ensure effective and sustainable (UNEP, 2010). management of waste. In the year 2006, it iii. Commercial Solid Waste : These was estimated that the total amount of include all solid waste which municipal solid waste (MSW) generated emanate from business and profit worldwide reached 2.02 billion tons of making activities such as financial waste, representing a 7% annual increase institution (Banks, market, stores, since 2003 (Global Waste Management super market), educational Market Report, 2009). It was further institution (theatres, lecture halls and estimated that between year 2007 and 2011, class rooms), hospitals (Abdrazack global generation of municipal waste would et al., 2013) rise by 37.3%, equivalent to roughly 8% iv. Industrial solid waste: These are increase per year. Based on incomplete solid waste product from the reports from its participants, The Basel production of goods. They include Convention estimated that about 318 and all solid waste which result from 338 million tonnes of solid waste were both light and heavy industries. In generated in 2001 (World Bank, 2010). most developed countries, industrial solid waste account for the most Owing to an increase in human population, divasting tonnes of general waste industrial and technological revolutions, hazards. In the USA for examples, waste management has become increasingly industries generate one third of the complex (Akinbile and Yusuf, 2011). general waste produced in the Marshall and Farabahksh (2013) observed country. They are mostly as a result that population growth and subsequent of industrial processes of innovations have not only led to changing manufacturing operation inherent in consumption patterns across borders but the country. Examples of such have also placed considerable pressure on operations are: processing plant, waste management services. This is so repair and clearing establishment, because as the world races towards its urban refineries, manning and mineral and more complex future, the by-product of operations (UNEP, 2014). the urban lifestyle, waste, is growing at v. Special Solid Waste: These types of even faster rates. At present, global solid waste comprise of waste from street waste generation is growing approximately sweeping, road side litter, debris, at 1.3 billion tonnes per year and is dead animals, abandoned vehicles expected to double by the year 2025 and litters of store drains. They are (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). The called ‘special waste’ because it is pressure placed on waste management impossible to predict where they services has consequently led to widespread will be found (Abdrazack et al., inefficiencies that are mainly due to lack of 2013). funds, improper infrastructure, inadequate waste collection services, unlicensed waste Literature Review management activities, insufficient waste Rapid increase in the types and volume of minimisation and limited waste related domestic waste (either liquid or solid waste) legislation (Nahman and Godfrey, 2010). as a result of continuous economic growth, Inefficient waste management services have urbanization and industrialization, is also led to extensive illegal dumping. becoming an escalating problem for According to Zurbrugg (2002), illegal national, state and local governments to dumping refers to an instance where solid
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria waste is disposed of in inappropriate Dumped solid waste has serious manners in places such as in drains, roads, implications for the health, environment and near rivers and on private and public land the quality of life. Dumped solid waste that is not legally approved for such a use. contaminates both soil and water. This Dumped materials typically include occurs when water from rainfall seeps furniture, garden waste, discarded through dump waste and mixes with appliances, household rubbish, building substances within the waste and forms a rubble, broken glasses, old tires, hazardous substance known as leachate. According to materials such as illegal pestilences, and Akinbile and Yusuf (2011), leachate metal contamination and abandoned released from waste sites also poses a high automobiles (United States Environmental risk to groundwater and surface water if it is Protection Agency, 1998). not properly managed. Dumpsites also make the surrounding areas prone to Illegal dumping of waste products is a flooding as the different components of recognised problem in much of the world waste can block drains, creeks and culverts and Nigeria. At a global level, dumping has (United Nations Environment Programme, resulted in increased costs associated with 2005). In an attempt to combat illegal clearing and clean-up efforts. For instance, dumping and mitigate its effects, residents in Britian, clearing waste that is dumped in rural areas burn sites. This, however, has every 35 seconds has cost the government a direct impact on the environment because millions according to the British fires cause severe erosion due to burning of Broadcasting Corporation (BBC news, trees which limit vegetation growth. Small 2005). There have also been instances of animals such as birds are also affected as developed countries dumping waste in the they die from feeding on materials from less developed countries. A recent waste sites and by being stuck in debris occurrence is the dumping of old and (Project Green Sweep, 2011). broken television sets in Ghana by one of the United Kingdom’s leading waste and recycling companies. This is said to have The presence of an illegal dumpsite can been done in violation of the laws in cause serious health problems for nearby relation to the flow of waste to developing residents as it is an ideal breeding ground countries (Wasley, 2011). In the city of for disease-vectors such as rats and Abidjan in Côte d'Ivoire, vast amounts of mosquitoes (United States Environmental toxic waste released by a tanker registered Protection Agency, 1998). Certain under a Dutch Oil Trader resulted in the respiratory illnesses such as asthma and death of ten people and left many others tuberculosis are also linked to illegally suffering from diarrhoea, vomiting and dumped waste (Etengeneng, 2012). The nosebleeds (Johnson, 2006). It is uncertain occurrence of illegal dump sites not only as to how the toxic pollutants entered the affects health and the environment, but also country. Such occurrences thus make it the quality of life. According to Madava important for countries to monitor and to (2001), illegal dumpsites have adverse enforce policies that ensure proper waste effects on the basic human rights of people disposal services. Bylaws for illegal with regards to the standard of living. This dumping are clearly presented, but the is so because hazardous wastes are enforcement of these regulations is unclear. prospective pollutants of the biophysical and human environment. This is so because the presence of dumpsites does not only
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 deteriorate the quality of the environment, Kaduna 114,433 320 0.58 Port/Court 117,825 300 0.60 but also breaches human rights as it has an Makurdi 24,242 340 0.48 impact on community pride. More often Onitsha 84,137 310 0.53 than not, the sight and smell that emerge Nsukka 12,000 370 0.44 from illegal dumpsites are unpleasant and Abuja 14,785 280 0.66 Source: Ogwuelika, 2009 diminish the land value. Illegal sites that mostly constitute of flammable substances Table 1 has clearly shown that the city of and gases are vulnerable to fires. More also Lagos generates more waste than every as stated by United State Environmental other cities in Nigeria due to population of Protection Agency (USEPA), the impact is the state. It is worthy to know that Kano has not limited to the aesthetic appeal of a larger population when compared with landscapes, but also diminishes the value of Lagos state but Lagos state generates more surrounding properties significantly, forcing waste than Kano. Ogwueleka concluded residents to vacate their homes to further that, on the average the Southern part of the places (USEPA, 2005). country generates about 0.63 kg per capita per day while the Northern part produces The situation in Nigeria is different in that about 0.56 kg per capita per day. On the the process of urbanisation in the country is average, the country produces about 0.60 kg unplanned; there is population explosion as per capita per day. decentralisation of government has turned villages to local government headquarters Study Area thereby attracting more people to the urban Sabon Wuse is a Community in Tafa Local centres (Okpala, 2004). This has led to high Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria, production of solid waste, the traditional adjoining the Federal Capital Territory attitude, poverty and high level of ineptitude Abuja. It is located on latitude 90’33”N and on the agency responsible for waste longitude of 71051”E with the projected management has contributed significantly to population of 71,074 people as of 2015 turn our towns and cities to garbage cities (NPC, 2011). The geographical location of rather than serene environment (Oyelola, Sabon Wuse is shown in Figure 1 in the and Babatunde, 2013). Table 1 shows the context of Nigeria and Niger State. The level of waste generation in some selected study area has a long range of hills and cities in Nigeria. There are many illegal ridges on the western side of the town, waste dump sites round the cities. The which serve as restrictions to physical population of the cities are grasping with development in that part of the town. the environmental and health risks Presence of many slopes and valleys in the associated with unclean environment. This town encourage rapid erosion and formation has led to breeding of pathogenic condition of gully channels that are common in the (breeding ground for mosquitoes, rodents town. Incidence of flash floods is a and airborne diseases (Ogwuelika, 2009). common occurrence especially in high density areas. While farming remains the Table 1: Volumes of solid waste generated in some Nigerian cities (Tonnes/year) chief occupation in Sabon Wuse, the town Cities Tonnage/ Density Kg/Capital day is noted for mat making and export of Month cotton weaving and dyeing. Lagos 255,556 294 0.63 Kano 156,676 290 0.56 Ibadan 135,391 330 0.51
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
Figure 1: Location of Sabon Wuse in the National and State context Source: URP Dept. FUT Minna.
Research Methodology neighbourhoods in the town. A set of self- The methodology adopted for the study was administered questionnaire designed to a mixed-methods approach which integrated include dichotomous, Likert rating, Geographical Information Systems (GIS) checklist and open-ended questions, was mapping, qualitative and quantitative used to obtain primary information on research (Bryman, 2006). This approach respondents’ attitudes and views on solid was selected to ensure that the data waste dump sites. Forty residential presented a holistic view of the issue at buildings within the closest proximity (as hand. In order to map out illegal dumpsites the crow flies) from all the dumpsites were throughout the town, the town was divided purposively selected. A household was into four neighbourhoods and all illegal randomly sampled in each of the selected dumpsites within the neighbourhoods were building and the household head provided identified. The GPS co-ordinates of each the required data. It was only in the illegal dumpsite were then taken and absence of the head that available oldest recorded using a hand-held GPS. The co- adult member of the household was ordinates of the dumpsites were then interviewed. 500 copies of the entered into Geographic Information questionnaire was administered out of Systems (GIS) software called ArcMap. which 370 copies were correctly filled, This software used the coordinates to returned and used for analysis of the study. generate a map displaying the location of Both descriptive and inferential statistics each dumpsite, the coordinate of each refuse (Analysis of Variance and Tukey Post-Hoc dump point, height of the refuse dumpsite tests) were used in analyzing data collected and area coverage of each refuse dump site. at p≥0.05. Systematic random sampling technique was adopted in administering a set of pre-tested The level of exposure to environmental and questionnaire on households living near the risk hazard when living in proximity to dump sites. To do this, ten of the twenty dump site was measured using Chung and illegal dumpsites in the town were Poon (2001) scale. The scale measured the randomly selected from the four
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 distance to dump site to determine the level Spatial Distribution of Waste Dump in of rsk and exposure to hazard thus: Sabon Wuse i. 0.00 - 50.00 metres = Very Severe Investigations conducted by the researchers Risk revealed that although there is only one ii. 50.01 – 100.00 metres = Severe Risk legally recognized solid waste dump site in iii. 100.01 – 150.00 metres = Moderate Sabon Wuse town, nineteen illegal ones Risk were identified by the authors. Spatial iv. 150.01 – 200,00 metres = Mild Risk distribution of the dump sites are presented v. >250.00 metres = No Risk in Table 2 and Figure 2. From Figure 2, it is revealed that illegal dumpsites of solid Research Findings and Discussion waste were found throughout inhabited Results of the study are presented under parts of the town. Distance of the legal four main headings: Spatial distribution of dumpsite and inadequate enforcement of illegal dumpsites; Assessment of solid environmental sanitation laws and edits, waste disposal method; Residents’ especially in relation to illegal dumping of perception of level of exposure to solid solid wastes, might be responsible for the waste hazards; and, Effects of living near proliferation of illegal solid waste dump solid waste dump sites. sites in the town.
Table 2: Spatial Location of Solid Waste Dump Site in SabonWuse S/N Location of Status Location and Coordinate Size of the Dump Site the Dump of of Dump Site Site Dump Northern Eastern Length Breath Area Height Vol. Site (m) (m) (m2) (m) of Waste (m3) 1 Buntu Legal 9°17.932'N 100 70 7,000 3 21,000 7°13.707'E 2 AngwanYashi Illegal 9°18.265'N 5 3 15 1 15 7°14.430'E 3 Katampe Illegal 10 5 50 1 50 9°18'290"N 7°14.876'E 4 Katampe Illegal 9°18.125'N 12 6 72 1 72 Bridge 7°14.718'E 5 Aso Illegal 9°17.962'N 50 20 1,000 1 100 7°14.575'E 6 Behind Illegal 9°17.884'N 40 30 1,200 5 6,000 SarkinAso 7°14.542'E House 7 Central Illegal 9°17.924'N 20 11 220 1 220 Mosque Aso 7°14.417'E 8 AngwanTofa Illegal 9°17.997'N 70 45 3,150 4 12,600 7°14.096'E 9 Behind Aso Illegal 9°18.169'N 10 4 40 1 40 Market 7°14.228'E 10 AngwanYashi Illegal 9°18.327'N 10 5 50 1 50 7°14.365'E 11 Hausawa Illegal 9°18.535'N 4 2 8 1 8 7°14.366'E 12 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.591'N 6 3 18 4 72 Expressway 7°14.388'E 13 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.574'N 18 2 36 3 108
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
Expressway 7°14.389'E 14 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.549'N 16 4 64 1 64 Expressway 7°14.367'E 15 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.529'N 5 3 15 1 15 Expressway 7°14.345'E 16 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.525'N 20 10 200 4 800 Expressway 7°14.343'E 17 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.494'N 40 20 800 8 6,400 Expressway 7°14.318'E 18 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.477'N 15 7 105 4 420 Expressway 7°14.307'E 19 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.484'N 6 4 24 2 48 Expressway 7°14.293'E 20 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.472'N 12 8 96 5 480 Expressway 7°14.282'E
Figure 2: Spatial location of both legal and illegal waste dump site in SabonWuse
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Assessment of Solid Waste Disposal Table 4: Method ofWaste Collection in SabonWuse Methods Storage Number of (%) Solid Waste Disposal Methods in the Study Facilities Respondents Palm Tree 24 6.5 Area Front Basket Table 3 shows the level of assessment of Plastic 87 23.4 waste collection and disposal in Sabon Bucket Wuse. The analysis indicated that 21.4% of Cotton Sack 67 18.2 respondents dump their solid waste to an Drum 60 16.2 informal collector on daily basis; about Nylon Bag 79 21.4 Bagco Bag 43 11.7 61.7% dump their solid waste Others 10 2.6 indiscriminately on weekly basis which is a Total 370 100.0 clear indication that they often dump their waste when they are less busy which Risk Associated with Illegal Solid Waste happens that be Saturday and Sunday when Proximity to Houses in SabonWuse they do not go to work, While 14.9% on Figures 3 and 4 show the extent of fortnightly, this deal with dumping of refuse closeness of compounds to refuse dump in at any time they were able to see the the study area. The risk of staying close to informal refuse collectors which does really refuse dump was measured between 100 have a prescribed day and 6.0% on monthly meters and 200 meters. The risk ranges basis. from fatal, severe and mild (Chung and Poon, 2001). Satellite image of the study Table 3: Frequency of Waste Disposal in Sabon area was used to capture the number of Wuse Frequency of Number of (%) compounds that were within the 100 meters Disposal Respondents (Severe) and 200 meters (mild) risk. This Daily 79 21.4 process is known as buffering. The Weekly 228 61.7 buffering uses radius to determine the area Fortnightly 55 14.9 of coverage. The total numbers of structures Monthly 7 1.9 at the study area is 3,571. The total number Total 370 100.0 of compounds at severe risk (100m) is 878
which is 24.6% and at mild risk (200m) is The most used municipal waste storage 1,898which is 53.2% of the total number of facilities in the study area are; Plastic structure within the study area. Dumped and Bucket (23.4%), Cotton Sack (18.2%), untreated solid waste has serious Nylon Bag (21.4) and Bagco Bag (11.7%), implications for the health, environment and reasons being that they are easy to convey the quality of life of people, therefore, to various area of disposal because of their Chung and Poon, 2001 indicated that light weight and they are less expensive and residents within the buffering region of the very few people in the study area are aware refuse dump at 100m are at higher risk than of the undesignated dump site so they are those at 200m distance. This is due to the often saddled with no option than dumping fact that level of exposure to hazard is high, it off available place of their choices. Table hence the ability of rodents and other 4 shows various storage facilities used by vectors to transmit infections is also high. households in Sabon Wuse. The implication of this is that the closer the
residents to dump site the higher the risk of
both environmental and health hazard in
Sabon Wuse.
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
The analysis of the proximity to risk of metres buffer on the other hand shows a exposure to hazard is measure using the mild risk of exposure to both environmental buffer analysis as shown in Figures 3 and 4. and health risk as posited by Chung and The buffer that was used followed the 100 Poon (2001), it is better to avoid living in an metres and 200 metres risk zones. The 100 area where there is risk whether mild or s metres shows a severe risk associated with evere. living within the catchment of such environmental and health risk, while, 200
Figure 3: 100m Risk radius showing houses closer to waste dump site in Sabon Wuse
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Figure 4: 200m Risk radius showing houses closer to waste dump site in Sabon Wuse
Residents’ Perception of the Types of include the following: Foul water, Dust Hazard Exposed to in the Study Area. during hamattan, Dust at the beginning of Table 5 shows the perception of residents to rainy season, Dust at the end of rainy various risks of exposures to solid waste season, Rats and Rodents attack, hazard in the study area. The extent of Houseflies, Mosquitoes, Defacing the perception of the risk is measured using physical appearance of the environment, Linkert Scale. The range of the scale is Children playing off the dump, Injuries Strongly Agreed (SA); Agreed (A); Fair from sharp objects of the dumps, Pollution (F); Disagreed (D) and Strongly Disagreed of water bodies and Smoke from burning of (SD). the waste. The specific risk and hazard exposed to by the residents based on their perception
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
Table 5: Residents’ Perception of the Type of Hazard exposed to in the Study Area S/ Hazard Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5) Ground N SA A F D SD Total 1 Domestic Sewage 47 89 62 130 41 370 2 Sand Dust 29 26 202 60 53 370 3 Erosion 38 50 38 67 187 370 4 Poor Physical Apperance of the Environment 199 24 103 17 24 370 5 Children Playing on dump sites 7 19 48 125 171 370 6 Rats and Rodents 7 46 38 55 223 370 7 Mosquito Breeding 147 72 50 82 19 370 8 Houseflies 113 159 55 14 29 370 9 Injuries from Sharp Objects 5 14 19 183 149 370 10 Epidemics 7 34 46 84 199 370 11 Pollution of Water Source 17 7 10 130 206 370 12 Smoke from burning of solid waste (open 31 10 50 58 221 370 dump)
Table 6 shows the responses of the objects of the dumps fall within the fair residents in respect to their exposure to condition, meaning that their effect as a hazard of solid waste. These data are known result of the presence of these refuse dumps as Variable Numbers of Respondents is minute/ fair on the people around that (VNR) and the Fixed Hazard Grade (FHG) area. In the same vein, it shows that: foul is ranged from 1-5 of which 5 is the most odour, dust at the beginning of rainy season dangerous. The procedure of calculation of and house flies falls with the average the households level of exposure to solid condition, which indicate that most of the waste Hazards is shown thus: just itemized hazards exist on an average AG = ∑FHG XVNR (1) scale in the study area as a result of those (SSо) refuse dumps being present in that area.
Actual Grade (AG) = Fixed Hazards Grade In addition, Table 4 also indicates that: dust (FHG) X Variable Numbers of Respondents during hamattan, rats and other rodent (VNR) outbreak, mosquitoes, defacing the physical Sample Size (SSо) appearance of the environment, pollution of Where; water and smoke from burning of waste fall Fixed Hazards Grade (FHG): ranging from within the very bad condition on the ranking 1 to 5, were ‘1’ is Very Good; ‘2’ Good; ‘3’ scale, which means that there is a very high Average; ‘4’ Very Poor and 5 is Extremely existence of health hazards due to the Dangerous. presences refuse dump sites in the study Variable Numbers of Respondents (VNR): area. It has made the area susceptible solid the total number of responses for each waste hazard and if urgent measures are not grade. taken, it would be more terrifying in the Sample Size (SSо) - it is referred to as the nearest future. sample size of the study area, which is 370.
Table 4 also shows that erosion, children playing on the dump, injuries from sharp
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Table 6: Households Level of Exposure to Solid Waste Hazards S/N Hazard Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5) Poo Fair Average Very Extremely Actual r Bad Dangerous Grade 1 Domestic Sewage .13 .48 .51 1.40 .55 3.07 2 Sand Dust .01 .08 .16 1.97 2.01 4.23 3 Erosion .08 .14 1.64 .65 .71 3.22 4 Poor Physical Apperance of the Environment .02 .18 .37 .91 2.69 4.18 5 Children Playing on dump sites .31 .86 .45 .12 .39 2.12 6 Rats and Rodents .02 .25 .31 .73 2.53 3.95 7 Mosquito Breeding .10 .10 .39 1.35 2.31 4.17 8 Houseflies .02 .25 .31 .60 3.02 4.19 9 Injuries from Sharp Objects .40 .39 .41 .88 .26 2.34 10 Epidemics .54 .13 .84 .18 .36 2.05 11 Pollution of Water Source .05 .04 .08 1.40 2.79 4.36 12 Smoke from burning of solid waste (open .08 .05 .41 .62 2.99 4.16 dump)
Perception of Residents to Solid Waste Table 8 shows the response of the residents Hazard in Sabon Wuse to risk of health hazard when residing close Table 7 shows level of health hazard to refuse dump in the study area. The exposed to when residing close to dump site variable was then grouped as Variable in the study area. The health hazard exposed Numbers of Respondents (VNR) and the to varies,and it included the following: fear Fixed Hazard Grade (FHG) is ranged from of disease, discomfort from foul odour, 1-5 of which 5 is the most dangerous. The irritation from the sight of the dump, fear of total number of respondent is 370. The people leaving the neighbourhood, fear of procedure of its calculation and judgement persecution by the environmental sanitation follows the same procedure. body, the neighbourhood being repulsive to needed businesses, friends and relatives not wanting to visit.
Table 7: Residents’ Perception to Level of Health Hazard in the Study Area S/ Perception of Risk Exposed to Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5) N Poo Fai Averag Very Extremel Actual r r e Bad y Grade Dangerou s 1 Fear of disease 12 38 101 144 75 370 2 Discomfort from foul Odour 22 34 139 82 175 370 3 Irritation from the sight of the dump 26 12 79 197 113 370 4 Fear of people leaving in the neighborhood 34 77 108 86 65 370 5 Fear of persecution by the environmental 26 82 77 82 103 370 sanitation body 6 The neighborhood being repulsive to needed 31 10 43 127 159 370 businesses 7 Friends and relatives not wanting to visit my 26 14 67 123 139 370 family 8 Blocking of roads 21 46 53 151 99 370
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
The result of Table 8 also shows that fear There should be a total clearance of the of disease, discomfort from foul odour, existing illegal dump sites and proper irritation from the sight of the dump, fear of monitoring of the waste management in the people leaving the neighbourhood, fear of town to forestall illegal dumping. The persecution by the environmental sanitation offenders of this provision should be body, friendsand relatives not wanting to punished to serve as a deterrent to others. visit and blocking of roads falls within the There should also adequate information to average condition, it therefore indicate that residents and awareness on the danger of due to the presence of the refuse dump the consequences of indiscriminate dumping of area suffers the just listed health hazard in refuse in an undesignated dump site. System an average manner, that is to say, the of refuse collection by the responsible occurrence are minimal though exist in that agency that is Niger State Environmental area. Furthermore, The Table 8 shows that Protection Agency should be improved only one falls within the very bad condition, upon to include door to door system of this indicates that the presence of the refuse refuse collection, putting into consideration dump has made the neighbourhood to be durable storage facilities. repulsive to needed businesses. According Regular evacuation of the solid waste from to the popular Nigerian saying “The eyes dump site by the government and its eat before the mouth”. Due to the agency. Prompt and timely evacuation of unpleasant odour, unpleasant view and municipal solid waste from residence to the other environmental deterioration caused by nearest landfill and sorting of the waste to the present of the refuse dump, this has reduce the time of decomposing and drastically harper business activities with recycling of recyclable waste. It should be the affect area of the study area. noted that if there is a delay or irregular frequency in evacuation of municipal solid Recommendations waste, it might lead to the temptation of Based on the findings of this study, the residents returning back to their usual habit following recommendations are hereby of indiscriminate refuse dumping. proposed;
Table 8: Residents’ Level of Risk of Health Hazard Exposed to in the Study Area S/ Hazard Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5) N Poo Fair Averag Very Extremel Actual r e Bad y Grade Dangerou s 1 Fear of disease .03 .21 .82 1.56 1.01 3.62 2 Discomfort from foul Odour .06 .18 .47 .88 2.40 3.99 3 Irritation from the sight of the dump .07 .05 .64 1.51 1.53 3.80 4 Fear of people leaving in the neighborhood .09 .42 .88 .94 .88 3.19 5 Fear of persecution by the environmental .07 .44 .42 .88 1.40 3.21 sanitation body 6 The neighborhood being repulsive to needed .08 .05 .35 1.38 2.14 4.01 businesses 7 Friends and relatives not wanting to visit my .07 .08 .55 1.32 1.88 3.90 family 8 Blocking of roads .06 .25 .43 1.64 1.33 3.70
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Conclusion 127.Retrieved from The study has been able to establish that www.link.springer.com.. there is one legal and 19 illegal dump sites Agwu, M. O. (2012). Issues and Challenges in Sabon Wuse Area despite its close of Solid Waste Management proximity to Federal Capital of Nigeria and Practices in Port-Harcourt City, influx of people to the town. The quantity of Nigeria: A Behavioural Perspective. waste generated shows that it ranges American Journal of Social and between 0.52 kg/capita/day and 0.62 Management Sciences. 3(2), 83-92. kg/capita/day.The result also shows that Retrieved from www.scihub.org,. dumping of solid waste into the surrounding Akinbile, C.O. and Yusoff, M.S. (2011). is the most favoured method. There is also Environmental Impact of Leachate the use of informal waste collectors who Pollution on Groundwater Supplies also dump the waste in the illegal dump in Akure Nigeria. International sites in the town. The perception of the Journal of Environmental Science residents to the risk of staying close to and Development, 2, 81-89. refuse dump varies between severe (at BBC News. (2005). Illegal Dumping 'Costs 100m) and mild (at 200m). The total Millions'. Available online at number of buildings exposed to the risk of http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/ both environmental and health hazard is 4310267.stm. [retrieved 1st April about 25.6% at 100 m and about 53.2% at 2014]. 200 m buffer. This shows that a greater BBC News. (2005). Illegal dumping 'costs number of residents are exposed to danger millions'. Available: on health and environmental hazard. This http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/ has an effect on the health care delivery as 4310267.stm. Accessed on 01 many residents are prone to mosquito attack April 2014. and epidemic as a result of houseflies. Bryman, A. (2001). Social Research Methods. UK: Oxford University Refrences Press. Abd’Razack, N.T., and Bin Muhamadludin Chung, S.S and Poon, C.S. (2001). A A.N. (2013): Environmental Comparison of Waste Reduction Assessment tool& its rating. A Practices and New Environmental Review. Australian Journal of Basic Paradigm of Rural and Urban and Applied Sciences.7(7), 20-78. Chinese Citizen. Journal of Retrieved from Environmental Management 62(1), www.researchgate.net, 2015. 3-19. Abd’Razack, Nelson T.A., Yusuf, A.E. and Etengeneng, D. (2012). Municipal Solid Utange, J.Z. (2013). An Appraisal of Waste Management in Solid Waste Generation and Grahamstown, Republic of South Management in Jalingo City, Africa. Novia: Novia University of Nigeria. Journal of Environment and Applied Sciences. A M.Sc Thesis. Earth Science,3(9), 20-29. [pdf]. Agunwamba, J. C. (2003). Analysis of Holmes, D. (2000). Waste Minimization in Scavengers’ Activities and the Small Islad Developing State of Recycling in Some Cities of Nigeria. the South Pacific; Implication for Journal of Environmental Strategy & Policy.Workshop on Management. 32(1),116– Waste Management of Developing
Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria
Countries. University of developing countries. Waste Wollongong, Australia. Management, 33, 988-1003. Hoornweg, D. and Bhada-Tata, P. (2012). Morrisson, R.S., Wray, R., Dever, S What a Waste: A Global Review of &Dusbaun, L.(2000). Workshop on Solid Waste Management. Urban Waste Management of Developing Development, 15, 22-32. Countries. University of Wollongong, Australia. Johnson, K. (2006). Toxic Dumping in Nahman, A. and Godfrey, L.(2010). Africa Elicits calls for Better Economic Instruments for Solid Controls. Available online at Waste Management in South Africa: http://www.nationalgepgraphic.com/ Opportunities and Constraints. news/2006/10/061030-toxic- Resources, Conservation and waste.html [Accessed on accessed Recycling, 8, 521-531. on 9th Dec., 2015 Niger State Environmental Protection Karanjit, H. G., Chowdhury, B., Alam, T. Agency (NISEPA) (2012). Profile of R., Shrestha, F. S., and Hassan, U. Solid Waste Management in Niger (2007). Household waste collection State (2000-2012). Government of – factors and variations. Luleå Niger State Press, Minna. University of Technology, Sweden: NPC (2015). 2006 Natioanal Population and University Press, 12-34. Housing Census Results. Kariuki, P. (2008). Examining Consumers’ Publication Units, National Perceptions on Water Supply and Population Commission. Sanitation Services: A case study of Presidency, Abuja, Nigeria. Ohlange Township, Durban, South Nwosu, A.E., and Olofa, S.A. (2015). Effect Africa. Durban: University of of waste dump sites on proximate KwaZulu-Natal (MA thesis) [Pdf]. residential property values in Kim, J.T. and Gobalan, H.N.B (1997): Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Public Health and Environmental Ethopian journal of Environmental Aspect of Municipal Solid Waste studies and management, 8, 45-76. Management in Developing Retrieved from www.ajol.info.com. Countries with Special Focus on 2015. Small Island Developing State in Ogwueleka, T. (2009). Municipal Solid Workshop on Waste Management of Waste Characteristics and Developing Countries. University of Management in Nigeria. Journal of Wollongong, Australia. Environmental Health, Science and Lutui, V. (2001).Waste management Engineering. 6(3), 17-123. practices,perceptions and attitudes in Retrieved from Tonga: Australian Waste Database. www.ijehse.tums.ac.ir. 2015. Cited in www.ro.uow.edu.au. 2015. Oyelola, O. T. and Babatunde, A.I (2008). Madava, T. (2001). Illicit Dumping of Characterization of domestic and Toxic Wastes breach of Human market solid Wastes at source in Rights. Review of African Political Lagos metropolis, Lagos, Nigeria. Economy, 28, 288-290. African Journal of Environmental Marshall, R.E. and Farahbakhsh, K. 2013. Science and Technology, 3, 430-437. Systems approaches to integrated Project Green Sweep. (2011). solid waste management in Environmental, Health and Economic Effects of Illegal
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Dumping. Available online at Available online at http://pulse.pharmacy.arizona.edu/re http://www.theguardian.com/enviro sources/EffectsofDumping.pdf nment/2011/may/16/uk-ewaste- [Accessed on 3rd/04/2016]. dumped-ghana [Accessed on Sanusi, Y.A (2010). Water, sanitation and 23/07/2015]. human development in urban fringe Waste Management Strategy in England settlements in Nigeria.Theoretical and Wales (2000). Waste and empirical researches in urban Management Strategies. London: management. 5(7). Retrieved from square publisher, 5-27. www.search.proquest.com. 2015. World Bank (2010). Global Strategy for UNEP (2005). Environmental Disaster and Health and Environment. World Development.Journal of Bank/EHE/51.8. Environment Science. 3(1), 2005.8- Zurbrügg, C. (2002). Urban Solid Waste 15. Management In Low-Income UNEP (2010): Solid Waste Management in Countries of Asia: How to cope with Sub-Saharan Cities. UNEP the Garbage Crisis. Urban Solid publication Unit. Nairobi, Kenya. Waste Management Review Session. UNEPA (October 2014). Environmental Durban, South Africa. Preparedness and Response. Geneva: press, 8-32. United Nations Environment Programme. (2005). Closing and Open Dumpsite and Shifting from Open Dumping to Controlled Dumping and to Sanitary Landfilling. Available online at http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publicati ons/spc/SPC_Training-Module.pdf [Accessed on 17th/08/2015]. United States Environmental Protection Agency.(1998). Illegal Dumping Prevention Handbook. Available online at http://www.epa.gov/region5/waste/il legal_dumping/downloads/il- dmpng.pdf [Accessed on 21st/02/2016]. USEPA (2005). National policy on Environmental risk reduction: Fact Sheet No. 134. Revised May 2008. Vika, L.(2001): Waste Management Practice, Perception & Attitude in Tonga. An Unpublished M.Sc Thesis. School of Geoscience. University of Wollongong, Australia. Wasley, A. (2011). UK e-waste illegally dumped in Ghana. The Guardian.
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Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis
Hassan Shuaibu Liman*1, Isaac Ayodele Olatunji1, Gbenga Morenikeji1, Oluseun Olukemi Olubajo2 & Zakari Dodo Usman3 1Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria 2Department of Building, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria. 3Department of Estate Management, Niger State Polytechnic, Zungeru. Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]
Abstract Mass appraisal has become a standard approach of valuing large groups of properties especially for taxation purpose. It is widely used in developed countries including the US, UK and other European countries as well as in some developing countries such as Malaysia. In this paper, the application of mass appraisal model in Nigeria was examined. Hedonic based multiple regression analysis was used to analyse a set of 91 transaction data recorded between 2009 and 2013. The regression results revealed the contributory effect of the different housing attributes on the house price. Based on these results, a mass appraisal model for residential property valuation was developed. The performance of the model was evaluated using ratio study and the model was found to be adequate. It was discovered that a good mass appraisal model can bring about improvement in property tax administration in the study area by reducing cost and ensuring fairness and equity, which are very crucial in any property tax assessment process. The paper recommends that future studies should incorporate GIS, more explanatory variables as well as larger sample size to improve the accuracy of the model. Keywords: Mass Appraisal, Residential Property Price, Hedonic Model, Ratio Study
Introduction However, this potential of property tax as a The significance of housing to both the source of revenue has not been fully society and economy cannot be realised particularly in Minna, despite the overemphasised. It provides for one of the city’s economic importance. Therefore, the basic human needs and also constitutes a selection of Minna for this study is due to substantial proportion of the wealth of many the importance of the city as the capital of households as stated by Forensic Niger State, which shares boundary with Technologies International (FTI Consulting, Nigeria’s capital city, Abuja. Minna has 2012). This wealth also accrues to over the years experienced continuous government as most countries of the world influx of people which has led to rapid use different forms of taxes levied on increase in its population. However, this homeowners as revenues to carry out rise in population has not been accompanied developmental projects. These projects will by adequate infrastructural development. in turn offer direct or indirect social benefits to the property occupants and in most cases Real property tax is thus seen as one of the lead to increase in values of their properties. avenues through which the local Property tax therefore is one of the major government can generate more revenues to and important sources of revenue to the finance its activities especially in terms of local government, the arm of government infrastructural development for the benefit mainly charged with the administration of of the populace. Consequently, there is need property taxes (Harris and Moore, 2013; for a systematic real property tax Owuso-Ansah, 2012; Sipan, et al., 2012). administration system that will serve the
Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis interest of the government and people. It determining residential property value in becomes very important to propose a more Minna, people may tend to resort to efficient way of assessing house prices by personal judgement to arrive at an estimated the local governments for the purpose of tax value. There is therefore need for a shift in administration. This will ensure equity and paradigm to more reliable methods of uniformity, as well as effectiveness in the valuing properties. Thus, mass appraisal, an assessment process, which will be approach for valuing large group of advantageous both to the taxpayers and the properties was introduced. local authorities. It will also lead to The purpose of this paper therefore is to reduction in costs of property assessment as employ a hedonic regression approach in well as time saving. This has necessitated estimating house prices in Minna, Nigeria, the recommendation of mass appraisal for with the aim of applying a mass appraisal taxation purposes, which will serve as a model for residential property taxation starting point to providing an effective tax which will ensure equity, fairness and cost system in Minna. effectiveness that will be at the advantage of the taxpayers and the local government. Property valuation is required for different purposes including taxation. This implies Literature Review that before tax is levied on a property, the Mass appraisal property has to be properly assessed to According to International Association of know its value. The accuracy of this Assessing Officers(IAAO), mass appraisal valuation is very paramount for a good tax is “the process of valuing a group of system and also very important to property properties as of a given date and using market players especially the real estate common data, standardized methods, and professionals (Sipan and Ab Rahman, statistical testing (IAAO, 2013a).” It usually 1996). The valuation of real estate has been involves large group of properties as against carried out using the traditional methods of individual property (Kauko and d'Amato, valuation which are comparison, cost, 2008). Mass appraisal started in the United investment, profit and residual methods States in the 1920s, and has since then (Selim, 2008). These approaches are still continued to evolve (Florida Department of useful for single property valuation. It is Revenue, 2002). It has been adopted in however argued in the literature that they developed countries like America, the UK are not efficient for valuing large group of and other European countries. Research in properties especially for the purpose of the field of mass appraisal is also gaining taxation, which requires a certain level of more prevalence in some developing equity and fairness across all the assessed countries such as Malaysia. There is properties. This is because these traditional however no evidence of the application of methods have some level of subjectivity and mass appraisal model for property taxation also bring about inconsistencies of assessed in the Minna property market. values (see Sipan et al., 2012). Apart from the inconsistencies, errors involved and the Mass appraisal performance evaluation lack of evidence to be used by valuers in In mass appraisal, the performance of the adopting the traditional sales comparison model has to be evaluated to ensure that the approach also makes the valuation process model is capable of replicating the forces of difficult, thereby resulting in inaccuracy of demand and supply in the whole tax valuation opinion (Bozic et al., 2013). Due jurisdiction fairly and equitably. According to lack of any standardized procedure for [email protected] 108
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 to IAAO (1990), the primary tool used to Secondly, it also considers the consistency evaluate the performance of mass appraisal of assessment levels within property models is ratio study. For the purpose of groups” (IAAO 2013a). The typical equity, there are two major aspects of mass measures of uniformity used in ratio study appraisal accuracy measured in a ratio study are the Coefficient of Dispersion (COD) which are appraisal level and appraisal and the Price-Related Differential (PRD). uniformity. The standards for COD have been outlined in details in the Standard on Ratio Studies Appraisal level (IAAO 2013b). Generally, a COD between Appraisal level measures the proximity 5 – 20 is acceptable depending on the type between assessment values and actual sales of property being appraised. It should be prices on an overall basis (IAAO, 2013a). noted however that Low CODs (15 or less) This is because in mass appraisal, appraised tend to be associated with good appraisal values do not usually equal market prices. uniformity (IAAO, 1990). The principle however is that overappraisals should balance The PRD on the other hand is used to underappraisals such that the typical ratio measure assessment’s progressivity or is near 1 or 100 percent. The four measures regressively. It provides a simple gauge of of appraisal level in a ratio study are the price-related bias, which shows the extent median, arithmetic mean, weighted mean of bias between low- and high-value and geometric mean, each of which has its properties in the sample used. The Standard pros and cons. It is thus recommended that on Ratio Studies (IAAO, 2013b) specified all the measures be calculated and an acceptable PRD of 0.98 to 1.03. PRD compared for proper guidance (IAAO, below 1.00 is an indication of assessment 1990). Note that wide variations among the progressivity, whereby the assessment ratios different measures of appraisal level may be increase with price. It implies that the high- indicative of poor appraisal performance. value properties are over-appraised. The Standard for Ratio Study (IAAO, Conversely, PRDs above 1.00 tend to 2013b) stipulates that while the theoretically indicate assessment regressivity, in which desired level of appraisal is 1.00, a level case the assessment ratios decline with between 0.90 and 1.10 is acceptable for any price, indicating that the high-value class of property with the exception of cases properties may be under-appraised (IAAO, where stipulated local standards must be 1990). followed. Hedonic price model Appraisal uniformity Alternative methods of assessing values of The second tool used in measuring the properties have sprung up lately such as performance of mass appraisal is the econometric models which are useful appraisal uniformity. It basically looks at approaches in estimating home prices to the consistency and equity of values. First, buyers and local authorities (Tabales et al., it considers uniformity between property 2013). More so, the authors noted that over groups, for example, “that residential and the years, classical hedonic models in real commercial properties are appraised at estate appraisal have been used as a similar percentages of market value and that procedure to estimate prices of such residential assessment levels are consistent complex goods as housing. The hedonic among neighbourhoods, construction model posits that “a good possesses a classes, age groups, and size groups. myriad of attributes that combine to form
Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis bundles of utility-affecting attributes that studies that involve owner occupied the consumer values (Ching and Chan, properties. 2003).” The hedonic model based on micro economic theory has been widely used in The second type of variable, which is the real estate valuation and housing market independent variable includes all significant studies, particularly in analysing residential factors that are likely to affect the measure property prices and rental values (Selim, of value. In the housing market literature, 2008). The hedonic approach is particularly these factors have been broadly grouped useful when there is no enough statistical into three namely the structural, locational information especially the property and neighbourhood attributes. Focusing on transaction details (Tabales et al., 2013). It property-specific attributes, Wyatt (2007) also has the advantages of easy-to-use, submitted that “the principal physical easy-to-understand and high accuracy of qualities of the building are size, age, results (Tian, 2013). In the case of a house, condition, external appearance (including the model tends to estimate the price or aspect and visibility), internal specification rental value of the house as a function of its and configuration.” He argues that these attributes. Other advanced techniques that qualities are hypothesized to have effect on are used in mass appraisal include artificial the level of “performance of the building to neural networks, spatial analysis, fuzzy varying degrees depending on the use to logic, kriging, autoregressive integrated which it is put.” moving average, spatial autoregression, geographically weighted regression, moving Factors for mass appraisal approach in window regression, time trend analysis and residential neighbourhoods feedback (Jahanshiri et al., 2011; Residential real estate prices can be Mohamad, 2012). The literature has shown influenced by a diverse number of attributes that the Ordinary Least Square regression is or factors. These factors can be broadly the most common model used in property classified under micro and macro assessment ratings (Sipan et al., 2012). determinants. The macro determinants of house prices are those macroeconomic There are two types of variables that are factors such as inflation, exchange rate, usually included in a house price hedonic unemployment rate and GDP that affect the regression model. They are dependent entire economy of a country. The micro variable (also called regressand or measured factors on the other hand, which are variable) and independent variable (also property specific factors and are of called regressor or predictor variable) relevance in hedonic price analysis, have (Ismail, 2005). According to the researcher, been classified into three by Watkins (2001) the dependent variable is a measure of as physical, neighbourhood and locational house value, which is represented by rents, characteristics. For the purpose of this study sales price, asking price, or even owner's which focuses on developing a mass estimated price as the case may be. The appraisal model, only the micro researcher noted that the use of each of determinants of house price will be these different measures of house value is considered because mass appraisal is based evident in previous studies, adding that on local property markets. rents are normally adopted in case of studies that involve rented properties while the Sirmans and Macpherson (2005) listed out other measures of value are adopted in the top twenty housing attributes (micro house price determinants) that are most [email protected] 110
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 frequently included in previous studies on of rooms, number of bathrooms/toilets, age, hedonic house price modelling. Table 1 condition, location, distance to the central shows details of the appearances of the business district and neighbourhood variables from the previous studies. facilities available. The sales transaction data is basically the price at which the It is worthy of note that not all of these residential properties in question were sold variables can be found in the present study and the respective year each property was area. The absence of some variable in the sold. These attributes were identified from current study may be attributed to previous studies through literature review. differences in contextual, idiosyncratic and Table 2 shows the list of variables included cultural settings as noted by Ching and in this study and their units of measurement. Chan (2003) or as a result of variation in the They are variables for which data were nature of the property market characteristics obtained by the researcher. Macroeconomic as noted by Bello and Bello (2008). In factors were not included since they are addition, the unavailability of data on some variables that are more concerned with the variables has equally limited the number of larger economy of the country as a whole variables to be included in the study. rather the local property market as applicable to this study. Methodology Due to the unavailability of much Data residential transaction records in the study Data used in this research are property area, data for this study is made up of 91 attributes/ characteristics and sales house sales transaction cases in Minna, transaction data. The attribute data cover the recorded between 2009 and 2013. three aspects of structural, locational and neighbourhood attributes earlier mentioned and they include house type, size, number
Table 1: Variables often included in most hedonic models Independent Number of (Times): Variables Appearances Positive Negative Not Significant Lot Size 52 45 0 7 Ln Lot Size 12 9 0 3 Square Feet 69 62 4 3 Ln Square Feet 12 12 0 0 Brick 13 9 0 4 Age 78 7 63 8 No. of Stories 13 4 7 2 No. of Bathrooms 40 34 1 5 No. of Rooms 14 10 1 3 Bedrooms 40 21 9 10 Full Baths 37 31 1 5 Fireplace 57 43 3 11 Air Conditioning 37 34 1 2 Basement 21 15 1 5 Garage Spaces 61 48 0 13 Deck 12 10 0 2 Pool 31 27 0 4 Distance 15 5 5 5 Time On Market 18 1 8 9 Time Trend 13 2 3 8 Source: Adopted from Sirmans and Macpherson (2005)
Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis
The data were sourced from six of the by the amount of data available. Other registered estate surveying and valuation secondary data used in this research were firms that are practicing in Minna. The sourced from published materials and firms provided data on residential property documents that contain discussions about transactions, particularly the sales prices the subject matter of research and the and corresponding property attributes. Note research trend. These sources include that in a ratio study that utilizes sales data textbooks, reports, journals, conference only (as in the case of this research), there is proceedings, gazette materials, internet and limited extent of control that the researcher other electronic sources. has over sample size (IAAO, 1990). This implies that the sample size will be limited
Table 2: List of variables and their descriptions Variable Variable Measurement Variable Description Name of Variable Y Price Nigerian Naira Price of the House: Actual Sales price of the house in (N) Naira X1 Type Nominal Type of House: Whether the house is a Tenement, Flat, Semi-Detached or Detached Bungalow or a Duplex X2 Size Scale (Sqm) Total Size of the house in square meters X3 Rooms Scale Number of rooms in the house X4 Bathrooms Scale Number of bathrooms or toilets in the house X5 Age Scale (Years) Age of the house since it was built X6 Condition Nominal Physical condition of the house: Whether the house is Very Poor, Poor, Fair, Good or New. X7 Year Scale Year the house was sold: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 or 2013 X8 Location Nominal Location of the house: Area in which the house is located – low, medium or high income area. X9 Distance Scale (KM) Distance of the house to the Central Business District (Mobil) X10 Facilities Nominal Number of facilities available in the neighbourhood the house is located such as School, Hospital/ clinic, Police Post.
A representation of the proposed model is given as: Table 3: Descriptive statistics P = a + βx + e (1) Variables Mean Std. Deviation In the equation 1, P is the House prices, a is Price 4349450.54 2711923.206 Type 3.14 1.644 the constant, β is the coefficient matrix, x is Size 171.7 54.453 the set of independent variables and e, the Rooms 5.88 5.625 error term. Substituting for the variables, we Bathrooms 2.79 1.197 will have the equation re-written thus: Age 12.58 8.694 House Price = Constant + β1 (Type) + β2 Condition 3.23 1.034 (Size) + β3 (Rooms) – β4 (Baths) + β5 (Age) Year 3.67 1.491 + β6 (Year) + β7 (Condition) – β8 (Location) Location 2.40 .728 + β9 (Distance) + β10 (Facilities) + error Distance 2.9398 1.28924 term (2) Facilities 3.13 .957 [email protected] 112
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N 91 namely appraisal level and appraisal Five types of houses were sampled in the uniformity were measured to ascertain the study. They are detached bungalows, semi- adequacy of the model. There are four detached, flats, tenements and duplexes. measures of appraisal level in a ratio study The number of rooms in a house ranges which are the median, the arithmetic mean, from 2 to 21 rooms depending on the house the weighted mean and the geometric mean, type. The prices of these houses range from each of which is expected to be at a level N1,200,000 for tenements, which are the between 0.90 and 1.10. On the other hand, cheapest types, up to N10,000,000 for appraisal uniformity is typically measured duplexes, with the average price being using Coefficient of Dispersion (COD) and about N4,349,450. Most of the recorded the Price-Related Differential (PRD). While transactions within the sample period of 5 the COD should normally fall between 5 years took place in 2013 with the other and 20, the PRD is expected to be between samples almost evenly distributed 0.98 and 1.03. throughout the previous year. This is an indication of improved record keeping by Results the estate firms. Data on the condition of the A regression analysis was obtained using all houses revealed that 32 of the houses are in the variables and it was found that the fair condition, 25 are in good conditions number of rooms did not pass the check, while 20 were said to be in poor state of having a P-Value of 0.272 which is above repairs as at the time they were sold. 0.05. Consequently, the variable was excluded and a second regression model Method of analysis was obtained which is shown in table 4. The The study employed the use of statistical model has a coefficient of determination technique particularly the hedonic price (R2) of 0.923. This shows that about 92% of modelling approach base on multiple variation in house price can be explained by regression analysis (MRA) to empirically the independent variables. The F-statistics identify the significant factors that affect (F-value – 107.57 and F-sig. – 0.000) house prices in the study area and the level indicate that the independent variables when of effect exerted by each of the factors. The put together are statistically significant in selection of this method of analysis is based determining house prices in Minna. While on the evidence from literature that MRA the F-statistics show the significance of the performs better when small samples are variables as a whole, the significance of the used for analysis (see Kauko and d’Amato, individual variables is indicated by their 2008). The coefficients from the regression respective P-Values (sig.) and the results result showed the marginal contribution of shows that all the variables are individually each of the variables included in the significant (p-values less than 0.05). regression model to the overall price of a house in the study area. The significant Further evaluation of the results reveals that factors identified from the regression results the problem of multicollinearity does not were then used to propose a model. The exist in the model as all the variables have a model was then evaluated to test its tolerance that is greater than 0.1 and VIF suitability for the purpose of mass appraisal. that is below 5. The contributory effect of The model evaluation was done with the aid each variable can be observed from the B of the mass appraisal evaluation technique coefficients of the variables. A look at the known as ratio study. The two aspects of signs of the coefficients of the independent mass appraisal accuracy in a ratio study variables will reveal that all the variables
Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis included in the model except age of a house (Condition)+146506.912(Year) + and its distance to the CBD are positively 675543.323 (Location) - 189033.094 correlated with house prices. This implies (Distance)+531602.035 (Facilities) (3) that a unit increase in each of the variables The model presents house price as a with positive coefficients (type of house, function of the different attributes of the size, bathroom, condition, year, location and house, each of which affects the price at facilities) will bring about corresponding varying degrees as indicated by the increase in price of a house. On the other coefficients hand, the negative signs on the coefficient of age implies that the older a house is, the Mass appraisal performance evaluation lesser the price of the house. Likewise, the As earlier stated, every mass appraisal farther a house is from the CBD, the lower model has to be evaluated. The essence of the price of the house. the evaluation is to compare the appraised values with the actual sales prices to see if A mass appraisal model was therefore the model can be accepted. Evaluation of obtained using the coefficients from the the model in this study was done using ratio regression results. The equation for the study. The results of the ratio study are model is presented as follows: presented in table 5. House Price =-5721793.178+ 255441.430(Type)+5942.767(Size) + 722872.168(Baths)- 30191.112(Age) + 1035230.685
Table 4: Regression coefficients Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig. Collinearity Coefficients Statistics B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF (Constant) -5721793.178 719275.614 -7.955 .000 - - Type 255441.430 68010.869 .155 3.756 .000 .561 1.783 Size 5942.767 1904.560 .119 3.120 .003 .652 1.534 Bathroom 722872.168 97761.689 .319 7.394 .000 .512 1.955 Age -30191.112 12335.514 -.097 -2.447 .017 .610 1.641 Condition 1035230.685 124791.713 .395 8.296 .000 .421 2.373 Year 146506.912 76315.623 .081 1.920 .048 .541 1.847 Location 675543.323 176636.993 .181 3.824 .000 .423 2.362 Distance -189033.094 87677.689 -.090 -2.156 .034 .549 1.823 Facilities 531602.035 169577.230 .188 3.135 .002 .266 3.757
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Table 5: Measure of appraisal level and appraisal mass appraisals of residential properties for uniformity taxation purpose. The model was evaluated * S/N Measure of Required Result using ratio study; a mass appraisal o. Appraisal Level 1 Median 0.9 – 1.1 1.0024 evaluation technique. After evaluation, the 2 Mean 0.9 – 1.1 1.0091 model was found to be suitable and is 3 Weighted Mean 0.9 – 1.1 1 therefore recommended for mass appraisal 4 Geometric Mean 0.9 – 1.1 0.94 of residential properties in Minna. The Measure of study further recommends that in the future, Appraisal more explanatory variables and larger Uniformity samples should be used and Geographic 5 Coefficient of 5 – 20 20.91 Information Systems (GIS) should be Dispersion (COD) 6 Price-Related 0.98– 1.03 1.009 incorporated to accurately capture the Differential (PRD) locational attributes of the properties, as it *Note: The requirements for each of the measures as has been noted in previous studies like Tian stipulated in The Standard on Ratio Studies (IAAO (2013) that the adoption of GIS has helped 2013b) have been discussed in the previous sections. to produce more accurate assessment values. All the measure of appraisal level computed, that is, the median, arithmetic mean, weighted mean and geometric mean References fall within the acceptable standard of 0.90 – Bello, M. O. and Bello, V. A. (2008). 1.10. In addition, two measures of appraisal Willingness to Pay for Better uniformity were computed. While the PRD Environmental Services: Evidence has fallen within the acceptable of standard from the Nigerian Real Estate of 0.98 – 1.03, the COD is a bit above 20 Market. Journal of African Real (20.91), the researchers deem the model still Estate Research, 1(1), 19-27. acceptable considering the sample size Božić, B., Milićević, D., Pejić, M., and utilized in the research as well as the fact Marošan, S. (2013). The use of that all the five other measures are within Multiple Linear Regression in the acceptable standards. Property Valuation. Geonauka, 1(1), 41 – 45. Ching, T.-L., and Chan, K. (2003). A Conclusion Critical Review of Literature on The paper made attempt to develop a the Hedonic Price Model and its symbolic Mass Appraisal model to Application to the Housing Market undertake valuation of residential properties in Penang. International Journal in Minna. The research established that for Housing Science and Its house prices in Minna are significantly Applications, 27(2), 145 – 165. influenced by type of the house, its size, Florida Department of Revenue (2002). The age, condition, the number of bathrooms, Florida Real Property Appraisal year the house was sold, location of the Guidelines 2002. Florida house, its distance to the CBD as well as the Department of Revenue Property availability of neighbourhood facilities. The Tax Administration Program. age of a house and its distance to the CBD FTI Consulting. (2012). Understanding have negative effect on prices, meaning that Supply Constraints in the Housing as the two variables increase, house prices Market. A Report Prepared for tend to decrease. The study has used these SHELTER. significant variables to develop a model for
Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis
Harris, B. H. and Moore, B. D. (2013). Conference. 24 -27 October 2012. Residential Property Taxes in the Accra, Ghana. United States. A Bief for Urban- Selim, S. (2008). Determinants of House Brookings Tax Policy Center. Prices in Turkey: a Hedonic IAAO - International Association of Regression Model. Doğuş Assessing Officers (1990). Üniversitesi Dergisi, 9(1), 65 – 76. Property Appraisal and Sipan, I. and Ab Rahman, R. (1996). Assessment Administration. Objectivity in Valuation Chicago: International Association Techniques. Buletin Ukur, 7(3), of Assessing Officers. 190-197. IAAO - International Association of Sipan, I., Ali, H. M., Ismail, S., Abdullah, Assessing Officers (2013a). S. and Abd Aziz, S. S. (2012). Standard on Mass Appraisal of GIS-Based Mass Appraisal Model Real Property. Kansas City: IAAO. for Equity and Uniformitsy of IAAO - International Association of Rating Assessment. International Assessing Officers (2013b). Journal of Real Estate Studies, Standard on Ratio Studies – 2013. 7(2), 40 – 49. Kansas City: IAAO. Sirmans, S. G., Macpherson, D. A., and Ismail, S. (2005). Hedonic Modelling of Zietz, E. N. (2005). The Housing Markets Using Composition of Hedonic Pricing Geographical Information System Models. Journal of real estate (GIS) and Spatial Statistics: A literature, 13(1), 1-44. Case Study of Glasgow, Scotland. Tabales, J. N., Caridad, J. M., and Carmona, Unpublished PhD thesis, F. J. R. (2013). Artificial Neural University of Aberdeen, Glasgow. Networks for Predicting Real Jahanshiri, E., Buyong, T., and Shariff, A. Estate Prices. Revista de métodos R. M. (2011). A Review of cuantitativos para la economía y la Property Mass Valuation Models. empresa, (15), 29-44. Pertanika Journal of Science and Tian, S. (2013). Mass Appraisal of Property Technology, 19(S), 23 – 30. Tax Base based on Multivariate Kauko, T. and d’Amato, M. (Eds.) (2008). Linear Regression—Empirical Mass Appraisal Methods. An Study on Four Districts of Jinan. International Perspective for International Conference on Property Valuers. Chichester: Education Technology and Wiley-Blackwell. Information System (ICETIS 2013) Mohamad, J. B. (2012). Assessment of Watkins, C. A. (2001). The Definition and Property Values in Thin Market Identification of Housing Using Rank Transformation Submarkets. Environment and Regression and Multiple Planning A, 33(12), 2235-2254. Regression Analysis. Master of Wyatt, P. (2007). Property Valuation in an Science. Universiti Teknologi economic context. Oxford: Malaysia (Unpublished). Blackwell Publishing Owusu-Ansah, A. (2012). Examination of the Determinants of Housing Values in Urban Ghana and Implications for Policy Makers. African Real Estate Society [email protected] 116
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Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area
Fidelis C. Duchi and Wadanda Kabiru Musa Department of urban and regional planning, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Corresponding E-mail. [email protected]
Abstract The Urban Heat Island effect is linked to the built environment and threatens human health during extreme heat events. This study aimed to examine the spatial pattern of heat islands in Zaria urban area. Satellite imagery, Landsat imagery Base map and Metrological data were used. Reconnaissance survey was used for data collection with other sources. ArcGIS and Google earth software were used to collect data and analyzed using remote sensing, simple descriptive statistical techniques method. The results show the correlation between the maximum temperature and the years of analysis as 0.8433 with 84.33% linear relationship. The coefficient of determination R2 is 0.7112 which reveals 71.12% change in maximum temperature caused by variation of time. To attain a balance heat change in Zaria Urban area it is recommended to: Restore loss of vegetation, Consideration for landscaping in plan approval, strategic management on congested city and traffic problems, Consideration for building material and orientation, Creation of shelter belt and stabilizing river embankment, Encouraging the use of permeable surface, Use of contemporary techniques, Partnership towards sustainable environment and Improving the competency of environmentalists. Keywords: urban heat island, land use; spatial analysis, remote sensing, strategies
Introduction climatic change, increased vehicular Global warming has obtained more congestion, alterations in natural drainage attention because the global mean surface systems, and reduced water supply which is temperature has increased since 19th generally change in the land use cover are century. Urbanization has occurred at already associated with rapid urbanization. unprecedented rates in the last 100 years. The United Nations estimated that in 2010 The term, urban heat Island (UHI) was more than half of the world’s population coined by Gordon Manley in 1958. UHI lived in cities, predicting an increase to phenomenon is known for centuries, but the more than 70% by 2050 (United Nations, semi-scientific awareness of the urban 2012). It is argued that the world urban climate anomaly is traced back to mid-18th population will increase from 3.5 billion in century. In the 1750s, Ezra Stiles noted that 2010 to 6.2 billion and by 2050 almost all the air of towns was warmer than the of which will be focused on developing country side (Meyer, 1991). Urban heat countries. Growing at about 5% per annum, island (UHI) can be defined as an urban Nigeria’s urban population estimated at area which is significantly warmer than its 46.2% in 2005 would rise to 58% by 2050 surrounding rural area. It is a measurable (UN-Habitat, 2008). Given the expected increase in urban air temperatures resulting urban expansion, cities are likely to triple primarily from the replacement of their developed land intake a situation that vegetation with buildings, roads, and other would have untold negative environmental heat-absorbing infrastructure (United States and economic consequences. The Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] implications of negative externalities of (2008).
Duchi, Musa Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area The urban heat island (UHI) effect is linked make physical planning recommendation to the built environment and threatens for sustainable urban development. human health during extreme heat events. This study analyzed the weather Aim and Objectives characteristics of land uses within an urban The aim of this study is to examine the area associated with higher surface spatial pattern of heat islands in relation to temperatures, and whether concentrations of land use pattern in Zaria urban area. hot land uses exacerbate this relationship. The following are the specific objectives Higher concentrations of these land uses are 1. To review the concept and analytical usually associated with more extreme technique of urban heat island. surface temperatures. Municipal planners 2. To examine the physical and decision-makers formulate policies and development characteristics of Zaria regulations that are specific to the urban area. problematic land uses in order to mitigate 3. To assess the implications of urban extreme heat. Temperatures are gradually heat island pattern in Zaria urban increasing globally due to changing climate. area. The built environment in urban center is categorized into different land uses for local Description of the study area and regional planning. General Zaria Urban area is located between meteorological conditions also affect the latitude10◦57’36’’N and 11◦15’32’’N and magnitude of the UHI effect. The UHI is 7◦39’00’’E and 7◦53’02’’E. the urban area is maximized under conditions of minimal made up of Sabon Gari and Zaria local cloud cover (increased solar input), low government areas and some parts of Giwa wind speeds (reduced mixing of air) and high Local government area like Shika about vertical stability (thermal inversions) (Oke, from Ahmadu Bello University main 1987). The horizontal and vertical motions campus, Samaru. Zaria Urban Area is of air reduce the rural-urban microclimate bounded by Kudan to the North, Igabi to the contrast. Cloud-cover at night absorbs and South, Soba to the East and Giwa to the re-radiates long-wave radiation emanating West. Zaria is about 26 km from Kudan, 50 from the surface back to the ground so that km from Igabi, 40 km from Soba and 29 km surface cooling everywhere is diminished from Giwa. and tends to reduce the UHI effect (Oke, 1987; Stull, 1988). Conceptual Advances in Urban Heat Island Statement of Research Problem The understanding of urban energy balance Extreme temperatures have serious impacts and search for causes that facilitate it is on human health, including but not limited greatly enhanced by Oke’s (1976) to heat rash, sunburn, fainting, and heat conception of the urban atmosphere as a exhaustion. Continuous rising temperatures system composed of two distinct layers: the in urban areas create an uncomfortable urban canopy layer (UCL) and the urban environment for residents which results in boundary layer (UBL). The UBL is the increasing demand for energy to use air overall atmospheric system that extends for conditioners during extreme heat events, many kilometers above cities, whose decrease in surface albedo that increase the characteristics are determined by the form amount of energy at the surface. Therefore, and pattern of cities. And the UCL is that the understanding of urban heat island layer of the atmosphere where most life concept and strategies will help planners to [email protected] 118
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 occurs; from ground up to the mean height comparison of changes and pattern. The of roofs (Oke,1982). Montavez et al. (2000) Google earth imagery of Zaria urban area shows that in fine weather, the city size and were obtained for Google Earth 4.2 population play important roles in the software, using Zaria, Kaduna as point of intensification of UHI. This could be due to reference to be searched. increase in anthropogenic heat release, air pollution, surface roughness and structures Results and Discussion that absorb, store and transmit more heat. The data were analyzed using classification, Smith and Levermore (2008) concluded that overlay analysis and descriptive statistical the bigger or denser the city the bigger also method. The statistical method used: mean the UHI intensity. and graphs to illustrate trends of heat island Research have revealed that a wide range of pattern over time. The pattern is made up urban factors are responsible for higher various land use of residential, commercial, temperatures in urban areas compared to industrial, public and semi- public, open those of rural areas (UHI) and they include; spaces, Roads and streets. Even though the urban geometry, anthropogenic heat, heat island pattern is dynamic in respect to thermal characteristics of urban surfaces, economic development and social progress, obstruction to wind flow by buildings and it does not come without costs, as such there lack of vegetation. From the works of is potential implications of the heat island Landsberg (1981), Oke (1973, 1978, 1982, change in Zaria urban area over time. The 1988), Roth et al (1989) and Santamoouris potential implications of heat island can be (2002), the most important factors considered as environmental. In trying to influencing the UHI effect are summarized establish the environmental implications as follows; Canyon Geometry, Building heat island pattern in Zaria urban area some Materials, Greenhouse Effect, climatic parameters were considered to Anthropogenic Heat Source, Evaporative define the climatic condition of the study Cooling and Wind Pattern area which are precipitation and temperature. Land use change have been Materials and Methods said to affect climatic condition and at the In this study remote sensing, Google earth same time the climatic condition of a place and GIS data from different sources were do affect land use, as such it can be said that used. Three medium resolution Landsat an indirect relationship exist between the Thematic map (TM), Enhanced thematic two. In trying to understand such map (ETM) and Enhanced thematic map relationship for this study, there is a need to plus (ETM+) of the study years, using path understand the variation of temperature of and row, 189 and 52 respectively which the study area over time. The dynamic heat were used to detect the heat island pattern island distributions for each study year as of the study area. These images were derived from the maps below; obtaining from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) website as standard Heat Island Pattern 1980 products. Also in order to avoid the impact The heat island pattern in the study area in of seasonal variation, all images were 1980 can be visually seen from the map selected from the same season in such a below which depict the highest magnitude way that the cloud cover will not exceed as 32.22 0c, medium, 30.52 0c and lowest 10%. The images are also of 60m spatial as 28.96 0c. The difference between the resolution which makes it convenient for
Duchi, Musa Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area highest and the lowest temperature range is 3.24 0
Fig. 1: surface temperature classification across Zaria urban area Source: Landsat image, 1980
use, Samaru residential, commercial and Figure 1, above revealed that there was an educational land use. The rest of the sub- urban heat island effect within the study in urban area has a relatively gentle 1980 the red colour depicts the highest temperature gradient forming the plateau magnitude, yellow colour medium and The thermal center (“Peak”) of an urban green colour depict the lowest heat island heat island is usually located in the central intensity. Comparing the urban heat island urban center. intensities, it can be seen that the patterns shows a typical temperature profile for an Heat Island Pattern 2015 urban heat island. The temperature gradient The heat island pattern in the study area in from the rural area to the suburban area 20115 can be visually seen from the map form the basis of heat island extend in Zaria below which depict the highest magnitude urban area within the residential and as 39.50 0c, medium, 37.75 0c and lowest commercial land use, Zaria city wall expand as 36.03 0c. The difference between the with residential land use, Tudun Wada highest and the lowest temperature range is residential and commercial land use, Sabon 3.47 0c. Gari commercial, industrial and mixed land
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Fig. 2: surface temperature classification across Zaria urban area Source: Landsat image, 2015
Figure 2, revealed that there was an urban land uses Surface temperature tends to heat island effect within the study in 2015 increase with the size of commercial and the red colour depicts the highest industrial land use polygons and decreases magnitude, yellow colour medium and with the size of parks, recreation and water green colour depict the lowest heat island body polygons. intensity. The temperature gradient from the rural area to the suburban area form the Rate of Heat Island Change in the Study basis of heat island extend in Zaria city, Area (1980-2015) Tudun Wada and Samaru signifies an The rate of heat change analysis base on the increase in residential, commercial and implication of land use change over time, educational land use, Sabon Gari and PZ Tables 1 shows the detail of mean witness an increase in commercial, maximum and minimum temperature within industrial and educational land use. The rest the study area. of the sub-urban area has a relatively gentle Table 1: Mean maximum and minimum temperature gradient forming the plateau temperature (oC) for Zaria urban area The thermal center (“Peak”) of an urban Year Max Min Mean heat island is usually located in the central 1980 35.2 11.57 27.80 urban center. More over congestion of 1985 36.0 12.67 27.91 residential unit, traffic, emission of harmful 1990 37.53 12.58 28.00 gases from industries, automobile and the 1995 35.43 12.65 28.71 use of firewood and generator as source of 2000 37.7 9.935 28.90 cooking and lighting due to urbanization. It is clear that the relationship between land 2005 37.133 12.58 28.70 use and surface temperature revealed and 2010 38.5 12.42 29.40 confirms that urban heat island effect is 2015 39.29 16.19 29.90 usually observed between urban and rural Source IAR ABU, Zaria
Duchi, Musa Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area Table 1: Shows trend of temperature change within the period from 1980-2015. The analysis reveals the least square (regression) model that would be used to Regression Analysis of Mean Maximum predict the maximum temperature pattern in and Minimum Temperature for Zaria Zaria is y = 0.100*t – 163.646. where y is Urban Area the maximum temperature and t is the time Analysis of Maximum Temperature (years). The p-value of the slope of the Table 2 analysis reveals the correlation model (0.009) is less than 0.05 we therefore between the maximum temperature and the conclude that the there is a significant years as 0.8433 (84.33%) indicating linear increase in maximum temperature over the relationship between the maximum years of analysis as shown above. temperature and the years of analysis. The coefficient of determination R2 is 0.7112 Table 2: Regression Summary for Maximum indicating that 71.12% of change in Temperature maximum temperature is caused by time Regression Statistics change. This is due to change on surface Multiple R 0.84333 characteristics and morphology over time R Square 0.711206 which include thick walls, concretes surface Adjusted R Square 0.663074 and tarred roads, high anthropogenic Standard Error 0.847171 activities such as; high population density, Observations 8 busy streets and high traffic volume accounting for the anthropogenic heat release.
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value Intercept -163.646 52.22403 -3.13354 0.020233 Year 0.100498 0.026144 3.843964 0.00852 y-0.100*t-163.646
Fig. 3: Max. Temperature pattern with its estimated trend
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The graph reveals the least square Table 3 reveals the correlation between the (regression) model that predict the minimum temperature and the years of maximum temperature pattern in Zaria, the analysis as 0.4767, indicating 47.67% linear blue line represents maximum temperature relationship between the minimum gradients while the red line represents the temperature and the years of analysis. The trend over years’ y = 0.100*t – 163.646. coefficient of determination R2 is 0.2273 where y is the maximum temperature and t indicating that 22.73% of change in is the time (years). And the coefficient of minimum temperature is caused by time determination R2 is 0.7112 indicating that change. This is due to surface change in maximum temperature is caused characteristics and morphology over time by time, which signifies increase in which include thick walls, concretes surface maximum temperature over the years of and tarred roads, and high anthropogenic analysis as shown above. with a projected activities, such as high population density, predicted values at five years’ interval to busy streets and high traffic volume 2025. accounting for the anthropogenic heat release. while area with lower temperatures Predicted values have lower anthropogenic activities. Year Max. Temp (0C)
2020 39.36 The above analysis reveals the least square 2025 39.8625 (regression) model that would be used to
predict the minimum temperature pattern in The table above reveals the maximum Zaria is y = 0.068*t – 122.378. where y is temperature pattern and estimated trend the minimum temperature and t is the time with predicted values at five years’ interval (years). The p-value of the slope of the to 2025. Which signifies that there will be model (0.232) is greater than 0.05 we an increase in maximum temperature in therefore conclude that the there is no years to come if proper measures are not put significant increase in minimum in place to mitigate the occurrence. temperature over the years of analysis as
shown above Analysis of Minimum Temperature Table 3: Regression Summary for Minimum Temperature Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.476736
R Square 0.227278 Adjusted R Square 0.09849 Standard Error 1.647931 . Observations 8
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value Intercept -122.376 101.5871 -1.20464 0.273699 Year 0.06756 0.050856 1.32844 0.232324 y-0.068*t-122376
Duchi, Musa Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area
Fig. 4: Min. Temperature pattern with its estimated trend Temperature Records in Different Days The graph reveals the least square of the Survey (From 14, 15 and 16 July (regression) model that predict the 2016) minimum temperature pattern in Zaria, the Table 4 reveals the temperature record of blue line represents minimum temperature day one at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm gradients while the red line represents the with maximum UHI intensity occurred by trend over years’ y = 0.068*t – 122.378. 2:00pm at 37 0c. The minimum UHI where y is the minimum temperature and t intensity occurred in the morning by is the time (years). And the coefficient of 8:00am with at 18 0c. In the evening by determination R2 is 0.2273 indicating that 5:00pm at 19 0c. It can be concluded that change in minimum temperature is caused the UHI intensity is relatively higher during by time, which signifies a moderate shift in the daytime. minimum temperature over the years of analysis as shown above. with a projected Table 4: Result Day One Temperature (Oc) predicted values at five years’ interval to Name Of Site 8:00 2:00 5:30 Pm 2025. Am Pm Predicted values Shika 18 25 19 Samaru 20 26 21 Year Min. Temp (0C) Kwangila 22 30 22 2020 14.0932 GRA 20 24 19 2025 14.431 PZ 23 33 24 Sabon Gari 24 35 25 The table above reveals the minimum Park Road 25 37 25 temperature pattern and estimated trend Round About with predicted values at five years’ interval Agoro Bridge 18 25 19 Tudun Wada 20 28 20 to 2025. Which signifies that there will be Market an increase in minimum temperature in Kofan Doka 22 27 22 years to come if proper measures are not put Zaria City 24 28 23 in place to mitigate the occurrence.
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Diurnal temperature variation for day during early morning about 8:00am with a one value of 18 0c. And late evening about The result reveals the highest diurnal 5:00pm with the value of 19 0c. it can be temperature for day one is 37 0c at 2:00 pm concluded that the UHI intensity is with a mean temperature of 28.9 0c, this is relatively higher during the daytime. due to surface characteristics and morphology which include thick walls, The table reveals the temperature record of concretes surface and tarred roads, and high day two at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm anthropogenic activities, these area is respectively with maximum UHI intensity known as commercial centers with high occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 35 0c population density, busy streets and high difference of 2 0c compare to the day. The traffic volume accounting for the minimum UHI intensity occurred during anthropogenic heat release. early morning about 8:00am with a value of 17 0c and late evening about 5:00pm with The graph reveals the temperature record of the value of 18 0c. With a difference of 2 0c day one at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm compare to day one. it can be concluded respectively with maximum UHI intensity that the UHI intensity is relatively higher occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 37 0c. during the daytime. The minimum UHI intensity occurred
Fig. 5: Result of Day One Temperature
Duchi, Musa Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area Table 5: Result Day Two Temperature (OC) early morning about 8:00am with a value of Name Of Site 8:00 2:00 Pm 5:30 Pm 17 0c. And late evening about 5:00pm with Am the value of 18 0c. With a difference of 2 0c Shika 17 25 18 Samaru 20 27 21 compare to day one. it can be concluded Kwagila 22 31 23 that the UHI intensity is relatively higher Gra 20 26 21 during the daytime. Pz 24 30 25 Sabon Gari 26 32 24 The table reveals temperature record of day Park Road 26 35 25 three at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm Round About respectively with maximum UHI intensity Agoro Bridge 18 26 19 occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 33 0c Tudun Wada 20 32 21 difference of 2 0c compare to the two. The Market minimum UHI intensity occurred during Kofan Doka 22 30 22 early morning about 8:00am with a value of Zaria City 25 32 24 19 0c. And late evening about 5:00pm with the value of 20 0c. With a difference of 2 0c Diurnal temperature variation for day compare to day two. it can be concluded two that the UHI intensity is relatively higher The result reveals that the highest diurnal during the daytime. temperature for day two is 35 0c at 2:00 pm and it has a mean temperature value 0f 29.6 Table 6: Result Day Three Temperature (OC) 0c, this is due to surface characteristics and Name Of Site 8:00 Am 2:00 Pm 5:30 Pm morphology which include thick walls, Shika 19 26 20 concretes surface and tarred roads, and high Samaru 20 27 21 anthropogenic activities, these area is Kwagila 23 29 24 known as commercial centers with high Gra 20 25 20 Pz 24 30 25 population density, busy streets and high Sabon Gari 25 31 25 traffic volume accounting for the Park Road 25 33 24 anthropogenic heat release. Round About The graph reveals the temperature record of Agoro Bridge 21 26 20 Tudun Wada 23 28 22 day two at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm Market respectively with maximum UHI intensity Kofan Doka 22 29 22 occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 35 0c Zaria City 25 30 23 difference of 2 0c compare to the day. The minimum UHI intensity occurred during
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anthropogenic factor, while area with lower
Fig. 6: Result of Day Two Temperature temperatures have lower anthropogenic activities. Chow and Roth (2006), Balogun Diurnal temperature variation for day and Olaleye (2000), and Okpara (2002) all three agree that station with highest temperatures The result reveals that the highest diurnal were always at the commercial areas and temperature for day three is 33 0c at 2:00 the high level of traffic and nature of the pm and it has a mean temperature value 0f surface morphology, and this also true for 28.5 0c, this is due to surface characteristics this study. and morphology which include thick walls, The graph reveals the temperature record of concretes surface and tarred roads, and high day three at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm anthropogenic activities, these area is respectively with maximum UHI intensity known as commercial centers with high occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 33 0c population density, busy streets and high difference of 2 0c compare to the two. The traffic volume accounting for the minimum UHI intensity occurred during anthropogenic heat release. early morning about 8:00am with a value of 19 0c. And late evening about 5:00pm with Cumulative diurnal temperature the value of 20 0c. With a difference of 2 0c variation compare to day two. it can be concluded It is being observed that day one has the that the UHI intensity is relatively higher highest diurnal temperature of 37 0c while during the daytime. day two has the highest diurnal mean From the analysis carried out, it reveals that temperature value of 29.6 0c in respect to Kwagila, PZ, Sabon Gari, park road day one and three with 28 0c, the cumulative roundabout Tudun Wada, Kofan Doka and diurnal mean temperature is 29 0c which Zaria city wall has the highest pick of heat shows and appreciable variation in the mean island compare to Shika, Samaru, GRA and diurnal temperature variation, all the station Agoro bridge. areas of high temperature is due to the
Duchi, Musa Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area
Fig. 7: Result of Day Three Temperature
Conclusion area, the following are recommended for From the results of this study, it can be sustainable urban development, restoration concluded that Zaria urban area adequately of lost vegetation, tree planting campaign represent the nature of surface cover and ,consideration for landscaping in plan morphology, temperature variables are approval, strategic management of responsible for significant variation within congested part of the city and traffic the study area. The seasonal climatic problems, consideration for building conditions of the region were also noted to material and orientation ,creation of shelter have significant effect on the annual urban belt and stabilizing river embankment heat island variation. The study has shown ,encouraging the use of permeable surface that Urban heat island studies using ,use of contemporary techniques, satellite-based remote sensing data have partnership towards sustainable also come into prominence. Because apart environment, improving the competency of from providing a large array of information environmentalist. with a wide spectrum of possible applications, the data also have the References advantage of availability for areas that may Balogun, A.A. and Olaleye, J.O. (2000). not be physically accessible due to physical The Characteristics of the Urban dangers or socio-political restrictions. Temperature Excess in Akure. International Journal of Planning Recommendations Environment and Development, Having examine the pattern of heat island 4(2), change in the study area which shows that Chow, W. and Roth, M. (2006). Temporal built-up is increasing with decreasing Dynamics of the Urban Heat Island vegetation cover which is likely to continue of Singapore. International Journal into the future. If proper measure is not put of climatology, (26), 2243 - 2260. in place may likely heighten the Ezra. S. (1750). scientific awareness of vulnerability of the town to the effect of urban climate anomaly towns and floods, extreme temperature and other heat country side change related implications as mentioned in Ibidun, O.A. (2005). Country Report: Urban the implications above. As such, in order to climate research in Nigeria. IAUC attain a balance heat change in Zaria urban Newsletter International Association [email protected] 128
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for Urban Climate Issue No. 13, Environment. London: James and October, 2005 James Publishers.. Landsberg, H.E. (1981). The urban Climate. Smith, C. and Levermore, G. (2008). New York: Academic Press. Designing urban spaces and Meyer, W.B. (1991). Urban Heat Island and buildings to improve sustainability Urban Health: Early American and quality of life in a warmer Perspectives. Professional world. Energy Policy, 36,: 4558- Geographer, 423(1), 38-48. 4562 Montavez, J. P., Jiminez, J. I. and Sarsa, A. Stull, R.B., (1988). An Introduction to (2000). A Monte Carlo Model of the Boundary Layer Meteorology. Nocturnal Surface Temperatures in Kluwer Academic, 666 p. Urban Canyons. Boundary Layer UN-Habitat (2008). urban population Meteorology, 96, 433-452 expansion negative environmental Oke, T.R (1982) The Energetic Basis of and Economic consequences. Urban Heat Island, Quarterly United Nations (2012). World population Journal of the Royal Meteorological prospects 2012 Society, 108(455), 1-24 http://esa.un.prg/unup. Oke, T. R. (1973). City size and the urban heat island. Atmospheric Environment, 7, 769 - 779. Oke, T. R. (1976). The Distinction between Canopy and Boundary-layer heat islands. Atmosphere, 14(4), 268 - 277. Oke, T. R. (1978). Boundary Layer Climates, London: Methuen pp. 372. Oke, T. R. (1987). Boundary Layer Climates, London: Routledge. Oke, T. R. (1988). The Urban Energy Balance. Progress in Physical Geography, 12(4), 471 1508. Okpara, J.N. (2002). A Case Study of Urban-Heat Island over Akure city in Nigeria during the end of wet (October-Novemebr) season. Journal of the African meteorological society, 5(2), 43 – 53. Roth, M., Oke, T. R. and Emery, W. J. (1989). Satellite-derived urban heat islands from three coastal cities and the utilization of such data in urban climatology. Int. J. Remote Sens., 10,1699- 1720 Santamouris, M. (2002). Energy and Climate in the Urban built
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Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method
Yakubu. D. M Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology Minna Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract There is need for the construction industry to comply with necessary law and regulations as regard to safety and health of their workers in order to improve on their safety records. In Nigeria, construction industry loses 5 – 7 % of its workforce annually to construction accidents. This has gaven the industry a poor safety and health record. As such this paper will assess safety and health performance of contractor’s construction project in Nigeria using Safety and Health Assessment System in Construction (SHASSIC) method. The assessment is usually carried out in three different approaches i.e document check, site/workplace inspection and employees interview. The result of the assessment show that the performance of the contractors is two (2) stars in ranking. This means that in term of compliance to safety management standard on sites, the construction firms/organizations considered for the work fall within two (2) stars in ranking were all their potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards are partly managed and not properly documented. Therefore, what the industry needs is an act (OSHAct) that provides for the promotion, coordination, administration and enforcement for occupational safety and health. Also, effective application of OSH management system can lead to safety construction work and reduce the rate of accidents on construction sites and improve safety records. Keywords: construction, management, performance, project sites, safety and health.
Introduction members of the public who may be Construction industry is vital to the affected as a result of such activities. Also development of any nation, as it strongly Occupational Safety and Health Act of contributes to the economic growth of any 1994 (OSHAct) obligates each employer nation. As such there is need for the to provide and maintain a safe and industry stakeholders to comply with healthful workplace for all employees. necessary law and regulations as regard to Chang (2008) stated that more than safety and health of workers, most 100million people in this world take especially during the construction stage. construction work as a profession and Construction project i.e. a product of according to Keller and Keller (2009) construction industry involves a wide reported that tens of thousands of range of economic activities such as construction workers are injured while on housing project, commercial building the job each year and an average of over project such as hotels, office building, and 1000 die, while in Nigeria, construction high rise building project and civil industries lose 5 – 7 % of its workforce engineering works i.e bridge construction, annually to construction accidents, Airport, Seaport, Jetty, Tunneling (Olatunji et al., 2007). A number of construction etc. At the same time the law studies have revealed that accidents and of construction health and safety requires injuries in construction in many action to protect those at work on sites developing countries such as Nigeria are (such economic activities sites) as well as far higher and worse than in developed [email protected] 130
Yakubu Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method countries such as the UK, US, China and implementation of safety management Australia (Idoro, 2007). This is because, system in Nigerian construction industry is the later have active and fully functioning responsible for poor performances record health and safety regulatory bodies and of safety and health. As such this paper employ innovative and workable safety will looked into the performance records methods on construction sites. According of safety and health measures of to Awodele and Ayoola (2005), several contractors, by assessing safety and health hundreds of construction workers are performance of contractor’s construction killed each year on Nigerian construction project in Nigeria (Abuja) using Safety sites, with many more rendered and Health Assessment System in temporarily or permanently disabled. Construction (SHASSIC) method. Dodo (2014) reported that accidents on Nigerian construction sites still cause Assessing Safety and Health devastating effects on the lives of workers, Performance properties, project delivery times, and The occurrence of high incidence of have also undercut the completion of accident and fatality rate are reason why projects within defined budgets and the construction industry is regarded as the achievement of specifications. This calls most hazardous industry as many for immediate efforts to identify and constructions workers are killed, some explore innovative ways of promoting suffer from various injuries and some safety on construction sites. Tam et al. suffer various illness due to occupational (2004) revealed that the behaviors of diseases on construction site. As such, contractors on safety management are of safety management in the construction grave concern including the lack of sites should be a thing of concerned to provision of personal protection everybody in the industry, most especially equipment, regular safety meetings and the client, contractor, professional, sub- safety training. Despite the existence of contractors etc. laws related to safety and health at workplace in many nations, the accidents Similarly, the responsibility of safety at rate in most of those nations is at high rate, construction sites, most especially of the based on the report of center to protect construction workers, rest on the shoulder worker’s right (1993), that many safety of the main contractor of the work. But professional and scholars were of the Said et al. (2009), realize that zero opinion that the existing safety legislations accident is indeed, an attainable objective, and regulations are not strong enough to client, designer firm and contractors can bring about the require zero accidents complement each other by playing level at construction site. Though, by different roles in preventing accident to complying with those legislations and achieve an injury free worksite. regulations, safety on construction sites Furthermore, Said et al. (2009) have can be improved as legislations and drawn the attention to the fact that regulations provided a platform for a good contractors are without doubt, still the construction practices. Also, (Ratay, 1997) main party to plan and control and (Haupt, 2001) agreed that a good code construction site safety, and that the of standard i.e legislations and regulations designers can only reduce safety hazards can improve on construction safety at an in the working environment by acceptable cost. Lack of Occupational considering workers safety issues in their Safety and Health Act (OSHAct) and poor design decision.
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issues in design and participating in safety Taking safety issues in to design decision management during construction. simply mean how a construction work or activities can be carried out without any Contractors Safety and Health form of injuries or illness to the Performance construction workers. This design decision Despite the fact that the designer and the concept applies only to the design of the client are nowadays much more interested permanent structure as it does not initiate on the issue of safety at the construction how to make different method of sites, the management of construction construction engineering safer. This issue safety on site still rest on the shoulder of is addressed by Toole et al. (2006), that the contractor. Contractors have a role to the design for safety concept for example, play in promoting safety programmers and working at height does not focus on how safety behavior as stipulated in OSHA to use fall protection system but it does 1994 Section 17 (Duties of employers and include design decision that influence how self-employed to their employees), and often fall protection will be needed. they have an obligation to ensure that their However, what this mean is that while workers are not exposed to risk which can designing for safety for working at high, it affect their safety and health. does not provide or explain how protection from working at high could be achieved i.e As such it has become a vital issue to how to erect scaffolding but it does select a contractor with knowledge of provide decision that influence provision, safety and health together with a good location and type of scaffolding needed to performance on safety and health based on accomplish the working at high. their previous record. A contractor is an individual or groups that work for a Also more client are now interested on reword. Therefore a contractor is issue of safety at construction sites, this contracted to do something for another may be due to high cost involved in party and in consideration for what is done payment on accident compensations to the and receive a payment. Also this victims and the legal liabilities in relation contractor is subjected to the same guiding to worker’s injuries. As such it is the client rules of OSH Act 1997 and their duties are that stands a better chance of gaining covered in part 1V of OSH Act. accident free construction site, as cost of construction accidents and the legal The nature of operation of contractors in liabilities in relation to workers’ injuries some countries differs most especially as will no longer be an issue of concerned to regard to big jobs. For example, in them. Malaysia, according to Ghani et al. (2012), the current trend is the undertaking A study conducted by Coble (cited in Said of big project by subcontractor; the main et al., 2009) showed that the average contractor would only lobby for the worker’s compensation insurance cost project, while construction matters would could be conservatively estimated at 3.5% be handed over to the sub-contractor for a of the total project cost. Said et al. (2009) substantial profit. This contract system has concluded that the clients can actively been in existing for long in many part of impact construction safety by selecting the world, the only thing required is that reliable contractors addressing safety the main contractor has to make sure that competent sub-contractor (with vast [email protected] 132
Yakubu Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method knowledge on safety and health) is SHASSIC is an independent method to selected to handle such type of project. assess and evaluate the safety and health performance of a contractor in the A study conducted by Koehn et al. (cited construction projects. It is recommended in Ghani et al., 2012) affirmed that the that the assessment be carry out when the contractors must have a full power to work progress is between 25 – 75% select a sub-contractors, in order to ensure completion. As this is the stage were that the sub-contractor has both skill and different work trades activities will be manpower to undertake the job in a safer going on at sites. manner. Therefore, for effective implementation of safety and health at Assessment Approach construction site, there is the need for full The assessment is usually carried out in 3 commitment and support from top (three) different approaches as contain in management to the contractor in order to the (CIS 10, 2008): improve safety performance on sites. a. Document Check. When contractors believe that the Checking OSH related document will management cares about safety and health enable the assessor to ascertain the level of issues at construction sites, they will be compliance with safety and health programs more willing to improve safety and activities. There are 63 questionnaires performance. identified for this component check.
Methods and Materials b. Site/Workplace Inspection The main focus of this paper is to assess Workplace inspection are expected to be the health and safety system as practiced carry out at five different highly risk area on site by contractors in Abuja. Three (3) within the site, there are 62 items identified large indigenous construction firms that for inspection. Workplace inspection have been in construction activities for the provides valuable visual comparison past ten (10) years were considered. Also evidence on the OSH programs the construction firms must have an implemented, enforced and practiced at ongoing project that is between 25 – 75% site/workplace. completed. As such there is the need to study how health and safety are being c. Employee’s Interview handled on sites and this make qualitative Employees shall be randomly selected from approach best research method to be all levels and occupations so that they could adopted for this work. In this work the be interviewed by the assessor using commitment of the management must be established standard questionnaire. There looked into together with how workers are 48 questions for this component. The view health and safety on their working employees are categorized into 3 (three) place. Also this work required the categories. The (CIS10, 2008) list the inspection of workplace, so as to ascertain numbers of employee from each category to how free such workplace of element that be interview as follows: causes accidents. As such structured or standardized questionnaire called Safety Category A Management personnel, 1 and Health Assessment System in employee from management personnel, The Construction (SHASSIC) was adapted for Project Manager represents the management the assessments. personnel.
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Category B Safety and Health Committee safety and health performance of the Members, Section 30 of OSHA (Act 514) of respective contractor. Basic formulas for 1994, requires the employer to establish a respective component weightage are as safety and health committee at workplace follows; that employed forty or more people at such place of work. Among the function of the 1. Document check. committee at workplace include Total Number ‘C’ Scored. X 40% = investigating any matter at workplace which SHASSIC score for Document Checked-(A) a member of the committee or a person (63– Number of ‘NA’) employed consider as a threat or not safe or 2. Site/Workplace Inspection risk to safety and health of those at Total Number ‘C’ Scored. X 40% = workplace and have been brought to the SHASSIC score for workplace inspection- attention of the employer. Also the safety (B). (310 –Number of ‘NA’) and health committee review the measures 3. Employee’s Interview taken to ensure the safety and health of Total Number ‘C’ Scored. X 20% = person at work. SHASSIC score for employees interviewed- Category C, Construction Workers (C). (330 – Number of ‘NA’). Where: Assessment Method C is the total number of “Compliance” Weightage NA is the total number of item that is “Not The weightage for safety and health Applicable”. performance are allocated in accordance to b. S 3 (three) components as shown in the Table tar Ranking 1 below; The total SHASSIC score in Document Table 1: Allocation of Weightage for Components Check (A) plus (+) total SHASSIC score in COMPONENTS WEIGHTAGE. Workplace Inspection (B) plus (+) total Document check 40% SHASSIC score in Employees Interview Workplace inspection 40% (C). Component shall justifying the ranking Employee interview 20% star or stars. Stars awarded ranges from 1 Total score 100% star to 5 stars as shown in the table 3.2 Source: CIDB CIS 10:2008. below:
The weightage system is aimed at making the score quantitative in representing the
Table 2 Star Ranking SHASSIC (score %). Star(s) Awarded. Justification. Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards are 85 to 100 ***** managed and documented. Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards are managed and documented but there are few low risks work 70 to 84 **** activities are neglected. Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards are managed and documented but there are few medium risks 55 to 69 *** work activities are neglected. Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards partly 40 to 54 ** managed and not properly documented. Potential and significant risks/ hazards poorly managed and 39 and less * not properly documented. Source: CIDB CIS 10: 2008
Yakubu Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method
1). Both sites 1 and 3 score more than site 2 Results of the SHASSIC Analysis as regard to workplace inspection. This consists of construction industry Therefore size of site and number of standard questionnaire, which is subcontractors has little or no impact on administered on each of the three sites workplace inspection scores. The size of the selected for this work. At each of the three sites and the number of subcontractors has sites three (3) set of questionnaires were little determinant on the knowledge of administered i.e document checking, safety and health management practice on workplace inspection and employee sites among the employees i.e management interview questionnaire. Table 3 shows the personnel, safety and health committee analysis and the result of assessments members and the construction workers. Site carried out in each of the three construction 1 with 135 employees and 19 sites. subcontractors scores 11, while site 3 with 138 employees and 20 subcontractors also Discussion of Results scores 11. The size of the firm/organization determines the percentage scores of Various firms/organizations sizes SHASSIC, which automatically determine implement health and safety in different the star ranking of the sites. From table 4.1, ways. For, these types of firm/organization site 3 and 2 with the highest numbers of (large size) they are expected to have an in- employees scores 48.25 and 46 respectively house safety and health expertise and are and qualified as 2 star in ranking. Site 2 less likely to need or seek external scores 33 and qualified as 1 star in ranking. assistance. It can be observed from table 4.1 Therefore, the size of the sites determines that the size of the site determines the the SHASSIC scores. The average number of subcontractors. The site with SHASSIC scores of the 3 sites is 42.42%, lowest number of employees has 18 (40% – 52%), this qualified the sites as 2 subcontractors while the site with highest star in ranking. This means that in term of employees has 20 subcontractors. The compliance to safety management standard subcontractors are supposed to be vast in on sites, the construction firm/organization safety and health knowledge. In term of consider for the work falls within two (2) document checking, site 3 has the highest stars in ranking were all there Potential and number of scores 19 while site 1 has 15 and significant workplace high risks/hazards are site 2 has 14. Therefore it can be observed partly managed and not properly from Table 3 that the scores of document documented. It was observed that only checking are determined by the size of the foreign construction companies that are well site and the number of subcontractors. The established in their mother’s countries are effectiveness of document checking on sites able to compete and have the ability to depends upon how management of those maintain their standard in the existing sites was able to document and manage situation as regard safety and health at their document on sites. As regard to workplace. workplace inspection, there exist inconsistences as the site with higher employees and higher numbers of subcontractor (site 3) score less than site with less employees and subcontractors (site
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Table 3 Analysis of SHASSIC Results SHASSIC Results S/no Size of Number of Document Workplace Employees SHASSIC Star the Subcontractors check inspection interview Scores ranking. site scores (40). scores scores (100) (40) (20) 1 135 19 15 20 11 46 2star 2 128 18 14 10 9 33 1star 3 138 20 19 18.25 11 48.25 2 star
Also observed is that many accidents at dangerous place of work were all form of construction sites can be prevented if the injuries and illness can occur. construction teams can carry out their responsibility with emphasis on accident Effective application of OSH management prevention in mind from the design stage to system can lead to safety construction work completion stage down to the demolition and reduce the rate of accidents on stage, but the main issues is how to construction sites. This view have been encourage the design team, management supported further by (Hinze, 1997), that the and the workers to see safety and health as a implementation of the OSH Management way in achieving zero accident at sites. system by the main construction parties Another issues observed is that accident must apply at all level of the construction prevention measures are left in the hand of process and must comply with the existing the contractors alone, despite the fact that safety and health laws and regulation at both the design team and the client have workplace. Therefore, what Nigeria great impact on the project. Some clients’ construction industries need in order to views issues of safety as an additional cost improve on their safety records is and are much more engaged in safety enforcement act i.e OSHAct together with violation. adoption and implementation of safety- conscious contractors supported by Conclusion and Recommendation experienced and trained employees. Safety From the analysis of performance of training is an important aspect of improving contractors construction project as regard to safety records. Lack of safety training will safety and health measures on the have a bad impact on the workers as they do construction sites using Safety and Health not have knowledge and education to Assessment in Construction (SHASSIC) prevent the accident at construction sites. method, it can be concluded that the There is need for government to support a contractors’ performance are two (2) star in specific safety management system in place ranking. This means that at the contractor’s as a legal requirement at workplace like the construction project sites most of the construction sites. Reiman and Rollenhagen potential and significant high risks/hazard (2011) stated that safety management is are partly managed and are not properly associated with the policies, objectives, documented. Therefore, the current standard procedures, methods, roles and functions of safety and health measures of that aim at controlling hazards and risk in construction site i.e were potential and socio-technical systems. The company’s significant workplace high risks/hazards are management should ensure that training; partly managed and not properly personal protective equipment and other documented makes the construction sites a resources are provided to the project [email protected] 136
Yakubu Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method management team in order to demonstrate CIS. (2008). Safety Health Assessment its commitment. Effective safety culture System in Construction. within a firms/organizations structure (CIS10:2008). CIDM Malaysia. should be established as this will enable Ghani, B. E. M. K., Hamid, E. D. Z. A., employees to have a good attitude toward AbduRahim, B. E. A. H., Mohamad workplace safety and health practice. In Kamar, B. E. K. A., and Abdul order for the safety cultural system to be Rahman, B. M. A. (2012). Safety in effective and to achieve its objectives, it Malaysian Construction: The needs to be supported at all levels of Challenges and Initiatives. Jurutera management in the firmd/organisations and Construction Bulletin, Malaysia at the same time the system must be able to Haupt, T. C. (2001). The performance create a positive safety culture and climate approach to construction worker in which everybody should be convinced of safety and health. University of the importance of safety and acts Florida. accordingly. Also there is need for the Hinze, J. (1997). Construction safety: Upper firms/organizations to have a clear, Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. complete and workable site safety plan as it Keller, and Keller. (2009). Construction is among the most effective methods for Accident Statistic, from keller and ascertaining site safety. Regular safety keller library. audits provide an effective way to review http://www.2killer.com/library/const and refine site safety plan, thus improving ruction.ac safety in the jobsite or workplace. Adequate Olatunji, O. A., Aje, O. I., and Odugboye, and well-articulated safety program can cut F. (2007). Evaluating health and down the rate of accident, which could help safety performance of Nigeria in promoting the image of the companies construction sites. CIB World most especially as regard to safety and Building Congress. health of construction sites. There is need to Ratay, R. T. (1997). Construction Safety have a construction insurances in order to Affected by Codes and Standards. protect those involved and the equipment Proceedings of a session sponsored against any form of accident due to the high by the Design loads of structures risks involved in the construction operation. during construction standards The objective of any insurance at any committee and the performance of workplace is to protect lives of those at structure during construction work and properties/equipment at the technical committee of the structural workplace. engineering institute minneapolis, USA, 6 – 8 October. References Said, I., Mohd,W..S., and Abdelnaser, O. Center to Protect Workers’ Rights (1993). (2009). The role of clients in An Agenda for Change, Report of enhancing construction safety. the National conference on annals of faculty of engineering Ergonomics, Safety and Health in hunedoara, 7(2). Construction. Washington, D.C. 18 Tam, C. M. and Fung, W. H. (2004). Study – 22 july. of Attitude Changes in People after Chang, D. O. (2008). Global construction the Implementation of a New Safety and asian workers: Expansion of Management system: The TNCs in asia and implications for Supervision Plan. Construction labour.
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Management. Economics, 19, 393 – 403. Toole, T. M., Hervol, N., and Hallowell, M. (2006). Designing for construction safety. Modern Steel Construction, 46(6), 55-59.
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A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement Service in Abuja
Olatunji I.A. Dept of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna. [email protected]
Abstract Currently, an assessment index to guide Estate Surveyors and Valuers (ESV), willing to offer housing procurement service for house-seekers does not exist. Concomitantly, house-seekers in Abuja, because of their limited capacities to gather and process contemporary housing market data, are in need of advice from ESV. This technical constraint explains why the levels and variations in Housing Choice Optimality, (HcO), in Abuja are unrevealed. The aim of this paper is to develop an Optimality Index,(OPTi), a simulation framework to assess HcO, and test its application from two perspectives based on utility optimization of 5 key variables, namely, household income, property value, workplace distance, commuting cost and activity pattern. Data from 12 randomly selected ESV firms, 56 households extracted from a larger set of 182 Middle Income Households, (MIH), on the basis of carefully selected criteria, and 1 median income Household were purposefully chosen as illustration, to demonstrate the application of OPTi to assess HcO. It was revealed that indeed there are wide variations in HcO across households in the 6 neighborhoods studied, ranging from 0.9044, 0.6612, 0.3424, -7.184, -0.7774, to -11.703. These results seem to confirm that a wide level of housing inequality exists even among households in Abuja, and in some neighborhoods the levels are unacceptably low. The consistency of the results with well known pattern in Abuja housing market is a proof that the simulation package could assess housing wellbeing objectively. It is recommended that OPTi could be used by ESV to assess housing conditions from utility perspective as it is more inclusive than cost-based affordability indices. Keywords: Housing Choice Optimality, Decision-support, Property value, Simulation, Housing Well-being.
Introduction Technical and regulatory constraints are two In spite of the opportunity that abounds for main obstacles to the assessment of the ESV in RAPs services, anecdotal housing-specific wellbeing, designated in evidence suggests that a void in service this research as housing choice optimality coverage still exists to serve the household (HcO) among Abuja urbanites. Emphasis in more purposefully as a tenant. This void this study rests on the development of a constitutes, and translates to, a gap in utility-based technique to assess HcO as a knowledge which, as emphasized by Maritz Decision-Support system for ESVs who and Ghyoot (1990), requires specialized may wish to offer Residential training and education. Going back to the Accommodation Procurement services history of Estate Management, Thorncroft (RAPs). It is a specialized and upgraded (1965) in his definition places emphasis on form of agency services which Estate the supervision of real estate interests to Surveyors and Valuers (ESVs) are secure optimum returns and social benefits positioned to offer. Many ESVs offer for any holder of an interest in property. residential agency services strictly on the However, the mechanism by which basis of affordability, rather than tenants’ optimality could be measured objectively is housing well-being. still missing in real estate practice.
Olatunji A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
The main research question posed by this The aim of this research is to develop a study is consolidated into the levels of simulation framework to assess housing optimality in residential choice decisions choice optimality, HcO, and test its made by households in the study area. application from two perspectives: households and neighborhoods. Three It is assumed, for the purpose of this study, objectives set up to achieve this aim are to that work or gainful employment is an develop a simulation Technique for important economic activity of the urban assessing Housing Choice Optimality, HcO MIHs and that MIHs are rational and tend levels and variations and test the application to seek after optimality when compelled to of the technique to assess HcO for the make residential choices. Although a Median Income Household in a selected previous study by Limbumba (2007) affirms population of Abuja, as an illustration. this tendency for Dar es Salam, it remains Thirdly, the simulation package is to be only an assumption in Abuja since there is applied in a wider context, to assess the no corresponding empirical study.. It is also HcO variations among 6 selected Medium presumed that variables which are density neighborhoods. measurable on scale ratio are reliable Housing has been confirmed as a major indicators of housing choice optimality. issue in urban Nigeria, and, Abuja as a political and commercial center, has The study scope covers residential choice witnessed unprecedented in-migration and decisions by middle-income households in outmigration in recent times. However, an urban setting. Studies have shown that Abuja is now widely recognized as a MIHs are found in nearly all neighborhoods maturing and emerging global property as owner-occupiers or tenants, but are market and it presents a suitable test-bed for predominant in certain districts that are an examination of peoples’ welfare purposively identified in the study area. attributable to housing choices. Spatial data through empirical observations including physical measurements were Nigeria, alongside 42 other emerging primarily relied upon; this imposes property markets, is classified as a Low considerable limitation on the sample size Transparency Market (LTM) by Global for the study, but the methodology adopted Real Estate Transparency Index [GRETI] ensures validity of results. (2016). This is just 1 step above an Opaque Market, but 3 steps below a Highly The need for an indicator to assess any Transparent Market. GRETI concluded that human condition susceptible to wide transparent real estate practices have direct variations such as housing choice is correlation with efforts to raise community undeniable. This is explained by well-being in LTMs. The main features of multiplicity of affordability indicators, most LTM which are reminiscent of Abuja are of which are cost-based. The importance of low levels of “security of property rights Optimality is borne out of the absence of an ownership, safe housing and workplaces objective gauge to measure well-being and being able to trust estate agents to act attributable to housing (Limbumba, 2007). honestly and professionally”. In the A lot of criticisms have trailed the absence of appropriate indexation of continued use of variants of affordability housing well-being in Abuja, it is doubtful index as a measure of housing conditions if real estate transparency practices could be principally because it is cost-based. To guaranteed. compound the problem, the technical [email protected] 140
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 capacity of the house seeker to gather and confer utility on households (tenants, owner process property market data is severely investors or owner occupiers). Utility, limited thus require an advisor. This scarcity and effective purchasing power, are limitation justifies the development of a the four economic factors that create Decision-Support guide for the ESVs, as a property value. The Institute draws real estate advisor, to assist the house seeker distinction between the design features that professionally. Ultimately, the ESVs using enhance attractiveness (amenities) and this guide would have an enhanced capacity utility. The influence of utility depends on to serve the general public beyond mere the characteristics of the property such as agency service because Optimality index is size utility, design utility, location utility utility-based and a more inclusive indicator and other specific forms of utility. of housing well-being. Emphasis is also placed on functional Literature and Theoretical Review utility, defined by Appraisal Institute (2001) Theoretical Underpinnings for Utility as the ability of a property to be useful and Concept and Optimality in relation to to perform the functions for which it is housing intended; the efficiency of buildings in A strong theoretical base is needed to terms of architectural style, layout, (traffic address the measurability or evaluability pattern or circulation pattern), size and type aspects of housing well-being. The of rooms. Optimal functional utility implies theoretical underpinning is provided by the that a building is considered best to meet utility concept. Utility Functions which the expectations of the users. In their convert all arguments of residential choice opinion, the marketability or rental value is to a measurable unit, in a clearer form, seem the ultimate test of optimal functional to rectify the shortcomings about utility. Other standards of functional utility measurement of Housing well-being, HWB. are design/layout, amenity, comfort level, It is supported by Straszheim (1975), ease and cost of maintenance, space, safety Granfield (1975) and Cappoza and Helsley and security. (1989) to model residential location choice. The Cobb-Douglas version of the utility Bid-rent theory function was adopted with modifications by Households, in a bid to maximize utility, Bolton (2005) and Pollakowski et al. have to compete for urban space, with other (2007). However, Bolton’s version seems users. The development of this proposition to have more demonstrable application and is attributed, in Knox and McCarthy (2005), capabilities, using ICT. Though unsuitable to Alonso (1964a). First, household will in its present form for a number of reasons find central locations and employment (for example the nature and composition of nodes most attractive and desirable and will variables adopted), it lends itself to be prepared to bid highest rent for the right adaptations and is amenable to to be nearest. The reasons are two-fold: modifications and technical transformation. central locations offer the highest utility and the best opportunity to earn the highest Barlowe (1986) stresses the combined income; then the commuting cost to work importance of the utility, scarcity and node is less than elsewhere. Secondly, each futurity. Going further than Barlow, the class of household as argued by O’Sullivan Appraisal Institute (2001) defines utility as (2000) will have a distinct bid-rent curve the ability of a product (such as housing) to that reflects its capacity to pay rent for satisfy a human want; all property must locations at varying distances from the
Olatunji A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
Central Bussiness District (CBD). These adaptation of this utility functions with clear benefits accruing to a household are transformations in Equation I. interpreted as Utility for which the household, in competition with others, is The Key Variables compelled to pay a rent. Alonso found out The key variables revealed in the literature that the bid-rent declines from the center to and theoretical reviews are six. Property the periphery at a rate that partially reflects Value represents the rental value of the the quality and costs of urban transportation apartment of choice. It is obtained by system as presented in equations IV and V. disaggregating and adjusting the self- Also, Olatubara (1994) argued that activity declared contract rent for errors emanating pattern which represents the nodes regularly from property quality, land space, house patronized by the household is an important space, land price and house price. factor. Household Income is the monthly gross income upon which the household has full Location Theory and effective control. The total distance Location theories are concerned with the attributed to movements of house members allocation and use of land resource, and to all the various activity nodes patronized how land uses compete for the limited urban on a monthly basis is the Network Linkage and regional space. The theory of urban or Activity Pattern, while the cost land use is traced to Ricardo, the 19th implication in terms of out-of-pocket century classical economist who stated that expenses is the Commuting Cost. All other among other things the location of a piece articles, goods and services upon which the of land determines its use and its rent household spends the entire remainder of its (Aluko, 2004). income after meeting the rental and From the reviewed authorities, five major commuting costs are classified as Non- factors that seem to have dominant effect on housing variable. residential choice are property attributes, neighborhood characteristics, activity Methodology pattern, socio-economic variables and other Primary data obtained from 182 households non-housing factors. From this broad in the study areas were employed. Through grouping, the key variables identified by questionnaires, data pertaining to the socio- Olatunji (2012) are extracted for optimality economic status of the household and the test on the basis of their measurable commuting costs per month were obtained. attributes: space for land (L) and Data on physical spaces (house sizes and improvement (H), property value, plot sizes), were obtained partly through commuting cost(C) and workplace distance physical tape-survey and from ESVs. The (D) and household income(Y). property values profile of the area was obtained from the ESVs. The network Utility Function linkages of activity patterns engaged in by The utility function combines all the each household and its members were aforementioned key variables or established in terms of distances in determinants in a way that brings out a kilometers, their spatial pattern of house and solution for decision making. In Bolton workplace locational geo-references were (2005), three sets of functions are developed established using handheld GPS in based on modified Cobb-Douglas utility conjunction with Google Maps online version. Olatunji (2010, 2012) present an application.
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The study area was first stratified by (household income, property value neighborhood densities and then the constituents, commuting cost and network medium density neighborhoods where distances) was extracted from the 182 MIHs are predominant were purposively households surveyed by Olatunji (2014) and chosen. Identification was based on advice used for the Optimality Simulation and assistance of Abuja Geographic programme. Information System (AGIS). In Abuja, Utako, Durumi, Wuye and are 4 of 11 Data Presentation districts with features matching medium Table 1 presents the optimality decision density. MIH are selected randomly variables in 14 rows and 7 columns. The therefrom. There are 107 estate firms in columns designated 1- 5 on top are the Abuja, listed in the 2014 directory of house options available to the household to Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and chose from. The income row shows the Valuers, NIESV and 10 were selected with entire family income which is constant for systematic randomness from the directory all. The 2nd and 3rd rows are the plot and of practicing firms. house sizes respectively, presented both in hectares and square metres, with measured The respondent household with five data capturing instrument. Land rent is the options, as revealed in its questionnaire amount of rent attributed to bare land. It is indicated the highest number of choices, derived, as a residual, by apportionment as and was selected to illustrate the Housing indicated in Royal Institution of Chartered Choice Optimality simulation. The list of Surveyors, 2014 Guidance Notes. 56 households (representing 30.77% of the population of MIH in the study area), whose questionnaires disclosed complete spatial data on four key decision variables
Table.1 Housing Choice Optimality Data for Five Options available to the Median Income earner Variables House Choices 1 Variable Notation/ 1 2 3 4 5 Name Unit 2 Income N/m p.a. 510000 510000 510000 510000 510000 3 Plot size Ha; (m2) 0.0136; 0.0625; 0.0537; 0.06; 0.043 (136) (625) (537) (600) (428) 4 House size Ha; (m2) 0.0158; 0.0171; 0.0134; 0.024; 0.0001; (158) (171) (134) (240) (114) 5 Rental Value N/mth; 120000; 200000; 143,750; 208,333 200000 (N p.a.) (1440000) (2400000) (1725000) (2500000) (2400000) 6 Land rent* N/m2/mth; N/ 143.48; 111.83; 98.5; 335.42; 357.83 m2p.a 1723 1342 1182 4025 4294 7 House rent** N/m2/mth; N/ 7630.8; 9130; 8136; 678.03 354.17; 4931; m2p.a 635.9 760.84 29.51 354.17 8 House value N / ha/mth 6359030 7608430 6780261 295139 4109415 9 Land Value N /ha/mth 1435833 1118333 985000 3354167 3578333 10 Commuting N/mth 31000 39000 38000 34000 30000 Cost 11 Activity Km/mth 120 192 264 288 252 Pattern 12 Location Km 5.25 9.9 10.35 6.0 6.1 13 Utility - 8925 2354 -4957 719 3165 14 Optimality - 0.561 0.166 -0.6468 0.6318 0.303
Olatunji A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
Development of Simulation Framework The commutting cost function is specified, To attain a certain desired level of thus: residential fulfillment, a household, i, η expends all its monthly income,Yi, on a C= vDwc ……….V particular house choice c plus other essential needs, E, as follows: PE, the combined price of all the non- housing needs is designated as 1 unit. Yi = ALjcPLjc + EPEjc+HjcPHjc + Cwc The.….I magnitudes or sizes of the variables, Land (L), House (H) and Non-housing good Where, L , H, E represent land, house and (E), are derived from Marshalian demand non-housing good respectively, and PL, functions respectively in Equations VI, VII PH, PE represent their respective prices; A and VIII thus: is a constant. After expending all household income, L* = α M Yi = Xi, where Xi is total monthly Expenditure ………….II (α + β+θ) PL VI
A level of utility is attained, thus, H*= θ M VII α β . θ ɣ Uijc = A . Ljc . Ejc Hjc - gD ……….III (α + β+θ) PH
Where E*= β M VIII Uijc represents the welfare level (α + β+θ) PE experienced by household i at location j from house choice c; Ljc is the plot size of where M is Y-C, and other parameters are location j; Ejc is the size of the non-housing as previously defined. goods; Hjc is the size of the house chosen; and D is the network linkage of activity The Optimality Index, OPTi pattern engaged in. The parameters, α, β, θ, The index is construed as the level of are defined as proportionate returns to scale optimality that the household under on each of the three variables, L, H and E.., observation stands to obtain from the given defined in Equation I house choice. It also has the ability to measure the true Location efficiency of a Prices are specified for each of the variables particular house choice to a particular as follows: household. The Utility obtained, Uijc, represents the satisfaction level achieved as PLj = Pw exp (δ) Dwc + N …………IV indicated by the examination. It is the figure Where PLj is the bid-rent or Price per hectare of the plot located at j , of utility in Column S that corresponds to the location D, of the house choice, Pw is the rack-rent or price per ha of workplace location, w by household i); Revealed or Stated. The Utility obtainable, Uiw represents the Dwc is distance between workplace (w) and house chosen(c); and N is the market value highest satisfaction possible for the of the neighbourhood quality of location j; household under analysis, given the PEjc the unit price of essential pack is 1; combination of factors, variables and parameters that exercise control over the and P0 is a special price representing the rack rent. household choice. It is the highest figure of [email protected] 144
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Utility, and it is usually, but not always, Computer Simulation Programme found at D=0 or close to D=0. Based on these functions a computer programme is developed to simulate the The Optimality Index , OPTi, is derived choices made by the selected households in from the simple relationship: Abuja. This is illustrated in thirteen steps that lead the household from preference to OPTi = (Utility Obtained)/( Utility choice demonstrated in Excel Spreadsheets Obtainable) and Worksheets.
OPTi=Uijc/Uiw IX Step1: In an Excel Worksheet, all the parameters for Abuja are preset at defaults Where, as follows: OPTi is the level of fulfilment, contentment α=0.1; β= 1.1 ; θ = 0.3 ; η=0.75; or satisfaction that a particular household i v=7969.87; g= 337.897; δ= -0.85 whose primary workplace is w, stands to γ= 1.75;Po=1000000; Y=0; D=0 achieve from a particular house choice c in neighbourhood j, In Excel Spreadsheet, the parameters are Uijc is the Utility obtained by household i entered in Columns B through to Column from house choice c at neighbourhood j, K. Uiw is the highest possible utility Step 2: Impute Y, Household Income (In obtainable by household i from house Column A) choice c at workplace w or at any other Step 3: Impute D, Workplace distance (In location for that matter. Column L) Step 4: Impute PH, House value directly (In At the zenith of any choice, Uijc will equate Column P) Uiw. This implies that the maximum OPTi Step 5: Impute PL, Land value, actual using is unity, 1. Under extremely adverse the PL function and N, the add-on, that conditions utility obtained or obtainable produce actual land price. (In Column Q) could be negative, and then OPTi could be Step 6: Impute H, house size, actual by negative. The optimal choice is indicated adjusting θ from preset position by iteration by OPTi = 1; any values less than 1 can be Step 7: Impute L, plot size, actual by construed or interpreted as sub-optimal adjusting α from preset position also by choices. The three theoretical optimization iteration. Observe and record the utility. conditions, if passed, are merely to Step 8 : Generate U values for locations reinforce the OPTi. D=0, 1, 2….. to D=11km across the city. Scan all values of U and observe U* As OPTi is tied to utility, two facts are maximum, usually at D=0 or nearby. worthy of note; OPTi has no units and its Step 9: Set OPTi level in Column S relative figures are useful for comparing the Step 10 : Observe OPTi at location D HWB of two or more house choices in Step 11: Repeat steps 2 to 10 for each rank, bearing in mind that the highest available house choice. figure is 1. In absolute terms, OPTi has the Step 12: Observe and compare OPTi indices capacity to show by how much the HWB of for all available house options one choice exceeds or falls below the other. Step 13: Select House option corresponding This is a good Decision-Support attribute of to the highest OPTi the model.
Olatunji A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
The Simulation Narrative: how the Step 2. Login: User Name; simulation process runs Password Compelled by need, an accommodation Step 3. Click on Template seeker usually enlists friends, co-workers, Step 4. Select select template relations as well as professional estate Step 5. Select Abuja or Minna agents to find a house matching the need in Step 6. Click on Show the Template’s terms of size, location, rent and other variable Inputs pertinent variables of housing, all of which Step 7. Input α, β, θ are consolidated into HcO. From these Step 8. Click on Activate sources a finite set is generated. If Step 9. Input Y = and Click on Activate consulted, the ESV extracts only six Step 10.Input D = Click on Activate variables from each of the options presented Step 11.Input PH= Click on Activate by the accommodation seeker, represented Step 12. Click on Calculate PL to open a in Plate 1. These are fed into the simulation Dialogue box programme, starting with Step 2. For Input PL Present = security, the programme is passworded and Click on Calculate (delete –ve signs opens a dialogue box when the password is in dialogue box) imputed. The house choices are assessed Click on Close consecutively, until the OPTi in each case Step 13. Click on Activate is arrived at in Step 21. The limitation here Step 14. Click on Calculate to calculate H; is that the choice set must be finite as the then Activate programme is not designed to handle Step 15. Click on Calculate to calculate L; unlimited choice sets. then Activate Step 16. Click on Generate Utility Step 17. Click on OK in Project 1 dialogue box Step 18. Click on Proceed to generate Optimality Values Step 19. Click on Generate Optimality Step 20. Click on OK in Project 1 dialogue box, Optimality generated Step 21. Click on Show Record Observe the value of OPTi corresponding to D, and record.
Plate1: Dialogue box to generate Optimality Application of Framework to Assess the index and show the record HcO for the Median Income Household The median income for the population of On the Simulation Programme: study was found to be N510,000, attributed The Simulation Programme is based on to a particular household; other details Visual Basics programming language with specific to the household are shown in Microsoft Access database and is run Table 2 and are used alongside income as through 21 steps as follows: the variables for the simulation exercise.
Step 1. Click on Here to continue
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017
Table 2: Field Data for Median Income-Earning Household D C Y L H Pl Ph Rent P.M. Nd Opti 5.25 31000 510000 0.0136 0.0158 1435833 6359030 120000. 120 0.6505 KEYS: OPTi= Optimality Index; Y= Income in Naira per month; D=Distance in km; PH= House price in Naira per ha per month; PL= Price attributed to neighbourhood quality in Naira per ha per month; H=House size in ha; L= Plot size in ha; C= Commuting Cost in Naira per month; ND=Network Commuting in kilometers
The values of α, β, θ are 0.04607, 0.8547, 997978.7N; 331342.0E. The household 0.237. When imputed with relevant data head workplace is located 5.25 kilometers obtained from the housing market shown in away and has UTM georeferences of Table 2 and run in the simulation 1001056.909 Northing and 333539.546 programme, they produce the output in Easting. Furthermore, the household Table 3. activity network, ND, amounts to 120 kilometers per month which is below the The annual rental of N1446101 returned by neighbourhood mean of 205 kilometers. the Simulation programme in Table 2 constitutes a good pedagogical check The Table also shows comparative results against the actual rental value of of two housing indices: that Affordability N1,440,000 per annum respectively (24%) and H+T (29%) place this particular obtained from the property market. Minor household on a better affordability level difference is attributable to serial than the benchmarks of 30% and 45% approximations. respectively. Ostensibly, this implies that the household is well off in term of Table 3 shows the profile of residential affordable cost burden. However, the OPTi choice utility optimisation for the Median level of 0.6505 portrays more accurately, income household in Abuja over a span of the level of well-being achieved by the 12 kilometers radius from Durumi I. household as sub-optimal in term of utility Durumi I , where the household lives is achieved. The interpretation of this index is identified by georeferenced coordinates undertaken in Tables 4 and 5. 9.025004N; 7.465576E and UTM readings
Table 3: Utility Optimisation Output from Simulation Programme for Abuja ***Y D Utility MCD MMUD Affor1 H+T Rent p.a. OPTi 510000 0 17054 0 0 0.25 0.25 1539545 1 510000 1 16626 -12,507 -12,317 0.25 0.26 1515486 0.9952 510000 2 15730 -13,258 -20,735 0.24 0.27 1499083 0.9604 510000 3 14423 -13,568 -28,128 0.24 0.28 1484703 0.8947 510000 4 12765 -13,722 -34,930 0.24 0.28 1471496 0.8002 510000 5 10790 -13,800 -41,324 0.24 0.29 1459100 0.6807 510000 5.25 10249 -13,812 -42,872 0.24 0.29 1446101 0.6505 510000 6 8520 -13,834 -47,413 0.24 0.3 1447312 0.5621 510000 7 5970 -13,841 -53,262 0.23 0.3 1436008 0.4245 510000 8 3152 -13,828 -58,912 0.23 0.31 1425101 0.2527 510000 9 74 -13,802 -64,395 0.23 0.31 1414532 0.0117 510000 10 -3256 -13,767 -69,735 0.23 0.32 1404252 -0.3125 510000 11 -6833 -13,724 -74,950 0.23 0.32 1394227 -0.7933 510000 12 -10650 -13,675 -80,055 0.23 0.33 1384428 -1.7623 ***All notations are as previously defined
Olatunji A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
The negative values of both MMUD and Table 4:Comparative Schedule of Optimality and MCD are a check or proof that the settings other Housing Indices across 6 selected are theoretically in order. Neighbourhoods in Abuja AFF H+T (%) OPTi Index(%) Application of Simulation Framework to Sagamio 14.12 18.74 0.6612 Okekenta assess HcO in Selected Neighbourhoods. 16.23 21.60 0.9044 The levels of WBH are designated by Estate4 26.88 32.29 0.3424 optimality levels and measured by OPTi Utako 22.97 26.81 -0.7774 index, a Utility-based indicator, and a proxy I. Abacha 37.74 41.44 -11.703 that consolidates the key house choice Finance Q 28.91 36.20 -7.184 variables. The results of Optimality Study Area 14.87 20.39 -2.959 Source: Fieldwork, 2016 variations using the OPTi index are presented in Table 4 and they confirm that there is indeed a wide variation across Table 5 Interpretation of Residential Choice households, neighbourhoods and even Decisions on Optimality Index Scale between the study areas. OPTi Description Optimality indexLevel of Choice Interpretation The range of values of OPTi indices among Decision 1 Excellent Optimal individual households was computed in line ≥ 0.80 Very Good Sub-optimal with the simulation framework of this ≥0.60 Good Sub-optimal study; this is interpreted in Table 5. Three ≥0.50 Moderate Sub-optimal of the six neighbourhoods in Abuja (Utako, ≥0.20 Poor Sub-optimal Abacha and FinanceQ in Table 4) with ≥0.00 Very poor Sub-optimal ≤ 0.00 Non-optimal favourable indicators on the H+T and AFF Source: Fieldwork, 2016 indices are observed to have poor housing choice optimality standards. Findings The results emanating from the simulation Main Contributions to Knowledge programme seem to confirm the existing The paper contributes to knowledge by belief that there are wide variations and developing a Decision–Support System for inequalities in housing conditions in urban measuring housing-specific well-being, Nigeria. The limitations in technical HcO, as an assistive tool for Estate capacities of house seekers to gather and Surveyors and Valuers in practice of process property market data provide an Residential Accommodation Procurement imperative and justification for developing counselling service to house seekers on an assistive technique or decision-support demand. Also, it enables the ESV to system. To this end, the Simulation ascertaining the levels of optimality or Framework developed appears to offer household-specific well-being of a predictive capability to assess Housing neighbourhood and a contemplated house Choice Optimality. choice. All of these hold some prospects in policy formulation towards Housing Care Conclusion and Recommendation and Support for the well-being of the family Housing delivery policies by the Federal in the study area. and State Governments in Nigeria,
particularly in FCT and neighboring Niger
State, if correctly interpreted, are steps towards creating wider house choice sets for
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Nigerians and to improve their well-beings Chicago: Appraisal Institute. pp 29- associated with housing. The study uses 43, 239-274. revealed residential choice and measurable Bolton, R.E. (2005). Computer Simulation variables to model well-being attributable to of Alonso Household Location housing choices among households and Model. Journal of Economic neighborhoods in the study area. The results Education,36 (1), 59-76. of the simulation are largely consistent with Cappoza, D.R. and Helsley, A. (1989). The the well-known pattern of well-being, Fundamentals of Land Prices and which portrays wide inequalities in housing Urban Growth. Journal of Urban perceptions among a fairly homogeneous Economics, 26(1). pp295-306. group of Middle Income Households; the Global Real Estate Transparent Index OPTi enjoys an advantage drawn from its (2016). Retrieved from quantitative and objective attributes. http://www.jll.com/greti/transparenc y-tiers. [Retrieved 12th December, In the business world, the indices issued 2016]. from time to time by Rating Agencies such Granfield, M.(1975). An Econometric as Moody, Fitch and Standard and Poors on Model of Residential Location. the economic performances of Financial Cambridge. Ballinger Institutions, Corporations and the national Publishing Company. pp15-21. economies are very useful decision-support Ighalo, J. I. (2006). ‘Housing the Masses in guides for decision makers. In the same a Democratic Nigeria. Keynote vein, the degree of precision in this Address presented at the Mandatory framework could point to its usefulness as a Continuing Professional predictive and objective decision-support Development Seminar held at guide to empower Estate Surveyors and Abdusalami Youth Center, Minna. Valuers in advising their clients on Housing Jiboye, A. D.(2009). Evaluating tenants’ Choice Optimality. It is thus recommended satisfaction with Public Housing in that ESVs using this package would be able Lagos, Nigeria. Urbanistika Ir to offer Residential Accommodation Architektura, 33(4), 239-247. Procurement services to their clients based Limbumba, T.M. (2007). Residential on optimal choices. Location Preferences and Urban form in Dar es Salaam. PhD. References Proposal . Retrieved from Akomolede, K.(2006). Estate Agency http://209.85.65.104/search?q=cache Practice in Nigeria. Lagos: Bamboo [Retrieved 18th March 2007]. Books, Ed-Asae Press,. Pp.17-27, Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and 165-168 Valuers (2006). Valuation Standards Alonso, W. (1964a). Location and Land and Guidance Notes p.141. Nigerian Use. Cambridge, Harvard Institution of Estate Surveyors and Press.pp112- 188 Valuers (2012). Draft Code of Aluko, O. (2004). Housing and Urban Professional Ethics and Practice. Development in Nigeria. University Codes 2.2, 6.2,6.5 & 6.6, of Ibadan. Ibadan: Lukson Press, pp. Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and 275-284. Valuers (2005). The Constitution, Appraisal Institute, (2001). The Appraisal Chapter XV(I). of Real Estate, 12th. edition.
Olatunji A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement
Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, Valuers (2012). The Draft (2014). Guidance Notes, UKGN 1. Constitution, Article 21.1(i) 1.9, p227 Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Straszheim, M.R.,(1975). The Demand for Valuers (2012). Draft Code of Housing Attributes and the Choice Professional Ethics and Practice. of Neighborhood. URL: Codes 2.2, 6.2,6.5 & 6.6, http://www.nber.org/chapters/c0978, Olatubara, C.O. (1994). Activity Pattern and in Straszheim, M.R.,(Ed.) An Urban Residential Location Econometric Analysis of the Urban Decision in Ibadan. PhD Thesis, Housing Market. U.S.National Department of Geography, Obafemi Bureau of Economic Research, Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, NBER. URL: Nigeria. http://www.nber.org/books/stra75-1 Olatunji, I. A. (2010). Medium-term . pp 78-115 Property Rights and Urban Poverty Thorncroft, M. (1965).Principles of Estate in Minna. International Journal of Management, London. The Estate Housing Markets and Analysis, Gazette. 3(3), 256 – 269 Tunde Agbola and C.O. Olatubara (2007). Olatunji, I.A., (2012). Assessment of In: Nubi, T.O., Omirin, M.M. and Residential Choices and Utility Afolayan, A.S (Eds). Private Sector Optimization in Abuja and Minna. An Driven Housing Delivery: Issues, unpublished PhD Seminar Paper Challenges and Prospects. Lagos: presented to the School of University of Lagos 3-2 Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria Olatunji, I. A. (2014). An Assessment of Residential Choices and Utility Optimization in Abuja and Minna. An unpublished PhD Thesis presented to the School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna. O'Sullivan, A. (2000).Urban Economics. Boston: Irwin McGraw-hill, pp370- 400 Pollakowski, H., Fisher, L., Zabel, J., (2007). Amenity-Based Housing Affordability Indexes; Massachusetts Institute of Technology Center for Real Estate. Retrieved from http://web.mit.edu/cre/research/hai/a ff-index.html. [Retrieved 12th December 2011].
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban, Benue State, Nigeria
Victor Umoren and Alexander Mchi Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Nigeria. Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract This study examines the effects of road quality on commercial landuse pattern in Makurdi, urban, Benue State. The study investigated the road condition and the spatial pattern of commercial landuse change in the study area. The study was carried out considering the year between 2008 and 2014, to determine the variation in landuse pattern across the neighbour in relations to the road quality in the study area. The study employed field observation and measurements. The study area road map, layout plans for the years 2008 and 2014 were used for the analysis. The data required for the study was obtained from primary and secondary sources that provided baseline and subsequent information needed for the research. The population for the research consists of one hundred and twenty seven majors in the study area from which a sample of forty-four roads was drawn for investigation representing 36.6% of the population of the area. Multi-stage simple random sampling was used in sampling. The research analysed variation in commercial land use pattern due to road quality across neighbourhoods in the study area. The result shows that interaction effects between neighbourhood and road quality was not statistically significant, F (8, 28) = .432, p = 0.892. There was significant effect for neighbourhood, F (8, 28) = 4.279, p = 0.002 and road quality, F (1, 28) = 20.419, p = 0.0001. The study revealed that road quality influence commercial land use pattern across neighbourhoods in the study area. The study recommended that mix use development be encouraged, more roads to link the neighbourhoods in Makurdi urban should be develop and adequate attention should be given to planning of commercial landuses in the area. Key Words: Road quality, Commercial landuse, Pattern, Makurdi urban, Neighbourhoods.
Introduction urban development implies getting the In the history of cities, transportation and transport access right. In other words, the land use have a close link. People settled in different policy spheres and disciplines have areas that are accessible by different modes to work together to deliver the best results of transportation available at each period of for the functioning of towns or cities. The time. As settlements grew into clusters, purpose is to reduce the need to travel, the there is need for better transportation length of journeys and make it easier for facilities. Based on the new modes of people to access jobs, shopping, leisure transportation that became available, cities facilities and services by public transport, in turn developed. SRPC (2003) defines the walking and cycling. framework for land use and transportation cycle based on form, function, land use and The rapid economic development of a transport. The form implies the nature and country depends on her concern for structure while the function implies the transportation. However, urban road level of its efficiency and effectiveness network is developed to link land uses in relating to landuse and transportation. Land the town and facilitates the movement of use and transport are interlinked; so people/services, thereby allowing for social whatever affects land use also affects the interaction. High quality road network transport policy. To have an efficient and connects key urban centres and isolated effective transport system implies getting local communities for which many public the land use planning right, and planning transport options are limited or not
Victor, Mchi The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban, available. The growth of towns necessitated influencing the location of various land-use for improved road network development to in the area. The study revealed that there is cater for increased pedestrian and vehicular a positive relationship between commercial movements. Umoren, Sule and Eni (2011) land use and rental value in the area. reported that a good quality road infrastructure attract socio-economic The terms "invasion" and "succession," development than a bad road condition. derived from plant and animal ecology is Their study revealed that Akwa Ibom State used to describe the processes of has a total length of 6288km of roads. A neighborhood population alteration. total of 1272.6km (20 %) constituted paved Weinstein (2007) explained the or tarred roads while about 5015.4km (80 fundamental way one ethnic or racial group %) constituted unpaved roads. The study replaces another. A few people from one revealed that a greater percentage of the group invade a neighborhood inhabited roads in the area were unpaved and could largely by members of another group. The not be used in all seasons, maintenance long-time residents begin to move out as the costs are high and they reduce the economic invading group move in, and in time the life of vehicle. The study further reported new group succeeds the old. According to that a greater number of the roads in the Weinstein (1992), revealed long-time study area are single lane and narrow. Coney residents who remained behind in Potholes, depressions and sagging surfaces the 1970s, unable or unwilling to move to a are common features on the roads that better neighborhood, needed no urban impede free flow of traffic. The study sociologist to quote Chicago School recommended that efforts should be made ecological theories to them. Competition for to increase the length of paved roads in the housing may result into conflict as the area to attract socio-economic development. locals and the newcomers attempt to devise strategies to achieve their goal. If some It is a known fact that as the economic accommodation between the locals and the activities expands in the city centre, it spills newcomers is not conducive, one of the two over to adjoining areas and these changes groups will withdraw. If the newcomers seem to occur in nearly all cities in Nigeria withdraw, the invasion has been halted. If (Egbenta, 2010). The trend was observed in the established population withdraws, their most towns/cities including Uyo, Lagos, departure coupled with the continued arrival Enugu, Calabar and Jos. Residential plots of the new group will result in succession. situated along major roads were fast Invasion and succession refer to change in disappearing; while commercial land uses land use or dominant activities in the had invaded residential areas fronting the neighborhood. The concepts of road major roads within residential zones. network and commercial land use patterns, and invasion-succession theory are essential The Calabar municipal land use had to guide the study towards attaining the undergone a substantial level of change stated objectives. from residential use to commercial use with the latter becoming more prevalent. Eja, Nwachi, Sunday, Inah, and Ita (2011) examined the pattern of commercial land use pattern in Calabar, Nigeria. The study used questionnaire to collect data on commercial land value and factors [email protected] 152
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The study is aimed to assess the effects of Arterial roads are the major road links in road quality on commercial land use. The Makurdi urban. They handle large volumes study will enlighten the policy makers of of freight and passengers that traverse the need to formulate policies that will through the town. encourage maintenance of road network and re-zoning of some areas in Makurdi urban. Access roads are largely the neighbourhood street system. These roads are relatively free The Study Area of through traffic and handle local traffic. Makurdi, the capital of Benue state is These roads are required to provide a high delineated by sixteen kilometres radius with level of safety and adequate access to the centre of the town taken at a control neighbourhood services and facilities. near the post office. It lies between latitudes Pathways are pedestrian ways and they are 7˚28' - 8˚00' North and longitudes 8˚28' - in the form of narrow accesses leading to 8˚35' East (Shabu and Tyonum, 2013) as individual premises. Vehicular traffic is shown in Figure1. It is bounded by Guma restricted on the pathways. For the purpose local government in the north-east, Tarka of our investigation, major roads compose local government in the east, Gwer local of arterials and collectors. government in the south, Gwer-West local government in the west and Doma local Methodology government area of Nasarawa State in the The research design followed a multi stage north-west (Edan, Idowu, Abubakar and framework covering survey analysis and Aliyu, 2014).The town is traversed by trunk interpretation of data. The data required for ‘A’ road that connects the southeastern the study was obtained from primary and parts of the country to the north. Makurdi secondary sources that provided baseline has a total land area of about 820 square and subsequent information needed for the kilometres (Shabu and Tyonum, 2013). An research. The study employed field assessment of the land use pattern in the observations and measurements method in study area indicated that the area comprises study area. The study area road map, layout of residential, commercial, industrial, public plans for the years 2008 and 2014 was space, public, recreational, transportation obtained from the Ministry of Lands and and urban agriculture landuses. Survey, Makurdi and used for the analysis. The analogue Makurdi township map for the years 2008 and 2014 was obtained from Office of the Surveyor General of the Federation, Abuja. The purpose of selecting the above years for study was that the study area went through rapid road network development during the civilian administration that came to power in 1999. And therefore there was need to investigate how commercial landuse react to road network development in the study area. A Register of business premises was obtained The major roads also called primary or from the Ministry of Commerce and arterial roads are routes that carry long Industries, Makurdi, for assessment of distance through traffic to specific areas in commercial landuse determined through urban centers (Dauda and Lawali, 2014).
Victor, Mchi The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban, identification and measurement of = RAND()*(high – low) + low Eqn. 2 commercial shop area cover in the study area. Other secondary data sources include To obtain quadrant sample location, the available materials from scholarly sources generated random numbers were used. such as textbooks, road transportation and Sample coordinate location for east axis other planning research journals, etc. was 0.305763(457380.28 – 444380.28) + The population for the research consists of 444380.28= 448355.20 mE. While for north One hundred and twenty seven major roads axis; sample coordinate location was in Makurdi urban from which a sample of 0.172047(859764.18 – 849764.18) + forty-four roads was drawn for investigation 849764.14 = 851484.65 mN. The representing 36.6% of the population in the coordinates (448355.20 mE, 851484.65 study area. The sample for the study was mN) were plotted as shown in Figure 2 to drawn using a multi stage simple random determine sample location, and quadrant 3 sampling technique. The geographic was selected for study. The land use spatial coordinates on Makurdi road map was pattern in Makurdi urban was assessed converted to Universal Transverse Mercator through the comparison derive by counting (UTM) coordinates for ease of computation of tables on data generated in 2008 and then gridded into four quadrants and labeled 2014 approach. The total number of 1-4 as shown in figure 2. potholes, sagging and depressions on each road was used to assess the quality of each road, this was done by observation. The structural defects of each major road were counted and recorded. Road quality assessment was done using equation 3 as shown below. Q =1/n …Eqn. 3 Where; Q = road quality, n = number of structural defects (sagging, potholes and depressions), 1 = unity. The scores were plotted on a model linear scale ranging from the minimum number (zero) to the maximum number (one). A
benchmark was established at lower The Selection of the study location was quartile. The road quality scores recorded based on quadrant sample location below the benchmark of the model were coordinate system using Excel spreadsheet classified as bad quality while road quality approach. Random numbers for eastern and scores above the benchmark were regarded northern axes of the map were generated as good quality. The two-way ANOVA with using Excel spreadsheet formula the aid of SPSS software, which seeks to (Mathwave, 2015); investigate the variation of commercial land =RNAD() ... Eqn. 1 use pattern due to road quality across the The generation of random numbers for east neighbourhoods in the study area was and north axes; =RAND() were 0.350763 adopted in the analysis. and 0.172047 respectively. The sample location coordinates was derived using the formula (Wilson, 2007):
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Results and Discussion than 0.50, therefore, null hypothesis was The selected forty-four roads were assessed rejected and the alternate hypothesis, which to determine the road quality of the road states, “there is significant variation in network in the study area. The road quality commercial land use pattern due to road assessment was based on the Road Quality quality development across the Index (RQI) model derived by the neighbourhoods in the study area” was researcher. The RQI has a benchmark that accepted.The acceptance of alternate determines the road quality index for the hypothesis provides adequate grounds for roads in the study area. The benchmark is a further investigation. The study area was point on the RQI model that determines divided into nine landuse categories: whether the road was good or bad quality Wurukum, Ahule, High level. Old GRA, and expressed as follows: Ankpa quarters, Idye, Nyiman, Ankpa ward Road Quality Range (RQR) = 0.50 – 0.03 and Modern market. The interaction effects = 0.47 between neighbourhood and road quality Bench mark= 25% of RQR was not statistically significant, F (8, 28) = = 0.12 .432, p = 0.892; therefore the main effect If RQI < 0.12 = Bad Road Quality or can be interpreted.There was significant if RQI > 0.12 = Good Road Quality. effect for neighbourhood F (8.28) = 4.279, p Twenty-six roads out of forty-four = 0.002. From the (Neave, 1978) table of F- roads representing 59.10% were in good distribution, the table value for degree of condition therefore are of good quality. freedom (28 under 8 at 5% level) is 2.27, Eighteen roads representing 40.9% of the therefore null hypotheses was rejected while roads in the study area were of bad alternate hypothesis was accepted. There quality.The study revealed that new bridge was significant effect for road quality, F (1, road, Iyorchia Ayu road, David Mark 28) = 20.419,p = 0.0001. ) From the table of bypass, Abdullahi Shelleng road and Ishaya F-distribution, the table value for degree of Bakut road in the study area have the freedom (28 under 1 at 5% level) was 4.17, highest RQI of 0.50 as shown on Table 1 therefore null hypotheses was rejected while below.The 2008 and 2014 land use in the alternate hypothesis was accepted. This study area was assess through a-screen means that the good and bad nature of the digitisation of township maps as shown on road quality influence the commercial Table 1. landuse pattern in the study area. Similarly, The null hypothesis which states that differences occur in commercial landuse “There is no significant variation in pattern in the study area on the basis of commercial landuse pattern due to road neighbourhood. quality development across neighbourhoods The effect for neighbourhood and road in the study area” was tested. A two-way quality provided in the Partial Eta Squired Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was column are 0.550 and 0.442 respectively. employed to investigate using SPSS Using Cohen’s (1988) criterion, these Version 17. The application of the two-way effects are classified as large.This implies ANOVA in this research was to compare that the effects reach is statistical the means of a single variable (commercial significance. The post-hoc comparisons landuse pattern) at different levels of two indicated that the mean score for the Ankpa conditions (road quality and quarters, Ankpa ward, High level, Nyiman, neighbourhood) in the study area. The and Wurukum differs significantly from one Levene’s Test for a P-value significance of another as shown in Table 2 below. the analysis was 0.72. This value was more
Victor, Mchi The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban,
Table 1: Road quality index and land use change by neighbourhoods S/No. Name of Road RQI 2008 2014 Change Neighbourhood 1 New bridge road 0.50 5.46 20.10 14.42 Wurukum 2 Abu King Shuluwa road 0.33 3.42 13.44 10.02 Ahule 3 Wurukum Market road 0.14 4.10 11.55 8.42 Wurukum 4 Gboko road 0.17 4.92 14.17 9.38 Wurukum 5 Onitsha street 0.08 3.53 9.50 7.28 Wurukum 6 Awe street 0.04 2.19 7.84 6.94 Wurukum 7 Iyorchia Ayu road 0.50 7.24 17.09 12.37 Wurukum 8 Amokachi lane 0.05 3.58 7.62 6.41 Wurukum 9 Konshisha street 0.14 5.39 18.37 12.92 High Level 10 Katsina Ala street 0.17 6.15 21.52 14.37 High Level 11 Abbatoir street 0.03 1.80 8.23 5.03 Wurukum 12 Conrad Welgba street 0.04 5.28 8.49 3.21 Idye 13 Ishaya Bakut road 0.50 3.86 8.21 4.35 Idye 14 Vandeikya street 0.14 5.13 17.09 11.96 High Level 15 Calabar street 0.04 5.84 12.92 7.08 High Level 16 Boniface Okoli street 0.06 2.34 3.35 1.01 Ankpa ward 17 Esther Acka street 0.25 4.36 8.57 4.21 High Level 18 Abdullahi Shelleng road 0.50 6.59 22.63 16.04 High Level 19 Balewa crescent 0.33 2.88 13.92 11.04 High Level 20 Kashim Ibrahim way 0.25 3.89 9.51 5.62 Old GRA 21 J S Tarka way 0.17 4.12 10.13 6.01 Old GRA 22 Ogiri Oko road 0.11 0.35 1.52 1.17 Old GRA 23 Joe Akaahan way 0.33 6.97 18.01 11.04 High Level 24 College crescent 0.05 0.85 3.21 2.36 Ankpa ward 25 Lawrence Onoja street 0.03 1.57 4.96 3.39 Ankpa ward 26 David Mark bypass 0.50 3.39 6.84 3.45 Ankpa ward 27 Edward Ujege street 0.20 6.80 10.69 3.89 High Level 28 Regina Agbese street 0.05 2.81 8.08 5.27 High Level 29 Iorkyar Ako street 0.20 3.62 13.06 9.44 High Level 30 Major Wende street 0.08 3.22 11.63 8.41 High Level 31 Ugbokolo street 0.17 3.62 8.89 4.91 High Level 32 Inikpi street 0.07 5.16 14.59 9.43 High Level 33 Jonah Jang crescent 0.14 4.98 10.15 5.17 Nyiman 34 Old Oturkpo road 0.10 6.15 15.58 9.43 High Level 35 Atom Kpera road 0.33 3.98 5.35 1.27 Ankpa ward 36 Jerry Agber street 0.14 6.77 13.46 6.69 Ankpa quarters 37 Jerome Hwande street 0.07 2.75 6.23 3.48 Ankpa ward 38 Simon Songo street 0.05 3.25 5.23 1.98 Ankpa quarters 39 Naka road 0.25 13.01 22.83 9.82 Ankpa ward 40 Simon Aondona street 0.07 2.15 8.60 6.45 Modern Market 41 Augustine Ezekwisili street 0.07 2.56 5.01 2.45 Modern Market 42 Ahmadu Comassie road 0.04 4.57 10.90 6.33 Modern Market 43 Dominic Oneya road 0.33 4.16 13.24 9.08 Modern Market 44 Sefanu Tor Sabo street 0.03 3.87 6.55 2.68 Modern Market Source: Author’s Fieldwork (2015)
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Table 2: Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons of Neighbourhoods. Neighbourhood (I-J) Mean Difference (I-J) Std.Error Sig. level Sig. level (LSD) (HSD) Ahule-High level ± 4.2860 1.97860 .039 NS Ankpa quarters-High level ±6.9210 1.97860 .002 .036 Ankpa quarters-Wurukum ± 6.4063 2.07795 .005 NS Ankpa ward- High level ±5.1960 1.20313 .000 .005 Ankpa ward- Wurukum ±4.6812 1.36034 .002 .041 High level- Idye ±5.5160 1.97860 .009 NS High level-Modern market ±3.8980 1.35731 .008 NS High level-Nyiman ±6.7110 1.97860 .002 .046 High level-Old GRA ±5.0293 1.66236 .005 NS Idye-Wurukum ±5.0013 2.07795 .023 NS Modern market-Wurukum ±3.3832 1.49843 .032 NS Nyiman-Wurukum ±6.1963 2.07795 .006 NS Old GRA-Wurukum ±4.5146 1.77945 .017 NS Source: Author’s Fieldwork (2015)
Table 3: Post Hoc Two-Way ANOVA Table Tests of Between-Subjects Effectsb Dependent Variable: Commercial Type III Sum of Source Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Corrected Model 544.248a 17 32.015 4.634 .000 Intercept 691.142 1 691.142 100.041 .000 Neighbourhood 236.498 8 29.562 4.279 .002 Road Quality 141.065 1 141.065 20.419 .000 Neighbourhood * Road Quality 23.883 8 2.985 .432 .892 Error 193.440 28 6.909 Total 2768.998 46 Corrected Total 737.688 45 . r squared = .738 (adjusted r squared = .579) Source: Author’s Data Analysis
economic advantage and maximize profits. The Post hoc test shows the neighbourhoods The areas designed for resident has changed where significant variation in land use to commercial area. However, the impact is pattern occurs. associated with environmental and traffic consequences. Table 3 shows the post hoc two-way
ANOVA test, it can be inferred that Makurdi urban is expanding very fast. The commercial landuse pattern varies with Makurdi CBD has grown beyond its limits neighbourhood and road quality (p = 0.002 and exerts pressure on the zones that and p = 0.0001) respectively. It can be surrounds it. Commercial land use extends concluded that commercial landuse pattern to other neighbourhoods outside the CBD varies with the neighbourhood and road leading to gradual disappearance of quality in the study area. The improvements residential land use and commercial land of road network in the study area influenced use increased by 19.07% annually. This positively on commercial activities. agrees with Barau and Bashayi’s (2013) Businesses cluster where they can take
Victor, Mchi The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban, study, which reported that the emerging of study identified concentration of road Lafia CBD witnessed the gradual change in network development in some land use from residential use to commercial neighbourhoods leaving others without use. It also agrees with Egbenta (2010) who adequate road network. This implies that stressed that residential neighbourhoods in commercial activities would concentrate on Enugu bordering business district were the existing major roads, that would likely overwhelmed by the expansion of the cause traffic congestion. Enugu business district. Commercial land use pattern varies in neighbourhoods due to Conclusion the road quality in the study area. The The study revealed that 59.10% of the road variation in commercial land use occurs in networks in the study area are of good all neighbourhoods at varying intensities. quality while 40.10% were rated as bad quality. Most of the good quality roads are The increase in commercial activities in found in High level, and Wurukum Makurdi urban per year is tremendous as neighbourhoods. Good road network residential land use is fast disappearing. enhance free flow of vehicle thereby This is an indication that adequate influencing distribution of goods and consideration was not given for commercial services and motivates the shop owners to places in the planning of the Makurdi urban locate their business along good quality when the layouts were prepared. The roads in anticipation of maximum profits. implication of the inadequate provision for commercial spaces in Makurdi urban is that The study revealed that “there is significant the wind of invasion-succession will compel variation in commercial landuse pattern due residents to move to urban fringe. This to road quality and neighbourhoods across would likely create housing problems. The the study area. The interaction effect rents will soar, residents would pair up with between road quality and neighbourhood their neighbours thereby increasing the was not statistically significant, F (8, 46) = occupancy ratio and altering the residential .432, p = 0.892 at 5% level.However, the densities. There is need to plan the Makurdi effect for road quality, F (1, 46) = 20.419, p urban fringe to accommodate these people = 0.0001 and neighbourhood, F (8, 46) = so as to avoid haphazard development and 4.279, p = 0.002, were statistically promotion of squatter settlements. significant. This implies that the road quality and neighbourhood influence the The emerging commercial land use pattern variations in commercial landuse pattern in in the study area has changed the zoning the study area. The effects of road network plan of the area. There is need to rezone on commercial land use pattern in Makurdi these areas so as to avert incompatible uses. urban was studied in relation with the This would boost the internally generated neighbourhood.The road quality and revenue hence property owners will pay neighbourhoods influence the pattern of appropriate ground rents on their commercial landuse activities in the study commercial property. The emerging area. commercial land use pattern would be associated with environmental problems Recommendations hence the anticipation of increase waste The following recommendations were made generation, strain of water and electricity in based on the findings, to point the way those areas, indiscriminate constructions would likely cause drainage problems. The [email protected] 158
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 forward on the part of the policy makers. Edan, J. D., Idowu, T. O., Abubakar, T and The study recommends the following: Aliyu, M. R. (2014). Determination i. The Government should encourage of Orthometric Heights From GPS subdivision design that will and Levelling Data. International maximise connectivity and develop Journal of Electronics, major roads in Ahule, Nyiman, Idye Communication \and and Ankpa quarters neighbourhoods Instrumentation Engineering to connect more areas. Research and Development, 4(1), ii. Houses fronting Abdullahi Shellang 123-134 road, Iyorchia Ayu road, Konshisha Egbenta, I. R. (2010). Analysis of street, Katsina Ala street, New Residential Land Use Change in Bridge road, Naka road, Joe Enugu Urban. Journal of Akaahan Way and Atom Kpera road Environmental Management and should be redesigned to at least four Safety, 1(1),110–123. storey. The upper, middle and lower Eja, E. I., Nwachi, C.C., Sunday, I. B., Inah, storey should be used for residential, S. .A. and Ita, O. I. (2011). Analysis offices and retail business of Commercial Landuse Pattern in respectively. Cross River, Nigeria. Journal of iii. As the planning of the study \area Environmental Sciences and continue to evolve the government Resource Management, 3, 1–7. should give adequate attention on Mathwave, T. (2015). How to Generate planning of commercial areas, since Random Numbers in Excel commercial investment contribute to Worksheets, Data Analysis and the economy of the area. simulations, http://www.mathwave.com/articles/r References andom-numbers-excel Barau, D. and Bashayi O. (2013). The worksheets.html. Retrieved on 24 Emerging Central Business District April, 2015 (CBD) in Lafia Town, Nigeria, and Neave, H. R. (1978) Statistics Tables for its Related Urban Planning Mathematicians, Engineers, Problems. International Journal of Economists, the behavioural and Social, Management, Economics Management Sciences. London: and Business Engineering, George Allen and Unwin 7(3),351–356. (Publishers) ltd. Cohen, S. S.(1988). Practical Statistics Shabu, T., and Tyonum, E. T. (2013). Paper Back-1, London:Hodder Residents Coping Measures in Flood Educational, Prone Areas of Makurdi Town, http://[email protected] Benue State. Applied Ecology and Retrieved on 13 November, 2015. Environmental Sciences, 1 (6), 120– Dauda, W. A. and Lawali, R (2014). Gombe 125. Metropolis Road Network Mapping SPRC (2003), How to Link Land Use and – An Intergrated Approach. Transportation Planning. Strafford Academic Journal of Regional Planning Commission Interdisciplinary Studies,7(3),102. Policy paper. http://www.mcser.org/journal/index. Umoren, V., Sule, R. O. and Eni, D. D. php/ajis/article/view/5331. (2011). Assessment of Some Road Retrieved on 29 May, 2015. Infrastructural Variables in Akwa
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Ibom State, Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management, 4(2), 83–87. Weinstein, R. M. (1992). Disneyland and Coney Island: Reflections on the Evolution of the Modern Amusement Park, Journal of Popular Culture, 26, 131-164. Weinstein, R. M. (2007).Succession and Renewal in Urban Neighborhoods: The Case of Coney Island.The Official Journal of the North Carolina Sociological Associa tion: A Refereed Web- Based Publication, 5(2),1-15 Wilson, M. V. (2007), How to Use Random Number Tables and Generators, http://www.oregonstate.edu/instruct/ bot440/wilsomar/content/Random.ht m. Retrieved on 24th April, 2015.
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s Residential Schemes on Resident’s Well-Being
Mokolade B. Johnson1, Michael Adebamowo1, & Olatunji Adejumo2 1Department of Architecture, University of Lagos. 2Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Lagos. Corresponding author; [email protected].
Abstract The outcomes of rapid urbanization crisis are many, and it dates back to the Lagos bubonic epidemics of 1928. According to literature, resident’s well-being is a key factor in the quest to provide residence and neighborhoods that are people-responsively designed, produced and situated in a conducive physical environment to bring about satisfaction, quality of life and health. This study attempts to find out how the physical attributes of residential units and the immediate neighborhood impact on the well- being of residents. Human well-being as a positive state connected to experience, emotions and cognitive evaluation of residents’ life is one of the assertions that underpins the focus of this study. Four (4) largest low- income residential schemes belonging to Lagos State Development and Property Corporation (LSDPC) were purposively selected among its residential stock. Residential attributes identified as residents’ well-being indicators was qualitatively and quantitatively measured through on-site assessment of physical quality and neighborhood characteristics. Appraisal of as-built drawings, structured survey, resident’s self-measurement and physical observational technique were used as instruments to collect data from 1980 to 2017 period. The outcome of this study seeks to inform designers and policy makers about the possibility of user-consideration in residential provision and time-based residential design for human well-being benefits.The study suggests that neighborhood infrastructure that can enhance resident’s well-being as proposed by people-responsive designs are embarked on to consolidate on past gains, in order to alleviate the hydra-headed problem of residential inadequacy and maintain sustainable well-being in future residential developments. The implication of the results and findings were highlighted. Key words; neighborhood, physical well-being, residential unit, responsive-residential design.
INTRODUCTION of inhabitants. (Amole, Ajayi and Okewola The exponential population growth in Lagos 2002).Well-being is a positive state which is in the last five decades as one of the results generally connected to experience, emotions of rapid urbanization compounds the and cognitive evaluation of one’s life. (Deci problem of residential inadequacy. Other and Ryan, 2008; Conceicao and Bandura attendant enumerated challenges include, 2008). Another assertion say that, physical overcrowding (high occupation density), well-being refers to the resident's and poor building quality, lack of good cumulative positive and negative experience residential infrastructures, poor air quality, associated with the, preparation, possession, poor indoor ventilation and natural daylight function, maintenance and management of due to wrong building orientation, the residence within a given period unsatisfactory neighborhoods, generally (Katrien,2010). From reviews of research unsanitary and deplorable residential done by Rapoport (1995) on home environments major problems in this interpretation, meanings and urban setting. Mabogunje (2002). These problems environment. From review of research work usually have wide-ranging effects on the done by various scholars, Rapoport (1995) quality of life, happiness, comfort, worked on home interpretation, meanings satisfaction, welfare, health and well-being and urban environment. Housing
Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 satisfaction was researched by Amole & ownership and well-being, to the extent that Tettly (1998) and Jiboye (2010). Iyagba psychological well-being varies in a (1997) and Ademiluyi (2010) dwelt on significant manner between residents in residential delivery, housing quality and different residential tenures (Clapham, sick buildings. Adebamowo (2007) 1991,2005; Cairney,2005). researched on residential energy It appears that due to the lack of consumption and thermal comfort. Research understanding central to the link between on housing and psycho-social benefits was the physical residential setting and well- carried out by Ilesanmi (2011). Financial being, past residential building studies have and mortgage aspects by Nubi (2006). Post not paid much attention to the issue of occupancy evaluation by Iweka (2012) and human well-being in the existing residential challenges in residential delivery was stock of the Lagos State Development and tackled by (Olayiwola, Adeleye & Property Corporation (LSDPC). In spite of Ogunsakin (2005). All these areas have the fact that there are varieties of residential severally investigated, but it appears that prototypes in the public and private sectors, residential research on the impact of public there is inadequate knowledge of what the residential scheme attributes on resident’s existing and emerging situations are for physical well-being have not been covered. well-being. From the residential architecture Human well-being is promoted when the perspective, this could be useful knowledge residence is designed, produced, prepared, for future programming, planning and and situated in a conducive physical design of improved residential buildings environment (location) to meet the use and and environment in Lagos. needs of the occupants, while bringing about satisfaction, enhanced quality of life Literature Review and sustainable physical well-being. This study focus on assessing the residential Grzeskowiak, Sirgy, Lee and Claiborne attributes (characteristic) of the LSDPC (2005).This study examined how the residential scheme and their impact or residential buildings and immediate influence on resident’s physical well-being environments can function as a tool for and the implication for architectural design enhancing resident’s well-being through (Ilesanmi,2005; Jiboye, 2009)(See figure 1). people-responsive architectural design. This is the gap in knowledge that this study Much of the research that relates to the attempts to fill. Presently, there is a scarcity impact of the physical and urban of knowledge to establish whether the environment on mental, social and existing Lagos State Development and psychological wellbeing has been on the Property Corporation (LSDPC) residential developed world Evans, Chan, Wells, and stock promotes residents’ physical well- Saltzman, (2000). Many factors was being or not, in order to assess its identified as variables that can influence implication for design. Understanding the resident’s well-being positively or relationship between residential attributes negatively. These include; dwelling density and human well-being is central to knowing (overcrowding), noise, spatial adequacy, how architectural designs of existing spatial organization, accessibility, privacy, residential schemes are meeting the well- security, social network, air quality, being need of occupants. landscape, infrastructural decay and general neighborhood visual amenity (aesthetics) The quest is to bring to the fore the (Dutton,2003). Research has also explicitly minimum physical standards for healthy, proven that there are associations between [email protected]. 162
Johnson, Adebamowo, Adejumo Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s family-friendly residential neighborhoods control, chemical toxicants and their qualities and physical characteristics that relationship to other illnesses from the impact and improve well-being from the medical science angle of research. architectural design standpoint. Human However, in the last 50 years, the definition well-being was considered as a wider of environmental health has widened to umbrella under which the health aspects of include the effects of the physical and social residents are embedded. environment on human health according to World Health Organization WHO, (1946). To attenuate the diminishing quality of life It now encompasses issues related to quality that poor designs can bring, it is necessary of residences, urban and rural development, to identify the value and benefits to land use, public infrastructure systems and residents’ well-being achievable through industrial development. (WHO, 2010). thoughtful and people-responsive architecture. Sometimes, in the bid to cut Issues Affecting Well-Being. costs in residential provision, we lose more Environmental well-being than money from these residential schemes Researchers such as Wells, Evans and Yang by using financial budgetary mechanisms, (2010) found that factors such as density of cheap or unsustainable building material to communities, presence and size of parks, cut cost and poor construction methods such land-use mix, height and size of residential that the project eventually becomes grossly structures, food store location, and road inadequate and unsustainable. layout affect people’s physical health and well-being. Most of the major health Residential researches in 2012, estimated problems plaguing the U.S. population that the UK spends up to £2 billion per year today— from psychological distress to heart treating illnesses arising from poor disease to diabetes—have significant residential buildings – more than the sum environmental causes. According to spent by local authorities on their own Coetzee (2002) and Lawanson (2015), when residential stock. (McGillivray and Clark changes in the environment are intense, the 2012). A good residence is a crucial more vulnerable are inhabitant’s level of criterion for quality standard of living. well-being. The residential environment is (Aribigbola, 2008). It is very fundamental the place where human beings appreciate to the welfare, survival and health (Evans, through experience the benefits of 2003). Hence, the residential setting is one architectural design more than anywhere of the best indicators for evaluating else because individuals eat, repose, engage standard of living of residents. The location in physical activity, interact and form social and residential typology are also factors bonds here (Wiggle, 2003;, UNHABITAT, crucial to this assessment. Rapoport (1995) 2003; Wells et al., 2010). The four main noted that shelter is central to the existence metaphors that describe the residence are of man. He submitted further that this subsumed in the idea that it is not only a involves access to land, shelter and the physical, but a mental, social, and necessary amenities to make the shelter psychological phenomenon (Onibokun, functional, cultural, aesthetically pleasing, 1983; Salau, 1990; United Nations, 1992; safe and hygienic to satisfy well-being. Rapoport, 1995; Gifford, 2002; Sommerville, 1992; Fincher and Gooder, In Nigeria, earlier studies of public 2007). The residential environment entails environmental health focused almost totally the organization of space, time, meaning on disease control, pollution, emission and communication, setting systems,
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Environmental Technology & Science Journal Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017 cultural landscapes, and the make-up of Residential schemes are products of fixed and non-fixed features in order to architecture, this suggests that when the figure out relationships between society and residence and neighborhood (built built environment (Rapoport, 2001). The environment) are designed with the residential building is an important and intention to satisfy users need from the significant entity of the residential conceptual stage, the benefits are many. The environment. This significant phenomenon nexus between poor residential attributes is embraced dialectically in the culture of and poor health is well established (Iyagba the major Nigerian nationalities of Yoruba et al., 1997; Wells et al., 2010). For as “ile” , Igbo as “uno” and Hausa as example, the Building Research “gida”.In these settings, the residence is a Establishment [BRE] (2010) reported that living entity representing physical, social, almost a quarter (4.8 million) of homes in cultural, economic and historical values and England contain defects that can give rise to status of the family. It is transferable hazards which can lead to serious health through inheritance from generation to risks such as cardio-respiratory disease, generations. Culturally across major stroke, asthma, excess cold, excess heat to Nigerian tribes, it is taboo to offer mention a few. Estimates put the cost to the traditional family homes for sale (Odunjo, National Health Scheme (NHS) of these 1970; Babade, 2008). Other functions that a hazards at £600 million per year, while the residence performs in the traditional society cost to individuals and society from loss of include the protection of family genealogy, earnings is estimated, at £1.5 billion per values, and care for the elderly through the year. Also, Peg (1994) points out that in the extended family system, and the protection United States of America, the Pruitt-Igoe of the ancestral history (Igwe, 2001). residential scheme built in St Louis, Missouri in the 1950s was hailed in Architecture and Physical Well-Being architecture circles for its attractive physical There is a connection between how a design (Bacon,1985). However, the facility residential scheme is conceived, designed, served its residents so poorly that the managed, built, and ultimately occupied. authorities found no other remedy than to Three key issues at the core of residential pull down the buildings in 1972. Many provision highlighted are; residential design problems arising from chronic indoor and must be wide-ranging and inclusive, it must neighborhood spatial dysfunction have also accept change and transformation, and must be proven to affect resident’s well-being. incorporate the user as part of the design decision-making process (Habraken, 1972; Shelter and well-being Iweka, 2012). Shelter is one of the three basic cardinal needs of man, it is a habitation, a place of Architecture is a discipline and practice that abode or house in which a person lives over is directly concerned with the development a period of time. It offers refuge and of the physical environment which is one of protection from harsh and unfavorable the four phenomena or aspects of well- environmental elements and living being (Rapley, 2003; Bond and Corner, conditions. It usually assumes various 2004). It is science and art at the same dimensions (tangible and intangible) and time.” We do not just ‘exist’ within a meanings depending on the resident’s physical environment - we interact with it attachment to this setting. The size, type and and derive important meaning from it” quality of residence is determined by one or (Altman, 1993; Jacard and Jacoby, 2010). combination of factors like income, [email protected]. 164
Johnson, Adebamowo, Adejumo Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s location, culture, identity, socio-economic residential environments can mean savings influences, government or developers in health treatment costs. Improvement of control amongst others (Rapoprt, 1995). existing schemes can be embarked on Another argument described a house as a through gradual improvement or phase by tool or device intended to meet intangible phase upgrading and not total and subjective needs like residential redevelopment of existing built satisfaction, purpose in life, identity, environment to enhance health and well- meaning of life and satisfy other psycho- being of residents (Gray, 2001; Wells et al., social requirements which are strongly 2010). beneficial and related to resident’s health wellbeing (Sarvima, 2006). These tangible Wellbeing is defined as the state of good and intangible dimensions of a residence are health, happiness, satisfaction and living in usually not fully appreciated and factored-in perceptually healthy conditions physically, at the architectural design and planning socially and mentally. The World Health stage. In situations where these residential Organization (WHO, 1948) have also aspirations are not met as cited before, postulated that in improving the quality of several poor residential buildings and life of residents, three main aspects impact; spaces had to be re-designed or eventually the quality of residential building, the demolished because the spaces and their quality of the close environment users were inharmonious (Peg, 1994; (neighborhood) and the quality of the urban Cairney and Boyle, 2004). The assertion of site (Mohit, Ibrahim and Rashid, 2010). The Le Corbusier that a house is a tool or device Aristotelian concept of living well and primarily produced for living, so every part reaching our full human potential well- of its design functions to satisfy the well- being may be explained as living a being needs of occupants, the desire to meaningful life, characterized by feeling fulfill this leads to the actual construction of empowered to make change, be happy, the residential building irrespective of class healthy, and connected to one’s or creed. Ilesanmi (2011) opined that, environment and community. The “Shelter is symbol for family, quality of relationship between these factors are inter- life, residential satisfaction (hearth), it is related and central to understanding how autonomous and usually a status symbol for residential attributes of a residential the residents or owners.” environment can have significant effect in determining and enhancing human well- At the conceptual stage, it is difficult for being (Giuliani 2003; McGillivray 2007). architects or planners to comprehend many Scholars like Dolan and White (2007) real or unforeseen challenges in the brief explained well-being as a non-physical available for the design, planning and phenomenon suggesting a strong possibility production of residences. Therefore, proper that resident’s health outcomes are related assessment of the relationships between or affected by other aspects like the social, residential attributes and resident’s financial, spiritual, mental and wellbeing need to be undertaken, because psychological attributes. The World Health literature strongly established that poor Organization’s (WHO) classical definition dwelling is strongly associated with poor states that “health is not merely the freedom health (Iyagba, 2005; Shaw, 2004; from sickness, disease or infirmity, but a Wilkinson, 1999 ). There’s a growing favorable state of physical, mental and understanding and awareness that enabling social well-being”. (WHO, 1946) also healthy lifestyles through well designed affirms this position.
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widely accepted that the concept of In the past 50 years, residential provision wellbeing cannot be captured solely by programs set by Lagos State government GDP. Human well-being is a multi- and private collaboration initiatives fell dimensional phenomenon encompassing short of projected targets. Hence policy and all aspects of human life. One approach to plan to tackle the problem of inadequacy, measure multi-dimensional well-being is to finance, lack of residential infrastructure, use objective indicators to complement, or over-crowding, congestion, poor air quality, supplement or replace GDP (Conceição and noise pollution, poor residential planning Bandura, 2008). Well-being is a concept and other associated challenges of urban that people and policymakers commonly sprawl confronting Lagos since the 1930s aspire to improve. Nevertheless, it is an have remained unresolved. The assessment indistinct concept, lacking a collectively of the availability or non- availability of acceptable definition and often faced with residential infrastructures, good sanitary opposing interpretations. This study also environment and living conditions hinges on the definition that views well- established through people-responsive being as generally a description of the state planning of the residential environment are of people’s life situation, which classifies key factors that this study considered well-being into two broad categories: the relevant for assessing the level of well- objective and subjective aspects which is being of residents (Olayiwola, Adeleye and explained to a large extent by Hedonists Ogunsakin, 2005). (McGillivray 2007; Conceição and Bandura, 2008). The Hedonistic theory Residential development in Nigeria in describes “hedonia” as a state of pleasure, general and LSDPC in particular has been and “eudaimonia” describes it as life the responsibility of government as the experienced as meaningful and engaging largest spender. Therefore every agenda set (Sarason, 1974; Twigger-Ross and Uzzell, by government to achieve these had 1996; Sarvina, 2006; Shueller and tremendous impact on financing, residential Seligman, 2010). provision, adequacy, quality and public In the Gallup’s model (see Figure 1), perception of the sector. Human well-being is at the center of five identified criteria for assessment. The Relationship Between Residential Quality community and physical aspects are the and Well-Being platform on which this study stands. Well-being is a complex concept, it varies from setting to setting and from individual to individual. It ties together a number of assorted, but connected psycho-physical factors from life-fulfilment, to happiness and resilience, or mental toughness (Deci and Ryan, 2008; Diener and Biswas-Diener, 2008). According to some theories, if some fact about life does not affect experience, it cannot affect well-being. Traditionally, Figure 1: Chart showing the Gallup’s 5 aspects of well-being has been identified with a single wellbeing, objective dimension where material Source; Gallup & Hill (1960). progress measured by income or Gross Domestic Profit (GDP). However, it is now Methodology [email protected]. 166
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The archival architectural drawings was effectiveness), and proffer suggestions on evaluated vis-à-vis what was built and their ways to improve it. The application of this evolution from 1980 till date. Formative and method was evident in a number of studies summative method of evaluation was that evaluated outcomes of public housing adopted in the study. The formative in Nigeria (Awotona, 1982; Bana, 1991; evaluation focuses on how program Mustapha, 2002; Obeng-Odom, 2009). implementation relates to specific objectives established at the program Study Area development or initiation phase, including The Metropolitan area of Lagos takes up to issues regarding stakeholders’ satisfaction 37 per cent of the land area of Lagos State with the amenities provided. Most studies and houses about 90 per cents of its on public housing dealing with satisfaction population. (Mabogunje, 2002)). The lack adopt this approach because they seek to of accommodation facilities in Lagos is answer questions on how, why and under enormous. It is normal that the size of the what conditions residential projects succeed family is five or more persons and they all or fail. The summative evaluation, on the live together in the small room, average of other hand, evaluates the effectiveness of a 4.30 m2 (Nubi, 2006; Iweka, 2012). Most of program after it has been executed or the houses are in poor conditions and the implemented. It focuses on the relationship facilities in them are shared. Sewage between the goals of a program and its systems are in deplorable states or non- outcomes. This approach provides a way to existing, sewage is available only in high measure how a program works (that is, its income areas. (Amole et al., 2002).
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Fig 2; Map of Lagos Metropolis showing Local Government Areas (Scale; Undefined
“In 2011, Lagos was 150 years old. It is by State between 1967 and the 5 year period no means one of Nigeria’s oldest cities” that followed consequently merged the three (Godwin and Hopwood, 2012). Lagos government agencies. In 1972, the Lagos became a capital city during the colonial Executive Development Board (L.E.D.B.), acquisition era and was part of the British Ikeja Area Planning Authority (I.A.P.A.), Empire and can be compared to other urban and Epe Town Planning Authority centers like Singapore and Hong Kong, (E.T.P.A.), transformed into what is known New York in many respects. Though not as today as Lagos State Development and developed, Lagos as a heterogeneous city Property Corporation (LSDPC ). The can boasts of modern infrastructure and LSDPC Edict No. 1 of 1972 provided the substantial funds investment. Residential legal framework that backed up this merger. provision at the government level in the Consequent on its advent, LSDPC took over Lagos Metropolis of Lagos State as it is the liabilities of L.E.D.B., I.A.P.A. and now known dated back to 1928. Lagos E.T.P.A. and relinquished its power for Executive Development Board (L.E.D.B.) development control to the Lagos State was established for the provision of modern Ministry of Works and Planning residential infrastructures in order to (L.S.M.W.P.) The Corporation now has a transform the informal settlements, ghettos completely commercialized and profit so as to change the filth and unhealthy driven agenda. The goals of new LSDPC conditions which prevailed in Lagos at the include; Development of land and all its time. The Board was saddled with the sole attendant interests like residential buildings, official responsibility to transform these acquisition, development and maintenance areas into a planned and habitable of residential schemes.Shopping centers, residential environment. L.E.D.B. had the offices, desirable industrial buildings that executive powers for planning and can enhance the establishment’s development in central Lagos, while Lagos performance. Facility management and City Council was in charge of adjoining service provision to the residential schemes districts to maintain, construct new roads, built and responsibility for the sale and drains, parks and the vetting of building letting of residential building owned or plans for Town planning approval. This developed by the LSDPC. Rasaki (1988). resulted in long delays of approvals which led to frustrations of private developers and Table 1 LSDPC residential low-income scheme non-compliance to building codes and built since 1983 S/N Name of Estate No of regulations. A problem which is still Units prevalent till date. 1. Abesan 4,272 The status of Lagos as a political and 2. Amuwo-Odofin 2,068 economic capital of Nigeria brought a 3. Anikantamo 714 resultant astronomical expansion that 4. Dairy 708 necessitated the involvement of the Ikeja Farm/Ijaiye Area Planning Authority (I.A.P.A) in 5. Dolphin II. 576 6. Iba 2,388 development control and residential 7. Iponri 1,026 provision for the ever-growing populace 8. Isolo 3,664 desperately in need of decent and healthy 9. Ojokoro 534 accommodation. However for efficiency in Total 15,950 the residential delivery bureaucracy, Lagos [email protected]. 168
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Appraisal showed that the drive for quality self-measurement, and observational of life, residential health and well-being is method. Identified variables include; not listed in agenda for L.S.D.P.C.’s Community/ social amenities-Crèche, residential delivery program, which can Nursery/ primary school, children’s explain the decay in the infrastructure of the playground. Neighborhood open spaces- residential scheme in general, hence General, central and easily accessible car justifying the relevance of this assessment. park for residents. Landscaped parks for Tracing the antecedents of LSDPC as recreation and social integration. agency sole responsible for residential Multifamily and physical exercise-friendly provision sheds light on the issues that spaces. Like football field, basketball, surround housing delivery. badminton, lawn tennis and so on.
Four (4) of the largest low-cost residential Health facilities- hospital, clinic, pharmacy. estates belonging to Lagos State Commercial infrastructures- shops, food Development and Property Corporation and fruit stalls and mobile sellers. Religious (LSDPC) were purposively selected. They needs- church and mosque Neighborhood are Abesan (4272 units), Isolo (3664 units), and residential access - adequate non- Iba (2388 units) and Amuwo Odofin (2068 resident car parks, good vehicular roads, units). A total of 12,392 units. Systematic wide enough walkways, intra-neighborhood random sampling technique was applied to trails, street lights, and vehicular traffic choose a sample size of 7.5% of the control like speed bumps. Sanitary control residential units of each scheme (see table amenities-central refuse dump. 2) as follows; On the Likert scale of 1-7, with 7 being the Table 2 List of selected residential neighborhood, highest score. Residents were guided on units and sample size. self-reporting of the indicators of well-being No. Residential No. of Sample scheme residential size in both residential spaces (living room or units 7.5% of parlor, lining room, bedroom(s), kitchen, units. store, toilet, and bath) and immediate 1 Abesan 4272 320.4 neighborhoods. (Roads, car park, 2 Isolo 3664 274.8 neighborhood open spaces, drains, 3 Iba 2388 179.1 4 Amuwo Odofin 2068 155.1 recreation, sidewalks.) Total no of units 12,392 929.4 The Gap Analysis Model Data was obtained from primary and This conceptual approach was adopted by secondary sources, through triangle this study commonly used in post approach comprising of physical appraisal occupancy evaluations, residential delivery and measurement of built floor plans and and other residential research work. It states site plans as it exist now, and the proposed that “residential buildings and its immediate drawings in the archives and database of environment should be able to satisfy the LSDPC. Well-being indicators were purpose for which they were designed”. The examined under three broad categories of GAP analysis is used as a tool to minimize variables, namely; neighborhood attributes the gap between what is produced and the in LSDPC’s design, residential typologies, reality of how it is used or what became of and infrastructure and well-being pointers it. – see figure (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and through structured survey, respondent’s Berry, 1985).
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Findings Findings include but not limited to inadequate neighborhood amenities, poor anticipation of the effect of population growth on the residential schemes at conceptualization stage. Physical well-being enhancing variables (open spaces, neighborhood parks, wide enough walkways, neighborhood visual amenity, hygienic or sanitary environments, effective refuse collection are necessities and not optional during design and Histogram of inadequate parking. conceptualization. Open spaces favorable to neighborhood recreation interactions were not integrated in to neighborhood layout, as Parking Convenience Table 4 such, it was easy for them to be converted frequ perce Valid Cummulative to other uses different from their original ency nt perce percent concept. Neighborhood building nt Valid 72 40.0 59.5 59.5 arrangement were forced into a linear 1-2 pattern, this suggest that building mins orientation must follow linear order and 3-4 36 20.0 29.8 89.3 mins wrongly so, as they do not take advantage 5-6 min 13 7.2 10.7 100.0 of natural air speed and flow for effective Total 121 67.2 100.0 ventilation and lighting of interior spaces. Missin 59 32.8 g Total 180 100.0 Congestion The histograms were presented for Nearness to Household Consumables understanding in the cast of the questions to Table 5 responders as it appeared on the survey. Frequency percent Valid Cumulative This is to establish the self-measurement percent percent method of measuring well-being. valid 11 6.1 6.1 6.1 Table 3 Inadequate parking: 169 93.9 93.9 100.0 Frequen Perce Valid Cumulative available cy nt % perce percent nt valid 34 18.9 18.9 18.9 HEALTHY LIFESTYLE PROMOTING Yes 78 43.3 43.3 62.2 AMENITIES. No 68 37.8 37.8 100.0 Table 6 Total 180 100.0 100.0 Frequ Perce Valid Cumulative ency nt percent percent valid 20 11.1 11.1 11.1 available 129 71.7 71.7 82.8 Not 31 17.2 17.2 100.0 available Total 180 100.0 100.0
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General Neighborhood Visual Amenity (Aesthetics)
Histogram of health support facility.
Table 7: Likert scale self-rating from residents.
frequ perc Vali Cumula Histogram on general neighborhood aesthetics ency ent d tive Accessibility perc percent Table 8: Condition of roads and walkways ent frequen percent Valid Cumulative valid 29 16.1 16.1 16.1 cy percent percent excellen 25 13.9 13.9 30.0 valid 8 4.4 4.4 4.4 t excell 16 8.9 8.9 13.3 Very 12 6.7 6.7 36.7 ent good Very 9 5.0 5.0 18.3 good good 17 9.4 9.4 46.1 good 26 14.4 14.4 32.8 Very 8 4.4 4.4 50.6 Very 21 11.7 11.7 44.4 fair fair fair 25 13.9 13.9 64.4 fair 19 10.6 10.6 55.0 Poor 36 20.0 20.0 84.4 Very 32 17.8 17.8 100.0 Very 28 15.6 15.6 100.0 poor Total 180 100.0 100.0 poor
Total 180 100.0 100.0
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10yrs 33 18.3 20.6 100.0 Above Total 160 88.9 100.0
Total 180 100.0
Histogram on tenure
Plate 1 & 2: Isolo; The neighborhood conditions here are I typical of the other case studies; collapsed roads and drains. Plate 3:Non-existent water supply system , façade
redesign with makeshift sun shading. Histogram of road condition.
Resident’s Self-Envisaged Tenure. Table 9: Self-Projected Tenancy. Frequenc Percen Valid Cumul y t Percen ative t Percent Valid 33 18.3 20.6 20.6 1-2 yrs 3-4 64 35.6 40.0 60.6 yrs 4-5 30 16.7 18.8 79.4 yrs [email protected]. 172
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Plate: 4 Abandoned open spaces are refuse dumps
Plate 8: Iba residential scheme. Newly built additions to Plate 5: Abesan approach- No clear separation residential units with improved sun-shading devices, no between vehicular and pedestrian access. street sidewalks and drains
Plate 8a: Iba residential scheme. Newly built additions to residential units with improved sun-shading devices, no Plste 6: Amuwo Odofin- modification and addition to street sidewalks and drains. existing structures From these assessments, it was evident that the neighborhood amenities beneficial to resident’s well-being proposed at design stage were either grossly inadequate and now completely absent in about 76% of the evaluated schemes. 82.4% of communal open spaces was later converted to other uses different from their original concept. These schemes were built 1983, all of them no longer conform to pre-designed standards and dictates. Residential premises and immediate neighborhood open spaces are abandoned overgrown with weeds and double as refuse dumping grounds. Most neighborhoods have collapsed drains, narrow walkways (1.0m -1.2m wide) instead of the recommended 1.5m-2.4m. Plate 7: Open drains. (Neufert, 2000) and undefined foot-paths. Buildings plans and elevations have been altered without due approval, neighborhood visual amenity have been destroyed.
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Electricity and water supply is at residents’ residential schemes, urgent remedial discretion in all the assessed neighborhood measures are necessary to recreate Well-being indicators like convenient car- conducive living conditions for physical parking, shops and religious buildings, well-being. In conclusion, the study schools, open recreational spaces were not recommends that firmer pro-active thoughtfully integrated in to the schemes development control policy actions and best with the aim of delivering physical well- professional practices are necessary to being. These are inadequate, non-existent or protect occupants, maintain current collapsed in about 85% of the examined residential capacity and hence make the residential schemes. Rampant destruction of residential developments sustainable in neighborhood general aesthetics was terms of well-being. common-place in estates like Abesan ,Isolo, Iba, and Amuwo Odofin. The impact of Reference these residential well-being crisis were Ademiluyi, I. A. (2010). Public Housing confirmed by government demolition of Delivery Strategies in Nigeria: A illegal structures and unapproved traders Historical Perspective of and artisan stalls around lager schemes like Policies and Programmes. Journal of Isolo and Abesan as the field assessment of Sustainable Development in Africa, this study progressed. 12(6), 1520-5509. Adetokunbo O., Ilesanmi (2005). The Conclusion and Recommendations Legacy and Challenge of Public The study recommends that neighborhood Housing Provision in Lagos, infrastructure beneficial to well-being as Nigeria. Department of Architecture, suggested by resident-responsive design are Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria. not converted and abused, in order to Altman, I. (1993). Dialectics, physical maintain sustainable well-being in future environments, and personal residential developments. Physical well- relationships. Communication being is an aspect of human well-being that Monographs, 60, 26-34 should be the design-focus of future Amole, B. & Mills-Tettey, R. (1998). residential developments, while a phase-by- Income and housing satisfaction: a phase redevelopment of existing scheme study of the FESTAC housing estate can be systematically carried out to improve in Lagos, Nigeria. Ife Journal of on the well-being status of occupants. The Environmental Design and study highlighted the different components Management, 1(1 & 2), 27-41. and variables of well-being among selected Amole D, A. Ajayi, and A. Okewole, residential schemes, in order to facilitate (2002) (Eds.). The city in Nigeria: design-led actions to improve or enhance Perspectives, issues, challenges, well-being. Also, due to pressure on the strategies. OAU, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. inadequate urban residential capacity, this Aribigbola, A. (2008). Housing policy study recommends that the high population formulation in developing countries: existing residential schemes be reduced Evidence of programme with the view to enhance occupant’s well- implementation from Akure, Ondo being. State, Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 23(2), 125-134. It took 35-40 years to get to this deplorable Awotona, A. A. (1982). A methodology for level of physical well-being in these assessing users’ housing needs in
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